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« 


HARVARD  LAW  LIBRARY 


R.id™i  DEC  2  9  1922 


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k^ft 


THE  CATHOLIC  " 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 


AN    INTERNATIONAL    WORK    OF    REFERENCE 

ON    THE     CONSTITUTION,    DOCTRINE, 

DISCIPLINE,  AND  HISTORY  OF  THE 

CATHOLIC   CHURCH 


EDITED  BY 

CHAKLES  G.  HERBERMANN,  PH.D.,  LLD. 

EDWARD  A.  PACE,  PH.D.,  D.D.        CONofe  B.  FALLEN,  PH.D.,  LL.D. 

THOMAS  J.  SHAHAN,  D.D.  JOHN   J.  WYNNE,  S.). 

ASSISTED   BY  NUMEROUS  COLLABORATORS 


FIFTEEN  VOLUMES  AND  INDEX 
VOLUME  II 


THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  PRESS,  INC 


, .  '■/ 


J 


Niha  Obstat,  November  1, 1907 
REMY  LAFORT,  S.T.D. 

CBMSOB 


Imprimatur 

*JOHN  CARDINAL  FARLEY 

ABCHOI8HOP  OF  NEW  TOBK 


DEC  2  9  1922. 


Copyright,  1907 
Bt  Robert  Apfleton  Compant 

Copyright,  1913 
By  the  encyclopedia  PRESS,  INC. 

The  articles  in  this  work  have  been  written  specially  for  The  Catholie 
Encyclopedia  and  are  protected  by  copyright.     All  rights,  includ- 
ing the  right  of  translation  and  reproduction,  are  reserved. 


MIKSSWOUK  and  BINDINQ  by  J.  S.   LYON  CO  .  ALBANY.   N.  Y..   U.  S.  A. 


List  of  Contributors  to  the  Second  Volume 


VBECKET,  JOHN  J.,  Ph.D,  New  Yobk. 

AIEEN,  CHARLES  F.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of 
Apolooetics,  Catholic  University  of  AifER- 
icA,  Washinqton. 

ALBERT,  F.  X.  £.,  Ph.D.,  St.  Joseph's  Seminart, 
DuNWOODiB,  New  York. 

ALSTON,  G.  CYPRIAN,  O.S.B.,  Downside  Abbet^ 
Bath,  England. 

ARBEZ,  EDWARD  PHILIP,  M.A.,  Professor 
OF  Sacred  Scripture,  St.  Patrick's  Seionart, 
Menlo  Park,  California. 

ARENDZEN,  J.  P.,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  B.A.,  Pro- 
fessor OF  Holt  Scripture,  St.  Edb^und's 
College,  Ware,  England. 

AVELINO,  FRANCIS,  S.T.D.,  Westminster, 
London. 

BANDELIER,  AD.  F.,  Hispanio  Soctety  of 
America,  New  York. 

BARRET,  T.  B.,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Moral 
Theology,  Woodstock  College,  Maryland. 

BATTANDIER,  ALBERT,  S.T.D.,  J.C.D.,  Rome. 

BBOCARI,  CAMILLO,  S.J.,  Postulator  General 
OF  the  Society  of  Jesus,  Rome. 

BBuuteL,  F.,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Hebrew  and 
Sacred  Scripture,  St.  Louis  UNiYEBairri 
St.  Louis. 

BENIGNI,  U.,  Professor  of  Ecclbblabtical 
History,  Pont.  Oollegio  Urbano  di  PfeoPA- 
OANDA,  Rome. 

BESSE,  J.  M.,  O.S.B.,  Director,  '*  Revue  Mabil- 
lon",  Chevetognb,  Belgium. 

BIRKHiEUSER,  J.  A.,  Racinb,  Wisconsin. 

BIRT,  HENRY  NORBERT,  O.S.B.,  London. 

ROLLING,  GEORGE  MELVILLE,  A.B.,  Ph.D., 
Professor  of  Greek  and  Sanskrit,  Catho- 
uc  University  of  America,  Washington. 

BOOTHMAN,  C.  T.,  Kingstown,  Ireland. 

BREEN,  A,  E.,  8.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Holy 
Soufturb,  St.  Bernard's  Seminaby,  Roches- 
ter, New  York. 

BROCK,  H.  M.,  S  J.,  Prqfbssob  of  Fhybicb,  Holy 
Cbosb  Collegs,  Wobcbbtbb,  Massachubbtib. 


BROM,  GISBERT,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Ltpt.D.,  Head 
OF  THE  Dutch  Historical  Institute  at 
Rome,  Utrecht,  Holland. 

BRUCHESI,  PAUL,  S.T.D.,  Archbishop  of  Mont- 
real. 

tBRUNETIERE,  FERDINAND,  Member  of  thb 
French  Academy,  Director,  ''Revub  dbb 
Deux  Mondeb",  Paris. 

BUONAIUTI,  ERNESTO,  Ph.D.,  S.f.D.,  Rome. 

BURKE,  EDMUND,  A.B.,  Instructor  in  Latin, 
College  of  the  Cmr  of  New  York. 

BURTON,  EDWIN,  S.T*D.,  F.  R.  Hist.  Soc,  St. 
Edmund's  College,  Ware,  England. 

BURTSELL,  R.  L.,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  Rondout, 
New  York. 

RUTIN,  R.,  S.M.,  S.T.L.,  Ph.D.,  Marist  Gollbob, 
Washington. 

CABROL,  FERN  AND,  O.S.B.,  Abbot  of  St. 
Michael's,  Farnborough,  England. 

CAMM,  BEDE,  O.S.B.,  B.A.  (Oxon.),  Birming- 
ham, England. 

CAMPBELL,  T.  J.,  S.J.,  Associatb  Editor, 
''The  Messenger",  Nbw  York. 

CANDIDE,  F.,  O-M.Cap.,  Lector  in  Philosophy, 
Capuchin  Monastesiy,  Limoilou,   Province 

of  QUEBBa 

OASARTELU,  L.  0.,  M.A.,  D  JiiTr.Oa.,  Bishop  of 
Saupord,  England, 

CASTLE,  HAROLD,  C.8S.R.,  M.A.  (Oxon.) 
Lector  in  Theology  and  Church  History, 
St.  Mary's,  Kinno^ul,  Perth,  Scotland. 

CASWELL,  JOHN,  Kenilworth,  England. 

CHAPMAN,  JOHN,  O.S.B.,  B.A.  (Oxon.),  Prior 
OF  St.  Thomas's  Abbey,  Erdington,  Bir- 
mingham, England. 

CHRYSOSTOM,  BROTHER,  F.S.C.,  A.M.,  Man- 
HATTAN  College,  New  York. 

CLEARY,  HENRY  W.,  Edftor,  "New  Zealand 
Tablet",  Dunedin,  New  Zealand. 

tCLERKE,  AGNES  M.,  Hon.  Member  of  thb 
Royal  Astronomical  Soqety,  London. 

CLIFFORD,  CORNELIUS,  Sbton  Hall  Ck>LLBom, 
South  Orange,  New  Jersey. 

t 


N 


LIST  OF  CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THfe  SECOND  VOLUME 


GOLEBiAN,  CARYL,  B.A.,  Pelham  Manor,  New 
York. 

CONDON,  PETER,  New  York. 

CONNELLAN,  P.  L.,  F.R.S.A.  of  Ireland,  Knight 
OF  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  Rome. 

CORBETT,  JOHN,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Holt 
Scripture,  Woodstock  College,  Maryland. 

COTTER,  JAMES  M.,  S.J.,  Woodstock  College, 
Maryland. 

CREAGH,  JOHN  T.,  J.U.D.,  Professor  of  Canon 
Law,  Catholic  University  of  America, 
Washington. 

CROWNE,  J.  VINCENT,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  Instructor 
IN  English,  College  of  the  City  of  New 
York.     ' 

D* ALTON,  E.  A.,  M.R.I.A.,  Athenry,  Ireland. 

DE  LAAK,  H.,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Physics  and 
Mathematics,  St.  Louis  University,  St. 
Louis. 

DELAMARRE,  LOUIS  N.,  Ph.D.,  Instructor 
IN  French,  College  of  the  City  of  New 
York. 

DELANEY,  JOSEPH  F.,  New  York. 

DE  MOREIRA,  M.,  A.M.,  Lrrr.D.,  New  York. 

DE  SMEDT,  CH.,  S.J.,  Brussels. 

DEVINE,  E.  J.,  S.J.,  Woodstock  College,  Mary- 
land. 

DEVITT,  E.  J.,  8. J.,  Professor  of  Psychology, 
Georgetown  University,  Washington. 

DEVLIN,  WILLIAM,  S.J.,  Woodstock  College, 
Maryland. 

DIERINGER,  BARNABAS,  Professor  of  Lan- 
guages AND  Music,  St.  Francis  Seminary, 
St.  Francis,  Wisconsin. 

DIONNE,  N.  E.,  S.B.,  M.D.,  Librarian  to  the 
Legislature  of  Quebec. 

DISSEZ,  P.,  Professor  of  Pastoral  Theology, 
St.  Mary's  Seminary,  Baltimore. 

DONNELLY,  F.  P.,  S.J.,  St.  Andrew-on-Hud- 

SON,   POUGHKEBPSIE,   NeW  YoRK. 

DONOVAN,  STEPHEN  M.,  O.F.M.,  Franciscan 
Monastery,  Washington. 

DOUMIC,  RENE,  Literary  and  Dramatic  Critic, 
**  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes",  Paris; 

DRISCOLL,  JAMES  F.,  D.D.,  President  of  St. 
Joseph's  Seminary,  Dunwoodie,  New  York. 

DRURY.  EDWIN,  Nerinx,  Kentucky. 

DUBRAY,  C.  A.,  S.T.B.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
Philosophy,  Marist  College,  Washinoton. 


DUMONT,  F.  M.  L..  President  of  DiviNmr 
College,  Cathouc  Unxversitt  of  America^ 
Washington. 

DUNN,  JOSEPH,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Professor 
OF  Celtic  Languages  and  Literature, 
Cathouc  University  of  America,  Wash- 
ington. 

EGAN,  ANDREW,  O.F.M.,  Professor  of  Theol- 
ogy, The  Friary,  Forest  Gate,  London. 

FANNING,  WILLIAM  H.  W.,  S.J.,  Professor  of 
Church  History  and  Canon  Law,  St.  Louis 
University,  St.  Louis. 

FENLON,  JOHN  F.,  S.S.,  S.T.D.,  President  St. 
Austin's  College,  Brookland,  D.  C,  Pro- 
fessor OF  Sacred  Scripture,  St.  BCart's 
Sebhnary,  Baltimore. 

FERNANDES,  P.  A.,  Bassein,  India. 

FLAHERTY,  M.  J.,  A.M.,  Professor  of  the  His- 
tory OF  Philosophy  and  English,  St.  John's 
Seminary,  Brighton,  Massachxxsetts. 

FORD.  HUGH  EDMUND,  O.S.B.,  Abbot  of 
Glastonbury,  Downside  Abbey,  Bath,  Eng- 
land. 

FOURNET,  A.,  S.S.,  Professor  of  ^ellsb- 
Lettrbs,  College  de  Montreal,  Montobal. 

FOX,  JAMES  J.,  S.T.D.,  B.A.,  Professor  of  Phi- 
losophy, St.  Thomas's  College,  Washinoton. 

FOX,  WILLIAM,  B.S.,  M.E.,  Assoctate  Pro* 
fessor  of  Physics,  College  of«th£  City  of 
New  York. 

tFRISBEE,  S.  H.,  S.J.,  Woodstock  Collbqe, 
Maryland. 

FUENTES,  VENTURA,  A.B.,  M.D.,  Instructor, 
College  of  the  City  of  New  York. 

FUREY,  JOHN,  Pay  Inspector  U.  S.  N.  (Re- 
tired), Brooklyn,  New  York. 

GANS,  LEO,  J.C.D.,  Professor  of  Canon  Law, 
The  St.  Paul  Seminary,  St.  Paul,  Minnesota. 

GANSS,  HENRY  G.,  Mus.  D.,  Carlisle,  Penn- 
sylvania. 

GAUDET,  LOUIS,  Scorton,  Yorkshirk,  Eng- 
land. 

GEOGHAN,  J.  J.,  S.J.,  Woodstock  Collegb, 
Maryland. 

GERARD,  JOHN,  S.J.,  F.L.S.,  London. 

GEUDEN8,  FRANCIS  MARTIN,  O.PRiBM.,  Abbot 
Titular  of  Barlings,  Corpus  Christi  Priory, 
Manchester,  England. 

GIETMANN,  G.,  S.J.,  St.  Ignatius  College,  Vai-- 
kenburg,  Holland. 

GIGNAC,  JOS.  N.,  S.T.D.,  J.C.D.,  Professor  ow 
Canon  Law,  UNivERsmr  of  Laval^  Qubbbc 

t 


VI 


LIST  OF  CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  SECOND  VOLUME 


GIGOT,  FRANCIS  E.,  S.T.D.,  Pbofebsob  of 
Sacbsd  Scupturb,  St.  Josepb'^  SmoNiAT, 
DuNwooDiB,  New  Yobk. 

QILDAS,  M.,  O.C.R.,  La  Trappe,  Quebec. 

GILLIAT-SMITH,  FREDERICK  ERNEST, 
BRXjeEs. 

GILLIGAN,  EDWARD  A.,  S.S.,  A.M.,  Washino- 

TON. 

Gnus,  JAMES  M.,  C.S.P.,  S.T.L.,  St.  Thomas's 
CoLLEQK,  Washington. 

GOGGIN,  J.  F.,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  St.  Bebnabd's 
Sehinaby,  Rochesteb,  New  Yobb. 

GOODWIN,  ENEAS  B.,  A.M.,  B.D.,  La  Obanoe, 
Illinois. 

GOYAU,  GEORGES,  Associate  Edptob,  "Revue 
DES  Deux  Monoes",  Pabis. 

GRATTAN  FLOOD,  W.  H.,  M.R.I.A.,  Mus.D., 
RosEMOUNT,  Enniscobtht,  Ibeland. 

GULDNER,  B.,  S.J.,  St.  Joseph's  Colleoe, 
Philadelphia. 

HAGEN,  JOHN  G.,  S.J.,  Vatican  Obsbbyatobt, 
Rome. 

HANDLEY,  M.  L.,  Madison,  New  Jebset. 

HANNA,  EDWARD  J.,  S.T.D.,  PsoratsoB  of 
TheolooV,  St.  Bebnabd's  Sebunabt,  Roch- 
esteb, New  Yobk. 

HARTIG,  otto.  Assistant  Libbabian  op  the 
Royal  Libbaby,  Munich. 

HASSETT,  MAURICE  M.,  S.T.D.,  Habbisbubo, 
Pennsylvania. 

HAVEY,  FRANCIS  P.,  S.S.,  S.T.D.,  Pbofessob  of 

HOMILtETIGS     AND     PaSTOBAL     ThEOLOOY,    St. 

John's  Seminaby,  Bbighton,  Massachusetts. 

HEALY,  PATRICK  J.,  S.T.D.,  Assistant  Pbo- 
FEssoR  OF  Chubch  Histoby,  Catholic  Uni- 

VEBSITY  OF  AmEBICA,  WaSHINOTON. 

HENRY,  H.  T.,  Lrrr.D.,  Rectob  of  Roman 
Cathouc  High  School  fob  Boys,  Pbo- 
FBaeoR  OF  English  Litebatubb  and  of  Gbe- 
oosiAM  Chant,  St.  CbABLBB's  SbminabYi 
Ovbbbboox,  PbNNSYIcVANIA. 

HERRICK,  JOS.  C,  Ph.D.,  Pbofessob  of  Ezpebi- 

MENTAL   PbYCHOLOOT    AND    BXOLOQY,   St.    JO- 
SEPH'S  Seminaby,  Dunwoodie,  New  Yobk. 

HOFFMANN,  ALEXIUS,  O.S.B.,  St.  John's  Col- 
lege,  Oollegeville,  Minnesota. 

HOLWBCK,  FREDERICK  G.,  St.  Louis. 

HOWLETT,  J.  A.,  O.S.B.,  M.A.,  SuFPOLKf  Eng- 
land. 

HULL,  ERNEST  R.,  S.J.,  EDircm,  "The  Exam- 
ineb",  Bombay,  Imdia. 


HUNT,  LEIGH,  Pbofessob  of  Abt,  Collbgv  of 
THE  City  of  New  Yobk. 

HUNTER-BLAIR,  D.  O.,   Babt.,  O.S.B.,  M.A., 
OxFOBD,  England. 

HYDE,    DOUGLAS,    LL.D.,   Lrrr.D.,   M.R.I.A., 
Fbench  Park,  Roscommon,  Ibeland. 


>» 


ttf 


INQOLD,  A.  M.  P.,  DiBBcroB,'' Revue  d' Alsace 

COLMAB,   GeBMANY. 

JACOBI,  MAX,  Ph.D.,  Munich. 

JUNGNITZ,  JOSEPH,  S.T.D.,  Diocesan  Abchiv- 
isT,  Bbeslau,  Gebmany. 

KAVANAGH,  D.  J.,  S.J.,  Woodstock  College, 
Mabyland. 

KELLY,  G.  E.,  S.J.,  Woodstock  College,  Maby- 
land. 

KELLY,  PATRICK  H.,  S.J.,  St.  Petbb's  College, 
Jebsey  City,  New  Jebsey. 

KENT,  W.  H.,  O.S.C.,  Bayswateb,  London. 

KERRY,  WILLIAM  J.,  S.T.L.,  Ph.D.,  Doctob  of 
Social  and  Political  SaENCEs,  Pbofessob 
of  Sociology,  Catholic  Univebsity  of 
Ambbica,  Washington. 

KIMBALL,  CHARLES  L.,  S.J.,  Pbofessob  of 
Latin  and  Gbeek,  Holy  Cboss  College, 
WoBCESTEB,  Massachusetts. 

KIRSCH,  Mgb.  J.  P.,  Pbofessob  of  Patbology 

AND      ChBIBTIAN      ABCHiBOLOGY,      UnTVEBSITY 

of  Fbiboubg,  Switzebland. 

KLAAR,  KARL,  Govebnment  Abchivibt,  Inns- 
bbuck. 

KURTH,  GODEFROI,  Dibbctob,  Belgian  His» 
TOBicAL  Institute,  Li^e. 

LADEUZE,    P.,   S.T.D.,    Pbofessob   of   Sacbed 

SCBIPTUBE  AND  OF  AnCIENT  ChBISTIAN  LtTEBA- 

TUBB,   Univebsity   of   Louvain,   Pbesident 
College  du  Saint  Espbtt,  Louvain. 

LANGAN,  J.  T.,  S.J.,  Woodstock  College,  Maby- 
land. 

LANGOUET,  A.,  O.M.I.,  Ktmbbblby,  South 
Afbica. 

tLE  BARS,  JEAN,  BA.,  Lrrr.D.,  Mbbcbeb  of  the 
Asiatic  Socibty,  Pabis. 

LEGAL,  EMILE  J.,  S.T.D.,  Bishop  of  St.  Albebt, 
Albebta,  Canada. 

LEIMKUHLER,  BiATTHIAS,  S.M.,  Washington. 

LEJAY,  PAUL,  Fellow  of  the  Univebsity  of 
Fbance,  Pbofessob  at  the  Catholic  In- 
stitutb  of  Pabis. 

LENHART,  JOHN  M.,  O.M.Cap.,  Lectob  of 
Philosophy,  St.  Fidelis  Monasteby,  Vio- 
tobza,  Kansas. 

t 


LIST  OF  0ONTRIBUTOR8  TO  THE  SECJOND  VOLUMiS 


UNDSAY,  LIONEL  ST.  G.,  B.Sc.,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D., 
Editor  in  Chief,  ''La  Nouvbllb  Francs", 

QUBBEC. 

LINEHAN,  PAUL  Hi,  B.A.,  Instructor  Couueob 
OF  THE  City  of  New  York. 

LINS,  JOSEPH,  Freiburg,  Germany. 

LOPEZ,  TIRSO,  O.S.A.,  Colbqio  db  los  Aous- 
TiNOS,  Valladolid,  Spain. 

LORTIE,  STANISLAS  A.,  A.M.,  S.T.D.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Theology,  University  of  Laval, 
Quebec. 

LOUGHLIN,  Mgr.  JAMES  F.,  S.T.D.,  Phila- 
delphia. 

MAAS,  A.  J.,  S.J.,  Rector  of  Woodstock  College, 
Maryland. 

MAES,  CAMILLUS  P.,  Bishop  of  Covington, 
Kentucky. 

MacCAFFREY,  JAMES,  S.T.L.,  St.  Patrick's 
College,  Maynooth,  Dublin. 

McCAFFRAY,  ARTHUR  J.,  S.J.,  Woodstock 
College,  Maryland. 

McMAHON,  ARTHUR  L.,  O.P.,  Lector  of  Sacred 
Theology,  Professor  of  Moral  Theology 
AND  Sacred  Scripture,  Dominican  House 
OF  Studies,  Washington. 

McMAHON,  JOSEPH  H.,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  New  York. 

McNEAL,  MARK  J.,  S.J.,  Woodstock  College, 
Maryland. 

McNICHOLAS,  JOHN  T.,  O.P.,  S.T.L.,  Lector, 
Washington. 

MACPHERSON,  EWAN,  New  York. 

McSORLEY,  JOSEPH,  C.S.P.,  A.M.,  S.T.L.,  St. 
Paul's  Church,  New  York. 

MANN,  HORACE  K.,  Headmaster  St.  Cuth- 
bert's  Grammar  School,  Nbwcastle-on- 
Tyne,  England. 

MEEHAN,  ANDREW  B.,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  Pro- 
fessor OF  Canon  Law  and  Liturgy,  St. 
Bernard's  Seminary,  Rochester,  New  York. 

MFJEHAN,  THOMAS  F.,  New  York. 

MELODY,  JOHN  WEBSTER,  A.M.,  S.T.D.,  As- 
sociate Professor  of  Moral  Theology, 
Catholic  University  of  America,  Wash- 
ington. 

MERCEDES,  Sister,  St.  Elizabeth's  Convent, 
CoRNWELLS,  Pennsylvania. 

MERSHMANN,  FRANCIS,  O.S.B.,  S.T.D.,  Pro- 
FEssoR  OP  Moral  Theology,  Canon  Law  and 
Liturgy,  St.  John's  University,  Collegb- 
viLLE,  Minnesota. 

MOELLER,  CH.,  Professor  of  Gbnbbal  His- 
tory, University  of  Louvain. 


MOLLAT,  G.,  Ph.D.,  Paris. 

MQONEY,  JAS.,  United  Statbb  Ethnologist, 
Washington. 

MORICE,  a.  G.,  Kamloofs  City,  British  Colum- 

MORRISROE,  PATRICK,  Dean  and  Professor 
OF  Liturgy,  St.  Patrick's  College,  May- 
nooth, Dublin. 

MUCKERMANN,  H..  S.J.,  Professor  of  Mathe- 
matics AND  Natural  SasNCES,  St.  Ignatius 
College,  Valkenburg,  Holland. 

MUELLER,  ADOLF,  S.J.,  Director  of  the  Pri- 
vate   ASTRONOBCICAL    OBSERVATORY    ON    THE 

Janiculum,  Professor  of  Astronomy  at  thb 
Gregorian  University,  Rome. 

MURPHY,  JOHN  F.  X.,  8.J.,  Woodstock  Col- 
lege, Maryland. 

NUGENT,  F.  v.,  CM.,  St.  Louis. 

O'DANIEL,  VICTOR  F.,  O.P.,  S.T.L.,  Professor 
OF  Dogmatic  Theology,  Dominican  Housb 
OF  Studies,  Washington. 

O'DONOGHUE,  D.  J.,  Dublin. 

OESTREICH,  THOMAS,  O.S.B.,  Professor  of 
Church  History  and  Sacred  Scripture, 
Maryhblp  Abbey,  Belmont,  North  Caro- 
lina. 

O'LAUGHLIN,   FRANaS  D.,  S.J.„  Woodstock 

COLLBOB,  BiARYLAND. 

O'MAUA,  M.  J.,  FoRDHAM  Unxversity,  New 
York. 

O'NEIL,  LEO  F.,  A.B.,  S.T.L.,  Boston. 

O'NEILL,  J.  D.,  A.M.,  S.T.D.,  Lake  Forest, 
Illinois. 

O'RIORDAN,  Mgr.  M.,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  D.C.L., 
Rector  of  the  Irish  College,  Rome. 

OTT,  MICHAEL,  O.S.B.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
THE  History  of  Philosophy,  St.  John's  Uni- 
versity, COLLEGEVILLE,  MINNESOTA. 

OTTEN,  JOSEPH,   Pittsburg,   Pennsylvania. 

OUSSANI,  GABRIEL,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
Hebrew  and  the  Semitic  Languages,  Oribn- 
tal  History  and  Biblical  Arcosologt, 
St.  Joseph's  Seminary,  Dunwoodie,  New 
York. 

tPARGOIRE,  JULES,  A.A.,  Constantinoplb. 

PETERSON,  JOHN  B.,  Professor  of  Ecclesi- 
astical History  and  Lituroy,  St.  John's 
Seminary,  Brighton,  M ass acu  usetts. 

PETIT,  L.,  A.A.,  Constantinople. 
PETRIDES,  S.,  A.A.,  Constantinoplb. 

t 


LIST  OF  CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  SECOND  VOLUME 


PHILLIPS,  Q.  E.,  Professor  of  Philosopht  and 
Church  Bistort,  St.  Cuthbert'b  Collboe, 

(JbHAW,  DlTRHAM,  ENGLAND. 

HAT,  CLODIUS,   Lrrr.D.,   Professor  of  Phi- 
losopht, Institxtt  Catholique,  Paris. 

PLAfiSMAN,  THOMAS,  O.F.M.,  M.A.,  Ph.D., 
Rome. 

PLOMER,  J.  C,  C.S.B.,  Assumption  CoUiSGE, 
Sandwich,  Ontario,  Canada. 

POLLEN,  JOHN  HUNGERFORD,  S.J.,  London. 

POOLE,  THOMAS  H.,  New  York. 

PORTALIE,  EUGENE,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Theoi/- 

OQT  AT  THE  CaTHOLIC  InSTITUT^  OF  ToniX>U8B, 

France. 

POWER,  ALICE,  R.S.H..  Convent  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  Kenwood,  Albant,  New  York. 

QUINN,  DANIEL,  Ph.D.,  Yeixow  Sprincw,  Ohio. 
REILLY,  L.  W.,  A.M.,  Washington. 

REILLY,  W.  S.,  S.T.D.,  S.S.,  Professor  of 
Scripture,  St.  John's  Seminart,  Brighton. 
Massachusetts. 

REINHOLD,  GREGOR,  Freiburg,  Gbrmant. 

REMY,  ARTHUR  F.  J.,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  Instructtor 
in  Germanic  Languages,  Columbia  Univer- 
BiTT,  New  York. 

RICKABY,  JOSEPH,  S.J.,  Pope's  Hall,  Oxford. 

ROBERGE,  L.  D.,  Vice-Chancellor,  Diocese 
OF  St.  Htacinth,  Canada. 

ROBINSON,  PASCHAL,  O.F.M.,  Professor  of 
Theoloot,  Franciscan  Monastert,  Wash- 
ington. 

ROCK,  P  M.  J.,  Louisville,  Kentuckt 

ROY,  J.  EDMOND,  Litt.D.,  F.R.S.C,  Officer  of 
THE  French  Academt,  Director,  *  *  Notarial 
Review",  Livis,  Quebec. 

RUDGE,  F.  M.,  M.A.,  YouNGSTOWN,  Ohio. 

RUSSELL,  WILLIAM  T.,  S.T.D.,  Baltimore. 

RYAN, EDWIN,  Catholic  Universitt  of  America, 
Washington. 

RYAN,  J.  A.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of  Moral  Theol- 
oot, The  St.  Paul  Seminart,  St.  Paul, 
Minnesota. 

RYAN,  PATRICK,  S.J.,  London. 

SAN  GIOVANNI,  EDOARDO,  Litt.B.,  A.M., 
Instructor  in  the  Latin  Language  and 
Literature,  College  of  the  Citt  of  New 
York. 

8AUER,  JOSEPH,  S.T.D.,  Editor,  *  *  Rundschau  ", 
Professor  of  Thbologt  at  the  Untvbr- 
srrr  of  Freiburg,  Germany. 


SAUVAGE,  G.  M.,  C.S.C.,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Professor 
of  Dogmatic  Theology,  Holy  Cross  College, 
Washington. 

SAXTON,  E.  F.,  BAi/nMORB. 

SCANNELL,  T.  B.,  S.t.D.,  Editor,  "Catholic 
DicnoNART",  Folkestone,  England. 

SCHAEFER,  FRANCIS  J.,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Pro- 
fessor OF  Church  History,  The  St.  Paul 
Seminart,  St.  Paul,  Minnesota. 

SCHEID,  N.,  S.J.,  Stella  Matutina  College, 
Feldkirch,  Austria. 

SCHLAGER.  HEINRICH  PATRICIUS, .  Harrb- 
veld  bei  Lichtenvoorde,  Holland. 

SCHRANTZ,  CHARLES  B.,  S.S.,  A.M.,  Catholic 
Universitt  of  America,  Washington. 

SCHREINER,  CHRYSOSTOM,  O.S.B.,  Nassau, 
Bahama  Islands. 

SCHWERTNER,  THOS.  M.,  O.P.,  Washington. 

SELINGER,  JOS.,  S.T.D.,  Jefferson  Citt,  Mis- 
souri. 

SHIPMAN,  ANDREW  J.,  A.M.,  LL.M.,  New 
York. 

SIEGFRIED,  FRANCIS  PATRICK,  Professor 
OF  Philosopht,  St.  Charles's  Seminart, 
Overbrook,  Pennsylvania. 

SINKMAJER,  JOS.,  East  Islip,  New  York. 

SLATER,  T.,  S.J.,  St.  Beuno's  College,  St. 
Asaph,  Wales. 

SLOANE,  CHARLES  WILLIAM,  ^isw  York. 

SLOANE,  THOMAS  O'CONOR,  A.M.,  E.M., 
Ph.D.,  New  York. 

SMITH,  MICHAEL  PAUL,  C.S.P.,  New  York. 

SMITH,  SYDNEY  F.,  S.J.,  London. 

SMOLINSKI,  JOSEPH,  Washington. 

SMYTH,  P.  G.,  Chicago. 

SOLLIER,  J.  F.,  S.M.,  S.TJ).,  Rector  and  Pro- 
fessor OF  Moral  Theologt,  Marist  College, 
Washington. 

SOUVAY,  CHARLES  L.,  CM.,  LL.B.,  S.T.D., 
Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Holt  Scripture  and 
Hebrew,  Kenrick  Seminart,  St.  Louis. 

SPILLANE,  EDWARD  P.,  S.J.,  Associate  Editor, 
**The  Messenger",  New  York. 

STEELE,  FRANCESCA  M.,  Stroud,  Gloucester- 
shire, England. 

STONE,  J.  M.,  London. 

SULLIVAN,  JAMES  J.,  S.J.,  Professor  of 
Dogmatic  Theologt,  St.  Louis  Universitt, 
St.  Louis. 


ix 


LIST  OF  CXXNTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  SBCJOND  VOLUME 


TAAFFE,  THOMAS  GAFFNEY,  Ph.D.,  In- 
structor IN  English  Literature,  College 
OP  THE  CiTT  OP  New  York. 

TAYLOR,  HANNIS,  Spanish  Claims  Commibsion, 
Washington. 

THURSTON,  HERBERT,  SJ.,  London. 

TIERNEY,  JOHN  J.,  A.M.,  S.T.D.,  Propessor  op 
Scripture  and  Semitic  Studies,  Mt.  St. 
Mary's  College,  Emmitsburg,  Maryland. 

TIERNEY,  R.  H.,  S.J.,  Woodstock  College, 
Maryland. 

TONDINI  DI  QUARENGHI,  CES.,  C.R.,  C.P., 
Rome. 

TURNER,  WILLIAM,  B.A.,  S.T.D.,  Professor 
or  Logic  and  the  History  op  Philosophy, 
Catholic  University  of  America,  Wash- 
ington. 

UA  CLERIGH,  ARTHUR.  M.A.,  K.C.,  London. 

URQUHART,  F.  F.,  M.A.,  Lecturer  in  Modern 
History,  Balliol  College,  Oxford. 

'   VAILHE,  S.,  A.A.,  Constantinople. 

VAN  CLEEF,  AUGUSTUS,  New  York. 

• 

VAN  DEN  BIESEN,  C,  S.T.D.,  Professor  op 
Hebrfw  and  Old  Testament  Exegesis,  St. 
Joseph's  College,  Mill  Hill,  London. 

VAN  DER  DONCKT,  C,  Pocatbllo,  Idaho. 

VAN  HOVE,  A.,  D.C.L.,  Professor  op  Church 
History,  University  op  Louvain. 

VAN  KASTEREN,  JOHN  P.,  S.J.,  Maastricht, 
Holland. 

VERWYST,  CHRYSOSTOM,  O.F.M.,  Ashland, 
Wisconsin. 

VCELKER,  J.  A.,  Ossining,  New  York. 

VOLZ,  JOHN  R.,  O.P.,  Washington. 


VUIBERT,  A.  J.  B.,  S.S.,  A.M.,  PROPBtsoR  or 
History,  St.  Patrick's  Seminary,  Menlo 
Park,  California. 

WALDRON,  M.  A.,  O.P.,  Washington. 

WALSH,  JAS.  J.,  M.D.,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Profebsoe 
of  the  History  of  Medione,  Fordham 
University,  New  York. 

WALSH,  REGINALD,  O.P.,  S.T.D.,  Rome. 

WANG,  E.  A.,  Bergen,  Norway. 

WARD,  Mgr.  BERNARD,  President  op  St. 
Edmund's  College,  Ware,  England. 

WEBER,  N.  A.,  S.M.,  S.T.L.,  Professor  op 
Apologetics  and  Church  History,  Maribt 
College,  Washington. 

WILHELM,  J.,  8.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Battle,  Sussex, 
England. 

WILLIAMSON,  GEORGE  CHARLES,  Lrrr.D., 
London. 

WIRTH,  EDMUND  J.,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Professor 
op  Philosophy,  St.  Bernard's  Seminary, 
Rochester,  New  York. 

WTTTMAN,  PIUS,  Ph.D.,  Reichsarotivrath, 
Munich.  ^ 

WOLFSGRUBER,  CCELESTIN,  O.S.B.,  Vienna. 

WOODS,  JOSEPrit  M.,  S.J.,  Professor  op  Eo- 
glbsiastical  History,  Woodstock  College, 
Maryland. 

YANES,  FRANCISCO  J.,  Bureau  op  American 
Repubucs,  Washington. 

YOUNG,  T.  J.,  S.J.,  Woodstock  College,  Mary- 
land. 

ZIMMERMAN,  B.,  O.D.C.,  St.  Luke's  Priory, 
WiNCANTON,  Somerset,  England. 


Tables  of  Abbreviations 

The  following  tables  and  notes  are  intended  to  guide  readers  of  Thk  Cathouc  Enctclopedia  in 
interpreting  those  abbreviations,  signs,  or  technical  phrases  which,  for  economy  of  space,  will  be  most  fre- 
quently used  in  the  work.    For  more  general  information  see  the  article  Abbreviations,  Ecclesiastical. 


I. — General  Abbreviations. 

a. article. 

ad  an. at  the  year  (Lat.  ad  annum), 

an.,  ann the  year,  the  years  (Lat.  annua, 

annt). 

ip. in  (Lat.  ajmd). 

art article. 

Aasyr. Assyrian. 

A.  8 Anglo-Saxon. 

A.  V Authorized  Version  (i.e.  tr.  of  the 

Bible  authorized  for  use  in  the 
Anglican  Church — the  so-called 
''Kmg  James",  or  ''Protestant 
Bible"). 

b. bom. 

Bk. Book. 

BL Blessed. 

C,  c about  (Lat.  circa))  canon;  chap- 

ter; compagnie. 

an. canon. 

cap. chapter  (Lat.  capiU — used  only 

in  Latin  context). 

cL compare  (Lat.  confer), 

•oi codex. 

col column. 

nnd. conclusion. 

flODst.,  constit. . .  .Lat.  conatituHo. 

cfoL by  the  industry  of. 

d died. 

diet. dictionary  (Fr.  dictionnaire). 

dkp. Lat.  dispuJUUio, 

disL Lat.  dissertatio, 

disL Lat.  disHnctio, 

D.  V Douay  Version. 

^,edit .edited,  edition,  editor. 

£pv  Epp letter,  letters  (Lat.  epiitoia). 

Fr. French. 

sen. genus. 

Gr. Greek. 

H.  E.,  Hist.  Ecd.  JScdesiastical  History. 

Heb.,  Hebr Hebrew. 

^•f  ibid in  the  same  place  (Lat.  ibidem). 

^ the  same  person,  or  author  (Lat. 

idem). 


inf. below  (Lat.  infra). 

It Italian. 

1.  c,  loc.  cit at  the  place  quoted  (Lat.  loco 

citato). 

Lat Latin. 

lat latitude. 

lib book  (Lat.  liber). 

long longitude. 

Mon Lat.  Monumenta. 

MS.,  MSS manuscript,  manuscripts. 

n.,  no number.  / 

N.  T New  Testament. 

Nat National. 

Old  Fr.,  O.  Fr. . .  .Old  French. 

op.  cit in  the  work  quoted  (Lat.  opere 

citato). 

Ord Order. 

O.  T Old  Testament. 

p.,  pp page,   pagQS,   or   (in  Latin   ref- 
erences) para  (part). 

par. paragraph. 

paaaim in  various  places. 

pt part. 

Q Quarterly    (a    periodical),    e.g. 

"Church  Quarterly". 

Q.,  QQ.,  qusest. . .  .question,  questions  (Lat.  quwatio). 

q.  V which  [title]  see  (Lat.  quod  vide). 

Rev Review  (a  periodical). 

R.  S Rolls  Series. 

R.  V Revised  Version. 

S., SS Lat.    Sanctua,    SancH,    "Saint", 

"Saints" — used  in  this  Ency- 
clopedia only  in  Latin  context. 

Sept Septuagint. 

Sees Session. 

Skt Sanskrit. 

Sp Spanish. 

sq.,  sqq following  page,   or  pages   (Lat. 

aequena). 

St.,  Sts Saint,  Saints. 

sup Above  (Lat.  aupra). 

8.V Under   the   corresponding   title 

(Lat.  aid)  voce). 

tom volume  (Lat.  tomua}. 


TABLES  OP  ABBREVIATIONS. 


to. translation  or  translated.  By  it- 
self it  means  ''English  transla- 
tibn  ",  or  "  translated  into  Eng- 
lish by".  Where  a  translation 
is  into  any  other  language,  the 
language  is  stated. 

tr.y  tract tractate. 

y see  (Lat.  vide), 

Ven Venerable. 

Vol Volume. 

II. — ^Abbreyiationb  of  Tttlbb. 

Acta  SS Acta  Sanctorum  (Bollandists). 

Ann.  pont.  cath Battandier,  Annuaire  ponHfical 

caiholique, 

Bibl.  Diet.  Eng.  Cath.Gillow,  Bibliographical  Diction- 
ary of  the  English  Catholics. 

Diet.  Christ.  Antiq..  .Smith    and   Cheetham    (ed.), 

Dictionary  of  Christian  An- 
tiquities. 


Diet.  Christ.  Biog.  . .  Smith  and  Waoe  (ed.),  DictloQ* 

aiy  of  Christian  Biography. 

Diet,  d'arch.  chr6t..  .Cabrol  (ed.),  DictMnnaire  ifar^ 

cfUologie  chriHenne  et  de  UtWT' 
gie. 

Diet,  de  thM.  cath. .  Vacant  and   Mangenot  (ed.), 

Didiormavre      de     thidogie 

cathoUque. 
Diet  Nat.  Biog.  . . .  .Stephen    (ed.),   Dictionary  ci 

National  Biography. 
Hast.,  Diet,  of  the 
Bible Hastings  (ed.),  A  Dictionaiy  oi 

the  Bible. 
Kirchenlex. Wetzer  and  Wdte,  KircherUexi- 

con, 

P.  G Migne  (ed.),  Pairea  GrcBd. 

P.  L Migne  (ed.),  Patres  LaHrd, 

Vig.,  Diet,  de  la  Bible.  Vigouroux  (ed.),  Dictionnaire  de 

la  Bible. 


NoTB  I. — ^Laive  Roman  numerals  standing  alone  indicate  volumes.  Small  Roman  numerals  standing  alone  indicate 
diaptas.  Arabic  numerals  standing  alone  indicate  pages.  In  other  eases  the  diyisicns  are  explicitly  stated.  Thus  "  RashdaU, 
Universities  of  Europe,  I.  ix"  refers  the  reader  to  the  ninth  chapter  of  the  first  vcdume  of  that  wcn'k;  "I,  p.  ix*'  would  indicate  the 
ninth  page  of  the  preface  of  the  same  volume. 

Not*  il. — ^Where  St.  Thomas  (Aquinas)  is  cited  without  the  name  of  any  particular  work  the  referenee  is  always  to 
'*Summa  Theologica"  (not  to  "Summa  Philosophifls").  The  divisions  of  the  "Summa  TheoL"  are  indicated  by  a  system  whiA 
may  best  be  understood  by  the  following  example:  "  I-II.  Q.  vi.  a.  7,  ad  2  um  "  refers  the  reader  to  the  seventh  article  of  thm 
sixth  question  in  the  lirat  pari  of  the  seoond  put,  in  the  response  to  the  teeond  objection. 

NoTB  m. — ^The  abbreviations  employed  for  the  various  books  of  the  Bible  are  obvious.  Eoolesiastious  is  indicated  1^ 
Bodua.t  to  distinguish  it  from  Eeolesiastes  {Bcd^.\  It  should  also  be  noted  that  I  and  11  Kings  in  D.  V.  ocHrespond  to  I  and  U 
Samuel  in  A.  V. ;  and  I  and  II  Par.  to  I  and  II  Clironicles.  Where,  in  the  spelling  of  a  proper  name,  there  is  a  marked  diffi 
between  the  D.  V.  and  the  A*  V.t  the  form  found  in  the  latter  is  added,  in  parenthesia. 


^ 


Full  Page  Illustrations  in  Volume  II 

Frontispiece  in  Colour  pagb 

Psalter  of  St.  Augustine,  Canterbury ^ 84 

St.  Augustine 85 

Australia '. 120 

St.  Peter's  Abbey,  Salzburg 121 

Palace  of  the  Popes,  Avignon 158 

Baldachina 216 

Baltimore 230 

Cathedral  of  the  Assmnption,  Baltimore 231 

Baptismal  Fonts 274 

Baptistery 275 

Basilicas 326 

Battle  Abbey,  Entrance  Gate ; 350 

Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame,  Bayeux 358 

Belgium 400 

Bell  Towers 418 

Benedictional  of  St.  Ethelwold 464 

St.  Bernard 498 

Colonnade  of  St.  Peter's 510 

Bethlehem ; 532 

Fisherman  and  the  Ring  of  St.  Mark  (Bordone) 684 

Boston 704 

Bramante's  Circular  Temple 736 

Brazil 746 

Brooklyn 798 


Maps 

Asqrrian  Empire 8 

Australia 114 

Austro-Hungarian  Monarchy 120 

Austro-Hungarian  Monarchy  (Showing  the  Density  of  the  Catholic  Population) 136 

Belgium 396 


m 


THE 
CATHOLIC  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Assises  of   Jerusalem.— The  signification  of  the 
word  assizes  in  this  connexion  is  derived  from  the 
French  verb  asseaiff  whose  past  participle  is  omm, 
Asaecnr    means    "to  seat",  ''to    place   one    on  a 
seat ".      Hence    the   idea    of     putting    something 
into  its  place,  determining  it  to  something.    Thus 
assiae    came  to    mean    an    enactment,   a   statute. 
Assize  is  the  English  form  of  the  word,  and  used 
in    the    plural,  assizes,    it   denotes  a    court.    The 
"Assizes  of  Jerusalem"  (les   assises  de  Jerusalem) 
are  the  code  of  laws  enacted  by  the  Crusaders  for 
the  government  of  the  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem.    They 
are  a  collection  of  legal  re^ilations  for  the  courts 
of  the  Latin  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem  and  Ojrprus. 
Thus  we  have  the  ^Assizes  of  Antioch '',  the  "Arizes 
of  Rumania ",  legal  regulations  for  the  Latin  prin- 
cipality of  Antioch  and  for  the  Latin  Empire  of 
Constantinople.    It    is    erroneous    to    ascribe    the 
"Assizes  of  Jerusalem"  to  Godfrey  de  Bouillon  on 
the  presimiption  that  as  he  was  King  of  Jerusalem 
he  enacted  its  laws.    The  "Assizes  of  Jerusalem" 
were  compiled  in  fhe  thirteenth  century^  not  in  the 
eleventh;  not  in  Jerusalem,  but  after  its  fall;  not 
by  any  ruler,  but  by  several  jurists.    Not  even  the 
rames  of  these  are  all  known,  though  two  of  them 
were  the  well-known  John  of  Ibdin,  who  composed, 
before  1266,  the  "Livre  des  Assises  de  la  Cour  des 
Barons  '\  and  Philippe  de  Navarre,  who,  about  the 
middle    of    the    thirteenth    century,  compiled    the 
"LivTir  de  forme  de  plait  en  la  Haute  Cour  ". 

There  are  nine  treatise^  in  the  "Assizes  of  Jerusa- 
km  ",  and  they  concern  themselves  with  two  kinds 
of  law:  Feudal  Law,  to  which  the  U{^r  Court  of 
Bacons  was  amenable;  and  Common  Law,  which  was 
applied  to  the  Court  of  the  Burgesses.  The  latter 
is  the  older  of  the  two  and  "was  drawn  up  before  the 
fan  of  Jerusalem.  It  deals  with  questions  of  civil 
law,  such  as  contracts,  marriage,  and  property,  and 
touches  on  some  which  fall  witnin  the  province  of 
^pedal  courts,  such  as  the  "Ecclesiastical  Court" 
for  canonical  points,  the  "Cour  de  la  Fonde''  for 
oonmierce,  ana  the  "Cour  de  la  Mer"  for  admiralty 
cases.  It  deals  rath^  with  what  the  law  enjoins  in 
these  several  fields  than  with  determininff  penalties 
for  transgressions.  The  celebrated  "  Livre  ae  la  Haute 
Cour**  of  Ibdin  Was  adopted,  after  revision  (1359), 
as  the  official  code  of  the  Court  of  Cyprus,  which 
kingdom  succeeded  to  the  title  and  regulations  of 
Jerusalem.  We  possess  only-  the  official  tQxt  of 
this,  which  is  not  much  older  than  the  works  of 
French  lawyers  of  Rouen  and  Orl^ns.  But  the 
simeriority  of  the  "  Assizes  of  Jerusalem  "  is  that  it 
rraects  the  genuine  character  of  feudal  law,  whereas 
the  works  of  the  French  feudalists  betray  something 
(k  the  royal  influence  which  affected  those  sections 
after  the  revival  of  the  Roman  law.  No  other  work 
dwdls  so  insistently  on  the  rights  of  the  vassal 
towards  his  lord,  no  other  throws  such  a  light  on  the 

IL— 1 


resolution  of  a  disputed  noint  by  an  appeal  to  arms, 
its  challenge,  its  champibns,  its  value  as  evidence. 
In  brief,  toe  "Assizes  of  Jerusalem"  give  us  a  faith- 
ful and  vivid  picture  of  the  part  played  by  the  law 
in  the  Latin  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem. 

Beuonot,  Reeueil  m  hUtorUns  deM  Crouade^:  LoU,  2  vols,  in 
fbl.  (Paris,  1841-43).  an  edition  which  supersedes  the  older  ones 
of  THAUMApRikRK  (1690),  Kanslbr  (1889),  FoucHXB  (1840): 
PAULiif  Paris,  review  of  Beugnot's  edition,  in  the  Jotamal 
<2m  SavantM  (Paris,  1841);  Monnibr,  Ooddroy  d*  Bouillon 
«C  tes  Assises  de  Jirumlem  (Aeadtoiie  des  Sdaioes  morales. 
Puis,  1878-74).  Consult  also  aoy  work  on  feudal  or  medieval 
law. 

Ch.  Mosller. 

Assmajsr,  Ignaz,  an  Austrian  musician,  b.  at 
Salzburg,  11  February,  1790;  d.  in  Vienna,  31  August. 
1862.  He  studied  under  Brunmayr  and  Michael 
Haydn,  and  later,  when  he  went  to  Vienna,  he  re- 
ceived further  instruction  from  Ejrbler.  In  1808 
he  was  oreanist  at  St.  Peter's  in  his  native  town, 
and  here  ne  wrote  his  oratorio  "Die  Stlndfluth" 
(The  Deluge)  and  his  cantata  "Worte  derWeihe". 
Some  time  after  his  removal  to  Vienna,  in  1815.  he 
became  choirmaster  at  the  Schotten-Kirche.  ana  in 
1825  w£is  appointed  imperisd  organist.  After  hav- 
ing served  eight  years  as  vice-choirmaster,  he  re- 
ceived in  1846  the  appointment  of  second  choir- 
master to  the  Court,  as  successor  to  Weigl.  His 
principal  oratorios,  "Das  Geldbde",  "Saul  und 
David",  and  "Sauls  Tod",  were  repeatedly  per- 
formed by  the  Tonkunstler-Societdt,  of  which  he 
was  conductor  for  fifteen  years.  He  also  wrote  fif- 
teen masses,  two  requiems,  a  Te  Deum,  and  various 
smaller  church  pieces.  Of  these  two  oratorios,  one 
mass,  the  requiems,  and  Te  Deum^  and  furthermore 
sixty  secular  compositions,  compnsing  symphonies, 
overtures,  pastorales^  etc.,  were  published.  As  to 
his  style  Grove  calls  it  correct  and  fluent,  but  want- 
ing in  both  invention  and  force. 

BAKBR,  Bi(vr.  Diet  of  Mundatuf  Rikmann,  Diet,  of  Muaie: 
Qmarm,  DieL  of  Mutie  and  Mtmaans, 

J.  Aw  VdLKER. 

Association^  Right  of  Voluntary. — I.  The 
Legal  Right.  A  voluntary  association  means 
any  group  of  individuals  freely  united  for  the  pur- 
smt  of  a  common  end.  It  differs,  therefore,  from 
a  necessary  association  inasmuch  as  its  members 
arc  not  under  legal  compulsion  to  become  associated. 
The  principal  instances  of  a  necessary  association 
are  a  conscript  military  body  and  civil  society,  or 
the  State;  the  concept  of  voluntary  association  covers 
organizations  as  diverse  as  a  manufacturing  corpora- 
tion and  a  religious  sodality.  The  legal  right  ot  vol- 
imtary  association — the  attitude  of  civil  authority 
toward  bodies  of  this  nature — has  varied  in  different 
ages  and  still  varies  in  different  countries.  Under 
the  rule  of  Solon  the  Athenians  seem  to  have  been 
free  to  institute  such  societies  as  they  pleased,  so 
long  as  their  action  did  not  conflict  with  the  public 


A88O0IATION  2  ASSOCIATION 

law.    The  multitude  of  societies  and  public  gather-  supreme  head  resides  outside  of  France;  and  associa- 

ings  for  the  celebration  of  religious  festivab  and  the  tions    whose    members    live    in    common.    Owing 

carrying  on  of  games,  or  other  forms  of  public  recrea-  partly  to  the  terms  of  the  law  and  partly  to  the 

tion  and  pleasure,  which  flourished  for  so  many  cen-  course  pursued   by  the  officials   charged  with  its 

turies    throughout    ancient    Greece,    indicates   that  enforcement,  almost  all  the  religious  congre^tions 

a  considerable  measure  of  freedom  of  association  have  been  driven  out  of  France.     In  Prussia  and 

was  quite  general  in  that  country.         .  In  most  of  the  other  German  states  political  associa- 

The  Roman  authorities  were  less  liberal.  No  tions  are  subject  to  close  inspection,  and  can  be 
private  association  could  be  formed  without  a  spe-  dissolved  by  the  public  authorities  in  case  they  go 
cial  decree  of  the  senate  or  of  the  emperor.  And  yet  outside  of  certain  well-defined  limits.  Most  other 
voluntary  societies  or  corporations  were  numerous  societies  pursuing  reascmable  ends  can  obtain  exist- 
from  the  earliest  days  of  the  Republic.  There  ence  and  recognition  by  becoming  registered  accord- 
existed  collegia  for  the  proper  performance  of  relig-  ing  to  a  general  law  of  the  empire.  The  law  of 
ious  rites,  collegia  to  provide  public  amusements,  Austria  empowers  magistrates  to  forbid  the  formation 
collegia  of  a  political  nature,  collegia  in  charge  of  of  any  association  tlmt  either  in  aim  or  personnel 
cemeteries,  and  collegia  made  up  of  workers  in  the  seems  contrary  to  law,  and  to  dissolve  any  society 
various  trades  and  occupations.  In  Judea  the  that  is  no  longer  conducted  in  accordance  with  the 
Pharisees  and  Sadducees — tnough  these  were  schools,  legal  conditions  to  which  it  is  subject.  In  Russia 
or  sects,  rather  than  organized  associations — and  participation  in  any  association  not  expressly  author- 
the  Essenes  were  not  seripusly  interfered  with  by  ized  by  the  Government  is  a  penal  onence.  Speak- 
the  Roman  governors.  With  the  union  of  Church  ing  generally,  it  may  be  said  tnat  with  the  exception 
and  State  in  325  there  came  naturally  an  era  of  of  France,  Russia,  and  Turkey,  European  govem- 
freedom  and  prosperity  for  associations  of  a  relig-  ments  exhibit  to-day  a  liberal  attitude  toward 
ious  nature,  especially  for  the  religious  orders,  associations  pursuing  reasonable  ends. 
During  the  period  of  political  chaos  that  followed  In  the  Umted  States  associatibns  whose  purpose 
the  fall  of  the  Empire,  liberty  of  association  was  as  is  pecuniary  gain,  and  all  other  societies  that  desire 
extensive  as  could  be  expected  among  populations  a  corporate  existence  and  c^l  personality,  must, 
whose  civil  rulers  were  not  sufficiently  powerful  of  course,  comply  with  the  appropriate  laws  of  incor- 
either  to  repress  or  to  protect  the  formation  of  poration.  Umncorporated  societies  may  be  insti- 
voluntary  unions.  Indeed,  the  "minor,  obscure,  tuted  without  legaf  authorization,  and  may  pursue 
isolated,  and  incoherent  societies",  to  use  the  words  any  aim  whatever,  so  long  as  their  members  do  not 
of  Guizot,  that  erected  themselves  on  the  ruins  of  engage  in  actions  that  constitute  conspiracy  or 
the  old  political  organization  and  became  in  time  some  other  violation  of  public  order.  Even  in  these 
the  feudal  system,  were  essentially  private  associa-  contingencies  the  members  will  not  be  liable  to  legal 
tions.  prosecution  for  the  mere  act  of  forming  the  associa- 

As  the  needs,  culture,  and  outlook  of  men  ex-  tions.    Under   the   present   fairly   hberal    attitude 

tended,  there  sprang  into  being  a  great  number  of  governments,  and  owing  to  the  great  increase  in 

and   variety   of   associations,    religious,    charitable,  the  number  and   complexity   of  human    interests, 

educational,  and  industrisd.     Instances  are  the  great  the  number  and  variety  of  associations  in  the  Western 

religious  orders,  the  societies  for  the  relief  of  poverty  world  have  grown  with  great  lapidity.     We  may 

and  sickness,  the  universities,  and  the  guilds  whicn  enumerate   at   least   nine   distinct   types,    namely: 

arose  and  flourished  between   the  tenth  and  the  religious,    charitable,    intellectual,    moral,    political, 

fourteenth    centuries.    All    of    these    associations  mutual-benevolent,  labour,   industrial,    ajid    purely 

were  instituted  either  imder  the  active  direction  social.    The  largest  increase  has  taken  place  m  the 

of  the  Church,  or  with  her  warm  encouragement,  three  classes  devoted  to  social  intercourse  and  en- 

ond  as  a  rule  without  any  serious  opposition  on  joyment,  such  as    clubs  and  "secret"  societies;  to 

the  part  of  the  civil  power.    Some  of  tnem,  in  fact,  industry   and    commerce^    such    as    manufacturing 

performed    important    political    functions;    others  and  mercantile  corporations,  and  to  the  interests 

secured  a  measure  of  social  peace  that  the  civil  of  the  wage  earner,  such  a^  trade  unions.     Probably 

authorities  were  unable  to  enforce;  while  as  a  whole  the  great  majority  of  the  male  adults  in  the  cities 

they  constituted  a  considerable  check  to  the  exercise  of  the  United  States  have  some  kind  of  membership 

of  arbitrary  power  by  sovereigns.    Thus,  the  mer-  in  one  or  other  of  these  three  forms  of  association, 
chant  and  craft  guilds  governed  trade  and  industry        II.  The  Moral  Right. — Like    all    other    moral 

with  a  series  of  regulations  that  had  all  the  force  rights,  that  of  voluntary  association  is  determined 

and  authority  of   legal   statutes;   the  associations  by  the  ends  that  it  promotes,  the  human  needs 

instituted  to  enforce  the  "Truce  of  God",  helped  that  it  supplies.    The  dictum  of  Aristotle  that  man 

greatly  to  lessen  petty  warfare  between  different  is  a  "political"  animal,  expresses  more  than  the 

lords  and  different  sections  of  the  same  country;  fact  that  man  naturally  and  necessarily  becomes  a 

while  "  the  monarch  was  .  .  .  hemmed  in  on  all  sides  participant  in  that  form  of  association  known  as 

...  by    universities,     corporations,    brotherhoods,  the  State.    It  means  that  man  cannot  eflPectively 
monastic  orders;  b/  franchises  and  privileges  of  all '  pursue  happiness  nor  attain  to  a  reasonable  degree 

kinds,  which  in  greater  or  less  degree  existed  all  over  of  self-perfection  unless  he  unites  his  exw^i^es  with 

Europe".  those  of  his  fellows.    This  is  particularly  true  of 

With  the  rise  and  extension  of  political  absolutism  modem  life,  and  for  two  reasons.    First,  because 

in  most  of  the  countries  of  Europe  in  the  seventeenth  the  needs  of  men  have  greatly  increased,  and  second, 

century,  freedom  of  association  became  everywhere  because  the  division  of  labour  has  made  the  individual 

greatly    restricted.    It    was    frequently    subjected  more  and  more  dependent  upon  other  individuals 

to    unreasonable    conditions    in    the    last    century,  and  groups  of  individuals.    The  primitive,  isolated 

and  it  is  still  withheld  by  some  governments.     From  family  that  knows  only  a  few  wants,  and  is  able 

1820  to  1824  labour  unions  were  absolutely  prohibited  in  rude  fashion  to  supply  all  these,  may  enjoy  a 

in  Great  Britain.    Up  to  the  year  1901  non-indus-  certain  measure  of  contentment,  if  not  of  culture, 

trial  associations  consisting  of  more  than  twenty  without  the  aid  of  any  other  association  than  that 

persons  could   not   be   formed  in   France  without  inherent  in  its  own  constitution.     For  the  family 

authorization  by  a  public  official  whose  power  in  the  of    to-day    such    conditions    are    unsatisfying    and 

matter  was  almost  arbitrary.     At  present,  authoriza-  insufficient.     Its  members  are  constrained  to  pursue 

tion  is  required  in  the  case  of  associations  composed  many  lines  of  activity  and  to  satisfy  many  want^ 

of   Frenchmen   and   foreigners;   associations  whose  that  demand  organized  and  associated  efiTort. 


ASSOCIATION                              3  ASSGOIATIOM 

Since  the  individual  is  dependent  upon  so  m&ny  And  it  extends  even  to  those  associations  that  are 

other  individuals  for  many  of  those  material  goods  not  in  themselves  necessaiy  for  these  ends^—that 

that  are  indispensable  to  him,  he  must  frequently  is,  so  long  as  the  associations  do  not  contravene 

combine  with  those  of  his  neighbours  who  are  sim-  good  morals  or  the  public  weal.     For  the  State  has 

ikrhr  placed   if  he   would   successfully   resist   the  no  right  to  prohibit  any  individual  action,  be  it 

tendency  of  nKxiem  forces  to  overlook  and  override  ever  so   unnecessary,  which    is,   from    the    public 

the  mere  inctividual.     A   large   proportion  of  the  point  of  view,  harmless.     Although  it  is  not  essential 

members  of   every    industrial   community    cannot  to  his  personal  development  that  the  citizen  should 

make  adequate  provision  for  the  needs  that  follow  become  a  member  of  an  association  that  can  do  him 

in  the  train  of  misfortune  and  old  age  unless  they  neither  good  nor  harm,  it  is  essential  to  his  happiness 

utitize  such  agencies  as  the  mutual  benefit  societv  and  his  aelf-respect  that  he  should  not  be  prevented 

the  insurance  company,  or  the  savings  bank.    WorK-  from  doing  so  by  the  State.    The  moment  that  the 

ingmen  fiad  it  impossible  to  obtain  just  wages  or  State  begins  to  practise  coercion  of  this  kind  it  violates 

reasonable  conditions  of  employment  without  the  individual  rights.    The  general  right  of  voluntary 

trade  union.     On  the  other  nand,  goods  could  not  association  ia  well  stated  by  Pope  Leo  XIII  in  the 

be  produced  or  distributed  in  sufficient  quantities  encyclical,    ''Rerum    Novarum'^:    ''To    enter    into 

except  through  the  mediimi  of  associations.    Manu-  private  societies  is  a  natural  right  of  man,  and  the 

faduiing,  trade,  transportation,  and  finance  neces-  State  must  protect  natural  rights,  not  destroy  them. 

fiarily  faU  more  and  more  under  the  control  of  partner-  If  it  forbids  its  citizens  to  form  associations,  it  con- 

ships  and  stock  companies.            ^  tradicts  the  very  principle  of  its  own  existence;  for 

Turning  now   from   the   consideration   of   these  both  they  and  it  exist  in  virtue  of  the  same  principle, 

matoial  needs,  we  find  that  association  pla^s  a  no  namely,  the  natural  propensity  of  man  to  live  in 

less  important  part  in  the  religious,  moral,  mtelleo-  society. " 

tual,  political,  aiid  purely  soci^  departments  of  life.  Nor  is  the  State  justified  in  prohibiting  voluntary 
Men  cannot  give  God  due  worship  except  in  a  public,  associations  on  the  ground  that  the^r  may  become 
social  way.  This  implies  at  least  the  umversal  inimical  to  public  welfare.  An  institution  should 
Church  and  the  parish,  and  orcUnarily  it  supposes  not  be  utterly  condemned  because  it  is  liable  to  abuse; 
devotional  and  other  associations,  such  as  sodalities,  otherwise  an  end  must  be  made  of  all  institutions 
shar  societies,  church-fimd  societies,  etc.  Select  that  are  erected  and  conducted  by  human  beings. 
a>uls  who  wish  to  embrace  the  life  of  perfection  The  State  has  ample  power  to  protect  itself  against 
described  by  the  evangelical  counsels  mUst  become  all  the  abuses  to  wnich  liberty  of  association  is  uable. 
orguiized  in  such  a  way  that  they  can  lead  a  common  It  can  forbid  societies  that  aim  at  objects  contrary 
Ufe.  In  every  oonmiunity  there  are  p^*sons  who  to  good  morals  or  the  public  welfare,  lay  dowu 
vish  to  do  efi^ctive  work  on  behalf  of  good  morals,  such  reasbnable  restrictions  as  are  requix^  to  define 
charity,  ard  social  reform  of  various  kin^.  Hence  the  proper  spheres  of  the  various  associations,  punish 
ve  have  purity  leagues,  associated  charities,  tern-  those  societies  that  go  beyond  their  legitimate  fields, 
peranoe  societies,  ethical  culture  societies,  social  and,  in  extreme  cases,  dissolve  any  particular  organi- 
9ettfements.  Since  large  munbeis  of  parents  prefer  zation  that  proves  itself  to  be  incorrigible.  Through 
private  and  i^gious  schools  for  the  education  of  these  measures  the  State  can  provide  itself  with  all 
their  diildren,  the  need  arises  for  associations  whose  the  security  t^t  is  worth  having;  any  further  inter- 
purpoee  is  educational.  Literary  and  scientific  ference  with  individual  liberty  would  be  a  greater 
aasodations  are  necessary  to  promote  original  social  evil  than  the  one  that  is  sought  to  be  remedied, 
research,  deeper  study,  and  wider  culture.  Good  The  formality  of  legal  authorization,  or  registration, 
forenunent,  especially  in  a  republic,  is  impossible  is  not  in  itself  unreasonable,  but  it  ought  not  to  be 
without  politicfiu  associations  which  strive  vigilantly  accompanied  by  unreasonable  conditions.  The  pro- 
ud eonstantty  for  the  removal  of  abuses  and  the  oedure  ought  to  be  such  that  anv  society  formed  . 
enactment  of  just  laws.  in  accordance  with  the  appropriate  law  of  association 
In  Uie  purely  sodal  order  men  desire  to  enroll  could  demand  authorization,  or  registration,  as  a 
themselves  in  dubs,  ''secret"  societies,  amusement  dvil  right,  instead  of  being  compelled  to  seek  it  as  a 
asneiatlons,  etc.,  all  of  which  may  be  made  to  promote  privilege  at  the  hands  of  an  official  clothed  with  the 
human  oont^itznentand  human  happiness.  Many  power  to  grant  or  refuse  it  at  his  own  discrotion. 
of  the  forms  of  association  just  enumerated  are  ah-  The  difference  between  these  two  methods  is  the 
Bohit^  necessary  to  right  human  life;  none  of  them  difference  between  the  reign  of  law  and  the  reign  of 
ii  eatuely  useless.  Finally,  volimtary  associations  official  caprice;  between  constitutional  liberty  and 
are  capable  of  discharging  many  of  the  tasks  that  bureaucratic  despotism.  Precisely  this  sort  of 
othenrise  would  devolve  upon  the  State.  This  arbitrary  power  is  at  present  exercised  bv  French 
was  an  important  feature  of  their  activity  in  the  officials  over  religious  congregations.  Tne  result 
lOdifle  Ages,  and  it  is  very  desirable  to-dajr  when  is  that  Frenchmen  and  Frenchwomen  who  wish  to 
the  functions  of  government  are  constantly  mcreas-  live  in.  associations  of  this  nature  are  denied  the 
iag.  ^  Chief  among  the  organisations  capable  of  right  to  do  so.  Speaking  generally  of  religious 
famtiiii;  State  activity  are  those  concerned  with  congregations,  we  mav  justly  say  in  the  words  of 
edneataon,  charitable  work,  industry,  and  commerce.  Pope  hoo  XIII,  that  they  have  **  the  sanction  of  the 
nd  the  improvement  of  the  working  classes.  In  law  of  nature",  that  is,  the  same  natural  right  to 
a>  fir  as  these  can  perform  their  several  tasks  on  exist  on  reasonable  conditions  as  an^  other  morally 
naaoaoUe  terms  and  without  injury  to  the  State  lawful  association,  and,  ''on  the  reh^ous  side  thev 
or  to  BBj  class  of  its  citizens,  the  public  welfare  is  ri^tly  claim  to  be  responsible  to  the  Church  alone  . 
bettv  served  by  Uiem  than  it  would  be  if  they  were  mien  the  State  refuses  them  the  right  to  exist  it 
lUhnted  by  the  Government.  Individual  liberty  violates  not  merely  the  natural  moral  law  but  the 
w  lafividiiAl  opportunity  .have  a  larger  scope,  sup^natural  Divine  law.  For  these  associations 
BMdnal  initiative  is  more  readily  called  into  are  an  integral  part  of  the  life  of  the  Church,  and  a^ 
^f  and  the  danger  of  Qovemment  despotism  is  such,  lie  *  within  her  proper  sphere.  Within  this 
9M^  lesKoed.  ^  sphere  she  is  independent  of  the  State,  as  inde- 
Ths  right  of  voluntary  association  is,  therefore,  a  pendent  as  one  sovereign  civil  power  is  of  another. 
^tiari  ngjoA.  It  is  an  endowment  of  man's  nature,  Abuses  that  may  grow  out  of  religious  associations 
^ anivDege  conferred  by  civil  society.  It  arises  can  be  met  by  the  State  in  the  ways  outlined  above, 
^othis  doefpeat  needs,  is  an  indispensable  means  Treasonable  acts  can  be  punished;  excessive  accumu- 
to  WMWinhlfi    life   and   normal   s^-development.  lation  of  property  can  be  prevented;  in  fact,  every 


▲88O0IATION  4  ASSOOIATIOM 

action,  circumstance,  or  tendency  that  constitutes  of  ideas  is   a    fact    of   everyday  experience  which 

a  real  danger  to  the  public  welfare  can  be  successfully  furnishes   an   important    basis   for   the   science   of 

dealt  with  by  other  methods  than  that  of  denying  psychology;   y%t  it  must  be  ram^nbered  that  the 

these  associations  the  right  of  existence.  laws  of  association  offer  no  ultimate  explanation  of 

XT  '^**,*IS!^"Ja  ?!C**?^  Thsohgia.  MoraUa,  de  /utiitfd  (New  the  faots  observed.    In  aooounting  for  the  facts  of 

r^i'iSt^zI^lX^Z%^r{rJi^^i:S^}k3^  ««omtion  we  must,  in  the  fi»t  place,  reject  « 

pedia  of  Political  Science  and  Political  Economy  (New  York,  msufficieot  the  pureiy  physical   theory  proposed   by 

i888-go),  8.  v..  A99ocuaiom:    Say-Cbajllby.  JWrtumikWM  Ribot,   Richet,   Aiaudsley,   Carpenter,   and  others, 

tiS:^SS3a.'^'*rpJ^WS«.1"K;;fS«J^^  S?»  "?l'^  «xpl«»tion  «ccl,^Win  the  a«ocia. 

ouvrikrf  avant  1789,  I,  i.  tu>n  of  bfam-prooesses.     Psychology  thus  becomes 

John  A.  Rtan.  a  chapter  of  physiology  and  mechamcs.    Aside  from 

the  fact  that  this  theory  can  ^ve  no  sadsfaotory 
AflBOOiaition  of  Ideas;  (1)  a  principle  in  p^helesy  ^cpiaaation  of  association  by  sunilaritr  which  im- 
to  account  for  the  succession  ot  mental  states,  (2)  the  trfies  a  distinctly  mental  factor,  it  neglects  evident 
basis  of  a  philosophy  known  as  A£»ociationism.  The  facts  of  consciousness.  Consciousness  t^ls  us  that 
fact  of  the  association  of  ideas  was  noted  by  some  in  reminiscence  we  can  voluntarily  direct  the  sequence 
of  the  earliest  philosoi^ers'  Aristotle  (De  mem.  et  of  our  mental  states,  and  it  is  in  this  that  voluntanr 
rem. ,  2)  indicates  the  tnree  laws  of  association  which  recall  differs  from  the  succession  of  images  and  feel- 
have  been  the  basis  of  nearly  all  later  enumerations,  ings  in  dream  and  deliriimi.  BesideSj  one  brain- 
St.  Thomas,  in  his  commentary  on  Aristotle,  accepts  process  may  excite  another,  but  this  is  not  yet  a 
and   illustrates    them   at   some   length.    Hamilton  state  of  conseioumess. 

(Notes  on  Reid)  gives  considerable  credit  to  t^        Bjqually  imsatisfactorv  is  the  theoiy  of  the  ultra- 
Spanish  Humanist,  Vives  (1492-1540),  for  his  treat-  spiritualists,  who  would,  have  lis  believe  that  asso- 
ment  of  the  subject.     Association  of  ideas  is  not,  ciation  of  ideas  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  bodily 
therefore,  a  discovery  of  English  psychology,  as  has  oiiganism,  but  is  wholly  mental.     Thus  Hamilton 
often  been  asserted.  says  that  all   philological   theories  are   too   con- 
It  is  true,  however,  that  the  principle  of  associa-  temptible  for  senous  criticism.    Reid  and   Bowne 
tion  of  ideas  received  in  En^ish  psychology  an  in-  reject  all  traces  of  perception  left  in  the  brain  sub- 
terpretation  never  given  to  it  before.    The  name  is  stance.     Lotze  admits  a  concomitant  oscillation  of 
denved  from  Locke  who  placed  it  at  the  head  of  one  1^  brain  elements,  but  considers  them  quite  seo- 
of  the  chapters  of  his  '  Essav'',  but  used  it  only  ondary  and  as  exercising  no  influence  on  memoi^ 
to  explain   peculiarities   of   character.    Applied   to  and  recall.    Like  the  purely  phjrsical  theory,  this 
mental  states  in  general,  the  name  is  too  restricted,  also  fails  to  explain  the  faets  of  consciousness  and 
since  ideas,  even   in   the  English  sense,  are  only  experience,    llie   localization   of   activities    in    the 
cognitive    processes.    The    association    theory   was  various  bmin-centres,  the  faots  of  mental  disease  in 
held  by  Hobbes,  Berkeley,  Hume,  and  Hamilton;  oonsequenoe  of  injury  to  the  brain,  the  dependence 
but  it  received  its  widest  interpretation  at  the  hands  of  memory  on  the  healthy  condition  of  the  central 
of  the  Associationists,  Hartley,  Priestley,  James  Mill,  oiigan^tc.  have  in  this  theory  no  rational  niean- 
John   Stuart   Mill,   Bain,   and   Spencer.    They  re-  ing.     We  must,   then,   seek   an  explanation    in   a 
garded  it  as  a  principle  capable  of  expl^ning  all  theory  that  does  justice  to  boUi  the  mental  and  the 
mental  phenomena.     For  them  it  is  in  the  sub-  physical  side  of  the  phenomena.    A  mere  psycho- 
jective  world  what  the  principle  of  ^vitation  is  physical  parallelism,  proposed  by  some,  wiU   not, 
m  the  physical  worid.     Association  of  ideas,  though  nowever,  suffice,  as  it  oners  no  explanation,  but  is 
variously   explained,*  is    accepted    by   all   modem  a  mere  restatem^it  of  the  problem.    The  Scholastic 
psychologists.     Sully,   Maudsley,   Jaraes^   Hoffding,  doctrine,   that   the  subject   of  sensorr  activity    is 
Miinster^rg,    Ebbinghaus,    Ziehen,   Tame,    Ribot,  neither  the  body  alone  nor  the  soul  alone,  bat  the 
Lu^rs,  and  many  others  accept  it  more  or  less  in  the  unitary  being  compounded  of  bod^r  and  soul,  ofifers 
spirit  of  the  Associationists.  the  best  solution.    As  sense  perception  is  not  purely 
The   traditional   laws   of   association,    based   on  physic^ogioal  nor  purely  mental,  but  proceeds  from 
Aristotle,  are:  1.  Similarity;   2.  Contrast;   3.   Con-  a  faculty  of  the  soul  intrinsically  united  to  an  oraan, 
tiipiity  in   time  or    space.     In  the  course  of   time  so  the  association  of  these  perceptions  proceeds  m>in 
efforts  were  made  to  reduce  them  to  more  funda-  a  principle  which  is  at  the  same  time  menta)  and 
mental  laws.    Contrast  has  been  resolved  into  simi-  ph3reioid.    No    doubt    purely    spiritual    ideas    also 
larity  and  contiguity.    Contrasts,  to  recall  each  other,  associate;   but,  as  St.   Thomas  teaches,  the   most 
supposegeneric  similarity,  as  white  recalls  black.    Yet  spiritual  idea  is  not  devoid  of  its  physiological  basis, 
this  alone  will  not  suffice,  since  this  gives  us  no  reason  and  even  in  making  use  of  the  spiritual  ideas  which 
for  the  fact  that  white  recalls  black  in  preference  to  it  has  already  acquired,  the  inteUeot  has  need    of 
green  or  blue;  hence  experience,  based  on  the  fact  that  images  stored  in  the  brain.    It  requires  these  oi^gaoiic 
nature  works  in  contrasts,  is  cie^ed  into  aid.     Spencer,  prooeeses  in  the  production  of  its  abstract   ideas. 
H5ffdin^,  and  others  try  to  reduce  all  the  laws  ot  in  its  basis,  the  association  of  ideas  is  physiolo^cai, 
association  to  that  of  similarity,  while  Wundt  and  but  it  is  more  than  this,  as  it  does  not  follow  the 
his  school  believe  that  all  can  be  reduced  to  eocpe-  necenary  laws  of  matter.    The  higher  faculties   of 
rience  and   hence   to   contiguity.     Bain,   who   has  the  mind  can  command  and  direct   the  prooees. 
analyzed  the  laws  of  association  most  thoroughly.  The  Scholastic  theory  does  justice  to  the  fact    of 
holds  both  similarity  and  contiguity  to  be  dementary  the  dependence  of  mental  activities  upon  the  or^an. 
principles.    To  these  he  adds  certain  laws  of  com-  ism,  and  vet  leaves  room  for  the  freeoom  oi  the  'will 
pound  association.     Mental  states  easily  recall  one  attested  by  consciousness  and  experience, 
another  when  they  have  se\^ral  points  of  contact.        English    Aasooiationism,    while    claiming;    to      be 
And  in  fact,  considering  the  complexity  of  mental  neither  idealistic  nor  materialistic,  and  disavo^win^ 
life,  it  would  se^n  probaole  that  simple  associations,  metaphysics,  has  erected  the  principle  of  associ&tion 
by  similarity  or  contiguity  alone,  never  oCcur.     Be-  of  ideas  into  a  metaphjrsical  princifde  to  ez^^n  all 
sides   these    primary   laws   of   association,    various  mental  activity.     James  Mill  enunciated  the  j>riii- 
secondary  laws  are  enumerated,  such  as  the  laws  ciple  of  indissoluble  associations:  Sensations  or  icietLs 
of  frequency,  vividness,  recentness,  emotional  con-  ooeurring  together  frequently,  and  never  apart^  su^- 
gruity,  etc.    These  determine  the  firmness  of  the  geet  one  another  with  irresistible  force,  so  that    -we 
association,  and  consequently  the  preference  given  combine  them   necessarily.    This   principle  is     em* 
to  one  state  over  another,  in  the  re(»tll.    Association  ployed  to  explain  necessary  judgments  and  vx^s&tt^ 


A8800UTI0H  5  ASSUMPTION 

pbjscsl  concepts.     Bain  apidied  the  prtnciplee  of  of  the  Faith;  Apostleship  of  Prayer,  known  aleo  at 

aBodUkm    to    logic    and    ethics.     Spwicer    inter-  the  League  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus;  Holy  Child- 

pnUi  them  in  an  evolutioniatic  sense.     Certain  be-  hood  L^gue;  Prieats'  Eucharistic  Leamie'.  C&cilien- 

Ms  lud  moral  prinoiplea  are  such  that  the  aaeocia-  verein,  an  asaociation  especially 

ticma  of  the  individual  are  not  sufficient  to  explain  muiy  for  tto  advanoement  of  relisioi 

tbeni;  tW  are  the  aaeoclations  of  eucceesive  genera-  „  Bfcmi™    L«  MuieneiM   1P«™,  Tbm):    MoccHMoiiHi, 

tiaBhimcfed  down  by  heredity.     The  whole  process  ^"^"^  /«d«*»«Ufln<«  (Qu«»ooh..  1W7^   ijf,^„„_ 
is  governed  by  necessary  laws.     Mental  atatee  aaso-  uonwEi.!.  . 

date  passively,  and  mental  life  ia  but  a  prooees  of        AflnmuB,  the  name  of  two  different  pereoDB  in 

"mental    chemistry".     Later    Asaociationista,    like  the  BiUe: — 1.  Inl  Esdr.,  iv,  6,  and  Eath.,  i,  17,  it 

Sully,  have  come  to  recogniEe  that  the  mind  exerts  corresponds  to  the  Hebrew    AckAthwerSih.  and  the 

activity  in  attention,  discrimination,  judgment,  rea-  SepC.   'JLrvoi^pot  (in  Eetli.  ' Apraiipivt) ,  and  denotes 

snning.    With  this  admission  there  snould  logically  Xerxes  I,  the  King  of  Peisia.     It  was  to  him  that  the 

(ome  sIeo  the  admission   of  a  soul-substance  that  Samaritans  addressed  their  complaints  against  the 

itteads.  discriminates,  judges,  and   reasons;   but  as  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  soon  after  485  b.  c,  i.  e.  in 

they  have  not  come  to  this  conclusion,  the  soul   is  the  beginning  of  his  reign.     Intent  upon  his  [Measures 

for  thnu  a  "train  of  thoughts",  a  "streaoi  of  con-  and  a  war  with  Egypt,  the  king  seems  to  have  diaie- 

sdousuess",  or  some   other  series  veiled   in   meta-  guded  thene  chafges.     The  report  of  Herodotus  (VII, 

pboricsl  language.     Association  of  ideas  can  never  viii)  ttiat  Xerxes  convoked  a  council  of  his  nobles, 

etpUin    necessary    judgments,    conclusions    drawn  in  tho  third  year  of  his  reign,  to  deliberate  about  the 

InuQ  premises,   mom   idcan   and  laws;  these  have  war  against  Greece  agrees  with  Eeth.,  i,  3,  telling  of 

''  '  '  the  nature  of  things.  the  great  feast  given  oy  the  king  to  hie  nobles  in  the 

— — .  - -, —  third  year  of  hia  reign.     In  the  seventh  year  of  his 

bS^iI,' sSmJ  ™igni  after  the  return  of  Xerxes  from  his  war  against 
Greece,  Esther  was  declared  c[ueen.  In  tlie  tw^th 
year  of  the  king's  reign,  Esther  saved  the  Jews  from 
the  national  ruin  contemplated  by  Aman.  II.  An- 
other Assverus  occurs  in  the  Greek  text  of  Tab.,  xiv, 
IS  {'Aa^poi),  in  conjunction  with  Nabuchodonosor; 
the  takiDg  d  Ninive  is  ascril^ed  to  theee  two.  In 
pcnnt  of  &t,  Assyria  was  conquered  by  Cyaxares  I, 

,^  the  King  of  Media,  and  Nabopolassar,  the  King  of 

Edmund  J.  Wibth.  BalMoma.  and  father  of  Nabuehodonosor.     Hence 

Atsodation    of    Tiiastlr    PersoTsranM,  a  sac-  the  Aseuerusof  Tob.,  xiv,  15,  is  Cyaxares  I;  his  name 

eniolai  amodation  founded  in    1868  at  Vienna,  and  is  ooupled  with  Nabuehodonosor  because  the  latter 

It  firat   confined     to    that    archdiocese.     In   1879,  ""uat  have  led  the  troops  of  his  father  in  the  war 

rfiiefty  through  the  influence  of  iU  periodical  organ,  «ainflt  Assyria.     The  same  Cyaxares  I  is  probably 

-LsConespondanee",  it  spread  into  otheff  dioceses  the  Aseuerua  ['Achdthwirdsh)  mentioned  in  Dan.,  ix, 

md  countries,   and  in   1903   counted   14,919  living  1,  as  the  father  of  Darius  the  Hede.     Most  probably 

member*,   belonging    to    150    diocesee    in   Austria,  Darius  the  Made  is  Croxaree  11,  the  son  of  Astyagea, 

Gemiany,  Switzerland,   and  Other  countries.     This  the  King  of  Media.     The  insiHred  writer  of  Dan.,  ix, 

oi^niiation  is  very  rimilar  to  that  of  the  Apostolic  1.  represents  him  as  a  son  of  Cyaxaree  I,  or  Assuerus, 

L'nion  of  Secular  Priests  (q.  v.).  instead  of  AstyMee,  on  account  of  the  glorious  name 

Joseph  H.  HcUahon.  "f  the  former.     This  could  be  done  without  difficulty, 

„       „  since,  in  genealogies,  the  name  of  the  grandson  was 

™*   HotT  oft^„  introduced  instead  of  that  of  the  son. 

Haoeh,  Lericon  BiUician  (Piui«,  190fi)i  LtetTRB  in  Via., 

iMOcUUonB,  PiODS.— Under  this  term  are  com-  Dut.  ds  lo  BMe  iP>^.  1896).  A   j  «     » 

prehended  all    those    oi^nizations,   approved   and  ■  ™**o- 

mdiilgenced  by  Church  authority,  which  have  been        Asaiimptlon,  Little  Sihterb  of  trb,  a  congrega- 

instituled,  (specially  in  recent  times,  for  the  advance-  tion  whose  work  is  the  nursing  of  the  sick  poor  in  their 

oient  of  various  works  of  piety  and  charity.     Other  own  homes.     This  labour  they  perform  gratuitously 

temis  used  with  the  same  meaning  are;  pious  union,  and   without   distinction   of   creed.     The   congrega- 

[ious  work,  league,  society,  etc.     Rous  associations  tion   was   founded   in  Paris   in   1865,   by   the   Rev. 

m  distinguished,  on  the  one   hand,  from  ordinary  Etienne   Pemet,  A.A.  (b.  23  July,  1824;  d.  3  April, 

mcieties  composed  of  CatboUcs  by  having  an  expliC'  1899),  and  Marie  Antoinette  Tage,  known  in  religion 

itlridi^ouB  purpose,  by  enjoying  indulgences  and  as  Mother  Marie  de  Jfeus  (b.  7  Nov.,  1824;  d.  18  Sept., 

ulner  spiritual  benefits,  and  by  possee^ng  ecclesias-  1883).     Both  had  long  been  engaged  in  charitable 

lieal  approbation.     They  are  distinguished,  on   the  work.  Father  Pemet  while  a  proftssor  in  the  Collie 

i>ther  hand,  from  confraternities  and  sodalities.    The  of  the  Assumption  at  Ntmes,  and  Mile.  Tage  as  a 

btter  distinction  is  not  determined  bv  the  name  and  memtnr  of  the  Association  of  Our  Lady  ^  Good 

i«  not  always  apparent.     In   general,  pious  associa-  Counsel  in  Paris.    They  met  in  Paris  and  Father  Per- 

(ioiii  have  simpler  rules  than  confraternities;  they  do  net  placed  her  in  chaige  of  the  work  of  numng  the 

not  requite  canonical  erection,  and  though  the^  have  sick  poor  which  he  had  inaugurated.     Out  oi   this 

lliea|>probation  of  authority,  they  are  not  subject  to  movement   the   sisterhood  grow,   Mother   Marie   de 

u  strict  legislation  as  confraternities;  they  have  no  J^us  bein^  the  first  superior.     The  nursing  of  the 

filed  terra  of  probation  for  new  members,  no  elabo-  sick  poor  is  not  the  only  or  even  the  chief  purpose 

■teiitual,  no  special  costumes;  they  are  not  obliged  of  the  Little  Sisters.    They  endeavour  to  bring  about 

to  meet  for  common    religious    practices,  and,   as  conversions,    to    regularize    illicit    unions,    to    have 

■  rale,  they  make  the  help  of  others  more  promi-  children  baptized,  sent  to  school,  and  prepared  for 

sort  than  the  improvement  of  self.    Of  all  these  First   Communion   and  Confirmation.    They   form 

(SfeiUioeB,  only  that    of    canonical  erection    seems  socielieB  among  their  cUents  and  enlist  the  aid  of 

McntiaL    Some  authorities,  however,  declare  that  laymen  and  laywomen  of  education^  and  means  to 

netiees   ia    common    oonstitute    the    trait    which  further  the  work  of  regeneration.     The  congregation 

ntingnishea  a  confraternity  from  apious  association,  has  estatdished  houses  in  Italy,  Spain,  Belgium,  Eng- 

Soms  w^I-known  pious  assodations  are:  Society  land,   Ireland,  and   the  United   States  of  America.  ' 

<iSL  Vincent  de  Pnul;  Society  of  the  Propagation  The   papal    Brief   approving   Ihc   congregation   was 


▲88TBIA  8  ASSYRIA 

dynasty.    It  was  made  first  the  royal  residence  of  Asshur-dan   must   have   r^gned   about   the   yearE 

Sargon,  and  afterwards  became  the  rival  of  Nineveh.  1170  or  1180  b.  c.    So  also  ^nnacherib  tells  us  that 

Its  site  is  represented  by  the  modem  Khorsabad.  a  seal  of  King  Tukulti-Ninib  I  had  been  brought 

(5)  Arbailu,  or  Arbela,  famous  in  Greek  and  Persian  from  Assyria  to  Babylon,  where  after  600  years  he 

annals  for  the  decisive  victory  won  by  Alexander  the  found  it  on  his  conquest  of  that  city.    As  Sennacherib 

Great  over  the  formidable  army  of  Darius,  King  of  conquered  Babvlon  twice,  once  in  702  and  again  in 

Persia  and  Babylon   (331  b.  c).     (6)  Nasibina,  or  689  b.  c,  it  follows  that  Tukulti-Ninib  I  must  have 

Nisibis,  famous  in  the  annals  of  Nestorian  Christl-  reigned  over  Assyria  in  any  case  before  1289  b.  c, 

anity.     (7)  Harran,  weU  known  for  the  worship  of  and  possibly  a  few  years   before   1302   b.  c.    (3) 

Sin,  the  moon-god.     (8)   Ingur-Bel,  corresponding  Another  chronological  source  is  to  be  found  in  tne 

to   the   modem    Tell-Balaw4t.      (9)  Tarbis,   corre-  genealogies  of  the  kings,  which  they  give  of  them- 

sponding  to  the  modem  Sherif-Khan.    The  sites  and  selves    and    of    their    ancestors    and    predecessors, 

ruins  of  all  these  cities  have  been  explored.  (4)  Further  valuable  help  may  be  obtained  from  the 

Sources    of    Assybo-Babylonian    Histort. —  so-called  "Synchronous  History"  of  Babylonia  and 

These  may  be  ^K)uped  as:  (1)  the  Old  Testament;  Assyria,  which  consists  of  a  brief  summary  of  the 

(2)  the  Greek,  Latin,  and  Oriental  writers;  and  (3)  relations  between  the  two  countries  from  the  earliest 

the  monumental  records  and  remaind  of  the  Assyrians  times  in  regard  to  their  respective  boundary  lines, 

and  Babylonians  themselves.  The  usefulness  of  this  document  consists  mainly  in 

In  the  &^t  division  belong  the  Fourth  (in  Author-  the  fact  that  it  gives  the  list  of  many  Babylonian 

ized  Version,  Second)  Book  of  Kings,  Paralipomenon  and  Assyrian  kings  who  ruled  over  their  respective 

(Chronicles),  the  writings  of  the  prophets  Isaias,  countries  contem^raneously. 

Nahum,  Jeremias,  Jonas,  E^echiel,  and  Daniel,  as        Absyro-Babylonian   Exploration. — As  late   as 
well  as  the  laconic  but  extremely  valuable  fragments  1849,  Sir  Henry  Layard,  the  foremost  pioneer  of 
of  information  contained  in  Genesis,  x,  xi,  and  xiv.  A^yro-Babyloman  ex^orations,  in  the  preface  to 
To  the  second  group  of  sources  belong  the  Chaldeo-  his  classical  work  entitled  "Nineveh  and  Its  Re- 
Babylonian  priest  and  historian  Berosus,  who  lived  inains",  remarked  how,  previously,  with  the  excep- 
in  the  days  of  Alexander  the  Great  (356-323  B.  c.)  tion  of  a  few  cylindere  and  gems  preserved  elsewhere, 
and  continued  to  live  at  least  as  late  as  Antiochus  I,  a  caae, hardly  three  feet  square,  in  the  British  Museum, 
Soter  (280-261  b.  c).     He  wrote  in  Greek  a  ereat  enclosed  all  that  remained  not  only  of  the  great  city, 
work  on   Babylonian  history,   under   the   title   of  Nineveh,  but  of  Babylon  itself.    At  that  time  few 
"Babyloniaca  ,    or    "Chaldaica".     This    valuable  indeed  would  have  nad  the  piaeeumption  even  to 
work,  which  was  based  on  contemporary  Babylonian  imagine  that  within  fifty  years  the  exploration  of 
monuments    and    inscriptions,    has    unfortunately  Assyria  and  Babylonia  would  have  given  us  the  most 
perished,  and  only  a  few  excerpts  from  it  have  been  primitive  literature  of  the  ancient  world.    What 
preserved  in  later  Greek  and  Latin  writers.    Then  fifty  years  ago  belonged  to  the  world  of  dreams  is 
we  have  the  writings  of  Polyhistor,  Ctesias.  Herodo-  at  the  present  time  a  striking  reality;  for  we  are  now 
tus,  Abydenus,  ApoUodorus,  Alexander  of  Miletus,  in  possession  of  the  priceless  libranes  of  the  ancient 
Josephus,    Georgius    Syncellus,    Diodorus    Siculus,  As^vrians  and  Babylonians,  of  their  historical  annals, 
Eusebius,  and  others.     With  the  exception  of  Bero-  civil  and  military  records.  State  archives,  diplomatic 
sus,  the  information  derived  from  all  the  above-  correspondences,    textbooks    and   school    exercises, 
mentioned  historians  is  mostly  legendary  and  un-  grammars  and  dictionaries,  hymns,  bank   accounts 
reliable,  and  even  their  quotations  from  Berosus  and  business  transactions,  laws  and  contracts,  and 
are  to  be  used  with  caution.    This  is  especially  true  an  extensive  collection  of  geographical,  astronomical, 
in  the  case  of  Ctesias,  who  lived  at  the  Persian  court  mythological,  magical,  and  astrological  texts  and 
in  Babylonia.    To  the  third  category  belong  the  inscriptions.    These  precious  monuments  are  actually 
niunerous  contemporary  monuments  and  inscriptions  scattered  in  all  the  public  and  private  museums  and 
discovered  during  the  last  fifty  years  in  Babylonia,  art  collections  of  Europe,  America,  and  Turkey. 
Assyria,  Elam,  and  Egypt,  which  form  an  excellent  The  total  number  of  tablets,  cylinders,  and  cuneiform 
and   a  most  authoritative   collection  of  historical  inscriptions  so  far  discovered  is  approximately  est!- 
documents.  matea  at  more  than  three  hundrea  thousand,  which, 

For  the  chronolo^  of  Assyria  we  have  some  very  if  published,  would  easily  cover  400  octavo  volumes 

valuable  means  of  information.    These  are  (1)  The  of    400    pages    each.     Unfortunately,    only    about 

"Eponym   List",   which   covers   the  entire  period  one-fifth  of  all  the  inscriptions  discovered  have  been 

from  the  reign  oi  Ramman-nirari  II  (911-890  B.  c.)  published  so  far;  but  even  this  contains  more  than 

down   to    tlmt   of   Asshurbanipal    (669-625    b.  c).  eight  times  as  much  literature  as  is  contained  in  the 

The  eponyms,  or  limmUf  were  like  the  eponymous  Old   Testament.    The   British   Museum   alone    has 

archons  at  Athens  and  the  consuls  at  Rome.    They  pubtished  440  folio,  and  over  700  quarto,  pages,  and 

were  officers,  or  governors,  whose   term  of  office  about  one-half  as  much  more  has  appeared  in  varioxis 

lasted  but  one  year,  to  which  year  they  gave  their  archseological    publications.    The    British    Museum 

name;  so  that  if  any  event  was  to  be  recorded,  or  a  has  more  than  40,000  cuneiform  tablets,  the  Louvre 

contract  drawn  in  the  year,  e.  g.  763  b.  c,  the  number  more  than  10,000,  the  Imperial  Museum  of  Berlin 

of  the  year  would  not  be  mentioned,  but  instead  we  more  than  7,000,  that  of  the  University  of  Pennsyi- 

are  told  that  such  and  such  an  event  took  place  in  vania  more  than  20,000,  and  that  of  Constantinople 

the  year  of  Pur-Shagli,  who  was  the  limmUy  or  gov-  many  thousands  more,  awaiting  the  patient  toil  of 

emor,  in  that  year.     (2)  Another  source  is  found  in  our  Assyriologists.    The  period  of  time  covered  by 

the  chronological  notices  scattered  throughout  the  these  documents  is  more  surprising  than  their  num- 

historical    inscriptions,    such    as    Sennacherib's   in-  ber.    They  occur  from  prehistoric  times,  or  about 

scription  engraved  on  the  rock  at  Bavian,  in  which  5000  b.  c,  down  to   the  first  century  before   the 

he  tells  us  that  one  of  his  predecessors,  Tiglath-pileser  Christian  Era.     But  this  is  not  all,  for,  according  to 

(Douay  Version,  The^lathphalasar)   reigned  about  the  imanimous  opinion  of  all  modem  Assyriologists, 

418  years  before  him,  i.  e.  about  1107  b.  c;  or  that  by  far  the  largest  part  of  the  Assyro-Babylonian 

of  Tiglath-pileser  himself ,  who  tells  us  that  he  rebuilt  literature  and  inscriptions  are  still  buried  under  the 

the  temple  of  Anu  and  Ramman,  which  sixty  years  fertile  soil  of  these  wonderful  regions,  which  have 

previously  had  been  nulled  down  by  King  Asshur-  ever  been  the  land  of  surprises,  awaiting  further 

dan  because  it  had  fallen  into  decay  in  the  course  of  explorers   and   decipherers. 

the  641  years  since  its  foundation  by  King  Shamshi-        As  has  already  been  remarked,  the  meagre  and 

Ramman.    This     notice,     therefore,     proves     that  often  unreliable  information  concerning  Assyria  and 


A88YBIA                                  9  ASSYRIA 

Babylonia  which   has   come  down  to   us  through  tions    (especially   those   of   Pcrscpolis   and   of   the 

the  Persian,    Greek,    Latin,   and  Arabic  writers —  Behistun  rock,  not  far  from  Hamadan,  in  Persia), 

historians  and   geographers — has  contributed  little  by  Grotefend,  Heeren,  the  Abb6  Saint  Martin,  Rask, 

or  nothing  to  the  advancement  of  our  knowledge  of  Efoumouf,    Lassen,    Westergaard,    de    Saulcy,    and 

these    wonderful    coimtries.    The    early    European  Rawlinson,  all  taking  place  at  about  the  end  of  the 

travellers  in  the  region  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  opened  the  way 

valley,  such  as  Benjamin  of  Tudela   (1160),   John  for    the    decipherment    of    the    Assyro-Babylonian 

Eldred  (1583),  Anthony  Shirley  (1599),  Pietro  della  inscriptions.    The    principal    credit   unquestionably 

Valle    (1614-26),    John    Cartwright     (1610),    Gas-  belongs  to  Rawlinson,  Norris,  J.  Oppert,  Fox  Talbot, 

paro   Balbi    fl590),    John    Otter    (1734),    Niebuhr  and  especially  to  Dr.  Hinks  of   Dublin.    The  acute 

(1765),  Beauchamp,  Olivier,  Hagers,  and  others  at  and  original  researches  of  th^se  scholars  were  suc- 

the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  have  left  us  a  cessfully  carried  out  by  other  Semitic  scholars  and  lin- 

rather  vague  and  superficial  account  of  their  personal  guists  no  leis  competent,  such  as  E.  Schmder   and 

\'isits  and  impressions.     Later  travellers,  however,  Fred.  Delitzsch,  in  Germany;  M^nant,  Hal^vy.  and 

such  as  Claudius  James  Rich  (1811,  1821-22),  J.  S.  Lenormant,   i^    France;  Sayce  and    G.  Smitn,   in 

Buckmgham  (1816),  Sir  Robert  Ker  Porter  (1817-20),  England. 

CaT^tain  Robert  Mignan  (1826-28),  G.  Baillie-Fraser  The  Assyro-Babylonian  language  belongs  to  the 

(1834-35),  the  Euphrates  Expedition  imder  Colonel  so-called  Semitic  family  of  languages,  and  in  respect 

Chesney    (1835-37),    James    Felix    Jones,    Lynch,  to  grammar  and  lexicography  offers  no  more  aiffi- 

Selby,   Collingwood,    Bewsher,   and  others   of   the  culty  to   the  interpreter   than  either  Hebrew,   or 

first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  made  a  far  more  Aramaic,  or  Arabic.    It  is  more  closely  allied  to 

•searching  and  scientific  study  of  the  Mesopotamian  Hebrew  and  Aramaic  than  to  Arabic  and  the  other 

region.    But    the    real    founders   and    pioneers   of  dialects  of  the  South-Semitic  ^up.    The  principal 

Assyro-Babylonian    explorations    are    Emile    Botta  diflSculty  of  Assyrian  consists  in  its  extremely  com- 

(1842-45),    Sir    Henry    Austen    Layard    (1840-52),  plicated  lystem  of  writing.  •  For,  unlike  all  other 

Victor  Place  (1851-55),  H.  Rassam  (1850,  187^-82),'  Semitic  dialects,  Assyrian  is  written  not  alphabet- 

lioftus  (1850),  Jules  Oppert,  Fresnel  and   Thomas  ically,   but    either    syllabically  or   ideographically, 

(1851-52),    Taylor    (1851),    Sir   Henry   Rawlinson,  which  means  that  Assyrian  characters  represent  not 

G.  Smith,  and  others  who  have  not  only  opened,  but  consonants,  but  syllables,  open  or  closec^  simple  or 

paved,  the  way  for  future  researches  and  explora-  compound,  and  ideas  or  words,  such  as  hif  bar,  ilu, 

tions.    The  first  methodical  and  scientific  explora-  zikaru,  etc.     These  same  characters  may  also  have 

tions  in  Babylonia,  however,  were  inaugurated  and  both   a   syllabic   and    an    ideographic    value,    and 

most  successfully  carried  out  by  the  intrepid  French  nearly  always  more  than  one  syllaoic  value  and  as 

consul  at  Bassora  and  Bagdad,  M.  de  Sarzec,  who>  many  as  five  or  six;  so  that  a  sign  like  the  following 

from  about   1877  until   1899,   discovered  at  TelI6  may  be  read  syllabic-  ^^.  W  afly  as  ud,  ut,  u,  tu, 

some  of  the  earfiest  and  most  precious  remains  and  torn,  Wr,  par^  pir.  lai^f  ^      y    Hh^  ^is^,and  his;  and 

inscriptions  of  the  pre-Semitic  and  Semitic  dynasties  ideographically  as  ^^  f     'SinUt    ''day",'    m^, 


^                      ,  „      .              ,        _               HmUy    "day";     m^, 

of   Southern   Babylonia.     Contemporaneoushr  with  "white";  Shamash,  the    Sungod;  etc.    The    snape 

de  Sarzec  there  came  other  explorers,  such  as  Rassam,  of  these  signs  is  that  of  a  wedge,  hence  the  name 

already   mentioned    above,    who   was   to    continue  cuneiform   (from   the   Latin    cuneus,  "a    wed^e"). 

George  Smith's  excavations;    the   American  Wolf  The  wedees,    arranged  singly  or  in  groups,  either 

expedition,  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Ward,  of  New  are   called    "ideograms"   and    stand   for  complete 

York  (1884-85);  and,  above  all,  the  various  expedi-  ideas,  or  they  stand  for  syllables.     In  course  of  time 

tions  to  Nippur,  imder  Peters,  Haynes,  and  Hilprecht,  the    same   ideographic    signs    came    to    have    also 

respectively,  sent  by  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  the    phonetic    value    of    syllables,    without    losing, 

(1888-1900).    The  Turkish  Government   itself  has  however,  their  primitive  ideographic  value,  as  can 

not  altogether  stood  aloof  from  this  praiseworthy  be   seen   from   the   example    quoted   above.    This 

emulation,  sending  an  expedition  to  Abu  Habba,  naturally  caused  a  great  difficulty  and  embarrassment 

or  Sippar,  imder  the  direction  of  the  well-known  even  to  the  Assyro-Babylonians  themselves,  and  is 

Domimcan  scholar.   Father  F.  Scheil  of  Paris,  in  still  the  principal  obstacle  to  the  correct  and  final 

ISM    and    the   following  years.     Several   German,  reading  of  many  cuneiform  words  and  inscriptions. 

French,  and  American  expeditions  have  later  been  To  remedy  this  great  inconvenience,   the  Assyro- 

busily   engaeed   in   excavating  important   moimds  Babylonians    themselves    placed    other    characters 

and  ruins  in  Babylonia.    One  of  these  is  the  German  (called  determinatives)  before  many  of  these  signs 

expedition  under  Moritz  and  Koldewey,  with  the  in  order  to  determine  their  use  and  value  in  certain 

assistance  of  Dr.  Meissner,  Delitzsch,  and  others,  at  particular  cases  and  sentences.     Before  all  names 

Shurgul,     El-Hibba,     Al-Kasr,     Tell-ibrahim,     etc.  of  gods,  for  example,  either  a  sign  meaning  "divine 

The  expedition  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  under  being"  was  prefixed,  or  a  syllabic  character  (phonetic 

the  direction  of  Dr.  Banks,  at  Bismaya,  in  South  complement),  which  indicated  the  proper  phonetic 

Babylonia,  came  unfortimately  to  an  early  termi-  value  with  which  the  word  in  question  should  end, 

nation.  was  added  after  it.     In  spite  of  these  and  other 

The  Languaqb  and  CJunbiform  Writing. — All  devices,  many  signs  and  collocations  of  signs  have 

these  wonderful  archaeological  researches  and  dis-  so  many  possible  syllabic  values  as  to  render  exact- 

coveries  would  have  been  useless  and  destitute  of  ness  in  the  reading  very  difficult.    There  are  about 

interest,  had  not  the  language  of  Assyro-Babylonian  five  himdred  of  these  different  signs  used  to  represent 

inscriptions   been   deciphered   and   studied.    These  words  or  syllables.    Their  origin  is  still  a  subject  of 

ioseriptions  were  all  written  in  a  language,  and  by  disctission  among  scholars.    The  prevailing  tlicory 

means  of  characters,  which  seemed  for  a  while  to  is  that  they  were  originally  picture-signs,  representing 

defy  all  himmn  skill  and  ingenuity.    The  very  ex-  the  ideas  to  be  conveyed;  but  at  present  only  about 

istence  of  such  a  language  had  been  forgotten,  and  sixty  of  these  500  signs  can  be  with  certainty  traced 

its  writing  seemed  so  capricious  and  bewildering  back  to  their  original  picture-meanings. 

that   the   earlier  European  travellers  mistook  the  According  to  the  majority  of  Assyriologists,  the 

characters  for  fantastic   and    bizarre    ornamental  cuneiform  system  of  writing  originated  with   the 

decorations:   their   dagger-  or  arrow-headed  shape  Sumerians,  the  primitive  non-Semitic  inhabitants  of 

(from  which  their  name  of  cuneiform)  presetting  Babylonia,   from  whom  it   was   borrowed   by  the 

a  difficult  puzxle.     However,    the   discovery,    and  Semitic  Babylonians  and  Assyrians,  and  applied  to 

tentative  decipherment,  of  the  old  Persian  inscrip-  their  own  language.    In  the  same  way  the  Greeks 


ASSYRIA  10  ASSYRIA 

adopted  the  Semitic  Phoenician  alphabet,  and  the  liaving  from  six  to  ten  sides  on  which  writing  could 

Germans  adopted  the  Latin.    The  Semitic  langua^  be  inscribed.    These  tablets  were  then  dried  in  the 

of  Babylonia  and  Assjrria  was,  therefore,  written  m  sun,  or  baked  in  a  furnace — a  process  which  rendered 

Sumerian  characters,  just  as  Hebrew  can  be  written  the    writing   practically   indestructible,    unless  the 

in  English  letters,  or  Turkish  in  Armenian,  or  Arabic  tablet    itseu    was    shattered "    (G.    S.    Goodspeed, 

in  Syriac  (Karshiini).    This  same  cuneiform  system  History  of  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians,  p.  28). 
of  writing  was  afterwards  adopted  by  the  Medians,        Unlflce  all  other  Semitic  systems  of  writing  (except 

Persians,  Mltannians,  Cappadocians,  ancient  Armeni-  the  Ethiopic,  which  is  an  adaptation  of  the  Greek), 

ans,  and  others.     Hence  five  or  six  dififerent  styles  that  of  the  Assyro-Babylonians  generally  runs  from 

ol  cuneiform  writing  may  be  distinguished.    The  left  to  right  in  horizontal  lines,  although  m  some  very 

"Persian"  style,  which  is  a  direct,  but  simplified,  early  inscriptions  the  lines  run  vertically  from  top 

derivative   of   the   Babylonian,    was   introduced  in  to  bottom  like  the  Chinese.     These  two  facts  evidence 

the   times   of    the   Aclisemenians.      "Instead   of   a  the  non-Semitic  origin  of  the  cimeiform  system  of 

combination  of  as  many  as  ten  and  fifteen  wedges  to  writing. 

make  one  sign,  we  have  in  the  Persian  style  never        Value  op  Assyrioloot  for  Study  op  the  Old 
more  than  five,  and  frequently  only  three;  and  instead  Testament. — ^The    part    played    by   these   Assyro- 
oi   writing  words  by  syllables,   sounds  aJone  were  Babylonian  disco venes  in  the  exegesis  and  interpreta- 
employed,    and   the  syllabary   of   several   hundred  tion  of  the  Old  Testament  has  been  important  in 
signs  reduced  to  forty-two,   while  the  ideographic  direct    proportion    to    the    immense    ana    hitherto 
style     waa     fractionally    abolished."    The     second  unsuspected    influence    exercised    by    the    Assyro- 
style  of  cuneiform,  generally  known  as  "Median",  Babylonian  rehgion,  civilization,  and  literature  upon 
or  "Susian",  is,  again,  a  shght  modification  of  the  the  origin  and  gradusd  development  of  the  literature 
"Persian".     "Besides  these  two,   there  is  a  third  and  the  religious  and  social  institutions  of  the  anciept 
language  (spoken  in   the  north-western  district  of  Hebrews.    This  Babylonian  influence,  indeed,  can 
Mesopotamia  between  .the  Euphrates  and  the  Oron-  be  equally  traced  in  its  different  forms  and  manifesta- 
tes).  Known  as  *  Mitanni  *,  the  exact  status  of  which  tions  through  all  Western  Asia,  many  centuries  before 
has  not  been  clearly  ascertained,  but  which  has  been  that  conquest  of  Palestine  by  the  twelve  Israelitish 
adapted  to  cuneiform  characters.     A  fourth  variety,  tribes  which  put  an  end  to  the  Canaanitish  dominion 
found  on  tablets  from  Cappadocia,  represents  agam  and     supremacy.    The     triumph     of     Assyriology, 
a  modification  of  the  ordinary  writing  met  with  in  ccnsequently,  must  be  regarded  as  a  triumph  for 
Babylonia.     In    the    inscriptions    of    Mitanni,    the  Biblical  exegesis  and  criticism,  not  in  the  sense  that 
writing  is  a  mixture  of  ideographs  and  ^Uables,  just  it  has  strikingly   confirmed   the   strict   veracity  of 
as  in  Mesopotamia,  while  the  so-called  'Cappadocian'  the  Biblical  narratives,  or  that  it  has  demonstrated 
tablets  are  written  in  a  corrupt  Babyloman,  corres-  the  fallacies  of  the  "higher  criticism",  as  Sayce, 
ponding  in  degree  to  the  'corrupt'  forms  that  the  Hommel,  and  others  have  contended,  but  in  the  sense 
signs  take  on.    In  Mesopotamia  itself  quite  a  number  that  it  has  opened  a  new  and  certain  path  whereby 
of  signs  exist,  some  due  to  local  influences,  others  we  can  study  the  writings  of  the  Old  Testament  with 
the  result  of  changes  that  took  place  in  the  course  of  their  correct  historical  background,  and  trace  them 
time.     In  the  oldest  period  Imown,  that  is,  from  through  their  successive  evolutions  and  transforma- 
4000  to  3000  B,  c,  the  writing  is  linear  rather  than  tions.    Assyriology,  in  fact,  has  given  us  such  ex- 
wedge-shaped.    The  linear  writing  is  the  modifica-  cellent   and   unexpected    results   as   to    completely 
tion  that  the  original  pictures  underwent  in  being  revolutionize   our   former   exegetical   methods   and 
adapted  for  engraving  on  stone;  the  wedges  are  the  conclusions.    The  study,  it  is  true,  has  been  often 
modification  natural  to  the  use  of  clay,  though  when  abused  by  ultra-radical  and  enthusiastic  Ass3rriologists 
once  the  wedges  became  the  st^mdard  method,  the  and  critics.    These  have  sought  to  build  up  ground- 
greater  frequency  with  which  clay,  as  against  stone,  less  theories  and   illogical   conclusions;   they   have 
came  to  be  usea  led  to  an  imitation  of  the  wedges  forced  the  texts  to  say  what  they  do  not  say,  and  to 
by  those  who  cut  out  the  characters  on  stone,    in  support  conclusions  which  they  do  not  support;  but 
consequence,  there  developed  two  varieties  of  wedge-  such  an  abuse,  which  is  due  to  a  perfectly  natural 
writing:  the  one  that  may  be  termed  lapidary,  uSd  enthusiasm  and  scientific  ardour,  can  never  vitiate 
for    the    stone    inscriptions,    the    official    historical  the   permanent   value   of    sober   Assyriological  re- 
records,  and  such  legal  documents  as  were  prepared  searches,  which  have  demonstrably  provided  sources 
with  especial  care;  the  other  cursive,  occumng  only  of  the  first  importance  for  the  study  of  the  Old 
on  legal  and  commercial  clay  tablets,  and  becoming  Testament.    These  few  abuses  can  be  discerned  and 
more  frequent  as  we  approach  the  latest  period  of  in  due  time  corrected  by  a  more  temperate  and 
Babylonian  writing,  which  extends  to  within  a  few  judicious  criticism.     If  the  value  of  As^riology  in 
decades  of  our  era.     In  Assyria,  finally,  a  special  its  bearing  upon  the  Old  Testament  has  been  too 
variety  of  cuneiform  developed  that  is  easily  dis-  often    exaggerated,    the    exaggeration    is    at    least 
tinguished  from  the  Babyloman  by  its  ^ater  neat-  partly    excusable,    considering    the    comparatively 
ness  and  the  more  vertical  position  of  its  wedges"  recent  date  of  these  researches  and  their  startling 
(Jastrow,  The  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Aa^ria,  results  in  the  way  of  discovery.     On  the  other  hand, 
Boston,  1898,  p.  20).  that  school  of  critics  and  theologians  which  disre- 
The  material  on  which  the  Assyro-Babylonians  gards  the  genuine  merits  and  the  great  value  of 
wrote  their  inscriptions  was  sometimes  stone  or  metal,  Assyriological  researches  for  the  interpretation  of 
but  usually  clay  of  a  fine  quality  most  abundant  in  the  Old  Testament  is  open  to  the  double  charge  of 
Babylonia,  whence  the  use  spread  all  over  Western  unfairness  and  ignorance. 

Asia.    "The    clay    was    venr    carefully    prepared.        History  of  Assyria  to  the  Fall  of  Nineveh 

sometimes  grouncf  to  an  exceeding  fineness,  moistened,  (Ninive. — c.    2000-606    b.  c.) — ^The   origin   of   the 

and  moulded  into  various  forms,  ordinarily  into  a  Assyrian    nation    is    involved    in    great   obscurity, 

tablet  whose  average  size  is  about  six  by  two  and  According  to   the  author  of  the  tenth  chapter  of 

one-half  inches  in  superficial  area  by  one  inch  in  Genesis,  the  Assyrians  are  the  descendants  of  Assur 

thickness,  its  sides  curving  slightly  outwards.    On  the  rAsshur)  one  of  tne  sons  of  Sem  (Shem — Gen.,  x,  22). 

surface  thus  prepared,  and  while  still  soft,  the  char-  According  to  Gen.,  x,  11,  "Out  of  that  land  [Sennaar] 

acters  were  impressed  with  a  stylus,  the  writing  often  came  forth  Assur,  and  built  Ninive,  and  the  streets 

standing  in  columns,  and  carried  over  upon  the  back  of  tjie  city,  and  Chale.    Resen  also  between  Ninive 

and  sides  of  the  tablet.    The  clay  was  quite  frequently  and  Chale",  where  the  Authorized  Version  reads: 

moulded  also  into  cones  and  barrel-shaped  cylinders,  "  builded  Nineveh,  and  the  city  of  Rehoboth^  and 


A88TKIA                                  11  ASSYRIA 

Gdah,  and  Resen  between  Nineveh  and  Oalah".  between  Assyria  and  Babylonia  continued  friendly, 

Till  quite  recently  the  most  commonly  accepted  but  towards  the  end  of  that  reign  the  first  open 

inteiTOetation  of  this  x)assage  was  that  Assur  left  conflict  between  the  two  sister-countries  broke  out. 

Bat^onia,   where   Nemfod    (Ninutxl)    the   terrible  The  cause  of  the  conflict  was  as  follows:  Asshur- 

was  reigning,  and  settled  in  Assyria,  where  he  built  uballit,  in  siffn  of  friendship,  had  given  his  daughter, 

the  cities  of  Nineveh,  Rehoboth,  Chale  (Calah),  and  Muballitat-sherua,  for  wife  to  the  King  of  Babylonia. 

Resen.    Nowadays,    however,    .this    interpretatfon.  The  son   bom  of   this  ^coysX    union,   Kadashman- 

which  is  jnainly  based  on  the  Vulgate  version,  is  Charbe  by  name,  succeeded  his  father  on  the  throne, 

abandoned  in  favour  of  the  more  probable  one,  accord-  but  was  soon  ^ain  by  a  certain  Nazi-bugash  (or 

ing  to  which  Nemrod  himself ,  the  beginning  of  whose  Suzigash),   the   head   of   the    discontented   Kassite 

kingdom   was    Babylon    (Babel),    Arach    (Erech),  party,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  his  stead.    To 

AchaA  (Accad),  and  Chalanne  (Oalneh),  in  Southern  avenge  the  death  of  his  grandson   the  aged  and 

Babylonia  (Gen.,  x,  10),  went  up  to  Assyria  (Assur  valiant  monarch,  Asshur-uballit,  invaded  Babylonia, 

in  this  case  being  a  geographical  name,  i.  e.  Assyria,  slew  Nazi-bugash,  and  set  the  son  of  Kadashman- 

and  not  ethnographical  or  personal),  and  there  he  Charbe,  who  was  still  venr  young,  on  the  throne  of 

built  the  four  above-mentioned   cities  and  founded  Babylonia,  as  Kurigalzu  II.     However,  towards  the 

the  Assyrian    colony.     Whichever    of    these    two  latt^  part  of  his  reign  (c.  1380  B.C.),  Kurigalzu  II 

interpretations  be  held  as  correct,  one  thing  is  certain:  became  hostile  to  Assvria;  in  consequence  of  which, 

that  the  Assyrians  are  not  only  Semites,  but  in  all  Belnirari,  Asshur-ubaUit's  successor  on  the  throne 

probability  an  offshoot  of  the  Semitic  Babylonians,  of  Assyria,  made  war  against  him  and  defeated  him 

or  a  Babylonian  colony;  although,  on  account  of  at  the  city  of  Sugagu,  annexing  the  northern  part 

th^  apparently   purer   Semitic   blood,   they  have  of  Babylonia  to  Asi^rria.     Belmrari  was  succeeded 

been  locked  upon  by  some  scholars  as  an  independent  by  his  son,  Pudi-ilu  (c.  1360  b.  c.)^  who  undertook 

Semitic  offshoot,  which,  at  the  time  of  the  great  several  successfiil  military  expeditions  to  the  east 

Semitic    migration     from    Arabia     (c.     3000-2500  and  south-east  of  Assyria  and  built  various  temples, 

B.  c),  migrated  and  settled  in  Assyria.    The  first  and  of  whom  we  possess  few,  but  important,  inscrip- 

Assyrian  nilers  known  to  us  bore  the  title  of  Ishshaku  tions.     His  successor  was  Ramman-nirari,  who  not 

(probably    "priest-prince**,    or    "governor*')    and  only  strengthened   the  newly-conquer^  territories 

were  certainly  subject  to  some  outside  power,  pre-  of  his  two  predecessors,  but  also  made  war  and 

tmmably  that  of  Babylonia.     Some  of  the  earuest  defeated  Nazi-Maruttash,  King  of  Babylonia,  the 

of  these  Ishshaki  known  to  us  are  Ishmi-Dagan  and  successor  of   Kurigalzu  II,  adding  a  considerable 

his  son  Shamshi-Adad   I    (or    Shamshi-Ramman).  Babylonian  territory  to  the  newly  arisen,  but  power- 

The  exact  date  of  these  two  princes  is  uncertain,  fuL   Assyrian   Empire. 

althoogh  we  may  with  reasonable  certainty  place  Towards  the  ena  of  the  fourteenth  century  b.  c. 
them  about  1840-1800  b.  c.  Other  Ishshaki  are  (about  1330-20  b.  c.)  Ramman-nirari  was  succeeded 
Ig^ur-Kapkanu,  Shanishi-Adad  II,  Khallu,  and  by  his  son  Shalmaneser  I.  During,  or  about  the 
Irishum.  The  two  cities  of  Nineveh  and  Assur  were  time  of  this  ruler,  the  once  powerful  Egyptian  su- 
certainly  in  existence  at  the  time  of  Hammurabi  premacy  over  Syria  and  Mesopotamia,  thanks  to  the 
(e.  2250  b.  c),  for  in  one  of  his  letters  he  makes  brilliant  militanr  raids  and  resistance  of  the  Hittites, 
mraition  of  them.  It  is  significant,  however,  that  a  powerful  horde  of  tribes  in  Northern  Syria  and  Asia 
in  the  long  inscription  (300  lines)  of  Agumkakrime,  Mmor,  was  successfully  withstood  and  confined  to 
one  of  the  Kassite  rulers  of  Babylonia  (c.  1650  b.  c),  the  Nile  Valley.  With  the  Egyptian  pressure  thus 
in  which  he  enumerates  the  various  countries  over  removed  from  Mesopotamia,  and  the  accession  of 
which  his  rule  extended,  no  mention  is  made  of  Shalmaneser  I,  an  ambitious  and  energetic  monarch, 
Assyria.  Hence,  it  is  probable  that  the  beginning  to  the  throne  of  Assyria,  the  Assyrian  Empire  began 
of  an  independent  Assyrian  kingdom  may  be  placed  to  extend  its  power  westwards.  Following  the 
towards  the  seventeenth  century  b.  c.  According  course  of  the  Tigris,  Shalmaneser  I  marched  north- 
to  an  inscription  of  King  Esarhaddon  (681-668  b.  c),  wards  and  subjugated  manv  northern  tribes;  then, 
the  first  Assyrian  Ishshaku  to  assume  the  title  turning  westwards,  invaded,  part  of  north-eastern 
(d  King  was  a  certain  Bel-bani,  an  inscription  of  Syria  and  conquered  the  Arami.  or  Aramaeans,  of 
whom,  written  in  archaic  Babylonian,  was  found  by  Western  Mesopotamia.  From  there  he  marched 
Father  ScheiL  His  date,  however,  cannot  be  deter-  against  the  land  of  Mu^,  in  Northern  Arabia,  adding 
minecL  a  considerable  territory  to  his  empire.  For  strat^ic 
Towards  the  fifteenth  century  b.  c.  we  find  Egyp-  reasons  he  transferred  the  seat  oi  his  kingdom  from 
tian  supremacy  extended  over  Svria  and  the  Mesopo-  the  city  of  Asshur  to  that  of  Kalkhi  (the  Chale,  or 
tamian  valley:  and  in  one  of  the  royal  inscriptions  Cfdah,  of  Genesis^  forty  miles  to  the  north,  on  the 
of  Tfaothmes  III  of  E^ypt  (1480-27  b.  c),  we  find  eastern  bank  of  tne  Tigris,  and  eighteen  miles  south 
Aflyria  among  his  tributary  nations.  From  the  of  Nineveh.  Shalmaneser  I  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
r<M-Aniama  letters  also  we  know  that  diplomatic  Tukulti-Ninib  (c.  1290  b.  c).  whose  records  and 
oefotiatioiis    and    correspondences    were    frequent  inscriptions  have  been  collected  and  edited  by  L.  W. 

^     *   "             '      ^'    '     •             •  ■""         '  '^      ^...1    *'        oa.     He  was  a  valiant 

he  not  only  preserved 

period  we  find  the  integrity  of  the  empire  but  also  extended  it 

ain  the   Kings  of  Assyria  standing  on  an  equal  towards   the   north   and   north-west.     He   invaded 

fooling  with  those  of  Babylonia,  and  successfully  and  conquered  Babylonia,  where  he  established  the 

eooiestiiig  with  the  latter  for  the  boundarv-lines  of  seat  of  his  government  for  fully  seven  years,  during 

theff  kingdom.    About  1450  b.  c.  Asshur-bel-nishe-  which  he  b^me  obnoxious  to  the  Babylonians,  who 

aaa  was  King  of  Assyria.    He  settled  the  boundary-  plotted  and   rebelled  against   him,   proclaiming   a 

Cm  of  his  kingdom  with  his  contemporary  Kara-  certain  Ramman-shur-usur  king  in  his  stead.    The 

mdaihy  Ejuog  of  Babylonia.    The  same  treaty  was  Assyrians   themselves   also   became   dissatisfied  on 

""MiH**^    again    between    his    successor,    ruzur-  account  of  his  long  absence  from  Ass^a.  and  he 

Aflinir,    mud    Bumaburiash   I,   King   of   Babylon,  was  slain  b^  his  own  nobles,  who  proclaimed  his  son, 

^Bnr-AflBliur  was  succeeded  by  Asshur-nadin-A^e,  Asshur-n&§ir^pal,  kin^  in  his  stead.    After  the  death 

1A0  ii  mentioned  by  his  successor,  Asshur-uballit.  of  this  prince,  two  kings,  Asshur-narrara  and  Nabu- 

ia  ooe  oi  hia  letters  to  Amenhotep  IV,  King  of  dayan  oy  name,  reigned  over  Assyria,  of  whom 

tfiptf  9B  his  father  and  predecessor.     During  most  however,    we   know   nothing.    Towards    1210-1200 

«  tte  long   reign  of  Asshur-uballit,  the  rdations  b.  c.   we   find   Bel-Kudur-usur   and   his  successor, 


A887UA  12  ASSYRIA 

Ninib-pal-Eshara,    reigning    over    Assyria.    These,  who,  in  890,  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Tukulti- 

however,  were  attacked  and  defeated  by  the  Baby-  Ninib  II.    llie  last  two  monarchs  ap])ear  to  have 

lonians,  who  thus  regained  possession  of  a  consider-  undertaken   several   successful   expeoitions   acainst 

able  part  of  their  former  territory.    The  next  As-  Babylonia  and  the  regions  north  of  Assyria.     Tukulti- 

syrian  monarch  was  Asshur-dan,  Ninib-pal-Eshara's  Ninib's    successor    was    his    son    Asshur-nasir-ped 

son.    He  avenged  his  father's  defeat  by  invading  (8^5-860  b.  c),  with  whose  accession  to  the  throne 

Babylonia  and  capturing  the  cities  of  Zaban,  Irria,  began  a  long  career  of  victory  that  placed  Assyria  at 

and  Akarsallu.     In  1150  b.  c,  Asshur-dan  was  sue-  the  head  of  the  great  powers  of  that  age.    He  was  a 

ceeded  by  his  son,  Mutakkil-Nusku;  and  in  1140  great    conqueror,    soldier,    or^^nizer,    hunter,    and 

B.  c,  by  the  latter's  son  Asshur-resh-ishl,  who  sub-  builder,  but  fierce  and  cruel.    In  his. eleven  military 

jugated  the  peoples  of  Ahlami,  Lullumi,  Kuti  (or  campaigns   he  invaded,    subdued,   and   conquered, 

Guti),    and   other   coimtries,    and   administered    a  after  a  series  of  devastations  and  raids,  all  the  regions 

crushing   defeat    to    his    rival   and   contemporary,  north,  south,  east,  and  west  of  Assyria,  from  the 

Nabuchodonosor     (Nebuchadnezzar)     I,    King    of  mountains  of  Armenia  down  to  Babylon,  and  from 

Babylonia.  ^    ^  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan  and  Lake  Urmi  (Urum- 

About  1120-10  B.  c.  Asshur-resh-Hshi  was  succeeded  yah)  to  the  Mediterranean.  He  crossed  the  £u- 
by  his  son,  Tiglath-pileser  I,  one  of  the  greatest  phrates  and  the  Orontes,  penetrated  into  the  Lebanon 
Assyrian  monarchs,  under  whose  reign  of  only  ten  re^on,  attacked  Karkemish,  the  capital  of  the 
years  duration  Assyria  rose  to  the  apex  of  its  military  Hittites,  invaded  Syria,  and  compelled  the  cities  of 
success  and  gloiy.  He  has  left  us  a  very  detailed  the  Mediterranean  coast  (such  as  Tyre,  Sidon, 
and  circumstantisd  account  of  his  military  achieve-  Byblos,  and  Armad)  to  pay  tribute.  But  the  chief 
ments,  written  on  four  octagonal  cylinders  which  he  interest  in  the  hbtory  of  Asshur-nasiivpal  lies  in  the 
placed  at  the  four  comers  of  the  temple  built  by  him  fact  that  it  was  in  his  reign  that  Assyria  first  came 
to  the  god  Ramman.  According  to  these,  he  under-  into  touch  with  Israel.  In  his  expedition  against 
took,  in  the  first  five  years  of  his  rei^n,  several  sue-  Karkemish  and  Syria,  which  took  place  in  878  b.  c, 
cessful  military  expeditions  against  Mushku,  against  he  undoubtedly  exacted  tribute  from  Amri  (Omri), 
the  Shubari,  against  the  Hittites,  and  into  the  moun-  Kinjj^  of  Israel;  although  the  latter's  name  is  not 
tains  of  Zagros,  against  the  people  of  Nairi  and  their  exphcitly  mentioned  in  this  sense,  either  in  Asshur- 
twenty-three  kings,  who  were  chased  by  him  as  far  nasir-pal's  inscriptions,  or  in  the  Old  Testament, 
north  as  Lake  Van  in  Armenia;  against  the  people  of  The  fact,  however,  seems  certain,  for  in  the  Assyrian 
Musri  in  Northern  Arabia,  and  against  the  Ara-  inscriptions  from  about  this  time  down  to  the  time 
mseans,  or  Syrians.  "In  all",  he  tells  us,  "forty-^  of  Sargon — ^nearly  150  years — the  land  of  Israel  is 
two  countries  and  their  kings,  from  beyond  the  Lower  frequently  mentioned  as  the  "land  of  Omri";  and 
Zab,  from  the  border  of  the  distant  mountains  as  Jehu,  a  later  King  of  Israel,  but  not  of  the  dynasty  of 
far  as  the  farther  side  of  the  Euphrates,  up  to  the  Amri,  is  also  called  the  "son  of  Omri".  This  seems 
land  of  Hatti  [Hittites]  and  as  far  as  the  uppjer  sea  to  show  that  the  land  of  Israel  was  known  to  the  As- 
of  the  setting  sun  [i.  e.  Lake  Van],  from  the  beginning  Syrians  as  the  land  of  that  king  who  happened  to  be 
of  my  sovereignty  until  my  fifth  year,  has  my  hand  reigning  when  they  were  first  T)rought  into  political 
conquered,  i  carried  away  their  possessions,  burned  relations  with  it,  and  we  know  that  this  kinf  was 
their  cities  with  fire,  demanded  from  their  hostages  Amri^  for  in  878,  the  year  of  Asshur-nasir-pars  ex- 
tribute  and  contributions,  and  laid  on  them  the  heavy  pedition  to  Syria,  he  had  been  king  over  Israel  for 
yoke    of    my    rule."    He    crossed    the    Euphrates  some  nine  years.         ^ 

several  times,  and  even  reached  the  Mediterranean,        Asshur-nasir-pal  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Shal- 

upon  the  waters  of  which  he  embarked.    He  also  maneser  II,  who  in  the  sixth  year  of  his  reign  (854 

invaded  Babylonia,  inflicting  a  heavy  blow  on  the  b.  c.)  made  an  expedition  to  the  West  with  the  object 

Babylonian  king,  Marduk-nadin-a^e  and  his  army,  of  subduing  Damascus.     In  this  memorable  cam- 

and   capturing   several    important   cities,   such   as  paign  he  came  into  direct  touch  with  Israel  and  their 

Dur-Kuri^alzu,    Sippar,    Babylon,    and    Opis.     He  king  Achab  (Ahab),  who  happened  to  be  one  of  the 

pushed  his  triumpnal  march  even  as  far  as  Elam.  allies  of  Benhadad,  King  of  Damascus.     In  describing 

Tiglath-pileser  I  was  also  a  daring  hunter,  for  in  one  this  expedition  the  Assyrian  monarch  goes  on  to 

of  nis  campaigns,  he  tells  us,  he  filled  no  fewer  than  say  that  he  approached   Karkar,  a  town  to   the 

one  hundred  and  twenty  lions  on  foot,  and  eight  south-west  of  Karkemish,  and  the  royal  resid^ce  of 

hundred  with  spears  while  in  his  chariot,  caught  Irhulini. — "I  desolated  and  destroyed,  I  burnt  it: 

four  elephants  alive,  and  killed  ten  in  his  chariot.  1  200  chariots,  1,200  horsemen,  20.000  men  of  Bir- 

He  kept  at  the  city  of  Asshur  a  paric  of  animals  idri  of  Damascus;  700  chariots,  vOO  norsemen,  10,000 

suitaUe  for  the  chase.     At  Nineveh  he  had  a  botanical  men  of  Irhulini  of  Hamath;  2,000  chariots,  10,000 

garden,  in  which  he  planted  specimens  of  foreign  men  of  Ahab  of  Israel  .  .  .  these  twelve  Icin^  he 

trees  gathered  during  his  campaigns.     He  built  also  [i.  e.  Irhulini]  took  to  his  assistance.    To  offer  battle 

many  temples,  palaces,  and  canals.    It  may  be  of  they  marched  against  me.    With  the  noble  might 

interest  to  add  that  his  reign  coincides  with  that  of  which  Asshur,  the  Lord,  granted,  with  the  powerful 

Heli  (Eli),  one  of  the  ten  judges  who  ruled  over  weapons  which  Nergal,  wlio  walks  before  me,  gave, 

Israel  prior  to  the  establishment  of  the  monarchy.  I  fought  with  them,  from  Karkar  into  Gilzan  I  smote 

At  the  time  of  Tiriath-pileser's  death,  Assyria  was  them.    Of  their  soldiers  I  slew  14,000." — The  Old 

enjoying  a  period  of  tranquillity,  which  did  not  last.  Testament  is  silent  on  the  presence  of  Achab  in  the 

however,  very  lon^;  for  we  find  his  two  sons  ana  battle  of  Karkar.  which  tooK  place  in  the  same  year 

successors,  Asshur-bel-Kala  and  Shamshi-Ramman,  in  which  Achab  aied  fighting  in  the  battle  of  Ramoth 

seeking  offensive  and  defensive  alliances  with  the  Galaad  (lU  Kin^s,  xxii). 
Kings  of  Babylonia.  E^ven  years  sater  this  event  Jehu  was  prodaimed 

From  about  1070  to  950  B.  c,  a  ^p  of  more  than  king  over  Israel,  and  one  of  his  first  acts  was  to  pay 
one  hundred  years  presents  itself  m  the  histoiy  of  tribute  to  Shalmaneser  II.  This  incident  is  coin- 
Assyria.  But  from  950  b.  c.  down  to  the  fall  of  memorated  in  the  latter's  well-known  "black  obe- 
Nineveh  and  the  overthrow  of  the  Assyrian  Empire  lisk*',  in  the  British  Museum,  in  which  Jehu  himself, 
(606  B.  c.)  the  history  of  Assyria  is  very  completely  "the  son  of  Omri",  is  sculptured  as  paying  tribute  to 
represented  in  documents.  Towards  950  b.  c,  the  king.  In  another  inscription  the  same  king 
Tiglath-pQeser  11  was  kinjg  over  Assyria.  In  990  records  the  same  fact,  sayinff:  "At  that  time  I  re^ 
b.  c.  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Asshur-dan  II,  and  ceived  the  tribute  of  the  lyrians,  Sidonians,  and 
about  910  B.  c.  by  the  latter 's  son,  Ramman-nirari  II,  Jehu  the  son  of  Omri.^'    This  act  of  homage  tcK>k 


A88TBU                                  13  A887UA 

plaee  in  842  b.  c,  ^  the  eighteenth  year  of  fflial-  Israel  also  was  overrun  by  the  Assyrian  monarch, 
maneser's  reign.  the  country  reduced  to  the  condition  of  a  desert. 
After  Shalmaneser  II  came  his  son  Shamshi-Ram-  and  the  trans-Jordanic  tribes  carried  into  captivity, 
man  II  (824  b.  c),  who,  in  order  to  quell  the  re-  At  the  same  time  the  Philistines,  the  Edomitee,  the 
beUion  caused  by  his  elder  son,  Asshur-danin-pai.  Arabians,  and  many  other  tribes  were  subdued* 
undertook  four  campaigns.  He  also  fou(tht  and  and  after  the  fall  of  Damascus,  Tiglath-pileser  held 
defeated  the  Babylonian  KinjE,  Marduk-balatsu*  a  durbar  which  was  attended  by  many  princes, 
iqbi,  and  his  powenul  army.  Snamshi-Ramman  II  ^  amongst  whom  was  Achaz  himsen.  His  next  ex- 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Ramman-nirari  III  ^812  piedition  to  Palestine  was  in  734,  the  objective  this 
B.  c).  This  king  undertook  several  expeditions  time  being  Gtkza,  an  important  town  on  the  searcoast. 
agunst  Media,  Armenia,  ihe  land  of  Nairi,  and  the  Achaz  hastened  to  make,  or,  rather,  to  renew,  his 
r^on  around  Lake  Urmi,  and  subjugated  all  the  submission  to  the  Aceyrian  monarch;  as  we  find  his 
oofisUands  of  the  West,  including  Tyre,  Sidon,  Edom,  name  mentioned  Bmdn  with  several  other  tributary 
PfajUstia^  and  the  "land  of  Omn",  i.  e.  Israel.  The  kings  on  one  o{  Tiglath-pileser's  inscriptions.  In 
chief  object  of  this  expedition  was  asain  to  subdue  733  the  Assyrian  monarch  carried  off  the  population 
Damascus,  which  he  did  by  compelling  Mari',  its  from  large  portions  of  the  Kingdom  of  Israel,  sparing, 
king,  to  pay  a  heavy  tribute  in  silver,  gold,  copper,  however,  the  capiteJ,  Samaria.  Tiglath-pileser  was 
and  iron,  besides  quantities  of  cloth  and  furmture.  the  first  Assyrian  king  to  come  into  contact  with  the 
Joachaz  f  Jehoahaz)  was  then  king  over  Israel,  and  he  Kingdom  of  Juda,  and  also  the  first  Assyrian  mon- 
welcomed  with  open  arms  Ramman-nirari's  advance,  arch  to  begin  on  a  large  scale  the  system  of  trans- 
inasmuch  as  this  monarch's  conquest  of  Damascus  planting  peoples  from  one  country  to  another,  with 
relieved  Israel  from  the  heavy  yoke  of  the  Syrians,  the  object  of  ^  Inreakine  down  their  national  spirit, 
Ramman-nirari  III  also  claimed  sovereignty  over  unity,  and  indepencfence.  According  to  many 
Babylonia.  His  nstme  is  often  given  as  that  of  scholars,  it  was  during  Ticlath-pileser^  reign  that 
Adad-nirari,  and  he  reigned  from  812  to  783  b.  c.  Jonas  (Jonah)  preached  in  Nineveh,  although  others 
In  one  of  his  inscriptions,  which  are  unfortunatdiy  prefer  to  locate  the  date  of  this  Hebrew  prophet  a 
scarce  and  laconic^  he  mentions  the  name  of  his  wife,  centiuy  later,  i.  e.  in  the  reign  of  Asshurbanipal 
Sammuramat,  which  is  the  only  Assyrian  or  Baby^  (see  blelow). 

Ionian  name  discovered  so  far  naving  any  phonetic  T^Lath-pileser  III  was  succeeded  by  his  son  (?), 
resemblance  to  that  of  the  famous  l^endary  queen,  Shalmaneser  IV,  who  reigned  but  five  years  (727- 
Semiramis.  The  personal  identity  of  the  two  722  b.  c).  No  historical  inscriptions  relating  to  this 
queens,  however,  is  not  admissible.  Ramman-ni-  king  have  as  yet  been  founa.  Nevertheless,  the 
rari  HI  waa  succeeded  by  Shalmaneser  III  (783-  ''Babylonian  Chronicle**  (which  gives  a  list  of  the 
773  B.  c),  and  the  latter  by  Asshurdan  III  (773-755  principal  events  occurring  in  Babylonia  and  AasyrJA 
B.  c),  who  in  turn  was  followed  by  Asshmniirari  II  between  744  and  688  b.  c.)  has  the  following  state- 
(755-746  B.  c).  Of  these  three  kings  we  know  little,  ment:  "On  the  25th  of  Thebet  [December-January] 
as  no  adequate  inscriptions  of  their  reigns  have  come  Sludmaneser  [in  D.  V.  Salmanasar]  ascended  the 
down  to  us.  throne  of  Asenrria,  and  the  city  of  Shamara'in  [Sa- 
in the  year  745  b.  g.  Tiglath-pileser  III  (in  the  maria]  was  destroyed.  In  the  fifth  year  of  his 
Douay  Version,  Theglathphalasar)  seised  the  throne  reign  he  died  in  the  month  of  Thebet. "  The  Ass3rrian 
of  Assyria,  at  Nineveh.  He  is  said  to  have  begun  life  "Eponym  Canon"  (see  above)  also  informs  us  that 
as  a  gardener,  to  have  distinguished  himself  as  a  the  first  two  years  of  Shalmaneser's  rei^  passed 
soldier,  and  to  have  been  elevated  to  the  throne  by  without  an  expedition,  but  in  the  remaining  three 
the  army.  He  was  a  most  capable  monarch,  enter-  his  armies  were  engaged.  In  what  direction  the 
prising,  eneigetic,  wise,  and  daring.  His  military  armies  of  Shalmaneser  (Salmanasar)  were  engaged, 
ability  savea  the  Assyrian  Empire  from  the  utter  the  "Canon"  does  not  say,  but  the  "Babylonian 
rain  and  decay  which  had  begun  to  threaten  its  Chronicle"  (quoted  above)  and  the  Old  Testament 
extBtence,  and  for  this  he  is  fitly  spoken  of  as  the  (IV  Kings,  xviii)  explicitly  point  to  Palestine,  and 
founder  of  the  Second  Assyrian  Empire.  Tij^h-  particularly  to  Samaria,  the  capital  of  the  Israelitish 
pileser's  methods  differed  from  those  of  his  prede-  Kingdom.  In  the  second  or  third  year  of  Shal- 
ceasors,  who  had  been  mere  raiders  and  plimderers.  maneser'srei{^,08ee(Hoshea)KiiU(  of  Israel,  together 
He  organized  the  empire  and  divided  it  into  prov-  with  the  King  of  Tyre,  rebelled  against  A^yria; 
inces,  each  of  which  had  to  pay  a  fixed  tribute  to  and  in  order  to  crush  the  rebellion  the  Assyrian  mon- 
Uie  exchequer.  He  was  thus  ame  to  extend  Aaeyn&n  arch  marched  against  both  kings  and  laid  siege  to 
swptea^ucy  over  almoet  all  of  Western  Asia,  from  their  capitals.  The  Biblical  account  (Douay  Version, 
Arai^iia  to  Egypt,  and  from  Persia  to  the  Mediter-  IV  Kings,  xvii,  3  sqq.)  of  this  expedition  is  as  follows: 
ranean.  During  his  reign  Assyria  came  into  doee  "Against  him  came  up  Salmanasar  king  of  the 
contact  with  the  Hebrews,  as  is  shown  by  his  own  As^rians,  and  Osee  became  his  servant,  and  paid 
inscriptions,  as  well  as  by  the  Old  Testament  records,  him  tribute.  And  when  the  king  of  the  Assynans 
wbere  he  is  mentioned  under  the  name  of  Phul  (Pul).  found  that  Osee  endeavouring  to  rebel  had,  sent 
In  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  his  name  occurs  only  as  messengers  to  Sua  the  king  of  Effypt,  that  he  might 
that  of  Ti^uith-jpileser,  but  in  the"^stof  Babylonian  not  pay  tribute  to  the  king  of  the  Assyrians,  as  he 
^ngs"  he  is  also  called  Pul,  which  settles  his  iden-  had  done  every  year,  he  Msieced  him,  bound  him, 
tity  with  the  Phul,  or  Pul,  of  the  Bible.  He  reigned  and  cast  him  into  prison.  Ana  he  went  through  all 
for  eij^teen  years  (745-727  b.  c).  In  his  annals  he  the  land:  and  going  up  to  Samaria,  he  besieged  it 
mentions  the  payment  of  tribute  by  several  kings,  three  years.  And  in  the  ninth  year  of  Osee,  the  king 
amongst  whom  is  "Menahem  of  Samaria",  a  fact  of  the  Assyrians  took  Samaria,  and  carried  Israel  away 
ooofiraied  by  IV  Kings,  xv,  19,  20.  During  his  to  Assyria;  and  he  plaoed  them  in  Hala  and  Habor 
wign,  Achaz  was  King  of  Juda.  This  prince,  havinff  by  the  river  of  Gozan,  in  the  cities  of  the  Medes." — 
been  hard  pressed  and  harassed  by  Rasin  (Rezin)  See  also  the  parallel  account  in  IV  Kings,  xviii,  9-11, 
Q^Dimascus,  and  Phacee  rPekah)  of  Israel,  en-  which  is  one  and  the  same  as  that  here  given.  The 
tarted  protection  from  Tiglath-pileser  (Theglath-  two  Biblical  accounts,  however,  leave  undecided  the 
pbalasar),  who,  nothing  loath,  marched  westward  and  question,  whether  ^lalmaneser  himself  or  his  sue- 
attad^ed  Rasin,  whom  be  overthrew  and  shut  up  in  cesser  conc(uered  Samaria;  while,  from  the  Assyrian  in- 
Dsnuseus.  Two  years  later,  the  city  siurrendered.  scriptions,  it  appears  that  Shalmaneser  died,  or  was 
Rsflia  was  slain,  and  the  inhabitants  were  carried  murdered,  before  he  could  personally  carry  his  vie* 
9»iy  oapdves  (tV  Kin^,  xvi,  7,  8,  9).    Meanwhile  toiy  to  an  end.    He  was  succeeded  b^  Sargon  II. 


ASSTBIiL  14  ABSYBXk 

Sai^n.  a  man  of  oommanding  ability,  was^  not-  name  is  so  well  known  to  Bible  students.    He  was  an* 

withsianaing   his   claim   to   royal   ancestiy,  m  aU  exceptionally  cruel,  arrogant,  revengeful,  and  des- 

probability  a  usurper.     He  is  one  of  the  greatest  potic  ruler,  but,  at  the  same  time,  a  monarch  of 

figures  in  Assyrian  history,  and  the  founder  of  the  wonderful   power   and   ability.    His   first   military 

famous  Saiigonid  dynasty,  which  held  sway  in  Assyria  expedition  was  directed  against  Mwodach-baladan, 

for  more  than  a  century,  i.  e.  until  the  fall  of  Nineveh  of  Babylonia,  who,  at  the  news  of  Sargon's  deaUi. 

and  the  overthrow  of  the    Assyrian  Empire.    He  had  returned  to  Babylonia,  assuming  the  title  oi 

himself  reigned  for  seventeen  years  (722-706  b.  c.)  king,    and    murdering    Merodach-zalur-shiuni,    the 

and  proved  a  most  successful  warrior  and  orf^anizer.  viceroy   appointed    by   Saigon.     Merodach-baladan 

In  every  battle  he  was  victor,  and  in  every  difi&culty  was,  however,  easilv  routed  by  Sennacherib;  fleeing 

a  man  of  resource.     He  was  also  a  great  builder  and  again  to  Elam  ancl  hiding  himself  in  the  marshes, 

Catron  of  the  arts.  His  greatest  work  was  the  but  always  ready  to  take  advantage  of  Sennacherib's 
uilding  of  Dur-Shamikin,  or  the  Castle  of  Sargon,  absence  to  return  to  Babylon.  In  701,  Sennacherib 
the  modem  Khorsabad,  which  jvas  thoroughly  marched  eastward  over  the  Zagros  mountains  and 
explored  in  1844-55  by  Botta,  Flandin,  and  Place,  towards  the  Caspian  Sea.  There  he  attacked, 
It  was  a  larse  city,  situated  about  ten  miles  from  defeated,  and  subdued  the  Medians  and  all  the 
Nineveh,  ana  capable  of  accommodating  80,000  in-  neighbouring  tribes.  In  the  same  year  he  marched 
habitants.  His  palace  there  was  a  wonder  of  archi-  on  the  Meoiterranean  coast  and  received  the  sub- 
tecture,  panelled  in  alabaster,  adorned  with  sculp-  mission  of  the  Phoenicians,  the  Ammonites,  tho 
ture,  and  inscribed  with  the  i^ecords  of  his  exploits.  Moabites,  and  the  Edomitee.  He  conquered  Sidon, 
In  the  same  year  in  which  he  ascended  the  throne,  but  was  unable  to  ]&y  hands  on  Tyre,  on  account  of 
Samaria  fell  (722  b.  c),  and  the  Kingdom  of  Israel  its  impregnable  position.  Thence  he  hurried  down 
was  brought  to  an  end.  ''In  the  beginning  ot  my  the  coast  road,  captured  Askalon  and  its  king, 
reign",  he  tells  us  in  his  annals,  "and  in  the  first  Sidaa;  tumins  to  the  north,  he  struck  Ekron  ana 
year  of  my  reign  .  .  .  Samaria  I  besieged  and  Lacnish,  and  dispersed  the  Ethiopian-Egyptian 
conquered  .  .  .  27,290  inhabitants  I  carried  off  forces,  which  had  assembled  to  oppose  his  march 
...  I  restored  it  again  and  made  it  as  before.  Ezechias  (Hesekiah),  Kins  of  Juda,  who  togethet 
People  from  all  lands,  my  prisoners,  I  settled  there,  with  the  above-mentioned  kings  had  rebelled  against 
My  officials  I  set  over  them  as  governors.  Tribute  Sennacherib,  was  thus  completdly  isolated,  and 
and  tax  I  laid  on  them,  as  on  the  Assyrians.''  Sar-  Sennacherib,  finding  his  way  clear,  marched  against 
gon's  second  campaign  was  against  the  Elamites,  Juda,  dealing  a  terrific  blow  at  the  little  kingdom, 
whom  he  subdued.  From  Elam  he  marched  west-  Here  is  Sennacherib's  own  account  of  the  event: 
ward,  laid  Hamath  in  n^ins,  and  afterwards  utterly  ''But  as  for  Hezekiah  of  Judah,  who  had  not  sub- 
defeated  the  combined  forces  of-  the  Philistines  and  mitted  to  mv  yoke,  forty-six  of  his  strong  walled 
the  Efl^yptians,  at  Raphia.  He  made  Hanum.  cities  and  the  smaller  cities  roimd  about  them 
Kin^  ofGaza,  prisoner,  and  carried  several  thousana  without  number,  by  the  battering  of  rams,  and  the 
captives,  with  very  rich  booty,  into  Assyria.  Two  attack  of  war^ngines  [?],  by  making  breaches,  by 
years  later,  he  attacked  Karkemish,  the  capital  of  cutting  through,  and  the  use  of  axes,  1  besieged  and 
the  Hittitee.  and  conquered  it,  capturing  its  king,  captured.  Two  hundred  thousand  one  hundred 
officers,  ana  treasures,  and  deporting  them  into  and  fifty  people,  small  and  great,  male  and  female* 
Assyria.  He  then  for  fuUy  six  years  harassed,  and  horses,  mules,  asses,  camels,  and  sneep  without  num- 
finally  subdued,  all  the  northern  and  north-western  ber  I  brought  forth  from  their  midst  and  reckoned 
tribes  of  Kurdistan,  of  Armenia  (Urartu,  or  Ararat),  as  spoil.  Himself  [Hezekiah]  I  shut  up  like  a  caged 
and  of  Cilicia:  the  Mannai,  the  Mushki,  the  Kum-  bird  in  Jerusalem,  his  royal  city.  I  tnrew  up  forti- 
mukhi,  the  Milidi,  the  Kammani,  the  Gamgumi,  fications  against  nim,  and  whosoever  came  out  of 
the  Samali,  and  many  others  who  lived  in  those  the  gates  of  his  city  I  punished.  His  cities,  which 
wild  and  inaccessible  regions.  Soon  after  this  he  I  had  plundered.  I  cut  off  from  his  land  and  ^ve  to 
subdued  several  Arabian  tribes  and,  afterwards,  Mitinti,  King  ot  Ashdod,  to  Padi,  King  of  Ekron, 
the  Medians,  with  their  forty-two  chiefs,  or  princes,  and  to  Cil-^,  King  of  Gaza,  and  [thus]  made  his 
During  the  first  eleven  years  of  Sargon's  reign,  territory  smaller.  To  the  former  taxes,  paid  yearly, 
the  Kingdom  of  Juda  remained  peacefullv  subject  tribute,  a  present  for  my  lordship,  I  adaed  and  im- 
to«  Assyria,  paving  the  stipulated  annual  tribute,  posed  on  him.  Hezekiah  himsell  was  overwhelmed 
In  711  B.  c.  however,  Ez^hias  (Hezekiah).  King  oy  the  fear  of  the  brilliancy  of  my  lordship,  and  the 
of  Juda,  partly  influenced  by  Merodach-balaoan,  of  .^^bians  and  faithful  soldiers  whom  he  had  brought 
Babylonia,  and  partly  by  promises  of  help  from  in  to  strengthen  Jerusalem,  his  royal  city,  desertcKl 
Egypt,  rebelled  against  the  Assyrian  monarch,  and  him.  Thir^  talents  of  gold,  eight  hundred  talents 
in  this  revolt  he  was  heartily  jomed  by  the  Phoeni-  of  silver,  precious  stones,  guhli  daggas^if  large  lapis 
cians,  the  Philistines,  the  Moabites,  and  the  Ammon-  lazuli,  couches  of  ivory,  thrones  of  elephant  akin 
ites.  Sargon  was  ever  quick  to  act;  he  collected  a  and  ivory,  ivory,  ushu  and  urkarinu  woods  of  every 
powerful  army,  marched  against  the  rebels,  and  dealt  kind,  a  heavy  treasure,  and  his  daughters,  his  palace 


With  Palestine  and  the  West  pacified  and  subdued,    pay  homage.'' 


Sargon,  ever  ener^tic  and  prompt,  turned  his  atten-  The  same  event  is  also  recorded  in  IV   Kings, 

tion    to   Babylonia,    where   Merodach-baladan   was  xviii  and  xix,  and  in  Isaias,  xxxvi  and  xxxvii,  but 

ruling.    The  Babylonian  army  was  easily  routed,  in  somewhat  different  manner.     Accordii^  to  the 

and  Merodach-baladan  himself  abandoned  Babylon  Biblical    account,    Sennacherib,  not   satisfied    with 

and  fled  in  terror  to  Beth-Yakin,  his  ancestral  strong-  the  payment  of  tribute,  demanded  from  Ezechias 

hold.     Sargon  entered   Babylonia  in  triumph,  and  the   unconditional   surrender   of   J^^isalem,    which 

in  the  following  year  he  pursued  the  fleeing  king,  the  Judean  king  refused.     Terrified  and  bewildered, 

stormed  the  city  of  Beth-Yakin,  deported  its  people,  Ezechias  called  the  prophet  Isaias  and  laid  the  matter 

and  compelled   all   the   Babylonians  and   Elanutes  before   him,   asking   him   for   advice   and    counsel, 

to  pay  him   tribute,   homage,   and  obedience.     In  The  prophet  strong  advised  the  vacillating  Idn^  to 

705,  in  the  flower  of  his  age  and  at  the  zenith  of  his  oppose  the  outrageous  demands  of   the  Assyrian, 

elory,  Sargon  was  assassinated.     He  was  succeeded  promising    him     Yahweh's    help    and    protection, 

by  nis  son,  Sennacherib  (705  to  681  b.  c),  whose  Accordingly,   Ezechias   refused   to   surrender,    and 


A8SYBIA                                       15  ASSTBIA 

Sexmaeherib,   enraged   and   revengeful,   reBolverf  to  appears  to  have  spent  the  last  years  of  his  reign  tn 

storm  ajid  destroy  the  city.     But  in  that  same  night  building  his  magnificent  palace  at  Nineveh,  and  in 

the  whole  Assyrian  army,  gathered  imder  the  walls  embellishing  the  city  with  temples,  palaces,  gardens, 

of  Jerusalem,  was  stricken  by  the  angel  of  the  Lord,  arsenals,  and  fortifications.     After  a  long,  stormy, 

who    slew    one   hufldred   and   eighty-five   thousand  and  glorious  reign,  he  died  by  the  hand  of  one  of  his 

Assyrian    soldiers.     At    the    sight    of    this    terrible  own  sons  (681  b.  c).     The  Bible  tells  us  that  "  as  he 

calamity,     Sennacherib,    in    terror    and    confusion,  [Sennacherib]  was  worshipping  in  the  temple  of  Nes- 

departed    and   returned  to   Assyria.     The   Assyrian  roch  his  god,  Adramelech  and  Sarasar  his  sons  slew 

and  the.  Biblical  accounts  are  primd  facte  conflicting,  him  with  the  sword,  and  they  fled  into  the  land  of 

but  many  more  or  less  plausible  solutions  have  been  the   Armenians,   and   Asarhaddon   [Esarhaddon]   his 

sui^gested.     In  the  first  place  we  must  not  expect  to  son  reigned  in  his  stead  "  (IV  Kings,  xix,  37).     The 

find   in    Sennacherib's  own   annals   mention   of,   or  "  Babylonian  Chronicle  ",  however,  has  "  On  20  Thebet 

allusion  to,  any  reverse  he  may  have  suffered;  such  [December- January]  Sennacherib,   King  of  Assyria, 

alhisiona    would   be   clearly   incompatible^  with   the  was  slain  by  his  son  in  a  rebellion  .   .   .  years  reigned 

monarch's    pride,   as   well  as   with   the   purpose   of  Sennacherib  in  Assyria.     From  20  Thebet  to  2  Adar 

annals    inacribed   only   to   glorify   his   exploits   and  [March- April]   was  the  rebellion   in   Assyria   main- 

victories.      In  the  second  place,  it  is  not  improbable  tained.     On  18  Adar  his  son,  Esarhaddon,  ascended 

that  Sennacherib  imdertook  two  different  campaigns  the  throne  of  Assyria."     If  the  murderer  of  Sennache- 

against  Juda:  in  the  first,  to  which  his  annals  refer,  rib  was,  as  the  "  Babylonian  Chronicle  "  tells  us,  one 

he   contented   himself  with  exacting  and  receiving  of  his  own  sons,  no  son  of  Sennacherib  by  the  name 

submission   and  tribute  from  Ezechias   (Hezekiah) ;  of  Adrammelech  or  Sharezer  has  as  yet  been  found  in 

but  in  a  later  expedition,  which  he  does  not  mention,  the   Assyrian   monuments;   and   while   the    Biblical 

he  insisted  on  the  surrender  of^  Jerusalem,  and  in  narrative  seems  to  indicate  that  the  murder  took  place 

this  latter  expedition  he  met  wit&  the  awful  disaster,  in  Nineveh,  on  the  other  hand  an  inscription  of  Asshur- 

It  is   to   this  expedition  that  the  Biblical  account  banipaJ,  Sennacherib's  grandson,  clearly  afliirms  that 

refers.      Hence,  there  is  no  real  contradiction  between  the  tragedy  took  palce  in  Babylon,  in  the  temple  of 

the  two   narratives,  as  they  speak  of  two  different  Marduk  (of  which  Nesroch,  or  Nisroch,  is  probably 

events.      Furthermore,  the  disaster  which  overtook  a  corruption). 

the  Assyrian  army  may  have  been,  after  all,  quite  a  Sennacherib  was  succeeded  by  his  younger  son, 
natural  one.     It  may  have  been  a  sudden  attack  of  Esarhaddon,  who  reigned  from  681  to  668  b.  c.     At 
the  plague,  a  disease  to  which  Oriental  armies,  from  the  time  of  his  father's  death,  E^rhaddon  was  in 
their  utter  neglect  of  sanitation,  are  extremely  sub-  Armenia  with  the  Assyrian  army,  but  on  hearing 
ject,  and  before  which  they  quickly  succumb.     Jose-  the  sad  news  he  promptly  set  out  for  Nineveh,  first  to 
phus  explicitly  affirms  that  it  was  a  flagellum  pro-  avenge  his  father's  death  by  pimishing  the  perpe- 
diffiosum  (Antiq.  Jud.,  X,  i,  n.  5);  while,  according  to  trators  of  the  crime,  and  then  to  ascend  the  throne, 
an  Elgyptian  tradition  preserved  to  us  by  Herodotus  On  his  way  home  he  met  the  assassins  and  their 
(Lib.     II,    cxli),    Sennacherib's   army   was   attacked  army   near   Cappadocia,    and   in   a   decisive   battle 
and   destroyed  by  a  kind  of  poisonous  wild  mice,  routed  them  with  tremendous  loss,   thus  becoming 
which    suddenly    broke    into    the    Assyrian    camp,  the    sole    and    undisputed    lord    of    Assyria.     Esar- 
completely    demoralizing   the   army.     At   any   rate  haddons'    first    campaign    was    against    Babylonia, 
Sennacherib's  campaign  came  to  an  abrupt  end,  and  where  a  fresh  revolt,  caused  by  the  son  of  the  late 
be  was  forced  to  retreat  to  Nineveh.     It  is  noteworthy,  Merodach-baladan,     had     broken     out.     The     pre- 
however,    that  for  the  rest  of  his  life  Sennacherib  tender  was  easily  defeated  and  compelled  to  flee  to 
undertook    no    more    military    expeditions    to    the  Elam.     Esarhaddon,   unlike  his  father,   determined 
West,  or  to  Palestine.     This  fact,  interpreted  in  the  to  build  up  Babylon  and  to  restore  its  ruined  temples, 
light  of  the  Assyrian  monuments,  would  be  the  result  palaces,   and   walls.     He  gave   back  to   the   people 
of  the  complete  submission  of  Syria  and  Palestine;  their  property,   which  had  been  taken  away  from 
while  in  the  light  of  the  Biblical  narrative  it  would  them  as  spoils  of  war  during  Sennacherib's  destruc- 
•ignify    that   Sennacherib,   after   his   disastrous   de-  tive  campaign,  and  succeeded  in  restoring  peace  and 
feat,  dared  not  attack  Palestine  again.  harmony  among  the  people.     He  determined,  further- 
While    laying    siege    to    Jerusalem,    Sennacherib  more,  to  make  Babylon  his  residence  for  part  of  the 
leeeived  the  disquieting  news  of  Merodach-baladan's  year,  thus  restoring  its  ancient  splendour  and  re- 
sadden  appearance  in  Babylonia.     A  portion  of  the  ligious  supremacy.     Esarhaddon's  second  campaign 
Asqrrian  army  was  detached  and  hurriedly  sent  to  was  directed  against  the  West,  i.  e.  Syria,  where  a 
B^ylonia  against  the  restless  and  indomitable  foe  fresh  rebellion,  having  for  its  centre  the  great  mari- 
of   Assyria.     In   a   fierce   battle,    Merodach-baladan  time  city  of  Sidon,  had  broken  out.     He  captured 
was  for  the  third  time  defeated  and  compelled  to  the  city  and  completely  destroyed  it,  ordering  a  new 
fles  to  Elam,  where,  worn  and  broken  down  by  old  city,  with  the  name  of  Kar-Esarhaddon,  to  be  built 
age   and    misfortunes,   he   ended   his   troubled   life,  on  its  ruins.     The   King  of  Sidon   was  caught  and 
aad  Asshur-nadin-shum,  the  eldest  son  of  Sennache-  beheaded,  and  the  surrounding  country  devastnted. 
rib,  was  appointed  king  over  Babylonia.     After  his  Twenty-two  Syrian  princes,  among  them  Manassas, 
reiiirn  from  the  West,  and  after  ^e  final  defeat  of  King  of  Juda,  surrendered  and  submitted  to  Esar- 
Merodach-baladan,  Sennacherib  began  lengthy  and  haddon.     Scarcely,   however,   had   he  retired   when 
sethre  preparations  for  an  effective  expedition  against  these   same   princes,   including   Manasses,   revolted. 
Babylonia,  which  was  ever  rebellious  and  reqtless. —  But    the    great    Esarhaddon    utterly    crushed    the 
expedition  was  as  imique  in  its  methods  as  it  rebellion,    taking    numerous    cities,    captives,    and 
andacioos  in  its  conception." — With  a  poweriul  treasures,  and  ordering  Manasses  to  be  carried  to 
and  navy,   he   moved  southward   and,   in  a  Babylon,  where  the  king  was  then  residing.     A  few 
battle    near    Khalulu,    utterly    routed    the  years   later    Esarhaddon    had    mercy   on    Manasses 
Chaldeans,    Babylonians,    and    Elamites,  and  allowed  him  to  return  to  his  own  kingdom.     In 
executed  their  two   chiefs,    Nergal-usezib  and  a  third  campaign,   Esarhaddon  blockaded  the  im- 
16HBBb-Merodach.     Elam  was  ravaged,  "  the  smoke  pregnable  Tyre,  and  set  out  to  conquer  Egypt,  which 
ol   taming    towns    obscuring    the    heavens ".     He  he  successfully  accomplished  by  defeating  its  king, 
alteeked  Babylon,  which  was  stormed,  sacked,  Tirhakah.     In  order  to  effectively  establish  Assyrian 
t,  6ooded,  and  so  mercilessly  punishea  that  it  supremacy  over  Egypt,  he  divided  the  country  into 
reduced  to  a  mass  of  ruins,  and  almost  ob-  twenty  provinces,  and  over  each  of  these  he  appointed 
MeratedL      On  his  return  to  Assyria,    Sennacherib  a    governor;    sometimes    a    native,    sometimes    an 


ASSYBIA  16  ASSYRIA 

Assyrian.     He  exacted  heavy  annual  tribute  from  thou^t    of    the    far    distant    Babylonian    world." 

every  one  of  these  twentv  provinces,  and  returned  (G.   H.   Goodspeed,   Hist,   of  the  Babylonians  and 

in  triumph  to  Asayritk*    *^  Ab  for  Tarqu  [Tirhakah],  Aasyrians,   pp.   315,   316.)     Of  this  library,   which 

King  of  Egypt  and  Cush,  who  was  under  the  curse  of  must  have  contained  over  forty  thousand  day  tablets, 

theu*  great  divinity,  from  Ishupri  as  far  as  Memphis,  a  par^  was  discovered  by  G.  Smith  and  H.  Rassam, 

his  royal  city — a  march  of  fifteen  days — every  day  part  has  been  destroyed,  and  part  yet  remains  to 

without   exception    I    killed   his    warriors   in    great  be  explored.     Here   G.   Smith   first  discovered  the 

number,  and  as  for  him,  five  times  with  the  point  of  famous  Babylonian  accounts  of  the  Creation  and  of 

the  spear  I  struck  him  with  a  deadly  stroke.     Mem-  the  Deluge  in  which  we  find  so  many  striking  simi- 

phis,  his  royal  city,  in  half  a  day,  by  cutting  through  larities  with  the  parallel  Biblical  accounts.     Asshur- 

and  scaling,  I  besieged,  I  conquered,  I  tore  down,  I  banipal  was  also  a  great  temple-builder — in  Nineveh, 

destroyed,  I  burned  with  fire,  and  the  wife  of  his  Arbela,  Tarbish,  Babylon,  Eorsippa,  Sippar,  Nippur, 

palace,  his  palace  women,  Ushanahuru,  his  own  son  and  Uruk.     He  fortified  Nineveh,  repaired,  enk^ed, 

and  the  rest  of  his  sons,  his  daughters,  his  property  and    embellished    Sennacherib's    palace,    and    built 

and    possessions,    his    horses,    his   oxen,    his   sheep  next   to   it   another   palace   of  remarkable   beauty, 

without  number,  I  carried  away  as  spoil  to  Assyria.  This  he  adorned  with  numerous  magnificent  statutes, 

I  tore  up  the  root  of  Gush  from  Egypt,  a  single  one —  sculptures,    bas-reliefs,    inscriptions,    and   treasures, 

even    to    the    suppliant — I    did    not    leave    behind  Assyrian  art,  especially  sculpture  and  architecture, 

Over  all  Egypt  I  appointed  kings,  prefects,  governors,  reached  during  his  reign  its  golden  age  and  its  classical 

grain-inspectors,     mayors,    and    secretaries.     I    in-  perfection,    while    Assyrian    power   and   supremacy 

stituted  regular  offerings  to  Asshur  and  the  great  touched  the  extreme  zenith  of  its  height;  for  with 

gods,  my  lords,  for  all  time.     I  placed  on  them  the  Asshurbanipal's   death    Assyrian    power   and   glory 

tribute   and   taxes   of   my   lordship,   regularly   and  sank   into   the   deepest   gloom,   and   perished,   pre- 

without    fail."     Esarhaddon    also    invaded    Arabia,  sumably,  to  rise  no  more. 

penetrating  to   its   very   centre,   through   himdreds        Asshurbanipal's    military    campaigns    were    very 
of  miles  of  sandy  lands  which  no  other  Assyrian  numerous.     He  ascended  the  throne  in  668  b.   c, 
monarch  had  penetrated  before.     Another  important  and  his  first  move  was  against  Egypt,  which  he  sub- 
'campaign  was  that  directed  against  the  Cimmerians,  dued,  penetrating  as  far  as  Memphis  and  Thebes, 
near  the  Caucasus,  and  against  many  other  tribes.  On  his  way  back,  he  exacted  tribute  from  the  Syrian 
in  Armenia,  Cappadocia,  Cilicia,  Asia  Minor,  and  and  Phoenician  kings,  among  whom  was  Manassea 
Media.     The  monarch's  last  expedition  was  a  second  of  Juda,  who  is  expressly  mentioned  in  one  of  the 
campaign  against   Egypt.     Before   leaving  Assyria,  king's  inscriptions.     He  forced  Tyre  to  surrender, 
however,  i.  e.  in  the  month  of  lyyar  (April-May),  and  subdued  the  Kings  of  Arvad,  of  Tabal,  and  of 
668  B.  c,  as  if  forecasting  future  events,  he  consti-  Cilicia.     In  655,  he  marched  against  Babylonia  and 
tuted  his  son  Asshurbanipal  co-regent  and  successor  drove  away  from  it  a  newly  organized,  but  powerful 
to  the  throne,  leaving  to  his  other  son,  Shamash-  coalition   of    Elamites,    Chaldeans,    and    Arameans. 
shum-ukin,   Babylonia.     But,  while  on  his  way  to  He  aiterwarda  marched  into  the  very  heart  of  Elam, 
Egypt,  he  fell  sick,  and  on  the  10th  of  Marsheshwan  as  far  as  Susa,  and  in  a  decisive  battle  he  shattered 
(October),  in  the  year  668,  he  died.  the   Elamite   forces.     In   625,   Shaniash-shutn-ukin, 
Esarhaddon  was  a  truly  remarkable  ruler.     Unlike  ABshurbanipal's  brother,   who  had  been  appointed 
his  father,  he  was  religious,  generous,  forgiving,  less  by  his  father  King  of  Babylonia,  and  who  had  till 
harsh  and   cruel,   and   very   diplomatic.     He  ruled  then  worked  in  complete  harmony  with  his  brother, 
the  various  conquered  countries  with  wisdom  and  rebelled    against    Asshurbanipal.     To    this    he    was 
toleration,   while  he  established  a  rigorous  system  openly  and  secretly  incited  by  many   Babylonian, 
of    administration.     A    great    temple-builder    and  Elamite,  and  Arabian  chiefs.     Asshurbanipal,  how- 
lover  of  art,  he  has  left  us  many  records  and  in-  ever,  was  quick  to  act.     He  marched  against  Baby- 
scriptions.     At  Nineveh  he  rebuilt  the  temple  of  As-  Ionia,  shut  off  all  the  i*ebel8  in  their  own  fortresses, 
shur,  and  in  Babylonia,  the  temples  at  Ukuk,  Sippar,  and    forced    them    to    a    complete    surrender.     His 
Dur-llu,  Borsippa,  and  others,  in  all  about  thirty,  brother  set  fire  to  his  own  palace  and  threw  himself 
In  Nineveh  he  erected  for  himself  a  magnificent  palace  into    the    flames.     The    cities   and    fortresses    were 
and  arsenal,  and  at  Kalkhi  (Calah;  Douay,  Chale)  captured,    the   rebeb   slain,   and    Elam   completely 
another  of  smaller  dimensions,  which  was  still  un-  devastated.      Temples,  palaces,  royal    tombs,    and 
finished  at  the  time  of  his  death.     Asshurbanipal,  brines  were  destroyed.     Treasures  and  booty  were 
Esarhaddon 's  successor,  was  undoubtedly  the  great-  taken   and   carried   away   to    Assyria,   and   several 
est    of    all    Assyrian    monarchs.     For    generalship,  thousands  of  people,  as  well  as  all  the  princes  of  the 
military    conquests,    diplomacy,    love   of   splendour  royal  family,  were  executed,  so  that,  a  few  years 
and  luxury,  and  passion  for  the  arts  and  letters,  he  later,    Elam    disappeared    for    ever    from    history, 
has  neither  superior  nor  equal  in  the  annals  of  that  In     another     campaign,     Asshurbanipal     advanced 
empire.     To  him  we  owe  the  greatest  part  of  our  against    Arabia   and   subdued   the    Kedarenes,    the 
knowledge   of   Assyro-Babylonian   history,   religion,  Nabatseans,  and  a  dozen  other  Arabian  tribes,   as 
literature,   art,   and   civilization.     Endowed   with   a  far  as  Damascus.     His  attention  was  next  attracted 
rare  taste  for  letters,  he  caused  all  the  most  important  to    Armenia,    Cappadocia,    Media,    and   the   north- 
historical,  religious,  mythological,  legal,  astronomical,  western    and    north-eastern    regions.     In    all    these 
mathematical,     |p*ammatical,     and     lexicographical  he  established  his  supremacy,  so  that  from  640  till 
texts  and  inscriptions  known  to  his  day  to  be  copied  626,  the  year  of  Asshurbanipal's  death,  Assyria  was 
and  placed  in  a  magnificent  library  which  he  built  at  peace.     However,   most  scholars   incline   to    be- 
in  his  own   palace.     "  Tens  of  thousands  of  clay  lieve  that  during  the  last  years  ol  the  monarch'b 
tablets  systematically  arranged  on  shelves  for  easy  reign  the  Assyrian  Empire  began  to  decay- 
consultation    contained,    besides    official    dispatches        Asshurbanipal  is  probably  mentioned  onoe  in  the 
and  other  archives,  the  choicest  religious,  historical.  Old  Testament  (I  Esdras,  iv,  10)  under  the  name 
and  scientific  literature  of  the   Babylonia- Assyrian  of  Asenaphar,  or,  better,  Ashenappar  (Ashenappal) 
world.     Under  the  inspiration  of  the  king's  literary  in  connexion  with  his  deportation  of  many  trouble- 
zeal,  scribes  copied  and  translated  the  ancient  sacred  some    populations   into    Samaria.     He    is   probably 
classics  of  primitive  Babylonia  for  this  library,  so  alluded  to  by  the  Second  Isaias  and  Nahum,    in 
that,  from  its  remains,  can  be  reconstructed,  not  connexion   with  his  campaigns  against  £^ypt   and 
merely  the  details  of  the  government  and  adminis-  Arabia.     According  to  G.  Brunengo,  S.J.  (Nabuchod- 
tratiou  of  the  Assyria  of  his  time,  but  the  life  and  nossor  di  Oiuditta,  Rome,  1886)  and  other  scholan. 


A8TAB0TH                                   17  ASTSBI8X 

Aaahurhfiipal  is  the  Nabuchodonosor   (Nebuohad-  driving  away  demons  and  evil  spirits;  Asshur,  the 

neaaar)  of  the  Book  of  Judith;  others  identify  him  consort  of  Belit,  and  the  supreme  god  of  Assyria. 

with  the  Sardanapalus  of  Greek  historians.    In  view,  Besides  these  there  were  other  minor  deities. 

however,  of  the  conflicting  characters  of  the  legendary  '•  Sxoatations    ond    Decipherment:      Kaulen,    Geschiefue 

Sardanapalus  .nd  the  A»hurbanip»}  of  the  cunei-  f^«$g^.  "i^jflC^.  ^<^  SSlSl^iJ'tfl!;^ 

form     mscnptions,     this     last     identification     seems  rien*  (Berlin.  1885),  30-184;  Evarre.   Nw  Lioht  on  the  Hdy 

impossible.      Besides,    Asshurbanipal    was    not    the  Land  (London.   1801),  79-129;  ViGouRotrx.  La  Bible  et  lee 

{art  king  of  A«yria,  as  Sardanapalus  is  suppo«,d  to  I^TmSTt^^^^'t^^'^A  ^fl^''orB^U. 

have   been.    ^  and  Astyria   (New    York.    1901).   I.    1-253;   Hilphscut.    Ez- 

Asahurbanipal    was    succeeded    by    his    two    sons,  jAoratUme  in  BibU  Land*  During  the  I9th  Century  (Philadelphia, 

Aashur-etil-elani    and    Sin-shar-ishkun.       Of    their  iS2?^  ^"?^'  ®*??™'  T^  Diecovery  and  ^e«Pi«™«{,^  fj* 

^^^    * .           !*^     •uv»     »^uA-ouM  tou».uu.        v»    ,  *.    •*  TriltnQual    Cuneiform    Inacriptione    (London.    1902);    Fobskt* 

respective  reigns  and  theur  exploits  we  know  nothmg,  Manuel  d'AeeyrioloQie  (Paria.  1904),  I. 

except  that  in  their  days  Assyria  began  rapidly  to  11.  History  of  Aeeyria:    Hoioiel.  op.  cU.  supra;  Tiels, 

;oM  its  prestige  and  .power      All  the  foreign  prov-  gJSi^^^jKii^S'SJSSSJ^i^^ 

«»C08— Egypt,     PhOSniCiai     Chanaan,     Syria,     Arabia,  gtuttgart,  1891):  Maspbro,   The  StruooU  of  the  Nations,  and 

Armenia,  Media,  Babylonia,  and  Elam — broke  away  The  Passing  of  the  Empires,  vols.  II  and  III  of  the  tr.  of  the 

from  Assyria,  when  the  degenerate  and  feeble  sue-  ^?  author's  claaaigl  work.  Hi^  aneiennedes  peuplesde 

««.T.i»,    ^^»  2        ««6«**«**»««  »»Ax.  *«^    ^  VOrimt    daaaique;    Wincki*eb,     OeschxchU    BabyUmtena     unA 

oeeaors  of  the  valiant  Asshurbanipal  proved  unable  Assytiens  (Leipni?.  1902):  Rooers.  pp.  eU.  eupm  in  2  vols.; 

to    cope    with    the    situation.       They    had    probably  (3oodspbbi>.   Histarv  of  the  Babylonians  and  Assyriat^s   (New 

Abandoned    themselves    to    eflfeminate    luxury    and  IL'^^f^'u^fJ!^!.^ 

J  .          ,      .                        I'xAi                 J.I--        t           M'x  —  ixoumlKl  vsk  a.A!nvHQ9,  Diet,  of  the  D%bU. 

debauchenes,    caring    httle    or    nothmg    for    military  m.  CoUecUons  of  Asaurian   Texts  and   Translations:     Raw- 

glory.       In    the    meanwhile    Nabopolassar,    King    of  unboN,   The  Cuneiform  Inscriptions  of  Western  Asia  (London, 

Babylon,  and  Cyaxares,  King  of  Media,  formed  a  JfJ^V  a^^'ji^rto^'hj^*^    IS^d  \  %tt^^%(m^!SSa 

family  and  political  alliance,  the  latter  giving  his  KeUi^rifaicJl^Bihli^    (Leinafg.TS!^i);  ^Rec^d 

daughter  in  marriage  to  the  former's  son,  Nabuchodo-  e£  the   Past — being   English    Translations  of  the  Assyrian  and 

noeor  (Nebuchadnesiar).    At  the  head  of  a  powerful  ifnmtian  Monurju^,  two  scries  (London.  i?88-g2);  Har^, 

army,   these   two   kings   together   marched   against  iX^erYoK?iT  ^~^ 

Nineveh    and    laid    siege   to    it   for   fully    two    years,  IV.  Assyrian   Arts   and   Civilisation:     Pbrrot   bt   Chipibz, 

after    which    the   city   surrendered   and    was    com-  ffi^toire  efe  Vart  dans  VantiquiU  CPariB,  ^^K^^'S''**^^^ 

pletely  destroyed  and  demolished  (W6  b    c.),  and  ^t'lg^J^Sfi^  ^k^TSS^Zj&Zelt^  $^^^ 

AaByriA    became    a    provmce    of    Babylonia    and  works  of  Layaro,  Oppbrt.  Place,  etc. 

Media.  '^'  ^^^9^^  of  Assyria:     Jartrow,    The  Rdigion  of  Baby 

D..,»«^«,     A»T«    ri,»^* » A mv^m,      Tk^.    .^llm'^n    ^r^A  lo^^   ^M   AssyHa   (Boston,    1898),   Glerman   ed.,   much   im- 

.  R?"<?101*    AND    CIVILIIATION.— The    rehgion    and  p,^,^^^   ^^  entirely  rewritten;   bibliography  in  art.   Babt- 

dviliaation  of  Assyria   were  almost  identical   with  loioa. 

those  of  Babylonia,  the  former  having  been  derived  VI.  Comparative   8^   of  Assyrian   3fonuments   and  In- 

from  the  latter  and  developed  along  the  same  lines.  ^^  a^  tJ!^oSTLta.S^S''K^on^'im^'^'^ 

For,    although  the   Assyrians  made  notable   contri-  German  ed..  entirely  rewritten  by  Wincxler  and  Zimmbr- 

bntioilS  to  architecture,  art,  science,  and  literature,  maw.  under  the  origmid  title  Die  KeUinschriflen  und  das  AUe 

the*  were  with  them  eeeentUUy  a  Babylonian  im-  ^Z^S^^JTuu'^^SJ'T^^uZus'^L.^'itt^f; 

portation.        Assyrian     temples     and     palaces     were  Satcb.  The  Higher  Criticism  and  the  Verdict  of  the  Monuments 

modelled  upon  those  of  Babylonia,  although  in  the  (London.    1894);   Hommbl.    The  Ancient  H^rw    TradUion  as 

b»n^:-.»  »J«<^*:«1      »*^^^      w„o     f«*.      mrvr^     i;Ka^o1Ui>  illustrated    by    the    Monuments    (London.    1897);    Price.    The 

uflding-matenal    stone     was     far     more     hberally  M^^„^^nts^  the  Old  Testament  (Chicago.  1900);  Pinches, 

emiMOyed.     In  sculptural  decorations  and  in  statuary  The  Old   Testament  in  the  Liqht  of  the  Historical  Records  and 

more  richness  and  originality  were  displayed  by  the  Legends  of  Assyria  and  Babylonia  (London,   1903);  Jeremias. 

Anyrians  than  by  the  Babylonians.     It  seems  to  j>gi)^   r«fc««rt  im  LuM»  i^  Mm  onenu   (Lipag. 

have  been  a  hobby  of  Assyrian  monarchs  to  build  Gabriel  Oussaki. 
eoloesal  palaces,  adorned  with  gigantic  statues  and 

aa    infinite    variety   of   bas-reliefs   and   inscriptions  Astaroth  (Abtarte).    See  Pbcenicia. 

i^owing    their    warUke    exploits.      Asshurbanipal's  Asteriak    (Or.,  iar^P,  a  star).-Thi8  is  a  utensil 

hbjary  shows  that  Assynan  rehgious  hterature  was  j„,  ^  y^^  according  to  the  Greek  Rite,  which  is 

jwt  onty  an  imitation  of  that  of  Babylonia,  but  abjjo-  ^„t  ^^  {„  ^he  Roman  Rite  at  aU.     It  consists  of 

lutely  identiwl  therewith.     An  examination  of  the  ^^^  ^^^^^  ^anjg   ,,,  ^       ^^^  of  gilver  or  gold 

religions  of  the  two  countries  proves  that  the  As-  „,,i^,,  ^^^  ^^  ^^i^„  ^^  ri^ht  angles  and  thus  form 

^rians   adopted   Babylonian   doctrines,   cults,   and  ^  ^^b,^  ^^^     It  is  used  to  pUce  over  the  amnot, 

rrtee,  with  such  shght  modifications  as  were  oaUed  „,  particles  of  blessed  bread,  when  spread  out  upon 

(or    by   the  conditions   pwvaihng  m   the   northern  t^e  paten  during  the  pro»komide  and  earlier  part  of 

eooatey.      The    chief    difference    m    the    Assyrian  ^^  ^^  Mase,  so  as  to  prevent  the  veU  from  coming 

pantheon  compared  with  that  of  Babylonia  is  that,  ^  ^^^^  ^^^^  o,  disturbing  these  blessed  but  uncon- 

whfle  m  Semitic  times  ttie  principal  god  of  the  latter  gecrated  particles  of  bread  in  carrying  the  paten  from 

wa.  Mardttk   that  of  the  lormer  was  Asshur.    The  y^,       y^  ^^  t^^  jt„  „,  ^^ile  it  is  standing  at 

prmjapal  deities  of  both  countriw  are:    the  three  jj^-;    i^     ^  j^  j^j^  ^^  ^t^,  the  Creed  and  is 

^  .l!I*"*U^"'  A^  ^A^  °'  I*'  Jif  "^e^'y  .«5'»'»»«j  not  ordinarUy  used  again  during  the  Mass.    The  otter- 

S^.i**J3^^  ^  ""-^  *''*"'*°'  ?;    mankind;  and  f,*  fa  ugu^ny  surmounted  by  a  cross,  and  often  has  a 

^:  ***  ^"^  humanity  par  excellenct,  and  of  the  y        ^ar  suspended  from  the  central  junction,  and 

"i^K   ^***  !J°^  i"?*^'  ^l  Ti!?**  °    "^f  "S^?  in  the  Greek  Orthodox  is  somewhat  larger  in  size 

«d  Jbe  consort  of  Bel;  Sm,  first-born  son  of  Bel,  ^^^  ;„  y,^  ^^^  Catholic  Church.    When  the  priest 

the    father   of    wuidom.    pereonified   m   the    moon;  j,^  ^^^  prckormde  service  is  through  incensing  the 

ShaiMsh.  the  sun-god;  Nmib,  the  h«o  of  the  heav-  ^       ^  'g^  j  ,^                 t^^  ^      ^^  takes  up 

•iibr  and  earthly  spurits;  Nergal,  chief  of  the  nether-  ^^^  ^^^^^  ^J  i^ceiiiiig  it  sTys,  "And  the  star 

imtU  and  of  the  subteiranean  demons,  and  god  of  ^^^  j^^h  and  stood  over  where  the  child  was  ". 

j^^Omee  and  fevers;   Marduk    originally  a  solar  j^      ^        ^^  j^          ^y^  particles  of  bread  upon  the 

various 
begins 

~  \^T IT'    -    J-          •  J  «,    x     _u      '  line  ceieorauon  oi  \ne  iviasB. 

j;   NebO,  the  god  of   wisdom,   to   whom  Kraus.  Rea-Bncyk.  b.  v.;  Pbtriobs  in  Diet,  d'arch.  ehrSt.. 

tte  art  of  writing  and  the  sciences  are  ascribed;  a.  v.;  CLuoifBT.  Diet,  des  noms  liturgiquee.  22. 

GannNusku,  or,  simply,  Nusku,  the  god  of  fire,  as  Andrew  J.  Suipman. 

n.— 2 


ASTERIT78  18  ASTBOLOOY 

f 

Asterius,  name  of  several  prominent  persons  in        ^Um,  name  of  several  English  Catholics  of  promi- 

early   Christian   history. — (1)   Asterius  of   Petra,   a  nence. — Sir   Arthur,    member   of  an   ancient   and 

bishop  of  Arabia,  ill-treated  by  the  Arian  faction  at  knightly  family,  an  able  military  officer  in  the  army 

the  Council  of  Sardica  (343)  for  withdrawing  from  of  CharlcMS  I,  governor  of  Oxford  for  the  king,  and 

them  his  support,  and  exiled  to   Upper  Libya  in  made  governor  of  Drogheda  (Ireland)  in  1649.     He 

^Syp^i    whence    he    was    recalled    in    362    by    the  was  kiUed  10  September,  1649,  at  the  siege  of  that 

edict  of  Julian  that  restored  all  the  banished  bish-  town  by  the  forces  of  Oliver  Cromwell;  his  brains  were 

ops.     He  took  part  in  the  Council  of  Alexandria  dashed  out  with  his  wooden  leg  during  the  massacre 

(362),    called,    among  other  reasons,   for  the   pur-  that  followed  the  capture   (D.   Murphy,  Cromwell 

pose  of  healing  the  Meletian  schism  that  was  rend-  in    Ireland,    Dublin,    1897,    p.    99). — Herbert,    an 

ing  the  Church  of  Antioch.     He   was  one  of  the  English  poet,  b.  at  Chelsea,  1614,  third  son  of  Walter, 

bearers  of  the  letter  addressed  by  the  council  to  first  Lord  Aston  of  Forfar,  whom  he  accompaxiied 

the    stubborn    Lucifer   of    Cagliari    and    the   other  to  Madrid  on  his  second  embassy  in  1635,  author  of 

bishops  then  at  Antioch.     These  peaceful  measures  "  Tixall    Poetry,    Collected    by    the    Hon.    Herbert 

were,   however,  rendered  useless  by   Lucifer's  pre-  Aston,  1658  *'  (ed.  with  notes  and  illustrations  by 

cipitancy  in  consecrating  Paulinus  as  successor  to  Arthur    Clifford,    Esq.,    Edinburgh,    1813,    4to). — 

Meletius   of   Antioch,    whereby   the   schism   gained  Walter,  father  of  the  preceding  and  son  of  Sir  £d- 

a   new   lease   of   life. — (2)    Asterius   of   Amasea   in  ward    Aston,    of   Tixall    in    Staffordshire,    educated 

Pontus   (c.   400).     The  only  fact  in   his  life  that  under  the  direction  of  Sir  Edward  Coke,  sent  as  one 

is  known  is  related  by  himself,  vis.  his  education  of  the  two  ambassadors  to  Spain  (1619)  to  negotiate 

by  a  Scythian  or  Goth  who  had  been  sent  in  his  a  marriage  treaty  between  Charles   (I),   Prince  of 

youth  to  a  schoolmaster  of  Antioch  and  thus  ac-  Wales,  and  the  Infanta,  daughter  of  Philip  III.     He 

quired  an  excellent  education  and  great  fame  among  became  a  convert  to  the  Catholic  Faith  on  this  occa- 

both  Greeks  and  Romans.     The  extant  writings  of  sion,  and  on  his  return  to  England  was  made  Lord  of 

Asterius    are    twenty-one    homilies,    scriptural    and  Forfar    (Scotland).      He    had   a    decided   taste    for 

panegyrical  in  content.     The  two  on  penance  and  literature,  and  was  the  patron  of  Drayton,  who  dedi- 

"  on  the  beginning  of  the  fasts  "  were  formerly  as-  cated  to  him  (1598)  his  "  Black  Prince  ",  and  in  his 

cribed    to    St.    Gregory    of    Nyssa    (Bardenhewer,  "  Polyolbion  "  praises  the  Aston 's  **  ancient  seat  "  of 

Patrologie,     1901,     267).       A    life    of    his    prede-  Tixall.— William,   b.   22  April,    1735,  educated    at 

cessor,  ^t.  Basil,  is  ascribed  to  Asterius  (Acta  SS.,  St.-Omer,  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1751,  and 

26  April).    His  works  (P.  G.,  XL)  are  described  by  taught  for  several  years  in  the  Society's  colleges  of 

Tillemont  (M4m.,  X,  409).     He  was  a  student  of  St.-Omer,  Watten,  and  Bruges,  until  the  suppres- 

Demosthenes  and  an  orator  of  repute.     Lig^tfoot  sion  in  1773;  d.  at  Li^,  15  March,  1800,  as  canon 

says  (Diet,  of  Christ.  Biogr.,  I,  178)  that  his  beet  of  the  cathedral.     Among  his  writings  are  *'  Lettres 

sermons  display  **  no  inconsiderable  skill  in  rhetoric,  Ultramontaines  "  and  **  Le  Cosmopolite  *'. 

great  power  of  expression,  and  great  earnestness  of  _  Oillow,  BiM.  Did.  of  Engl.  Cathcliet,  I,  76-82;  Foi*t. 

moral  conviction;  some  passages  are  even  strikingly  ^•"^  ""^  ^'^'  '^^«'»~^'  «•  ^'      Thomas  J  Shah  an 
eloquent."     The  homilies  of  Asterius,  like  those  of 

Zeno  of  Verona,   offer  no  little  valuable   material        Astorga  (Abturiga  Augusta),  Diocebb  op,  suf- 

to  the  Christian  archsologist.    [De  Buck  in  Acta  SS.,  fragan   of   Valladolid   in    Spain,    dates,    it   is   said, 

20  Oct.  (Paris,  1883),  XIII,  330-334.]— (3)  Asterius  from  the  third  century.    It  was  the  principal  church 

of  Cappadocia,  a  Greek  soplust,  a  friend  of  Arius,  and  of  the  Asturias  in  344,  after  a  long  eclipse  was  again 

also  his  fellow  student  in  the  school  of  Lucian  of  an  episcopal  see  in  747,  and  exhibits  since  841    a 

Antioch.     St.    Athanasius   quotes   more   than  once  regular  succession  of  bishops.     It  was  at  different 

from  a  pro-Arian  work  of  this  writer.     He  wrote  times  a  suffragan  of  Braga  and  of  Santiago.      It 

commentaries  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  ihe  Gros-  includes  the   whole  province  of  Leon,  and  counts 

pels,  the  Psalms,  and  ''^many  other  works  ■'  (Jerome,  300,115  Catholics,  990  parishes,  and  as  many  parish 

De  Vir.   HI.,  c.  xciv),  all  of  which  have  perished  churches,  431  chapels,  and  1,183  priests. 
(Zahn,    Marcellus    von    Ancyra,    Gotha,    1867,    68       BATt^mixR,  Ann.  poni.  oath.  (Pm,  id^ 

8qq.).-(4)  Arterius  a  Rom^  -enator  mentioned  by  ^rtj.    T^  ^I^.O^-^l^  M*?Vl.^6S| 

Eusebius  (Hist.  EccL,  VII,  16)  as  a  Christian  dis-  Mxtnos,  BM.  HuL  Bsp.  (1858)  40. 
tinguished  for  faith  and  charity.    Rufinus  says  that  Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

he  suffered  martyrdom  at  Cssarea  in  Palestine  in         n  f.nf^i__-       a_a.».«o^ 
262   (Baronius,   An.   Eccl.  ad  an.  262,   $$  81,  82).        A«trolatry,     Bee  Babaism.  ^.  ^  ^  , 

—(5)  Asterius  Urbanus,  a  Montanist  writer  of  the        Astrology,  the  supposed  science  which  determines 

latter  part  of  the  second  century,  referred  to  in  the  influence  of  the  stars,  especiaUy  of  the  five  older 

Eusebius    (Hist.    Eccl.,   V,    16,    17);  his  work   was  planets,  on  the  fate  of  maM   {astrologut  judtctarta; 

probably  a  compilation  of  the  pseudo-prophetic  ut-  mundane,  or  judicial  astrology)  or  on  the  changes  of 

terances  of   Montanus  and  his  female  companions  the  weather  {astrologia  naturalu;  natural  astrology) 

Priscilla  and  Maximilla.  Thomas  J.  Shahan.  according  to  certain  fixed  rules  dependent  upon  the 

.  controlling  position  of  the  stars  (constellations  and 

Asti,   Diocese   of,   one   of  the   divisions  of  the  aspects)  at  the  time  under  consideration.     Judicial 

province  of  Alexandria,  and  suffragan  of  Turin.    Asti  astrology— the  more  important  branch  of  this  occult 

IS  a  very  old  town.    It  became  Christian  at  an  early  g^ — depended  for  its  predictions  upon  the  position 

period  of  the  Christian  Era.    The  first  known  bishop  ^f  the  planets  in  the  "  twelve  houses  "  at  the  moment 

was  Pastor  in  451.    After  him,  were  Majoranus  in  465,  ^f  the  birth  of  a  human  being.     The  calculationB 

Benenatus  in  680,  and  St.  Evasius  in  730.    From  800  necessary  to  settle  these  positions  were  called  casting 

begins  the  regular  list  of  bishops,  though  the  see  was  the  horoscope  or  the  diagram  of  the  heavens  {Ihema 

vacant  from  1857  to  1867.    There  has  been  some  con-  ^^j  at  the  nativity.     Starting  with  the  point  that 

troversy  as  to  the  beginning  of  the  Diocese  of  Asti  ^as  rising  just  at  the  moment  of  birth,  the  celestial 

and  the  episcopate  of  St.  Evasius,  once  placed  by  equator  was  divided  into  twelve  equal  parts,   six 

some  at  much  earlier  dates.    Asti  has  182,600  Catho-  above  and  six  below  the  horison,  and  circles  were 

lies,  107  parishes,  300  secular  priests,  12  regulars,  92  drawn   through   these   points  and  the   intersecting 

seminarists,  525  churches  or  chapels.  points  of  the  horizon  and  the  meridian.     Thus  the 

Gams.  SerUt  eniscop.  Bode:  cathol.  (Ratisbon.  1873).  812;  heavens  were  divided  into  twelve  houses.     The  first 

UoHBLLi.  Italia  Sacra  (Venice.  1722),   IV.  332;   Cappblubtti,  u^,,«p     (hnrmtrnnim)    h^a\n&    with    the    Doint    of    the 

U  chiese  tntalia  (Venice,  1866).  XIV.  179;  Savio,  Oli  onHchi  ^^,^^.   {fwroscopus)    oegins    J^^^  xne    pomi    ^V^"© 

vucovi  d'ltalia:  PremonU  (Turin.  1897),  L  109-167.  echptic  that  IB  just  nsing  {ascendens) .     Ihe  twelve 


ASTBOLOaT  19  ASTBOLOaT 

houses  are  divided  into  cardinal  houses,  also  called  and  Assyrians  developed  astrology,   especially  ju« 
anffidif    succeeding    houses    (aticcedentea,   anaphora)  dicial,  to  the  status  of  a  science,  and  thus  advanced 
and  declining  or  GEuient  houses  (cadentesj  catapkora),  in   pure   astronomical    knowledge    by   a   circuitous 
rhe  houses  symboHze    respectively:    lite,  personal  course  through  the  labvrinth  of  astrological   pr«- 
propCTty,  consanguinity,  ricnes,  children  ana  jewels,  dictions.   The  Assyro-Baoylonian  priests  (Chaldeans) 
oealth,  marriage  and  course  of  life,  manner  of  death  were  the  professional  astrologers  of  classic  antiquity, 
and  inheritance,  intellect  and  disposition  (also  lonff  In  its  origin  Chaldaic  astrology  also  goes  back  to  the 
journeys),  position  in  life  and  dignities,  friends  ana  worship  of  the  stars;  this  is  proved  by  the  religious 
success,  enemies  and  misfortune.     In  tne  horo8coi)e  symbolism  of  the  most  ancient  cuneiform  texts  of 
aD  these  symbolic  meanings  are  considered  in  their  the  zodiac.     The  oldest  astrological  document  ex- 
relation  to  the  newly  bom.    A  Latin  hexameter  thus  tant  is  the  work  called  "  Namar-Beli "  (Illumination  ol 
sums  up  the  meaning  of  the  twelve  houses:  Bel)  composed  for  King  Sargon  I  (end  of  the  third 
Vita,  lucrum,  fratres,  genitor,  nati,  valetudo,  millennium  B.  c.)  and  contained  in  the  cuneiform  li- 
Uxor,  niors,  sapiens,  regnans,  benefactaque,  daemon,  brary  of  King  Asurbanipal   (668-626  b.  c.)-     It  in- 
The  position  of  the  planets  and  the  sun  and  moon  in  eludes   astronomical   observations   and   calculations 
the  twelve  houses  at  the  moment  of  birth  is  decisive,  of  solar  and  lunar  eclipses  combined  with  astrological 
The  planets  vanr  as  to  meaning.    They  are  divided  predictions,  to  which  the  interpretation  of  dreams 
into  davHstars  (Saturn,  Jupiter,  and  also  the  sim)  already  belonged.     Even  in  the  time  of  Chaldean, 
and  nignt-stars  (the  moon,  Mars,  and  Venus);  Mer-  which  should  be  called  Ass3rrian,  astrology,  the  five 
cunr  betongs  both  to  day  and  night.   The  sun,  Jupiter,  planets,  together  with  the  sun  and  moon,  were  di- 
anci  Mars  are  masculine;  the  moon  and  Venus  are  vided  according  to  their  character  and  their  position 
feminine.  Mercury  belonging  again  to  both  classes,  in  the  zodiac  as  well  as  according  to  their  position  in 
Jupiter   (fortuna  major)  and  Venus  (Jortuna  minor)  the  twelve  houses.    As  star  of  the  sun,  Saturn  was 
are  good  planets;  Saturn  (infortuna  major)  and  Mars  the  great  planet  and  ruler  of  the  heavens.     The 
{infortvna  minor)  are  malignant  planets.    The  sun,  weather,  as  far  back  as  this  time,  was  predicted  from 
moon,  and  Mercury  have  a  mixea  character.    Each  the  colour  of  the  planets  and  from  their  rising  and 
of  the  planets  known  to  antiquity,  including  sun  and  setting.     Classical  antiquity  looked  upon  Berosus, 
moon,  ruled  a  day  of  the  week;  hence  the  names  priest  of  the  temple  of  Bel  at  Babylon,  as  the  oldest 
still  used  to  designate  the  various  days.    Judicial  as-  writer   on   astrology:    and    according   to   Vitruvius 
trology  also  took  into  consideration  the  position  of  Berosus  founded  a  school  of  astrology  at  Cos.    Seneca 
the  sun  in  the  zodiac  at  the  moment  of  birth;  the  says  that  a  Greek  translation,  made  by  Berosus,  of 
signs  of  the  zodiac  also  had  a  special  astrological  the  "  Namar-Beli "  from  the  library  of  Asurbanipal 
significance  in  respect  to  the  weal  and  woe  of  the  new-  was  known  to  classical  antiquity. 
bom,    particularly  his   bodily  health.     In  medical        The  E^^yptians  and  Hindus  were  as  zealous  astrolo- 
astrology  every  sign  of  the  zodiac  ruled  some  special  cers  as  the  nations  on  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris.    The 
part  of  the  body,  as  for  example:  Aries,  the  Ram  dependence  of  the  early   Egjrptian  star  (sun)  wor- 
(T),  the  head  and  its  diseases;  Libra,  the   Balance  ship  (the  basis  of  the  worship  of  Osiris)  upon  early 
(— ),   the   intestines.     Judicial  astrology  postulates  Chaldaic  influences  belongs  to  the  still  unsettled  ques- 
the  acc^tance  of  the  earth  as  the  centre  of  the  solar  tion  of  the  origin  of  early  Egyptian  civilization.    But 
system.       Natural   astrology   predicts   the   weather  undoubtedly  the  priests  of  tne  Pharaohs*  were  the 
from  the  positions  of  the  planets,  especially  the  moon,  docile  pupils  in  astrolo^  of  the  old  Chaldean  priests. 
Many  of  its  theories  are  not  to  be  rejected  a  priori j  The  mysterious  Taauth  (Thoth),  the  Hermes  Tris- 
since  the  question  of  the  moon's  meteorological  in-  megistus  of  antiquity,  was  regarded  as  the  earliest 
fluence  still  awaits  a  solution  which  must  depend  teacher  of  astrology  in  Egypt.    He  is  reputed  to  have 
opcm  the  progress  of  human  knowledge  as  to  ether  laid  the  foimdation  of  astrology  in  the  "  Hermetic 
waves  ana  cognate  matters.  Books";  the  division  of  the  zodiac  into  the  twelve 
History.— The  history  of  astrology  is  an  impor-  signs  is  also  due  to  him.    In  classic  antiquity  many 
tant  part  of  the  history  of  the  development  of  civi-  works  on  astrology  or  on  occult  sciences  in  general 
Itzation;  it  goes  back  to  the  early  days  of  the  human  were  ascribed  to  this  mythical  founder  of  Egyptian 
race.     The  unchangeable,  harmonious  course  of  the  astrolo^.    The  astrological  rule  of  reckoning  named 
heavenly  bodies,  tne  profound  impression  made  on  after  him  "Trutina  Hermetis"  made  it  possible  to 
the  soul  of  man  by  the  power  of  such  heavenly  phe  calculate  the  position  of  the  stars  at  the  time  of  con- 
nomena  as  eclipses,  the  feeline  of  dependence  on  the  ception  from  the  diagram  of  the  heavens  at  the  time 
«m,  the  giver  of  daylight — Sn  these  probably  sug-  of  birth.    The^  Egyptians  developed  astrology  to  a 
ge^ed.  in  the  early  ages  of  the  human  race,  the  ques-  condition  from  which  it  varies  but  little  to-day.    The 
tion  whether  the  fate  of  man  was  not  dependent  on  hours  of  the  day  and  night  received  special  planets 
these  majestic  manifestations  of  Divine  power.    As-  as  their  rulers,  and  high  and  low  stood  under  the  de- 
trologv  was,  therefore,  the  foster-sister  of  astronomy,  terminative  influence  of  the  stars  which  proclaimed 
the  science  of  the  investigation  of  the  heavens.    From  through  the  priestly  caste  the  coming  fate  of  the 
the  start  astrology  was  employed  for  the  needs  and  land  and  its  inhabitants.     It  is  significant  that  in 
benefit  of  daily  lue;  the  astrologers  were  astronomers  ancient  Egypt  astronomv,  as  well  as  astrolo^,  was 
Qtij  incidentally  and  in  so  far  as  astronomy  assisted  brought  to  an  imdoubtedly  high  state  of  cultivation. 
*      r  in  the  functions  which  the  latter  had  tb  The  astoundingly  daring  theories  of  the  world  found 
in  connexion  with  religious  worship.     Ac-  in  the  Egyptian  texts,  which  permit  us  to  infer  that 
_  to  the  belief  of  the  early  civilized  races  of  their  autnors  were  even  acquainted  with  the  helio- 
the  Eiuit,  the  stars  were  the  source  and  at  the  same  centric  conception  of  the  universe,  are  based  entirely 
tsae  the  heralds  of  everything  that  happened,  and  on  astrologico-theosophic  views.     The  astrology  of 
theii|^  to  study  the  "godlike  science''  of  astrology  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  India  was  similar,  though 
vis  a  privilege  of  the  priesthood.    This  was  the  case  hardlv  so  completely  developed;  they  also  regarded 
m  Mesopotamia  and  Egypt,  the  oldest  centres  of  the  planets  as  the  rulers  of  the  different  hours.   Their 
^^■*'    "ion  Imown  to  us  in  the  East.     The  most  division  of  the  zodiac  into  twenty-eight  houses  of 
dwellers   on   the  Euphrates    the  Akkado-  the  moon  is  worthy  of  notice;  this  conception,  like 
were  believers  in  iudicial  astrology,,  which  all  the  rest  of  the  fundamental  beliefs  of  Hindu  as- 
f  interwoven  witn  their  worship  of  the  trology,  is  to  be  found  in  the  Rig- Veda.     In  India 
The  same  is  true  of  their  successors,  the  both  astrology  and  the  worship  of  the  gods  go  back 
Bans  and  Assyrians,  who  were  the  chief  ex-  to  the  worship  of  the  stars.    Even  to-day,  the  Hindus, 
of  astrology  m  antiquity.    The  Babylonians  especially  the  Brahmins,  are  considered  the  best  au- 


A8TR0L0OT  20  ASTBOLOaT 

thorities  on  astrology  and  the  most  skilful  casters  of  stars.    The  poem  of  Aratus  was  greatly  admired  by 

horoscopes.  both  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans:  Cicero  translated 

India  influenced  and  aided  the  development  of  it  into  Latin,  and  Hyginus,  Ovia's  friend,  wrote  a 

astrology  in  ancient  China;  both  India  ana  Mesopo-  commentary  on  it.     In  this  age  astrology  was  as 

tamia  that  of  the  Medes  and  Persians.    The  AaevrO'  highly  developed  as  in  its  second   perioa   of   pro&- 

Bubvlonian  and  Egvptian  priests  were  the  teachers  perity,  at  the  Renaissance.     Medical  astroloey  had 

of  the  Greek  astrologers.     Both  of  these  priestly  also  at  this  date  secured  a  definite  position.    Htp[X)c- 

castes  were  called  Chaldeans,  and  this  name  remained  rates  of  Cos  in  his  work  "De  Acre,  Aqua  et  Locis". 

the  designation  of  all  astrologers  and  astronomers  which  shows  the  influence   of   the   Pythagoreans, 

in  classic  antiquity  and  in  the  period  following.    It  discusses  at  length  the  value  of  astrofoey  and  its 

speaks  well  for  the  sound  sense  of  the  early  Grecian  prognostications  for  the  whole  domain  oimedicine. 

pnilosophers  that  thev  separated  the  genume  astro-  In  the  Alexandrine  school  of  medicine,  astrological 

nomic  hypotheses  ana  facts  from  the  confused  mass  prognosis,  diagnosis,  and  hygiene  soon  covered  with 

of  erroneous  astrological  teaching  which  the  Eg]^tian  their  rank  growths  the  inherited  scientific  teachings 

priests  had  confided  to  them.    At  the  same  time  it  that  had  been  tested  by  practice.     In  this  way 

was  through  the  old  Hellenic  philosophers  that  the  "astrological"  cures  grew  in  favour.    These  form/] 

astrological  secrets  of  the  Oriental  priestly  castes  of  the  art  of  healing  are  not  without  interest  both 

reached  the  profane  world.    The  earliest  mention  of  for  the  history  of  suggestion  and  for  that  of  human 

the  art  of  astrological  prediction  in  early  classical  error.    The  aiseases  of  the  more  important  bodily 

literature  is  found  in  the  "Prometheus  Vinctus"  of  organs  were  diagnosed,  according  to  the  influence 

iEschylus  (line  486  sqq.) — ^a  comparatively  late  date,  of  the  sign  of  the  zodiac  at  the  time,  and  a  medicine 

The  often  quoted  lines  of  the  Odyssey  (fik.  XVIII,  applied  which  either  acted  by  su^estion,  or  was 

136  sqq.)  nave  nothing  to  do  with  astrology.    As-  wholly  inoperative.    In  the  division  of  the  zodiac  ac- 

trology  was  probably  cultivated  as  an  occult  science  cording  to  its  medical  effect  on  the  different  parts  of 

by  the  Pythagorean  school  which  maintained  the  the  bc^  the  first  sim  taken  was  the  Ram  (^Aries), 

exdusiveness  of  a  caste.    The  teaching  of  Pythagoras  which  ruled  the  head,  and  the  last  of  the  series  was 

on  the  "harmony  of  the  spheres"  points  to  certain  the  Fishes  (Pisces) f  which  controlled  the  health  or 

astrological  hypotheses  of  the  Egyptian  priests.    It  ailments  of  the  feet.    As  the  appetite  of  the  Greeks 

is  a  striking  fact  that  Greek  astrology  be^an  to  for  the  mysterious  wisdom  of  astrology  grew  keener, 

flourish  when  the  gloiy  of  the  early  classical  civiliza-r  the  Egyptian  and  Chaldean  astrologers  continually 

tion  had  begun  to  wane.    It  was  in  the  age  of  Euripi-  drew  out  still  more  mystical,  but,  at  the  same  time, 

des,  who  refers  to  astrological  predictions  in  a  little  more  dubious   treasures    from   their   inexhaustible 

comedy,  that  the  belief  in  astrology  began  to  grow  store-house.    The  newly  founded  city  of  Alexandria, 

popular  in  Greece.   After  the  overthrow  of  the  As^rro-  where  the  later  Hellenic  culture  flourished,  was  a 

Babylonian  Empire,   the  priests  of  those  regions  centre  for  all  astrologers  and  practitioners  of  the 

found  refuge  in  Greece  and  spread  their  astrological  occult  arts.    From  time  to  time  books  appeared  here, 

teachings  by  word  of  mouth  and  writing.     In  this  professing  to  have  had  their  origin  in  tne  early  days 

way  astrology  lost  the  character  of  occult  science,  of  Egyptian  civilization,  which  contained  the  secret 

Astronomy  and  astrology  remained  closely  united,  knowledge  pertaining  to  astrological  and  mystical 

and  both  sciences  were  represented  by  the  so-callea  subjects.    These  writings  seemed  to  meet  the  aspi- 

Chaldeans,  Mathematici,  and  Genethliacs.    Astrology  rations  of  ordinary  men  for  the  ideal,  but  all  they  of- 

proper,  from   the  time  of   Posidonius,  was  called  fered  was  a  chaotic  mass  of  theories  concerning 

dToreXcerMarticd    (rendered    into    English,    "apoteles-  astrology  and  divination,  and  the  less  they  were 

matics"inordertoindicate  more  clearly  the  influence  understood  the  more  they  were  applauded.     In  the 

of  the  stars  upon  man's  final  destiny;  dr6,  "from".  Renaissance    these   pseudo-scientinc   works    of    an- 

and  tAoj.  "end").     Astrology  soon  permeated  the  tiquity  were  eagerly  studied.     It  suffices  here  to 

entire  philosophical  conception  of  nature  amon^  the  mention   the    books   of    Nechepso-Petosiris    which 

Greeks,  and  rapidly  attained  a  commandinjg  position  were  believed  by  the  neo-Platonists  to  be  the  most 

in  religious  worship.     Plato  was  obliged  to  take  ancient  Egyptian  authority  on  astrology  but  which, 

astrology  into  consideration  as  a  "philosophical  doc-  probably,  were  written  in  Alexandria  about  160  b.  c. 

trine",  and  his  greatest  disciple,  Aristotle,  was  the  About  this  same  time,  in  all  probability,  Manetho, 

first  to  separate  the  science  of  astrology  from  that  an  Egyptian  priest  and  traveller  repeatedly  men- 

of  meteorology,  which  was  reserved  for  the  phenom-  tionea  by  Ptolemy,  wrote  on  astrology.    In  order  to 

ena  of  the  atmosphere.    The  Stoics  who  encouraged  meet  the  exigencies  which  arose,  e&cn  degree  of  the 

all  forms  of  divination    were  active  promoters  of  heavens  in  late  Egyptian  astrology  was  assigned  to 

astrology.    The  more  plainly  the  influence  of  Orien-  some  special  human  activity  andsome  one  disease, 

tal  teaching  manifested  itself  in  Greek  civilization.  Besides  this,  the  "heavenly  spheres",  which   play 

and  the  more  confused  the  political  conditions  ana  so  important  a  part  in  the  history  of  astronomy,  were 

religious   ideas  of  the   Greek   Statesi  became,   the  increased  to  54,  and  even  a  higher  number,  ana  from 

greater  was  the  influence  of  astrologers  in  public,  and  astrological  calculations  made  from  the  complicated 

the  more  mischievous  their  activity  in  private,  life,  movements  of  these  spheres  the  fate  both  of  men  and 

Every  professional  astronomer  was  at  the  same  time  nations  was  predicted.     Thus  arose  in  late  classic 

an  astrologer.     Eudoxus  of  Cnidus,  the  author  of  times  the  svhcera  barbarica  (foreign  sphere)  which 

the  theory  of  concentric  spheres,  was  perhaps  the  in  the  Middle  Ages  also  had  a  controlling  influence 

first  to  write  in  Greek  on  purely  astrological  topics,  over  astrology. 

being  led  to  select  this  subject  by  his  studies  in  It  was  to  be  expected  that  the  sober-minded,  prac- 
Egypt.  Most  of  the  Greek  astronomers  known  to  tic^  Romans  would  soon  be  dissatisfied  with  the 
usfollowed  in  his  footsteps,  as,  for  instance,  Geminus  mystical  and  enigmatical  doctrines  of  Alexandriap 
of  Rhodes  whose  most  important  work  treatii^  of  astrology.  Cato  uttered  warnings  against  the  mis- 
astronomy  and  astrology  El^aytay^  tit  t4  *ati«6j*ewt  chievous  activity  of  the  Chaldeans  wno  had  entered 
(Introduction  to  Phenomena)  was  commented  on  Italy  alot^  with  Greek  culture.  In  the  year  139  b.  c. 
even  by  Hipparchus.  About  270  b.  c.  the  poet  the  Prator  Cneius  Cornelius  Hispallus  drove  all 
Atatus  of  Soli  in  his  didactic  poem,  "Phenomena",  astrologers  out  of  Italy*  but  they  returned,  for  even 
explained  the  system  of  Eudoxus,  and  in  a  poem  the  Roman  people  could  not  begin  an  important  un- 
caUed  "Diosemeia",  which  was  appended  to  the  dertaking  without  the  aid  and  advice  of  augurs  and 
former,  he  interprets  the  rules  of  judicial  and  natural  auspices.  It  is  only  necessaiy  to  recall  the  greatest 
astrology  that  refer  to  the  various  changes  of  the  man  of  ancient  Rome,  Julius  Csesar.     Cicero,  ^^ho  in 


ASTROLOGT  21  ASTROLOGT 

b's  yminger  days  had  busied  himself  with  astrology,  five  hundred  years  had  ruled  the  public  life  of  Rome. 
proteBtea  vigoroudy,  but  without  success,  against  In  321  Oonstantine  issued  an  edict  threatening  al) 
It  in  his  work  "De  Divinatione".     The  Elmperor  Qiakleans,  Magi,  and  their  followers  with  death. 
AofUfitus,  on  the  other  hand,  believed  in  astrology  Astrology  now  disappeared  for  centuries  from  the 
and  protected  it.   The  first  Roman  work  on  astrology  Christian  parts  of  Western  Europe.    Only  the  Arabic 
ma  dedicated  to  him:  it  was  the  ''Astronomica  '  schools  of  learning,  especially  those  in  Spain  after 
written  about  45  B.  c.  by  Marcus  Manilius,  who  was  the  Moors  had  conquered  the  Iberian  penmsula,  ao- 
probably  a  Chaldean  by  birth.     In  five  books  this  cepted  this  dubious  inheritance  from  the  wisdom  of 
poem  gives  an  outline  of  the  astrology  of  the  zodiac  classic  timeS;  and  among  the  Arabs  it  became  an  in- 
and  constellations.     The  fifth  book  is  devoted  to  centive  to  pure  astronomical  research.    Arabian  and 
the  vphara  barbarica.    It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  Jewish  scholars  were  the  representatives  of  astrolo^ 
poem  does  not  take  up  the  astrology  of  the  planets,  in  the  Middle  A^,  while  both  Church  and  State  m 
In  spite  of  repeated  attempts  to  suppress  it,  as  in  the  Christian  countries  rejected  and  persecuted  this  false 
reigns  of  Claudius  and  Vespasian,  astrology  main-  doctrine  and  its  heathen  tendencies.    Unfortunately, 
tamed  itsdf  in  the  Roman  Empire  as  one  of  the  lead-  at  the  same  time  the  development  of  astronomy  was 
ing  forais  of  culture.    The  lower  the  Romans  sank  checked,  excepting  so  far  as  it  was  needed  to  estab* 
in  religion  and  morals  the  more  astrology  became  lish  certain  necessary  astronomic  principles  and  to 
entwii^  with  all  action  and  belief.    Under  Tiberius  calculate  the  date  of  Easter.     Yet  early  Christian 
and  Nero  the  two  astrologers  named  Thrasyllus,  who  legend   distinguished    between    astronomy   and   as- 
were  father  and  son.  held  high  political  positions,  trology  by  ascribing  the  introduction  of  the  former 
The  most  distinguisned   astronomer  of  antiquity,  to  the  good  angels  and  to  Abraham,  while  the  latter 
Claudius  Rolenueus,  was  also  a  zealous  astrologer,  was  ascribed  to  Cham.    In  particular,  St.  Augustine 
His  "Opus  Quadripartitum.  seu  de  apoteleematious  ("De  civitate  Dei",  VIII,  xix,  and  in  other  places) 
et  judiciis  astrorum,  libri  IV"  is  one  of  the  chief  fought  against  astrology  and  sought  to  prevent  its 
treatises  on  astrology  of  earlier  times  and  is  a  detailed  amahramation  with  pure  natural  science.    Once  more 
account  of  astrological  teachings.    This  work  occu-  the  East  prepared  a  second  period  of  prosperity  for 
pied  in  astrology  as  important  a  position  as  that  astrolo^.     The  Jews,  very  soon  after  they  were 
which  the  same  author's  MeydXri  2i^rra|tr  (also  called  driven  into  Western  Europe,  busied  themselves  with 
"Almagest"),  held  in  the  science  of  astronomy  before  astrological  questions,  bemg  stimulate  thereto  bv 
the  appearance  of  the  Copemican  theory.    It  is  a  the  Talmud.   Jewish  scholars  had,  moreover,  a  knowl- 
strikinK  fact  that  Ptolemy  sought,  in  the  second  book  edge  of  the  most  important  works  of  classic  times 
of  the    Opus  Quadripartitum   ,  to  bring  the  psychi-  on  astrology  and  they  became  the  teachers  of  the 
cal  and  bodily  differences  of  the  various  nations  into  Arabs.    These  latter^  after  the  rapid  spread  of  Mo- 
relation  with  the  physical  conditi(His  of  their  native  hammedanism  in  Western  Asia  and  North  Africa, 
lands,  and  to  make  these  conditions,  in  their  turn,  and  their  defeat  in  Western  Europe  bv  Charles  Mar- 
Jepend  on  the  positions  of  the  stars.    The  Roman  tel,  began  to  develop  a  civilization  of  tneir  own.    The 
astrologers   wrote    their   manuals    in   imitation   of  mysti^  books  which  appeared  in  Jewish  literature 
Ptolemy,  but  with  the  addition  of  mystic  phantasies  after  the  time  of  the  Talmud,  that  is,  the  books  called 
and  mictions.    After  the  death  of  Marcus  Aure^ue,  the  "Sefer  Zohar"  and  the  "Sefer  Yezirah"  (Book 
the  Chaldeans  were  always  important  personages  at  of  Creation),  are  full  of  rules  of  divination  dealing 
the  imperial  court.    As  late  as  the  time  of  Constan-  especially  with  astrological  meanings  and  calculations, 
tine  the  Great  the  Imperial  notary  Julius  Firmicus  The  high  reputation  of  the  Talmud  and  the  Cabbala 
Matemus,  who  later  became  a  Christian,  wrote  on  among  the  Jews  in  the  Middle  Ages  explains  their 
"Mathematics,  or  the  power  and  the  influence  of  the  fondness  for  astrological  speculations;  but  at  a  very 
stars"  eight  books  which  were  the  chief  authority  m  early  date,  it  should  be  noted,  they  distinguished 
astrology  until  the  Renaissance.    With  the  overthrow  between  astronomy, "  the  science  of  reading  the  stars ' ', 
of  the  old  Roman  Empire  and  the  victory  of  Chris-  and  astrology,  "the  science  of  divination", 
tianitjr,  astrology  lost  its  importance  in  the  centres        Caliph  Al-Mansur,  the  builder  of  Bagdad,  was,  like 
of  (Christian  civHization  in  the  West.    The  last  known  his  son,  the  famous  tiarun-al-Rashid,  a  promoter 
sstrolo^  of  the  old  world  was  Johannes  Laurentius  of  learning.     He  was  the  first  caliph  to  call  Jewish 
(sometimes  called  Lydus),  of  Philadelphia  in  Lydia,  scholars  around  him  in  order  to  develop  the  study  of 
who  Uved  a.  d.  400-565.    .  the  mathematical  sciences,  especially  astronomy,  in 
Astrology    Under     CHRisnANiTY. — From     the  his  empire.    In  the  year  777  the  learned  Jew  jfacob 
start  the  Christian  Church  strongly  opposed  the  false  ben  Tank  foimded  at  Bagdad  a  school  for  the  study 
teaddnss  of  astrology.     The  Fathers  energetically  of  astronomy  and  astrology  which  soon  had  a  high 
demancted  the  expuEion  of  the  Chaldeans  who  did  reputation;  amonf  those  trained  here  was  Alchindi 
so  much  harm  to  the  State  and  the  citizens  bv  em-  (Alkendi),  a  noted  astronomer.     It  was  one  of  Al- 
pkyjring  a  fantastic  mysticism  to  play,  upon  the  in-  chindi's  pupils,  Abumassar  (Abu  Mashar),  from  Balkh 
endicable  impulses  of  the  common  people,  keepwng  in  Chorassan,  bom  about  the  year  805,  whom  the 
their  heathen  conceptions  alive,  and  fostering  a  soul-  Middle  Ages  regarded  as  the  greatest  of  Arabian  as- 
poplexing  cult  which,  with  its  fatalistic  tendencies,  tn^ogers.    Astrology  being  regarded  by  the  caliphs 
created  cufficulties  in  the  discernment  of  right  and  as  tl^  practical  application  of  astronomy,  all  the 
wrong  and  weakened  the  moral  foimdations  of  all  more  important  Arabic  and  Jewish  astronomers  who 
hm&an  conduct.    There  was  no  room  in  the  early  were  attached  to  that  court,  or  who  taught  in  the 
Offistian  Church  for  followers  of  this  pseudo-science.  Moorish  schools   were  also  astrologers.    Amon^  the 
The  noted  mathematician  Aquila  Ponticus  was  ex-  noteworthy  Jewish  astrologers  may  be  mentioned 
peDed  from  the  Christian  communion,  about  the  Sahl  ben  Bishr  aMsrael  (alK>ut  820);  Rabban  al-Ta- 
yw  120,  on  account  of  his  astroloipcal  heresies.    The  ban,  the  well-known  cabbaltst  and  Talmudic  scholar; 
eaify  ChristianB  of  Rome,  therefore,  regarded  the  Shabbethai  Donalo  (913-970),  who  wrote  a  commen- 
istrologere  as  their  bitterest  and,  imfortunately,  their  tary  on  the  astrology  of  the  "Sefer  Yezirah"  which 
tee  powerful  enemies;  and  the  astrologers  probably  Western  Europe  later  regarded  as  a  standard  work: 
<U  their  part  in  stirrins^  up  the  cruel  persecutions  and,  lastly,  the  Jewish  lyric  poet  and  mathematician 
<A  tbe  Oiristians.     As  Christianity  spread,  the  as-  Abraham  ibn  Ezrah.    Among  the  noted  Arabic  as- 
tnlogera   lost  their  influence  and  reputation,  and  tronomers  were   Massah  Allah  Albate^ius,   Alpe- 
pmaXty  sank  to  the  position  of  mere  quacks.    The  tragius,  and  others.     The  Arabo-Judaic  astrol(^ 
<)ftty(Bngon  of  Constantine  the  Great  put  an  end  to  of  the  Middle  Ages  pursued  the  path  indicated  by 
^  importance  of  this  so-called  science,  which  for  Ptolemy,  and  his  teachings  were  apparently  the  /m- 


A8XB0L00Y  22  ASTSOLOOT 

movable  foundation  of  all  astronomical  and  astro-  Leo  X,  and  Paul  III.  When  these  rulers  lived  as- 
logical  activity.  At  the  same  time  the  **  Opus  Quad-  trology  was.  so  to  say,  the  regulator  of  official  life: 
ripartitum"  of  the  great  Alexandrian  was  corrupted  it  is  a  fact  cnaracteristic  of  the  age,  that  at  the  papal 
with  Talmudic  subtleties  and  overlaid  with  mystical  and  imperial  courts  ambassadors  were  not  received 
and  allegorical  meanings,  which  were  taken  chiefly  in  audience  until  the  court  astrologer  had  been  con- 
from  the  Jewish  post-Talmudio  belief  concerning  suited.  Re^omontanus,  the  distinguished  Bavarian 
demons.  This  deterioration  of  astrology  is  not  sur-  mathonatician,  practised  astrology,  which  from  that 
prising  if  we  bear  in  mind  the  strong  tendency  of  all  time  on  assumed  the  character  of  a  br^sul-winning 
Semitic  races  to  fatalism  and  their  blind  belief  in  profession,  and  as  such  was  not  beneath  the  dignity 
an  inevitable  destinv,  a  belief  which  entails  spiritual  of  so  lofty  an  intellect  as  Kepler.  Thus  had  astrology 
demoralization.  Tne  result  was  that  ever^  con-  once  more  become  the  foster-mother  of  aU  astron- 
ceivable  pursuit  of  mankind,  every  disease,  and  indeed  omers.  In  the  judgment  of  the  men  of  the  Renais^ 
every  nation  had  a  special  ''heavenly  regent",  a  sanoe — and  this  was  the  age  of  a  Nicholas  Ck>pemi- 
constellation  of  definitely  assigned  position  from  the  cus — the  most  profound  astronomical  researches  and 
course  of  which  the  most  <fiu>ing  prophecies  were  theories  were  only  profitable  in  so  far  as  they  aided  in 
deduced.  the  development  of  astrology.  Among  the  zealous 
Up  to  the  time  of  the  Crusades,  Christian  countries  patrons  of  the  art  were  the  Medici.  Catharine  de' 
in  general  were  spared  any  trouble  from  a  degenerate  Medici  made  astrology  popular  in  France.  She  erect^ 
astrolo^.  Only  natural  astrologv,  the  correctness  an  astrological  observatory  for  herself  near  Paris,  and 
of  which  the  peasant  thought  he  nad  recognized  by  her  court  astrologer  was  the  celebrated  "ma>jgician" 
experience,  secured  a  firm  footing  in  spite  of  the  Michel  de  Notredame  (Nostradamus)  who  in  1555 
prohibition  of  Church  and  State.  But  the  gradually  published  his  principal  work  on  astrology — a  work 
mcreasing  influence  of  Arabic  learning  upon  the  civi-  still  regarded  as  authoritative  among  the  followers 
lization  of  the  West,  which  reached  its  highest  point  of  his  art.  Another  well-known  man  was  Lucas 
at  the  time  of  the  crusades,  was  unavoidably  followed  Gauricus,  the  court  astrologer  of  Popes  Leo  X  and 
by  the  spread  of  the  false  theories  of  astrology.  This  Clement  VII,  who  published  a  laige  number  of  as- 
was  a  natural  result  of  the  amalgamation  of  the  trological  treatises.  In  Germany  Johann  StOfFler, 
teachings  of  pure  astronomy  with  astrology  at  the  professorof  mathematics  at  TUbineen,  Matthias  Lan- 
Mohammedan  seats  of  learning.  The  spread  of  as-  denberg,  and,  above  all,  Philip  Melanchthon  were 
trology  was  also  furthered  by  the  Jewish  scholars  zealous  and  distinguished  defenders  of  astrolo^. 
living  in  Christian  lands,  for  they  considered  astrology  In  Pico  della  Mirandola  (Adversus  Astrologos  libri 
as  a  necessary  part  of  their  cabalistic  and  Talmu£o  XII)  and  Paolo  Toscanelli  astrology  encountered  its 
studies.  The  .celebrated  didactic  poem,  "Imago  first  successful  antagonists;  later  in  the  Renaissance 
Mundi",  written  by  Gautier  of  Metz  in  1245,  has  a  Johann  Fischart  ana  the  Franciscan  Nas  were  amonf 
whole  chapter  on  astrology.  Pierre  d'Ailly,  the  noted  its  opponents.  (Cf.  Philognesius,  Praotica  Practi- 
French  tneologian  and  astronomer,  wrote  several  oarum,  Ingolstadt,  1571.) 

treatises  on  the  subject.    The  public  importance  of        Gabottas  charming  essay,  "  L'astrolo^  nel  Quat- 

astrolQgy  grew  as  the  internal  disorders  of  the  Church  trocento",  in  "Ri vista  di  filosofia  scientifica",  VlII, 

increased  and  the  papal  and  imperial  power  declined.  378.  so.,  gives  much  information  concerning  astrology 

Towards  the  close  of  the  MidcQe  Ages  nearly  every  in  me  nfteenth  century.    A.  Graf's  "La  fatality  nelle 

petty  prince,  as  well  as  every  ruler  of  importance,  credenze  del  medio  evo"  (in  "Nuovo  Antologia", 

nad  his  court  astrologer,  upon  whose  ambiguous  ut-  3d  series,  XXVIII,  201,  sqq.)  is  also  of  value  for 

terances  the  weal  and  woe  of  the  whole  country  often  astrology  at  the  turning  point  of  the  Middle  Ages, 

depended.    Such  a  person  was  Angelo  Catto,  the  Some  of  the  late  Roman  astrologers,  among  whom 

astrologer  of  Louis  XI  of  France.    The  revival  of  was  probably  Firmicus  Matemus,  thought  to  reform 

classics^  learning  brought  with  it  a  second  period  of  astrology  by  idealizing  it  and  raising  its  moral  tone, 

prosperity  for  astrology.   Among  the  civilized  peoples  The  same  purpose  animated  Paolo  Toscanelli,  called 

of  the  Renaissance  period,  so  profoundly  stirred  by  Maestro  Pagoflo,  a  physician  greatly  respected  for 

the  all-prevailing  religious,  social,  and  political  fer-  the  piety  of  his  life,  who  belonged  to  the  learned  and 

ment,  tne  astrological  teachings  which  had  come  to  artistic  circle  which  ^thered  around  Brother  Am- 

light  with  other  treasures  of  ancient  Hellenic  learn-  brosius  C^maldulensis  m  the  Monastery  of  The  Angels, 

ing  found  many  ardent  disciples.     The  romantic  There  were  special  professors  of  astrology,  besides 

trend  of  the  age  and  its  highly  cultivated  sensuality  those  for  astronomy,  at  the  Universities  of  Pavia, 

were  conditions  which  contributed  to  place  this  art  Bologna,  and  even  at  the  Sapienza  during  the  pon- 

in  a  position  far  higher  than  any  it  had  attained  in  tificate  of  Leo  X,  while  at  times  these  astrologers 

its  former  period  of  prosperity.    The  forerunners  of  outranked  the  astronomers.    The  three  intellectual 

Humanism  busied  themselves  with  astrology,  and  centres  of  astrology  in  the  most  brilliant  period  of 

but  few  of  them  perceived  the  dangerous  psychical  the  Renaissai^ce  were  Bologna,  Milan,  and  Mantua 

effect  of  its  teachings  upon  the  masses.    Towards  The  work  of  J.  A.  Campanus,  published  at  Rome 

the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  the  Florentines  in  1495,  and  often  commented  on,  namely,  "Oratio 

employed  Guido  Bonatti  as  their  official  astrologer,  initio  studii  Perugi®  habita",  throws  a  clear  light 

and,  ^though  Florence  then  stood  alone  in  this  re-  on  the  lack  of  comprehension  shown  by  tiie  Church 

pect,  it  was  scarcely  a  hundred  years  later  when  Fathers  in  their  attitude  towards  pagan  fatalism, 

astrology  had  entered  in  earnest  upon  its  triumphant  Among  other  things  it  is  here  said:  "Quanquam 

course,  and  a  Cecco  d'Ascoli  was  already  its  devoted  Au^pstinus,  sanctissimus  ille  vir  cjuidem  ac   doo- 

adherent.     In  Petrarch's  day  the  qu^ionable  ao-  tissimus,  sed  fortassis  ad  fidem  rehgionemque  pro- 

tivity  of  the  astrologers  at  the  Italian  courts  had  made  pensior,  negat  quicquam  vel  boni  vd^  mali  astronun 

such  progress  that  this  clear-sighted  Humanist  (De  necessitate  contingere". 

remea.  utr.  fortun.  I,  iii,  sqq;  Epist.  rer.  famil...III,        In  the  Renaissance,  religion,  also,  was  subordinated 

8,  etc.)  again  and  again  attacked  astrology  and  its  to  the  dictation  of  astrology.    The  hypothesis  of  an 

representatives  with  the  keenest  weapons  of  his  wit,  astrological  epoch  of  the  world  for  eaon  religion  was 

though  without  success,  and  even  without  any  fol-  widely  believed  by  Italian  astrologers  of  t£e  time, 

lowing  except  the  weak  objections  of  Villani  and  the  who  obtained  the  theory  from  Arabo-Judaic  sources, 

still  more  ineffectual  polemics  of  Salutato  in  his  di-  Thus  it  was  said  that  the  conjunction  of  Jupiter  with 

dactic  poem  "De  fato  et  fortune '\    Emperors  and  Saturn  permitted   the   rise  of   the   Hebrew  faith; 

popes  oecAme  votaries  of  astrology — the  Emperors  that  of  Jupiter  with  Mars,  the  appearance  of  the 

uharles  IV  and  V,  and  Popes  Sixtus  IV,  Julius  II,  Chaldaic  religion;  of  Jupiter  with  the  sun,  the  £gyp> 


A8TB0L00T                              23  ASTROLOGY 

Man  religion;  of  Jupiter  with  Venus.  Mohammedan-  cvdtnred  man — all  these  toother  have  caused  as- 

iam;  and  of  Jupiter  with  Mercuiy,  Cfhristianity.    At  trology  to  emerge  from  its  hiding  place  among  paltry 

some  futiue  day  the  religion  of  Antichrist  was  to  superstitions.    The  growth  of  occultistic  ideas,  which 

<!ippear  upon  the  conjunction  of  Jupiter  with  the  should,  perhaps,  not  be  entirely  rejected,  is  reintro- 

moon.    Extraordinary  examples  of  theMglorification  of  ducing  astrologpr  into  society.     This   is  especially 

astrology  in  Italy  during  the  Renaissance  are  the  true  of  judicisS^  astrology,  which,  however,  by  its 

frescoes  painted  bv  Miretto  in  the  Sala  della  Ragione  constant  encouragement  of  fatalistic  views  unsettles 

at  Pa  via,  and  the  frescoes  in  Borso's  summer  palace  at  the  belief  in  a  Divine  Providence.     At  present  ju- 

Florence.    Petrarch,  as  well,  notwithstanding  his  pubr  dicial  astrology  is  not  justified  by  any  scientific  facts. 

lie  antagonism  to  astrolo^,  was  not,  imtil  ms  prime,  To  put  forward  the  theory  of  ether  waves  as  an  ar- 

entirely  free  from  its  tamt.    In  this  connection  his  gument  for  astrological  assertions  is  not  in  accord 

relations   with    the  famous    astrologer,    Mayno   de  with  the  methods  of  sober  science.   Judicial  astrology, 

Mayneri,  are  significant.     (Of.  Rajna,  Giom.  stor.,X,  therefore,  can  claim  a  place  only  in  the  history  of 

101,  sq.)  human  error,  while,  however,  as  an   historical  fact. 

Even  the  victorious  progress  of  the  Copemican  sys-  it  reflects  much  light  upon  the  shadowy  labyrinth 

tern  could  not  at  once  destroy  confidence  in  astrology,  of  the  human  soul. 

The  greatest  astronomers  were  still  obliged  to  devote  Astrology  Among  the  Ancient  Jews. — ^The  Bible 

their    time  to  making  astrological   predictions    at  is  free  from  any  base  admixture  of  astrological  delu- 

princely  courts  for  the  sake  of  gain;  Tycho  Brahe  sions.    There  is  no  reason  for  dragging  the  passage 

made  such  calculations  for  the  Emperor  Kudolph  II,  Josue  x,  12,  into  historico-astrological  discussions ;  the 

and  Kepler  himself,  the  most  distinguished  astronomer  facts  there  related — the  standing  still  of  the  sun  in  the 

of  the  age,  was  the  imperial  court  astrolo^r.    Kepler  valley  of  Gabaon  and  of  the  moon  in  the  vfdley  of 

was  also  obUged  to  cast  horoscopes  for  Wallenstein,  Ajalon — are  of  purely  astronomical  interest.    Only  a 

who  later  came  completely  under  the  influence  of  the  few  indications  in  >  the  Old  Testament  suggest  that, 

'aJchemiBt  and   astrologer   Giambattista    Zenno   of  notwithstandiii^  the  Divine  prohibition  ^x.,  xxii, 

Genoa,  the  Seni  of  Schiller's  "Wallenstein".    The  18;  Deut.,  xviu,  10,  etc.),  the  Jews,  especially  after 

influence  of  the  Copemican  theory,  the  war  of  en-  they  were  exposed  to  the  influence  of  Egjiptian  and 

lightened  minds  against  pseudo-prophetic  wisdom.  Babylonian  errors,  may  have  practised  astrology  in 

and    the  increasing  perception  of  the  moral  ana  secret,  along  with  other  superstitions.    The  Prophets 

psychical  damage  wrought  by  astrological  humbug  wam^  the  people  against  the  pernicious  ascenoancy 

at  last  brought 'about  a  declme  in  the  fortunes  ot  of  soothsayers  and  diviners  of  dreams  (Jer.,  xxix, 

astrology,  and  that  precisely  in  Wallenstein 's    time.  8:  Zach.,  x,  1-2),  among  whom  astrologers  were  in- 

At    the  same  period  astrological  tracts  were  still  eluded.    Thus  in  the  Book  of  Wisdom  (xiii,  1-2)  it  is 

being  written  by  the  most  celebrated  of  English  as-  said:  "All  men  are  vain  .  .  .  who  .  .  .  have  imag- 

trologers,  William  Lilly  of  Diseworth,  Leicestershire,  ined  either  .  .  .  the  swift  air,  or  the  circle  of  the 

who  received  a  pension  of  £100  from  Ctom well's  coun-  stars,  or  the  great  water,  or  the  sun  and  moon,  to 

oil  of  state,  and  who,  in  spite  of  some  awkward  in-  be  the  gods  tM,t  rule  the  world.*'    The  Book  of  Job, 

cidents,  had  no  little  political  influence  with  Charles  a  writing  of  importance  in  the  history  of  astronomy 

II.     Among  his  works  was  a  frequently  republished  and  star  nonoenclature,  is  also  free  from  astrological 

"Christian  Astrology".    Shakespeare  (m  Kjng  Lear)  fatalism.     But   to   this  fatalism  the  Jews   had   a 

and    Slilton  were  acquainted  with  and  advocated  natural  predisposition,  and  when  Hellenism  ^ined 

astrological  theories,  and  Robert  Fludd  was  a  repre-  a  footing  in  tne  Holy  Land  it  was  accompanied  by 

aentative  of  the  art  at  the  royal  court.    Francis  Bacon,  the  sprc^  of  astrology,  largely  among  the  learned, 

it  is  true,  sought  to  win  adherents  for  a  purified  and  the     philosophers",  at  whom  even  in  an  earlier  age 

reformed  astrology  in  order  to  destroy  the  existing  the  passage  in  Wisdom  had  probably  been  aimed. 

form  of  the  art.    It  was  Jonathan  S\iift  who  in  his  Again,  Isaias  (xlvii,  13-14)  derides  the  Babylonian 

clever  satire,  "Prediction  for  the  Year  1708  by  Isaac  astrologers  ("Let  now  the  astrologers  stand  and  save 

Bickerstaff,  Esa. ",  which  deserves  to  be  read  even  thee,  they  that  gazed  at  the  stars  ....  Behold  they 

at  the  present  day,  gave  the  deathblow  to  the  belief  are  as  stubble,  nre  hath  burnt  them")^  and  Jeremias 

of  Snglish  society  in  astrology.    The  last  astrologer  exclaims  (x,  2):  ''Be  not  afraid  of  the  signs  of  heaven, 

of  importance  on  the  Continent  was  Jean-Baptiste  which  the  heathen  fear". 

Mcjin,  who  issued  "Astrologia  Gallica"  (1661^.    The  After  the  Exile,   however,   astrology  spread  so 

fireatly  misunderstood  Swiss  naturalist  Theopnrastus  rapidly,  above  all  among    the  educated  classes  of 

P^BO^celsus  was  an  opponent  of  astrology,  and  not  Israel,  that  as  early  as  the  Hellenistic  era  a  Jewish 

its  advocate,  as  was  formerly  inferred  from  writings  astrological    literature    existed,    which    showed    a 

entMaeously  attributed  to  him.    The  rapid  growth  of  strong    Persico-Chaldean  influence.      The    prophets 

experimental  investigation  in  the  natiu^l  sciences  had  been  keen  opponents  of  astrology  and  of  a  re- 

m  those  countries  wnich  had  been  almost  ruined,  lapse  into  fatalism.    If,  when  they  were  prophesying 

socially  and   politically,  by  the  Thirty  Years  War  of^the  great  events  to  come,  the  contemplation  of 

completely  banished  tne  astrological  parasites  from  nature,  and  especially  of  the  stars,  filled  them  with 

society.    Once  more  astrology  fell  to  the  level  of  a  sympathetic  enthusiasm,  by  reason  of  their  poetic 

vulvar  superstition,  cutting  a  sorry  figure  among  the  inspiration  and  power  of  divination,  this  had  nothing 

daases  that  still  had  faith  in  the  occult  arts.    The  to  do  with  astrology.    On  the  other  hand  it  does  not 

peasant  held  fast  to  his  belief  in  natural  astrolo^,  appear  impossible  that  in  Daniel's  time  some  exiled 

and  to  this  belief  the  progress  of  the  art  of  printing  Jews  practised  astrology.    Judging  from  Daniel,  v, 

and   the  spread  of  popudar  education  contributed  7^  11,  it  is  possible  that  the  prophet  himself  held  a 

lai^gely.    For  not  only  were  there  disseminated  among  high  rank  among  the  astrologers  of  the  Babylonian 

the  noral  poor  *' farmer's  almanacs",  which  contained  court.     After  the  Exile  an  attempt  was  made  to 

information  substantiated  by  the  peasant's  own  ex-  separate    astrology    from    sorceiy    and    forbidden 

},  but  the  printing-presses  also  supplied  the  magical  arts,  by  denying  a  direct  Biblical  prohibition 

with  a  great  mass  of  cheap  and  easily  under-  of  astrology  and  by  pretending  to  find  encourage- 

hooks  containing  much  fantastic  astrological  ment  for  such  speculations  in  Genesis,  i,  14.    It  is  a 

106.  characteristic  fact  that  in  ancient  Israel  astroloj;y 

Tbe  remarkable  ph3^cal  discoveries  of  recent  dec-  received    no    direct    encouragement,   but   that    its 

\^  in  combination  with  the  growing  desire  for  an  spread  was  associated  with  the  relapse  of  many  Jews 

iievaled   philosophico-religious    conception    of   the  into  the  old  Semitic  star-worship  which  was  aided 

««ffld  rT-nd  the  intensified  sensitiveness  of  the  modem  by  Persico-Chaldean  influence.     For  this  Jeremias 


ASTROLOaY  24  A8TROLOOT 

is  a  witness  (vii,  18;  xix,  13;  xliv,  17-19,  25).     Co-  ate,  teachings  of  late  Judaic  astrology  were  swept 

incident  with  the  spread  of  astrology  in  old  Israel  awav. 

and  the  decline  of  the  nation  was  the  diffusion  of        The  lower  the  Jewish  nation  sank  in  the  scale  of 

demonolopr.    The  Jewish  prayers  to  the  planets,  in  religion  and  civilization  the  greater  was  the  power 

the  form  m  which  they  are  preserved  with  others  in  gained  by  the  erratic  doctrines  of  astrology  and  the 

CJodex  Paris,  2419  (folio  277r},  came  into  existence  at  accompanying  belief  in  demonolo^.     The  earthly 

the  time  when  Hellenism  first  flourished  in  the  East,  labours  or  the  Saviour  purified  this  noxious  atmos- 

namely,  the  third  and   second   centuries  b.  c.     In  phere.     The   New  Testament  is  the  opponent  of 

these   prayers  special  angels  and   demons  are    as-  astrology,    which,    by    encouraging    an    apathetic 

signed  to  the  different  planets;  the  greatest  and  most  fatalism,  prevents  the  development  of  an  elevating 

powerful  planet  Saturn,  having  only  one  angel,  Kte-  and  strengtheningtrust   in  a  Divine   Providence, 

toel,  and  one  demon,   Beelzebub.    These  planetary  The  "Star  of  the  Wise  Men"  (Matt.,  ii,  2,  7,  9,  sq.) 

demons  regulated  the  destiny  of  men.  cannot   be  identified  by  astronomy;   perhaps,  ac- 

The  most  notable  witness  for  astrological  super-  cording  to  Ideler  (Handbuch  der  mathemat.  und 

stitions  in  the  era  of  the  decadence  of  Israel  is  the  techn.    C^lhron.),    the    conjunction    of    the    planets 

apocryphal  "Book  of  the  Secrets  of  Henoch '\  which,  Ju]3iter  and  ^tum  is  meant.     But  this  hypothesis, 

notwithstanding  its  perplexing  phantasies,  is  a  rich  which  would  be  of  decisive  importance  in  settling 

treasure-house  of  intormation  concerning  cosmolog-  the  year  of  the  birth  of  Christ,  still  lacks  convincing 

ical  and  purelv  astronomical  problems  m  the  Hel-  proof.     It  finds  a  curious  support  in  Abrabaners 

lenic  East.    The  author  of  "Henoch"  is  said  by  a  comment  that,  according  to  Jewish  astrologers,  a 

Samaritan  writer  to  be  the  discoverer  of  astronomy,  conjunction  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn  was  a  sign  of  the 

and   the   book   contains   valuable   explanations   m  Messias.      It   must,   however,  remain    questionable 

regard  to  astronomy  and  astrolo^  at  the  time  of  whether  and  to  what  extent  a  prediction  of  Jewish 

the  Machabean  dynasty.    The  evidences    for  astro-  astrologers,  or  Kere  schamaiimjiB  to  be  considered 

logic  demonolofflr  in  ancient  Israel,  when  the  nation  as  reahzed  in  the  "Star  of  tne  Wise  Men"  (Matt.,  ii,' 

was  affected  by  Hellenism  and  Babylonian  decadence,  2,  etc.).    The  first  heralds  of  (Christianity,  the  Twelve 

are  foima  in  the  latter  part  of  the  "  Book  of  the  Apostles,  at  once  began  a  bold  war  against  the  rank 

Secrets  of  Henoch" — the  "Book  of  the  CJourse  of  growths  of  superstition.    They  also  battled  with  the 

the  Lights  of  Heaven" — as  also  previously  in  the  propensity  of^  the  people  for  astrology  and  in  its 

fourth  section  which  treats  of  Henoch's  wandering  stead  planted  in  the  hearts  of  men  a  belief  in  the 

"through  the  secret  places  of  the  world".     This  power  and  goodness  of  (jod.     Supported   by    the 

latter  is  perhaps  the  archetype  of  Dante's  "Divine  teachings  of  the  Scriptures,  the  (Siurch  Fathers  be- 

Comedy  .     According  to  the  "Book  of  Henoch"  came  powerful  opponents  of  astrology  and  attacked 

the  human  race  derived  its  knowledge  of  astrology  with  cietermination  the  bewildering  and  demoralizing 

and  "lunar  sorceries",  together  with  all  other  forms  ascendancy  of  its  devotees.    The  assertion  is  therefore 

of  magic,  from  the  seven  or  eight  spirits  from  whom  justified  tnat  the  Book  of  Books  remained  free  from 

come  the  chief  sins  of  mankind  (Henoch,  i,  8).    It  the  taint  of  astrological  delusion.    The  passion  for 

is,  moreover,  worthy  of  note  that  the  "Book  of  astrolo^  evinced  by  decadent  Judaism,  and   pre- 

Henoch"  must  be  regarded  as  a  witness  to  Jewish  served  in  the  Bible,  is  only  one  more  proof  of  the 

national  prophecy.     It  does  not  betray  the  ascend-  propensity  of  Semitic  nations  for  fatalistic  super- 

ancy  of  Hellenism  in  any  such  degree  as  do  the  stitions   and  of  the  purifying  and  victorious  power 

verses  of  the  "Sibylline  Oracles",  which  were  re-  of  the  ethics  of  Christianity. 

corded  in  the  old  Ionic  dialect  during  the  reign  of        Campbell   Thompson's  monumental   wcM*k,  "The 

Ptolemy  Physcon  (145^112  b.  c.)  by  Jewish  scholars  Reports  of  the  Magicians  and  Astrologers  of  Nineveh 

in  Egypt,  and  probably  at  a  later  date  in  the  Holy  ana  Babylon"   (London,  1902),  may  be  consulted 

Lana  itself.  for    the   valuable   facts  which    throw    light    upon 

The  astrological  demonology  of  the  Jews  was  the  dependence  of  the  astrology  of  the  ancient 
continually  fed  from  Egyptian  and  Babylonian  Jews  on  that  of  Babylon.  "A  special  branch  of 
sources,  and  formed  in  its  turn  the  basis  for  the  astrology  which  was  zealously  cultivated  in  Baby- 
astrology  of  certain  neo-Platonic  sects.  Together  Ion  was  medical  astrology,  or  the  astrolo^cal  prog- 
with  the  Parsee  astrology,  it  was  the  foundation  of  nosis  of  disease. "  Medical  astrology  is  important 
the  astrological  demonology  of  the  Gnostics  and  in  regard  to  the  question  of  astrology  in  the  Bible. 
Priscillianists.  The  influence  of  Hellenistic  Judaism  It  was  greatly  favoured  by  the  spread  of  empirical 
is  also  plainly  visible  in  the  philosophic  system  of  treatment  of  disease  among  the  astrologers.  The 
the  Harranites,  or  Sabeans.  It  is  only  necessary  Bible  itself  gives  very  little  information  concerning 
to  mention  here  the  high  honour  paid  by  the  Sabeans  this  form  of  the  science,  but  subordinate  Jewish 
to  the  seven  planetary  gods  who  regulate  the  fate  sources,  above  all  the  Talmud,  allow  conclusions  to 
of  man.  According  to  the  belief  of  the  Sabeans  be  drawn  as  to  its  importance.  Medical  astrology, 
every  planet  is  inhabited  by  a  spirit  as  star-soul,  derived  from  Arabo-Judaic  sources,  flourished  agam 
and  the  deciphering  of  the  figures  of  the  conjunction  at  the  time  of  the  Renaissance.  Its  professional 
and  opposition  of  the  planets  made  the  prediction  representatives  were  then  called  "latromathema- 
of  future  destiny  possible.  Other  elements  of  late  ticians",  after  the  mathematical  mode  of  arriving 
Judaic  astrology  were  adopted  by  the  earliest  known  at  conclusions  in  their  "art  of  healing".  [Cf.  Kan 
CHiristian  writer  on  astrology,  the  Byzantine  court-  Sudhoff ,  Jatromathematiker,  vomehml.  des  XV.  und 
astrologer,  Hephsstion  of  Thebes.  The  didactic  XVI.  Jahrhund.,  in  Abhand.  zur  Gesch.  der  Medizin 
astrological  poem  of  Johannes  Kamateros  (about  (Breslau,  1902),  pt.  II;  Wilh.  Ebstein,  Die  Medizin 
the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century),  which  was  dedi-  im  Alten  Testament  (Stuttgart,  1901);  Gideon 
cated  to  the  Byzantine  Emperor  Manuel  I,  appears  Precher,  Das  Tranzendentale,  Magie  im  Talmud 
to  have  been  drawn  from  Judjeo-Gnostic  sources.  (Vienna,  1850);  Trasen,  Sitten  der  alten  Hebrfter 
It  is  a  striking  fact  that  as  "demonized  astrology"  (Breslau,  1853).] 

gained  groimd  in  ancient  Israel — and  this  -  was  a        The  Babylonians,  chiefly  in  relation  to  medical 

branch  of  astrology  in  great  favour  among  the  Jewish  astrolo^Ti  custinguished  between  a  spherical  method 

scholars  of  the  age  of   the   Ptolemies,  and   much  of  calculation  (from  the  point  of  view  of  the  observer 

practised  by  them — the  worship  of  the  stars  ven-  to  the  stars,  i.  e.  subjectively),  and  a  cosmical  method 

tured  once  more   to  show   itself    openly.    It   was  (from  the  relative  position  of  the  stars,  i.  e.  objec- 

not  until  the  appearance  of  Christianity  that  the  tively).    The  former  was  used  in  the  prognosis  de- 

preposterous    ana,  in   part,  pathologically  degener-  duced  from  the  observation  of  the  twelve  houfiea 


ASTROMOMY  25  ASTROKOIVCY 

3f  t&e  heavens;  the  latter  in  that  drawn  from  the  skxuuries  in  the  seventeenth  century.     Indian  astron- 

twdve  signs  of  the  Zodiac.  omy  contained  few  original  elements.     It  assigned 

GalfiSE,  Lekrb.  einer  LUerOrgeaek.  (Leipzig,  1^30),  II.  oour  particular  prominence  to  the  lunar  zodiac,   called 

tains  a  list  of  ^  earUer  Uterature  of  the  subject;  L6w,  A^  the  naksholras,  or  mansions  of  the  moon,  variously 

&£e,'ri^"'i^y^«^['l^^^^^^  reckoned,    at    tw«nty^ven    or    twenty-eight:  anS 


SjAan  (Leipng,   1905);   Reitzbnstein,  Ztoei  religion8ge$<^,  ^x   •      j           j                  i.                    «     •        i                       ^ 

PnQen  (Strasbuifr.  1901);  Boussbt.  Reliffion  dn  Judentutiu  attamed,    and  a  peculiar  constellational  svstem  of 

Ml  MvMm.  ZeUaUer  (Berlin.  1906).    See  also  the  Uteratiue  obscure  derivation,  came  into  use.    The  Babylonians 

d^.^eL  S^tehi^.  ^»e*^f  nStg^i'S  fl««,  among  the  nations  of  the  fore-time,  succeeded 

cautioD  should  be  observed)  of  the  works  of  Felix  YON  Obitelb,  m  laymjg  the  foundations  of  a   progressive  science. 


/Aynw  cvirufi.  in  tne  same  proeeeainss.  rt.  VI.  hmhimw:     i;uum;«»u»biuutf    uavui^     uwu     suuai/ttutuuiy 

Zdoiermank.  pu  Wwnder  dtr  ffaneten  (B&:]m,  m,  d.);  designed  on  the  plain  of  Shinar  about  2800  B.  c. 

S£Sd5^3f;S^  ^ei^S;^  (i?Jl„"^lJ§?5:^=M*iSS^:  £«.  ^f^t^  »■  «>^f  epoch  the  "Saros-  be«une 

I'efto-  alie  und  neue  Astrotogie  (Berlin,  1872);  Lebrdn,  Hxbl  known.    This  IS  a  cycle  of  eighteen  years  and  ten 

criL  dea  praL  auperatU.:  Maury,  La  magie  et  VoMtroi.  (Pans,  or  eleven  days,  which  affords  the  means  of  predict- 

1857);  KiESEWETTTER.  Gcsdi.  dc»  OWrt<Zft«i»t*s  (Lemaig,  1896).  ijur  thPi    raf»iimnf>A    nf  f^^linnAa       Th#»    nhtLntnna    aif 

lI;BoccHfc-LECLERCQ,//t»teteiadivin.  (Paris.  1879):  Lenor-  '"k.^'^  recurrence   oi  ecupses.     ine  cnangmg  sit- 

MAKT,  La  divinatum  ehez  let  ChaldSena  (Paris,  1876);  HJIblbr.  uations  of  the  planets  among  the  Stars  were,  moreover, 

Attrol  im  AUa^um  (Zwickau.  1881):  HoMMEL.AMfsattewnrf  diligently  recorded,  and  accurate  acquaintance  was 

t^'J!!^^;^f!'f;Tul^r^l^Af^.  ?^^,^t.*^^  »?vement8  of  the  sun  and  moon 

1902),  III.  u;   Brucsch.  ^owtoloQie;  Jensen,   Kowtotogte  The  mterpretatK>n  m  1889,  by  Fathers  Eppmg  and 

(1883);  EppiNp-STRA88MAiEH,   Avtron,   aua  ^tt^Bofcyton   in  Strassmaier,    of    a    collection   of    inscribed    tablets 

^:^?::J^^^J'irf<^\^!^l^^T1t.^^A  P««*^£«>  t^«  Brit«'\,M"seum  vividly  aiuminat^ 

NeneJahrhh.  fur  PhU.  und  Pad.,  VII,  669;  Dietbrioh,  AhraxM  the  methods  of  official  Babylonian  astronomy  m  the 

(Leipag.  1904);  Webeb.  Iniien  S^ien,  I;  Rbitzenstbin,  second  century  B.  c.    They  were  perfectly  effectual 

llS:^&!'''T'^^^%^nk,^^%Sr^^^^:  *"!.*»»«  P,"nx»e  cUefly  in  view,  whiTh  was  the  prepa- 

Hebr.  UebenetM.  (Berlin,  1893);  L5wtn,  Ben  Chananja  (1863),  ratKMi  of  yearly  ephemendes  announcmg  expected 

101;  BuRCKHARDT,  Kvltw  der  Benaiwance  (Leipzig,  1898),  celestial  events,  and  tracing  in  advance  the  paths  of 

'^^■oT^^^Z^%-r^l^TF^^^:'^^.  *hej»eavenlv  b«l««.    Further  analysis  in  1899  by 

trtK  (1790).  Ill;  LiLi.T,  Christian  Aatrolom  ModeHly  Treated  Father  Kugler,  S.J.,  of  the  tabulated  data  employed 

(London,  1647);  Cbmbtmab,  Aetrology,  Cradle  of  the  Twin  in  computing  the  moon's  place,  disclosed  the  striking 

S£5iJ?^jSl2JS^''(fet°i^?>^^^^l£Sl^  ft«*  tl^t  *te;our  lunar  periods-the  synodic,  sid^ 

ne  SEARLB8  in  Catholic  World,  XLVII,  69.  real,    anomalistic,    and    draconitic    months — were 

Max  Jacobi.  substantially    adopted    by    Hipparchus    from    his 

Qialdean  predecessors. 

Astronomy  (from  Or.  Aarpov,  star;  r4ftei9,  to  distrib-  Qrebk  Astronomy. — Astronomv,  however,  no 
ate),  a  science  of  prehistoric  antiquity,  orionat-  sooner  became  a  distinctively  Greek  science  than  it 
ing  in  the  elemental^  needs  of  mankind.  It  is  underwent  a  memorable  transformation.  Attempts 
divide  into  two  main  branches,  distinguished  as  began  to  be  made  to  render  the  appearances  of  the 
astrometry  and  astrophysics;  the  former  concerned  sky  intelligible.  They  were,  indeed,  greatly  hampered 
with  determining  the  places  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  by  the  assumption  that  movement  m  space  must  be 
the  latter,  with  the  investigation  of  their  chemical  conducted  uniformly  in  circles,  roimd  an  immobile 
and  ph3r8ical  nature.  But  the  division  id  of  quite  earth;  yet  the  problem  was  ostensibly  solved  by 
recent  date.  The  possibilities  of  antique  science  Apollonius  of  Perga  (250--220  b.  c),  and  his  solution, 
stopped  short  at  fixing  the  apparent  positions  of  applied  by  Hipparchus  to  explain  the  movements  of 
objects  on  the  sphere.  Nor  was  any  attempt  made  the  sun  and  moon,  was  extended  by  Claudius  Ptole- 
to  rationalize  the  observed  facts  until  the  Greeks  mseus  (Ptolemy)  to  the  planets.  This  was  the  cele- 
laborioudy  built  up  a  speculative  system,  which  was  brated  theory  of  eccentrics  and  epicvdes,  which,  by 
finally  displaced  by  the  vast  fabric  of  gravitational  the  ingenuity  of  its  elaboration,  held  its  own  among 
theonr.  Descriptive  astronomy,  meanwhile,  took  its  civiliz^  men  during  fourteen  centuries.  Hippar- 
lise  from  the  mvention  of  the  telescope,  and  the  chus,  the  greatest  of  ancient  astronomers,  observed  at 
facilities  thus  a^orded  for  the  close  scrutiny  of  the  Rhodes  (146-126  b.  c),  but  is  considered  as  belong- 
denizens  of  the  sky;  while  practical  astronomy  ing  to  the  Alexandrian  school.  He  invented  trigo- 
gained  continuaUy  in  refinement  with  the  improve-  nometry,  and  constructed  a  catalogue  of  1080  stars, 
ment  of  optical  and  mechanical  arts.  At  the  present  incited,  according  to  Pliny's  statement,  by  a  tempo- 
time,  astrophysics  may  be  said  to  have  absorbed  rary  stellar  outburst  in  Scorpio  (134  b.  c).  Com- 
descrrotive  astronomy,  and  astrometry  necessarily  paring,  as  the  work  progressed,  his  own  results  with 
mdudes  practical  research.  But  matnematieal  as-  those  obtained  150  years  earlier  by  Timocharis  and 
tronomy,  grounded  on  the  law  of  gravitation,  keeps  Aristyllus,  he  detected  the  slow  retrogression  amone 
ltd  place  apart,  thou^  depending  for  the  perfecting  the  stars  of  the  point  of  intersection  of  the  celestial 
of  its  theories  and  tne  widening  of  its  scope  upon  equator  with  the  ecliptic,  which  constitutes  the 
advances  akmg  the  old,  and  explorations  in  new,  phenomenon  of  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes, 
directions.  The  circuit  is  completed  in  25,800  years;  hence  the 

PfcEHisTORic    Astronomy. — Formal    systems    of  tropical  year,  by  wnich    the  seasons  are  regulated,  is 

^^^tionomical  knowledge  were  early  established  by  shorter  than  the  sidereal  year  by  just  twenty-one 

tb^  Cfainucse,  Indians,  Egyptians,  and  Babylonians,  minutes,  the  equinox  shifting  backward  to  meet  the 

The  Chinese  were  acquaii^ted,  probabljr  in  the  third  sun  by  the  aimual  amount  of  50i*.    Greek  astronomy 

oofflennium  b.  c,  witn  the  cycle  of  nineteen  years  was  embodied  in  Ptolemy's  "  Almagest "  (the  name 

(redisoov^^ed  in  632  b.  c.  by  Meton  at  Athens),  by  is  of  mixed  Greek  and  Arabic  derivation),  composed 

vtich,  sinoe  it  comprised  just  285  limations,  thie  at  Alexandria  aJbout  the  middle  of  the  second  century 

wJir  and  lunar  years  were  harmonized:  they  re-  a.  d.     It  was  based  upon  the  geocentric  principle, 

cwded  cometary  apparitions,  observea  eclipses,  and  The  starry  sphere,  witn  its  contents,  was  supposed  to 

OBptoyed  effective  measuring  apparatus.     European  revolve,  once  in  twenty-four  hours,  about  tne  fixed 

■wiods  were  introduced  at  Pekin  by  ^Jesuit  mis-  terrestrial  globe,  while  the  sun  and  moon,  and  the 


A8TB0M0MY  26  A8TB0N0MT 

five  planets,  besides  sharing  the  common  movement,  ling  the  revolutions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  was  defini- 

described   variously   conditioned  orbits   roimd   the  tively  established.    But  this  was  only  a  be^ning. 

same  centre.    The  body  of  doctrine  it  inculcated  The  colossal  work  remained  to  be  accomplished  of 

made  part  of  the  imiversal  stock  of  knowledge  imtil  calculating  the   consequences   of   the   law,    in  the 

the    sixteenth    century.    The    formidable    task    of  minute  details  of  its  working,  and  of  comparing  them 

demonstrating  its  falsity,  and  of  replacing  it  with  a  with  the  heavens.     It  was  carried  forward,  first  by 

system  corresponding  to  the  true  relations  of  the  Newton  himself,   and  in  the  ensuing  century,  by 

world,  was  imdertaken  by  an  active  and  exemplary  Euler,  Clairaut,  d'Alembert,  Lagrange,  and  Laplace, 

ecclesiastic,  Nicholas  Copernicus,  Canon  of  Frauen-  Urbain   Leverrier    (1811-77)    inherited   from   these 

burg   (1473-1543).    The  treatise  in  which  it  was  men  of  ^nius  a  task  never  likely  to  be  completed; 

accomplished,  entitled  "De  Revolutionibus  Orbium  and  the  mtricacies  of  lunar  theory  have  been  shown, 

Coelestium",  saw  the  light  only  when  its  author  lay  by  the  researches  of  John  Couch  Adams  (1819-92), 

dying;  but  a  dedication  to  Pope  Paul  III  bespoke  of  Hansen  and  Delatmay,  of  Professors  Hill  and 

the  protection  of  the  Holy  See  for  the  new  and  Newcomb,  and  many  more,  to  be  fraught  with  issues 

philosophically  subversive  views  which  it  propounded,  of  unexpected  and  varied  interest. 
Denounced  as  impious  by  Luther  and  Melanchthon,        Discoveries  in  the    Solar    System. — The  ex- 

^  they  were,  in  fact,  favourably  received  at  Rome  imtil  traordinary  improvement  of  reflecting  telescopes  by 

theological  discredit  was  brought  upon  them  by  the  Sir  William  Herschel   (1738-1822)  opened  a  fresh 

wild  speculations  of  Giordano  Bruno  (1548-1600)^  epoch  of  discovery.     His  recognition  of  the  planet 

and    the   imprudent   utterances   of   Galileo   Galilei  Uranus   (IS  Malcn,   1781)  as   a  non-stellar  object 

(1564-1642).  marked  tne  first  enlargement  of  the  bounds  assigned 

Descriptive  Astronomy. — Descriptive  astronomy  of  old  to  the  solar  system;  two  Uranian  moons, 
may  be  said  to  have  originated  with  the  invention  of  Oberon  and  Titania,  were  detected  by  him  11  Jan- 
the  telescope  by  Hans  Lippershey  in  1608,  Its  uary,  1787,  and  the  innermost  Satumian  pair,  Ence- 
application  to  the  scrutiny  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  ladus  and  Mimas,  28  August  and  17  September  of  the 
by  Galileo  and  others,  led  at  once  to  a  crowd  of  same  year.  Saturn  was,  in  1906,  known  to  possess 
striking  discoveries.  Jupiter's  satellites,  the  phases  ten  satellites.  Hyperion  was  descried  by  W.  C. 
of  Venus,  the  mountains  of  the  moon,  the  spots  on  Bond  at  the  observatory  of  Harvard  College  16  Sep- 
the  Sim,  Saturn's  unique  appendages,  all  aescried  tember,  1848,  and  Professor  W.  H.  Pickering,  of 
with  a  little  instrument  resembling  a  uniocular  the  same  establishment,  discovered  by  laborious 
opera-glass,  formed,  each  in  its  way,  a  significant  photographic  researches,  Phoebe  in  1898,  and  Themis 
and  surprising  revelation;  and  the  perception  of  the  m  1905.  In  point  of  fact,  an  indefinite  number  of 
stellar  composition  of  the  Milky  Way  represented  sateUites  are  a^lomerated  in  the  rings  of  Saturn, 
the  first  step  in  sidereal  exploration.  Johann  Kepler  Their  constitution  by  separately  revolving,  small 
(1571-1630)  invented  in  1611,  and  Father  Schemer  bodies,  theoretically  demonstrated  by  J.  Clerk 
of  Ingolstadt  (1575-1650)  first  employed,  the  modem  Maxwell  in  1857,  was  spectroscopically  confirmed 
refracting  telescope;  and  the  farther  course  of  dis-  by  the  late  Professor  Keeler  in  1895.  The  system 
covery  corresponded  closely  to  the  development  of  includes  a  dusky  inner  member,  detected  by  Bond, 
its  powers.  Christian  Huy^ns  (1629-95)  resolved,  15  November,  1850.  The  discovery  of  the  planet 
in  1656,  the  ansa  of  Saturn  into  a  ring,  divided  into  Neptime,  23  September,  1846,  was  a  mathematical, 
two  by  Giovanni  Domenico  Cassini  (1625-1712)  in  not  an  observational  feat.  Leverrier  and  Adams 
1675.  Titan,  the  largest  of  Saturn's  moons,  was  independently  divined  the  existence  of  a  massive 
detected  by  Huygens  in  1655,  and  four  additional  body,  revolving  outside  Uranus,  and  exercising  over 
members  of  the  family  by  Cassini  before  1684.  The  its  movements  disturbances  the  analysis  of  which 
Andromeda  nebula  was  brought  to  notice  by  Simon  led  to  its  capture.  Its  solitary  moon  was  noted  by 
Marius  in  1612,  the  Orion  nebula  by  J,  B.  Cysatus,  William  Laasell  of  Liverpool  in  October,  1846;  and 
a  Swiss  Jesuit,  in  1618;  and  some  few  variable  and  he  added,  in  1851,  two  inner  satellites  to  the  re- 
multiple  stars  were  recognized.  markable  system  of  Uranus.    With  the  great  Wash- 

Theoretical  Astronomy. — The  theoretical,  how-  ington  refractor,  26  inches  in  aperture.   Professor 

ever,  far  outweighed  the  practical  achievements  of  Araph  Hall   discemed,    16   and    17   August,    1877, 

the    seventeenth    century.    Kepler    published    the  Deimos  and  Phobos,  the  swiftly  circling  moonlets  of 

first  two  of  his  "Three  Laws"  in  1609,  the  third  in  Mars;  the  Lick  36-inch  enabled  Professor  Barnard 

1619.    The  import  of  these  great  generalizations  is:  to  perceive,  9  September,  1892,  the  evasive  inner 

(1)  that  the  planets  describe  ellipses  of  which  the  satellite  of  Jupiter;  and  two  exterior  attendants  on 

sun  occupies  one  focus;  (2)  that  the  straight  line  the  same  planet  were  photographically  detected  by 

joining  each  planet  with  the  sun  (its  radius  vector)  Professor  Perrine  in  1904r-05.    The  distances  of  the 

sweeps  out  equal  areas  in  equal  times;  (3)  that  the  planets  are  visibly  regulated  by  a  method.     They 

squares  of  the  planetary  periods  are  severally  pro-  mcrease  by  an  ordered  progression,  announced  by 

portional  to  the  cubes  of  their  mean  distances  nx>m  Titius  of  Wittenberg  in  1772,  and  since  designated 

the  sun.    The   geometrical  plan  of  movement   in  as  "Bode's  Law".    But  their  succession  was  quickly 

the  solar  system  was  thus  laid  down  with  marvellous  seen  to  be  interrupted  by  a  huge  gap  between  the 

intuition.    But  it  was  reserved  for  Sir  Isaac  Newton  orbits  of  Mars  and  Jupiter;  and  the  conjecture  was 

(1643--1727)  to  expound  its  significance  by  showing  hazarded  that  here  a  new  planet  might  be  found  to 

that  the  same  uniformly  acting  force  regulates  celestial  revolve.     It  was  verified  by  the  discovery  of  an  army 

revolutions,  and  compels  heavy  bodies  to  fall  towards  of  asteroids.    Ceres,  their  leader,  was  captured  at 

the  earth's  surface.    The  law  of  gravity,  published  Palermo,  1  January,  1801,  by  Giuseppe  Piazzi,   a 

m  1687  in  "Philosophise  Naturalis  Principia  Mathe-  Theatine   monk    (1746-1826);  Pallas,    m    1802    by 

matica"  is  to  the  following  effect:    every  particle  Olbers   (1758-1840),  and  Jimo  and  Vesta  in   1804 

of  matter  attracts  every  other  with  a  force  directly  and  1807,  by  Harding  and  Olbers  respectively.     The 

proportional  to  their  masses,  and  inversely  propor-  original  quartette  of  minor  planets  began  m  1845 

tional  to  the  squares  of  their  distances  apart.    Its  to  Be  reinforced  with  companions,  the  known  number 

validity  was  tested  by  comparing  the  amount  of  the  of  which  now  approximates  to  ^600,  and  mav   be 

moon's  orbital  deflection  in  a  second  with  the  rate  indefinitely    increased.    Their   discovery    has  "been 

at  which  an  apple  (say)  drops  in  an  orchard.    Allow-  immensely  facilitated  by  Professor  Max  Wolf's  in- 

ance  being  made  for  the  distance  of  the  moon,  the  troduction,  in  1891,  of  the  photographic  method  of 

two   velocities  proved   to  tally  perfectly;  and  the  discriminating  them  from  stars  through  the  effects 

Identity  of  terrestrial  gravity  with  tlie  force  control-  of  their  motion  on  sensitive  plates. 


A8TR0N0MT  27  A8TB0K0MT 

• 
The  solar  system,  as  at  present  known,  consists  of  beforehand.    Mutually  circling  stars  exist  in  such 
four  interior  planets,  Mercury,  Venus,  the  Earth,  profusion  as  probably  to  amount  to  one  in  three  or 
and  Mars;  four   exterior,    and    relatively    colossal  tour  of  those  unaccompanied.    They  are  of  limit- 
pjanets,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus,  and  Neptime,  the  less  variety,  some  of  the  systems  formed  by  them 
d^use  crowd  of  pygmy  globes  called  asteroids,  or  being  exceedingly   close   and   rapid,    while   others 
minor  [Janets,  ana  an  outlying  array  of  comets  with  describe,  in  millennial  periods ,  vastly  extended  orbits, 
their  attendaiit   meteor-svstems.    All   the   planets  Many,  too,  comprise  three  or  more  members;  and 
rotate  on  their  axes,  though  in  very  different  periods,  the  multiple  stars  thus  constituted  merge,  bv  pro- 
That  of  Mercury  was  determined  by  Signor  Schia-  gressive  increments  of  complexity,  into  actual  clus- 
paidli  of  Mflan  in  1889  to  be  88  days,  the  identical  ters,   ^obular  and   irregular.    The   latter   class   is 
time  of  his  revolution  round  the  sun,  and  Venus  exemjmfied  by  the  Pleiades  and  the  Hyades,  by  the 
was,  in  the  following  year,  shown  by  him  to  be,  in  all  Beehive  cluster  in  Cancer,  iust  visible  to  the  naked 
likelihood,  similari^  conditioned,  the  common  period  eye.  and  by  the  double  cluster  in  Perseus,  which 
of  rotation  and  cureulation  being,  in  her  case,  225  maxes  a  splendid  show  with  an  opera-glass.     Globu- 
days.    This  implies  that  both  phmets  keep  the  same  lar  clusters  are  compressed  "balls"  of  minute  stars, 
hemisphere  always  turned  towards  the  sim,  as  the  of  which  more  than  one  hundred  have  been  cata- 
moon  does  towards  the  earth;  nor  can  we  doubt  logued.    The  scale  on  which  these  marvellous  sys- 
that  the  friction  of  tidal  waves  was,  on  the  three  tems    are    constructed    remains    conjectural,    since 
bodies,  the  agency  by  which  the  observed  synchro-  their  distances  from  the  earth  are  entirely  unknown, 
nism  was  brought  about.    All  the  planets  travel  Variable  stars  are  met  with  in  the  utmost  diversity, 
round  the  sim  mm  west  to  east,  or  counter  clock-  Some  are  temporary  apparitions,  which  spring  up 
iriae,  and  most  of  the  satellites  move  in  the  same  from  invisibility  often  to  an  astonishing  pitch  of 
direction    roimd    their    primaries.     But    there    are  splendour,  then  sink  back  more  slowly  to  quasi- 
exceptions.    Phoebe,  Saturn's  remotest  moon,  cir-  extinction.     Nova  Persei,  which  blazed  22  February, 
cuktes  oppositely   to   the  other  members  of   the  1901,  and  was  photographicallv  studied  by  Father 
system;  tne  four  moons  of  Uranus  are  retrograde,  Sidgreaves  at  Stonyhurst,  is  the  most  noteworthy 
their  plane  of  movement  bein^  inclined  at  more  recent   instance    of    the    phenomenon.     Stars,    the 
than  a  right  angle  to  the  ecliptic ;  and  the  sateUite  vicissitudes  of  which  are  comprised  in   cycles  of 
of  Neptune  travels  quite  definitely  backward.    These  seven  to  twenty  months,  or  more,  are  called  "  long- 
aoomalies  are  of  profound  import  to  theories  of  period  variables".    About  400  had  been  recorded 
planetary    origin.    The    "canals"    of    Mars    were  down  to  1906.    They  not  imcommonly  attain,  at 
recognized  by  Schiaparelli  in  August,  1877,  and  he  maximum,  to  1,000  times'their  minimum  brightness, 
cau^  si^t  of  some  of  them  duplicated  two  years  Mira,  the  "  wonderful "  star  in  the  Whale,  discovered 
later.    Their  photographic  registration  at  the  Lowell  by  David  Fabricius  in  1596,  is  the  exemplar  of  the 
obaervatory  in  1905  proves  them  to  be  no  optical  class.    The  fluctuations  of  "short-period  variables" 
Olusion,  but  their  nature  remains  enigmatical.  take  place  in  a  few  da^rs  or  hours,  and  with  far  more 
Comets  and  Meteors. — ^The  predicted  return  of  punctuality.    A    certain    proportion    of    them    are 
Halky's  comet  in  1759  afforded  the  first  proof  that  "  eclipsing  stars  "  (about  35  have  so  far  been  recog- 
bodies  of  the  kind  are  permanently  attached  to  the  nized  as  such),  wmch  owe  their  regularly  recurring 
sun.    They  accompany   its   march  through  space,  failures  of  light  to  the  interposition  of  larce  satellites, 
iraversing,  in  either  direction  indifferenthr,  highly  Aljgol  in  Perseus,  the  variations  of  which  were  per- 
eceentric  orbits  inclined  at  all  possible  angles  to  the  ceived  by  Montanari  in   1669,   is  the  best-known 
ectiptic.    They  are  accordingly  subject  to  violent,  specimen.     Hundreds  of  rapid  variables  have  been 
even  subversive  disturbances  from  the  great  planets,  recently  detected  among  the  components  of  globular 
Jupiter,   in  particular,  sways  the  movements  of  a  clusters;  but  their  course  of  change  is  of  a  to  tall  v 
poupof  over  thirty  "captiied"  comets,  which  have  different  nature  from  that  of  eclipsing  stars.     Ed- 
had  their    periods    curtailed,    and   their   primitive  mimd  HaUey  (1656-1742),  the  second  Astronomer 
velocities    reduced    by    his    influence.    Schiaparelli  Royal,  announced  in  1718  that  the  stars,  far  from 
announced  in  1866  that  the  August  shooting-stars,  being  fixed,  move  onward,  each  on  its  own  account, 
or  Perseids,   pursue  the  same  orbit  with  a  bright  across  the  sky.     He  arrived  at  this  conclusion  by 
OMnet  visible  in  1862;  and  equally  striking  accord-  comparing  modem  with  antique  observations;  ana 
anees  of  movement  between  tnree  other  comets  and  stellar  "  proper   motions "   now  constitute   a   wide 
the  Leonid,  Lyraid,  and  Andromede  meteor-swarms  and    expansive    field    of    research.     A    preliminary 
were  soon  afterwards  established  bv  Leverrier  and  attempt  to  regularize  them  was  made  by  Herschel  s 
WeisB.    The  obvious  inference  is  that  meteors  are  determination,  in  1783,  of  the  sun's  line  of  travel, 
the  dklntegration-products  of  their  cometary  fellow-  His  success  depended  upon  the  fact  that  the  apparent 
travellers.     A  theory  of  comets'  tails,  based  upon  displacements  of  the  stars  include  a  common  element, 
the  varying    efficacy  of  electrical   repulsion   upon  transferred  by  perspective  from  the  solar  advance. 
chemicaUy  different  kinds  of  matter,  was  annoimced  Their  individual,  or  "peculiar"  movements,  however, 
^  Theo(k>r  Br6dikhine  of  Moscow  in  1882,  and  gave  show  no  certain  trace  of  method.    A  good  many 
a  tttisfactory  account  of  the  appearances  it  was  stars,  too,  have  been  ascertained  to  travel  at  rat^s 
invented  to  explain.     Latterly,  however,  the  author-  probably  uncontrollable  by  the  gravitational  power 
ity  of  Arrhenius  of  Stockholm  has  lent  vogue  to  a  of  the  entire  sidereal  system.    Arcturus,  with  its 
"fifJiit-preBsuTe"    hypothesis,     according  to    which,  portentous  velocity  of  250  miles  a  second,  is  one  of 
coaietoiy  appendages  are  formed  of  particles  driven  these  "  runaway '\  stars.    The  sun's  pace  of  about 
&vn  the  sun  by  tne  mechanical  stress  of  his  radia-  12  miles  a  second,  seems,  by  comparison,  extremely 
tioiHL    But    the   singular  and  rapid  changes  pho-  sedate;  and  it  is  probably  only  half  the  average 
togoqi^cany  disclosed  as  takine  place  in  the  tails  stellar  speed.    The  apex  of  the  sun's  way,  or  the 
of  eometSy   remain  imassociated  with  any  known  point  towards  which  its  movement  at  i)resent  tends, 
etna.  is  located  bv  the  best  recent  investigations  near  the 

ftn^ftFAT.    Astronomy. — Sir    William    Herschel's  bright  star  Vega. 
^mavtry,  in  1802,  of  binary  stars,  imperfectly  antici-        Distances  op  the  Sun  and  Stars. — The  dis- 

pttod  by  Father  Christian   Mayer  in  1778,  was  one  tances  of  the  heavenly  bodies  can  only  be  determined 

cCiiiHrcaching  scope.     It  virtually  proved  the  realm  (speaking  generally)  by  measuring  their  parallaxes, 

of  jpmvity    to    include    sidereal    regions;  and    the  in  other  words,  their  apparent  changes  of  position 

KfatioQa  it  intimated  have  since  proved  to  be  much  when  seen  from  different  points  of  view.    That  of 

t  widely  prevalent  than  could  nave  been  imagined  the  sun  is  simply  the  angle  subtended  at  his  distance 


A8TS0V0MT                             28  ASTRONOMY 

s 
by  the  earth's  semi-diameter.    E^orts  were  made  of    forty-two    such    objects;  and    Charles    Messier 
with  indifferent  success  to  fix  its  value  by  the  aid  of  (1730-1817)  enumerated,  in  1781,  103  ^ebulae  and 
the  transits  of  Venus  in  the  eighteenth  and  nine-  dusters.    But  this  harvest  was  scanty  indeed  com- 
teenth  centuries.    The  asteroids  have  proved  more  pared  with  the  lavish  yield  of  Herschel  s  explorations, 
efficient  auxiliaries;  and  through  the  mediation  of  Between  1786  and  1802  he  communicated  to  the 
Iris,  Sappho,  and  Victoria,  in  1888-89,  Sir  David  Royal  Society   catalo^es  of  2,500  nebulae;  he  dis- 
Gill  as8i^p9bed  to  the  great  unit  of  space  a  length  of  tLnguished   their  special  forms,   classified   them  in 
92,800,000  miles,  which  the  photographic  measures  order  of  brightness,   and   elaborated   a   theonr  of 
of  Eroe,  in  1900-01,  bid  fair  to  ratify.    The  stars,  stellar   development    from    nebulas,    illustrated   by 
however,  are  so  vastly  remote  that  the  only  chance  selected  instances  of  progressive  condensation.    The 
of  detecting  their  perspective  displacements  is  by  next  coiisiderable  step  towards  a  closer  acquaintance 
observing  them  at  intervals  of  six  months,  from  with  nebuke  was  maae  by  Lord  Rosse  in  1845,  when 
opposite  extremities  of  a  base-line  nearly  186,000  the  prodi^ous  li^t-grasp  of  his  six-foot  reflector 
miles  in  extent.    Thus,  the  animal  parsdlax  of  a  afforded  him  the  discovery  of  the  great  '^  Whirlpool " 
star  means  the  angle  under  which  the  semi-diameter  structure  in  Canes  Venatici.     It  proved  to  be  typical 
of  the  earth's  orbit  would  be  seen  if  viewed  from  its  of  the  entire  class  of  spiral  nebulas,  the  large  prev- 
situation.    This    angle    is    in    all    cases,  extremely  alence  of  which  has  been  one  of  the  revelations  of 
minute,  and  in  most  cases,  altogether  evanescent;  photography.    The  superiority  in  nebula-portraiture 
so  that,  from  only  about  eij^hty  stars  (as  at  present  of  the  cnemical  to  the  eye-and-hand  method  was 
known),  the  terrestrial  orbit  would  appear  to  have  strikingly  manifested  in  a  photograph  of  the  Orion 
sensil^e  dimensions.    Our  nearest  stellar  neighbour  nebula  taken  by  Dr.  A.  A.  Common,  30  January, 
is  the  splendid  southern  binary,  o  Centauri;  yet  its  1883.    Its  efficacy   for   discovery   became   evident 
distance  is  such  that  light  needs  four  and  one-third  throu^  the  disclosure,  on  plates  exposed  by  Paul 
years    to    perform    the    journey    thence.    Thomas  and  Prosper  Henry,  and  by  Isaac  Roberts  in  1885-^, 
Henderson  (1798-1844)  announced  his  detection  of  of  complex  nebulous   formations   in   the   Pleiades, 
its  parallax  in  1839.  just  after  Bessel  of  Kdnigsberg  almost  wholly  invisible  optically.     Professor  Keeler 
(1784-1846)   had  obtained  a  similar,   but  smaller  (1857-1900)  estimated  at   120,000  the  number   of 
result  for  an  insignificant  double  star  designated  nebulte  wluch  the  Crossley   reflector  of  the   Lick 
61  Qjrgni.  observatory  would  be  capable  of  recording  in  both 
CelestiaIj   Photoorapht. — The   second   half   of  hemispheres  with  an  hour's  exposure,  wnile  tele- 
the  nineteenth  century  was  signalized  by  a  revolu-  scopically  constructed  catalogues  include  less  than 
tionary  change  in   the   methods  and  purposes  of  10»000.    But  it  is  through  the  combination  of  pho- 
astronomy.^     E]q)eriments    in    lunar  photography,  tography  with  spectroscopy,  constituting  the  spectro- 
hegun  in  1840  by  J.  W.  Draper  of  New  York,  were  graphic   mode   of   research,    that   astrophysics   has 
continued  in  the  fifties  by  W.  C.  Bond,  Warren  de  la  achieved  its  most  signal  triumplis. 
Rue,  and  Lewis  M.  Rutherfurd.    The  first  daguerre-  Astrophysics. — Tne    fundamental    principle     of 
otypeof  the  sun  was  secured  at  Paris  in  1845,  and  m>ectrum  ajoalysis,  enunciated  by  Gustav  KirchhofT 
traces  of  the  solar  corona  appeared  on  a  sensitized  (1824-^87)  in  1859,  depends  upon  the  eauivalence  of 
plate  exposed  at  Kdnigsberg  auring  the  total  eclipse  emission  and  absorption.     This  means  that,  if  white 
of  28  Jmy,  1851.    But  the  €»och  of  effective  scuar  light  be  transmitted  through  flowing  vapours,  thev 
photograpny  opened  with   the  Spanish  eclipse  of  airest  iust  those  minute  sections  of  it  with  whica 
18  Jiuy,  1860,  when  the  pictures  successivelv  ob-  the^  themselves  shine.     And  if  the  source  of  the 
tained  by  Father  Angelo  Secchi,  S.J.,  and  Warren  white  light  be  hotter  than  the  arresting  vapour, 
de  la  Rue  demonstrated  the  solar  status  of  the  crim-  there  results  a  prismatic  spectrum,  interrupted  by 
son  protuberances  by  rendering  manifest  the  advance  dark  lines,  distinctive  of  the  chemical  jiature  of  the 
of  the  moon  in  front  of  them.     At  subsequent  eclipses,  substamoe  originating  them.     Now  this  is  exactly 
the  leading  task  of  the  camera  has  been  the  portjnayal  the  case  of  the  sun  and  stars.    The  white  radiance 
of  the  corona;  and  its  importance  was  enhanced  emanating  from  their  photospheres  is  found,  when 
when  A.  C.  Ranyard  pointea  out,  in  1879,  the  corre-  dispersed  mto  a  spectrum,  to  be  crossed  by  numerous 
spondenoe  of  changes  m  its  form  with  the  alternations  duu^  rays  indicating  absorption  by  gaseous  strata, 
of  s(^ar  disturbance.    The  eleven-year  periodicity  to  the  composition  of  which  Kirchhoff's  principle 
of  sunspots  was  published  in  1851  by  Schwabe  of  suppUes  the  clue.     Kirchhoff  himself  identified    in 
Desaau;  and  among  the  numerous  associated  phe-  1861,  as  prominent  solar  constituents,  sodium,  iron 
nomena  of  change,  none  are  better  ascertained  than  magnesium,  calcium,  and  chromium;  hydrogen  was 
those  affecting  the  shape  of  the  silvery  aureola  seen  recomized  by  A.  J.   An^tr5m   (1814-74);  helium 
to  encompass  the  sun  when  the  moon  cuts  off  the  by  Sir  Norman  Lockyer  m  1868;  and  about  fortv 
glare  of  direct  sunlight.    At  ^x>t  maxima  the  aureola  elementary  substances  are  now  known  with  approxi- 
spreads  its  beamy  radiance  round  the  disc.    But  at  mate  certainty  to  be  common  to  the  earth  and  sun. 
times  of  minimum,  it  consists  mainly  of  two  great  The  chemistry  of  the  stars  is  strictly  analogous  to 
wings,  extended  in  the  sun's  equatorial  plane.    A  that  of  the  sun,  although  their  spectra  exhibit  diver- 
multitude  of  photographs,  taken  during  the  eclipses  sities   symptomatic   of  a    considerable    variety    in 
of  1898,  1900,  1901,  and  1905,  attest  with  certamtjr  physical  state.    Father  Angelo  Secchi,  S.J.  (1818-78), 
the  punctual  recurrence  of  these  unexplained  vicissi-  based  on  these  diversities  m  1863-67  a  classification 
tudes.    The  fundamental  condition  for  the  progress  of  the  stars  into  four  orders,  still  regarded  as  funda- 
of  sidereal  photography  is  the  use  of  long  exposures;  mental,  and  suppUed  by  Dr.  Vogel  in  1874  with  an 
since  most  of  the  objects  to  be  delineated  emit  light  evolutionary    interpretation,    according    to    which, 
so  feebly  that  its  chemical  effects  must  accumulate  differences   of   spectral    type    are   associated   with, 
before  they  become  sensible.    But  long  exposiu'es  various  stages  of  progress  from  a  tenuous  and  in> 
were  impracticable  until  Sir  William  Hug^ins,  in  choate  towards  a  compact  condition.    Since  1879, 
1876,  adopted  the  dry-plate  process;  and  this  date,  when  Sir  William  Huggins  secured  impressions  of 
accordingly,    marks    the    beginning   of    the    wide-  an  extended  range  of  mtra-violet  white  star  light, 
spreading  serviceableness  of  the  camera  to  astronomy,  stellar   spectra   l^ve   been  mostly  studied   photo- 
In  nebular  investigations  above  all,  it  far  outranges  graphically,  the  results  being,  not  only  precise  and 
the  tekecope.     Hsulev  described  in  1716  six  nebu-  permanent,  but  also  more  complete  than  those  obtain- 
he,  whieh  ne  held  to  be  composed  of  a  lucid  medium  able  by  visual  means.    The  same  eminent  invest!- 
collected  from  space.    The  Abb6  Lacaille  (1713-62)  gator  discovered,  in  1864,  the  bright-line  spectra  of 
brought  back  with  him  from  the  Gape,  in  1754,  a  list  certain  classes  of  uebuhe,  by  which  they  were  kiiowu 


A8TB0M0MT  29  A8TEOHOMT 

to  be  of  gaseous  composition,  and  recognized,  as  of  sufficient  evidence  of  its  being  in  a' state  of  dynamical 

ctAonaceous  origin,  the  typical  coloured  bands  of  equilibrium.    We  cannot  be  sure  that  it  has  yet 

the  oometary  spectrum,  noted  four  years  previously,  reached  the  definitive  term  appointed  for  it  by  its 

though  without   specific   identification,    oy   G.   B.  Creator.    Suggestive    hmts,    on    the    contrary,    of 

Donati  (1827-73)  at  Florence.  mstsJiHlity  and  evanescence  help  us  to  realize  that 

Dopj)ler'8  principle,  by  which  light  alters  in  re-  the  heavens  are,  in  very  truth,  the  changing  vesture 

frangibility  through  the  end-on  motion  of  its  source,  of  Him  whose  "  years  cannot  fail." 

was  first  made  ^ective  for  astronomical  research  ^  NEwcojirBv  Popular  AMrcnomy  (London,  1888);  Youno, 

bvHuggtos   in  .1868.    The   criterion   of  velocitv.  ^^SI^yi^^SZ^^^ilT^l^''^  ^ISfliLt, 

whether  of  recession  or  approach,  is  afforded  by  the  (London,  1900);  Geant,  Hutory  of  Phytiad  Astronomy  (Lon- 

shifting  of  spectral  lines  from  their  standard  places;  q®n,  1852);  Clbrkb,  Hist.  o4  Attr,  dwing  the  I9th  Century 

«.d  the  method  was  rawed  to  a  high  grade  <^u-  ^^i^;  '^■-  o^'^^'-pltA^'^^^'ii^A  \^Zl\ 

racy  through    Ur.    Vogel  S    adaptation,   m    1888,    of  Eppino  and  Strassmaier,  Attronomuchet  aua  Babylon  (Frei- 


AlgoPs  eclipses,  by  showing  that  the  star  revolved  Wxwcokb;  The  stars  (London,  1901);  Clerkb,  The  System 
round  an  oUu*  companion  in  the  identical  Period  ISrdfr^^^'ciSSik'^VrS^^irl^JrwVon^ 
of  h^ht-change;  and  the   farst  discoveries  of  non-    Nasmyth  and  CARPErrrF.R,  TA«  3foon  (Lond9n,  1903);  Schbi- 


—  . — r  »    1 —    1        J.  ..        .  •     J     r            i.  i"'          •  low;;  MULLER,  uis  fHotometne  aer  uesttme  (U^ipzig,  low;; 

cannot   be    sharply    distmguished    from    telescopic  Secchi,  Le  soUa  (Paris.  1875-77);    Moreux,  U  mhUme 

double   stars,    which    are,    indeed,  believed  to  have  9oUnrs  (Pwii,  1900V.  Turner,  Modem  Astronomy    (London, 

developed   from  them   under  the   influence  of  tidal  JggJ^I  Mouwdon,  An  Introduction  to  Astronomy  (New  York. 

friction;  their  periods  vary  from  a  few  hours  to  *                                           Agnes  M.  Clerke. 
several  months;  and  their  components  are  often  of 

such  unequal  luminosity  that  only  one  leaves  any  Astronomy  in  the  Bible. — No  systematic  ob- 
legible  impression  on  the  sensitive  plate.  Their  servations  of  the  heavenly  bodies  were  made  by  the 
known  number  amounted,  in  1905,  to  140;  and  it  Jews.  Astral  worship  was  rife  in  Palestine,  and  they 
may  be  indefinitely  augmented.  It  probably  in-  could  hardly  have  attended  closely  to  its  objects 
chides  all  short-period  variables,  even  those  that  without  yielding  to  its  seductions.  Astronomy  was, 
escape  ecli{>ses;  though  the  connection  between  under  these  circumstances,  inseparable  from  as- 
their  duplicity  and  luminous  variations  remains  trolatry,  and  the  anathemas  of  tne  prophets  were 
unexplained.  The  photography  in  daylight  of  solar  not  cardessly  uttered.  As  the  most  glorious  works 
prommences  was  attempted  by  Professor  Young  of  the  Almighty,  the  celestial  luminaries  were  indeed 
of  Princeton  in  1870,  and  the  subject  was  prosecuted  celebrated  in  the  Scriptures  in  passages  thrilling  with 
by  Dr.  Braun,  S.J.,  in  1872.  No  genuine  success  rapture;  but  the  appeal  to  them  for  practical  pur- 
was,  however,  achieved  until  1891,  when  Professor  poses  was  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Even  the  regula- 
Hale  of  Chicago  and  M.  Deslandres  at  Paris  inde-  tion  of  times  and  seasons  was  largely  empirical.  The 
pendently  built  up  pictures  of  those  objects  out  of  Jews  used  a  lunar  year.  It  began,  for  lelieious  pur- 
the  calcium-ray  in  their  dispersed  light,  sifted  through  poses,  with  the  new  moon  next  after  the  sprirg 
a  double  slit  on  to  moving  photographic  plates,  equinox,  and  consisted  normally  of  twelve  months, 
Professor  Hale's  invention  ot  the  "  spectrohelio-  or  354  days.  The  Jewish  calendar,  however,  de- 
^ph*'  enables  him,  moreover,  to  delineate  the  sun's  pended  upon  the  course  of  the  sun,  since  the  festivals 
disc  in  any  selected  quality  of  its  light,  with  the  it  appointed  were  in  part  agricultural  celebrations, 
result  of  disclosing  vast  masses  of  calcium  and  Some  process  of  adjustment  had  then  to  be  resorted 
Inrdroeen  flocculi,  pded  up  at  various  heights  above  to,  and  the  obvious  one  was  chosen  of  adding  a 
toe  8<3ar  surface.  thirteenth,  or  intercalary,  month  whenever  the  dis- 
SmERBAL  Construction. — The  investigation  of  crepancy  between  the  ripening  of  the  crops  and  the 
the  structure  of  the  sidereal  heavens  was  the  leading  fix^  dates  of  the  commemorative  feasts  became 
object  of  Wmiam  HerschePs  career.  The  magnitude  elaringly  apparent.  Before  the  time  of  Solomon,  the 
of  the  task,  however,  which  he  attempted  single-  Jews  appear  to  have  begun  their  year  in  the  autumn; 
handed  grows  more  apparent  with  every  fresh  at-  and  the  custom,  revived  for  civil  purposes  about  th'? 
tempt  to  grapple  with  it;  and  it  now  engages  the  fifth  centurr  b.  c,  was  adopted  in  the  systematized 
combined  efforte  of  many  astronomers,  using  methods  rdiigious  calendar  of  the  fourth  century  of  our  era. 
refined  and  comprehensive  to  a  degree  unimagined  Both  the  ritual  and  the  civil  day  commenced  in 
by  Herschel.  Aji  immense  stock  of  materials  for  the  evening,  about  half  an  hour  after  sunset.  Its 
the  purpose  will  be  provided  by  the  international  subdivisions  were  left  indeterminate.  The  Old  Testa- 
photographic  survey,  at  present  advancing  towards  ment  makes  no  mention  of  what  we  call  hours;  and 
completion  at  eighteen  observatories  in  both  hemi-  it  refers  to  the  measurement  of  time,  if  at  all,  only  in 
spheres.  ^  About  thirty  million  stars  will,  it  is  esti-  the  narrative  of  the  miracle  wrought  by  Isaias  m 
mated,  appear  on  the  chart-plates;  and  those  pre-  oonneotion  with  the  sundial  of  Achaz  (IV  Kings,  xx, 
dady  caUuogued  are  unlikely  to  fall  short  of  tour  9^11).  In  the  New  Testament,  the  Roman  practice 
milbons.  The  labour  of  discussing  these  multi-  of  counting  four  night-watches  has  superseded  the 
tudinous  data  must  be  severe,'  but  will  be  animated  antlaue  triple  division,  and  the  day,  as  amon^  the 
by  the  hope  of  laying  bare  some  hidden  springs  of  Greeks,  consists  of  twelve  equal  parts.  These  are 
the  sidmal  mechanism.  The  prospect  is  indeed  the  "temporary  hours"  whicii  stul  survive  in  the 
I'emote  that  the  whole  of  its  intricacies  will  ever  be  fiturgy  of  the  Chureh.  Since  they  spanned  the  in- 
penetrated  by  science.  We  only  perceive  that  the  tervu  from  sunrise  to  sunset,  their  length  varied 
Btan  form  a  collection  of  prodigious,  but  limited,  with  the  season  of  the  year,  from  49  to  71  minutes, 
otent.  showing  strongly  concentrative  tendencies  Corresponding  nocturnal  hours,  too,  seem  to  have 
towaids  the  plane  of  the  Milky  Way.  Nor  can  the  been  partially  used  in  the  time  of  the  Apostl«s 
nebala  be  supposed  to  Torm  a  separate  scheme.    The  (Acts,  xxiii,  23). 

doKoess  of  tn«ir  relations,  physical  and  geometrical.  As  might  have  been  expected,  the  Sacred  Books 

with  stars   excludes   that  supposition.    Stars  ana  convey   no   theory  of   celestial   appearances.    The 

nebuhe  belong  .to  the  same  system,  if  such  the  sidereal  descriptive  phrases  used  in  them  are  conformed  to 

vorid  may  properly  be  called  m  the  absence  of  a»y  the  qlernentarj  'tdoBSi  n&t aralty  prasenting  thems^ves 


ASTRONOMY  30  A8TB0M0MT 

to  a  primitive  people.    Thus,  the  earth  figures  as  an  viously  related  to  the  Arabic  root  hum  (accumulate), 

imlennitely  extended  circular  disk,  lying  between  the  and  to   the  Assyrian   kamu   (to    bind);    while  Uie 

realm  of  light  above  and  the  abyss  of  darkness  be-  ''chains  of  Kimah*\  referred  to  in  the  sacred  text, 

neath.    The    word    fipnamentumf    by    which    the  not  inaptl^r  figure  the  coercive  power  imparting  imity 

Hebrew  rakia  (}J^jn)  is  translated  in  the  Vulgate,  to  a  multiple  object.    The  associated  constdlation 

expressed  the  notion  of  a  solid,  transparent  vault,  Kenl  is  doubtless  no  other  than  our  Orion.    Yet,  in 

dividing  the  "upper  waters"  from  the  seas,  springs,  the  first  of  the  passages  in  Job  where  it  figures,  the 

and  rivers  far  below.    Throu^  the  a^ncV  of  the  Septuagint  gives  Herper;  in  the  second,  the  Vulgate 

flood-gates,  however,  the  waters  sustamed  by  the  qmte  irrelevantly  inserts  Arcturus;  Karstens  Niebuhr 

firmament  were,  in  due  measure,  distributed  over  the  (173^1815)    understood    KesU    to    mean    Sinus: 

earth.    The  first  visibility  after  sunset  of  the  crescent  Thomas  Hvde  (1636-1703)  held  that  it  indicatea 

moon  determined  the  beginning  of  each  month;  and  Canopus.    l^ow^kesil  signifies  in  Hebrew  "foolish", 

this  was  the  only  appeal  to  the  skies  made  for  the  or  "unpious",  adjectives  expressive  of  the  stupid 

purposes  of  the  Jewish  ritual.     Eclipses  of  the  sim  criminality  which  belongs  to  the  Ic^ndary  char- 

and  moon  are  perhaps  vaguely  referred  to  among  the  acter  of  giants;  and  the  stars  of  Onon  irresistiUy 

signs  of  doom  enumerated  by  the  Prophets  Joel  and  sugsest  a  hu|^e  figure  striding  across  the  sky.    The 

Amos,  who  may  easily  have  enhanced  their* imagery  Arabs  acoordmsly  named  the  constellation  Al-gebhar, 

from  personal  experience,  since  modem  calculations  ^'the  giant",  uie  Syriac  equivalent  being  Gabbara, 

show  solar  totalities  to  have  been  visible  in  Palestine  "a  strong  man'';  and  Keml  is  actually  translated 

in  the  years  831,  824,  and  763  b.  c,  and  the  moon  Gabbara  in  the  old  Syriac  version  of  the  Bible  known 

reddened  by  immersion  in  the  earth's  shadow  is  not  as  the  PeshiUa,    We  may  then  safely  admit  that 

an  uncommon  sight  in  any  part  of  the  world.     But  Kimah  and  Kesil  did  actually  designate  the  Pleiades 

the  passages  in  question  cannot  be  literally  asso-  and  Orion.    But  further  interpretations   are   con- 

ciated  with  mere  passing  phenomena.    The  prophets  siderably  more  obscure.     In .  the  Book  of  Job — the 

aimed  at  somethmg  higher  than  intimidation.     An  most  distinctively  astronomical  part  of  the  Bible — 

express  warning  against  ignoble  panic  was  indeed  mention  is  made,  with  other  stars,  of  Ash  and  Ayish, 

uttered  by  Jeremias  in  the  words:  "Be  not  afraid  of  almost  certainly  divergent  forms  of  the  same  word, 

the  signs  of  heaven,  which  the  heathens  fear"  (x,  2).  Its  signification  remains  an  enigma.    The  Vulgate 

The  stellar  vault,  conceived  to  be  situated  above  and  Septuagint  inconsistently  render  it  "Arcturus" 

the  firmament,  is  compared  by  Isaias  to  a  tent  and  "Hesperus".    Abenezra  (1092-1167),  however, 

stretched  out  by  the  Most  High.    The  "host  of  the  learned  Rabbi  of  Toledo,  gave  such  strong  rea- 

heaven",  a  frequently  recurring  Scriptural  expres-  sons  for  holding  Ashj  or  Ayish,  to  mean  the  Great 

sion,  has  both  a  general  and  a  specific  meaning.    It  Bear,  that  the  opinion,  though  probably  erroneous, 

designates,  in  some  passages,  the  entire  array  of  is  still  prevalent.     It  was  cmeny  grounded  on  the 

stars;  in  others  it  psurticularly  applies  to  the  sun,  phonetic  resemblance  between  ash  and  the  Arabic 

moon,  planets,  and  certain  selected  stars,  the  wor-  na  'ash,  "a  bier",  applied  to  the  four  stars  of  the 

ship  of  which  was  introduced  from  Babylonia  under  Wain«  the  three  in  front  figuring  as  mourners,  under 

the  later  kings  of  Israel.     Venus  and  Saturn  are  the  the  title  of  Bendt  na  *ash,  "daughters  of  the  bier", 

only  planets  expressly  mentioned  in  the  Old  Tes-  But  Job,  too,  speaks  of  the  "  children  of  Ayish ",  and 

tament.     Isaias  (xiv,  12)  apostrophizes  the  Babylon-  the  inference  seems  irresistible  that  the  same  star- 

ian  Empire  under  the  unmistakable  type  of  He"  group  was  similarly  referred  to  in  both  cases.     Yet 

UU  (Lucifer  in  the  Vulgate),  "son  of  the  morning";  there  is  large  room  for  doubt.    Modem  philologists 

and  Saturn  is  no  less  certainly  represented  by  the  do  not  admit  the  alleged  connection  of  Ayish  with 

star  Kaitoan,  adored  by  the  reprobate  Israelites  in  ria  *ash,  nor  is  any  funereal  association  apparent  in 

the  desert  (Amos,  v,  26).    The  same  word  (inter-  the  Book  of  Job.    On  the  other  hand.  Professor 

preted  to  mean  "steadfast")  freauently  designates,  SchiapareUi  draws  attention  to  the  fact  that  ash 

m  the  Babylonian  inscriptions,  the  slowest-moving  denotes  "moth"  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  that  the 

planet;  while  Sakkuth,  the  divinity  associated  with  folded  wings  of  the  insect  are  closely  imitated  in 

the  star  by  the  prophet,  is  an  alternative  appellation  their  triangular  shape  by  the  doubly  aligned  stars 

for  Ninib,  who,  as  a  Babylonian  planet^od,  was  of  the  Hyades.    Now  Ayish  in  the  Peshitta  is  trans- 

merged    with    Saturn.    The    ancient    Syrians    and  lated  Ivuiha.  a  constellation  mentioned  by  St.  Ephrem 

Arabs,  too.  called  Saturn  Kaiwan,  the  corresponding  and  other  Syriac  writers,  and  SchiaparelU's  learned 

term  in  the  Zoroastrian  Bundahish  being    Kevan,  consideration  of  the  various  indications  afforded  by 

The  other  planets  are  individualized  in  the  Bible  Arabic  and  Syriac  literature  makes  it  reasonably 

only   by  implication.    The   worship  of  eods   con-  certain  that  lyiUha  authentically  signifies  Aldebaran, 

nected  with  them  is  denounced,  but  wimout  any  the  great  red  star  in  the  head  of  the  Bull,  with  its 

manifest    intention   of   referring   to    the   heavenly  children,  the  rainy  Hyades.    It  is  true  that  Hyde, 

bodies.    Thus,  Gad  and  Meni  (Isaias,  Ixv,  11)  are.  Ewald,  and  other  scholars  have  adopted  Capella  and 

no  doubt,  the  "greater  and  the  lesser  Fortime"  the  Kids  as  representative  of  lyiUha,  and  therefore 

typified  throughout  the  East  by  Jupiter  and  Venus;  of  "Ayish  and  her  children";  but  the  view  involves 

Neba,  the  tutelary  deity  of  Borsippa  (Isaias,  xlvi,  1).  many  moongruities.    The  glories  of  the  sky  adverted 

shone  in  the  sky  as  Mercury,  and  Nergalf  transplanted  to  in  the  Book  of  Job  indude  a  sidereal  landscape 

from  Assyria  to  Kutha   C^V  Kings,  xvii,  30),  as  vaguely  described  as  "the  chambers  [i.  e.  venetralia] 

Mars.  of  the  south ".    The  phrase,  according  to  Scniaparelli, 

The  uranography  of  the  Jews  is  fraught  with  refers  to  some  assemblage  of  brilliant  stars,  rising 

perplexity.    Some  half-dozen  star-groups  are  named  20  decrees  at  most  above  the  southern  horizon  in 

m  the  Scriptures,  but  authorities  difTer  widely  as  to  Palestme  about  the  year  750  b.  c.  (assumed  as  the 

their  identity.    In  z  striking  passage  the  Prophet  date  of  the  Patriarch  Job),  and,  taking  account  of  the 

Amos  (t,  S)  g*>cr:fle*»  the  Creator  as  "Him  that  made  changes  due  to  precession,  he  points  out  that  the 

Kimah   njid    K^9il'\   rendered   in   the   Vulffate  as  stellar  pageant  formed  by  the  Ship,  the  Ooss,  and 

Arrtarus  and  Orion.     New  Kimah  certainly  does  the  CJentaur  meets  the  required  conditions.    Sirius, 

noC  ^«an  Arcturus.     The  word,  which  occurs  twice  although  at  the  date  in  question  it  culminated  at  an 

ir.  (he  Book  of  Job  (ix,  9;  xxxviii,  31),  is  treated  in  altitude  of   41    degrees,   may  possibly  have  been 

che  Septuagint  version  as  equivalent  to  Pleiades,  thought  of  as  belonging  to  the  "  chambers  of  the 

t'his,  also,  is  the  meaninjg  given  to  it  in  the  Talmud  south";  otherwise,  this  splendid  object  would  appear 

and  throughout  Syrian  literature;  it  is  supported  by  to  be  ignored  in  the  Bible.    Job  opposes  to   the 

etymologic  evidences,  the  Hebrew  term  being  ob-  "chambers  of  the  south",  as  the  source  of  cold,  an 


A8TR08  31  A8TRU0 

asterism  named    Mezarim    (xxxvil,    9).     Both    the  stellation  Draco  is  of  hoary  antiquity,  and  would 

Vulgate  and  the  Septuapnt  render  this  word  by  quite  probably  have  been  familiar  to  Job.     On  the 

Ardunts,  evidently  in  mistake  (the  blimder  is  not  other  hand,  Rahab  (Job,  ix,  13;  xxvi,  12),  translated 

uncommon)  for  Aretes.    The  Great  Bear  circled  in  "  whale "  in  the  Septuagint,  is  probably  of  legendary 

tnose  days  much  more  closely  roimd  the  pole  than  or^rmbolical  import. 

>  now  does;  ite  typical  northern  character  survives        Tne  subjoined  list  gives  (largely  on  Schiaparelli's 

.the Latin  word  8^>tentrio  (from  aeptem  trUmea,  the  authority)    the    best-warranted    mterpretations    of 

'  .pn  stars  of  the  Wain);  ana  Schiaparelli  concludes,  biblical   star-names:    Kimah,    the    Pleiades;    KesUf 

i.jm  the  dual  form  of  Tne^drim,  that  the  Jews,  like  the  Orion;  Ash,  or  Ayiah,   the  Hyades;   Mezarim,   the 

I i)(?nicians,  were  acquainted  with  the  Little,  as  well  Bears  (Great  and  Little);   Mazzaroth,  Venus  (Lucifer 

rs  with  the  Great,  Bear.     He  identifies  the  word  as  and  Hesperus);  Hadre   theman — "the  chambers  of 

lie  plural,  or  dual,  of  mwreh,  "a  winnowing-fan ",  the  south"— Canopus,  the  Southern  Cross,  and  a  Cen- 

Ln  instrument  figured  by  the  seven  stars  of  the  Wain,  tauri;  Nachash,  Draco. 

fjuite  as  accurately  as  the  Ladle  of  the  Chinese  or  the        The  New  Testament  is  virtually  devoid  of  as- 

Wpper  of  popular  American  parlance.  tronomical  allusions.    The  "Star  of  the  Magi"  can 

Perhaps  the  most  baffling  riddle  in  Biblical  star-  scarcely  be  regarded  as  an  objective  phenomenon; 

iiomenclature  is  that  presented  by  the  word  Mazza-'  it  was,  at  least,  inconspicuous  to  ordinary  notice. 

Toth.  or  Mazzaloth  (Job,  xxxviii,  31,  32*  IV  Kings,  Kepler,  however,  advanced,  in  1606,  the  hypothesis 

xiiii,  5),  usually,  though  not  unanimously,  admitted  that  a  remarkable  conjunction  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn, 

to  be  phonetic  variants.     As  to  their  signification,  which  occurred  in  May  of  the  year  7  b.  c,  was  the 

otm<ms  are  hopelessly  divergent.    The  authors  of  celestial  sign  followed  by  the  Wise  Men.     Revived 

the  Septuagint  transcribed,  without  translating,  the  in   1821  by  Dr.  MtUiter,   the  Lutheran  Bishop  of 

ambiguous  expression;   the    Vulgate   gives   for  its  Zealand,  this  opinion  was  stron^v  advocated  in  1826 

equivalent  Lucifer  in  Job,  the  Signs  of  the  Zodiac  in  by  C.  L.  Ideler  (Handbuch  der  Chronologie,  II,  399). 

the  Book  of  Kings.    St.  John  Chrysoetom  adopted  But  the  late  Dr.  Pritchard's  investigation  (Smith's 

the  latter  meaning,  noting,  however,  that  many  of  Dkjt.  of  the  Bible,  Memoirs  Roy.  Astr.  Society,  XXV, 

hts  oontemporories  interpreted  Mazzaroth  as  Sinus.  119)  demonstrateid  its  inadequacy  to  fulfil  the  re^ 

But  this  idea  soon  lost  vogue,  while  the  zodiacal  ex-  quirements  of  the  Gospel  narrative. 

:danation  gained   wide   currency.      It   is,   indeed,   at         Schiaparklli.  L'Attronomia  neW  anHco  TeHamento  (Milan, 

^J^^L  '^r^'^i-  p**""'"*-  hs?  K^"-'*  ^''*  &!'i^r*i^^w!s:;i;^Si,^  Sr^s;si"2?r 

tiodus  the  Twelve   Signs  were  established  m   Eu-  tunu  (Leipsig.  1893};  Mahlee,  Btblische  Chronologie  (Vienna 

Jihratean    regions    much    as    we    know    them    now.  1887);  Schraoer,  Die  Keilintehriften  und  dot  alie  Tettament 

ytbough  never  worshioped  in  apnnuuy  aen*^  they  ilS^^liiiSSS:  c'Jr^  ^  ff&«^^^: 

may  well  have   been   held  sacred   as  the  abodes  of  tr.  Edinburgh,  1866);    Gebbotus,  Thesaurus  Linguce  Hebrwa 

idtifll.     The  Assyrian  manzaUu  (sometimes  written  (Leip«i«^  1829);  Stern»  Die^  StembUder  in  Hiob  in  Jlldiechs 

;«»«»)     "stetion"     occurs    m  _the    Babylonian  ^^  «iJ!iii^= '(SS^; '(3SrS"^:SS.?Sr  ^ 

ireation  tablets  with  the  import   'mansions  of  the  Budi  Hwb  (Leipuc,  1902). 

p^";  and  the  word  appears  to  be  et^ologically  Agnes  M.  Clerkb. 

ikin  to  Mazzalothf   which    in    rabbimcal   Hebrew         .   ^       _        _,    ,    .      ^^  t      t^      .         j. 

agnifies  primarily  the  Signs  of  the  Zodiac,  second-        Astxos,  PAUi/-THtRfesB-DAViD  d'  a  French  cardi- 

ariJy  the  planets.     The  lunar  Zodiac,  too,  suggests  nal.  b.  at  Tourves  (Var)  m  1772;  d.  29  September, 

itsjf  in  this  connection.    The  twenty-eight  '^Iman-  1851.    He  wm  a  nephew  of  Portalis,  a  minister  of 

aoM  of  the  moon  "  (menanl  al-kamar)  were  the  lead-  Napoleon,  and  as  such  wm  ^gaged  m  the  foraiula- 

in?  feature  of  Arabic  sky-lore,  and  they  subserved  t>on  of  the  Concordat  of  ^801     On  its  conclusion 

Mtidogical  purposes  among  many  Oriental  peoples.  £e  was  made  vicar  general  of  Archbishop    Gater, 

Tbej  might,    accordingly,    have    belonged    to   the  5^^^)«^.^°y/  of  Pans,   and  after  the  latter  s 

apparatus  of  superetition  used  by  the  soothsayers  death    (1808)  admmistered   the    chocese    until    the 

^ho  were  extirpated  in  Judah,  together  with  the  nommation  of  Cardmal  Maury      He  recei^,  and 

wonhip  of  the  MazzaratK  by  King  Joeias,  about  was  accused  of  promulgatmg,  the  bull  of  Pius  VII 

621  B.  c.    Yet  no  such  explanation  can  be  made  to  09  J^«'  1^09),  excommunicating  Napoleon.     For 

fit  in  with  the  form  of  expression  met  with  in  the  ^^  act  he  was  unprisoned  at  Vincennes  until  1814, 

Book  of  Job  (xxxvui,  32).    Speaking  m  the  person  After  the  Restoration  he  became  Bishop  of  Bayonne. 

of  the  Almighty,  the  Patriarch  asks,  "Canst  thou  and  m  1830  Archbishop  of  Toulouse.     At  tlie  re- 

brinF  forth   Ma*zaroth   in   its   time?"— clearly   in  q^^s^   ?^^"JL^*ig^^^"'*  ^/"/    ^^  •*?®^^  r^'™ 

*Aa  to  a  periodical  phenomenon,  such  as  the  5^"^"^^*'  "^  ^^    ™  "^^tJ^  T^".^  ^^X^^k^^ 

kriUiant  visibility  of  Lucifer,  or   Hesperus.    Pro-  ^^"^^SJ^'  ?"»  Lettreaux  Protestants  d  Orthez 

fewr  SchiaparelB  then  recurs  to  the  Vulgate  ren-  (2  v.  8^,  Toulouse,  1833).    He  was  one  of  the  earli^t 

Jering  of  thwpassage.    He  recognizes  in  Mazzarath  opponents  of  Lamennais,  against  whom  he  wrote 

Ae^aiaet  VemSuTin  her  double  aspect  of  morning  "Censure  de  divers  6cnts  de  I^    Mennais  et  de  ses 

tad  ^ySng  star,  pointing  out  that  the  luminary  discipl^par  plusieurs  ^v^ues  de  France    et  Lettres 

deaigBiSdm  the  Book  of  Kings,  with  the  sun  and  t^^,?^^«»  f^^^  ^"  ^i^^®*^  P^°*^®'  Gr^goire 

own,  and  the  "host  of  heaven",  must  evidently  be  XVI  ,  etc^oulouse,  1835). 

r^tTL  UJiJuTL,^^  ♦,>  *U^  ^Ul^r  i:<,Uf_^^r<>i«       ITni^V.^..  HkroenrOther.    KordtruU    Maury    (1878),   82,    132  aq.; 

next  m  bnghtness  to  the  cluef  bght-givers.     Further,  vacaht.  DieL  de  iuol.  eath,,  I.  2142. 

UK  luiL,  moon,  and  Venus  constitute  the  great  as-  Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

^n^Qoaneal  triad  of  Babylonia,  the  sculptured  repre- 

teeutaoDs  of  which  frequently  include  the  "host  of        Afltrac,  Jean,  b.   at  Sauves,   19    March,    1684; 

^vm"  typified  by  a  crowd  of  fantastic  animal-  d.  at  Paris,  5  May,  1766.    He  was  the  son  of  a  con- 

^vimtiM.    And  since  the  astral  worship  anathema-  verted  Protestant  minister.     After  he  had  taught 

^ued  hj  the  pit>phet«  of  Israel  was  unquestionably  medicine  at  Montpellier,  he  became  a  member  of  the 

tfSapaiBtean  origin,  the  designation  <n  Mazzarotk  Medical  Faculty  at  Paris.     His  medical  writings, 

■  the  third  member  of  the  Babylonian  triad  is  a  however  numerous,  are  now  forgotten,  but  a  work 

Tiknbfe  lii^lf  in  the  evidence.    Still,  the  case  remains  published  by  him  anonjnnously  has  secured  for  him 


f-rfrtai  tortuo^us  in  the  Vulgate)   does  really  stand    de  la  (j^^.     Avec  des  remarques  qui  appuient 
iv  the  «ii«umpolar  reptile.    The  Euphratean  oon-    ou    qui    ^laircissent  ses    conjectures'     (Brussels). 


A8UN0ION  32  ATAVISM 

Astruc  himself  did  not  intend  to  deny  the  Mosaic        Modem  works,  like  tboee  of  Pre«cott,  Robertson.  Uklk, 

authorship  of  Genesis;  but  his  work  cr^t«d  an  era  Ji^iSS^i'^^egiSircSh'SJcEr^/iS^IfX^/J^Ju*?^^^^^ 
m  Blbhcal  inquuy,  occasioning  the  modem  critical  idemiate  knowledge  of  the  aourcee,  of  Indian  character,  and 
theories.  of  tne  localitiee.     But  the  reports  of  eyewitnesses  deiserve 


Kaulen  in  KirchenUzieon,  2d  ed.  (Freiburg.  1882);  Gxtil- 

LBRBAU  in  VioouRonx,  Diet,  de  la  Bible  (Paris,  1805);  Krrro, 

Cyd.  at  Bibl.  Lt*.  3d  ed.  (Philadelphia,    1886);  OaoooD.  in  ^_      .  ,l-  ir    i.i  -^  o    -^      *           -  r     ^         ._     j  »  d 

Pretbvt,  and  Ref.  Review  (Jan.  1892),  83  sq.  ^  ^  ,<*•  ^"^^^{^^'^  ..i^^'K,  ^eo^f*^***"  ^  ^''^ 

ATHrAAa  Moma<2a  fa  ntievaCosfitta  (Seville,  Apnl,  1534);  PrdroSancho 

A.  J.  jyiAAB.  ReUmone  per  sua  MaseUi,  (14  July,  1534),  Ramusic,  III,  1665; 

AanmolAn       Saa  PAOAnrrAir  Hernando  PiZAJiRO,  Carta  d  la  Audiencia  de  Santo  Domingo, 

ABuncion.     Dee  rARAOUAY.  ^  Otiedo.  Hiatoria  natural  y  general  de  las  indiae:  Pedbo 

AsyltlXn,    Right     of.       See     Rianr  of    Asylum:  Pwaero.  Relacufn  del  Deeeubrimiento  y  Conquieia  del  Peru, 

RrrnnTMna   'Rnrj  vat Atvmr ai  published  in  vol.  V  of  the  Doc.  para  la  Histona  de  Eepaiia; 

liUILDINGS,  lliCCLESIASTICAL.  CRiSTdBAL  MoLXN A,  ConquieUi  y  PMaci&n  del  Peru:  Anok.  MS.. 

AtfthUAllpft,    properly  AtaU-HUALLPA   (etymology  RelacUn  del  Primer  Deeeubrimiento  de  la  Cotia  y  Mar  del  <Sur. 

usuaUy  given  as  from  huM«i.  the  name  o(  some  ^^^S^t'^B^^^^S^S^ ^A!^iet*fn^i^, 

indigenous  bird),  son  of  the  Inca  war  chief  Huayna  published  in  18»2  by  Jdi^nrz  de  la  Ebpaoa  under  the  title  o{ 

Capac    and    an    Indian    woman    from    Quito    hence  ^^^  Antiffitalla  Pertiana,     Later  authorities,  like  ChEZA.  Gar- 

(descent  being  in  the  female  line)  not  an  Inca,  but  ^t?^  ?' J^  ^^^'  PFJ"*"?"  ""^  ^^^'^^  T'^^'  ^  °^*^' 

v^^^v^v  wv.»»M^  .**  viw  A^^i^  ***xv,y  Mv/w  i»m  Au^^,  i^uv  jj^^^^  ^^^  ^^  mcTit  of  the  sbove-mentioned  eyewitnesses,  al- 
an  Indian  of  Ecuador.    The  protracted  wars,  dur-  though  indispensable  for  the  study  of  the  subiMt. 
ii^  which  the  Incas  overpowered  the  Ecuadorian  Ad.  F.  JBakdeuer. 
tribes,  having  brought  about  the  permanent  lodg- 
ment of  Inca  war  parties  in  Ecuador,  led  to  inter-  AUIilialpa,  Juan  Santos,  an  Indian  from  Cuzco 
marriages  with  women  of  that  country,  and  the  w*^o>  being  m  the  service  of  a  Jesuit,  went  to  Spain 
formaUon  of  a  new  tribe  composed  of  Inca  men  with  with  his  master.    Upon  his  return,  having  committed 
women  and  children  from  Quito.    Collisions  ensued  »  murder  at  Guamanga  (Ayacucho  in  Peru),  he  fled 
between  this  trib^  and  the   descendants  of  Inca  ^  tbe  forests  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Andes, 
women,  and  in  ♦Le  strife,  Atau-huallpa  figured  as  the  There,  in  1742,  he  persuaded  the  Indians  that  he 
leader  of  tlie  former,  whilst  the  latter  recognized  was  a  descendant  of  the  Inca  head-chiefs  and  aa- 
Huascar,  duly  elected  war  chief  at  Cuzco.    Atau-  suned   the   title   of   "Atahualpa   Apu-Inca".    He 
huallpa  acted  with  great  cruelty,  nearly  exterminat-  claimed  to  have  been  sent  by  God  to  drive  the 
ing  such  Ecuadorian  tribes  as  resisted.    He  finally  Spaniards  from  western  South  America.    As  he  was 
prevailed,  and  sent  his  warriors  southward  along  the  aWe  to  read  and  write  Latin,  as  well  as  Spanish,  he 
backbone  of  the  mountains,  against  Cuzco.    When  readily  made  the  forest  tribes  believe  him  to  be  a 
Pizarro  landed  at  Tumbez  (northern  Peruvian  coast)  powerful  wizard  and  induced  them  to  foUow  him. 
in  1532,  the  Quito  people  had  already  overthrown  abandoniM  the  towns  which  the  Franciscans  had 
the  Inca  tribe  at  Cuzco,  taken  the  settlement,  and  Sf^^^^ished  successfully  at  Ocopa  and  further  east, 
committed  the  most  horrible  cruelties,  chiefly  against  To  his  influence  was  due  the  ruin  of  the  prosperous 
the  keepers  of  ancient  traditions  whom  they  attempted  missions  throughout  the  Pampa  del  Sacramento  in 
to  exterminate,  so  as  to  wipe  out  the  remembrance  ©astern  Peru.    Under  his  direction  the  forest  tribes 
of  the  past  of  Cuzco  and  b^n  a  new  era.    Atau-  became  very  am-essive,  and  the  missions  were  partly 
huallpa  himself  remained  with  a  numerous  war  party  destroyed.    Efforts  against  hun  proved  a  failure, 
at  Caxamarca.    There  he  awaited  the  whites,  whom  o^^g  Partly  to  the  natural  obstacles  presented  by 
he  despised.    The  Spaniards  found  Caxamarca  de-  the  impenetrable  forests,  partly  to  the  mefficiency 
serted,  and  the  warriors  of  Atau-huallpa  camping  of  the  omceni  to  whom  the  suppression  of  his  revolt 
three  miles  from  the  place.     Pizarro  recognized  that  ^as  entrusted.    The  uprising  caused  by  his  appeal 
a  trap  had  been  set  for  him,  and  prepared  for  the  ^  Indian  superstition,  was  the  severest  blow  dealt 
•^Qjigt.  ^  ^be  Christianization  of  the  forest  Indians  in  Peru, 
On  the  evening  of  the  16th  of  November,  1532,  and  it  took  decades  of  sacrifice  and  toil  to  recover 
Atau-huallpa  entered  the  square  of  Caxamarca  with  ^^®  territory  lost.    To  this  day,  according  to  reliable 
a  great  retinue  of  men  carrying  their  weapons  con-  testunony,  the  Indians  included  under  the  generic 
ceSed.  •  They  packed  the  court  densely.    Pizarro  nam©  of  Chunchos  (properly  Campas)  daim  to  pre- 
had  placed  on  the  roof  of  the  building  his  artillery  serve  the  corpse  of  Santos  Atahualpa,  hidden  from 
(two   pedereros)  that  could  not  be  pointed  except  ^^^  whites,  in  a  wooden,  or  willow,  casket,  as  their 
horizontally.    When  the  Indians  thronged  into  the  ^^^  precious  fetish. 

squa,*,  a  ftominican  friar,  Fray  Vicent«  Valvenle  ,ol'-}IciTJl,^^R^nSS^i^t!^-lS&)rilS:o^^^. 

was  sent  by  Pizarro  to  mform  Atau-huallpa,  through  Dicdonario  (Lima,  1874),  I. 

an  interpreter,  of  the  motives  of  the  Spaniards'  ap-  Ad.  F.  Bandelier. 

pearance  in  the  coimtry.    This  embassy  was  received  «       a     -d 

with  scorn,  and  the  friar,  seeing  the  Indians  ready  to  Atarj^atis.     See  Phobnicia. 

b^n  hostilities,  warned  Pizarro.    Hb  action  has  Atavism  [Lat.,atoim«,  a  great-jjprandfather'sgnmd- 

been  unjustly  criticised;  Valverde  did  what  was  his  father^  an  ancestor]. — Duchesne  mtroduced  the  word 

imperative  duty  imder  the  circumstances.    Then,  to  designate  those  cases  in  which  species  revert  spon- 

not  waiting  for  the  Indians  to  attack,  the  Spaniards  taneously  to  what  are  presumably  long4o6t  charac- 

took  the  offensive.    The  sound  of  cannon  and  mus-  ters.    Atavism  and    reversion    are  used  by   most 

ketry,  and  the  sight  of  the  horses  frightened  the  authors  in  the  same  sense. 

Indians  so  that  they  fled  in  dismay,  leaving  Atau-  I.  The  term  ataviam  is  emplo^ned  to  express  the  re- 

huallpa  a  prisoner  in  the  hands  ol  Pizarro,  who  appearance  of  characters,  ph3r8ical  or  psychical,  in 

treated  him  with  proper  regard.    The  stories  of  a  tne  individual,  or  in  the  race,  which  are  supposed  to 

terrible  slaughter  of  tne  Indians  are  inordinate  ex-  have  been  possessed  at  one  time  by  remote  ancestors. 

aggerations.    While  a  prisoner.  Atau-huallpa  caused  Very  often  these   suddenly  reappearing  characters 

the  greater  portion  of  the  gola  and  silver  at  Cuzco  are  of  the  monstrous  type,  e.  g.  the  three-toed  horse, 

to  be  turned  over  to  the  Spaniards,  at  the  same  time  The  appearance  of  such  a  monster  is  looked  upon  as 

he  had  Huascar  murdered,  and  laid  plans  for  surpris-  a  harking  back  to  Tertiary  times,  when  the  ancestor 

ing   the    Spaniards   and    having    them    massacred,  of  the  modem  horse  possessed  three  toes.    The  three- 

Wnen  this  was  discovered  Pizarro  had  him  executed,  Ifted  condition  of  the  monstrous  horse  is  spoken  of 

on  the  29th  of  August,  1633.    The  execution  ^'as  as  atavistic.    The  employment  of  the  term  in  con 

not  unjustifiable.    Atau-huallpa,  at  the  time  of  his  nection  with  teratology  is  often  abused;  for  many 

death,  was  about  thirty  years  of  age.  cases  of  so-called  atavistic  monstrosities  have  little 


A¥HABA80A                             33  ATHANAStAK 

lO  do  with  lost  characters,  e.  g.  the  possession  by  8  April,  1862,  by  Pius  IX.    Bounded  on  the  north  by 

man  of  supernumerary  fingers  and  toes.  the  Vicariate  of  Mackenzie;  on  the  east  and  soutb- 

n.  Atavism  is  also  used  to  express  the  tendency  east  by  the  Vicariate  of  Saskatchewan:  on  the  south 

to  revert  to  one  of  the  parent  varieties  or  Species  in  by  55®  N.  lat.;  on  the  west  by  the  Rocfy  Mountains. 

the  case  of  a  hybrid:  this  is  the  atavism  of  breeders.  Tne  first  vicar  Apostolic  was  Bishop  Henri  Faraud, 

CroBBed  breeds  of  sneep,  for  example,  show  a  con-  O.M.I.,  b.  at  Gigondas,  France,  17  March,  1828;  d.  at 

stant  tendendy  to  reversion  to  either  one  of  the  orig-  Saint  Boniface,  26  Sept.,  1890;   ordained  priest  at 

inal  breeds  from  which  the  cross  was  formed.     De  Saint  Boniface,  8  March,  1847;  elected  8  May,  1862; 

Vries  distinguishes  this  kind  of  atavism  as  vicinism  consecrated  at  Tours,  France,  30  Nov.,  1864,  titular 

(Lat  tncinu^, neighbour),  and  says  that  it  "indicates  Bishop  of  Anamur.     He  was  succeeded  by  Bishop 

the  sporting  of  a  variety  under  tne  influence  of  others  Emile  Grouard,  O.M.I. ,  titular  Bishop  of  Ibora;  b.  at 

m  mb  vicinity."  Brulon,  Mans,  2  Feb.,  1840;  ordained  priest  at  Bou« 

IIL  Atavism  is  employed  by  a  certain  school  of  cherville,  3  May,   1862,   elected  Bishop  of  Ibora, 

erolutionistic  psychologists  to  express  traits  in  the  18  Oct.,  1890;  consecrated  at  Saint  Boniface,  1  Aug., 

individual,  especially  the  child,  that  are  assumed  to  1891,  and  appointed  vicar  Apostolic.    The   Oblates 

be,  as  it  were,  reminiscences  of  past  conditions  of  of  Mary  Immaculate  serve  all  the  missions  of  Atha- 

the  human  race  or  its  progenitors.     A  child  by  its  basca.    There  are  11  stations,  23  priests,  28  Soeurs 

UBtruthfuiness  simply  gives  expression  to  a  state  de  la  Providence,  6  Soeurs  Grises.    Catholics,  about 

that  long  since  was  normal  to  mankind.     Also  in  5,000.     (See  Saint  Boniface.) 

the  chilcrs  fondness  for  splashing  about  in  water  is  ^  ?Sn^^^  EccUsiattique  (1907);  Battandier,  Ann,  ponL 

exhibited  a  recrudescence  of  a  habit  that  was  quite  *^^"  ^^^'                                      jr.^^  t   *  ^c^rvipm 

natural  to  its  aquatic  ancestors;  this  latter  is  called  •'^^^  •'•  ^  uecket. 

water-atavism.    Many   such    atavisms    are    distin-  Athanasian   Greed,   The,    one   of   the   s^pabols 

piished,  but  it  hardly  needs  to  be  said  that  they  are  of  the  Faith  approved  by  the  Church  and  given  a 

m  many  instiinces  highly  fantastic.     Atavism  is  com-  place  in  her  liturgy,  is  a  short,  clear  exposition  of 

monly  supposed  to  oe  a  proof  of  the  evolution  of  the  doctrines  of  tne  Trinity  and  the  Jncamation, 

plants  ana  animals,  including  man.     Characters  that  with  a  paasing  reference  to  several  other  donnas. 

were  normal  to  some  remote  ancestor,  after  having  Unlike  most  of  the  other  creeds, "  or  symbols,   it 

been  latent  for  thousands  of  generations  suddenly  re-  deals    almost   exclusively   with    these    two    funda- 

appear,  and  thus  give  a  clue  to  those  sources  to  mental  truths,  which  it  states  and  restates  in  terse 

wbich  the  present  living  forms  are  to  be  traced  back,  and  varied  forms  so  as  to  bring  out   unmistakably 

TTiat  a  character  may  lie  dormant  for  several  gener-  the  trinity  of  Persons  in  God,  and  the  twofold  na- 

ations  and  then  reappear,  admits  of  no  doubt;  even  ture  in  the  one  Divine  Person  of  Jesus  Christ.     At 

ordinanr  observation  tells  us  that  a  grandchild  may  various   points  the  author  calls  attention   to   the 

resemble  its  grandparent  more  than  either  of    its  penalty  incurred   by   those  who  refuse   to   accept 

immediate  parents.     But  the  sudden  appearance  of  any  of  the  articles  therein  set  down.    The  foUow- 

a  tailed  man,  for  instance,  cannot  be  said  to  prove  ing  is  the  Marquess  of  Bute's  English  translation 

the  descent  of  man  from  tailed  forms.     Granting  that  of  the  text  of  the  Creed: — 

man  has  really  descended  from  such  ancestors,  the  Whosoever  will  be  saved,  before   all   things  it  is 

phenomenon  is  more  intelli^ble  than  it  would  be  necessary  that  he  hold  the  Catholic  Faith.     Which 

wne  no  such  connexion  admitted.     But  the  proving  Faith  except  everyone  do  keep  whole  and  un* 

force  of  atavism  is  not  direct,  because  teratolo^ical  defiled,  without  doubt  he  shall  perish  everlast- 

phenomena  are  so  difficult  to  interpret,  and  admit  of  ingly.    And  the  Catholic  Faith  is  this,  that  we 

several  explanations.     Darwin,  pointing  to  the  large  worship  one  God  in  Trinity  and  Trinity  in  Unity, 

canine  teeth  possessed  by  some  men  as  a  case  of  Neither  confounding   the   Persons,  nor   dividing 

atavism,  remarks:  "He  who  rejects  with  scorn  the  the  Substance.     For  there  is  one  Person  of  the 

belief  that  the  shape  of  his  own  canines,  and  their  Father,  another  pf  the  Son,  and  another  of  the 

occasional  great  devdopment  in  other  men,  are  due  Holv  Ghost.     But  the  Goohead  of  the  Father, 

to  our  early  forefathers  having  been  provided  with  of  the  Son  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost  is  all  One,  the 

these  formidable  weajjons,  will  probably  reveal,  by  Glory  Equal,  the  Majesty  Co-Eternal.     Such  as 

sneering,  the  line  of  his  own  descent".  the  Father  is,  such  is  the  Son,  and  such  is  the 

Atavism  is  appealed  to  by  modem  criminologists  Holy    Ghost.    The    Father    Uncreate,    the    Son 

to  explain  certain  moral  aberrations,  that  are  looked  Uncreate,  and   the  Holv  Ghost  Uncreate.    The 

upon  as  having  been  at  one  time  normal  to  the  race.  Father    Incomprehensible,    the    Son    Incompre- 

AJccepting  the  doctrine  that  man  has,  by  slow  prog-  hensible,  and  tne  Holy  Ghost  Incomprehensiole. 

ress,  come  up  to  his  present    civilized  state    from  The  Father  Eternal,  the  Son  Eternal,  and  the 

brute  conditions,  all  that  is  brutish  in  the  conduct  Holy  Ghost  Eternal  and  yet  they  are  not  Three 

of  criminals  (also  of  the  insane),  is  explained  by  ata-  Eternals   but   One   Eternal.     As   also   there   are 

vian.    According  to  this  theory  degeneracy  is  a  case  not  Three  Uncreated,   nor  Three  Incomprehen- 

of  atavism.    The  explanation  offered  for  tne  sudden  sibles,  but  One  Uncreated,  and  One  Incompre- 

reappearance  of    remote  ancestral  characters  is  so  hensible.     So   likewise   the   Father  is  Almighty, 

intnnately  connected  with  the  whole  question  of  the  Son  Almighty,  and  the  Holy  Ghost  Almighty, 

heredity  that  it  is  impossible  to  do  more  than  in-  And  yet  they  are  not  Three  Almighties  but  One 

dieate  that  most  writers  on  heredity  seek  this  ex-  Almighty. 

planation  in  the  transmission  from    generation  to  So  the  Father  is  God,  the  Son  is  God»  and  the  Holy 

Seoeration   of    unmodified   heredity-bearing   parts,  Ghost  is  God.    And  yet  they  are  not  Three  Gods, 

genmules  (Darwin);  pangenes  (De  Vries);  determi-  but  One  God.     So  fikewise  the  Father  is  Lord. 

DMrta  (Weismaim).     (See  Heredity.)  the  Son  Lord,  and  the  Hohr  Ghost  Lord.    And 

touffiKHJON,    Thf   CkOd   (London,    1900);  Db    Vries.  yet  not  Three  Ix)rd8  but  One  Lord.     For,  like 

SlSl».r^«^S3nJ2"?fSi.  iSSt ;  llJ.TTk.  '^  ««^^«  t'lS  ^"""PeU^  by  the  ^.risti^  vmty  to 

M.  K.  TB0MP80N  (London.  1904);  Dblaob,  La  structure  du  acknowledge  every  Person  by  Himself  to  be  God 

mlBplume  et  fet  th&rrieB  %ur  VhSrSdiU  et  let  granda  problhnee  and  Lord,  SO  are  we  forbidden  by  the  Catholic 

iiiLdCPSL'^iSd^  ^^^^*  ^^^^^*  L0MBR080.  L'homme  ReUpon  to  say,  there  be  Three  Gods  or  Three 

^^          '                       Jos.  C  Herrick.  Lor&.    The   Father   is   made   of   none,   neither 

created,  nor  begotten.    The  Son  is  of  the  Father 

^ftabiflffft.  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (North-west  alone;  not  made,  nor  created,  but  begotten.    The 

TeRitorie8).~Suffragan  of  Saint  Boniface;  erected  Holy  Ghost  is  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son- 


ATHANA8IAH                             34  ATHANASIAH 

neither  made,  nor  created,  nor  begotten,  but  in  1871,  by  E.  C.  Ffoulkes  to  assign  the  Creed  to  thn 
proceeding.  ninth  century.  From  a  passing  remark  in  a  iettei* 
80  there  is  One  Father,  not  Three  Fathers;  one  written  by  Alcuin  he  constructed  the  foUowing  re- 
Son,  not  Three  Sons;  One  Holy  Ghost,  not  Three  markable  piece  of  fiction.  The  Emperor  Charie- 
Holy  Ghosts.  And  in  this  Tnnity  none  is  afore  m&gne,  he  says^  yished  to  consohdate  the  Weetem 
or  after  Other,  None  is  greater  or  less  than  An-  Empire  by  a  rehgious,  as  weU  as  a  pohtical,  separation 
other,  but  the  whole  Three  Persons  are  Co-etemal  (rom  the  East.  To  this  end  he  suppressed  the 
together,  and  Co-equal.  So  that  in  all  things,  as  Nicene  Creed,  dear  to  the  Onental  Church,  and 
is  aforesaid,  the  Unity  in  Trinity,  and  the  Trmity  substituted  a  formulary  comoosed  by  Pauhnus 
in  Unity  is  to  be  worshipped.  He  therefore  of  Aqudeia,  with  whose  approvd  and  that  of  Alcuin, 
that  wiU  be  saved,  must  thus  &nk  of  the  Trinity,  a  distinguished  scholar  ol  the  tune,  he  ensured  ite 

Fm.hermoreitisnece^r,toeveri^^^^^  ^hf  ^na^"'^?"  ^  mLT ^^^^ 

that  he   also   beheve  nghtly  the  Incarnation  of  ^^^j^             ^^    reputation   of   men  whom   every 

?w  ^^^i?*^  ^^™*-    /^^  ,^^%  "S*^*  ^^'^^  «'  worthy  historian  regards  as  mcapable  of  such   a 

JfeJcf'^th^rnf^pli'l^rS  t^^u^^"^  ^^"^  fraud,  added  to  the^doubted  proofs  of  the  Creed's 

Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  is  God  and  Man.  y^^^^  y^^^  j^  ^  1^^^  ^^^^  ^i^^  ^^^y^  century, 

God,   of   the   substance   of   the    Father,    begotten  leaves  this  theory  without  any  foundation. 

before  the  worlds;  and  Man,  of  the  substance  of  Who,  then,  is  the  author?    The  results  of  recent 

His  mother,  born  into  the  world.     Perfect  God  inquiry  make  it  highly  probable  that  the  Creed 

and  Perfect  Man,  of  a  reasonable  Soul  and  human  first  saw  the  light  m  the  fourth  century,  during 

Flesh  suhsisting.     Equal  to  the  Father  as  touch-  the  life  of  the  great  Eastern  patriarch,  or  shortly 

ing  His  Godhead,  and  inferior  to  the  Father  as  after  his  death.     It  has   been  attributed  by  dif- 

touching    His    Manhood.    Who,     although    He  ferent    writers    variously    to    St.    HQary,    to    St. 

be  God  and  Man,  yet  He  is  not  two,  but  One  Vincent  of  L^rins,  toEusebiusof  Vercelli^to  Vigilius, 

Christ.    One,  not  by  conversion  of  the  Godhead  and  to  others.    It  is  not  easy  to  avoid  the  force  of 

into  Flesh,  but  by  taking  of  the  Manhood  into  the  objections  to  all  of  these  views,  however,  as 

God.    One  altpgether,  not  by  confusion  of  sub-  they  were  men  of  world-wide  reputation,  and  hence 

srance,    but   by  Unity  of   Person.     For  as   the  any  document,  especially  one  of   such  importance 

reasonable  sdul  and  flesh  is  one  Man,    so   God  as  a  profession  of  faith,  coming  from  them  would 

and  Man  is  one  Christ.     Who  suffered  for  our  have  met  with  almost  immediate  recognition.     Now. 

salvation,   descended   into   HeO,   rose  a«ain   the  no  allusions  to  the  authorship  of  the  Creed,  and 

third    day   from    the   dead.     He   ascended    into  few  even  to  its  existence,  are  to  be  found  in  the 

Heaven,  He  sitteth  on  the  right  hand  of  the  literature  of  the  Church  for  over  two  hundred  years 

Father,   God   Ahnighty,   from   whence   he   shall  after  their  time.     We  have  referred  to  a  like  silence 

come   to    judge    the   quick   and    the   dead.    At  in  proof  of  a  non-Athanasian  authorship.     It  seems 

whose  coming  all  men  shall  rise  again  with  their  to  be  similarly  available  in  the  case  of  any  of  the 

bodies,   and   shall   give   account   for   their   own  great  names  mentioned  above.    In  the  opinion  of 

works.    And   they   that   have   done   good   shall  Father  Sidney  Smith,  S.J.,  which  the  evidence  just 

go  mto  life  everlasting,  and  they  that  have  done  indicated  renders  plausible,  the  author  of  this  Creed 

evil  into  everlasting  fire.    This  is  the  Catholic  must  have  been  some  obscure  bishop  or  theologian 

Faith,   which   except   a   man    believe   faithfully  who  composed  it,  in  the  first  instance,  for  purely 

and  firmly,  he  cannot  be  saved.  local  use  in  some  provincial  diocese.    Not  coming 

For  the  past  two  hundred  years  the  authorship  from  an  author  of  wide  reputation,  it  would  have 

of  this  summary  of  Catholic  Faith  and  the  time  of  attracted    little    attention.    As    it    became    better 

its  appearance   have  furnished  an  interesting  prob-  known,  it  would  have  been  more  widely  adopted, 

lem  to  ecclesiastical  antiquarians.     Until  the  seven-  and  the  compactness  and  the  lucidity  of  its  state- 

teenth   centurv,   the   "Quicimque   vult",  as  it   is  ments  would  have  contributed  to  make  it  highlv 

sometimes   called,    from    its   openine   words,    was  prized    wherever  it  was  known.    Then  would  fol- 

thought  to  be  the  composition  of  the  great  Arch-  low  speculation  as  to  its  author,  and  what  wonder, 

bi^op  of  Alexandria  whose  name  it  bears.    In  the  if,   from   the   subject-matter  of  the  Creedj   which 

year  1644,  Gerard  Voss,  in  his"  DeTribusSymbolis*',  occupied  the  great  Athanasius  so  much,  his  name 

ffave  weighty  probability  to  the  opinion  that  St.  was  first  affixed  to  it  and,  unchallenged,  remained. 

Athanasius  was  not  its  author.     His  reasons  may  The  "damnatory",  or  "minatory  clauses",  are 

be  reduced  to  the  two  following:   first,  no   early  the  pronouncements  contained  in  the  symbol,   of 

writer  of  authority  speaks  of  it  as  the  work  of  this  the  penalties  which  will  follow  the  rejection  of  what 


and  most  probably  it  cannot,  it  undoubtedly  owes  concluding  verse:  "This  is  the  Catholic  Faith,  which 

its  existence  to  Athanasian  infiuences,  for  the  ex-  except  a  man  beheve  faithfully  and  firmly,  he  cannot 

pressions  and  doctrinal  colouring  exhibit  too  marked  be  saved".    Just  as  the  Creed  states  in  a  veiy 

a  correspondence,  in  subject-matter  and  in  phrase-  plain  and  precise  way  what  the  Catholic  Faith  is 

ology,  with  the  literature  of  the  latter  half  of  the  concerning  the  important  doctrines  of  the  Trinity 

fourth  centuiy  and  especiallv  with  the  writings  of  and  the  Incarnation,  so  it  asserts  with  equal  plainness 

the  saint,  to  be  merely  accidental.    These  internal  and  precision  what  will  happen  to  those  who  do  not 

evidences   seem   to   justify   the   conclusion   that  it  faithfully  and  steadfastly  oelieve  in  these  revealed 

grew  out  of  several  provincial  synods,  chiefly  that  of  truths.    They  are  but  the  credal  eauivalent  of  Our 

Alexandria,  held  about  the  year  361,  and  presided  Lord's   words:    "He   that   believetn   not   shall    be 

over  by  St.  Athanasius.    It  should  be  said,  however,  condemned",  and  applv,  as  is  evident,  only  to  th^ 

that  tnese  arguments  have  failed  to  shake  the  con-  culpable  and  the  wilful  rejection  of  Christ'cf  words 

viction  of  some  Catholic  authors,  who  refuse  to  give  and  teachings.    The  absolute  necessity  of  accepting 

't  an  earlier  origin  than  the  fifth  century.  the  revealed  word  of  God,  under  the  stem  penalties 

An  elaborate  attempt  was  made  in  £n«:land,  here  threatened,  is  60  intolerable  to  a  powerfu' 


ATHAKAttUS                            35  AT&AKAftnrS 

dan  in  the  Anglican   churchy   that   frequent   at-  in  referring  to  the  events  of  this  period  he  makes  no 

tempts  have  been  made  to  eliminate  the  Creed  from  direct  appeal  to  his  own  personal  recollections,  but 

the  public   service   of   that   Church.    The   Upper  falls  bacK,  rather,  on  tradition.     Such  reserve  would 

House  of  Convocation  of  Canterbur}r  has  already  scarcely  be  intelligible,  if.  on  the  hypothesis  of  the 

affinned  that  these  clauses,    in    their  prima  facie  earUer  date,  the  Saint  nad  been  then  a  boy  fully  ten 

meaning,  go  bejjrond  what  is  warrantee!  by  Holy  vears  old.     Besides,  there  must  have  been  some  sem- 

Scripture.    In  view  of  the  words  of  Our  Lord  (quoted  blance  of  a  foundation  in  fact  for  the  chaige  brought 

above,  there  should   be  nothing  startling  in   the  against  him  by  his  accusers  in  after-life  (Index  to  the 

statement  of  our  duty  to  believe  what  we  know  is  Festal  Letters)  that  at  the  time  of  his  consecration 

the  testimony  and  teaching  of  Christ,  nor  in  the  to  the  episcopate  in  328  he  had  not  yet  attained  the 

emous  sin  we  conunit  in  wufiilly  refusing  to  accept  canonical  age  of  thirty  years.     These  considerations, 

it,  nor,  finally,  in  the  punishments  tlmt  will  be  therefore,  even  if  they  are  found  to  be  not  entirely 

inflicted  on  thoee   who   culpably   persist   in   their  convincing,  would  seem  to  make  it  likely  that  he 

sin.    It  is  just  this  last  that  the  damnatory  clauses  was  bom  not  earlier  than  296  nor  later  than  298. 

proebum.    From  a  dogmatic  standpoint,  the  merelv  It  is  impossible  to  speak  more  than  conjecturally  ot 

historical  question  of  the  authorship  ot  the  Creed,  his  family.     Of  the  claim  that  it  was  both  prominent 

or  of  the  time  it  made  its  appearance,  is  of  secondary  and  well-to-do,  we  can  only  observe  that  the  tradi- 

consideration.    The  fact  alone  that  it  is  approved  tion  to  that  effect  is  not  contradicted  hy  such  scanty 

by  the  Church  as  expressing  its  mind  on  the  funda-  details  as  can  be  gleaned  from  the  samt's  writings, 

mental  truths  with  which  it  deals,  is  all  we  need  Those  writings  undoubtedly  betray  evidences  of  the 

to  know.  sort  of  education  that  was  given,  for  the  most  part, 

iom.  The  Creed  of  St,  Atkanaeius;  Jbwbl,  Defence  of  the  only  to  children  and  youths  of  the  better  class.     It 

/ljwlo0y(Umdoii,1667);  mjrorA»(C^  hpimn  with  orammftr    went,  on  tn  rhptorio    and  m- 

VoMiua.  Dieaeruaionee  de  Tribue  symbolie  (Paris,  1603);  Qdes-  "^S»d  ^itn  grammar,  wem  on  lo  rneionc,  ana  re- 

m^lh8ymbctoAthana9ittnon675)ihLoitTTAvcou,Dt^^  ceived  its  final  touches  under  some  one  of  the  more 

maboUm  Quiau^wf  m  P.  o„  XX VIII.  1567;.  Mubatobi,  fashionable  lecturers  in  the  philosophic  schools.     It  is 

AAamuian  CreedjCambridie.  1724;  Oxford,  1870):  IIarvey,  training  m  letters  to  his  saintly  predecessor's  favour, 

nemetory  andptooloffv  of  the  Three  Creeds  (London.  1854).  if  not  to  his  personal  care.     But  Athanaslus  was  One 

n:FrouiJUBB.  The  Atharuman  Creed  {Umdon,  1911)',  Lumby,  -.*  thnaft  mm  nArannAlitiM  that  Hprivft  innnmnarAhlv 

Tie  Hiaiorv  of  the  Creeds  (Cambridge,  1887);  Swainbon.  The  ^^  ^^^  rare  personalities  tnat  oenve  inoomi«raDiy 

Sieate  Creed  and  the  App^'  Creed  (London.  1876);  Omman-  more  from  theu"  own  native  gifts  of  mtellect  and 

nr.  The  Athanaeian  Creed  (London.  1875);  Idem,  A  Critical  character  than  from  the  fortuitousness  of  descent  or 

WMiofi  on  the  A^umaeian  Creed  (Oxford.  1897);  Burn,  environment.    His  career  almost  pereonifies  a  crisis 

Tkt  AAanaetan  Creeds  etc.,  in  Robinson.  Texte  and  Studtea  w»"w»ijwixu.     ^xi^*-«i^x  w^uvrov  ^^crvA«xu«o  «  v^iuto 

(Cimbrid«e.  1896):  Smith,   The  Athanaeian  Creed  in  The  m  the  history  of  Christianity;  and  he  may  be  said 

Mimth  (1904).  CIV.  366;  ScHAFF.  Hieiory  of  the  Chrietian  rather  to  have  shaped  the  events  in  which  he  took 

CW  (New  Voijc.  1903).  Ill;  IDBM.T'V  part  than  to  have  been  shaped  by  them.     Yet  it 

(New  YotIc,  1884),  I.  34;  Tixkront,  in  Diet,  de  ih^ol.  cath.;  !'"*»'»'»*«*"    <^  'j.      *^'^  o^^^^^^j    v.<v»^^ 

Uore,  in  Aauck,  ReaUncuklopadie  fur  prot.  TheoL.a.  v.  See  would  be  misleading  to  uige  that  he  was  m  no  no- 

abo  the  reoent  dueuBsjon   by  Anadican  writers:   Wblldon.  table  sense  a  debtor  to  the  time  and  place  of  his  birth, 

^ce.  Bliot.  Luckock,  in  Ths  Ifxneteenth  Century  (1904-  ^he  Alexandria  of  his  boyhood  was  an  epitome,  itt- 

James  J.  Sullivan.  tellectually,  morally,  and  politically,  of  that  ethnic- 
ally many-coloured  Graeco-Koman  world,  over  •which 

AthmaahlB,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Alexandria;  Coiifes-  the  Church  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  was 

SOT  and  Doctor  of  the  Churcn;  bom  c.  296;  d.  2  May,  beginning  at  last,  with  undismayed  consciousness, 

373.    [No  accepted  emblem  has  been  assigned  to  him  after  nearly  three   hundred   years  of   unwearying 

in  the  hJstoiy  of  western  art;  and  his  career,  in  propagandism,   to  realize  its  supremacy.    It  was, 

spite  of  its  picturesaiie  diversity  and  extraordinary  moreover,  the  most  important  centre  of  trade  in 

wealth  of  detail,  seetsii  to  have   furnished  little,  if  the  whole  empire;  and  its  primacv  as  an  emporium 

any,  material  for  distinotlre  illustration.     Mrs.  Jame-  of  ideas  was  more  commanding  than  that  of  Rome 

son  tells  us  that  according  to  the  Greek  formula,  or  Constantinople,  Antioch  or  Marseilles.    Alreadv, 

"he  oog^t  to  be  represented  old,  baldheaded,  ana  in  obedience  to  an  instinct  of  which  one  can  scarcely 

vHh  a  long  white  beard*'  (Sacred  and  Legendary  determine  the  full  significance  without  studying  the 


passion  for  orthodoxy 

lifetime  earned  the  characteristic  title  of  "Father  of  from  Pantaenus,  Clement,  and  Origen,  had  b^^un  to 

Orthodoxy",  by  which  he  has  been  distinguished  take  on  an  alniost  secular  character  in  the  compre- 

erer  since.     While  the  chronoloey  of  his  career  still  hensiveness  of  its  interests,  and  had  counted  paeans 

mnams  for  the  most  part  a  nopeleesly  involved  of  infiuence  among  its    serious  auditors  (Eusebius 

proiJem,  the  fullest  material  for  an  account  of  the  Hist.  Ecd.,  VI,  xix). 

uttin  achievements  of  his  life  will  be  found  in  his  To  have  been  bom  and  brought  up  in  such  an  at- 

coQected  writing?  and  in  the  contemporary  records  moephere  of  philosophizing  Christianity  was,  in  spite 

of  his  time.     He  was  bom,  it  would  seem,  in  Alex-  of  tne  dangers  it  involved,  the  timeheet  and  most 

udiia,  nH30t  probably  between  the  years  296  and  liberal  of  educations;  and  there  is,  as  we  have  inti- 

296.    An  earlier  date,  293,  is  sometimes  assigned  as  mated,  abundant  evidence  in  the  saint's  writings  te 

the  more  certain  year  of  his  birth;  and  it  is  supported  testify  to  the  ready  response  which  all  the  mtter 


S.  F^ersbofurg,  1888)  and  corroborated  by  the  un-  supervision  of  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  of  his 

doubted  maturity  of  judgment  revealed  in  the  two  native  city.    Whether  his  Ions;  intimacy  with  Bishop 

^wtiMs  "Contra  Gentes  '  and  "De  Incamatione",  Alexander  began  in  childhood,  we  have  no  means  of 

whidi  were  admittedly  written  about  the  year  318,  judging;  but  a  story  which  pretends  to  describe  the 

heUxt  Arianism  as  a  mov^nent  had  begun  to  make  circumstances  of  his  first  introduction  to  that  prelate 

ftotf  fdt.     It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  has  been  preserved  for  us  by  Rufinus  (Hist.  Eccl.,  I, 

i&two  dktinct  passages  of  his  writings  (Hist.  Ar.,  xiv).    The  bishop,  so  the  tale  runs,  had  invited  a 

hir,   aid   De  Byn,,  xviii)  Athanaslus  shrinks  from  number  of  brother  prelates  to  meet  him  at  breakfast 

^caking  as  a  witness  at  first  hand  of  the  persecution  after  a  great  religious  function  on  the  anniversary 

vladi  had  broken  out  under  Maximian  m  303;  for  of  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Peter,  a  reoent  predeoessor 


ATHAHA8IU8  36  ATHAKA8IUB 

in  the  See  of  Alexandria.  While  Alexander  was  wait*  only  writer  who  has  described  him  for  us  (Orat 
ing  for  his  guests  to  arrive,  he  stood  by  a  window,  xxi,  8).  A  contemptuous  phrase  of  the  Emperor  Ju- 
watching  a  group  of  boys  at  play  on  the  seashore  llan's  (Epist.,  li)  serves  unintentionally  to  corrob- 
below.  the  house.  He  had  not  observed  them  long  orate  the  picture  drawn  by  kindlier  observers.  He 
before  he  discovered  that  they  were  imitating,  evi-  w^s  slightly  below  the  middle  height,  spare  in  build, 
dently  with  no  thought  of  irreverence,  the  elaborate  but  well-knit,  and  intensely  energetic.  He  had  a 
ritual  of  Christian  baptism.  (Cf.  Bunsen's  'X'hristian-  finely  shaped  head,  set  off  with  a  thin  growth  of 
ityandMankind",  London,  1854,  VI,  465:  Denzin^r,  auburn  hair,  a  small  but  sensitively  mobue  mouth, 
''Kitus  Orientalivun''  in  verb.;  Butlers  ''Ancient  an  aquiline  nose,  and  eyes  of  intense  but  kindly 
Coptic  Churches",  II,  26S  et  sqq.;  "Bapttoe  chez  brilliancy.  He  had  a  ready  wit,  was  quick  in  intui- 
lee  Coptes",  **  Diet.  Th^l.  Cath.  ,  Col.  244, 245).  He  tion,  easy  and  affable  in  manner,  pleasant  in  conver- 
thereiore  sent  for  the  children  and  had  them  brought  sation,  keen,  and^  perhaps,  somewhat  too  unsparing 
into  his  presence.  In  the  investigation  that  followed  in  debate.  (Besides  the  references  already  cited, 
it  was  discovered  that  one  of  the  boys,  who  was  no  see  the  detailed  description  given  in  the  January 
other  than  the  future  Primate  of  Alexandria,  had  Mripoiop  quoted  in  the  Bollandist  life.  Julian  the 
acted  the  part  of  bishop,  and  in  that  character  had  Apostate,  in  the  letter  alluded  to  above  sneers  at  the 
actually  Imptized  several  of  his  companions  in  the  diminutiveness  of  his  person — fiv^i  ^1^»  ^'^^  A»^p«- 
course  of  their  play.  Alexander,  who  seems  to  have  TloKot  e^eX^i,  he  writes.)  In  addition  to  these 
been  unaccountably  puzzled  over  the  answers  he  qualities,  he  was  conspicuous  for  two  others  to  which 
received  to  his  inquiries,  determined  to  recognize  even  his  enemies  bore  unwilling  testimony.  He  was 
the  make-believe  baptisms  as  genuine:  and  decided  endowed  with  a  sense  of  humour  that  could  be  aa 
that  Athanasius  and  his  playfellows  should  ^  into  mordant — we  had  almost  said  as  sardonic — as  it 
training  in  order  to  fit  themselves  for  a  clerical  ca-  seems  to  have  been  spontaneous  and  unfailing;  and 
reer.  The  Bollandists  deal  gravely  with  this  story;  his  courage  was  of  the  sort  that  never  falters,  even 
and  writers  as  difficult  to  satisfy  as  Archdeacon  in  the  most  disheartening  hour  of  defeat.  There  is 
Farrar  and  the  late  Dean  Stanley  are  ready  to  ac-  one  other  note  in  this  highly  gifted  and  many-sided 
cept  it  as  bearing  on  its  face  "every  indication  of  personality  to  which  everything  else  in  his  nature 
truth"  (Farrar,  "Lives  of  the  Fathers",  I,  337;  literally  ministered,  and  which  must  be  kept  steadily 
Stanley,  "East.  Ch.",  264).  But  whether  in  its  in  view,  if  we  would  possess  the  key  to  his  character 
present  form,  or  in  the  modified  version  to  be  foimd  and  writing  and  understand  the  extraordinary  sig- 
m  Socrates  (I,  xv),  who  omits  all  reference  to  the  nificance  of  his  career  in  the  history  of  the  Christian 
baptism  and  says  that  the  game  was  "an  imitation  Church.  He  was  by  instinct  neither  a  liberal  nor  a 
of  the  priesthood  and  the  order  of  consecrated  per-  conservative  in  theology.  Indeed  the  terms  have  a 
sons",  the  tale  raises  a  number  of  chronological  singular  inappropriateness  as  applied  to  a  tempera- 
difficulties  and  suggests  even  graver  questions.  ment  like  his.    Prom  first  to  last  he  cared  greatly 

Perhaps  a  not  impossible  explanation  of  its  origin  for  one  thing  and  one  thing  only;  that  one  thing 

may  be  found  in  the  theory  that  it  was  one  of  the  was  the  integrity  of  his  Catholic  creed.    The  religion 

many  floating  myths  set  in  movement  by  popular  im-  it  engendered  in  him  was  obviously — considering  the 

agination  to  account  for  the  marked  bias  towards  an  traits  by  which  we  have  tried  to  depict  him — of  a 

ecclesi^ical  career  which  seems  to  have  character-  passionate  and  consuming  sort.     It  b^gan  and  ended 

ized  the  early  boyhoodi  of  the  future  champion  of  in  devotion  to  the  Divinity  of  Jesus  Christ.    He  was 

the  Faith,     bozomen  speaks  of  his  "fitness  for  the  scarcely  out  of  his  teens,  and  certainly  not  in  more 

priesthood",  and  calls  attention  to  the  significant  than  deacon's  orders,  when  he  published  two  treats 

circumstance  that  he  was  "from  his  tenderest  years  ises,  in  which  his  mind  seemed  to  strike  the  key-note 

practically   self-taught".     "Not    long   after   this,"  of  all  its  riper  after-utterances  on  the  subject  of  the 

adds  the  same  authority,  the  Bishop  Alexander  "in-  Catholic  Faith.    The  "Contra  Gentes"  and  the  ".Ora- 

vited  Athanasius  to  be  his  commensal  and  secretary,  tio  de  Incamatione" — to  give  tbem  the  Latin  appella- 

He  had  been  well  educated,  and  was  versed  in  gram-  tions  by  which  they  are  more  commonly  cited — were 

maraud  rhetoric,  and  had  already,  while  still  a  young  written  some  time  between  the  years  318  and  323. 

man.  and  before  reaching  the  episcopate,  ^ven  proof  St.  Jerome  (De  Viris  Illust.)  refers  to  them  under 

to  tnose  who  dwelt  with  him  of  nis  wisdom  and  a  conmion  title,  as  "Adversum  Gentes  DuoLibri", 

acumen"  (Soz.,  II,  xvii).    That  "wisdom  and  acu-  thus  leaving  his  readers  to  gather  the  impression, 

men"  manifested  themselves  in  a  various  environ-  which  an  analysis  of  the  contents  of  botn  books 

ment.    While  still  a  levite  under  Alexander's  care,  certainly  seems  to  justify,  that  the  two  treatises  are 

he  seems  to  have  been  brought  for  a  while  into  close  in  reality  one. 

relations  with  some  of  the  solitaries  of  the  Egyptian  As  a  plea  for  the  Christian  position,  addressed 
desert,  and  in  particular  with  the  great  St.  Anthony,  chiefly  to  both  Gentiles  and  Jews,  the  young  deacon's 
whose  life  he  is  said  to  have  written.  The  evidence  apology,  while  undoubtedly  reminiscential  in  i^ethods 
both  of  the  intimacy  and  for  the  authorship  of  the  and  ideas  of  Origen  and  the  earlier  Alexandrians,  is, 
life  in  question  has  been  challenged,  chiefly  by  non-  nevertheless,  strongly  individual  and  almost  pietlstic 
Catholic  writers,  on  the  ground  that  the  famous  "Vita"  in  tone.  Though  it  deals  with  the  Incarnation,  it  is 
shows  signs  of  interpolation.  Whatever  we  may  silent  on  most  of  those  ulterior  problems  in  defence  of 
think  of  the  arguments  on  the  subject,  it  is  impos-  which  Athanasius  was  so  soon  to  be  summoned  by  the 
sible  to  deny  that  the  monastic  idea  appealed  power-  force  of  events  and  the  fervour  of  his  own  faith  to 
fullv  to  the  young  cleric's  temperament,  and  that  devote  the  best  energies  of  his  life.  The  work  con- 
he  nimself  in  after  years  was  not  only  at  home  when  tains  no  explicit  discussion  of  the  nature  of  the  Word's 
duty  or  accident  threw  him  among  the  solitaries,  Sonship,  for  instance;  no  attempt  to  draw  out  the 
but  was  so  monastically  self-disciplined  in  his  habits  character  of  Our  Lord's  relation  to  the  Father;  noth- 
as  to  be  spoken  of  as  an  "ascetic"  (Apol.  c.  Arian.,  ing,  in  short,  of  those  Christological  questions  upon 
vi):  In  fourth-century  usage  the  word  would  have  which  he  was  to  speak  with  such  splendid  and  coura- 
a  definiteness  of  connotation  not  easily  determinable  geous  clearness  in  a  time  of  shifting  formularies  and 
to-day.     (See  Asceticism.)  undetermined  views.    Yet  those  ideas  must  have  been  x 

It  IS  not  surprising  that  one  who  was  called  to  in  the  air  (Soz.,  I,  xv)  for,  some  time  between  the 

fill  so  large  a  place  in  the  history  of  his  time  should  years  318  and  320,  Arius,  a  native  of  Lib^  (Epiph. 

have  impressed  the  very  form  and  feature  of  his  Haer.,  Ixix)  and  priest  of  the  Alexandrian  Gburch, 

personality,  so  to  say,  upon  the  imagination  of  his  who  had  already  fallen  under  censure  for  his  part 

ooQtemporaries.    St.  Gregory  Nazianzen  b  not  the  in  the  Meletian  troubles  which  broke  out  during  the 


ATHAVABIim  37  ATBAKA8IU8 

episcopate  of  St.  Peter,  and  whose  teachings  had  co-essential,  with  the  Father,  together  with  its  confi- 
BQcceeded  in  making  dangerous  headway,  even  among  dent  appeal  to  the  emperor  to  Tend  the  sanction  of 
"the  consecrated  virgins"  of  St.  Mark's  see  (Epiph.  his  authority  to  the  decrees  and  pronouncements  by 
Haer.,  box;  Soc.,  Hist.  EccL,  I,  vi),  accused  Bishop  which  it  hoped  to  safeguard  this  more  explicit  pro- 
Alexander  of  Sabellianism.     Arlus,  who  seems  to  have  feesion  of  the  ancient  Faith,  had  consequences  of  the 
proBumed  on  the  charitaUe  tolerance  of  the  primate,  gravest  import,  npt  only  to  tl^  woiid  of  ideas,  but 
was  at  length  deposed  (Apol.  c.  Ar.,  vi)  in  a  synod  to  the  world  of  politics  as  well.     By  the  official  pro- 
consisting  of  more  thsm  one  hundred  bishops  of  mul^tion  of  the  term  homodustoTif  theological  spec- 
E^t  and    Libya   (Depositio   Ar.,   3).    The  con-  ulation  received  a  fresh  but  subtle  impetus  which 
demned  heresiarch  withdrew  first  to  Palestine  and  made  itself  felt  long  after  Athanasius  and  his  sup- 
afterwardb  to  Bith3mia,  where,  under  the  protection  porters  had  passed  awav;  while  the  appeal  to  the 
o^Euaebius  of  Nicomedia  and  his  other  ''Collucian-  secular  arm  inaugurated   a   policy  which  endured 
ists",  he  was  able  to  increase  his  already  remarkable  practically  without  change  of  scope  down  to  the 
influence,  while  his  friends   were  endeavouring  to  publication  of  the  Vatican  decrees  m  our  own  time, 
prepare  a  way  for  his  forcible  reinstatement  as  priest  In  one  sense^  and  that  a  very  deep  and  vital  one, 
of  tae  Alexandrian  Church.     Athanasius,  though  only  both  the  definition  and  the  policy  were  inevitable, 
in  dooon's  orders,  must  have  taken  no  subordinate  It  was  inevitable  in  the  order  of  religious  ideas  tliat 
part  in  these  events.     He  was  the  trusted  secretary  any  break  in  logical  continuity  should  be  met  by 
and  adviser  of  Alexander,  and  his  name  appears  in  inquiry  and  protest.     It  was  just  as  inevitable  that 
the  Kst  of  those  who  signed  the  encyclical  letter  sub-  the  protest,  to  be  effective,  should  receive  some  coun- 
seqoently  issued  by  the  primate  and  his  colleagues  tenance  from  a  power  which  up  te  that  moment  had 
to  offset  the  growmg  prestige  of  the  new  teaching,  affected  to  r^ulate  all  the  graver  circumstances  of 
and  the  momentum  it  was  bq^nning  to  acquire  from  life  (cf.  Hamack,  Hist.   Dog.,  Ill,   146,  note;  Bu- 
the  ostentatious  patronage  extended  te  the  deposed  chanan's   tr.).     As    Newman    has    remarked:  ''The 
Ariua  by  the  Eusebian  faction.     Indeed,  it  is  to  this  Church  could  not  meet  together  in  one,  without  en- 
party  and  to  the  leverage  it  was  able  to  exercise  at  tering  into  a  sort  of  n^otiation  with  the  powers 
the  emperor's  court  that  the  subsequent  importance  that  be;  whose  jealousy  it  is  the  duty  of  Christians, 
of  Aiianism  as  a  political,  rather  than  a  religious,  both  as  individuals  and  as  a  body,  if  possible,  to 
movement  seems  primarily  to  be  due.  dispel"  (Arians  of   the    Fourth  Cent.,  4  ed.,  241). 
Tlw  heresy,  of  course,  had  its  supposedly  philo-  Athanasius,  though  not  yet  in  priest's  orders,  ac- 
sophic  basis,  which  has  been  ascribed  by  authors,  companied  Alexander  to  tne  council  in  the  character 
ancient  and  modem,  to  the  most  opposite  sources,  of  secretary  and  theological  adviser.     He  was  not, 
St.  Epiphanius  characterizes  it  as  a  kmd  of  revived  of  course,  the  originator  of  the  famous  homodusion. 
AnBtot«eanism(Haer.,lxviian(llxxvi);  and  the  same  The  term  had  been  proposed  in  a  non-obvious  and 
view  is  ^nactically  held  by  Socrates   (Hist.  Eccl.,  illegitimate  sense  by  Paul  of  Samosata  to  the  Fathers 
II,  xxxv),  Theodoret  (Haer.  Fab.,  IV,  iii),  and  St.  at  Antioch,  and  had  been  rejected  by  them  as  savour- 
Basil  (Adv.  Ekmom.,  I,  ix).     On   the  other  hand,  in^  of  materialistic  conceptions  of  the  Godhead  (cf. 
a  theologian  as  broadly  read  as  Petavius  (De  Trin.,  Atnan.,  "De  Svn.,"  xliii;  Newman,  "Arians,  of  the 
I,  viii,  2)  has  no  hesitation  in  deriving  it  from  Pla-  Foxirth  CJent.,    4  ed.,  184-196;  Petav.  "De  Trin.," 
tonism;   Newman  in  turn   (Arians  of    the  Fourth  IV,  v,  §  3;  Robertson,  "SeL  Writ,  and  Let.  Athan. 
(^ent,  4  ed.,  109)  sees  in  it  the  influence  of  Jewish  Proleg.",  3^  sqa.)- 

prejudices  rationalized  by  the  aid  of  Aristotelean  It  may  even  be  questioned  whether,  if  left  to  his 
Kieas;  while  Robertson  (SeL  Writ,  and  Let.  of  Ath.  own  logical  instincts,  Athanasius  would  have  sug< 
Ppokg.,  27)  observes  that  the  "common  theology",  gested  an  orthodox  revival  of  the  term  at  all  ("De 
which  was  invariably  opposed  to  it,  " borrowecT its  Decretis",  19;  "Orat.  c.  Ar.  ",ii,32;  "AdMonachos  ", 
philosophical  principles  and  method  from  the  Pla-  2).  His  writing,  composed  during  the  forty-six  critical 
tonists."  These  apparently  conflicting  statements  yearsof  his  episcopate,  show  a  very  sparing  use  of  the 
oooid,  no  doubt,  be  easily  adjusted;  but  the  truth  word;  and  though,  as  Newman  (Arians  of  the  Fourth 
is  that  the  prestige  of  Arianism  never  lay  in  ite  Cent.,  4  ed.,  236)  reminds  us,  "  the  authentic  account 
ideas.  From  whatever  school  it  may  have  been  of  the  proceedings"  that  took  place  is  not  extant, 
logically  derived,  the  sect,  as  a  sect,  was  cradled  and  there  is  nevertheless  abundant  evidence  in  support  of 
nurtured  in  intrigue.  Save  in  some  few  instances,  thecommonviewthat  it  had  been  unexpectedly  forced 
which  can  be  accounted  for  on  quite  other  grounds,  upon  the  notice  of  the  bishops,  Arian  and  orthodox,  in 
its  prophets  relied  more  upon  curial  influence  than  the  great  synod  by  Constantino's  proposal  to  accept 
QPOD  piety,  or  Scriptural  knowledge,  or  dialectics,  the  creed  submitted  by  Eusebius  of  Csesarea,  with  the 
loat  must  be  borne  constantly  in  mind,  if  we  would  addition  of  the  homodusion,  as  a  safeguard  against 
not  move  distractedly  through  the  bewildering  maze  possible  vagueness.  The  suggestion  h^  in  all  prob- 
of  events  that  naake  up  the  life  of  Athanasius  for  the  ability  come  from  Hosius  (cf.  "Epist.  Eusebii. ",  in 
not  haif  century  to  coma  It  is  his  peculiar  merit  the  appendix  to  the  "De  Decretis  ,  §  4;  Soc.,  "Hist. 
that  he  not  only  saw  the  drift  of  things  from  the  Eccl. ', I,  viii;  III,  vii;Theod.  "Hist.  Eccl.", I,  Athan.; 
v«y  beginning,  out  was  confident  of  the  issue  down  "Arians  of  the  Fourth  Cent.".  6,  n.  42;  oCrof  tV 
to  the  last  (ApoL  c.  Ar.,  c).  His  insight  and  4p  liucaL^  tIctiv  i^^ero,  says  the  saint,  quoting  his 
oQon^  proved  almost  as  efficient  a  bulwail  to  the  opponents);  but  Athanasius,  in  common  with  the 
CSinstian  (jhurch  in  the  world  as  did  his  singularly  leaders  of  the  orthodox  party,  loyally  accepted  the 
hod  grasp  of  traditional  Catholic  belief.  His  op-  term  as  expressive  of  the  traditional  sense  m  which 
portimity  came  in  the  year  325,  when  the  Emperor  the  Church  had  always  held  Jesus  Christ  to  be  the 
Constantino,  in  the  hope  of  putting  an  end  to  the  Son  of  God.  The  conspicuous  abilities  displayed  in 
Ktadalous  debates  that  were  disturbing  the  peace  the  Nicsean  debates  and  the  character  for  courage 
Q'  the  QuiTch,  met  the  prelates  of  the  entire  Cath-  and  sincerity  he  won  on  all  sides  made  the  youthful 
oGe  woild  in  coimcil  at  Nicsea.  cleric  henceforth  a  marked  man  (St.  (^reg.  Nas., 
The  j^reat  council  convoked  at  this  juncture  was  Orat.,  21).  His  life  could  not  be  lived  m  a  comer, 
naethm^  more  than  a  pivotal  event  in  the  history  of  Five  months  after  the  close  of  the  council  the  Pri- 
(3inrtiaQity.  Its  sudden,  and,  in  one  sense,  almost  mate  of  Alexandria  died;  and  Athanasius,  quite  as 
^fflpnnieditated  adoption  of  a  quasi-philosophic  and  much  in  recognition  of  his  talents,  it  would  appear, 
noivtoiptaral  term — ifwc^ffiop — to  express  the  charac-  as  in  deference  to  the  death-bed  wishes  of  the  de- 
ter of  orthodox  belief  in  the  Person  of  the  historic  ceased  prelate,  was  chosen  to  succeed  him.  Hiselef- 
'Stnst,  1^  defining  Him  to  be  identical  in  substance,  or  tion.  in  spite  of  his  extreme  youth  and  the  oppositio  n 


ATHAHASIUS  38  ATHAVASIUS 

of  a  remnant  of  the  Arian  and  Meletian  factions  in  of  the  ruling  party  in  the  synod  made  it  evident  that 

the  Alexandrian  Church,  was  welcomed  by  all  classes  justice  to  the  accused  was  the  last  tiling  that  wai 

among  the  laity  ("Apol.  c.  Arian",  vi;  Soz.,  "Hist,  thought  of.    It  can  himlly  be  wondered  at,  ^t 

Eccl. '  ,  II,  xvii,  xxi,  xxii).  Athanasius  should  have  refused  to  be  tried  by  such 

The  opening  years  of  the  saint's  rule  were  occupied  a  court.    He,   therefore,   suddenly  withdrew  from 
with  the  wonted  episcopal  routine  of  a  fourth-century  Tyre,  escaping  in  a  boat  with  some  faithful  friendfi 
Egyptian    bishop.     Episcopal    visitations,    synods,  who  accompanied  him  to  Byzantium,  where  he  had 
pastoral  correspondence,  preaching  and  the  yearly  made  up  his  mind  to  present  himself  to  the  emperor, 
roimd  of  churcn  fimctions  consumed  the  bulk  of  his        The  circumstances  in  which  the  stunt  and  the  great 
time.    The  only  noteworthy  events  of  which  an-  catechumen  met  were  dramatic  enough.     Gonstan- 
tiquity  furnishes  at  least  probable  data  are  connected  tine  was  returning  from  a  hunt,  when  Athanasius 
with  the  successful  efforts  which  he  made  to  provide  imexpectedly  stepped  into  the  middle  of  the  road 
a  hierarchy  for  the  newly  planted  church  in  Ethiopia  and  demanded  a  hearing.      The  astonished  emperor 
(Abyssinia)  in  the  person  of  St.  Frumentius  (Ku-  could  hardly  beUeve  his  eyes,  and  it  needed  the  aa- 
nnusl.ix;  Soc,  I,  xix;  Soz.,  II,  xxi v),  and  the  friend-  surance  of  one  of  the  attendants  to  convince  him 
ship  which  appears  to  have  begun  about  this  time  bo-  that  the  petitioner  was  not  an  impostor,  but  none 
tween  himsell  and   the  monks  of  St.   Pachomius.  other  than  the  great  Bishop  of  Alexandria  himself. 
But  the  seeds  of  disaster  which  the  saint's  piety  had  "Give  me",  said  the  prelate,  "a  just  tribunal,  or 
unflinchingly  planted  at  Nicsea  were  beginning  to  allow  me  to  meet  my  accus^v  face  to  face  in  your 
bear  a  disquieting  crop  at  last.     Already  events  were  presence."     His    request    was    granted.     An   order 
happening  at  Constantinople  which  were  soon  to  was  peremptorily  sent  to  the  bishops,  who  had  tried 
make  him  the  most  important  figure  of  his  time.  Athajiasius  and,  of  course,  condemned  him  in  his 
Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  who  had  fallen  into  disgrace  absence,  to  repair  at  once  to  the  imperial  city.    The 
and  been  banished  by  the  Emperor  Constantino  for  command  reached  them  while  they  were  on  their 
his  part  in  the  earlier  Arian  controversies,  had  been  way  to  the  great  feast  of  the  dedication  of  Constan- 
recaJled  from  exile.     After  an  adroit  campaign  of  tine's  new  church  at  Jerusalem.     It  natundly  caused 
intrigue,  carried  on  chiefly  through  the  instrumental-  some  consternation;  but  the  more  influential  mem- 
ity  of  the  ladies  of   the  imperial  household,   this  bers  of  the  Eusebian  faction  never  lacked  either 
smooth-mannered    prelate    so    far    prevailed    over  courage  or  resourcefulness.     The  saint  was  taken  at 
Constantino  as  to  induce  him  to  order  the  recall  of  his  word;  and  the  old  charges  were  renewed  in  the 
Arius  likewise  from  exile.     He  himself  sent  a  char-  hearing  of  the  emperor  himself.     Athanasius  was 
acteristic  letter  to  the  youthful  Primate  of  Alexandria,  condenmod  to  go  into  exile  at  Tr§ves,  where  he  was 
in  which  he  bespoke  his  favour  for  the  condenmed  received  with  the  utmost  kindness  by  the  saintly 
heresiarch,  who  was  described  as  a  man  whose  opin-  Bishop  Maximinus  and   the   emperor  s  eldest  son, 
ions  had  been  misrepresented.     These  events  must  Constantino.     He   began   his   journey   probably   in 
have  happened  some  time  about  the  close  of  the  the  month  of  February,  336,  and  amved  on  the 
year  330.     Finally  the  emperor  himself  was  per-  banks  of  the  Moselle  in  the  late  autumn  of  the  same 
suaded  to  write  to  Athanasius,  urging  that  all  those  year.     His  exile  lasted  nearly  two  years  and  a  half, 
who  were  ready  to   submit   to   the  definitions  of  Public  opinion  in  his  own  diocese  remained  loyal  to 
Nictea  should  be  re-admitted  to  ecclesiastical  com-  him  during  all  that  time.     It  was  not  the  least  elo- 
munion.    This   Athanasius   stoutly  refused   to   do,  quent  testimony  to  the  essential  worth  of  his  char- 
alleging  that  there  could  be  no  fellowship  between  the  actor  that  he  could  inspire  such  faith.    Constantino's 
Church  and  one  who  denied  the  Divinity  of  Christ,  treatment  of  Athanasius  at  this  crisis  in  his  fortunes 

The  Bishop  of  Nicomedia  thereupon  brought  vari-  has  always  been  difficult  to  understand.    Affecting, 

ous  ecclesiastical  and  political  charges  against  Athana-  on  the  one  hand,  a  show  of  indignation,  as  if  he  really 

sius,  which,  though  unmistakably  refuted  at  their  believed  in  the  political  charge  brought  against  the 

first  hearing,  were  afterwards  refurbished  and  made  saint,  he,  on  the  other,  refused  to  appoint  a  successor 

to  do  service  at  nearly  every  stage  of  his  subsequent  to  the  Alexandrian  See,  a  thing  wnich  he  mi^t  in 

trials.    Four  of  these  were  very  definite,   to  wit:  consistency  have  been  obliged  to  do  had  he  taken 

that  he  had  not  reached  the  canonical  age  at  the  seriously    the    condenmation    proceedings    carried 

time  of  his  consecration;  that  he  had  imposed  a  through  by  the  Eusebians  at  Tyre, 
linen  tax  upon  the  provinces;  that  his  officers  had,        Meanwhile  events  of  the  greatest  importance  had 

with  his  connivance  and  authority,   profaned   the  taken  place.     Arius  had  di^  amid  startlingly  dra- 

Sacred  Mysteries  in  the  case  of  an  alleged  priest  matic  circumstances  at  Constantinople  in  336;  and  the 

named  Ischyras;  and  lastly  that  he  had  put  one  death  of  Constantino  himself  had  foUowed,  on  the 

Arsenius  to  death  and  afterwards  dismembered  the  22nd  of  May  the  year  after.     Some  three  weeks  later 

body  for  purposes  of  magic.    The  nature  of  the  the  younger  Constantino  invited  the  exiled  primate  to 

charges  and  tne  method  of  supporting  them  were  return  to  his  see:  and  by  the  end  of  November  of 

vividly  characteristic  of  the  age.    The  curious  stu-  the  same  year  Atnanasius  was  once  more  established 

dent  will  find  them  set  forth  in  picturesciue  detail  in  in  his  episcopal  cijUr.     His  return  was  the  occasion  of 

the  second  part  of  the  Saint's     Apologia",  or  "Do-  great  rejoicing.    The  people,  as  he  himself  tells  us, 

fense  against  the  Arians  ",  written  long  after  the  ran  in  crowds  to  see  his  face;  the  churches  were  given 

events  themselves,  about  the  year  350,  when  the  over  to  a  kind  of  jubilee;  thanksgivings  were  onered 

retractation  of  Ursacius  and  Vaiens  made  their  pub-  up  everywhere;  and  clei^  and  laity  accounted  the 

lication   triumphantly   opportune.    The  whole   un-  day  the  happiest  in  their  lives.     But  ali>etfuly  trouble 

happy  story  at  this  distance  of  time  reads  in  parts  was  brewidg  in  a  quarter  from  which  the  saint  might 

more  like  a  specimen  of  late  Greek  romance  than  the  reasonably  have  expected  it.    The  Eusebian  faction, 

account  of  an  inquisition  gravely  conducted  by  a  who  from  this  time  forth  loom  large  as  the  disturbers 

synod  of  Christian  prelates  with  the  idea  of  getting  of  his  peace,  managed  to  win  over  to  their  side  the 

at  the  truth  of  a  series  of  odious  accusations  brought  weak-minded   Emperor  Constantius   to   whom    the 

against  one  of  their  number.     Summoned  by  the  East  had  been  assigned  in  the  division  of  the  empire 

emperor's  order  after  protracted  delays  extending  over  that  followed  on  the  death  of  Constantino.    TTie  old 

a  period  of  thirty  months  (Soz.,  II,  xxv),  Athanasius  charges  were  refurbished  with  a  graver  ecclesiastica] 

finally  consented  to  meet  the  charges  brought  against  accusation  added  by  way  of  rider.    Athanasius  had 

him  by  appearing  before  a  synod  of  prelates  at  Tyre  ignored  the  decision  of  a  duly  authorized  synod, 

in  the  year  335.     Fifty  of  his  suffragans  went  with  He  had  returned  to  his  so©  without  the  summons  of 

him  to  vindicate  his  good  name;  but  the  complexion  ecclesiastical  authority  (Apol.  c.  Ar.,  loc.  cU,).    tr 


ATHANASniB  39  ATHANABinS 

the  year  340,  after  the  failure  of  the  Euaebian  mal-  died  in  the  month  of  April,  362,  and  Liberius  had 

ooQtentfi  to  secure  the  appointment  of  an  Arian'    succeeded  him  as  Sovereign  Pontiff.    For  two  years 

candidate  of  dubious  reputation  named  Pistus,  the  Liberius  had  been  favourable  to  the  cause  of  Athan- 

notorious  Gregory  of  C^padocia  was  forcibly  in-  asius;  but  driven  at  last  into  exile,  he  was  induced 

traded  into  the  Alexancinan  See,  and  Athanasius  to  sign  an  ambiguous  formula,  from  which  the  greai 

was  obliged  to  go  into  hiding.    Within  a  very  few  Nicene  test,  the  homodti8um,  had  been  studiously 

weeks  he  set  out  for  Rome  to  lay  his  case  before  the  omitted.    In  355  a  coimoil  was  held  at  Milan,  where 

Church  at  large.     He  had  made  his  appeal  to  Pope  in  spite  of  the  vigorous  opposition  of  a  handful  of 

Julius,  who  took  up  his  cause  with  a  whole-hearted-  loyal  prelates  among  the  Western  bishops,  a  fourth 

OBBs  that  never  wavered  down  to  the  dav  of  that  condemnation  of  Athanasius  was  annoimced  to  the 

holv  pontiff's  death.     The  pope  siunmoned  a  synod  world.     With  his  friends  scattered,  the  saintly  Ho« 

of  bishops  to  meet  in  Rome.     After  a  careful  and  sius  in  exile,  the  Pope  Liberius  denounced  as  acqui- 

detailed  examination  of  the  entire  case,  the  primate's  eacing  in  Arian  formularies,  Athanasius  could  hanlly 

innocence  was  proclaimed  to  the  Christian  world,  hope  to  escape.    On  the  nieht  of  8  February,  356, 

Meanwhile  the  Eusebian  party  had  met  at  Antioch  wmle  engaged  in  services  in  the  Church  of  St.  Tnomas, 

and  passed  a  series  of  decrees  framed  for  the  sole  a  band  of  armed  men  burst  in  to  secure  his  arrest 

purpose  of  preventing  the  saint's  retiun  to  his  see.  (Apol.  de  Fugd,  24).    It  was  the  beginning  of  his 

Three  years  were  passed  at  Rome,  diuring  which  time  third  exile. 

the  idea  of  the  cenobitical  Ufe,  as  Athanasius  had        Through  the  influence  of  the  Eusebian  faction  at 
seen  it  practised  in  the  deserts  of  Eg3rpt,  was  preached  Constantmople,  an  Arian  bishop,  George  of  Cappa- 
to  the  clerics  of  the  West  (St.  Jerome,  Epistle  cxxvii,  docia,  was  now  appointed  to  rule  the  see  of  Alex- 
5).   Two  years  after  the  Roman  synod  had  pub-  andria.    Athanasius,  after  remaining  some  days  in 
liahed  its  decision,  Athanasius  was  simimoned  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  city,  finally  withdrew  into 
Milan  by  the  Emperor  Constans,  who  laid  before  him  the  deserts  of  upper  Ef^ypt,  where  he  remained  for  a 
the  plan  which  Constantius  had  formed  for  a  n-eat  period  of  six  years,  livmg  the  life  of  the  monks  and 
reunion  of  the  Inshops  of  both  the  Eastern  and  West-  devoting  himsdf  in  his  enforced  leisure  to  the  com- 
em  Churches.    Now  began  a  time  of  extraordinary  position  of  that  group  of  writings  of  which  we  have 
activity  for  the  Saint.     Early  in  the  year  343  we  the  result  in  the  "Apology  to  Constantius",  the 
find  the  undaunted  exile  in  Gaul,  whither  he  had  gone  "  Apology  for  his  Flight ' ',  the  "  Letter  to  the  Monks ' ', 
to  consult  the  saintly  Hosius,  the  great  champion  ana  the  "History  of  the  Arians".    Legend  has  nat- 
of  orthodoxy  in  the  West.    The  two  together  set  out  urally  been  busy  with  this  period  of  the  Saint's  ca- 
for  the  Council  of  Sardica  which  h|wl  been  summoned  reer;  and  we  may  find  in  the  "Life  of  Pachomius"  a 
in  deference  to  the  Roman  pontiff's  wishes.    At  this  collection  of  tales  brimful  of  incidents,  and  enlivtened 
great  gathering  of  prelates  the  case  of  Athanasius  by  the  recital  of  "deathless  'scapes  in  thd  breach." 
was  tiu^en  up  once  more;  and  once  more  was  his  But  by  the  close  of  the  year  360  a  change  was  appar- 
innocence  reaffirmed.      Two  concfliar  letters  were  ent  in  the  complexion  of  the  anti-Nicqne  party.    The 
prepared,  one  to  the  clergy  and  faithful  of  Alexandria,  Arians  no  longer  presented  an  unbroken  front  to 
the  other  to  the  bishops  of  Egypt  and  Libya,  in  their  orthodox  opponents.    The  Emperor  Constan- 
which  the  will  of  the  Council  was  made  known,  tins,  who  had  b^n  the  cause  of  so  much  trouble, 
Meanwhile  the  Eusebian  party  had  gone  to  Philip-  died  4  November,  361 ,  and  was  succeeded  by  Julian, 
popolis,  where   they  issued  an  anathema  against  The  proclamation  of  the  new  prince's  accession  was 
AtJianasius   and  his  supporters.     The   persecution  the  signal  for  a  pajgan  outbreak  against  the  still 
against  the  orthodox  party  broke  out  with  renewed  dominant  Arian  faction  in  Alexandria.    George,  the 
vigour,  and  Constantius  was  induced  to  prepare  usurpinj;  Bishop,  was  flung  into  prison  and  murdered 
drastic  measures  against  Athanasius  and  the  priests  amia  cu'cumstances  of  great  cruelty,  24  December 
who  were  devoted  to  him.    Orders  were  given  that  (Hist.  Aceph.,  VI).    An  obscure  presbyter  of  the 
if  the  Saint  attempted  to  re-enter  his  see,  he  should  name  of  Pistus  was  immediately  chosen   by  the 
be  put  to  death.    Athanasius,  accordingly,  withdrew  Arians  to  succeed  him,  when  fresh  news  arrived  that 
from  Sardica  to  Nalssus  in  Mysia,  where  he  cele-  filled  the  orthodox  party  with  hope.    An  edict  had 
brated  the  Easter  festival  of  the  year  344.   After  that  been  put   forth   by  Julian   (Hist.     Aceph.,   VIII) 
he  set  out  for  Aquileia  in  obedience  to  a  friendly  j)ermitting  the  exiled  bishops  of  the  "Galileans"  to 
summons  from  Constans,  to  whom  Italy  had  fallen  return  to  their  ''towns  and  provinces".     Athanasius 
m  the  division  of  the  empire  that  followed  on  the  received  a  summons  from  his  own  flock,  and  he  ac- 
death  of  Constantino.     Meanwhile  an  unexpected  cordingly  re-entered  his  episcopal  capital  on  22  Feb- 
evcnt  had  taken  place  which  made  the  return  of  ruary,  362.    With  characteristic  energy  he  set  to 
Athanasius  to  his  see  less  difficult  than  it  had  seemed  worK  to  re-establish  the  somewhat  shattered  fortunes 
for  many  months.    Gregory  of  Cappadocia  had  died  of  the  orthodox  party  and  to  purffe  the  theological 
(probabfy  by  violence)  in  June,  345.     The  embassy  atmosphere  of  uncertainty.    To  clear  up  the  mia- 
^ch  had  been  sent  b^  the  bishops  of  Sardica  to  understandings  that  had  arisen  in  the  course  of  the 
the  Emperor  Constantius,  and  which  had  at  first  previous  years,  an  attempt  was  made  to  determioe 
met  with  the  most  insulting  treatment,  now  received  still  further  the  significance  of  the  Nicene  formu- 
a  favourable  hearing.     Constantius  was  induced  to  laries.    In  the  meanwhile,  Julian,  who  seems  to  have 
reconsider  his  decision,  owing  to  a  threatening  letter  become  suddenly  jealous  of  the  influence  that  Athan- 
from  his  brother  Constans  and  the  uncertain  condi-  asius  was  exercising  at  Alexandria,  addressed  an 
tion  of  affairs  on  the  Persian  border,  and  he  accord-  order  to  Ecdicius,  the  Prefect  of  Egypt,  peremptorily 
ingly  made  up  his  mind  to  yield.    But  three  separate  commanding  the  expulsion  of  the  restored  primate, 
letters  were  needed  to  overcome  the  natural  nesita-  on  the  ^x>und  that  he  had  never  been  included  in 
tkm  of  Athanasius.    He  passed  rapidly  from  Aquileia  the  imperial  act  of  clemency.    The  edict  was  com- 
to  Trfeves,  from  Treves  to  Rome,  and  from  Rome  by  municated    to  the  bishop  by  Pythicodorus   Trico, 
the  northern  route  to  Adrianople  and  Antioch,  where  who,  though  described  in  the  "Chronicon  Athana- 
he  met  Constantius.     He  was  accorded  a  gracious  sianum"  (xxxv)  as  a  "philosopher",  seems  to  have 
interview  by  the  vacillating  Emperor,  and  sent  back  behaved  with  brutal  insolence.    On  23  October  the 
to  his  see  in  triumph,  where  he  began  his  memorable  people  gathered  about  the  proscribed  bishop  to  pro- 
ten  years'  reign,  which  lasted  down  to  the  third  test  against  the  emperor's  decree;  but  the  saint  uri^ed 
exile,  that  of  356,    These  were  full  years  in  the  life  them  to  submit,  consoling  them  with  the  promise 
of  the  Bishop;  but  the  intrigues  of  the  Eusebian,  or  that  his  absence  would  be  of  short  duration.    The 
Court,  party  were  soon  renewed.     Pope  Julius  had  prophecy  was  curiously  fulfilled.    Julian  terminated 


ATHEISM  40  ATHEISM 

Mis  brief  career  26  June,  363;  and  Athanasius  re-       Atheism  (a  privative,  and  Oc^f ,  God,  i.  e.  without 

turned  in  secret  to  Alexandria,  where  he  soon  re-  God)  is  that  system  of  thought  which  b  formally 

«eived  a  document  from  the  new  emperor,  Jovian,  opposed  to  theism.     Since  its  first  coming  into  use  the 

reinstating  him  once  more  in  his  episcopal  functions,  tenn  atheism  has  been  very  vaguely  employed,  gene- 

His  first  act  was  to  convene  a  council  which  re-  rally  as  an  epithet  of  accusation  against  any  system 

affirmed  the  terms  of  the  Nicene  Creed.    Early  in  that  called  in  question  the  popular  gods  of  the  day. 

September  he  set  out  for  Antioch,  bearing  a  synodal  Thus,  while  Socrates  was  accused  of  atheism  (Plato, 

letter,  in  which  the  pronouncements  of  tnis  council  ApoL,  26   c),  and  Diagoras  called  an  atheist  by 

had  been  embodied.    At  Antioch  he  had  an  inter-  Cicero   (Nat.   Deor.,  I,  23),  Democritus  and  Epi- 

view  with  the  new  emperor,  who  received  him  gra-  curus  were  styled  in  the  same  sense  impious  (without 

oiously  and  even  asked  nim  to  prepare  an  exposition  respect  for  the  gods)  on  account  of  the  trend  of  their 

of  the  orthodox  i&ith.    But  in  the  following  Febru-  new  atombtic  philosophy.    In  this  sense,  too,  the 

ary  Jovian  died;  and  in  October,  364,  Athanasius  early  Christians  were  known  to  the  pagans  as  atheists, 

was  once  more  an  exila  because  they  denied  the  heathen  gods;  while,  from 

With  the  turn  of  circumstances  that  handed  over  time  to  time,  various  religious  opinions  and  philosophi- 
to  Valens  the  control  of  the  East  this  article  has  cal  systems  have,  for  sunilar  reasons,  been  deemed 
nothing  to  do;  but  the  accession  of  that  emperor  atheistic.  Though  atheism,  historically  considered, 
^ave  a  fresh  lease  of  life  to  the  Arian  party.  He  has  meant  no  more  in  the  past  than  a  critical  or 
issued  a  decree  banishing  the  bishops  who  hskd  been  sceptical  denial  of  the  theolo^  of  those  who  have 
deposed  by  Constantius,  but  who  had  been  permitted  employed  the  term  as  one  of  reproach,  and  has 
by  Jovian  to  return  to  their  sees.  The  news  created  consequently  no  one  strict  philosophical  meaning; 
the  greatest  consternation  in  the  city  of  Alexandria  though  there  is  no  one  consistent  system  in  the 
itself,  and  the  prefect,  in  order  to  prevent  a  serious  exposition  of  which  it  has  a  definite  place;  yet, 
outbreak,  gave  public  assurance  that  the  very  special  if  we  consider  it  in  its  broad  meaning  as  merely 
case  of  Athanasius  would  be  laid  before  the  emperor,  the  opposite  of  theism,  we  shall  be  able  to  frame 
But  the  saint  seems  to  have  divined  what  was  pre-  such  divisions  as  will  make  possible  a  grouping  of 
paring  in  secret  against  him.  He  quietly  withdrew  definite  systems  imder  this  head.  And  in  so  doin^ 
from  Alexandria,  5  October,  and  took  up  his  abode  we  shall  at  once  be  adopting  both  the  historical  and 
in  a  country  house  outside  the  city.  It  was  during  the  philosophical  view.  For  the  common  basis  of 
this  period  that  he  is  said  to  have  spent  four  months  all  svstems  of  theism  as  well  as  the  cardinal  tenet 
in  hiding  in  his  father's  tomb  (Soz.,  "Hist.*Eccl.'',  of  all  popular  religion  at  the  present  day  is  indubita- 
VI,  xii;  Soc.,  "Hist.  Ek;cL",  IV,  xii).  Valens,  who  bly  a  oelief  in  the  existence  of  a  personal  God,  and 
seems  to  have  sincerely  dreaded  the  possible  conse-  to  deny  this  tenet  is  to  invite  the  popular  reproach  of 
quences  of  a  popular  outbreak,  gave  orders  within  atheism.  The  need  of  some  sucn  definition  as  this 
a  very  few  weeks  for  the  return  of  Athanasius  to  his  was  felt  by  Mr.  Gladstone  when  he  wrote  (Contem- 
see.  And  now  began  that  last  brief  period  of  com-  porary  Review,  June,  1876):  "By  the  Atheist  I  un- 
parative  repose  which  unexpectedly  terminated  his  derstand  the  man  who  not  only  holds,  off,  like  the 
strenuous  and  extraordinaiy  career.  He  spent  his  sceptic,  from  the  affirmative,  but  who  drives  himself, 
remaining  days,  characteristically  enough,  in  re-  or  is  driven,  to  the  negative  assertion  in  regard  to  the 
emphasizing  the  view  of  the  Incarnation  which  had  whole  unseen,  or  to  the  existence  of  Goa."  Moro- 
been  defined  at  Nicsea  and  which  has  been  substan-  over,  the  breadth  of  comprehension  in  such  a  use  of 
tially  the  faith  of  the  Christian  Church  from  its  the  term  admits  of  divisions  and  cross-divisions  being 
earliest  pronouncement  in  Scripture  down  to  its  last  framed  under  it;  and  at  the  same  time  limits  the  num- 
utterance  through  the  lips  ot  Pius  X  in  our  own  ber  of  systems  of  thought  to  which,  with  any  pro- 
times.  "Let  what  was  confessed  by  the  Fathers  priety,  it  might  otherwise  be  extended.  Also,  if  the 
of  NicsBa  prevail",  he  wrote  to  a  philosopher-friend  term  is  thus  taken,  in  strict  contradistinction  to  the- 
and  correspondent  in  the  closing  years  of  his  l|fe  ism,  and  a  plan  of  its  possible  modes  of  acceptance 
(Epist.  Ixxi,  ad  Max.).  That  that  confession  did  at  made,  these  systems  of  thought  will  naturally  appear 
last  prevail  in  the  various  Trinitarian  formularies  in  clearer  proportion  and  relationship, 
that  followed  upon  that  of  Nicsea  was  due,  humanly  Thus,  defined  as  a  doctrine,  or  theory,  or  philosophy 
speaking,  more  to  his  laborious  witness  than  to  that  formally  opposed  to  theism,  atheism  can  only  signify 
of  any  other  champion  in  the  long  teachers'  roll  of  the  teaching  of  those  schools,  whether  cosmological  or 
CathoUcism.  By  one  of  those  inexpUcable  ironies  moral,  whicn  do  not  include  God  either  as  a  principle 
that  meet  us  everywhere  in  human  history,  this  man,  or  as  a  conclusion  of  their  reasoning.  The  most  trench- 
who  had  endured  exile  so  often,  and  risked  life  itself  ant  form  which  atheism  could  take  would  be  the  posi- 
in  defence  of  what  he  believed  to  be  the  first  and  tive  and  dogmatic  denial  of  the  existence  of  any  spiiv 
most  essential  truth  of  the  Catholic  creed,  died  not  by  itual  and  extra-mundane  First  Cause.  This  is  some- 
violence  or  in  hiding,  but  peacefully  in  his  own  bed,  sur-  times  known  as  dogmatic,  or  positive  theordtic,  athe- 
rounded  by  his  clergy  and  mourned  by  the  faithful  of  ism;  though  it  may  be  doubted  whether  such  a  system 
the  see  he  had  served  so  wdL  His  feast  in  the  Roman  has  ever  b^n,  or  could  ever  possibly  be  seriously  main- 
Calendar  is  kept  on  the  anniversary  of  his  death.  tained.    Certainly  Bacon  and  Dr.  Arnold  voice  the 

All  the  essential  materials  for  the  Saint's  biography  are  common  judgment  of  thinking  men  when  they  express 

to  be  found  in  hjs  writings,  wpeciaUy  in  those  written  after  _  Hniihf  ar  in  thft  fivisf^npp  nfRn  athpUt  hplonffimr  tr% 

the  year  350,  when  the  Apologia  contra  Arianos  was  composed,  *  oOUDt  as  10  tne  exiSience  OI  an  atneist  oeionging  to 

Supplementary  information  will  be  fotmd  in  St.  £pn>HANix7s.  such   a  school.     Still,  there    are    certain    advanced 

^<rr.,  loc.  cit.;  in  St.  Greogry  of  Nasianzus,  OraL,  xji;  phases  of   materialistic    philosophy    that,  perhaps, 

also  RuFiNus,  Socrates,  Sozomen,  and  Theodorbt.     The  nVirmlH  rJtrViflvh«  innliiHAH  iinH^r  tllisl^Asu^       Material 

Historia  Acephala,  or  Maffeian  Fraament  (discovered  by  shouia  ngntiy  be  incluoea  iinder  tnis  neao.    Matenai- 

Maffei  in  1738,  and  inserted  by  Gallandi  in  Bibliotkeca  ism.  which  professes  to  find  in  matter  its  own  cause  and 

Patrum,  1769),  and  the  Chnmiam  Athanaeianum,  or  Index  explanation,  may  go  farther,  and  positively  exclude 

iotheFeHal  Lettera,  give  us  data  for  the  chronological  problem,  au^  AYi«»f*»np^  nf  n.nv  <inirif  iml  oaiisa      That  siioh  a  Acar^ 

AU  the  foregoing  sources  are  included  in  Mignb,  P.  O.  and  tne  existence  01  any  spiritual  cause.     1  nat  sucn  a  QOg- 

p.  L.    The  great  Papedroch's  lAf e  ia  in  the  Acta  SS.,  May,  I.  matic  assertion  IS  both  unreasonable  and  illogical 

The  most  important  authorities  in  English  are:  Newman,  needs  no  demonstration,  for  it  IS  an  inference  not 

ProUgor^ena  to  the  Select  WriHnge  and  Lettera  of  Saint  Athana-  thought.      But  the  fact  that  certain  mdlVlduals  have 

nuB  irthedit^  in  Ubim/ of  the  Nicene  arid  paat^^  left  the  sphere  of  exact  scientific  observation  for 

^^^l9&t^?'iii':^j".Jd^A^o1^:  speculation,. and  have  thus  dogmatized  negatively, 

a^BEB  and  HBTEiiB,  calls  lor  their  inclusion  m  this  specific  type.    Mate- 

Cqrnbuus  CUFFOHP.  rialism  is  the  one  dogmatic  explaoatipi^  Qf  the  umverse 


ATBXISM  41  AT&XISM 

irhich  could  in  any  sense  justify  an  atheistic  position,  compatible  with  belief  in  a  God;  and  much  confusion 

But  even  materialism,  however  its  advocates  might  is  often  caused  by  the  inaccurate  use  of  the  terms, 

dogm&iiiet  could  do  no  more  than  provide  an  inaSe*  belief y  knowUdqey  opinion,  etc. 

Juate  theoretic  basis  for  a  negative  form  of  atheism.        Lastly,  a  tlurd  type  is  generally,  though  perhaps 
anfchdam,  which  must  not  be  confused  with  ma-  wrongly,  included  in  moral  atiheism.    '' Practical  athe- 
tenalism,  in  some  of  its  forms  can  be  placed  also  in  ism  is  not  a  kind  of  thought  or  opinion,  but  a  mode  of 
this  division,  as  categorically  denying  the  existence  of  life"  (R.  Flint,  Anti-theistic  Theories,  Lect.  l\    This 
a  spiritual  First  Cause  above  or  outside  the  world,  is  more  correctiy  called,  as  it  is  described,  goolessnees 
A  second  form  in  which  atheism  may  be  held  and  in  conduct,  quite  irrespective  of  any  theory  of  philoso- 
taught,  as  indeed  it  has  been,  is  based  either  upon  the  phy,  or  morals,  or  of  religious  faith.    It  will  be 
lack  of  physical  data  for  theism  or  upon  the  limited  noticed  that,  although  we  have  included  agnosticism, 
nature  of  we  intelligence  of  man.    This  second  form  materialism,  and  pantheism,  among  the  types  of 
mav  be  described  as  a  neeative  theoretic  atheism;  atheism,  strictly  sp^Jcinf  this  latter  does  not  necee-  ^ 
and  may  be  further  viewed  as  cosmoloffical  or  pey-  sarily  include  any  one  of  the  former!    A  man  may 
etiological,  according  as  it  is  motived,  on  the  one  hand,  be  an  agnostic  simply,  or  an  agnostic  who  is  also   ' 
by  a  consideration  of  the  paucity  of  actual  data  an  atheist.     He  may  be  a  scientific  materialist  and 
a\'ailable  for  the  aivuments  proving  the  existence  of  no  more,  or  he  may  combine  atheism  with  his  ma- 
a  super-sensible  and  spiritual  God,  or,  what  amounts  terialism.    It  does  not  necessarily  follow,  because 
to  the  same  thing,  the  attributing  of  aU  cosmic  change  the  natural  cognoscibility  of  a  personal  First  Cause 
and  devdopment  to  the  self-contained  potentialities  is  denied,  that  His  existence  is  called  in  (question: 
of  an  etern^  matter;  or,  on  the  other  band,  by  an  nor,  when  matter  is  called  upon  to  explam  itself, 
emfHric  or  theoretic  estimate  of  the  powers  of  reason  that  God  is  critically  denied.     On  the  other  hand, 
working  upon  the  data  furnished  by  sense-perception,  pantheism,    while    diestroying    the    extra-mundane 
From  whichever  ca,use  this  n^ative  form  of  atneism  character  of  God,  does  not  necessarily  deny  the 
proceeds,  it  issues  in  agnosticism  or  materialism;  al-  existence  of  a  supreme  entity,  but  rather  affirms  such 
tfaoudi  the  agnostic  is,  perhaps,  better  classed  under  as  the  sum  of  all  existence  and  the  cause  of  all 
this  nead  than  the  materialist.     For  the  former,  phenomena  whether  of  thought  or  of  matter.    Con- 
professing  a  state  of  nescience,  more  properly  belongs  sequently,  while  it  would  be  unjust  to  dass  agnostics, 
U)  a  cat^ory  under  which  those  are  placed  who  materialists,  or  pantheists  as  necessarily  also  atheists, 
negject,  rather  than  explain,  nature  without  a  God.  it  cannot  be  denied  that  atheism  is  clearly  perceived 
Moreover,  the  agnostic  may  be  a  theist,  if  he  admits  to  be  implied  in  certain  phases  of  all  these  systems, 
the  existence  of  a  beine  behind  and  beyond  nature.  There  are  so  many  shades  and  gradations  of  thoiight 
even  while  he  asserts  that  such  a  bein^  is  both  un-  by  which  one  form  of  a  philosophy  meiges  into 
provable  and  unknowable.     The  matenalist  belongs  another,  so  much  that  is  opinionative  and  personal 
to  this  type  so  long  as  he  merely  neglects,  and  does  woven  into  the  various   individual  expeditions  of 
not  exclude  from  his  sjratem,  the  existence  of  God.  systems,  that,  to  be  impartially  fair,  eacn  individual 
So,  too,  does  the  positivist,  regarding  theological  and  must  be  classed  by  himself  as  atheist  or  theist.    In- 
metaphysical  speculation  as  mere  passing  stages  of  deed,  more  upon  his  own  assertion  or  direct  teach- 
thought  through  which  the  human  mind  has  been  ing  than  by  reason  of  any  supposed  implication  in 
journeying  towards   positive,  or  rdated  empirical,  the  system   he  advocates   must   this   classification 
ioiowledge.    Indeed  any  system  of  thought  or  school  be  made.    And  if  it  is  correct  to  consider  the  sub- 
of  philosophy  that  simply  omits  the  existence  of  God  ject  from  this  point  of  view,  it  is  surprising  to  find  - 
from  the  sum  total  of  natural  knowledge,  whether  the  to  what  an  exceedingly  small  number  the  supposed 
individual  as  a  matter  of  fact  believes  in  Him  or  not,  atheistic  ranks  dwinme.     In  company  with  Socrates, 
can  be  dassed  in  this  division  of  atheism,  in  which,  nearly  all  the  reputed  Greek  atheists  strenuously 
strictly  speaking,  no  positive  assertion  or  denial  is  repudiated  the  clmige  of  teaching  that  there  were 
made  as  to  the  ultimate  fact  of  His  being.  no  gods.    Even  Bion,  who,  according  to  Diogenes 
There  are   two   systems   of   practical   or   moral  Laertius    (Life  of   Aristippus,    XIII,    Bohn's    tr.), 
atheism  which  call  for  attention.    They  are  based  adopted    the    scandalous    moral    teaching    of    the 
upon  the  theoretic  systems  just  expounded.     One  atheist  Theodorus,  turned  again  to  the  eods  whom 
system  of  positive  moral  atheism,  in  which  human  he  had  insulted,  and  when  he  came  to  die  demon- 


and  it  is  significant  of  those  to  whom  such  a  form  mu      j*j  *u'      xu  •  *    t,  •  i        j    •      i.*         i 

of  theoretic  atheism  is  sometimes  attributed,  that  ^^"^  ^^^^^^  atheist  shrink  and  give  his  neck 

far  the  sanction  of  moral  actions  they  introduc4  such  V"  a\T  a^"^  ^"^      -^  ""^^^  "P^?l 

abstract  ideas  as  those  of  duty,  the  ^cial  instinct,  or  ^^.  ^^f  .^«  T^J'^lj'^^'U  *"^'^®^'   •  a 

humanity.    There  seems  to  fe  no  particuhu:  reason  ^'^}'  laurel  branches  blocked  his  doors  and  wmdows, 

wigr  they  should  have  recourse  to  such  sanctions,  S^P^  *??  ^°  ?.H  ^^''^'^  anything 

anee  the  morality  of  an  action  can  hardly  be  de^  ^**'®'  **^^  **^®' 

rived  from  its  performance  as  a  duty,  which  in  turn  Epicurus,  the  founder  of  that  school  of  i^ysics 

caa  be  called  and  known  as  a  "duty"  only  because  which  limited  all  causes  to  purely  natural  ones  and 

it  refers  to  an  action  that  is  morally  good.    Indeed  consequently  implied,  if  he  did  not  actually  assert, 

in  analysis  of  the  idea  of  duty  leads  to  a  refutation  atheism,  is  spoken  of  as  a  man  whose  "piety  towards 

of  the  principle  in  whose  support  it  is  invoked,  and  the  gods  and  (whose)  affection  for  his  country  was 

points  to  the  necessity  of  a  theistic  mterpretation  of  quite    unspeakable"    (ib..    Life    of    Epicurus,    V). 

nature  for  its  own  justification.    The  second  system  And  though  Lucretius  Carus  speaks  of  the  downfall 


an  extrarmmidane,  spiritual,  and  personal  lawgiver;  XXVII),  he  states  plainly  a  true  theistic  position: 

bat  that,  not  because  such  a  lawgiver  does  not  exist,  "For  there  are  gods:  for  our  knowledge  of  them  is 

b«t  because  the  human  intelligence  is  incapable  of  so  indistinct.     But  they  are  not  of  the  character  which 

relating  them.     It  must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  people  in  general  attribute  to  them."    Indeed,  this 

that  either  ne^tiye  theoretic  atheism   or  negative  one  citation  perfectly  illustrates  the  fundamental 

pnetical  atheism  is,  as  a  system,  strictly  speaking  historic  meaning  of  the  term,  atheism. 


ATHBLNXY  42  ATHINA00BA8 

The  naturalistic  pantheism  of  the  Italian  Giordano  in  the  midst  of  dan^rous  morasses  in  what  is  non 
Bruno  (154S-1600)  comes  near  to,  if  it  is  not  actually  the  parish  of  East  Lme.  It  possessed  scarcely  more 
a  profession  of,  atheism;  while  Tomaso  Campanelia  than  two  acres  of  firm  land;  was  covered  with  alders 
(1568-1639),  on  the  contrary,  In  his  nature-philosophy  and  infested  by  wild  animals,  and  was  inaccessible 
finds  in  atheism  the  one  impossibility  of  thought,  except  by  boat  (William  of  Malmesbury).  Here  Al- 
Spinoza  (1632-77),  while  defending  the  doctrine  tnat  fred  found  a  refuge  from  the  Danes:  nere  he  built 
God  certainly  es^sts,  so  identifies  Him  with  finite  the  abbey  dedicated  to  our  Blessed  Saviour,  St 
existence  that  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  he  can  be  Peter,  St.  Paul,  and  St.  Egelwine.  He  peopled  it 
defended  against  the  chaige  of  atheism  even  of  the  with  foreisn  monks,  drawn  chiefly  from  France,  with 
first  t3rpe.  In  the  eighteenth  century,  and  especially  John  of  oaxony  (known  as  Scotus)  as  their  abbot, 
in  France,  the  doctnnes  of  materialism  were  spread  The  original  church  was  a  small  structure  consisting 
broadcast  by  the  Encyclopedists.  La  Mettrie,  Hoi*  of  four  piers  sup{)orting  the  main  fabric  and  sur- 
bach,  Feuerbach,  Fleurens  are  usually  classed  among  rounded  oy  four  circular  chancels.  Little  is  known 
the  foremost  materialistic  atheists  of  the  period,  ot  the  historv  of  the  abbey  from  the  eleventh  cen- 
Voltaire,  on  the  contraiy,  while  undoubtedly  helping  tury  up  to  the  time  of  its  dissolution  except  that 
on  the  cause  of  practical  atheism,  distinctly  neld  the  monks  of  Glastonbury  attempted  to  annex  it  or 
its  theoretic  contrary.  He,  as  well  as  Rousseau,  was  have  it  placed  under  the  Glastonbury  jurisdiction.  It 
a  deist.  Comte,  it  will  be  remembered,  refused  to  was  not  a  rich  oommunitv.  An  indulgence  of  thirty 
be  called  an  atheist.  In  the  last  century  Thomas  days  was  given  in  1321  for  those  who  should  assist 
Huxley,  Charies  Darwin,  and  Herbert  Spencer,  with  in  the  rebuilding  of  the  church,  and  the  monks 
others  of  the  evolutionistic  school  of  philosophy,  humbly  petitioned  Eldward  I  to  remit  "  corrod  "  for 
were,  quite  erroneously,  charged  with  positive  athe-  which  thev  were  unable  to  find  the  means  of  pay- 
ism.  It  is  a  chaige  which  can  in  no  way  be  sub-  ment.  The  last  abbot  was  Robert  Haml3m.  With 
stantiated;  and  the  invention  and  rapid  coming  into  eight  monks  of  his  community,  he  surrendered  S  Feb- 

S>neral  use  of  the  term  agnosticism,  used  first  by  ruary,  1540,  receiving  a  pension  of  £50  per  annum 
uxley  in  1859,  shows  the  long-felt  want  of  a  word  and  retaining  his  prebend  of  Long  Sutton.  The  rev- 
more  definitely  Refined  than  atheism  to  designate  a  enues  (26  Hen.  VII)  were  £209.  Os.  }d. 
phase  of  thought  either  critically  or  sceptically  con-  ,  Duodalb,  Mona^Ucon  Aniflieanum;  Amjoi,  De  RdnuOmttit 
Semed  with  the  process  by  which  the  common  tenet  ^^^••'  Heabn..  Scnpt,  Huu  Ar^LXXVlilKm\\^-^ 
of  theism  is  mamtained.  The  fundamental  formula  urancis  avelinq. 
is  not  a  denial  of  the  existence  of  God,  but  an  asser-  Athenagoras,  a  d^istian  apologist  of  the  sec- 
tion that  the  Absolute  is  unknowable.  In  Germany,  ond  half  of  the  second  century  of  whom  no  more  is 
the  materialism  of  Karl  Vogt,  Jacob  Moleschott,  known  than  that  he  was  an  Athenian  philosopher 
Ludwig  Bilchner,  culminating  in  the  monism  of  and  a  convert  to  Christianity.  Of  his  writings  tnere 
Ernst  H&ckel,  goes  far  towards  forming  an  atheistic  have  been  preserved  but  two  genuine  pieces: — ^his 
system  of  philosophy.  But  even  the  last  named  "Apology"  or  "Embassy  for  the  Christians"  and  a 
acimits  that  there  may  be  a  God,  though  so  limited  "Treatise  on  the  Resurrection  *\  The  only  allusions 
and  so  foreign  to  the  deity  of  theists  that  his  admis-  to  him  in  early  Christian  literature  are  the  accredited 
sion  can  hardly  remove  the  system  from  the  first  quotations  from  his  "Apology"  in  a  fragment  of 
category  of  theoretic  atheism.  Methodius  of  Olympus  (d.  312)   and   the  untrust- 

Among  the  unscientific  and  unphilosophical  there  worthy  biographical  details  in  the  fragments  of  the 
have  from  time  to  time  been  found  dogmatic  "Christian  History"  of  Philip  of  Side  (c.  425).  It 
atheists  of  the  first  type.  Here  again,  however,  may  be  that  his  treatises,  circulating  anonymously, 
many  of  those  popularly  styled  atheists  are  more  were  for  a  time  considered  as  the  work  of  another 
correctly  described  by  some  other  title.  There  is  a  apologist.  His  writings  bear  witness  to  his  erudi- 
somewhat  rare  tract,  "Atheism  Refuted  in  a  Dis-  tion  and  culture,  his  power  as  a  philosopher  and 
course  to  prove  the  Existence  of  (Jod  by  T.  P."  rhetorician,  his  keen  appreciation  of  the  int^ectual 
— British  Museum  Catalogue,  "Tom  Paine",  who  temper  of  his  age,  and  his  tact  and  delicacy  in  deal- 
was  at  one  time  popularly  called  an  atheist.  And  ing  with  the  powerful  opponents  of  his  religion, 
perhaps,  of  the  few  who  have  upheld  an  indubitable  T^  "Apology'',  the  date  of  which  is  fixed  by  in- 
form of  positive  theoretic  atheism,  none  has  been  temal  evidence  as  late  in  176  or  177,  was  not,  as  the 
taken  seriously  enough  to  have  exerted  any  influence  title  "Embassy"  (wpw^ela)  has  suggested,  an  oral 
upon  the  trend  of  {Kiilosophic  or  scientific  thought,  defence  of  Christianity,  but  a  carefuDy  written  plea 
Robert  Ingersoll  might  be  instanced,  but  though  for  justice  to  the  Christians  made  by  a  philosopher, 
popular  speakers  and  writers  of  this  tvpe  may  create  on  philosophical  grounds,  to  the  Emperors  Marcus 
a  certain  amount  of  unlearned  disturbance,  the^  are  Aurelius  and  his  son  Conamodus,  conquerors,  "  but 
not  treated  seriously  by  thinking  men,  and  it  is  ex-  above  all,  philosophers  ".  He  first  com{dains  of  the 
tremely  doubtful  whether  they  deserve  a  place  in  any  illo^oal  and  unjust  discrimination  against  the 
historical  or  philosophical  exposition  of  atheism.  Christians  and  of  the  calumnies  thejr  suffer  (i-iii)» 

Reimman.  HUtoria  adieiemi  et  atheprwn  .  .  .  (Hildesheim.  and  then   meets  the  charge  of  atheism    (iv).     He 

1725);  T0U88AINT   in   Did.  de  tMologte.  8.  v.  (a  good  bibliog-  A«fAKliflh<»Q  ihn  nrirw^mlA  nf  mnnnfliPuxm    nif imr  ruuvAn 

rapny);  Janet  and  sisAiLLEs.  Htatorv  of  the  Problenu  of  Philo*-  estaDUsn^  tne  principle  oi  monotneism.  Citing  pasan 

«^w  (tr.,  London.   1902),  II;   HirrriNQER.  Natural  Reliffion  poets  and  philosophers  m  support  of  the  veiy  doo- 

itr.Kem  York J.SW);  FLjmj,  Ant^theietU:  Theo^  trines  for  which  Christians  are  condemned  (v-vi), 

i?SUi^"<il*'n,'^rrfir^il7J?^^^^^  jnd  demonstrates  the  Buperiority..  of  Jhe  O^i^ti^n 

Saturalitm  and  AonoaHcitm  (New  York.  1899);  Ladd,  PkHot-  behef  in  God  to  that  of  pagans  (vil-viu).     This  first 

qpky  of  Reiiffum  (New  York.  1905),  II;  Boedder.  ATaturo/  strongly  reasoned  demonstration  of  the    unity    of 

t^X7yI^'^s^l)'^i«^biS^& ^XiiATii^;  <^  "»  Christian  literature  is  suoplemented  by  an 

Barrt.  The  End  of  Atheism  in  The  Catholic  Wortd,  LX,  333;  able   exposition   of  the  Tnnity    (x).     Assummg  then 

Shka.  Stepe  to  Atheism  \n  The  Am,  Cath.  Quart.  Rev.,  1^9, 305;  the   defensive,   the    apologist    justifies   the  C3u*is- 

&i)iS«:^%Si^4^fdS?^^v!  ti»n  abstention  from  worship  of  the  national  d«tie- 

rsphy  under  Aonooticism,   Materialism,   Pantheism,  and  (xni-XlV)    on   grounds   Of    its    absurcuty   and    mae-> 

Theism.   For  the  refutation  of  Atheism  see  the  article  God.  cency,  quoting  at  length  the  pagan  poets  and  phil- 

Francis  Avelinq.  osophers   in  support  of   his  contention    (xv-xxx). 

Athelney,  The  Abbey  op,  in  the  Coimty  of  Som-  Finally,  he  meets  the  charges  of  immorality  by  ex- 

erset,  England,  was  founded  by  King  Alfred,  a.  d.  posing  the  Christian  ideal  of  purity,  even  in  thought, 

888,  as  a  religious  house  for  monks  of  the  Order  of  and  the  inviolable  sanctity  of  the  marriage  bond. 

St.  Benedict.    Originally  Athelney  was  a  small  island  The  chaige  of  cannibalism  is  refuted  by  showing  the 


43  ATHENS 

td^  ngard  for  human  life  which  leads  the  Ghristian  however,  that  a  few  believed  in  Paul's  teachingi 
to  detest  the  crime  of  abortion  (xxxi-xxxvi).  The  Amongst  these  were  Dionysios,  a  member  of  the 
treatifle  on  the  "Resurrection  of  the  Body",  the  Areopagite  court,  and  Damaris,  or  Thamar  possibly, 
&8t  complete  exposition  of  the  doctrine  in  Christian  who  may  have  been  a  Jewess.  A  tradition  asserts 
literature,  was  written  later  than  the  "  Apology "»  to  that  St.  Paul  wrote  from  Athens  his  two  letters  to 
wiucfa  it  may  be  considered  as  an  appendix.  Atho-  the  Christians  of  Thessalonika.  Even  if  this  be  so, 
nagoras  brings  to  the  defence  of  tne  doctrine  the  his  stay  in  Athens  was  not  a  protracted  one.  He 
bert  that  contemporary  philosophy  could  adduce,  departed  by  sea,  and  went  to  Korinth  by  way  of 
After  meeting  the  objections  common  to  his  time  Kenchres,  its  eastern  harbour.  It  seems  that  a  Cnris- 
(i),  he  demonstrates  the  possibility  of  a  resur-  tian  community  was  rapidly  formed,  although  for  a 
Feetion  in  view  either  of  the  power  of  the  Creator  considerable  time  it  did  not  possess  a  numerous  mem- 
fii-iii),  or  of  the  nature  of  our  bodies  (iv-viii).  bership.  The  commoner  tradition  names  the  Areo- 
To  exercise  such  powers  is  neither  unworthy  of  God  pagite  as  the  first  head  and  bishop  of  the  Christian 
DOT  unjust  to  other  creatures  (ix-xi).  He  shows  Athenians.  Another  tradition,  however,  gives  this 
that  the  nature  and  end  of  man  demand  a  perpetua-  honour  to  Hierotheos  the  Thesmothete.  The  suc- 
tion of  the  life  of  body  and  soul.  cessors  of  the  first  bishop  were  not  all  Athenians  by 
Mabcr  and  Owkm,  DouglaMa'  SerU^  cfChrutian,  Oreek  and  lineage.  They  are  catalogued  as  Narkissos,  Publius, 
'C>^^r,^^J'^^l^li>^)':i\':^^^"T!k4  and  ^«lratu8.    Narku«os  ib  stat^  to  have  come 

lish  trtnalation  is  found  in  AnU-Nieene  Pather$  (New  York,  from   Palestine,    and   PubllUS   from  Malta.     In  some 

|«B),  II,  129-162;  in  voL  X  (ibid.)  pp.  36-3S,  ia  an  extensive  lists  Narkissos  is  omitted.     Quadratus  is  revered  for 

J^lM3<!i;SitSSlj,2^%^^r4*{r.S?tl'n»^^  h«^r>g  contributed  to  early  Chnstianliterature  by 

MABAifua  in  P.  O.  (Paris,  1857).  VI,  889-1024.    See  also  writmg  an  apology,  which  he  addressed  to  the  Em- 

SonrABTi  in  Oebhardt  and  Harnack.   Zexte  und  Vnter-  peror  Hadrian.     This  was  on  the  occasion  of  Had- 

S2X»L'l?S5*i?liip:JI-i^Jg7tr^S'^^^^  !?r'^Ji'?.l  •*?•   ^f'''^^-    •^•"°*''f    Athenian    who 

%\^,^Kn>KHnvw^,Oe9chithuderaUkircmchenlMeratur(Ftfi\'  defended  Chnstiamty  in  writing  at  a  somewhat  later 

bmf,  1902),  I,  267>277;  Idkm.  Po^rofo^  (ibid^.  1901)  67-68.  time  was  Aristeides.     His  apology  was  directed  to 

John  B.  Peterson.  the  Emperor  Marcus   Aurelius.    Athenagoras   also 

Athenry,  a  small  inland  town  in  the  county  Gal-  wrote  an  apology.    In   the   second  century  there 

way,  Ireland,  anciently  called  Athnere.  from  Athrna-  must  have  been  a  considerable  community  of  Chris- 

mgh,  the  king's  ford,  or  the  abode  of  thd  king.    It  tians  in  Athens,  for  Hygeinos,  Bishop  of  Rome,  is 

was  the  first  town  established  by  the  Anglo-Norman  said  to  have  written  a  letter  to  the  community  in 

invaders  of  Connaught,  and  at  a  remote  period  be-  the  year  139.     It  is  probable  that  the  early  Church 

came  a  place  of  importance.    A  Dominican  monas-  of  Athens  did  not  nave  many  martvrs,   although 

tery  was  completed  there  in  l561  on  a  site  granted  Dionysios  himself  graces  the  martyrs    list.     Under 

by  M^ler  de  Bermingham.    In  time  it  became  ex-  Decius,  we  find  recorded  in  the  catalogue  of  martyrs 

tensive  and  wealthy  and  was  used  as  the  chief  burial  the  names  of  Herakleios,  Benedimos,  Pavlinos,  and 

place  of  the  E^rls  of  Ulster  and  the  principal  families  Leonides  with  his  followers,  the  holy  woman  Char- 

of  the  adjoining  territory.    Indulgences  for  the  benefit  issa,    and   her   companions.     One  reason  why   the 

of  the  monastery  were  granted  by  the  pope  in  1400.  martyrs  were  few  is  that  the  Christians  were  also 

The  church  was  burned  in  1423,  and  in  1427  two  few.    Besides,  the  spirit  of  the  Athenian  i^agans  and 

subordinate  houses  were  established.    In  1445  Pope  philosophers  was  not  one  of  blood;  and  it  is  prob- 

Eugenius  IV  renewed  the  decree  of  Pope  Martin  V  able  that  the  persecutions  in  Athens  were  rather  of 

to  encourage  the  repairing  of  the  church,  at  which  the  social  and  scholastic  kind.    This  would  accoimt 

time  there  were  thirty  inmates  in  the  monastery,  for  the  writings  of  the  apologists  who  thus  would 

A  Franciscan  friary  was  also  founded  therein  1464  defend  themselves  bv  weapons  similar  to  those  which 

hy  Thomas,  EJari  of  Kildare,  and  chapels  erected  by  their  opponents  used.    The  philosophers  of  the  Athe- 

m  wife  and  the  Earls  of  Desmond  and  OTully.  nian  schools  did  not  indeed  admire  Christianity,  as 

The  place  was  sacked  in  1577  during  the  Elizabethan  they  understood  it;  nevertheless  there  is  some  ground 

ware,  but  repaired   in    1585.     The  northern   Irish  for  believing  that  amongst  the  teachers  who  occupied 

burned  the  town  in  1596  but  the  abbey  escaped,  the   official   and   historic    chairs   of   philosophy   at 

The  Dominican  establishment  was  revived  in  1644  Athens  there  later  was  at  least  one  who  was  a  Chris- 

stt  a  university,  the  town,  however,  never  regained  tian,  Prohseresios,  the  sophist.     Be  this  as  it  may, 

its  ancient  prestige.    The  Cromwell ian  period  ruined  it  is  certain  that  the  teaching  of  the  philosophers 

the  ecclesiastical  buildings,  of  which  the  tower  and  was  not  rudely  anti-Christian.     Otherwise  the  pres- 

^ast  window  remained  in  good  condition  to  tell  of  the  ence  of  Christians  amongst  the  students  could  not 

iDcieot  extent  and  beau^  of  the  foundation.    The  be  understood.    Sixtus  11,  or  Xystos,  who  suffered 

Board  of  Works  in  1893  made  extensive  repairs  to  martyrdom  in  Rome  about  a.  d.  258,  also  may  have 

tbe  rains  to  preserve  them.  studied  in  Athens  and  is  called  "  the  son  of  an  Athe- 

LtwB.  Topographical  Dictionary  of  Ireland  (DMin,  1830).  nian  philosopher".     But  the  most  noted  men  who 

Thomas  F.  Meehan.  frequented  the  schools  here  were  Basil  from  Ksesareia, 

Athtns,      CHRisrnAN. — Christianity      was      first  and  Gregory  from  Nazianzos,  about  the  middle  of 

preached  in  Athens  by  St.  Paul.     He  came  to  Athens  the  fourth  century.    These    schools  of   philosophy 

fnim  Beitea  of  Macedonia,  coming  probably  by  water  kept  paganism  aUve  for  four  centuries,  but  by  the 

^  hmding  in  the  Peirseevs,  the  harbour  of  Athens,  fifth   century   the   ancient   religion  of  Elevsis  and 

This  wai  about  the  year  53.     Having  arrived  at  Athens  had  practically  succumbed.    In    the  Coun- 

Athens,  he  at  once  sent  for  Silas  and  Timotheos  who  cil  of  Niksea  there  was  present  a  bishop  from  Athens. 

^  remained  behind  in  Bercea.     While  awaiting  the  In    529    the    schools   of    philosophy  were  closed, 

penning  of  these  he  tarried  in  Athens,  viewing  the  From  that  date  Christianity  had  no  rival  in  Athens. 

iiWatTous  citv,  and  frequenting  the  synagogue;  for  Down  to  the  time  of  Constantino,  and  later,  there 

^^  were  already  Jews  in  Athens.     He  also  fre-  were  no  large  Christian  temples  in  Athens.    Like 

<^ted  the  (Mgara,  and  there  met  and  conversed  the  Jews,  whose  synagogues  in  pagan  towns  were 

*ith  the  men  of  Athens,  telUng  them  of  the  new  small  and  unpretentious,  the  first  Christians  did  not 

troths  which  he  was  promulgating.     Finally,  at  the  erect  sumptuous  temples.    With  their  worship  they 

Areopagoe,  he  spoke  to  them  the  sermon  which  is  did  not  associate  splendour  of  temple  and  sanctuary 

gwived  in  the  seventeenth  chapter  of  the  Acts,  as  indispensable.     In  the  time  of  Basil  and  Gregory, 

"*  Athenians  did  not  enthusiastically  accept  this  there  were  surely  numerous  church  edifices  in  Athens. 

^  preaching  of  Christianity.    The  Acts  mention,  but  they  were  not  spacious  temples.    They  are  caUed 


ATHENS  44  ATHENS 

Ic^    of/roc,   and    probably   were   not   much   larger  liikewise  many  monasteries  were  founded,  both  in 
than  the  ordinary  dwelling-houses  of  the  inhabitants.  Athens  itself  and  in  the  country  of  Attika,  especially 
The  first  magnificent  churches  in  Athens  were,  there-  on  the  slopes  of  the  surrounding  mountains  of  Hy- 
fore,  the  Greek  temples  which,  after  the  disappear-  mettos,  and  Pentelikos,  and  Fames.    A  complete  list 
ance  of  paganism,  were  transferred  to  the  use  of  the  o£  the  Bishops  of  Athens  could  not  be  made.    But 
Christian  rites.    It  must  have  been  about  Justinian's  as  time  goes  on,  and  seals  and  manuscripts  and  in- 
time  when  the  most  of  the  ancient  temples  were  scriptions  are  deciphered,  the  list  of  names  will  grow, 
converted    into    churches.    Churches    or    ruins    of  Pistos,  Bishop  of  Athens,  was  present  at  the  Council 
churches  have  been  frequently  found  on  the  sites  of  Niksea  in  325.    Bishop  Modestus  was  at  the  Coun- 
where  pagan  shrines  or  temples  originally  stood,  cil  of  Ephesos  in  431.    John,  Bishop  of  Athens,  was 
This  is  in  part  due  to  the  fact  that  the  sites  were  amongst  the  Fathers  who  signed  the  Acts  of  the 
first  sanctined  for  Christian  tradition  by  these  pagan  Sixth  (Ecumenical  Council.     He  was  present  as  "  Leg- 
temples  or  sanctuaries  being  made  into  churches,  gate  of  the  Apostolic  See  of  ancient  Rome".    From 
It  is  also  to  some  extent  true  that  sometimes  the  the  graffiti  on  the  Parthenon  a  number  of  other 
saint  whose  aid  was  to  be  invoked  at  the  Christian  names  and  dates  are  already  known.    In  these  graf- 
shrine  bore  some  outward  analogy  to  the  ddty  pre-  fiti  we  read  names  of  bishops  prior  to  the  exaltation 
viously  hallowed  in  that  place.    Thus  in  Athens  the  of  Athens  to  the  rank  of  an  archbishopric,  then  the 
shrine   of   the   healer   Asklepios,  situated  between  names  of  archbishops,  and  finally  those  of  metropoli- 
the  two  theatres  on  the  south  side  of  the  Akropolis,  tans.    The  time  of  the  elevation  of  this  see  to  an 
when  it  became  a  church,  was  made  sacred  to  the  archbishopric  cannot  yet  be  fixed.     Gregory  II,  who 
two  saints  whom  the  Christian  Athenians  invoked  as  was  pastor  of  the  Athenians  during  the  firet  patriarch- 
miraculous  healers,  Kosmas  and  Damian.    Amongst  ate  of  Photios,  bore  the  title  of  archbishop.    But  it 
the  temples  converted  into  churches  were  the  Par-  is  not  known  whether  or  not  he  was  the  first  who  had 
thenon  and  the  Erechtheion  on  the  Akropolis,  and  that  title.    This  was  about  8r>7-867.     Shortly  after- 
the  yet  well-preserved  HephsBsteion  (or  "temple  of  wards  the  archbishops  received  the  higher  title  of 
Theseus",  as  it  is  incorrectly  called)  near  the  ancient  metropolitan.     Niketaswho  took  part  in  the  Eighth 
agoru.    The  Hephsesteion  was,  in  later  times,  sacred  (Ecumenical  Council  under  Basil   the   Makedonian, 
to   St.    George.     Pittakis,    a  noted   epigraphist   of  which  closed  28  February,  870,  and  who  signed  the 
Athens  in  the  early  half  of  the  last  century,  pub-  acts  of  that  council  as  "  Niketas  by  the  grace  of  God, 
lished  an  inscription  which  purports  to  state  that  Metropolitan  of  Athens ",  on  his  seals,  or  leaden  bulls, 
in  the  year  630  the  Parthenon  was  consecrated  imder  simply  places  the  inscription   "  Niketas,  Bishop  of 
the  title  of  "  the  church  of  Divine  Wisdom "  (r^j  *Aylas  Athens  ,    Amongst  the  signatures  to  the  acts  of 
Xoiplat).    But  Pittakis    was  very  careless    or  cred-  this  council,  that  of  Niketas  stands  twenty-second 
ulous  at  times  in  the  copying  of  inscriptions.    So  in  order.    But  in  a  full  assembly  of  metroix»litans 
we  do  not  know  with  certainty  what  was  the  original  he  would  not  rank  so  high.    According  to  the  list 
title  of  this  church.     Possibly,  from  its  first  conver-  made  by  Emperor  Leon  the  Wise  (886-911),  a  list 
sion  the  Parthenon  had  been  dedicated  to  the  Pana-  intended  to  snow  the  relative  rank  of  each  ecclesi- 
gia.    At  least  we  learn  from  Michael  Akominatos  astical  dignitary  imder  the  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
that  in  the  twelfth  century  it  was  sacred  to  the  nople,  the  Metropolitan  of  Athens  is  relegated  to 
Mother  of  God.    On  the  columns  of  this  church,  and  the  twentjr-eighth  place.    Just  what  sees  were  under 
on  its  marble  walls,  especially  around  the  doors,  are  the  Archbishop  of  Athens  prior  to  Photios  is  not 
numerous  graffiti  inscnptions  which  record  various  easy  to  discover.    After  the  changes  brought  about 
events,  many  of  them  important  for  sacred  and  pro-  by  Photios  and  his  successors,  the  sees  that  were 
fane  history,  such  as  the  names  and  deaths  of  bishops,  suffragan  to  Athens  varied  in  number  from  time  to 
and  public  calamities.     In  these  graffiti  inscriptions,  time.  But  in  general  it  may  be  stated  that  all  of 
this  church  is  called  "  the  great  church  ",  "  the  church  Attika  belong^  directlv  to  the  Archbishop  of  Athens, 
of  Athens",  and  the  cathedral  church,  or  KaOoXiK^i  after  the  abolishing  of  the  See  of  Marathon,  about 
iKK\7j<rla.    All  these  appellations  show  that  it  was  the  middle  of  the  mnth  century.     And  under  Athens 
the  metropolitan  churcn  of  the  city.     In  Greek  usage,  were,  besides  other  bishoprics,  the  Sees  of  Evripos, 
the  name  Ko^XticAi' or  ica^oXtK^^  ^icicXi7<r/o,  was  a  title  ap-  Oreos,  Karystos,  and  Porthmos  in  Evboea;   Avion; 
plied  to  churches  which  were  the  sees  of  bishops  or  Diavleia  in  Phokis,  and  Koroneia  in  Boeotia;  Andros, 
archbishops.  Skyros,   Syros,   and   Seriphos  of  the  islands;  and, 

That  the  Parthenon  was  a  church  as  far  back  as  the  later,  Keos  and  ^Egina. 
sixth  century  is  proven  by  the  cemetery  which  lay        From  Photios  down  to  the  Franks  the  Metropoli- 

along  its  south  side.    This  region  was  filled  with  Chris-  tans  of  Athens  were  all  of  the  Greek  rite,  naturally, 

tian  graves,  in  some  of  which  were  found  coins  of  a  date  Likewise  their  sympathies  were  rathw  with  Constan- 

os  early  as  the  reign  of  Justinian.    In  order  to  fit  the  tinople  than  with  older  Rome.    Their  metropolitan 

Parthenonfor  a  church,  changes  had  to  be  made  in  it;  church  continued  to  be  the  ancient  P^lienon.     It 

an  apse  was  built  at  the  east  end,  and  a  great  entrance  seems  that  the  residence  of  the  bishops  was  on  the 

door  was  placed  in  the  west  end.    The  interior  waUs  Akropolis,  in  the  great  Portals,  or  Propylaea,  and  that 

were  covered  with  fresco  paintings  of  saints.    After  in   these  Propylsea  they   had   a  private  episcopal 

the  conversion  of  these  Greek  temples  into  churches,  chapel.    In  tnese  days  education  was  not  held  in. 

perhaps  two  or  three  centuries  eiapsed  before  the  very  general  esteem  in  Athens.    No  special  erudition 

Athenians  found  it  necessary  to  lavishly  add  to  the  characterized    the    clergy.    Even    the    inscriptions 

number  of  large  church  edifices  by  erecting  many  which  decorated  the  seals  and  bulls  of  bishops  and  ab- 

new  ones.    Then  they  followed  the  styles  of  eccle-  bots  were  often  most  childishly  misspelled.     From 

siastical  architecture  which  had  been  developed  else-  the  time  of  Photios  to  the  Franks  the  most  noted 

where,   and  had  become  prevalent  throughout  so  ecclesiastic   was  probably  the  last  bishop,  Michael 

much  of  the  empire.     Froni  about  the  end  of  the  Akominatos.    He,   however,  was  Athenian  neither 

eighth  century  they  erected  new  churches  more  fre-  by  birth  nor  by  education.    He   came  to  Athens 

quently.     Perhaps  the  Empress  Eirene,  who  was  an  expecting  great  things  in  the  city  of  ancient  wia- 

Atheman,  gave  some  impulse  to  this  tendency.    As  dom,   but  was  disappointed.    Still  it  is  wrong  to 

years  went  on,  Athens  and  the  surrounding  villages  say  that  Athens  of  the  Middle  Ages  produc^ed   no 

of  Attika,  and  the  fields  were  filled  with  churches,  scholars  and  noted  personages.    AthenaSs,  who   be- 

many  of  them  veritable  gems  of  Byzantine  comeli-  came  queen  to  Theodosios  in  421,  and  Eirene,  ^*ho 

ness.    The  churches  which  were  built  in  Athens  and  became  empress  in  780,  were  Athenians.    Fnona  the 

vicinity  during  the  Middle  Ages  numbered  hundreds,  sixth  to  the  thirteenth  century  Athens  was  out  and 


'     45  ATHENS 

oot  a  provincial  town,  exercising  no  influence  on  the  trade  centre  than  was  Athens.    Athens,  however,  was 
worid  at  large,  and  almost  unheard  of  in  the  politics  considered  important  enough  to  be  continued  as  an 
of  the  day.    Nevertheless,  the  Emperor  Konstas  on  archbishopric.     It  thus  was  ranked  in  equal  dignity 
bis  way  to  Sicily  in  662  spent  the  winter  in  Athens;  with  the  other  larger  cities  of  Greece,  sucn  as  Thebes, 
and  after  his  victories  over  the  Bulgarians  in  1018,  within  de  la  Roche's  dominion,  and  Patrae  and  Kor- 
Basil  II  visited  this  city  to  celebrate  his  triumphs,  inth  in  the  Morea.    The  conquest  of  Greece  was 
When,  under  Constantine,  the  Empire  was  divided  accomplished  in   1204  and   1205.    The  first  Latin 
into  governmental  dioceses,  the  close  relations  which  archbishop   introduced    the   Latin   ritual   into   the 
then  were  created  between  the  Church  and  the  State  cathedral,  the  Partlienon,  in  the  year  1206.     This 
caused  the  ecclesiastical  divisions  to  be  often  iden-  was  Archbishop  Berard.    Thus  after  a  lapse  of  cen- 
tical  with  the  civil.      By  this  system  all  of  Achaia,  turies  from  the  time  of    Leo  the    Isavrian,  Greece 
wherein  was  Athens,  was  included  within  the  Diocese  and  Athens  were  ^ain  placed  under  the  junsdiction 
of  Eastern  Illyria,  of  which  Thessalonika  was  the  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome.     During  the  Frankish  rule 
capital.    All  of  this  Diocese  of  Eastern  Illjrria  was  the  archbishops  of    Athens  were  without  exception 
under  the  direct  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  of  the  Latin  Rite,  and  were  of  Western  lineage.     Like- 
And  so  it  remained  imtil  the  reign  of  Leo  the  Isav-  wise  the  canons  of  the  cathedral,  in  the  Parthenon, 
rian.    This  emperor,  incensed  at  Pope  Gregory  III,  were  of  Latin  Rite,  and  were  Franks.    Their  number 
baause  of   his  strong  opposition  to  Leo's  icono-  was  fixed   by  Cardinal  Benedict,   papal  legate  in 
clastic  passion,  retorted  against  the  pope  by  trans-  Thessalonilca,  by  order  of  Pope  Innocent  III.     But 
fening  these  countries  of  the  Illvrian  diocese  fix)m  the  ritual  of  the  common  priests  was  not  disturbed. 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome  to  that  of  The  people  continued  to  enjoy  their  own  rites,  cele- 
the  See  of  Constantinople.     This  occurred  in   the  brated   by   Greek  priests   m   the   Greek  language, 
year  732.    In  this  great  struggle  between  the  icono-  These  Greek  priests  nad,  however,  at  least  outwardly, 
clasts  and  the  adherents   to  the  use  of  the  icons,  to  acknowleage  the  jurisdiction  of   the  Latin  arch- 
the  Athenians  placed  themselves  on  the  side  of  icon-  bishop.     Amongst  the  sees  which  were  sufTragan  to 
olatry.    While  accepting  without  any  recorded  pro-  the  Archbishop  of  Athens  were  those  of  Cnalkis, 
test  their  transference  to   the  jurisdiction  of  the  Thermopylse  (or  Bodonitsa)  Davleia,  Avion,  Zorkon, 
Eastern  patriarch,  they  retained  the  images  in  their  Karystos,  Koroneia,  Andros,  Skyros,  Kea,  and  M^ara. 
cimrcbes  and  continued  to  venerate  them.     All  the  The  last  bishop  of  the  Greek  Rite  was  the  learned 
inhabitants  of  Greece  north  of  the  Kofinthiac  Gulf,  Michael  Akominatos,  who,  when  the  Franks  came, 
who  then  were  called  Helladikoi,  or  Helladians,  were  retired  to  the  Island  of  Keos,  after  first  visiting  the 
opposed  to  the  iconoclasts.     And  their  opposition  cardinal  legate  of  the   pope  in  Thessalonika  to  im- 
was  80  determined  that  they  fitted  out  an  expedi-  petrate  certain  favours  lor  those  formerly  under  his 
tion  and  maimed  a  fleet,  intending  to  attack  Con-  charge  who  wished  to  adhere  to  the  Greek  form  of 
stantinople,   depose    Leo,   and    place   their  leader,  wor^ip.     In  Keos  he  lived  as  a  monk  in  the  monas- 
Kosmas,on  the  throne.     In  this  expedition,  in  which  tery  of  St.  John  the  Baptist.     To  support  the  Latin 
the  Athenians  doubtlessly  had  an  important  part,  archbishop,  and  the  canons,  and  the  cathedral  church, 
assistance  was  given  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Kyklad  a  number  of  possessions  were  given  to  him.     Amongst 
islands,  who  probably  furnished  most  of  the  ships,  these  was  the  monastic  property  of  Ksesariane,  and 
The  attempt,  however,  was  futile.     The  fleet  was  the  island  of  Belbina,  which  Pop)e  Innocent  III  gave 
easily  destroyed  by  the  imperial  ships  in  April,  727.  to  the  Archbishop  of  Athens  in  1208.     The  Frankish 
The  mutiial  bitterness  which  \vas  evinced  in  Con-  cavaliers  lived  in  splendour  in  Thebes  and  Athens, 
stantinople  by  the  contending  parties  of  Photians  The  dignitaries  of  the  Church  lived  in  ease.     Along 
and  Anti-Photians  was   reflected   here  in   Athens,  with  the  coming  of  the  Franks  and  the  Latin  Church 
Gregory  II  was  archbishop  when  Ignatios  was  re-  there  came  also  Latin  monks.    The  Cistercians  es- 
stored  to  his  throne  as  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  tabltshed  themselves  near  Athens  in   1208  in  the 
Ignatios  deposed  him  as  being  an  adherent  of  Pno-  beautiful  monastery  of  Daphne,  which  previously 
tns.    His  successor,  Kosmas,  was  also  later  deposed,  was  in  the  possession  of  Greek  Basilian  Fathers. 
Then  Niketas,  a  Byzantine,  came  to  Athens  as  arch-  The  Franciscans  were  the  most  active  religious  order 
bishop  with  the  title  of  metropolitan.     This  Niketas  in  Greece  during  this  period.    There  were  also  Do- 
was  a  supporter  of  Ignatios.     His  successor,  Anas-  minican  convents. 

taaos,   was   a  follower  of    Photios.     Sabbas,   who        In  the  year  1311  another  greats  change  came  over 

succeeded  Anastasios,  was  likewise  a  Photian  and  Athens.    The  Franks  were  defeated  by  the  Catalans 

»as  one  of  those  who  signed  the  acts  of  the  synod  in  the  swamps  of  the  Kephisos  in  Boeotia.     Athens, 

»hich  closed  in  May,  880,  by  which  Photios  was  with  Thebes,  became  their  possession.     Under  their 

a^in  recognized  as  patriarch.     A  bull  of  his  still  sway,  which  lasted  more  than  seventjr-five  years,  the 

exists,  whereon  he  designates  himself  as  **  MetropoU-  higher  dignitaries  of  the  Church  continued  naturally 

tan  of  Athens".  to  be  Latins.     In  these  days  there  were  fourteen 

Throughout  the  East  there  was  a  peculiar  type  of  suffragan  sees  under  the  Archbishopric  of  Athens, 

Panagia-icQUf  copies  of  which  might  be  seen  in  mon-  and  at  the  cathedral  there  were  eleven  or  twelve 

asteiies  and  churches  in  manv  places.    This  was  canons.     In  1387  another  change  overtook  Athens. 

the  Panagia    Oorgoepekoos.    This  Panagia  Gorgoe^  The  Catalonian  possessions  came  under  the  owner- 

^koos  seems  to  have  been  originally  an  Athenian  ship  of  the  Acciajoli,  Florentines  who  had  risen  to 

icon,  and  was  probaWy  identical  with  an  icon  which  eminence  as  bankers.     The  Acciajoli  retained  pos- 

waa  called   the  Panagia  Athenceotissa.    The  Athen-  session  of  Athens  until  driven  out  by  Omser  Pasha, 

(K)£ma  was  the    Madonna  of    the  church    in  the  who  in  June  of   1456  entered  the  citv  and,  in  1458, 

Parthenon.    This    icon   is    mentioned    by    Biichael  took   possession   of   the    Akropolis   for  his  Sultan, 

Akntninatos.  Mohammed  II.    The  only  notable  change  in  eccle* 

After  the  conquest  of  the  Byzantine  Empire  by  siastical  matters  under  the  Acciajoli  was  that  they 

the  Europeans   of  the  Fourth  Crusade,  in  the  par-  permitted  two  archbishops  to  reside  in  Athens,  a 

titiomiient    which    followed,   Athens   and   the  rest  Greek  dignitary ,for  the  Catholics  of  the  Greek  Rite, 

of  Greece  were  given  to   Boniface,  King  of  Thes-  and  a  Latin  for*  the  Franks.     In  this  wajr  the  defec- 

■koika.    Boniface  gave  Athens  to  one  of  his  fol-  tion  of  the  Greeks  of  Athens  from  Roman  jurisdiction 

knnecB,  Otho   de   la   Roche.     At   their   coming   to  was  again  a  fact.    The  Latin  archbishop  lived  in 

Athens  the   Franks  found  it  small  and  insignificant,  the  Castro,  that  is,  on  the  Akropolis,  and  the  Greek 

Tbey  daoee  Thebes  to  be  the  seat  of  civil  power  prelate  had  his  residence  in  the  lower  city.     Franco 

mer  than  Athens.    Thebes  was  a  more  important  Acciajoli  was  the  last  Duke  of  Athens.    The  last 


ATHENS  46  ATHENS 

Latin  archbishop  was  Nicholas  Protimus.     He  died  and  an  appendix  (Athens.  19&M)6);  HoPF,(;etcAic^(?ri«A«»' 

in  1483.    After  his  death  Rome  continued  to  ap-  ^^j<>!;^BeoinndeMMituUilier$hisax^^ 

point  titular  Latin  archbishops  to  the  See  of  Atheik  1870);  Gkoroiades   l<rropia  rQv  A^^yi'Oy  (Athens):  Nbrout. 

Under  Turkish  domination  the  Church  and  all  its  ^'    X^^rrmwitat  Aj^^mi  (Athens.  1889   aqq.);   Lequidc 

property  .again  became  Greek.     AH  the  suffragan  sees  1868);  Antonio  Rdbio  y  Lloch,  La  Expedid&n  y  la  Domma- 
were  agam  filled  by  Greek  bishops,  and  the  monas-  cidn  de  ha  Catalanoa  en.  OrienU  (Barcelona,  1883);  Gulden* 
teries  were  again  occupied  by  Greek  monks.    The  «?<>««.    ^'^^^,,  i^*^  m^^"*""'    ^^^*    Kampooeoolos, 
Parthenon,  hSwever,  wm  appropriated  by  the  con-  J^''*^^^    ''*^''   'Afirivu^y,  TovpKOKparla  (Ath^.  1889-93): 
querors,  who  converted  it  into  a  mosque.     The  Greek  fAt w'' 1904) '                 ''                             TovpKOKpariat 
bishops  continued  to  Uve  in  the  lower  town,  and  Daniel  Quinn 
during  the  latter  half  of  the  Turkish  supremacy  they  . 
usualhr  resided  near  the  church  of  the  ranagia  Got-  Athens,  modern  diocese  of. — The  Greeks  have 
jroepekoos,  which    they  used    as  a  private  chapel,  long  re^rded   their   religion   as  a  national   affair. 
They  lived  elsewhere  at  times,  however,  for  Fatner  This  notion  is  so  deep-rooted  that  they  cannot  under- 
Babm  mentions  Archbishop  Anthimos  as  Uving  near  stand  how  a  citizen  can  well  be  a  true  Greek  if  he 
the  church  of  St.  Dionysios,  which  was  at  the  foot  gives  his  all^iance  to  any  religion  which  is  not  that 
of  the  Areopagos  Hill.     In  Turicish  times,  as  previ-  of   the  Greek   Church.     At   tne   present   time  the 
ously,  the  sees  under  Athens  were  not  always  the  majority  of  Catholics  who  live  within  the  Diocese 
same  in  number.     Nor  were  they  all  identical  with  of  Athens  are  therefore   foreigners,   or  of   foreign 
those  that  had  been  under  the  Latin  archbishops,  deeoent.     Of  the  foreigners  who  are  Catholics,  the 
Some  of   them  were  Koroneia,  Salona,  Bodonitsa,  greater  part  are  of  Italian  nationsflity.     Most  of  those 
Davleia,  Evripos,  Oreos,  Kaiystos,  Porthmos,  An-  who  are  of  foreign  descent  have  come  into  Athens 
dros,  Syra,  and  Skyros.  and  other  portions  of  this  diocese  from  the  islands  of 
Amongst  the  religious  orders  that  lived  in  Athens  the  .^ean  and  Ionian  seas.     The  Catholics  of  these 
under  Turkish  rule  were  the  Franciscans.    They  were  islands  are  largely  descendants  of  the  Western  con- 
there  as  early  as  1658.     But  they  had  already  been  in  querors  who  held  possession  of  the  islands  for  two 
Greece  under  the  Franks.     The  Franciscans  are  to  be  or  three  centuries,  or  even  longer,  b^inning  with 
mentioned  with  the  Dominicans  as  being  the  first  the  Fourth  Crusade.     As  a  rule,  Uiey  are  of  Venetian 
Western  Europeans  who  sent  students  to  Athens  and  and  Genoese  descent.     In  these  islands  some  of  the 
other  places  in  the  East  for  the  purpose  of  studying  native  Greeks,  on  account  of  the  higher  social  and 
the  language  and  literature  of  the  Greeks.     Another  political  standing  of  the  foreign  element,  accepted 
fact  to  the  credit  of  the  Franciscans  of  Athens  is  the  Catholic  Faith  and  obedience.     From  these  con- 
that,  although  not  primarily  interested  in  antiquities,  verted  Greeks  some  Catholics  in  the  Diocese  of  Athens 
they  fruitfufly  contributed  to  the  awakening  of  our  are  now  descended.     On  three  or  four  of  the  islands, 
interest  in  such  studies.     There  appeared  in  Fans  in  outside  of   the  Diocese  of   Athens,  there  are  many 
the  second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  a  book  by  such  Catholics  who  are  pure  Greeks ^  beinx  descended 
Guillet  or  "  de  la  Guilleti^re  ",  which  is  entirely  based  from  converts  to  Catholicism  in  the  tune  of  the  forei^ 
on   information  received   from   the   Franciscans  of  feudal  governments.     These  Catholics  from  the  is- 
Athens.     Franciscans  sketehed  the  first  plan  of  mod-  lands  are  the  nucleus  of  the  future  prosperity  of 
em  Athens.     Considering  how  suspicious  the  Turks  Catholicism  in  Greece,  for  gradually  they  are  identify- 
were  of  any  kind  of  description  of  their  possessions  ing  themselves  with  the  eood  of  the  country  and  its 
and  castles,  it  was  quit-e  a  feat  for  the  Franciscans  to  worthier  ideals.     Although  they  are  still  conscious  of 
have  made  so  eood  a  plan  as  they  did.     It  was  pub-  their  foreign  extraction,  or  former  foreign  sympathies, 
lished  by  Guiliet  in  nis  book,  ''Ath^nes,  anciennes  they  now  feel  that  their  residence  m  centuries  in 
et  nouvelles'\  1675.    In  those  days  the  Capuchins  Greek  territory  has  made  them  Greeks.    The  real 
had  a  comfortable  monastery  in  Athens,  which  they  foreign  element  is  made  up  of  those  Catholics  who 
built  on  ground  bought  from  the  Turks  in  1658,  have  migrated  into  Greece  since  it  has  become  a  free 
behind  the  choragic  monument  of  Lysikratcs.    The  country.    These  are  chiefly  Italians  and  Maltese, 
monument  itself  served  them  as  their  little  library.  Most  of  them  are  labourers  who  came  to  find  employ- 
In  this  monastery  many  a  traveller  found  hospitality,  ment  on  the  railroads  and  other  public  works,  or  to  . 
It  was  destroyecl  by  fire  in  1821,  and  the  site  is  now  live  as  fishermen  or  boatmen  in  the  lai^ger  seaport 
owned  by  the  French  Government.    The  Jesuits  were  towns.    The  exact  number  of  Catholics  cannot  easily 
also  active  in  Athens.     They  came  in  1645.    It  must  be   estimated.     Possibly   in   the   entire  Diocese    of 
be  noted  that  it  was  Father  Babin,  a  Jesuit,  who  Athens  there  are  about  10,(XX),  of  whom  about  one- 
wrote  the  first  careful  account  of  the  modem  condi-  fourth  attend  church  regularly.     From  amongst  the 
tion  of  the  ruins  of  ancient  Athens.    This  he  did  in  members  of  the  Greek  Church  no  converts  are  made 
a  letter  to  the  Abb6  P^coil,  canon  of  Lyons.    This  to  Cathohcity.     At  least,  they  are  extremely  rare. 
letter  was  written  8  October,  1672.     It  was  published  It  is  against  the  positive  and  explicit  law  of  the  State 
with  a  commentary  by  Spon  in  1674  under  the  title  for  any  other  church  to  make  proselytes  from  the 
of  "  Relation  de  Tdtat  present  de  la  ville  d'Ath^es".  established  Greek  or  Orthodox  Cnurch.     In  the  first 
The  Jesuits  finally  withdrew  from  Athens,  leaving  '  National  Assembly,  which  was  held  at  Epidavros  in 
the  entire  field  to  the  Franciscans,  x  The  Franciscans  1822,  it  was  declared  that  the  Orthodox  Church  is 
remained  until  the  beginning  of  the  war  of  the  revolu-  the  State  Church.    This  declaration  was  repeated  in 
tion.    In  the  time  of  Babin  and  Spon  there  were  the  Assembly  at  Trcezen  in  1827.     Such  nas  been 
about  two  himdred  churches  in  Athens,  all  of  the  the  strict  law  ever  since.     But,  except  that  propa- 
Greek  Rite,  except  the  chapels  in  the  monasteries  gandism     is     severely    prohibited,     the     Catholic 
of  the  western  monks.     With  the  war  of  the  insurrec-  Church  is  perfectly  free,  is  fwrly  treated,  and  highly 
tion,  in  1821,  ends  the  history  of  the  older  Church  of  resjpected. 

Athens.    A  new  Latin  archbishopric  has  again  its  Otho  of  Bavaria,  the  first  kin^  of  regenerated 

residence  in  Athens.     (See  Athens,  Modern  Dig-  Greece,  was  a  Catholic.    In  his  reign  the  Catholics 

CESB  OF.)    Since  1833  tne  Church  of  the  Greek  Rite  were  few.     But  arrangements  were  made  tlutt  the 

has  undergone  serious  changes  of  jurisdiction,  for  it  Catholics  could  have  a  place  of  worship  wherever  they 

no  longer  recognizes  the  leadership  of  the  Patriarch  existed  in  sufficient  numbers.    After  Athens  became 

of  Constantinople,  but  is  a  national  autocephalous  the   seat   of   government,  in    1834,   an   abandoned 

ohureh.  Turkish  mosque  was  given  to  the  Catholics  as  a  place 

Gregorovius.   Oeachichte   der  Siadt   Athen   im   MUUlalUr    J^  ^^^^IP' «  ^l*^  J^^'Hl  ""^  ^  a  church,  and   is  at- 

(Stuttgart,  1889).  Greek  tr,  by  Lampros,  with  adcliUonal  notes    tended  chiefly  by  Maltese  and  Itauans  who  Uve  in 


ATHUS                              47  ATH08 

ind  around  the  Old  Market,  near  the  Tower  of  the  the  Anthropologicftl  Hueeum  of  Athens.  There  ace 
Winds.  HasB  is  eeid  there  on  Sundays  and  Holy  Days  in  Qraeee  no  Uniat  Greek  Catholics.  All  are  of  the 
by  a  [HitBt  from  the  cathedral  After  the  Upae  of  Latin  Rite.  This  is  ioecauee  moat  of  these  CathoUcs 
nme  Tsan,  m  1876,  an  archbishopric  was  eBtablished  are  from  the  West,  either  by  deeoent  or  tiy  birth,  and 
in  Amens.  Those  who  have  occupied  this  see  are  thev  have  kept  their  own  Western  rite.  It  mifht 
AicbbiahopB  Marangos,  Zaffino,  De  Angelis,  and  be  Better  for  CathoUcism  in  Greece  if  the  Oatholici 
Ddeodns.  De  Angelis  was  an  Italian ;  Zaffino  were  to  adopt  the  native  rite,  and  to  have  thrir 
a  native  of  Corfu ;  all  the  other  archbiehops  were  liturgy  in  the  liturgical  language  of  the  country, 
turn  in  the  ^ffw"  Islands.  Within  the  Diocese  But  many  of  the  Catholics  of  Athens  would  never  , 
d  Acheu  there  are  now  eight  churches.  Of  these  willingly  accept  such  a  chanse,  which  they  would  re- 
two  are  in  Athens,  and  there  is  one  in  each  of  gard  rather  from  a  national  than  from  a  rdigioua 
tbetownsofPeimevs  (the  harbourof  Athens);  Fatne,  point  of  view,  and  would  consider  a  denial  of  their 
tbe  chief  town  of  the  Peloponneeos;  Voloa,  the  seaport  Italian,  or  other  Western,  origin. 
ofTheBsaly'  Lavrion  (Ernwt«rial,in  the  silver  mmee  Daniel  Quinn, 
irfAttica;  Horakldon,  a  Bavarian  settlement  in  At-  Athlaa,  Joseph,  b.  m  Sp^n,  probably  in  Cordova, 
Uka;  Mid  Navphon  m  the  Argohd.  Most  of  the  Oath-  ^^  the  banning  of  the  seventeenth  century;  d.  at 
olira  however^  are  concentrated  at  Athens,  Peineevs,  Amsterdam,  12  May,  1700.  In  1661  and  1667  he 
wdPatra.  Of  the  two  churches  m  Athena  one  »  issued  two  editions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible.  ThouKli 
the  aociwit  mosque  which  Otho  donated  to  the  Lath-  carefuUy  printed,  they  contain  a  number  of  mistakes 
oJjcs.  and  the  otter  is  the  cathedral  of  St.  Dionysios.  i^  the  vowel  pointa  and  the  accents.  But  as  they 
It  B  a  atone  structure  in  basilica  style,  with  a  portico  „^je  based  on  the  earlier  editions  compared  with  the 
m  (ront  supported  by  marble  colunms.  The  m tenor  best  manuscripts,  they  were  the  foundation  of  aU 
■  divided  mto  three  naves  separated  from  each  other  the  aubeeouent  editions.  The  copious  marginal 
br  rows  of  columns  of  Teman  marble.  The  apse  Jias  notes  added  by  Jean  de  Leusden ,  profeesor  at  Utrecht, 
beentrocoed.  TTiis  cathedral  was  bmlt  with  money  are  of  little  value.  The  1667  edition  was  bitteriy 
KDt  from  abroad,  ^pooially  from  Rome.  Besides  attacked  by  the  Piot^tant  savant,  Samuel  Des- 
Uk  regular  panshea  there  are  missions  tiere  and  there,  niarets;  Athias  answered  the  charges  m  a  work  whose 
S^  years  aicp  there  were  missions  at  Kalamata,  ^tle  bewna:  "Cfficua  de  coloribua".  He  published. 
PyrgoB,  and  ^lamaki.  The  only  considerable  one  ai^o  some  other  works  of  importance,  such  as  the 
ttpTMentisatLamia.  Within  the  Dioceee  of  Athena  "Tikkun  Sepher  Torah",  or  the  "Order  of  the  Book 
ttere  are  at  present  eleven  priestaengaged  m  paro-  of  the  Law'^  and  a  Jud^o-German  translation  of  the 
^  work:  four  at  the  cathedr^  m  Athens,  two  at  giye.  The  latter  involved  Athias  in  a  competition 
Patm,  and  one  at  each  of  the  churches  of  PeiraievH  ^Jth  Url  Ph^bus,  a  question  that  has  been  diacuaaed 
Lavnon,  Voloe,  Herakleion,  and  Navphon.  All  of  but  cannot  be  tuUy  cleared  up  at  this  late  date. 
uem  are  secular  pneete.  Heuhtebue  ia  Vio..  Diet,  de  b  Bibit  (Puii,  iSBs):  The 

French  sisters  conduct  schoola  for  girls  m  Athens  Jruuh  E-ncadoprdia  (New  York  and  London,  IB03),  II. 

and  at  the  Peirseevs,  and  ItaUan  sisters  have  schools  A.  J.  Maas. 

for  girig  at  Patrte.    They  have  boarders  as  well  as  Athos.  Mount. — Athos  ia  a  small  tongue  of  land 

day  scholars.     In  the  town  of  the  Peir»evs  there  id  a  '  that  projecls  into  the  jEgean  Sea,  being  uie  eaatem- 

gwd  schod  for  boys  conducted  by  French  Saleaian  most  of  the  three  strijM  in  which  the  great  moun- 

"        '  '    '  '    '  ■       .       .     ■        It  is  almost 


LeoXIU,  to  supply  ordinary  and  theological  educa- 
tioQ  for  all  Greek-epeaking  Catholics.     It  embraces  a 


Mrtant  school  of  the     by  a  narrow  isthmus  dotted  vith  lakes  and  swampa 
1 ,  founded  by  Pope 


jk-e  peaking  C 
pteparatory  department,  an  intermediate  or"  hellenic" 
Kbool,  a  gymnasium  or  collie,  and  an  ecclesiasti<^ 
wninary.  The  average  number  of  pupils  and  stu- 
deuta  for  the  past  five  years  is  about  175.  The 
[acuity  consists  of  both  priests  and  laymen.  In  its 
character  as  seminary,  the  Leontoion  receives  stu- 
dsatfi  from  other  dioceses  as  well  as  from  that  of 
Athun.  Previous  to  the  establishment  of  the 
liMHiteion,  candidates  for  the  priesthood  were  edu- 
cated chieSy  ia  the  Propaganda,  at  Rome,  and  in  a 
dtocesan  seminary  which  existed  in  the  MaeAn  town 
of  Syra.  The  seminary  at  Syra  has  been  closed,  and 
it  ia  DOW  inl«Dded  that  all  clerical  training  be  given 
b  tbe  Leontdoa  and  the  Propaganda. 

The  only  publication  of  note  lor  the  Catholics  of 
thia  diocese  is  the  "Harmocia  ",  a  periodical  devoted 

to  Catholic  interests.     The"Harmonia"  ia  aupported  MoxABTHir  o»  EapHraumoH,    Uodht  athm 

diiefly  t»r  a  subsidy  from  Rome.     One  does  not  ex- 
pect to  5nd  a  large  number  of  noted  scholars  ii 


—   -   -  ,       -B  of  them,  with  contour  of  its  coasts,  deep  bays  and  inlets,  bold  cUfTfl 

othET  accomplishments,  speaks   two  or  three  other  and  promontories,  atoep  wooded  slopes,  and  valleys 

laofuagee   aa  well  as  the   vernacular  Greek- of  the  winding  inland.     Several  cities  existed  here  in  pre- 

cnmtiy.      Amongat    the    laymen    special    mention  Christian  antiquity,  and  a  sanctuary  of  Zeus  (Jupiter) 

■bould  be  inade  of  the  brothers  Kyparissos  Stephanos  is  said  to  have  stood  on  the  mountain.    The  isthmus 

and  Elon  Stephanos.     Kyparisaoe.  a  mathematician  was  famous  for  the  canal  (3,950  feet  in  length)  which 

vboae  fame    extended  far  beyond   the   confines  of  Xerxes   had   dug  across   it,   in   order  to   avoid  tbe 

Gteeoe,  was  made  a  profeesor  in  the  National  Uni-  perilous  turning  of  the  limestone  peak  immemoriijly 

Ttnity.      His    brother   Klon,   an   anthropoloRist   of  known  aa  Mount  Athoa,  in  which  the  amall  pcnin- 

Kfiute,  engaged  in  special  historical,  arcnEeological,  eula  ends,  and  which  rises  to  a  height  of  some  6,000 

ud  siithropwigical  researches,  becaJne  director  of  feet.    From  the  summit  of  this  peak  on  a  clear  dur 


ATH08  48  ATH08 

are  visible  the  coasts  of  Macedonia  and  Thrace,  even  ministration  of  their  temporal  possessions,  and  their 

the  entire  JSgean  from  Mount  Olympus  in  Thessaly  commercial   activity.     By  the   imperial   document 

to  Moimt  Ida  in  Asia  Minor.    It  is  the  mountain  that  (typicon)  which  he  issued,  women  are  forbidden  the 

the  architect  Dinocrates  offered  to  turn  into  a  statue  peninsula,  a  prohibition  so  strictly  observed  since 

of  Alexander  the  Great  with  a  city  in  one  hand  and  that  time  that  even  the  Turkish  aga^  or  official,  who 

in  the  other  a  perennially  flowing  spring.    Medieval  resides  at  Karyaes  (Cariez)  may  not  take  his  harem 

Greek  tradition  designated  it  as  the    high  mountain "  with  him.     Aoout  the  year  1100  the  monasteries 

from  which  Satan  tempted  Our  Lord.     Its  chief  of  Mount  Athos  were  180  in  number,  and  sheltered 

modem  interest  lies  in  the  fact  that  at  least  from  700  monks,  with  their  dependents.     At  this  time 

the  beginning  of  the  Middle  Ages  it  has  been  the  there  came  into  general  use  the  term  Hagion  Oron 

home  of  a  little  monastic  republic  that  still  retains  (Holy  Mountain,  Hyiov  6pos^  Monte  Santo).  Alexius  I 

almost  the  same  autonomy  granted  a  thousand  years  granted  the  monasteries  immunity  from  taxation, 

ago  by  the  Christian  enaperors  of  Constantinople,  freed  them  from  all  subjection  to  the  Patriarch  ot 

In  1905  the  many  fortified  monasteries  and  her-  Constantinople,  and  placed  them  under  his  immediate 

mitages  of  ^Athos  .contained  7,553  monks  (including  protection.     They  still  depended,  however,  on  the 

their  numerous  male  dependents),  members  of  the  neighbouring  Bishop  of  Hierissus  for  the  ordination 

Orthodox  Greek  Church:  Greeks,  3,207;  Russians,  of  their  priests  and  deacons.    Alexius  also  chose  to 

3,615;  Bulgarians,  340;  Rumanians,  288;  Georgians,  be  buried  on  the  Holy  Mountain  among  the  brethren 

53;  Servians,  18;  other  nationalities  32.    The  prin-  (1118).    A  century  later,  after  the  capture  of  Con- 

cipal  monasteries  bear  the  following  names:  Laura,  stantinople  (1204),  the  Latin  Crusaders  abused  the 

Iviron,Vatopedi,Chilandarion,St.Dionysiu8,Coutlou-  monks,  who  thereupon  appealed  to  Innocent  III; 

mousi,    Pantocrator,    Xiropotamos,  Zographu,  Do-  he  took  them  under  his  protection  and  in  his  letters 

cheiarion,  Caracalla,  Philotneos,  Simopetra,  St.  Paul,  (xiii,  40;  xvi,  168)  paid  a  tribute  to  their  monastic 

Stauroniceta,  Xenophon,   Gregorios,   Esphigmenon,  virtues.     However,  with  the  restoration  of  Greek 

St.  Panteleimon,  St.  Anna  (Rossicon),  and  Kanraes.  political  supremacy  the  monks  returned  (1313)  to 

History. — ^The  origins  of  monastic  life  on  Mount  their  old  allegiance  to  Constantinople. 
Athos  are  obscure.  It  is  probable  that  individual  In  the  fourteenth  century  a  pseudo-spiritualism 
hermits  sought  its  lonely  recesses  diu'in^  the  fourth  akin  to  that  of  the  ancient  Euchites  or  Messalians, 
and  fifth  centuries,  and  were  numerous  m  the  ninth  culminating  in  the  famous  Hesychast  controversies 
centiuy  at  the  time  of  the  first  certain  attempts  at  (see  Hestchasm;  Palamas),  greatly  disturbed  the 
monastic  organization.  The  nearest  episcopal  see  mutual  harmony  of  Greek  monasteries,  especially 
was  that  of  Hierissus,  and  in  conformity  with  an-  those  of  Mount  Athos.  one  of'whose  monks,  Callistus, 
cient  law  and  usage  its  bishop  claimed  jurisdiction  had  become  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  (1350-54) 
over  the  monks  of  the  little  peninsula.  In  885  Em-  and  in  that  office  exhibited  great  severity  towards  the 
peror  Basil  the  Macedonian  emancipated  them  from  opponents  of  Hesychasm.  Racial  and  national 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  monastery  of  St.  Colobos  near  discord  between  the  Greeks  and  the  Servians  added 
Hierissus,  and  allotted  to  them  Mount  Athos  as  their  fuel  to  the  flames,  and  for  a  while  the  monks  were 
property.  Soon  after,  the  oldest  of  the  principal  again  subjected  to  the  immediate  supervision  of 
monasteries,  Xiropotamos,  was  built  and  adopted  the  Bishop  of  Hierissus.  In  the  meantime  the  Palseo- 
the  rule  of  St.  Basil.  Saracen  pirates  disturbed  the  logi  emperors  at  Constantinople  and  the  Slav  princes 
monks  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries,  but  imperial  and  no  Dies  of  the  Balkan  reninsula  continued  to 
generosity  always  came  to  the  aid  of  this  domestic  enrich  the  monasteries  of  Mount  Athos,  which  re- 
"holy  land"  of  the  Greeks.  About  960  a  far-reaching  ceived  the  greater  part  of  their  landed  wealth  during 
reform  was  introduced  by  the  Anatolian  monk  this  period.  Occasionally  a  Byzantine  emperor  took 
Athanasius  of  Trebizond,  later  known  as  Athonites.  refuge  among  the  monWs  in  the  hope  of  forgetting 
With  several  companions  from  Asia  Minor  he  founded  the  cares  and  responsibilities  of  his  office.  AmTd  the 
by  the  seashore  tne  monastery  since  known  as  Laura,  political  disasters  of  the  Greeks,  during  the  fourteenth 
where  he  raised  the  monastic  life  to  a  high  degree  of  century.  Mount  Athos  appears  as  a  kind  of  Holy 
perfection.  Eventually  the  new  settlement  was  Land,  a  retreat  for  many  men  eminent  in  Church 
accepted  as  a  model.  With  the  help  of  the  imperial  and  State,  and  a  place  where  the  spirit  of  Greek 
authority  of  John  Tzimisces  (969-976)  all  opposition  patriotism  was  cherished  when  threatened  elsewhere 
was  set  aside  and  the  coenobitic  or  community  life  with  ruin  (Krumbacher,  1058-59).  This  period  was 
imposed  on  the  hermits  scattered  in  the  valleys  and  also  marked  by  the  attempts  of  the  monastery  of 
forests.  Athanasius  was  made  abbot  general  or  Karyaes  to  secure  a  pre-eminence  over  the  others, 
superior  (Protos)  of  the  fifty-eight  monastic  com-  the  final  exclusion  of  the  Bishop  of  Hierissus  from 
munities  then  on  the  mountain.  From  this  period  the  peninsula,  fresh  attacks  from  freebooters  of  all 
date  the  monasteries  known  as  Iviron  (Iberians),  kinds,  and  the  foundation  of  several  new  monas- 
Vatopedi,  and  Esphigmenon.  At  this  time,  also,  there  teries:  Simopetra,  Castamonitu,  St.  Paul,  and  St, 
arose  a  cause  of  internal  conflict  that  has  never  Dionysius.  The  Fall  of  Constantinople  (1453) 
been  removed.  Hitherto  only  one  nationality,  the  brought  no  modification  of  the  conditions  on  the  Holy 
Greek,  was  represented  amon^  the  monks.  Hence-  Mountain.  The  monks,  who  had  stubbornly  opposed 
forth  Slavic  faith  and  generosity,  and  later  on  Slavic  all  attempts  at  reunion  with  the  Apostolic  See,  sub- 
interests,  had  to  be  considered.  The  newly  con-  mitted  at  once  to  the  domination  of  the  Osmanli, 
verted  Slavs  sought  and  obtained  admission  into  the  and,  with  rare  exceptions,  have  never  been  interfered 
recently  opened  monasteries:  before  long  their  with  by  the  Turkish  authorities.  The  hospodars  of 
princes  in  the  Balkan  Peninsula  began  to  found  in-  "Wallacnia  remained  as  ever  their  friends  and  bene- 
dependent  houses  for  Slavic  monlS.  In  this  way  factors.  Though  the  monks  svmpathized  with  the 
arose  during  the  reign  of  Alexius  I  (1081-1118)  Greeks  in  the  War  of  Indepenclence  (1822-30),  th«r 
the  strictly  Slavic  monasteries  of  Chilandarion  and  estates  on  the  Greek  mainland  were  secularized  by 
2k)graphu.  The  Byzantine  emperors  never  ceased  Capo  d'lstria  and  a  similar  fate  has  overtaken  their 
to  manifest  their  interest  in  the  little  monastic  re-  properties  in  the  Danubian  principal  cities.  They 
public  and  even  profited  politically  by  the  universal  still  hold  numerous  farms  and  properties  in  certain 
esteem  that  the  religious  brotherhood  enjoyed  islands  of  the  Archipelago  and  on  the  mainland 
throughout  the  Christian  world.  (Kaulen  in  Kirchenlex.,  I,  1557-59;  Bayet  in  Grande 

With  the  aid  of  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  Encycl.,  s.  v.  Athos). 
in    1046,  (3on6tantine    Monomachos    regulated    the       Constitution  and  Government. — ^This  monastic 

domestic  government  of  the  monasteries,  the  ad-  republic  is  governed  by  an  assembly  ^f  20  memberB, 


««  npreaent&tive  from  each  of  the  20  principal    biUc"    (lair^iar,    caruibivm,   common    life),    there 
Dcnutcriee;  from  amocg  these  is  elected  annually,     is  a  greater  monastic  rigour.    The  superior,  or  hegou< 
ud  in  due  rotation,  a  committee  of  4  presidents,     menos  (fryoii^«i),  has  absolute  autlwrity,  and  all 
The  great  seal  of  the  united  monasteries  is  in  four     property  is  held  in  common.     The  chief  occupation 
pieces  and  is  divided  among  the  members  of  this     ot  the  monks  is  tliat  of  solemn  public  prayer,  by 
committee.    One  of  the  members  is  chosen  as  cliair-     night  and  by  day,  i.  e.  recitation  of  the  Divine  Omce, 
miD.  or  ProLjs.     Meetings  of  the  assembly  are  held     corresponding   to   the   solemn    choir-eervice   of   the 
veddj  (Saturday),   at   Karyaes,  and  the  assemblv     Latin  Church.     (Bee  Greek  Rite,  Breviary,  PsAiy 
iclB  as  a  supreme   parliament   and   tribunal,  witn     uodv.)     Thia  leaves  little  time  for  agricultural,  in- 
sppeal,  however,  to  the  patriarch  at  Constantmople.      dustrial ,  or  intellectual  labour.     Some  nsh ,  or  practise 
minor  industries  in  aid  of  the  common  support,  or 
administer  the  monastic  estates  located  elsewhere; 
others  go  abroad  occasionally  to  collect  a  part  of 
the  yearly  tribute  (about  two  dollars  and  a  halt) 
that  each  monk  must  pay  to  the  Turkish  Govern- 
ment.   A  portion  of  this  is  collected  from  the  monks 
themselves;  the  rest  is  secured  by  the  ^e^'en^e  of 
their  farms  or  other  possessions,  and  by  contributions 
from  affiliated  monasteries  In  the  Ballcan  Peninsula, 
Georgia,  and  Russia.     The  generosity  of  the  Greek 
faithful  is  also  a  source  of  revenue,  for  Mount  Athos 
is  one  ot  the  most  sacred  pilgrimage  sites  of  the  entire 
Greek  Church,  and  tho,fea8la  of  the  principal  mODas- 
teries  are  always  celebrated  with  great  pomp.     It 
may  be  added  that  the  monks  practise  faithfully 
the  monastic  virtue  of  hospitality.    The  usual  name 
for  the  individual  monk  here,  as  elsewhere  in  the 
Greek  Orient,  is  Kalogeroa  (good  old  man).    In  their 
dreaa  the  monks  do  not  difFer  from  other  conununitiea 
KoHASinT  Of  Haqios  ^"^  o»  Sr.  Paul,  Moomt  of  Greek  Basilians. 

ARCHiTECTnjBB  AND  THE  Abts. — Most  ot  the  builtj- 
Tbe  Turkish  Government  is  repreBent«d  by  an  agent  inga  of  Mount  Athos  are  comparatively  modem.  • 
M  Karyaea,  the  diminutive  capital  of  the  peninsula  Yet,  because  of  the  well-known  conservative  chai^ 
snd  the  landinc-place  for  visitors.  A  detachment  ecter  of  the  monks,  these  edifices  represent  with  much 
of  Ouistian  soldiers  is  usually  stationed  there,  and  fid^ty  the  Byzantine  architecture,  civil  and  religious, 
DO  <Hie  may  land  without  permission  ot  the  monastic  of  the  tenth  Ui  the  fourteenth  century.  The  churches 
Mithorities.  The  monks  have  also  an  agent  at  Salo-  are  very  rinlily  adorned  with  columns  and  pavements 
Biki  and  another  at  Constantinople.  Almost  the  only  of  marble,  frescoed  walls  and  cupolas,  decorated 
Boiirce  of  contention  among  them  is  the  rivalry  be-  screens,  etc;  there  are  not  many  mosaics.  Some  of 
tween  the  Greeks,  in lieri tors  of  old  traditions  and  the  smaller  oratories  are  said  to  be  the  oldest  extant 
nstoms,  and  the  Russians  of  the  great  monastery  specimens  of  private  architecture  in  the  West,  apiart 
of  RoBsicon  (St.  Anna),  repreeentative  of  the  wealth,  from  the  houses  of  Pompeii.  The  ecclesiastical  art  of 
!»«■«■,  and  interests  of  tneir  church  and  countiy,  the  Greek  Orient  is  riclSy  represented  here,  with  all 
ud  generously  supported  from  St.  Petersburg.  In  its  religious  respect,  though  also  with  all  its  immobile 
in  present  form  the  constitution  of  the  monasteries  conservatism  and  its  stem  refusal  to  interpret  in- 
dttet  from  1783.  dividual  feeling  in  any  other  forms  than  those  made 

UoNASnc  Life.— Each  of  the  twenty  great  monaa-  sacred  by  a  long  line  of  almost  nameless  monastio 
teries  (twenty-one,  including  Karyaes)  possesses  its  painters  hke  Panselinos  and  confided  by  his  dis- 
own Itu^  church  and  numerous  chapels  within  and  ciples  to  the  famous  "Painters'  Book  of  Mount 
iritbout  its  enclosure,  which  is  strongiy  fortified,  re-  Athos"  (see  Didron,  Manuel  d'iconographie  chrfi- 
aDing  the  feudal  bu^fs  ot  the  Mi»k!le  Agee.  The  tienne,  Paris,  1858).  Though  there  is  not  in  the 
Uf^  walls  and  strong  towers  are  reminders  of  the  935  churches  of  the  peninsula  any  art-work  older 
irouUed  times  ot  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  oen-  than  the  sixteenth  century  (Bayet)  their  frescoes, 
luriw  when  corsairs  abounded  and  self-defence  was  small  paintings  on  boards,  gilt  and  jewelled  metal 
imwralive.  Allot  the  great  monasteries  are  on  the  work,  represent  with  almost  unswerving  accuracy 
Hdly  Mountain  proper,  and  are  most  picturesquely  the  principles,  spirit,  and  details  ot  medieval  Byzan-^ 
■ilmled  frcm  sea  to  summit,  amid  dense  masses  of  tine  art  as  applied  to  religious  uses, 
oak,  pine,  and  chestnut,  or  on  inaccessible  crags.  Libaabibs. — ^Each  monastery  possesses  its  own 
To  each  of  these  monasteries  is  attached  a  certain  library,  and  the  combined  treasures  make  up  a  unique 
number  of  minor  monasteries  (ffjr^roi,  agceUria),  collection  of  ancient  manuscripts  (Monttaucon, 
mult  monastic  settlements  (taSla/ukTa),  and  her-  Paleographia  Grs!ca,  Paris,  1748,  441  sqq,).  By 
milagcB  (KtKKia,  eellte).  Every  monastic  habitation  tar  the  richest  in  this  respect  is  the  Russian  monas- 
miMt  be  affiUated  to  one  or  the  other  of  the  great  tecy  of  Saint  Anna  (Rossicon).  Some  of  the  more 
[iMnai(«ries  and  is  subject  to  its  direction  or  super-  valuable  classical  Greek  manuscripts  have  been  pur- 
naoo.  All  monasteries  are  dedicated  to  the  Mother  chased  or  otherwise  secured  by  travellers  JNaumann, 
if  God,  the  larger  ones  under  some  specially  signifi-  "Serapeum",  X,  252;  Duchesne,  "MSmoire  sur  une 
onttitle.  TheancientGreekRuleof  Sl.BasiliHstill  mission  au  Mont  Athos",  Paris,  1876;  Lambros, 
Wknred  by  alL  "Catalogue   of   the    Greek   Manuscripts   on    Mount 

In  the  observance  of  the  Rule,  however,  the  greater  Athos",  Cambridge,  1895,  1900).  It  was  in  this  way 
uanacteriea  are  divided  into  two  classes,  some  fol-  that  the  text  of  Ptolemy  first  reached  the  West. 
Inwiiw  stiictly  the  ccenobitic  life,  wliile  others  per-  Similarly,  the  oldest  manuscript  of  the  second-cen- 
M  a  laiXET  personal  freedom.  The  latter  are  called  tury  Christian  text  known  aa  "The  Shepherd  of 
"tSarbjuuDits";  in  them  the  monks  have  a  right  Hermas"  came  from  Mount  Athos.  The  manu- 
of  penonal  ownership  and  a  certain  share  in  the  scripts  now  in  possession  of  the  monks  have  chiefly 
■Itauu^nt  ot  the  monastery  (Council  of  Elders);  an  ecclesiastical  value;  their  number  is  said  to  M 
iWy  take  their  meals  apart,  and  are  subject  to  less  about  8,000.  There  are  also  in  the  library  and 
KTCTC  regulations.  In  the  former,  known  as  "coeno-  archives  ot  each  monastery  a  great  many  documents 
U.— * 


ATIEHZA  50  ATKINSON 

(donations,   privileges,   deeds,  charters)   in  Greek,       Atkinsoii,  James,  Catholic  confessor,  tortured  tc 

Georgian,    and    Old-Slavonic,    beginning    with    the  death  in  Bridewell  prison  in  1595.     His  pathetic  and 

ninth  centurv,  some  of  which  are  important  for  the  romantic  story  tells  us  nothing  of  his  early  life,  but 

historian  of  Byzantine  law  and  of  the  medieval  Greek  he  is  found  in  the  Bridewell  prison,  one  of  the  wont 

Church  (Miklosich  and  Muller,  Zacharia  von  Lin-  in'  London,  and  ddivered  over  to  Topcliffe,  the  no- 

genthal,  Uspenskii).     The  monks  of  Mount  Athos  torious  priest-hunter,  who  was  trying  to  wring  out 

are  somewhat  indifferent  towards  these  treasures;  from  him,  by  torture,  evidence  on  w'nich  he  might 

nothing  has  been  done  to  make  them  accessible,  accuse  his  master,  Mr.  Robert  Barnes,  who  then  held 

except  the  unsuccessful  attempt  of  Archbishop  Bui-  Mapledurham  House,  of  having  entertained  priests, 

garis  of  Corfu  to  found  at  Mount  Athos,  towards  and  in  particular  the  future  martyr,  Venerable  John 

the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  a  school  of  the  Jones,  O.  S.  F.     Yielding  to  torment,  Atkinson  ao- 

classical    languages.     The    monasteries    conduct    a  cused  his  master  of  having  done  so,  but  shortly  after 

few  elementary  schools  for  the  teaching  of  reading  repented,  and  was  lost  in  despair,  knowing  on  the 

and  writing;  nowhere,  perhaps,  is  the  intellectual  one  hand  that  Topcliffe  would  torture  him  again, 

stagnation  of  the  Greet  Schism  more  noticeable,  perhaps  unto  death,  and  on  the  other  fearing  that  no 

The  monks  are  chiefly  devoted  to  the  splendour  of  priest  could   possibly  come  to  confess  and  absolve 

their  religious  services;   the  solitaries  still  cherish  him  before  his  conflict.     Unknown  to  him,  however, 

Hesychast  ideas  and  an  apocalyptic  mysticism,  and  a  Jesuit  Father  happened  to  be  in  the  same  prison. 

the  whole  monastic  republic  represents  just  such  an  This  was  Father  William  Baldwin  (or  Bawden),  a 

intellectual  decay  as  must  follow  on  a  total  exclusion  man  who  afterwards  filled  important  positions  in  his 

of  all  outside  intercourse  and  a  complete  neglect  order.     He  had  been  arrestea  on  suspicion  while  on 

of  all  intellectual  effort  (Kaulen).  shipboard,  and  had  assumed  the  part  of  an  Italian 

J,  ^'^I^J:?7^J^  Riley.  AtAo«,  ths  ^founta^n  of  the  Monks  (Lon-  merchant  unacquainted  with  the  English  language, 

don,  18S7);  CvtLZOfi,  Monastenes  of  the  Levant  (6th  ed.,  London,  „_j  «,:*k  a.«o.K  «..»».rvr,fl  ♦u««-  v.«  «r«o  ^^  ♦!>«  »»«?«♦«? 

-1  M^t  J  #A«.  J  .« -.^«.#Ai.— /!>« J;-  tQa'7\i  and  with  such  success  that  he  was  on  the  pomt  oi 


lSsm^^o^^.liM^ASr.7,«.i^^^Z^^  f^d  with  such  success  that^he  was  on  the  ™int 


BACHBR,  Oeach.  der  byzant.  Litt.  (2d  ed.,  Munich,  1867),  511-  .              -,            -.,-..,.!                  .    i      .         -      i 

616,  1068-59;  Schmidtkb,  Daa  KloaUfrland  dea  Athoe  (1903);  dary.     It  was  evident  that  he  was  at  best  a  weak- 

among  older  works,  Fallmerayer,  Fra(;m«nte  aua  dem  Orient  ling,  perhaps  a  traitor  in  disguise.      To  speak  tO  SUch 

(2d  ed.,  Stuttgart,   1877).     For  the  art-treasures  of  Mount  _  /TncTin  TTTTirlJcK    on^  mimh  mor^  t^  nwWtn  him  fhnt 

Athos  see  Brockhaus,  Dte  Kunat  in  den  AthoB-KUttem  (Leip-  ?  ^^^  ^^  H^nglish,  and  much  more  to  OWn  to  him  tMt 

.   sig,  1891);  and  for  photographs  of  the  principal  sites,  besides  he  was  a  priest,  would  be  to  endanger  his  life.     bO 

the  above  quoted  works,  Vom  FeU  turn  Meer  (1892),  19-20.  he  tried  to  COmfort  him,  at  first  through  a  fellow- 

Thomas  J.  Shah  AN.  prisoner  who  knew  Latin,  and  finally  offered  to  bring 
Atiexuia,  Juan  de,  b.  at  Tordehumos,  near  Valla-  nim  a  priest.  The  poor  sufferer's  joy  was  so  great 
dolid,  in  Spain,  in  the  year  1546,  eldest  son  of  the  that  the  missionary  ventured  to  creep  to  his  oed- 
royal  CJouncillor  of  Castile,  Bartolom6  de  Atienza,  side  that  night  and  tell  him  that  he  was  a  priest, 
a  very  distinguished  jurisconsult  under  Charies  V.  Then  Atkinson  held  back,  either  out  of  suspicion 
He  studied  law  in  the  celebrated  University  of  Sala-  or  because,  as  he  said,  he  was  not  prepared.  Father 
manca,  but  in  1564  forsook  the  l^al  career  in  order  Baldwin's  fears  were  reawakenea,  but  next  night 
to  become  a  Jesuit.  While  in  Spain,  he  already  the  penitent  made  his  confession  with  evident  con- 
occupied  distinguished  positions.  He  was  Prefect  trition,  was  soon  again  tortured,  and  died  under  or 
of  the  College  of  Avila,  Procurator  of  the  Province  shortly  after  the  torment.  Atkinson's  cause  has  been 
of  his  order,  founder  of  the  College  of  Villa  Garcfa,  proposed  for  Beatification,  but  evidence  for  his  final 
its  rector  and  master  of  novices,  and  rector  of  the  perseverence,  though  very  necessary,  is  naturally 
College  of  Valladolid.     While  thus  honourably  placed  nard  to  find. 

in  his  mother  country,  he  became  informed  of  a  caU  Challoner,  Miwionary  Prietu  (1864),  II,  189;  Dodd. 

for  fifty  Jesuite  to  be  sent  to  Pern  in  the  interests  of  ^'^J^u",!^,  k^SSf ^ol'.iL  'fr^S;^-/?^."^*^^ 

religion  and  of  the  Indians.     Father  Atienza  at  once  aecounta  for  1594,  roll  196b. 

asked  permission  to  become  one  of  their  number.  J,  H.  Pollen. 
He  reached  Lima  in  1581  and  found  there  his  ap-  . .-,           ..                   .    ^      j        x      .         .    .  i 
pointment  as  rector  of  the  CoUege  of  San  Pablo.  ,  Atkinson,  Nicholas,  pnest  and  mart^^ 
In  that  capacity  he  was  sun-ogate  to  the  Provincial,  ^    be    identified  with    Venerable  Thomas    Atkin- 
Father  Baitasar  de  Pifias,  and  founded,  under  tho  ?^^- ,  Dodd,  who  mentions  Nicholas's  death  as  hav- 
direction  of  the  Company  of  Jesus,  the  College  of  "g  ^^®^  P^,^  »^  Y?rk  m  1610,  does  not  naention 
San  Martin,  the  first  school  of  secular  learning  es-  Thomas  at  all;  yet  all  the  facte  which  he  rdates  of 
tablished  at  Lima.    The  foundation  of  that  school  **^®  °"®  ^i*®  certainly  true  of  the  other  whde  there 
was  confirmed   by  Pope   Sixtus  V,   in   1588,  and  is  no  corroboration  for  Dodd's  date  of  Nicholas's  mar- 
Father  Atienza  became  ite  first  rector.     In  1585  he  trydom.     It   seems   probable,  however,  that  there 
was  made  Provincial  of  the  Jesuite  in  Peru.     He  ^f^  an  old  Marian  priest  named  Nicholas,  or  "Ninny", 
at  once  began  to  foster  and  extend  the  missions  in  "^1^1°^^.  ^^  ^  ?JYv  ^^v,  o^/* 

Ecuador,  the  Gran  Chaco,  Tucuman,  and  Paraguay.  ^'''''  ^'^"''^  ^"'*^'  "•  ^^^-             j  jr  ^^^^^^ 

Out  of  these  efforts  the  province  of  Paraguay  was  '     * 

bom  in  1607.    During  that  period  a  printing  press  Atkinson,  Paxil  op  St.   Francis. — One   of   the 

was  established  by  the  Jesuits  at  the  Indian  village  notable  confessors  of  the  English  Church  durinf  the 

of  Julf.    Jointly  with  Father  Jos^  de  Acosta  he  di-  age  which  succeeded  the  persecution  of  blood.     Hav- 

rected  the  publication  of  catechisms  and  textbooks  ing  been  condemned  to  perpetual  imprisonment  for 

of  Christian  doctrine  for  the   use  of  t^^  Indians,  his  priesthood,  about  the  year  1699,  he  died  in  con- 

These    religious    "primers"   were   printed    oetween  finement  after  having  borne  ite  pains  for  m6re  than 

the  years  1583  and  1590,  at  Lima.    They  are  in  thirty  years.     He  was  of  a  Yorkshire  family  and 

Spenish,  Quichua,  and  Aymard.  was  called  Matthew  in  baptism.     He  joined  the  Eng- 

Anello  Olhta   Hiatoria  del  Perv  y  Varonea  Uuatrea  de  la  lish  Franciscan  Convent  at  Douai  in  1673,  and  had 

^^.!T.c'^.-!^^j!^iS'';^T^'7Si,lr^rfrS,^l  f  rved  with  distinction  on  the  English  mission  for 

DB  CMrdova  Saltnas,  Cor<}nica  de  la  ReLigioaUdma  Protincia  twelve  years,  when  he  was  betrayed  by  a   maid- 

de  loa  Doce  ajpdstolea  del  Peru  (Lima,  1651);  Mkndibur6,  servant  for  the  £100  reward.     One  ffovemor  of  his 

Hiatoriade  la  fundaeUin  de  Lima  (1639;  Lima,  1882).  walk  outeide  the  prison  walls;  but  complaint   waa 

Ad.  F.  Bandeuer.  made  of  this  and  the  leavQ  was  revoked. 


ATKnreON  61  ATOM 

* 

OorwepoDdgnce  of  Bishop  MiLNg»in  the  Otntlmnmi't  Moga-  dulgeDCe  were  found  upon  him,   and  he  was  oon- 

t»i^.Zc'^^^^^,^li^C^S^Stt&^  i«r^  to  b«han,^,  drawn   jmd  quartered.    H« 

An,,  II.  224;  Gnlow,  «N.  D«.  Bfv.  C«ft..  T.  84.  differed    "with    wonderful    patience,   courage,   and 

J.  H.  PoLLBN.  oonBtaocy,  and  signs  of  great  comfort ' . 

Atkinson,  Sarah,  philanthropist  and  bionra^her,  «/  Sngi.  Catk.,  I,  88. 
b.  at  AtUone,  Ireland,  13  October,  1823;  d.  Dublin,  Patrick  Ryan. 

8  Juhr.  1893.    She  was  the  eldest  daughter  of  John        At«i.-(Gr.  «  privative,  and  ri^,  cut;   indivisi- 

«d  W  Gaynor,  who  Lved  on  the  western  bank  ^e).    Primktily,    the   smallest   particle   ot   matter 

of  the  Shan^n,  m  that  part  of  AtUone  which  is  m  ^y'^  ^  ^^^  ^^  ultimate  anTsmallest  division 

the  Comity  Roscommon.    At  the  age  of  fiftwn,  she  ^j  ^^^^^     j^^     t    ^j^   sometimes  the  smallest  par- 

ranoved  with   her   fainily   to   Dubhn,   where   her  y^,^  ^^  wkch  a  substance  can  theoretically  be  re- 


in 
thst 


rasnans  journal  .     xue  .«»  «i  u«r  umv  w^u  building  up  or  constituting  molecules.    Two  opposite 

his  fourth  y«ir  so  deeply  affected  Mrs    Atlunswi  ^^^^^  ^j  j^e  oonstitutfon  of  matter  were  held  by 

?fu**i**?l''*^J^JP*'''*ir^ '^♦K  k     Vi  J.^   M~  »»»   ancient   philosophers.    One   was   that   mattet 

^  ^^^i  ^■'"!"^lJ^^}^^  ^r-J^^t'  ^,u  was  infinitely  divisible  without  losing  ita  distinctive 

Ellen  Wo«llock,  she  mterested  herseU  in  the  female  ^^  individual  properties.    This  is  the  doctrine  of 

DMipers  of  the  South  Dubhn  Umon,  and  openwl  a  continuity  or  homo^mery.    Anaxagoras  is  given  as 

home  to  which  many  were  traiwferred  J«d  were  ^^  f^^j^^^  ^j  jy^  ^^  /j  ^.j,^  cons^tution  of  things, 

nuide  useful  members  of  society.     Her  house  in  Dnim-  According  to  it  any  substenoe,  such  as  wood  or 

oondra  soon  became  the  rendeavous  for  the  chantably  ^^^     ^^  .      ^^    '    ^^^  ^j  subdivision,  however 

•^T**^  ij  T"*  *v?"  Tm  '  ^**A~^„K  °5'  „?fiu  far  it  might  iJe  carrfed,  be  made  to  be  anything  but 

S*  S^^  ^,^\  **^  ^*^,    ^''^    „^^    .^j  a  mdsB  of  wood  or  water.     Infinite  subdivision  would 

Jfr.  W.  k  H.  Lecky  has  warrdy  commended,  Md  ^^^  ,^^  ^^^  ^^.^^  ^f  divisibiUty.     Democritus  and 

hereshewrotehermany  valimbleessyrs     Formanv  ^^^^  ^^^^  ^j^^^  ^^^  ^^^  ultimate  particles  of 

«ara  Ae  transited  mto  Baghsh  the  Fr^ch    Aimab  ^^^^  ^^^.j^  ^^  indivisible,  and  these  ^re  caUed 

of  the  Proration  of  the  Faith        Much  of  her  tame  ^^^^     ^y^  .^  ^^  doctrine  of  atomicity,  upheld  by 

vas  devoted,  to   visiting   the   hospitds    and   poor  p  j^j^rus,  and  enlansed  on  by  Lucretiui  in  Ws  "De 

people  at  their  homes,  imd  to  other  beneficent  pur-  g^,.^^  NatuiA".    The  eariy  atomists  held  that  the 

DOM.    To  her  is  lareely   due  ^  ^"i^fll^^*'*  tk!  atoms  were  not  in  contact,  but  that  voids  existed 

ChiMrens'  Hoep'taljTemple   Street,   Dubhn     Th^  between  them,  claiming  that  otherwise  motion  would 

T"S?Tf°*u°'<^*  ^'^i^  ^        •   v'^ii  £.«^»  be  impossible.    Amon|  the  modems,  Descartes  and 

rttached  to  the  aureh  of  St.  Francis  Xavier,  was  one  gpinolTadhered    to    continuity.     Leibnitz    upheld 

^i  '!;f*^!^L?y?^^-JZ'^.  ^J^lfJV}!  aUicity,  and  Boscoyich  went'to  the  hist  extreme 


Magaiine",  1860-64,  "The  Month",  1864-65,  "The  that  matter  is  not  infin^telvdMriWetSit  there   • 

Na&n",  186&-70,  the  "Freeman's  Journal",  1871,  J^  ultimM^  oartLle  S  eve^  su^  If  ^his 

f^J^r^'^j"^''  Monthjbr"  after  its  moeption  are  ^;^^  .^  broken  up,  that  particular  form  of  matter 

to  be  found  many  important  gsays  by  h«-,  chiefly  ^y  ^^  destroyed.    This  particle  is  the  molecule, 

bweraphical  and   histoncal.    Some  of  her  eaftest  j^  j^  co^jpoged  of  another  division  of  matter  called 

mmT  kingest  ess^s  appwed  in  the  J^rwh  Qimteri^  ^    atom.^enerally,  probably  always,  a  molecule 

Review«;  thet^stof  themaremdudedinhervol^  consists  of  several  atonis.    The  atoms  unite  to  form 

fu^Jf.     ^^^^^'   ^^^kKJ^^^.IT^L^  iS  molecules  and  cannot  exist  except  as  constituente  of 

Aiteihead".   modMtly   pubhshed  .w^th   her   uutial  ^lolecules.    If  a  molecule  of  My  substance  were 

Mly,  appeared  m  1879,  and  is  one  of  the  bwt  Catholic  ,,^^g^         ^^^^  substance  would  cease  to  exist  and 

bjopapfiies  m  Enghsli.     Her  "Essays  _  «ne>"de  wm-  j^^  constituent  atoms  would  go  to  form  or  to  enter 

pHe  and  fewned  dissertations  on  such  diyere^t  ^^^^^  ^^^  ^^j^^^  molecule  or  molecules.    There  is  a 

mbjects  as  "St.  Furs^'s  Life  and  Visions   .The  ^ndency  to  consider  the  molecule  of  modem  science 

??*'"'^^.  ^^f  "  T^^K  w^^^^J  W^fpn.S"h,t'  "8  identical  with  the  atom  of  the  old  philosopher; 

"Eugene  O'Curiy  ","Imh  Wool  and  Woolens   ,    St  ^^^^  ^j^^  ^^^^  ^^^^i^  ^^^         l^  ^^^„  the  mole- 

Bndget ",  and  excellent  biogaphies  of  the  8culpt««  ^ule  a  different  status  from  that  of  the  old-time  atom. 

John  Heniy  Foley  and  John  HogM,  the  best  a^wunte  j^  as  used   in   natural   science,  has  a  specific 

j*t  wntten  of  those  great  artaste.    Indeed  most  of  ^^j^^    based  upon  the  theory  of  chemistry.    This 

these  eswya  are  the  bwtstudiM  we  have  on  the  van-  ^^^^1  is  modified  by  recent  work  in  the  field  of 

wssubjecte.    Her     Citis^Samt      (St.  Catherine  ,^o-a^tivity,  but  the  following  will  serve  as  a  defini- 

crfW;  occupies  a  hundred  pages,  and  is  a  most  y^     j^  .^  ^  gnjallest  particle  of  an  element  wWch 

tbje  summary.  Preemm't   Journal    files  (Dublin  ***"  exist  in  a  compound.    An  atom  cannot  exist 

Jiily"f«B)"'imd "prefatory  memoir  in  tlie  Emaut:  Tynan!  alone  as  such.     Atoms  combine  with  each  Other  to 

fndk/ii<fn>en<l«fi(,Q«e(l>ublin,  July,  1898);   TlulriAMtmiMu  form    molecules.    The    molecule    is    the    smallest 

(Doblm.  November.  1893)— «  fuU  Bat  »*  •"*.,TR'^- „„„  particle  of  matter  which  can  exist  without  losing  its 

U.  J.  K)  UONOGHUE.  distinctive  properties.     It  corresponds  pretty  closely 

AtUnaon,   Thomas,    Ven.    martyred    at   Yoric,  to  the  old  Epicurean  atom.    The  modem  atom  is  an 

11  March,  1616.    He  was  b.  in  the  East  Riding  of  entirely  new  conception.     Chemistry  teaches   that 

Yorkshire^*   was    ordained     priest    at    Reims,    and  the  thousands  of  forms  of  matter  upon  the  earth, 

letumed  to  his  native  country  in  1688.    We  are  almost  infinite  in  variety,  can  be  resolved  into  about 

told  Uiat  he  was  unwearied  in  visiting  his  flock,  eighty  substances,  unalterable  by  chemical  processes 

e^tedally   the   poor,    and   became   so  well   known  and  possessing  definite  spectra.    These  substances, 

that  be  could  not  safely  travel  by  day.    He  always  are  called  elementa.    The  metals,  iron,  gold,  silver, 

went  afoot  until,  having  broken  his  leg,  he  had  to  and  others,  sulphur,  and  carbon  are  familiar  examples 

Tide  a  horse.     At  the  age  of  seventy  he  was  be-  of  elementa,    A  mass  of  an  element  is  made  up  of  a 

tnyed,  and '  carried   to   York  with   his  host,   Mr.  collection  of  molecules.    Each  molecule  of  ^  an  ele- 

Vsrasour  of  WilUtoft,  and  some  members  of  the  ment  as  a  mle  is  composed  of  two  atoms.     Elementa 

<«nilT.    A  pair  of  beads,  and  the  form  of  an  in-  combine  to  form  compound  substances  of  various 


ATOM  52  ATOM 

Qumbers  of  atoms  in  the  molecule.    Water  is  an  text-books.    The  relations  of  the  atomic  weights 

example  of  a  compound  substance,  or  chemical  com-  to  each  other  are  several.    The   atom  of  lowest 

pound.     Its    molecule    contains    three  atoms;   tw^  weight  is  the  hydrogen  atom.     It  is  usually  taken 

atoms  of  hydrogen,  and  one  atom  of  oxygen.     If  a  as  one,  which  is  very  nearly  its  exact  value  if  oxygen 

,  quantity  of  these  two  elements  were  mixed,  the  re-  is  taken  as  sixteen.     On  this  basis  one  quarter  of 

suit  would  be  a  mechanical  mixture  of  the  molecules  the  other  elements  will  have  atomic  weights  that  are 

of  the  two.     But  if  heat,  or  some  other  adequate  whole  numbers.    This  indicates  a  remarkable  sim- 

cause  were  made  to  act,  chemical  action  would  fol-  plicity  of  relationship  of  weights,  which  is  carried  out 

low,  and  the  molecules,  splitting  up,  lyould  combine  i>y  the  close  approach  of  the  rest  of  the  elements  to 

atom  with  atom.     Part  of  a  molecule  of  oxygen —  the  same  condition,  as  regards  their  atomic  weights, 

one  atom — would  combine  with  part  of  two  mole-  The  range  of  the  atomic  weights  is  a  narrow  one. 

oules  of  hydrogen — two  atoms.    The  result  would  be  That  of  nyxlrogen  is  1.008 — that  of  uranium  238.5. 

the  pro^vction  of  a  quantity  of  molecules  of  water.  The  latter  is  the  heaviest  of  alii     Between  these  all 

Each  water  molecule  contains  one  atom  of  oxygen  the  other  atomic  wei^ts  lie.     Man^  of  the  elements 

and  two  atoms  of  hydrogen.     The  splitting-up  of  resemble  each  other  in  their  chemical  relations.     It 

the  elemental  molecules  into  atoms  is  s3rncnronous  might  appear  that  those  nearest  to  each  other    in 

with  their  combining  into  molecules,  so  that  an  atom  atomic  weight  should  be  of  similar  properties.    This 

never  exists  alone.     The  molecules  of  the  elements,  is  not  the  case.     If  the  elements  are  written  down 

oxygen  and   hydrogen,    have   disappeared,   and  in  in  the  order  of  their  atomic  weights,  beginning  with 

their   places    are    molecules   of   water.    There   are  the  lightest  and  ending  with  the  heaviest,  it  will  be 

about  eighty  kinds  of  atoms  known,  one  kind  for  found  that  the  position  of  an  element  in  the  series 

each  element,  and  out  of  these  the  material  world  is  will    indicate    pretty    clearly    its    properties.    The 

made.  elements  will  be  found  to  be  so  luranged  in  the  list 

Invariability  of  Composition. — The  invariability  that  any  element  will  be  related  as  regards  its  chemi- 

of -composition  by  weight  of  chemical  compounds  is  cal  properties  to  the  element  eight  places  removed 

a  fundamental  law  of  chemistry.    Thus  water  under  from  it.    This  relationship  may  oe  thus  expressed: 

•all  circumstances  consists  of  88.88^  of  oxygen  and  the  properties  of  an  element  are  a  periodic  runction 

11.11%  of  hydrogen.     This  estabhshes  a  relation  of  its  atomic  weight. 

between  the  weights  of  the  atoms  of  hydrog^i  and  Mendel^eff's  Table. — ^This  relation  is  called 
oxygen  in  the  water  molecule,  which  is  1  : 8.  Oxy-  Mendeldeff's  Law,  from  one  of  two  chemists  who 
gen  and  hydrogen  are  gaseous  under  ordinary  con-  independently  developed  it.  The  elements ,  mav, 
ditions.  If  water  is  decomposed,  and  the  gases  are  as  before  said,  be  written  down  in  the  order  of  their 
collected  and  measured,  there  will  always  be  two  atomic  weights,  but  in  eight  vertical  columns, 
volumes  of  hydrogen  to  one  of  oxygen.  This  illus-  Alon^  the  top  line  the  eight  elements  of  lightest 
trates  another  fundamental  law — the  invariability  atonuc  weights  are  written  in  the  order  of  their 
of  composition  by  gaseous  volume  of  chemical  com-  weights,  foflowed  on  the  second  line  by  the  next 
pounds.  From  the  composition  by  volume  of  water  eight,  also  in  the  order  of  their  atomic  weights, 
its  molecule  is  taken  as  composed  of  two  atoms  of  This  arrangement,  obviously,  when  carried  out 
hydrogen  and  one  of  oxygen,  on  the  assumption  that  brings  the  elements  eight  atomic  weights  apart, 
in  a  given  volume  ctf  any  gas  there  is  the  same  number  into  vertical  columns,  ft  will  be  found  that  aU  the 
of  molecules.  As  there  are  two  atoms  in  the  mole-  elements  in  any  vertical  column  are  of  similar  chemi- 
cules  of  both  of  these  elements,  the  above  mav  be  c^  properties.  When  Mendel^eff  made  out  his  table 
put  in  a  more  popular  way  thus:  the  atoms  of  hy-  it  was  supposed  that  several  elements  were  as  yet 
drogeh  and  oxyren  occupy  the  same  space.  The  imdiscovered.  The  table  also  broughl  out  clearly 
ratio  spoken  of  above,  of  1  :  8,  is  therefore  the  ratio  certain  numerical  relations  of  the  atomic  weights, 
of  two  atoms  of  hydrogen  to  one  of  oxygen.  It  These  together  with  other  factors  caused  him  to  leave 
follows  that  the  ratio  of  one  atom  of  hydrogen  to  one  blank  spaces  in  his  table,  which  none  of  the  known 
atom  of  oxygen  is  1  :  16.  The  numbers  1  and  16  elements  could  fiU.  For  these  places  hypothetical 
thus  detenmned,  are  the  atomic  weights  of  hydrogen  elements  were  assumed,  whose  general  properties 
and  oxygen  respectively.  Strictly  speaking  they  and  atomic  weights  were  stat^  by  him.  One  by 
are  not  weights  at  all,  only  numbers  expressing  the  one  these  elements  have  been  discovert,  so  that 
relation  of  weights.  Atomic  weights  are  determined  Mendel^fT's  Law  predicted  the  existence  of  elements 
for  all  the  elements,  based  on  several  considerations,  later  to  be  discovered.  These  discoveries  of  predicted 
such  as  those  outlined  for  the  atoms  of  oxygen  and  elements  constitute  one  of  the  greatest  triumphs  of 
hydrogen.  Thus  the  term  atom  indicates  not  only  chemical  science.  Up  to  within  a  very  recent 
the  constituents  of  molecules,  but  has  a  quantitative  period  the  atom  was  treated  as  the  smallest  division 
meaning,  the  proportional  part  of  the  element  which  of  matter,  although  the  possibility  of  the  transmu- 
enters  into  compoimds.  The  sum  of  the  wei^ts  of  tationof  the  elements  in  some  way,  or  in  some  degree, 
the  atoms  in  a  molecule  is  the  molecular  weight  of  has  long  been  considered  a  possibility.  It  was  con- 
the  substance.  Thus  the  molecular  weight  of  water  jectured  that  all  the  elements  might  be  composed  of 
is  the  sum  of  the  weights  of  two  hydrogen  atoms,  some  one  substance,  for  which  a  name,  protyle, 
which  is  two,  and  of  one  oxygen  atom,  which  is  six-  meaning  first  material,  was  coined.  This  seemeci  to 
teen,  a  total  of  eighteen.  If  we  divide  the  molecular  conflict  with  the  accepted  definition  of  the  atom,  as 
weight  of  a  compound  into  the  atomic  weight  of  protyle  indicated  something  anterior  to  or  preceding 
the  atoms  of  any  element  in  its  molecule,  it  will  give  it.  The  idea  rested  in  abeyance,  as  there  was  little 
the  proportion  of  the  element  in  the  compound,  ground  for  building  up  a  theory  to  include  it.  Re- 
Taking  water  again,  if  we  divide  its  molecular  cent  discoveries  have  resuscitated  this  never  quite 
weight,  18,  into  the  weight  of  the  atoms  of  hydrogen  abandoned  theory;  protyle  seems  to  have  been 
in  its  molecule,  2,  we  obtain  the  fraction  ^,  which  discovered,  and  the  atom  has  ceased  to  hold  its  place 
expresses  the  proportion  of  hydrogen  in  water,  as  the  ultimate  division  of  matter. 
The  same  process  ^ves  the  proportion  of  oxygen  in  Corpuscules. — The  most  recent  theory  holds 
water  os  H.  that  the  atom  is  composite,  and  is  built  up  of  still 

Every  element  has  its  own  atomic  weight,  and  minuter  particles,    called   corpuscules.    As   far   as 

the  invariability  of  chemical  composition  by  weight  the  ordinary  processes  of  chemistry  are  concerned 

is   explained    by    the   invariability   of   the   atomic  the  atom  remains  as  it  was.     But  investigations  in 

weights   of    the    elements.    Tables   of    the   atomic  the  field  of  radio-activity,  largely  physical  and  partly 

weights  of  the  elements  are  given  in  all  chemical  chemical,  go  to  prove  that  the  atom,  built  up  of 


ATOMISM                               53  ATOMISM 

eorpuscules  as  said  above,  depends  for  its  atomic  Elements  vary  in  the  saturating  power  of  their  atoms. 

TOght  upon  the  number  of  eorpuscules  in  it,  and  The  saturating  power  is  called  atomicity  or  valency, 

theee  eorpuscules  are  all  identical  in  nature.    In  Some  elements  have  a  valency  of  one,  and  are  termed 

these  eorpuscules  we  have  the  one  first  material,  or  monads.    A  monad  can  saturate  a  monad.    Others 

protyle.    It  folk)W8  that  the  only  difference  between  are  termed  dyads,  have  a  valencv  of  two,  two  monads 

atoms  of  different  elements  is  in  the  number  of  being  required  to  saturate  one  dyad,  while  one  dyad 

ooipuscules  they  contain.    Any  process  which  would  can    saturate    another   dyad.     Valencies    run    on 

change  the  number  of  eorpuscules  in  the  atoms  of  an  through  triads,  tetrads,  pentads,  hexads,  heptads, 

element  would  change  the  element  into  another  one,  and  octads,   designating   valencies  of   three,   four, 

thus  carrying  out  the  transmutation  •  of  elements,  five,  six,  seven,  and  eight  respectively. 

So  far,  one  transmutation  is  accepted  as  effected.  T.  O'Conob  Sloanb. 
Experiments  in  radio-activity  go  to  prove  that  some 

elements,  notably  radium,  project  particles  of  in-  Atomism,  [a  privative  and  rifineiw  to  cut,  i.  e.  indi- 

conoeivable  minuteness  into  space.    These  particles  visible]  is  the  system  of  those  who  hold  that  all 

have  sometimes  one-half  the  velocity  of  light.    They  bodies  are  composed  of  minute,  indivisible  particles 

are  called  eorpuscules.    The  corpuscule  is  sometimes  of  matter  call^  atoms.     We  must  distinguish  be- 

defined  as  a  particle  of  ne^tive  electricity,  which,  tween  (1)  atoihism  as  a  philosophy  and  (2)  atomism 

in  the  existing  state  of  electrical  knowledge,  is  a  very  as  a  theory  of  science. 

imperfect  definition.  Thev  are  all  negatively  elec-  Atomism  as  a  philosophy  originated  with  Leu- 
trined,  and  therefore  repel  each  other.  The  condi-  cippus.  Democritus  (b.  460  b.  c),  his  disciple,  is 
tion  of  equilibrium  of  groups  of  such  particles,  if  generally  considered  the  father  of  atomism,  as  prac- 
heki  near  to  each  other  by  another  external  force,  tically  nothing  is  known  of  Leucippus.  Tne  theory 
has  been  investigated  by  Prof.  J.  J.  Thomson,  and  of  Democritus  may  be  summed  up  in  the  following 
his  investigations  establish  a  basis  for  a  theory  of  propositions:  1.  Ail  bodies  are  composed  of  atoms  * 
the  constitution  of  atoms.  Thus,  assume  an  atom  and  spaces  between  the  atoms.  2.  Atoms  are  eter- 
to  consist  of  a  number  of  eorpuscules,  not  touching  nal,  indivisible,  infinite  in  number,  and  homogeneous 
each  other,  all  negativelv  electrified  so  that  they  in  nature;  all  differenced  in  bodies  are  due  to  a  dif- 
repel  one  another,  and  held  within  the  limits  of  the  ference  in  the  size,  shape  or  location  of  the  atoms, 
atom  by  what  may  be  termed  a  shell  of  atyactive  3.  There  is  no  purpose  or  design  in  nature,  and  in 
force.  Professor  liiomson  shows  that  such  particles,  this  S(  i  se  all  is  ruled  by  chance.  4.  All  activity  is 
under  the  conditions  outlined  above,  arrange  them-  reduced  to  local  motion.  The  formation  of  the  uni- 
telves  into  groups  of  various  arrangement,  the  latter  verse  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  larger  atoms  fall 
depcmding  on  their  number.  If  the  number  of  faster,  and  by  striking  against  the  smaller  ones  com- 
putides  in  a  group  be  progressively  increased,  a  bine  with  them;  thus  the  whole  universe  is  the  re- 
periodic  recurrence  of  groupings  will  occur.  Assume  suit  of  the  fortuitbus  concourse  of  atoms.  Countless 
a  group  of  five  partides.  These  will  form  a  group  worlds  are  formed  simultaneouslv  and  successively, 
of  definite  shape.  If  more  particles  are  added  to  Epicurus  (342-270  b.  c.)  adopted:  the  theorv  of  ue- 
the  group,  the  first  additions  will  cause  the  five  mocritus,  but  corrected  the  blimder,  pointed  out  by 
group  to  disappear,  other  groups  taking  its  place.  Aristotle,  that  larger  atoms  fall  faster  than  smaller 
until  the  number  reaches  fifteen,  when  the  onginal  ones  in  wicuo.  He  substituted  a  power  in  the  atoms 
grouping  of  five  will  reappear,  surrounded  by  the  to  decline  a  little  from  the  line  of  fall.  Atomism  is 
other  ten  partides.  On  adding  more  particles,  the  defended  by  Lucretius  Cams  (05-51  b.  c.)  in  his 
five  and  ten  group  disappear,  to  be  succeeded  by  poem,'*De  Rerum  Naturft."  With  the  exception  of  a 
others,  until  the  number  of  thirty  is  reached.  At  few  alchemists  in  the  Middle  Ages,  we  find  no  rep- 
this  point  the  original  five  group  and  the  ten  group  resentatives  of  atomism  until  Gassendi  (1592-1655) 
reappear,  with  a  new  group  ot  fifteen.  The  same  renewed  the  atomism  of  Epicurus.  Gassendi  tried 
recurrence  of  grouping  takes  place  with  forty-seven  to  harmonize  atomism  with  Christian  teaching  by 
and  sixty-seven  particles.  This  gives  the  outlines  postulating  atoms  finite  in  number  and  created  by 
of  an  explanation  of  the  periodic  taw.  If  any  num-  God.  With  the  application  of  atomism  to  the  sci- 
ber  of  partides  be  t^en  they  will  show  groupings,  ences,  philosophic  atomism  also  revived,  and  became 
characteristic  of  the  number,  and  subject  to  periodical  for  a  time  the  most  popular  philosophy.  Present- 
reappearance  as  the  number  is  increased.  This  day  philosophic  atomism  regards  matter  as  homo- 
reappearance  of  groupings  is  exactly  comparable  to  geneous  and  explains  all  physical  and  chemical  prop- 
the  phenomena  of  the  periodic  law.  It  is  the  re-  erties  of  bodies  by  a  difference  in  mass  of  matter  and 
appMrance  of  similar  properties  at  periodic  inter-  local  motion.  The  atom  itself  is  inert  and  devoid  of 
vals.  The  corpuscular  theory  also  accounts  for  the  all  activity.  The  molecule,  taken  over  from  the 
▼ariation  of  the  elementa  in  atomic  weight.  Cor-  sciences,  is  but  an  edifice  of  unchangeable  atoms, 
poscules  are  supposed  to  be  all  alike,  so  that  the  Philosophic  atomism  stands  entirely  on  the  basis  of 
weight  of  an  atom  would  depend  on  how  many  materialism,  and,  though  it  invokes  the  necessary 
cor^iscules  were  required  to  form  it.  Thus  an  atom  laws  of  matter,  its  exclusion  of  final  causes  makes 
of  oxygen  would  contain  sixteen  times  as  many  it  in  the  last  analysis  a  philosophy  of  chance. 
corpu8<ni]es  as  would  an  atom  of  hydroffen,  weighing  The  atomic  theory  was  first  applied  to  chemistry 
only  one-sixteenth  as  much.  The  wdght  of  an  atom  by  Dalton  (1808),  but  with  him  it  meant  little  more 
of  nydrogen  has  been  approximately  calculated  as  than  an  expression  of  proportions  in  chemical  com- 
expiessed  by  the  decimal,  34  preceded  by  thirteen  position.  The  theory  supplied  a  simple  explanation 
cipherB,  of  a  gram.  This  means  that  thirty-four  thou-  of  the  facts  observed  before  him:  that  elements  com- 
aand  nullions  of  millions  of  atoms  of  hydrogen  would  bine  in  definite  and  multiple  proportions.  The  dis- 
weigh  in  the  aggregate  one  gram.  These  calculations  covery  in  the  same  year  by  Gay-Lussac  of  the  law 
are  based  on  (^termination  of  the  electric  charge  of  that  gases  under  the  same  pressure  and  temperature 
eorpuscules.  Corpuscules  are  calculated  as  being  have  equal  volumes  was  at  the  same  time  a  confir- 
about  one-thousandth  of  the  mass  of  an  atom  of  hy-  mation  and  an  aid  in  determining  atomic  weighta 
drogen.  Professor  Oliver  Lodge  gives  the  following  Avogadro's  law  (1811)  that  gases  imder  the  same 
eomparison:  if  a  church  of  ordmarv  size  represent  an  conmtions  of  pressure  and  temperature  have  an  eoual 
Atom,  a  thousand  grains  of  sand  dasning  about  its  inte-  number  of  molecules,  and  the  law  of  Petit  and  Du- 
rior  with  enormous  vdodty  would  represent  its  con-  long  that  the  product  of  the  specific  heat  and  the 
rtituent  eorpuscules.  When  atoms  unite  to  form  atomic  weight  of  an  element  gives  a  constant  num- 
OMfecnles,   tney  are  said  to  saturate  each  other,  ber  were  further  confirmations  and  aids.    The  atomic 


ATOHUCEHT  54  ATOMKMBIIT 

theory  was  soon  applied  to  physics,  and  is  to-day  ^(og«a^  (I^p»i«.  1898):  6th  ed„  tr.by  Thom^^ 

the  Ssis  of  most  oFthe  scien^^   Its  main  outlines  ]^^  ^-)SS  %J^r%%o^^rsmkS;:Si.  IJSSS:^:;. 

are:  Matter  is  not  contmuous  but  atomically  oonsti-  (igoo):  Wortz.  Atomic  Theory,  tr.  by  Clbminshaw  (New 

tuted.     An  atom  is  the  smallest  particle  of  matter  York,  188l)      On  ficholastio  inUraretfttion  of  Atomiam  see 

that  can  enter  a  chemical  reaction     At»m«  of  like  ^^'^SS^^Y^r-B.'SS^J' ^'^''^mf'^A 

nature  constitute  elements,   those  of  unlike  nature  Science  venue  MaUer  and  Form,  in  IhibUn  Bev,  (1899  and 

constitute  compounds.    The  elements  known  to-day  1900). 

are  about  76  in  number  and  differ  from  one  another  IIiDMUND  J.  Wirth. 
in  weight  and  physical  and  chemical  properties.  Atonementi  Day  of. — The  rites  to  be  observed 
Atoms  combine  to  form  molecules,  whicn  are  the  on  the  Day  of  Atonement  [Hebrew  DHDan  DV  Yom 
smallest  quantities  of  matter  that  can  exist  in  a  free  Hakkippurim,  Vulgate,  Dies  ExpiaUonum,  and  Dies 
state,  whether  of  an  element  or  a  compound.  Some  Pronitiationts  (Leviticus,  xxiii,  27,  28)J  are  fidly  set 
believe  that  the  atom  retains  its  individuality  in  the  fortn  in  the  sixteenth  chapter  of  I^eviticas  (cf.  Exo- 
molecule,  whilst  others  consider  the  molecule  homo-  dus,  xxx,  10;  Leviticus,  xxiii,  27-31,  xxv,  9;  Num- 
geneous  throughout.  The  theoretic  formulas  of  struo-  bers,  xxix,  7-11).  It  was  a  moist  solemn  fast,  on 
ture  of  Frankland  suppose  them  to  remain.  The  which  no  food  could  be  taken  throughout  the  whole 
spaces  between  the  atoms  are  tilled  with  an  impon-  day,  and  all  servile  works  were  forbidden.  It  was 
derable  matter  called  ether.  Upon  the  nature  of  kept  on  the  nineteenth  day  of  the  seventh  month, 
ether  the  greatest  differences  of  opinion  exist.  The  Tiachri,  which  faUs  in  September — October.  The  sac- 
adoption  by  scientists  of  Maxwell's  theory  of  light  rifioes  induded  a  calf,  a  ram,  and  seven  lambs  (Num- 
seems  to  render  the  ether-hypothesis  with  its  many  bers,  xxix,  8-11).  But  the  distinctive  ceremony  of 
contradictions  superfluous.  At  all  events  it  is  quite  the  day  was  the  offering  of  the  two  goats.  "''He 
independent  of  the  atomic  theory.  [AaronJ  shall  make  the  two  buck-goats  to  stand  be- 

The  results  obtained  by  the  Hungarian  Lenard,  fore  the  Lord,  in  the  door  of  the  tabernacle  of  the 
the  English  physicist  J.  J.  Thomson,  and  many  testimony:  and  casting  lots  upon  them  both,  one  to 
others,  by  means  of  electric  discharges  in  rarified  be  offered  to  the  Lord,  and  the  other  to  be  the 
eases,  the  discovery  of  Hertzian  waves,  a  better  un-  emissary-goat:  That  whose  lot  fell  to  be  offered  to 
derstandine  of  electrolysis,  and  the  discovery  of  ra-  the  Lord,  he  shall  offer  for  sin:  But  that  whose  lot 
dium  by  Madame  Curie  have  made  necessary  a  was  to  be  the  emissary-goat  he  shall  present  alive 
modification  of  the  atomic  theory  of  matter.  The  before  the  Lord,  that  Ke  may  pour  out  prayers  upon 
atom,  hitherto  considered  solid  and  indivisible,  is  now  him,  and  let  him  go  into  the  wilderness.  .  .  .  After 
believed  to  break  up  into  ions  or  electrons.  This  he  hath  cleansed  the  sanctuary,  and  the  tabernacle, 
new  theory,  however,  must  not  be  considered  as  op-  and  the  altar,  let  him  offer  the  living  goat:  And  put- 
posed  to  the  atomic  theory;  it  comes  rather  as  an  ting  both  hands  upon  his  head,  let  nim  confess  all 
extension  of  it.  In  chemistry,  the  principal  field  of  the  iniquities  of  the  children  of  Israel,  and  all  their 
the  atomic  theory,  the  atom  will  still  remain  as  the  offences  and  sins,  and  praying  that  they  may  light 
chemically  indivisible  unit.  The  h3rpothesis  of  sub-  on  his  head,  he  shall  turn  him  out  by  a  man  ready 
atoms  is,  moreover,  not  entirely  new:  it  was  pro-  for  it,  into  the  desert.  And  when  the  ^at  hatn 
posed  by  Spencer  as  early  as  1872  (''Contemporary  carried  all  their  iniquities  into  an  uninhabited  land, 
Kev.'',  June,  1872)  and  defended  by  Crookes  in  1886.  and  shall  be  let  go  into  the  desert,  Aaron  shall  return 

The  physico-chemical  theory  of  atomism,  though  into  the  tabernacle  of  the  testimony ''  (Leviticus,  xvi, 

not  a  demonstrated  truth,  offers  a  satisfactory  ex-  7-10,  20-23).    The  general  meaning  of  the  ceremony 

planation  of  a  ^reat  number  of  phenomena,  and  will,  is  sufficiently  shown  in  the  text.    But  the  details 

no  doubt,  remain  essentially  the  same,  no  matter  how  present  some  difficulty.     The  Vulgate  caper  emis- 

it  may  be  modified  in  its  details.    In  chemistry,  it  saritM,  "emissary    goat",   represents    the    obscure 

does  not  stop  arbitrarily  in  the  division  of  matter,  Hebrew    word,    7TKty   (Atazel),    which    occurs  no- 

but  stops  at  chemical  division.    If  another  science  where  else  in  the  Bible.    Various  attempts  have  been 

demands  a  further  division,  or  if  philosophy  must  made  to  interpret  its  meaning.    Some  nave  taken  it 

postulate  a  division  of  the  atom  into  essential  prin-  for  the  name  of  a  place  where  the  man  who  took  the 

ciples,  that  is  not  the  concern  of  chemistry.    Science  goat  away  used  to  throw  it  over  a  precipice,  since  its 

has  no  interest  in  defending  the  indivisible  atom  of  return  was  thought  to  forbode  evil.    Others,  with 

Democritus.  better  reason,  take  it  for  the  name  of  an  evil  spirit; 

Scholastic  philosophy  finds  nothing  in  the  scientific  and  in  fact  a  spirit  of  this  name  is  mentioned  in  the 
theory  of  atomism  which  it  cannot  harmonise  with  Apocryphal  ''Book  of  Henoch'',  and  later  in  Jewi^ 
its  principles,  though  it  must  reject  the  mechanical  literature.  On  this  interpretation,  which,  though  by 
explanation,  often  proposed  in  the  name  of  science,  no  means  new,  finds  favour  with  modem  critics,  the 
which  looks  upon  the  atom  as  an  absolutely  inert  idea  of  the  ceremony  would  seem  to  be  that  the  sins 
mass,  devoid  of  all  activities  and  properties.  Scho*  were  sent  back  to  the  evil  spirit  to  whose  influence 
lastic  philosophers  find  in  the  different  physical  and  they  owed  their  origin.  It  has  been  noted  that  some- 
chemical  properties  of  the  elements  an  mdication  of  what  similar  rites  of  expiation  have  prevailed  among 
specifically  different  natures.  Chemical  changes  are  heathen  nations.  And  modem  critics,  ^ho  refer  the 
for  them  substantial  changes,  and  chemical  formulas  above  passages  to  the  Phiestly  Code,  and  to  a  post- 
indicate  the  mode  in  which  the  elements  react  on  Exilic  date,  are  disposed  to  regard  the  sending  of 
one  another  in  the  production  of  the  compound,  the  goat  to  Azazel  as  an  adaptation  of  a  pre-«xisting 
They  are  not  a  representation  of  the  molecular  edi-  ceremonial.  The  significant  ceremony  observed  on 
fice  built  up  of  unchangeable  atoms.  Some  would  this  solemn  Day  of  Atonement  does  but  give  a 
accept  even  this  latter  view  and  admit  that  there  greater  prominence  to  that  need  of  satisfaction  and 
are  no  substantial  changes  in  inanimate  nature  (Gut-  expiation  which  was  present  in  all  the  ordinary  sin- 
beriet).  This  view  can  also  be  harmonised  more  offerings.  And  all  tnese  sacrifices  for  sin,  as  we 
easily  with  the  facts  of  stereo-chemistry.  As  re-  learn  from  the  teaching  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
gards  the  phenomena  observed  in  radio-activity,  a  were  figures  of  the  great  Sacrifice  to  come.  In  like 
generalization,  either  in  the  materialistic  sense,  that  manner  these  Jewish  rites  of  atonement  speak  to  us 
all  matter  is  homogeneous,  or  in  the  scholastic  sense,  of  the  Cross  of  Christ,  and  of  the  propitiatory  Sac- 
that  all  elements  can  be  changed  into  one  another,  rifice  which  is  daily  renewed  in  a  bloodless  manner 
is  in  the  present  state  of  science  premature.  on  the  Eucharistic  Altar.    For  this  reason  it  may  be 

ManuaU  of  Hietory  of   Philoeophy   by   Turner,  Ueber-  f  '^^"^^  ^  note,  with  Proyost  Maltzew,  that  the 

wbq-Ueintze.  Stockl  if.  by   Finlat;  Lanqe,  Hieiery  (rf  Jewish  prayers  used  on  the  Day  of  Atonement  for^ 


ATOHEMKHT                             55  ATOMBMENT 

shadow  the  common  commeroorataon  of  the  saints  sufferings,  and  the  death  of  the  Divine  Redeemer, 

and  the  faithful  deoarted  in  our  liturgies  (Die  Litur-  All  this  may  be  summed  up  in  the  word  Atonement, 

pen  der  orthodox-Katholisciien  Kirche  des  Morgen-  This  is,  so  to  say^  the  starting  point.    And  herein 

Uixies,  252).  all  are  indeed  at  one.    But,  when  it  was  attempted 

Tie  Bttbjeot  is  tmted  by  the  commentators  on  Leviticiis,  to  give  a  more  precise  account  of  the  nature  of  the 

»fSK^  rL^'^'^t.MS;r™*^''t  i;j^T^3  ReVP"?'*  '^\  *^*  manner  of  iU  accomplishment, 

m  Spexckr's    monumental   work.   De    Leg%bu9    Hebrmmtm  theolojgical  speculation  tOOK  different  COUTSes,  SOme 

ntmia>Mj  III,  dies.  8.  of.  De  Hvrop  EmiMorio  el  vracipuia  of  which  were  Suggested  by  the  various  names  and 

Jirrt^rteriSnS'eSrrc^'S.l^/^X^LSS^  ^J^  ^^^  whp.this  ineffable  mptery  is  adum- 

and  Amel,  by  Dbiv^eb  and  Whttb  in  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  brated  in  Holy  Scnpture.     Without   pretending  to 

In  U»  Talmud  the  treatise  Ydma  (The  Day)  deals  with  the  give  a  full  history  of  the  discussions,  we  may  bnefly 

thy  of  Atonement.                                              Kent  indicate  some  of  the  main  lines  on  which  the  doctrine 

was  developed,  and  touch  on  the  more  important 
Atonemonty  Docttrinb  of  thb. — ^The  word  atone*  theories  put  forward  in  explanation  of  the  Atone- 
in^,  which  is  almost  the  only  theological  term  of  ment. 

English  origin,  has  a  curious  history.  The  verb  (a)  In  any  view,  the  Atonement  b  founded  on  the 
"atone'^  from  the  adverbial  phrase ''at  one"  (M.  £.  Divine  Incarnation.  By  this  great  mystery,  the 
at  om).  at  first  meant  to  reconcile,  or  make  ''at  Eternal  Word  took  to  Himself  the  nature  of  man 
one'/;  from  this  it  came  to  denote  the  action  by  and,  being  both  God  and  man,  became  the  Mediator 
which  such  reconciliation  was  effected,  e.  g.  satis-  between  God  and  men.  From  this,  we  have  one  of 
faction  for  an  offence  or  an  injunr.  Hence,  in  the  first  and  most  profound  forms  of  theological 
Qitholic  theology,  the  Atonement  is  tnc  Satisfaction  speculation  on  the  Atonement,  the  theory  which  is 
of  Christ,  whereby  God  and  the  world  are  reconciled  or  sometimes  described  as  Mystical  Redemption.  In- 
made  to  be  at  one.  "For  God  indeed  was  in  Christ,  stead  of  seeking  a  solution  in  legal  figures,  some  of 
reconciling  the  world  to  himself"  (II  C^r.,  v,  19).  the  great  Greek  Fathers  were  content  to  dwell  on 
The  Catholic  doctrine  on  thb  subject  b  set  forth  in  the  fundamental  fact  of  the  Divine  Incarnation, 
the  Sixth  Session  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  chapter  ii.  Bv  the  union  of  the  Eternal  Word  with  the  nature 
Having  shown  the  insufficiency  of  Nature,  and  of  of  man  all  mankind  was  lifted  up  and,  so  to  say, 
the  Mosaic  Law.  the  Council  continues:  "Whence  deified.  "He  wasmade  man",  says  St.  Athanasius, 
it  came  to  pass,  that  the  heavenly  Father,  the  Father  "that  we  might  be  made  goos"  (De  Incamatione 
of  mercies  and  the  God  of  all  comfort  (EI  Cor.,  i,  3),  Verbi,  54).  "Hb  flesh  was  saved,  and  made  free 
when  that  Uessed  fullness  of  the  time  was  come  the  first  of  all,  being  made  the  bodv  of  the  Word, 
(GaL,  iv,  4)  sent  unto  men  Jesus  Christ,  Hb  own  then  we,  being  concorporeal  therewitn,  are  saved  by 
Son,  who  had  been,  both  before  the  Law  and  during  the  same"  (Orat.,  ll.  Contra  Arianos,  1x1).  And 
the  time  of  the  Law,  to  many  of  the  holy  fathers  again,  "  For  the  presence  of  the  Saviour  in  the  flesh 
announced  and  promised,  that  He  might  both  was  the  price  of  death,  and  the  saving  of  the  whole 
redeem  the  Jews,  who  were  imder  the  Law  and  that  creation  (Ep.  ad  Adelphium,  vi).  In  like  manner 
the  G^itiles  who  followed  not  after  justice  mi^t  St.  Gregory  of  Nasianzus  proves  the  integrity  of 
attam  to  justice,  and  that  all  men  might  receive  the  Sacred  Humanity  by  the  argument,  "That  which 
the  adoption  of  sons.  Him  God  hath  proposed  as  a  was  not  assumed  b  not  healeia;  but  that  which  b 
propitbtor,  through  faith  in  His  blood  (Kom.,  iii,  25),  united  to  God  b  saved"  (t6  ydp  dvp6<r\7frTow, 
for  our  sins,  and  not  for  our  sins  only,  but  also  for  iOepdwevrow  6  ii  Ijiwrai  rf  Om^,  tovto  xal  ffdj/trai), 
those  of  the  whole  worid  (I  John,  ii,2)."  More  than  Thb  speculation  of  the  Greek  Fathers  undoubtedly 
twelve  centuries  before  thb,  the  same  dogma  was  contains  a  profound  truth  which  b  sometimes  for- 
proclaimed  in  the  words  of  the  Nicene  Creed,  "who  gotten  by  later  authors  who  are  more  intent  on  framing 
for  us  men  and  for  our  salvation,  came  down,  took  juridical  theories  of  ransom  and  satisfaction.  But 
flesh,  was  made  man;  and  suffered."  And  all  that  it  b  obvious  that  thb  account  of  the  matter  b  im- 
B  thus  taught  in  the  decrees  of  the  Councib  may  be  perfect,  and  leaves  much  to  be  explained.  It  must 
read  in  the  pages  of  the  New  Testament.  For  in-  be  remembered,  moreover,  that  the  Fathers  them- 
stanoe,  in  the  words  of  Our  Lord,  "Even  as  the  son  selves  do  not  put  thb  forward  as  a  full  explanation, 
of  man  b  not  come  to  be  minbtered  unto,  but  to  For  while  many  of  their  utterances  might  seem  to 
minister,  and  to  give  Hb  life  a  redemption  for  many"  imply  that  the  Redemption  was  actually  accom- 
(Matt,  XX,  28);  or  of  St.  Paul,  "Because  in  him,  it  plbhed  by  the  union  ot  a  Divine  Person  with  the 
hath  wdl  jAeased  the  Father  that  all  fulness  should  numan  nature,  it  b  clear  from  other  passages  that 
dwdl;  ancl  through  him  to  reconcile  all  things  unto  they  do  not  lose  sight  of  the  atoning  sacrifice.  The 
himeelf,  making  peace  through  the  blood  of  hb  Incarnation  b,  indeed,  the  source  and  the  foundation 
cross,  both  as  to  the  things  that  are  on  earth,  and  the  of  the  Atonement,  and  these  profound  thinkers  have, 
thmpg  that  are  in  heaven. "  (Coloss.,  i,  19,  20).  so  to  say,  grasped  the  cause  and  its  effects  as  one  vast 
The  great  doctrine  thus  laid  down  in  the  b^inning  whole.  Hence  they  look  on  to  the  result  before 
«i0  further  unfolded  and  brought  out  into  clearer  staying  to  consider  the  means  by  which  it  was  accom- 
h^t  l^  the  work  of  the  Fathers  and  theologians,  plii^ed. 

Aod  it  may  be  noted  that  in  this  instance  the  develop-  (6)  But  something  more  on  thb  matter  had 
inent  b  cniefly  due  to  Catholic  speculation  on  the  already  been  taught  m  the  preaching  of  the  Apostles 
mystery,  and  not,  as  in  the  case  of  other  doctrines,  and  in  the  pages  of  the  New  Testament.  The 
to  controversy  with  heretics.  At  first  we  have  the  restoration  of  fallen  man  was  the  work  of  the  In- 
central  fact  made  known  in  the  Apostolic  preaching,  camate  Word.  "God  was  in  Chrbt  reconciling  the 
that  mankind  was  fallen  and  was  rabed  up  ana  world  to  himself"  (II  Cor.,  v,  19).  But  the  peace 
redeemed  from  sin  by  the  blood  of  Chrbt.  But  it  of  that  reconciliation  was  accomplished  by  the 
nmained  for  the  pious  speculation  of  Fathers  and  death  of  the  Divine  Redeemer,  ''making  peace 
theologians  to  enter  into  the  meaning  of  thb  great  through  the  blood  of  Hb  cross"  (Coloss.,  i,  20). 
truth,  to  inquire  into  the  state  of  fallen  man,  and  to  Thb  redemption  by  death  b  another  mystery,  and 
85k  blow  Qirist  accomplished  Hb  work  of  Redemp-  some  of  the  Fathers  in  the  first  ages  are  led  to  specu- 
tion.  By  whatever  names  or  fibres  it  may  be  late  on  its  meaning,  and  to  construct  a  theory  in 
<^ttcribea,  that  work  b  the  reversal  of  the  Fall,  the  explanation.  Here  the  words  .and  figures  used  in 
Wotting  out.  of  sin,  the  deliverance  from  bonoage.  Holy  Scripture  help  to  guide  the  current  of  theologi- 
the  reconciliation  of  mankind  with  God.  And  it  b  cal  thought.  Sin  b  represented  as  a  state  of  bondage 
^vooght  to  pass  by  the  Incarnation,  by  the  life,  the  or  servitude,  and  fallen  man  b  delivered  by  being 


ATONEMENT  56  ATONEMENT 

redeemed,  or  bought  with  a  price.    "For  you  are  various  forms,  and  some  of  its  more  repulsive  featurei 
bought  with  a  great  price"  (I  Cor.,  vi,  20).    ^'Thou  are  softened  or  modified.    But  the  strange  notion 
art  worthy,  O  Lord,  to  take  the  book,  and  to  open  of  some  rieht,  or  claim,  on  the  part  of  Satan  is  still 
the  seals  thereof;  because  thou  wast  slain,  and  hast  present.    A  protest  was  raised  by  St.  Gregory  of 
redeemed  us  to  God,  in  thy  blood"  (Apoc.,  v,  9).  Nazianzus  in  the  fourth  century^  as  might  be  ex- 
Looked  at  in  this  light,  the  Atonement  appears  as  pected  from  that  most  accurate  of  the   patristic 
the  deliverance  from  captivity  by  the  pajmient  of  theologians.     But  it  was  not  till  St.   Anselm  and 
a  ransom.    This  view  is  already  developed  in  the  AbeLara  had  met  it  with  unanswerable  arguments 
second  centurv.     ''The  mighty  Word  ana  true. Man  that  its  power  was   finally   broken.     It  makes   a 
reasonably  redeeming  us  by  His  blood,  gave  Himself  belated  appearance  in  the  pages  of  Peter  Lombard, 
a  ransom  for  those  who  had   been   brought   into        (c)  But  it  is  not  only  in  connexion  with  the  theory 
bondage.    And  since  the  Apostasy  unjustly  ruled  of  ransom  that  we  meet  with  this  notion  of  "rights 
over  us,  and,  whereas  we  belonged  by  nature  to  God  on  the  part  of  Satan.     Some  of  the  Fathers  set  the 
Almighty,  alienated  us  against  nature  and  made  matter  m  a  different  aspect.     Fallen  man,  it  was 
us  his  own  disciples,  the  Word  of  God,  being  mifhty  said^  was  justly  under  the  dominion  of  the  devil,  in 
in  all  things,  and  failing  not  in  His  justice,  aealt  punishment  for  sin.     But  when  Satan  brought  suf- 
justly  even  with  the  Apostasy  itself,  buying  back  fering  and  death  on  the  sinless  Saviour,  he  abused 
from  it  the  things  which  were  His  own"  (Iremeus,  his  power  and  exceeded  his  ri^ht,  so  that  he  was 
Ad  versus  Haereses.  V,  i).     And  St.  Augustine  says  now  justly  deprived  of  his  dominion  over  the  captives, 
in  well-known  words:  "Men  were  held  captive  under  This  explanation  is  found  especially  in  the  sermons 
the  devil,  and  served  the  demons,  but  they  were  of  St.  Leo  and   the  "Morals"  of  St.  Gregory  the 
redeemed  from  captivity.     For  they  could  sell  them-  Great.    Closely  allied   to   this   explanation    is    the 
selves,  bnt  they  could  not  redeem  themselves.    The  singular  "mouse-trap"  metaphor  of  St.  Augustine. 
Redeemer  came,  and  gave  the  price;  He  poured  In  this'  daring  figure  of  speech,  the  Cross  is  regarded 
forth  His  blood  and  bought  the  whole  world.     Do  as  the  trap  in  which  the  bait  is  set  and  the  enemy 
you  ask  what  He  bought?    See  what  He  ^ave,  and  is  caught.     "The  Redeemer  came  and  the  deceiver 
find  what  He  bought.    The  blood  of  Chnst  is  the  was  overcome.     What  did  our  Redeemer  do  to  our 
price.     How   much    b    it   worth?    What    but    the  Captor?    In  payment  for  us  He  set  the  trap,  His 
whole  world?    What  but  all  nations?"  (Enarratio  Cross,  with  His  blood  for  bait.     He  [Satan]  could 
in  Psalm  xcv,  n.  5).  indeed  shed  that   blood;  but  he  deserved  not    to 
It  cannot  be  questioned  that  this  theory  also  con-  drink  it.     By  shedding  the  blood  of  One  who  was 
tains  a  true  principle.     For  it  is  founded  on  the  ex-  not  his  debtor,  he  was  forced  to  release  his  debtors" 
press  words  of  Scripture,  and  is  supported  by  many  (Serm.  cxxx,  |  2). 

of  the  greatest  of  tne  early  Fathers  and  later  theo-        (d)  These  ideas  retained  their  force  well  into  the 

logians.     But  unfortunately,  at  first,  and  for  a  long  Middle  Ages.     But  the  appearance  of  St.  Anselm 's 

period  of  theological  history,  this  truth  was  some-  "Cur  Deus  Homo?"  made  a  new  epoch  in  the  theology 

what    obscured     by  a    strange    confusion,   which  of  the  Atonement.     It  may  be  said,  indeed,  that  this 

would  seem  to  have  arisen  from  the  natural  tend-  book  marks  an  epoch  in  theological  literature  and 

ency  to  take  a  fieure  too  literally,  and   to  apply  doctrinal  development.     There  ace  not  many  works, 

it  in  details  which  were  not  contemplated  by  those  even  among  those  of  the  greatest  teachers,  that  can 

who  first  made  use  of   it.     It   must   not  be  for-  compare  in  this  respect  with  the  treatise  of  St.  Aiw 

gotten  that  the  account  of  our  deliverance   from  selm.    And,  with  few  exceptions,  the  books  that  have 

sin    is    set   forth  in   figures.    Conquest,  captivity,  done  as  much  to  influence  and  guide  the  growth  of 

and  ransom  are  familiar  facts  of  human  nistory.  theology  are  the  outcome  of  some  great  struggle 

Man,  having  yielded  to  the  temptations  of  Satan,  with  heresy;  while  others,  again,  omy  summarise 

was  like  to  one  overcome  in  battle.     Sin,  again,  is  the  theological  learning  of  the  age.     But  this  little 

fitly  likened  to  a  state  of  slavery.     And  when  man  book  is  at  once  purely  pacific  and  eminently  ongi* 

was  set  free  by  the  shedding  of  Christ's  precious  nal.     Nor  could  any  dogmatic  treatise  well  be  more 

Blood,  this  deliverance  would  naturally  recall  (even  simple  and  unpretending  than  this  luminous  dia- 

if  it  had  not  been  so  described  in  Scripture )  the  logue  between  the  great  archbishop  and  his  disciple 

redemption  of  a  captive  by  Ihe  payment  of  a  ran-  Boso.    There  is  no  parade  of  learning,  and  but  little 

som.     But,  however  useful  and  illuminating  in  their  in  the  way  of  appeal  to  authorities.    The  disciple 

E roper  place,  figures  of  this  kind  are  perilous  in  the  asks  and  the  master  answers;  and  both  alike  face 

ands  of  those  who  press  them  too  tar,  and  foi-get  the  great  problem  Isefore  them  fearlessly,  but  at  the 

that  they  are  figures.    This  is  what  happened  here,  same   time   with   all   due   reverence  and   modesty. 

When  a  captive  is  ransomed  the  price  is  naturally  Anselm  says  at  the  outset  that  he  will  not  so  much 

paid  to  the  conqueror  by  whom  he  is  held  in  bondage,  show  his  disciple  the  truth  he  needs,  as  seek  it  along 

Hence,  if  this  figure  were  taken  and  interpreted  ynth  him;  ana  that  when  he  sa3rs  anything  that  is 

literally  in  all  its  details,  it  would  seem  that  the  price  not  confirmed  by  higher  authority,  it  must  be  taken 

of  man's  ransom  must  be  paid  to  Satan.    The  notion  as  tentative,  and  provisional.     He  adds  that,  though 

is   certainly   startling,    it    not   revolting.     Even    if  he  may  in  some  measure  meet  the  question,  one  who 

grave  reasons  point^  in  this  direction,  we  might  is  wiser  oould  do  it  better;  and  that,  whatever  nian 

well  shrink  from  drawing  the  conclusion.    And  this  may  know  or  say  on  this  subject,  there  will  always 

is  in  fact  so  far  from  being  the  case  that  it  seems  remain  deeper  reasons  that  are  beyond  him.      In 

hard  to  find  any  rational  explanation  of  such  a  pay-  the  same  spirit  he  concludes  the  whole  treatise  by 

ment,  or  any  right  on  which  it  could  be  founded,  submitting  it  te  reasonable  correction  at  the  haiK& 

Yet,  strange  te  say,  the  bold  flight  of  theological  of  others. 

speculation  was  not  checked  by  these  misgivings.        It  may  be  safely  said  that  this  is  precisely  what 

In  the  above-cited  passage  of  St.  Irens&us,  we  read  has  come  to  pass.     For  the  theory  put  forward  by 

that  the  Word  of  Giod  "dealt  justly  even  with  the  Anselm  has  teen  modified  by  the  work  of  later 

Apostasy  itself  Fi.  e.    Satan],  Duying  back  from  it  theologians,  and   confirmed   by  the   testimony    of 

the   things  whicn   were   His   own ".    Thb   curious  truth.     In  contrast   to  some  of  the  other   vie^n^ 

notion,   apparently  first   mooted  by  St.    IrenaBus,  already  noticed,  this  theory  is  remarkably  dear  and 

was  taken  up  by  Origen  in  the  next  century,  and  symmetrical.    And  it  is  certainly  more  agreeable  to 

for  about  a  thousand  years  it  played  a  conspicuous  reason   than   the   "mouse-trap     metaphor,  or    the 

part  in  the  history  of  theology.     In  the  hands  of  some  notion  of  purchase  money  paid  te  Satan.    Ansel tn '9 

of  the  later  Fathers  and  medieval  writers,  it  takes  answer  to  the  question  is  simply  the  need  of 


ATOnMSMT  57  ATONSMKITT 

bction  for  sin.    No  sin,  as  be  views  the  matter,  can  denying  the  rights  of  Satan,  denied  the  "  Sacrament  of 
be  foigiven  without  satisfaction.     A  debt  to  Divine  Redemption "  and  regarded  the  teaciiing  and  exam- 
iuBtioe  has  been  incurred*  and  that  debt  must  needs  pie  of  Christ  as  the  sole  benefit  of  the  Incarnation, 
be  paid.    But  man  could  not  make  this  satisfaction  ''  But '',  as  Mr.  Oxenham  observes,  "  he  had  not  said 
for  himself;  the  debt  is  something  far  greater  than  so,  and  he  distinctly  asserts  in  his  *  Apology '  that 
he  can  pay;  and,  moreover,  all  the  service  that  he  '  the  Son  <|f  God  was  incarnate  to  deliver  us  from 
can  offer  to  God  is  already  due  on  other  titles.    The  the  bondage  of  sin  and  yoke  of  the  Devil,  and  to 
8ug^B8ti(m  that  some  innocent  man,  or  angel,  might  open  to  us  by  His  death   the  gate  of  eternal  life.' 
pomUy  pay  the  debt  incurred  by  sinners  is  rejected,  ^d  &t.  Bernard  himself,  in  this  venr  Epistle,  dis- 
on  the  ground  that  in  any  case  this  would  put  the  tincUv  denies  any  absolute  necessity  u>r  tne  method 
sinner  under  obligation  to  his  deliverer,  and  he  would  of  redemption  chosen,  and  suggests  a  reason  for  it 
thus  become  the  servant  of  a  mere  creature.    The  not  so  very  unlike  Abelard's.     N^erhaps  that  method 
only  way  in  which  the  satisfaction  could  be  made,  is  the  best,  whereby  in  a  land  of  forgetfulness  and 
and  men  could  be  set*free  from  sin,  was  by  the  coni-  sloth  we  might  be  more  powerfully  and  vividly  re- 
ing  of  a  Redeemer  who  is  both  God  and  man.    His  minded  of  our  fall,  through  the  so  great  and  so  mani- 
d^th  makes  full  satisfaction  to  the  Divine  Justice,  fold  sufferings  of  Him  who  repair^  it.'     Elsewhere, 
for  it  is  something  Ki*cater  than  all  the  sins  of  all  when  not  speaking  controversially,  he  says  still  more 
mankind.    Many    side    questions    are    incidentally  plainly:  'Could  not  the  Creator  have  restored  His 
treated  in  the  dialogue  between  Anselm  and  Boeo.  work  without  that  difficulty?    He  could;  but  He 
But  this  ts  the  substonce  of  the  answer  given  to  the  prelerred  to  do  it  at  His  own  cost,  lest  any  further 
great  question,  ''Cur  Deus  Homo?"    Some  modem  occasion  should  be  ^ven  for  that  worst  and  most 
writers  have  suggested  that  this  notion  of  deliver-  odious  vice  of  ingratitude  in  man'  (Bern.,  Serm.  xi, 
ance  by  means  of  satisfaction  may  have  a  Gertnan  in  Cant.).    What  is  this  but  to  say,  with  Abelard,* 
origin.    For  in  the  old  Teutonic  laws,  a  criminal  that '  He  chose  the  Incarnation  as  the  most  efTectual 
might  pay  the  wergild  instead  of  imdeiigoing  punish-  method  for  eliciting   His  creature's  love '  ? "   (The 
ment     Eiut  this  custom  was  not  peculiar  to  tne  Ger-  Catholic  Doctrine  of  the  Atonement,  85,  86). 
mans,  as  we  may  see  from  the  Celtic  eirigy  and,  as        (/)  Although  the  high  authority  of  ot.  Bernard 
Riviere  has  pointed  out,  there  b  no  need  to  have  re-  was  thus  agamst  them,  the  views  of  St.  Anselm  and 
course  to  this  explanation.     For  the  notion  of  satisfao-  Abelard,  the  two  men  who  in  different  ways  were  the 
tion  for  sin  was  already  present  in  the  whole  system  fathers  of  Scholasticism,  shaped  the  course  of  later 
of  ecdesiastical  penance,  though  it  had  been  left  for  medieval  theology.    The  strange  notion  of  the  rights 
Ansdm  to  use  it  m  illustration  of  the  doctrine  of  the  of  Satan,  against  which  they  had  both  protested,  now 
Atonement.     It  may  be  added  that  the  tome  idea  disappears  from  the  pages  of  our  theologians.     For 
nnderlies  the  old  Jewish  "sin-offerings"  as  well  as  the  rest,  the  view  which  ultimately  prevailed  may 
the  similar  rites  that  are  found  in  many  ancient  reli-  be  regarded  as  a  combination  of  the  opinions  of  An- 
gions.     It  is  specially  prominent  in  the  rites  and  selm  and  Abelard.     In  spite  of  the  objections  ur^ed 
prayers  used  on  the  Dav  of  Atonement.    And  this,  it  by  the  latter  writer,  Anselm's  doctrine  of  satisfaction 
may  be  added,  is  now  the  ordinary  acceptance  of  the  was  adopted  as  the  basis.     But  St.  Thomas  and  the 
word;  to  "atone"  is  to  give  satisfaction,  or  make  other  medieval  masters  a^ee  with   Abelard  in  re- 
amends,  for  an  offence  or  an  injury.        ^  jecting  the  notion  that  this  full  satisfaction  for  sin 
(e)  Whatever  may  be  the  reason,  it  is  clear  that  was  absolutely  necessarv.    At  the  most,  they  are 
this  doctrine   was   attracting   special   attention   in  willing  to  admit  a  h^^poUietical  or  conditional  neces- 
the  a^  of  St.  Anselm.     His  own  work  bears  witness  sity  for  the  Redemption  by  the  death  of  Christ.    The 
that  it  was  undertaken  at  the  urgent  request  of  restoration  of  fallen  man  was  a  work  of  God's  free 
others  who  wished  to  have  some  new  light  on  this  mercy  and  benevolence.     And,  even  on  the  hypothesis 
mystery.     To  some  extent,  the  solution  offered  by  that  the  loss  was  to  be  repaired,  this  might  have  been 
Ansdm  seems  to  have  satisfied  these  desires,  though,  brought  about  in  many  and  various  ways.    The  sin 
in  the  course  of  further  discussion,  an  important  might  have  been  remitted  freely,  without  any  satis- 
part  of  his  theory,  the  absolute  necessity  of  Re-  faction  at  all,  or  some  lesser  satisfaction,  however 
demption  and  of  satisfaction  for  sin,  was  discarded  imperfect  in  itself,  might  have  been  accepted  as  suffi- 
hy  later  theologians,  and  found  few  defenders.     But  cient.    But  on  the  hypothesis  that  Goa  had  chosen 
meanwhile,  within  a  few  years  of  the  appearance  of  to  restore  mankind,  and  at  the  same  time,  to  require 
the  ^'Cur  Deus  Homo?"  another  theory  on  the  sub-  full  satisfaction  as  a  condition  of  pardon  and  de- 
ject had  been  advanced  by  Abelard.     In  common  liverance,  nothing  less  than  the  Atonement  made  by 
■rith  St.  Anselm,  Abelard  utterly  rejected  the  old.  one  who  was  GgkI  as  well  as  man  could  suffice  as 
tod  tb^i  stiU  prevailing,  notion  that  the  devU  had  satisfaction  for  the  offence  against  the  Divine  Majesty, 
some  sort  of  right  over  fallen  man,  who  could  only  And  in  this  case  Anselm's  argument  will  hold  good, 
be  justly  ddivered  by  means  of  a  ransom  paid  to  Mankind  cannot  be  restored  unless  God  becomes  man 
his  captor.     Against  this  he  very  rightly  ui^^es,  with  to  save  them. 

Anelm,  that  Satan  was  clearly  guilty  of  injustice        In  reference  to  many  points  of  detail  the  School- 

m  the  matter  and  could  have  no  right  to  anvthing  men,  here  as  elsewhere,  ^opted  divergent  views, 

bat  punishment.    But,  on  the  other  hand,  Abelmrd  One  of  the  chief  questions  at  issue  was  the  intrinsic 

was  unable  to  accept  Anselm's  view  that  an  equiva-  adequacy  of  the  satisfaction  offered  by  Christ.    On 

lent  satisfaction  for  sin  was  necessarv,  and  that  this  this  point  the  majority,  with  St.  Thomas  at  their 

<iebt  could  only  be  paid  by  the  death  of  the  Divine  head,   maintained   that,  by  reason   of   the  infinite 

Redeemer.     He  insists  that  God  could  have  par-  dignity  of  the  Divine  Person,  the  least  action  or 

doned  us  without  requiring  satisfaction.    And,  in  suffering  of  Christ  had  an  infinite  value,  so  that  in 

his  view,   the  reason  for  the  Incarnation  and  the  itself  it  would  suffice  as  an  adequate  satisfaction  for 

deith  of  Christ  was  the  pure  love  of  God.     By  no  the  sins  of  the  whole  world.     Scotus  and  his  school, 

other  means  could  men  be  so  effectually  tinned  from  on  the  other  hand,  disputed  this  intrinsic  infinitude, 

aa  and  nooved  to  love  God.    Abelard  s  teaching  on  and  ascribed  the  all-sufficiency  of  the  satisfaction  to 

tfak  pointy  as  on  others,  was  vehementljr  attacked  by  the  Divine  acceptation.     As  this  acceptation  was 

St  Bmaid.     But  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  grounded  on  the  infinite  dignity  of  the  Divine  Per- 

aooie  of  the  arguments  urgj^  in  condemnation  of  son,  the  difference  was  not  so  great  as  might  appear 

Abdaid  would  affect  the  position  of  St.  Anselm  also,  at  first  sight.     But,  on  this  point  at  any  rate,  the 

not  to  speak  of  later  Cathohc  theologv.  simpler  teaching  of  St.  Thomas  is  more  generally 

bi  St.  Bernard's  eyes  it  seemed  that  Abelard,  in  accepted    by    later    theologians.    Apart   from   this 


ATONBMBirT  58  ATONEMENT 

cruestioiL,  the  divergent  views  of  the  two  schools  on  the   Atonement   is   specially   connected   with    th« 

the  primary  motive  of  the  Incarnation  naturally  have  thought  of  the  wrath  of  God.    It  is  true  of  course 

some  effect  on  the  Thomist  and  Scotist  theology  of  that  sin  incurs  the  anger  of  the  Just  Judge,  and  that 

the  Atonement.    On  looking  back  at  the  vanous  this  is  averted  when  the  debt  due  to  Divine  Justice 

theories  noticed  so  far,  it  will  be  seen  that  they  are  is  paid  by  satisfaction.    But  it  must  not  be  thou^t 

not,  for  the  most  part,  mutually  exclusive,  but  may  that  God  is  only  moved  to  mercy  and  reconciled  to 

be  combined  and  narmoni^ed.     It  may  be  said,  in-  us  as  a  result  of  this  satisfaction.    This  false  concep- 

deed,  that  they  all  help  to  bring  out  different  aspects  tion  of  the  Reconciliation  is  expressly  rejected  by 

of  that  great  doctrine  which  cannot  find  adec]uate  St.  Augustine  (In  Joannem,  Tract,  ex,  §  6).    God  s 

expression  in  any  human  theory.    And  in  point  of  mercifiu  love  is  the  cause,  not  the  result  of  that 

fact  it  will  generally  be  found  that  the  chief  Fathers  satisfaction.     (2)  The   second   mistake  is   the   ten- 

and  Schoolmen,  though  they  may  at  times  lay  more  dency  to  treat  the  Passion  of  Christ  as  being  literally 

stress  on  some  favourite  theory  of  their  own,  do  not  a  case  of  vicarious  punishment.    This  is  at  best  a 

lose  sight  of  the  other  explanations.  distorted  view  of  the  truth  that  Ilis  Atoning  Sacrifice 

Thus  the  Greek  Fathers,  who  deUght  in  speculating  took  the  place  of  our  punishment,  and  that  He  took 

on  the  Mystical  Redemption  by  the  Incarnation,  do  upon  Himself  the  sufferings  and  death  that  were  due 

not  omit  to  speak  also  of  our  salvation  by  the  shedding  to  oiu*  sins. 

of  blood.    Origen,  who  lays  most  stress  on  the  dehv-  This  view  of  the  Atonement  naturally  provoked 

erance  by  payment  of  a  ransom,  does  not  forget  to  a  reaction.    Thus  the  Socinians  were  led  to  reject 

dwell  on  the  need  of  a  sacrifice  for  sin.    St.  Anselm,  the  notion  of  vicarious  suffering  and  satisfaction  as 

again,  in  his  "Meditations  ",  supplements  the  teach-  inconsistent  with  God's  justice  and  mercy.    And  in 

in^  set  forth  in  his  "Cur  Deus  Homo?"     Abelard,  who  their  eyes  the  work  of  Christ  consisted  simply  in 

might  seem  to  make  the  Atonement  consist  in  nothing  His  teaching  by  word  and  example.    Similar  objeo- 

more  than  the  constraining  example  of  Divine  Jjove,  tions  to  the  juridical  conception  of  the  Atonement 

has  spoken  also  of  our  salvation  oy  the  Sacrifice  of  led  to  like  results  in  the  later  system  of  Swedenborg. 

the  Cross,  in  passages  to  which  his  critics  do  not  More  recently  Albrecht  Ritschl,  who  has  paid  special 

attach  sufficient  importance.     And,  as  we  have  seen,  attention   to   this  subject,    ha8  formulated   a  new 

his  great  opponent,  St.  Bemidxi,  teaches  all  that  Is  theory  on  somewhat  similar  lines.     His  conception 

really  true  and  valuable  in  the  theory  which  he  con-  of  the  Atonement  is  moral  and  spiritual,  rather  than 

demned.     Most,   if  not   all,   of   these  theories  had  juridical;  and  his  system  is  distinguished  by  the  fact 

perils  of  their  own,  if  they  were  isolated  and  ex-  that  he  lays  stress  on  the  relation  of  Chnst  to  the 

aggerated.    But  in  the  CathoUc   Church  there  was  whole  Chnstian  community.    We  cannot  stay  to 

ever  a  safeguard  against  these  dangers  of  distor-  examine  these  new  systems  in  detail.    But  it  may 

tion.    As    Mr.    Oxenhsun    says    very   finely,    "The  be  observed  that  the  truth  which  they  contain  is 

perpetual  priesthood  of  Christ  in  heaven,  which  oc-  really  found  in  the  Catholic  theology  of  the  Atone- 

cupies  a  prominent  place  in  nearly  all  the  writings  ment.    That  great   doctrine  has   been   faintly  set 

we  have  examined,  is  even  more  emphatically  in-  forth  in  figures  taken  from  man's  laws  and  customs, 

sisted  upon  by  Origen.     And  this  deserves  to  be  It  is  represented  as  the  payment  of  a  price,  or  a 

remembered,  because  it  is  a  part  of  the  doctrine  ransom;  or  as  the  offering  of  satisfaction  for  a  debt, 

which  has  been  almost  or  altogether  dropped  out  of  But  we  can  never  rest  in  these  material  figures  as 

many    Protestant    expositions    of    the    Atonement,  though  they  were  literal  and  adequate.    As  both 

whereas  those  most  inclining  among  Catholics  to  a  'Abelard  and  Bernard  remind  us,  the  Atonement  is 

merely  juridical  view  of  the  subiect  have  never  been  the  work  of  love.     It  is  essentially  a  sacrifice,  the 

able  to  forget  the  present  ana  living  reidity  of  a  one  supreme  sacrifice  of  wMch  the  rest  were  but 

sacrifice  constantly  kept   before   their    eyes,  as  it  types  and  figures.     And,  as  St.  Augustine  teaches  us, 

were,  in  the  worship  which   reflects  on  earth  the  the  outward  rite  of  sacrifice  is  the  sacrament,  or 

unfailing  liturgy  of  heaven"  (p.  38).  sacred  sign,  of  the  invisible  sacrifice  of  the  heart. 

The  reality  of  these  dangers  and  the  importance  It  was  by  this  inward  sacrifice  of  obedience  unto 

of  this  safeguard  may  be  seen  in  the  history  of  this  death,  by  this  perfect  love  with  which  He  laid  down 

doctrine  since  the  age  of  the  Reformation.    As  we  His  Ufe  for  His  friends,  that  Christ  paid  the  debt 

have  seen,  its  earlier  development  owed  comparar  to  justice,  and  taught  us  by  His  example,  and  drew 

tively  little  to  the  stress  of  controversy  with  heretics,  all  things  to  Himself;  it  was  by  this  that  He  wrpu^t 

And  the  revolution  of  the  sixteenth  century  was  no  our  Atonement  and  Reconcihation  with  God,  "mak- 

exception  to  this  rule.     For  the  Atonement  was  not  ing  peace  through  the  blood  of  His  Cross", 

one  of  the  subjects  directly  disputed  between  the  ^^    ^   .^  ..     .^    ,         *  xi.     ..           .          i.    _x  .••  j 

Refonners  and  their  Catholfc  opponente.    But  from  .^-^l  ^'^"''•f'^S^'Wtht^'td^^sT^fStn^a'JJo^'ig^ 

its     close   connexion   with   the    cardmal  question  of     notably  in  St.  Athana«iui  and  in  St.  Ansel  m;  in  the  Scholastic 
Justification,   this   doctrine    assumed   a  very  special     commentaries  on  the   Third  Book  of  Sentencea.  and  on  the 

prominence  and  imnprtanoe  in  Protestant  theolo^    ^^^^li^',  ^"Ti^t^oi  l^Z^irUlt^^"^'^ 

and  practical  preacnmg.      Mark  rattison  tells  us  m     modern  works  may  be  mentioned  as  worthy  of  special  atten- 
his    "Memoirs'^    that   he    came   to   Oxford   with   his     tion,     Thmet^OxmiHAU.TheCaiholicDocJrmeoftheAUme' 

home  /'untan    reUglOn    almost    narrowed    to    two     church.    With  an  Introduction  on  the  PHndpU  of  Theohffical 

J/Talen 


.  ,.  give  a 

-,                ^.-       i.^,       .,           -.•T>-.  *""   Yio^  w.  w.«  history  of  the  doctrine.     Much  use  has  been 

general  conception  of  the  Atonement  the  Reformers  made  of  them  in  this  article.     For  modem  non-Catholic  the- 

and  their  followers  happily  preserved  the  CathoUc  olo«y..  see  Rjtschl's  great  work  on  Justifi^tion  and  Recon- 

Horfrinp     at   lftj«f   in   uVmnin    linAH       AnH   in    fhMP  ciliation,    Dis    chnatltche    lA^hre    von    der   Rechtfertigung    und 

aoctrme,   at  leasj  m  its   main   Unes.     ^a  m   tneir  Veredhnung  (Bonn,   1870-74).     The  first  volume,  containing 

explanation  of  the  ment  of  Christ  S  SUiiermgS  and  the  hlstorv  of  the  doctrine,  was  translated  into  English  in 

death  we  may  see  the  influence  of  St.  Thomas  and  1872;  the  third,  in  which  the  author's  own  view  is  found. 

fVift  n^hi^r  <rr<Mif   QnVin^lmAn       Ritf     oa  rv>;n-lvf  Kz»  *»ir  was  translated  m  1900  (Clark ,'Edmburgh);  the  second  voliunc, 

the  Other  great  bChoolmen.     liut,   as  might  be  ex-  j^j^^  ^j^^  Biblical  matter,  has  not  been  done  into  English. 

pected  from   the  isolation  of  the   doctrine  and  the  some  account  of  recent  non-Catholic  lit-craturo  on  the  Atmi»> 

loss  of  other  portions  of  Catholic  teaching,  the  truth  ment  will  be  found  in  Fehrieb,  The  Growth  of  ChrUtjan  Faith 

thus  preservS^wa^  sometimes  insensibfy  obscured  S't?^^/5S^'boii''S,  ^'mcS^o^^?.  rUe°'dcSSIS5^ 

or  distorted.     It  will  be  enough  to  note  here  the  the  Atonement.    See  also  Simpson  in  DicU  cf  Chriet  and  the 

presence  of  two  mistaken  tendencies.     (1)  The  first  Ooapels  (New  York,  1906)  a.  v. 

IS  indicated  in  the  above  words  of  Pattison  in  which  -.  W.  H.  Kbnt. 


ATBI  59  ATTAINDEB 

Atri,  Diocese  op.    See  Civita  di  Pbnne.  usual  form.    While  bills  of  attainder  were  used  in 

Atrib,  a  titular  see  of  Lower  Egypt  (Athribites)  England  as  early  as  1321  in  the  procedure  empl^ed 

«rhose  episcopal    list  (325-479)    is  given  in  Gams  by  Parliament  m  the  banishment  of  the  two  Des- 

(p.  461).  pensers  (1  St.  tr.  pp.  23,  38),  it  was  not  until  the 

Lequien.  Orient  ChriaL  (1740),  II,  553-556.  period  of  passion  ei^ndered  by  the  civil  war  that  the 

AfT4n*vi      T   A«  r^^^^rx  ^in««  ^-  «^„..*  u^fr^r^  «  »v.t,*^i^  sumHiary  power  of  Parliament  to  punbh  criminals  by 

Atrrani. — l.  An  open  place  or  court  before  a  cnurcn.  _4„x„4.^  jLil  *^„  xl^  fi^i.  ♦i^^  ,^Ji,^^^^  «„ri  «u..-«jr 

It  c^fatejl  of  a  l^^uad^ngle  with  colonnaded  ^^t  w«'rt'th1fp,^"eL^**fi^t  f^lf  ^^^ 

ir^^rit'^t^^L^t^x'^rXo'^Test?^^^^^^^^^  -*  o^  trrAfet^riar;^"ber^^ 

the  bcKly  of  the  chu.^.    In  £  center  of  the  atrium  ^S  Ae  S^^^rof^^eJ^^'ofTete^' 
was  a  fountain  or  wdl,  where  the  worshippew  washed  j^  ^^^    g^    j  victotywWch  foUowed  the 

&^S^^  r«*^tW^h«^r^f  th^  h„T^«  battle  of  Towton,  Edwarf  IV  obtained  the  passage 

this  custom  still  survives  in  the  use  of  the  holy-water  j      sweeping  bill  of  attainder  through  whiX^e 
font,  or  bB8m,u8uaUy  placed  near  the  inner  entrance  was  eSriched  by  forfeiture  of  tTie  estates  <rf 

of  churches.     In  the  atnum  those  that  were  not  sui-  *    _x        i    j*"'^"^^  "J"  »v..viwi*i«  w.  w^^  %x,i>^v^xj  v» 

fered  to  advance  farther,  and  more  particularly  the  ^*>'"^''  lords  and  more  than  a  hundred  knights  and 

cZ^  1    *~jL**"*^  *** ''»*^* »  ****^  AMv*w  p»*i,ivAAM»i*j  i>ujj  esquires.     In  the  seventeenth  year  of  that  reiim  was 

^Uh^fM^A^^^^.^^uf^tAt^''  ^^^11  P^  th«  Act  of  Attainder  of  the  Duke  of  Cfcence 

^li^.J^  «  .^ni^L!^^.nH    .f  fi™W;  fll  A^  In^ch,  after  an  oratorical  preface  setting  out  at 

HS^.^^r«^^Sf;*^f^™'„±  f«r  Anlv.™  length  the  offences  imputed  to  him,  it  iTenacted 

TT^.^!lr^Tn'n  ^v?  ih7.K^i  w^  "tfiit  the  said  George  Duke  of    CUrence  be  con- 

I!Sw    I^  ^«    f^   «lJ^  ^^,    J^IL^     Th!  victed,  and  atteynte?  of  high  treason ".    Then  fol- 

h^^  ^  liI^J^%J^,J^L  ?^  h!v^K  J  !  ^owH  tfie  appointment  of  the^Duke  of  Buckingham  as 

KTLI.?^  wKu  fh^  TniL.  u,^  n^f^  lo«J  high  SWard  for  that  occasion  to  do  wTecution. 

Jww^f       A     r^^in^    I     A^llin!-  T.L^f  It  is  a  romaricable  fact  that  during  a  period  of  one 

the*  West.     A    mosaic    in    o.    Apollinare    Nuovo,  u„«,j««j  „«j  «.:^4.«.  4.«,rv  -.^.^  /i>i«i_ifcoi\  *u^,^  :- 

Ravenna,  shows  an  open  narthex  closed  by  curtains  ^"°±!i,*°f'*,'"^^rimlL^ir^^  -Uh~  in 

The  atriim  existed  In  some  of  the  larg«t  of  the  X.^J^f  P-tlSTi^n^^Ti^^r^if  ^    f^^^ 

eariy  Christian  churches,  such  as  old  St   Peter's  at  J^^  "^^h^i^r!? Vli?  *a.lili^^ 

SZ?ioni;^Ke\Txtl"'^ir^!'?^Tdet^^^^  ^S'^^itL  ^^UroTMoref^thrS 

^*T?I  f  h^  Rnmin  .:ri.tli^^^fct»tt^n'  ^^^  "Ot  anotherTmpeachment  untU  that  of  Sii  Giles 

teL™&t^^MSw»a''^WdX"  Momp^son  and  Sir^ncis  MitcheU  in  1621.     Durw 

sion;  fin.t.onentering^rourtcalledthea^rt«m;then,  "^t'^i^^^tSl^Z^^^nh^AlV^T. 

farther  in,  another  colonnaded  court  called  the  peri^  Z^  !^?^iZ  {^K^L^f^J^i^lil,  K^t^^oU^  tSl 

t^lt'^^'^^L^=nJ^^'''^^Z^^.  iSr'cSLSb^    o^by  !^iaK"^^^in"?^  Su^ 

9^^«E^f^^„^T^«^h?lh^..^  ^^1^2  of  «>°"n<>n  law.    l£  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII  Bills  of 

Untelv^n^^ffi^n  Uf^teni^?.^  nU^    vt  attainder  were  often  used  iMtead  of  Snpeachments, 

^f  ^^^h«  ^Kit^  «fri.^^,fr&  „1^  SZ  a«  ™  the  cases  of  Wolsey,  Thomas  CromVell,  Oueen 

this  reason  the  old  Koman  atnum  survived  only  occar  v^4.u»^^^  ii^,.,«,.^    fk«>  K,,i,^  «f  xr««f^ii,    ««!  ♦u^ 

sionally  m  Eastern  and  Western  churches.     Typical  ^^''^rS    ^^^*S»  f^®  ,P^®  P^  Norfolk,  and  the 

«t^„.^i^^tCrKl  o™r;„  f\^^,,^«k^^f  S  nxJJCl^  Earl  of  Surrey.     During  that  reign  religious  persecu- 

examples  may  be  seen  m  the  churches  01  ot.  Clement,  *•  „  „„„  ^^JL^^  ,^^  »«*.u««  4.u^,,^u  *L^  i™»i  «,« 

at   Rome,  and  St.  Ambrose,  at  Milan;  also  in  the  *?"  ''"!i  *^Z^,  on  rather  through  the  le«^  ma- 

seventh-c^ntury  churches  of  Novara  and  Paren20.  ^^'^^''{^J^  ^^^  nTC^mL^  f h!f„  h^ifl^S 

II.  In  secukr  architecture  the  atrium  was  the  prin-  "f  <*f  °'?*^  ^  *,?*  Jt^  P^,  Supremacy  than  by  bills 

ao^S?s;*;i^?fon*^nt"wts^'i;?sfc  -  ^^^  #iLf'^fl£r4S?rer.f''^t^si 

p^^z^r^^zJ^lTJ^:t^.  ^-^^Cr^;u^^Tect^\tr!:^?^tTe^pi 

sfopmg  so  as  ^  throw  the  rain-water  mto  a  cistern  ^  dep^  him  "of  thedignityT title,  or  Lme"  of 

If  ^  ^!Z.!^^^  t^  r&i:^.  ^"^  ^'^^  ^"""^  h«  royal  estate  should  consUtnte  high  treason;  mider 

It  was  surrounded  by  a  colonnade  ^^^  ^^j^  ^^  providing  the  amended  oath,  it  was 

IHOMAS  M.  I'ooLB.  pogei&e  to  call  upon  anyone  to  declare  his  belief 
Attainder. — A  Bill  of  Attainder  may  be  defined  m  the  validity  of  tne  new  title,  and  a  failure  to  do  so 
to  be  an  Act  of  Parliament  for  putting  a  man  to  death  was  sufficient  evidence  of  guilt.  By  that  legal 
or  for  otherwise  punishing  him  without  trial  in  the  machinery  were  dashed  to  pieces  the  Charterhouse 
usiial  form.  Thus  by  a  legislative  act  a  man  is  put  monks  of  London,  who  are  admitted  on  every  hand 
in  the  same  position  as  if  he  had  been  convicted  after  to  have  been  the  noblest  and  purest  of  all  church- 
a  regular  trial.  It  b  an  act  whereby  the  judicature  men.  Even  Froude  admits  that  they  were  "gallant 
of  the  entire  Parliament  is  exercised,  and  may  be  men,  whose  high  forms,  in  the  sunset  of  the  old  faith, 
contrasted  with  the  procedure  by  impeachment  in  stand  transfigured  on  the  horizon,  tinged  with  the 
which  the  accusation,  presented  by  the  Commons  light  of  its  dyinf  glory".  The  legal  proceedings 
acting  as  a  grand  jury  ot  the  whole  realm,  is  tried  bv  through  which  the  Bishop  of  Rochester  and  Sir 
the  Lords,  exercising  at  once  the  functions  of  a  high  Thomas  More  were  brought  to  the  block  were  but 
court  of  justice  and  of  a  jury.  In  a  strictl^r  technical  a  repetition  of  what  had  oeen  eone  through  with  in 
sense  it  may  be  said  that  a  Bill  of  Attainder  is  a  the  case  of  the  Carthusians.  After  the  Tudor  time 
legi^tive  act  inflicting  the  punishment  of  death  with-  the  most  remarkable  bills  of  attainder  are  those  that 
out  a  trial,  and  that  a  Bill  of  Pains  and  Penalties  were  directed  against  Lord  Strafford,  Lord  Danhv, 
is  such  an  act  inflicting  a  mild^  punishment.  In  the  the  Duke  of  Monmouth,  and  Sir  John  Fenwick.  As 
popular  sense,  however,  the  term  "Bill  of  Attainder"  instances  of  bills  of  pains  and  penalties,  reference 
unbraces  both  classes  of  acts,  and  in  that  sense  it  is  may  be  made  to  those  against  Bishop  Atterbury  and 
evidently  used  in  the  Constitution  of  the  United  Queen  Caroline,  usually  referred  to  as  the  last  in- 
states, as  the  Supreme  Court  has  declared  in  Fletcha*  stances  of  such  legislation.  When  Queen  Caroline 
V.  Peck,  6  Crancn,  138,  that  "A  bill  of  attainder  ma^  returned  to  England,  in  July,  1830,  all  the  ministers, 
affect  the  life  of  an  individual,  or  may  confiscate  his  except  Canning,  were  induced  to  consent  to  the  in- 
property,  or  both ".  Such  a  bill  aeals  with  the  troduction  in  the  House  of  Ix)rds  of  a  bill  of  pains 
merits  of  a  particular  case  and  inflicts  penalties,  and  penalties,  providing  for  the  dissolution  of  her 
more  or  lees  severe,  ex  posi  Jado,  without  tnal  in  the  marriage  with  the  King,  upon  the  ground  of  adultery, 


ATTALA                                  60  ATTI0U8 

and  for  bar  degradation.    When  the  charges  con-  Attalia,   also  Attaleia,   a  titular .  metropolitan 
tained  in  the  preamble  cameon  to  be  heard,  Brougham  see  of  Pamph^lia  in  Asia  Minor.     Its  episcopal  list 
and  Denman,  by  their  bold  and  brilliant  defence  of  (431-^79)  is  given  in  Gams  ^450).     It  is  probably 
the   Queen,  so  aroused   popular  sympathy  in   her  identical  with  the  present  Adalia,  the  chief  port  and 
favour,  by  holding  her  up  as  a  deserted  and  perse-  largest  place  on  tne  southern  coast  of  Asia  Minor, 
cuted  woman,  that  the  ministry  deemed  it  wise  to  Remains  of  sculptured  marbles  are  abimdant  in  the 
drop  the  bill  after  the  majority  in  its  favour  in  the  vicinity.     It  is  mentioned  in  Acts,  xiv,  24-25,  as  the 
Loras  had  dwindled  to  nine.    Reference  is  made  to  seaport  whence  Paul  and  Barnabas  set  sail  for  An- 
this  case  as  an  illustration  of  the  nature  of  the  pro-  tioch,  at  the  close  of  their  missionary  journey  through 
cedure  upon  such  bills.     ''The  proceedings  of  parUa-  Pisidia  and  Paniphylia.    Another  city  of  the  same 
ment  in  passing  bills  of  attainder,  and  of  ^ins  and  name  existed  in  Lydia,  Asia  Minor;  its  episcopal  list 
penalties,  do  not  vary  from  those  adopted  in  r^rd  (431-879)  is  ^ven  in  Gams  (447). 
to  other  bills.     They  may  be  introduced  in  eith^  Lbquibn,  Orwm«  CArw^  (1740),  I.  1030;  Surra.  i>irt.  al 
house,  but  ordinarily  commence  m  the  House  of  »««*««<«  ««»Hm  Gacvr..  I.  320-3^.              t    q„,„  „ 
Lords:  they  pass  through  the  same  stages;  and  when  ihomas.  j.  ohahan. 
agreed  to  by  both  houses  they  receive  the  royal  Attaliatas,   Michael,   Byzantine  statesman  and 
assent  in  the  usual  form.     But  the  parties  who  are  historian,  probably  a  native  of  Attalia  in  Pamphylia, 
subjected  to  these  proceediMs  are  admitted  to  defend  whence  he  seems  to  have  come  to  Constantinople 
themselves  by  counsel  and  witnesses,  before  both  between  1130  and  1140.     He  acquired  in  the  royal 
houses;  and  the  solemnity  of  the  proceedings  would  city  both  wealth  and  position  and  was  rapidly  ad- 
cause  measures  to  be  taken  to  enforce  the  attendance  vanced,  under  successive  emperors,  to  the  highest 
of  members  upon  their  service  in  parliament"  (May,  offices,  among  others  to  that  of^ judge  of  the  supreme 
Pari.  Practice,  744).     It  thus  appears  that,  in  its  court  of  the  empire.      He  compiled  (1072)  for  the 
naodern  form,  procedure  by  attainder  admits  the  Emperor   Michael    Parapinakes    a    compendium    of 
right  of  proof  and  ai*^ument.     Entirely  apart  from  Byzantine  law  which  supplements  in  a  useful  way  the 
the  judicature  of  Parliament,  attainder  is  defined  by  "Libri  Basilici".     In  addition  to  this  he  also  drew  up 
the  common  law  of  England  to  be  the  stain  or  cor-  an  "Ordinance  for  the  Poor  House  and  Monastery^' 
ruption  of  blood  which  follows  as  an  immediate  and  which  he  founded  at  Constantinople  in  1077.    Thb 
inseparable  consequence  of  a  death  sentence.     Such  work  is  of  value  for  the  history  of  Byzantine  life 'and 
attainder  took  place  after  judgment  of  death,  or  manners  in  the  eleventh    century.     It    contains  a 
upon  such  circumstances  as  were  equivalent  to  such  catalogue  of  the  libranr  of  his  monastery.    About 
a  judraient,  such  as  a  judgment  of  outlawry  on  a  1079  or  1080  he  published  an  account  of  Byzantine , 
capital  crime,  pronounced  for  absconding  from  jus-  history  from    1034   to    1079,   a  vivid  and  reliable 
tice.     Conviction  without  judgment  was  not  followed  presentation  of  the  palace  revolutions  and  female 
by  attainder.  ,  The  consequences  of  attainder  were:  domination  that  characterize  this  period  of  transition 
first,  forfeiture;  second,  corruption  of  blood.    The  from  the  great  Macedonian  dynasty  to  the  Comneni. 
extent  of  the  forfeiture  depended  upon  the  nature  of  Attaliates  writes  as  an  eyewitness  and  contemporary, 
the  crime  for  which  the  criminal  was  convicted:  and  Though  his  style  is  not  free  from  the  usual  affectations 
by  corruption  of  blood,  "  both  upwards  and  do^Ti-  of  Byzantine  historians,  it  is  more  flowing  and  corn- 
wards,"  the  attainted  peraon  could  neither  inherit  pact  than  that  of  his   predecessors.     Krumbacher 
nor  transmit  lands.     After  it  was  clear  beyond  dispute  praises  his  accurate  judgment  and  sense  of  equity; 
that  the  cruninal  was  no  longer  fit  to  live,  he  was  m  both  respects  he  is  superior  to  his  continuator,  the 
called  attaint,   stained,   or   blackened,   and   before  pan^yrist  and   courtier    Pscilos.     The  law-manual 
6  and  7  Vict.,  c.  85,  -§.  1,  could  not  be  called  as  a  of  Attaliates  was   first   edited  by  M.  Freher  (Juris 
witness  in  any  court.     The  doctrine  of  attainder  has,  Graeco-Romani  Tomi  Duo,   Frankfort,  1696,  U,  1- 
however,  ceased  to  be  of  much  practical  impOTtance  79)  •   the    "Ordinance",    or    Aidro^ts,    is    found    in 
since  33  and  34  Vict.,  c.  23,  wherein  it  was  provided  Miklosich  and  MQller,  "Acta  et  Diplomata  Grseca 
that  henceforth  no  confession,  verdict,  inquest,  con-  Medii   iEvi"    (1887),    V,    293-327;   the   "History" 
viction,  or  judgment  of  or  for  any  treason  or  felony,  was  edited  by  I.   Bekker,  in  the  "Corpus  Script, 
or  felo-^-ae  shall  cause  any  attainder  or  corruption  Byz."  (Bonn,  1853). 

of  blood  or  any  forfeiture  or  escheat.  Krumbacher.  Oeach.  d.  Byz.  LiLj  2d  ed.,  269-271:  Mob- 

HannIS  TayLOB.  TRBtJiL.  HitL  du  droit    Bytantin,  III,  218-229;  W.  NisasN, 

X  AxiAiit.  ^^  DiataxU  de%  M.  Attaleiaieg  von  1077  (Jena.  1894).  23-30; 

Attala^  Saint,  b.    in  the  sbcth  century  in   Bur-  ^''''^*  ^"^^  "^  ^^-  ^^^>'  ^'^'i^^^l^i'^^L^.^ 

gandyj  d.  627.     He  first  became  a  monk  at  Urins,  ihomas  j.  hhahan. 

ut,  displeased  with  the   loose  discipline  prevailing  Attention.   See  Consciousness. 

there,  he  entered  the  monastery  of  LiixeuU  which  Atticua,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  (406-425),. 

had  just  been  founded  by  St.   Coluniban.    When  b.  at  Sebaste  in  Armenia;  d.  425.     He  was  educated 

Columjmn  was  expeUed  from  Luxeud  by  King  Theo-  in  the  vicinity  of  his  native  town  by  Macedonian 

doric  II,  Attala  waa  to  succeed  him  as  abbot,  but  monks,  whose  mode  of  life  and  errors  he  embraced, 

preferred  to  follow  him  into  exde.     They  settled  on  when  still  young  he  went  to  Constantinople,  abjured 

the  banks  of  the  nver  Trebbia,  a  little  north-east  of  his  heretical  tenets,  and  was  raised  to  the  priesthood. 

Genoa,  where  thev  founded  the  cdebrated  Abbey  of  He  and  another  ambitious  priest,  Arsacius,  were  the 

Bobbio.     After  the  death  of  St.  Columban  m  615.  chief  accusers  of  St.  Chrysostom  in   the  notorious 

AtUla  succeeded  him  as  Abbot  of  Bobbio.     He  and  CouncU  of  the  Oak,  which  deposed  (405)  tiie  holy 

h^  monks  suffered   many  hardships  at  the  hands  patriarch.     On   the   death    (406)  of    the   intrudS- 

of  the  Anan  King  Anowald.     As  abbot,  Attala  m-  Arsacius,  he  succeeded  him  in  the  See  of  Constanti- 

sisted  on  stnct  discipline  and  when  a  lai^ge  number  nople,  and  at  first  strove  hard,  with  the  help  of  the 

of  his  monks  rebelled,  declanng  his  digciplme  too  civil  power,  to  detach  the  faithful  from  the  com- 

rigorous,  he  permitted  them  to  leave  the  monastenr.  munion  of  their  lawful  paator.     But  finding  that. 

When,  however,  some  of  these  perished  miserably,  the  even  after  the  death  of  St.  Chrysostom,  they  ooa- 

others,  considenng    their  death  a  punishment  frona  tinned  to  avoid  his  own  spiritual  ministrations,  ho 

God,  returned  to  the  monasterv     Attala  was  buried  re-inserted  the  name  of  his  holy  predecessor  in  the 

m  Bobbio  where  his  feast  is  celebrat^  on  10  March,  diptychs  of  the  churches.    This  cliange  of  attitude 

MONTALEMBERT,    Tfie    MoTUit  of   thf    Wcst    (Boston),    I,    582;        on^   hio  /.Kotnfv  *^  fK*»    *^^w>t.    n^o^..»Il»  Tn«^A   k:«,    1.,.,^ 

Lechner.  Martyroloa.  des  Bmediktiner  Ordens  (Au^burg.  and  lus  Chan tv  to  the  poor  gradually  made  hma  leSB 

1865);  ]STiu>Lea,  HeUigm-Lexikim  (Augsburg,  1858).  I,  341.  unpopular,  and  he  at  length  managed  to  have  him- 

Michael  Ott.  self  recognized  as  patriarch  by  Innocent  I.    Inteo^ 


ATnamr  61  attiubt 

upon  enlai^g  the  prerogatives  of  his  see,  he  obtained  died  shortly  after.    Catholic  interest  in  Attila  cen* 

from  Theodosius  the  Younger  two  rescripts  which  ters  chiefly  in  his  relations  with  those  bishops  of 

tkced  Bithynia  and  lUyria  under  his  nirisdiction.  France' and  Italy  who  restrained  the  Hunnish  leader 

Komeresistedtheseencrbachments,  and  the  rescripts,  in  his  devastating  fury.    The  moral  po\^er  of  these 

thanks  to  the  intervention  of   Honorius,  were  re-  bishops,  and   particularly  of  the  pope,  during  the 

called.    Atticus  in  some  measure  atoned  for  his  am-  dissolution  of  the  empire,  is  evidencea  as  wdl  by 

bition  and  the  irregularitv  of  his  promotion  by  his  the  confidence  in  whicn  the  faithful  looked  to  them 

zeal  in  the  cause  of  orthodoxy.     He  drove  the  Mes-  for  succour  against  the  terrible  invader  as  by  the 

saHans  from  Pamphylia,  and  his  opposition  to  the  influence  they  sometimes  exerted  in  staying  that 

Pelagians  caused  mm  to  be  praised  by  Celcstine  I  as  invader's  destroying  hand.     St.  Agnan  of^>leans 

"a  true  successor  of  St.  Chrysostom  *\  sustained  the  courage  of  his  people  and  hastened  the 

'  ^l^^i^.^^P^^^^^' ^i^h  ^^'^^^^^^^^'^IFI'  reinforcements  that  saved  his  apparently  doomed 

l^iA^iu^li^'        ^'  "•  ^''  ^^'^'*^'  ^^  city;  at  Troyes,  St.  Lupus  prevaiKd  upon  Attila  to 

A.  J.  B,  VuiBBRT.  spare  the  province  of  Champaj^e,  and  gave  himself 

.^  -,  TWi,ifax/MLj  *®*  hostage  while  the  Hunnish  army  remained  in 

Attagny,  Councils  op.— In  765,  St.  Chrodegang  Gaul;  when  Rome  seemed  destined  to  meet  the  fate 

of  Me.^  and  thirty-^ven  other  bishop  mutually  of  the  Lombard  cities  which  Attila  had  pillaged,  it 

promised  m  an  assembly  held  at  the  royal  residence  of  ^as  Pope  Leo  the  Great  who,  by  his  eloquence  and 

Attigny  near  Vouziers  (Ardennes)  that  after  the  death  commanding  personality,   overawed  the  conqueror 

of  each  the  survivors  would  cause  the  psalter  to  be  and  saved  ^le  city.    The  terror  which  for  centuries 

said  one  hundred  times  and  would  have  one  hundred  after  clung  to  the  name  of  Attila,  "the  Scouree  of 

Masses  celebrated  for  the  repose  of  the  soul  of  the  God",  as  he  came  to  be  called,  and  the  gratitude  of 

departed.    Each  one  would  also  say  thirty  Masses  the  people  to  their  deUverere  combined  in  time  to 

for  the  same  intention.     In  785,  Charlemagne  held  a  encumber   medieval    hagiography   with   legends   of 

counal  at  Attigny.     Widukmd  and  Abom,  two  con-  saints  reputed  to   have  overcome  Attila   by  their 

quered  Saxon  kmra,  presented   themselves   for  in-  imposing  presence,  or  stayed  his  progress  by  their 

stmction  and  were  baptized.     In  822,  Pope  Paschal  I  prayers.     But  these  fictions  serve  to  emphasize  the 

iras  present  at  a  Council  of  Attigny,  convened  for  Import   of   the   facts   which    inspired   them.    They 

the  reconciUation  of  the  Emperor  Louis  the  Pious  enable  us  to  appreciate  how  widespread  must  have 

with  his  three  younger  brothers,  Hugo,  Drogo,  and  been  that  sentiment  expressed  in  the  recently  dis- 

rheodonc,  whom  he  had   caused   to  be  violently  covered  appeal  of  Eusebius  of   Doryljeum  to  Pope 

tortpd  and  whom  he  had  intended  to  put  to  death.  Leo  I:  "Curavit  desuper  et  ab  exordio  con.suevit 

In  the  council  he  confessed  publicly  his  wrong-doing;  thronus    apostolicus    iniqua    perferentes    defensare 


g.^^  iui.^Mi.viv/»  v/i  WTO  x^.ti^iv^x   A  u<^^/v4^^otuo  x.  UK),  camc  lu  timc  to  in  vcsi^  uic  pcrsou  ot  Attila  witn 

e  also  exhibited  an  earnest  desire  to  correct  abuses  a  halo  of  fiction.     Most  European  countries  have 

ar^g  from  the  negligence  of  the  bishops  and  the  their  legends  of  the  Hunnish  leader,  who  is  divereely 

nobles    and  confirmed  the  rule   (Aquerms  Regula)  depicted,  according  as  the  vanity  of  nations  would 

that  the  Council  of  Aachen  had  drawn  up  (816j  for  represent  Attila  as  a  friend  who  had  contributed  to 

canoiw  and  monks.     In  870,  thirty  bishop  and  six  their  greatness   or  as  a  foe  to  whose  superhuman 

^bishops  met  at  Attigny,  to  pass  judgment  on  strength  it  had  been  no  discredit  to  succumb.    Of 

Karlnmnn,  the   king  s  son,  made  an  ecclesiastic  at  these  legends  the  best  known  is  the  story  of  Etzel 

an  early  age,  and  accused  by  his  father  of  conspiring  (Attila)  in  the  "  Niebelungen-lied  ". 

a^amst  his   life   and   throne.     He  was  deprived   of  Thikrrt.  Hiatoire  d'AUila  (Paris,  1864);  Gibbon.  Roman 

his  abbeys  and  imprisoned  at  Senlis.     In  the  council  Empire  CSew  York,  1902),  xxxiv,  xxxy.  III,  618-589,  con- 

of  875,  kncmar   Bishop  of  Laon    appealed  to.  the  gS'^&*S^"&?n,'°il?7T!!=r.  f^STd^'kn'S^Sfe 

pope  from  his  uncle,  Hincmar,  Archbishop  of  Reims,  historical  elements  of  ecclesiastical   tradition  are  not  sum- 

Manbi,  CoU.  Cone,  Sap.  1.  621,  XIl,  674;  Sup.  I,  286,  XIV.  ciently  distiMuished.  Acta  SS.,  s.  v.  St.  Lupus,  XXXIV,  75- 

403;  Sup.  I.  998;  XV,  680,  XVI,  662;  Hulot,  AUigny,  avec  90;  and  St.  Leo  /,  XI,  18.     For  the  lefsendary  elements  in  the 

tet  dipendancee  ...  set  conciUs,  etc.  (Attigny-Reims,  1826);  Attila  tradition,  tMd.,  s.  v.  St.  Oenetneve  of  Paria,  I,  136  sq.. 

Chutaueb.  Topo-W6t  (Paris,  1894-09),  247.  144  sq.:  St.  Auctor  of  MeU,  XXXVI,  536:  St.    ServoHus    of 

Thomas  J.  ShaHAN.  Maestncht,  XVI.  211,  212  (St.  ServaUus  of  Tongres  did  not 

-.^«       -  .               -                 1      f    ^^       rr              i      ^ »»  oxist);  St,  Oemtntanua  of  Modena,  III,  714;  St.  John  of  Ra- 

AttUa,    king   and  general   of    the  Huns;    d.   463.  venna^  II.  9, 10.     On  the  St.  Servatius  and  St.  Auctor  legends 

^leceeding  in  433  to  the  kingship  of  Sc3rthian  hordes  ?«e  PAULusWARNErRiDus,  De  GeetiaEpiscoporum  Metenaium, 

disoi^zld^and   enfeebleirby   inteiial   discords.  Sod^ctfon^I-^                              '  p*'^*^"^*^  '^^  "" 

Attila  soon  'made  of  his  subjects  a  compact  ana  '            *                        John  B.  Peterson. 
fomiidable  people,  the  terror  of  Europe  and  Asia. 

An  onsucceesful  compaign  in  Persia  was  followed  Attiret,  Jean  Denis,  painter,  b.  at  Dole,  France, 

in  441  by  an  invasion  of  tne  Eastern  Roman  Empire,  31  July,  1702;  d.  at  Pekin,  8  December,  1768.    He 

the  success  of  which  emboldened  Attila  to  invade  made  serious  artistic  studies  in  Rome  and  after 

the  West.     He  passed  unhindered  through  Austria  returning  to  his  native  country  achieved  considera* 

and  Gmiany,  across  the  Rhine  into  Gaul,  plunder^  ble  reputation  as  a  portrait  painter.    He  entered  the 

ing  and  devastating  aU  in  his  path  with  a  ferocity  Jesuit  novitiate  as  a  lay  brother  and  has  left  some 

unparalleled  in  the  records  of  oarbarian  invasions,  specimens  of  his  work  m  the  Cathedral  of  Avi^on 

&Da  oompdling  those  he  overcame  to  augment  his  and  the  Sodality  chapel  which  he  painted  while  a 

midity  army.    In  451  he  was  met  on  the  Plains  of  novice.    The  Jesuits  had  many  of  their  men  in  China 

(%ilons  by  the  allied  Romans  imder  Aetius  and  employed  as  painters.    Attiret  joined  them  in  1737 

tbe  Visigoths   under  Theodoric   and   Thorismond,  ana  was  easily  the  superior  of  all.    He  was  honoured 

«bo  overcame  the  Huns  and  averted  the  peril  that  with  the  title  of  Painter  to  the  Emperor,  who  visited 

menaced    Western    civilization.    Turning    then    to  his  studio  daily  and  finally  made  him  a  mandarin  in 

Itahr,  Attila,  in  the  spring  of  452,  laid  wa^  Aquileia  spite  of  the  brother's  unwillingness  to  accept  the 

m  many  Lombara  cities,  ana  was  approaching  honour.    As  all  the  work  was  done  not  for  art  but  for 

Room,  whither  Valentinian  III  had  fled  before  him,  the  sake  of  pleasing  the  emperor,  every  suggestion  he 

viien  he  was  met  near  Mantua  by  an  embassy,  the  made  was  carefully  attended  to.    Oil  was  not  agreea- 

oaoBl  influential  member  of  which  was  Pope  I.<eo  I,  ble,  so  aquarelles  and  distemper  were  resorted  to. 

itidi  diasoaded  AttilA  from  sacking  the  city.    Attila  The  Emperor  did  not  like  shading,  for  he  thought  it 


ATTO                                  62  ATTBXBUns  . 

was  a  blot,  so  that  disappearecL   It  all  ended  in  Attiret  ones ''  are  in  great  part  a  compilation  of  eaiiier  eo- 

becoming  altogether  Chinese  in  his  tastes  and  his  clesiastioal  legislation,  including  the  False  Decretals, 

methods,  so  that  he  no  longer  painted  like  a  Euro-  They  contain,  also,  certain  provisions  of  his  own  and 

pean.  He  made  portraits  of  all  the  distinguished  court-  are  of  value  for  the  studv  ot  contemporary  ecdeeiasti- 

personages,  but  most  of  his  work  was  done  on  glass  oal  life  and  manners  in  Northern  Italy.    He  is  some- 

or  silk  and  represented  trees,  and  fruits,  and  fishes,  times  known  as  Atto  II;  an  earlier  homonymous 

and  animals,  etc.    When,  however,  the  emperor  had  bl^op  of  Veroelli  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the 

beaten  back  the  Tatars,  he  ordered  the  battles  to  eightn  century. 

be  painted.    Four  Jesuit  brothers,  among  whom  was  Schijlts,  iittovon  VercMi  (GdttinseD.  1887);  Vbbschafpbk. 

Attiret,  made  sixteen  tableaux,  which  were  engraved  '^.^Jls 'iW' p?^'  J^<25r'  n^^'  TraABogcHi.  5tor.  lea. 

in  France  in  1774.    When  the  collection  arri^a7rom  h'&:^^iX^^                   Chevalibb.  /Wp.  da.  ^cm 

France,  however,  Attiret  was  dead.    The  emperor  '   *                     Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

manifested  great  concern  at  his  loss,  bore  the  ex-  ..^  ^j.    /       i            no                    x                    * 

penses  of  the  obsequies,  and  sent  a  special  representa-  a^^S'*?*^  V^  Ar aght)  ,  Saint,  a  contemporary  of 

tiveto  show  his  sorrow  at  the  tomb.     Attiret  is  ?\  ^^^^^^  ^Z?™  ^**T  ^®r  ^"^^^^^  ^«  Z^.    ?^® 

credited  with  at  least  200  portraits.  ^  ^9^^  f  **f  foundrew  of  several  churches  in  the 

Carayon,  Biog.  particuiih-eB,  I486:  Amiot,  BiUioihlmu  Nat,  covmties  of  9~^V  ^^^  Sli«o,  Ireland.    Colgan  s  ac- 

(Paris);  Somubrvoqel.  Bibl.  de  la  c.  de  J.;  LeUre»  Ed^ioanUB  count  of  her  life  IS  based  on  that  wntten  by  Augustine 

"^^^^^  ^iJ'nS*  xxb/i V-  \?^ibf "liL^-I^  A^^}i  Magraidin  in  the  last  years  of  the  fourteenth  century, 

STOCKLEIN,  Welt  Bottt  AJLXIX,  n.  679;   Bbaumont,  AecL  of  -_x  AWr>..««^«   :«,   :^^w^JL.u^ui^  ^4.^* ^-,^^^4.^      tj^—.^..^ 

the  Emperor  of  China't  Garden  (Londoi,  1762);  North  Chma  ^^  abounds  m  unprobable  statements.     However, 

Herald.  3  Nov.  I860;  Pr^eie  hUtoriqiM,  1866,  437,  461,  486;  the   fact  'of   St.    Attracta   receiviM   the   veil   from 

Joumai  dea  savanu.  June,  1771.            rr  r  n  ^^'    Patrick   is   corroborated    by  Tirech^n,   in   the 

1.  J.  OAMPBBLL.  "Book  of  Armagh  ",  as  is  evident  from  the  foUowinjj 

Atto,  a  faithful  follower  of  Gregory  VII  in  his  con-  passage  m  the  "Documenta  de  S.  Patricio"  (ed. 
flict  with  the  simoniac  clergy,  b.  probably  at  Milan,  Edmund  Hogan,  S.J.):  "Et  ecclesiam  posuit  in  cella 
made  Cardinal  of  San  Marco,  assisted  (1079)  at  Adrachtae,  filiaB  TaJain,  et  ipsa  accepit  pallium  de 
the  retractation  of  Berenffarius  in  the  Roman  synod  manu  Patricii."  A  native  ot  the  County  Sligo,  she 
of  that  year,  and  signed  the  decrees  of  the  synod  of  resolved  to  devote  herself  to  God,  but  bemg  opposed 
1081.  He  may  have  been  Bishop  of  Prseneste.  by  her  parents,  fled  to  South  Connacht  and  made  her 
Carduud  Mai  published  imder  his  name  (SS.  Vet.  first  foundation  at  Drumconnell,  near  Boyle,  County- 
nova  coll..  VI,  2,  60  sqq.),  from  a  Vatican  manu-  Roscommon,  whence  she  removed  to  Greagraighe, 
script,'  a  ^'Breviarium  l^onum",  or  miscellaneous  or  Coolavin,  County  Sligo.  At  Killaraght,  St.  At- 
collection  of  moral  and  canonical  decrees,  genuine  tracta  established  a  hospice  for  travellers,  which 
and  forged,  from  Pope  Clement  I  to  Gregory  the  existed  as  late  as  1539.  Her  fame  was  so  great  that 
Great.  It  deab  particularly  with  clerical  rights  and  numerous  places  were  named  after  her,  e.  g.  Killa- 
duties,  ecclesiastical  acts,  the  administration  of  the  raght  (Cill  Attracta^,  Toberaraght,  Qoghan  Araffht, 
sacraments,  censures,  jurisdiction,  etc.  Other  cardi-  etc.,  and  a  large  villa^  which  grew  up  around  her 
naU  of  the  name  are  mentioned  in  the  anonymous  oratory  at  Killaraght  m  Coolavin.  Colgan  gives  an 
(eighteenth-century)  "Diatriba  de  Attonibus'*^  pub-  account  of  the  Cross  of  St.  Attracta  which  was  famed 
Ibhed  by  Cardinal  Mai  (op.  cit.;  cf.  P.L.,  CXXXIV,  during  the  Middle  Ages,  and  of  which  the  O'Mochain 
902).  family    were   hereditary  keepers.     A  striking  con- 

BrCck  in  KirchenUx,  1, 1666, 1667.  firmation  of  the  existence  of  this  relic  in  the  early 

Thomas  J.  Shahan.  jrears  of  the  fifteenth  centunr  is  afforded  by  an  entry 

Atto  of  Piatoia,  b.  at  Badajoz  in  Spain,  1070;  \^^^  "Calendar  of  Papal  letters-  (VI,  451),  from 

d.  22  May,  llSS^He  became  Afebot  of  VSlombroeil  5?**^^^  l^^Tp^*'**  ^^  ]^^^  M  cross  and   cup  of 

rruscany)  in  1106,  and  in  1136  was  made  Bishop  of  ^t.   Att^ta   (Crux  a^  Ci^h  Aracht)   were  then 

Pistoia.     He  wroti  lives  of  St.  John  Gualbert  Wnd  venerated  m  the  church  of  Killaraght,  in  the  Diocese 

of  St.  Bernard  of  VaUombrosa,  Bishop  of  Parma.    In  ''^'i.'^*'?"^';v  ^,?,^°  ^"^^"^^  ^H^^^ 

1145  he  transferred  to  Pistoia  certTin  relics  of  St.  ?^^?'!f!3  ^^'f  T'^^  ^t'^^  ^^^^ 

James  of  ComposteUa.     His  correspondence  on  that  bad  kpsed  into  desuetude  to  ^ 

occasion  is  foiSd  in  Ughelli,  "ItiSik  Sacra",  VII,  J^«  I'^J^^'^K  ^^LJ^l  ""l  ^*-  ^k"^'  '''' 

2QQ                                  &        I                            '         '  11   August,  IS  given  special  honour  in  the  Dioceee 

oinAUD.  BtW.  Sacr.,  11.  420;  Potthaht.  BM.  Hut,  Med.  ^^  Achonry,  of  which   she  is  the  ^troness.    The 

jEvi,  II,  1186;  Chbvalier,  rupertoire  (Bio-Bibix  I,  362.  prayers  and  proper  lessons  for  her  Office  were  drawn 

Thomas  J.  Shahan.  up  by  Cardinal  Moran. 

...---         iM       1            J  xi_     1      •            J              -x  Qrattan  Flood, /rwfc  iSamto; -Ada  55.(1668),  2  Feb.,  296- 

Atto  of  VerceiJi,  a  learned  theologian  and  canonist  2»7;  BM.  Haaioar.  Lat.  (looi),  1166;  Colgan.  Ada  ss. 

of  the  tenth  century,  son  of  the  Viscount  Aldegarius,  ^»Jf^-  (1646),  I,  2:n-2S2\  O'Hanlon,  Live*  of  Irish  Sainu, 

and  Bishop  of  Vercelli  (924-961).     In  933  he  became  VIlI(il  Aug.).                      w  w  r-.,^.^  i?,^^.. 

Grand  ChanceUor  of  Lothaire  11^  King  of  France,  and  ^  •  "•  Urattan  1*  lood. 

obtained  from  the  royal  gratitude  donations  and  Attributes,  Divine. — In  order  to  form  a  more 

privileges  for  his  see  of  Vercelli  (Ughelli,  Italia  Sacra,  systematic  idea  of  God,  and.  as  far  as  possible,  to 

IV,  769).     Several  of  his  writings  were  first  publLshea  unfold  the  inudications  of  the  truth.  God  is  All- 

b^  the  Benedictine  D'Achery  (16>55-77)  in  his ''  Spicile-  Perfect,  this  inmiite  Perfection  is  viewea,  successivdy, 

gium''  VIII,  1-137;  2d  ed.,  1723,  I.  401-442.  e.  g.  under  various  aspects,  each  of  which  is  treated  as  a 

**  Epistolse,  Libellus  de  pressuris  ecclesiasticis  *\  and  separate  perfection  and  characteristic  inherent  to 

**  Canones  rursus  statutaque  Vercellensis  ecclesise ''.  the  Divine  Substance,  or  Essence.    A  certain  noup 

A  complete  edition  was  executed  by  Baronzo  del  of  these,  of  paramount  import,  is  called  the  Divine 

Signore,  in  two  folio  volumes  (Vercdli,  1768;  P.  L.,  Attributes. 

CXXXIV,  27-834),  inclusive  of  his  lengthy  commen-  I.  Knowledge  op  God  Mediate  and  Synthetic. 

tary  on  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul.    In  1832  Cardinal  Mai  — Our  natural  knowledge  of  God  is  acquired  by 

published  eignteen  sermons  of  Atto,  and  his  curious  discursive  reasoning  upon  the  data  of  sense  and 

"  Polypticum  ",  or  **  Perpendiculum '',  an  abridgment  introspection,    "For  the  invisiUe  things  of   Him, 

of  moral  philosophy,  ''written  in  a  mysterious  and  from  the  creation  of  the  world,  are  dearly  seen, 

enigmatic  way  ".     In  his  history  of  early  medieval  lit-  being  understood  by  the  things  that  are  made;  His 

erature  Ebert  transfers  to  some  Spaniard  the  author*  eternal  power  also,  and  Divinity"  (St.  Paul,  Romans, 

ship  of  this  work,  but  Hauck  defends  the  traditional  i,  20).    Created  things,  b^r  the  properties  and  activi- 

view  (Realencyk.  f.  prot.  Theol.,  II,  214).    His  *'  Can-  titt  of  their  natures,  manifest,  as  m  a  c^ass,  darkly, 


ATTBIBUTE8  63  ATTRIBUTES 

Ihe  powers  and  perfections  of  the  Creator.    But  meaning  of  the  statement  is  not  that  God  lacks  bh 

these  refracted  images  of  Him  in  finite  things  cannot  telligence,  but  that  in  Him  there  is  not  intelli^nce 

/umish  grounds  for  any  adeq^uate  idea  of  the  Infinite  exactly  as  we  know  it.     Again,  since  there  is  no 

Being.    Hence,  in  constructmg  a  synthetic  idea  of  imperfection  in  God,  every  concept  of  defect,  priva- 

God,  before  one  can  apply  to  the  Divinity  any  con-  tion,  and  limitation  must  be  negated  of  God.     Many 

eept  or  term  expressing  a  perfection  found  in  created  negative  names,  it  is  true,  are  applied  to  God;  as 

being,  it  must  oe  subjected  to  rigorous  correction,  when,  for  instance,  He  is  said  to  be  immutable, 

The  profound  disparity  between  the  Divine  perfection  uncaused,   infinite.     It  should,   however,    be  care- 

aod  the  intimations  of  it  presented  in  the  world-copy  fully  observed  that  some  attributes,  which,  from  the 

may  be  broadly  laid  down  imder  two  heads.    (1)  Num-  etymological  point  of  view,  are  native,  convey, 

ber.— The  perfections  of  creatures  are  innumerable,  neverthdess,  a  positive  meaning.     Failure  to  per- 

the  Divine  perfection  is  one.     (2)  Diversity. — Createa  ceive  this  obvious  truth  has  been  responsible  for 

perfections  differ  endlessly  in  kind  and  decree;  the  much   empty   dogmatism   on  the   impossibility  of 

Divine  perfection  is  uniform,  simple.     It  is  not  a  forming  any  concept  of  the  Infinite.     Tjie  basic  note 

.totality  of  various  perfections;   absolutely  simple,  in  the  idea  of  the  Infinite  is  existence,  actuality,  per- 

tbe  Divine  perfection  answers  to  every  idea  of  actual  fection;  the  negative  note  is  subordinate.     Furtner- 

or  conceivaple  perfection,  without  being  determined  more,  since  the  force  of  the  latter  note  is  to  deny  any 

to  the  particular  mode  of  any.     Hence,  when  any  and  all  limitations  to  the  actuality  represented  by 

attribute  expressing    modes    characteristic    of    the  the  former,  its  real  import  is  positive,  like  the  can- 

Torid  of  being  that  falls  within  the  ran^e  of  our  cellation  of  a  minus  sign  in  an  algebraic  formula;  or, 

experience  is  api>lied  to  God  its  signification  ceases  it  discharges  the  function  of  an  exponent  and  raises 

to  be  identical  with  that  which  it  has  in  every  other  actuality  to  the  nth  power.     (3)  Way  of  eminence. — 

casa    Yet  it  retains  a  real  meaning  in  virtue  of  the  The  concept  of  a  perfection  derived  from  created 

ratio  which  exists  between  the  finite  being  and  its  things  and  freed  of  all  defects,  is,  in  its  application 

Infinite  analogue.     In  philosophical  phrase,  this  use  to   God,  expanded   without  limit.     God  not  only 

of  tem^  is  called  analogical  predication,  in  contra-  possesses  every  excellence  discoverable  in  creation, 

distinction  to  univocal,  in  which  a  word  b  predicated  out  He  also  possesses  it  infinitely.    To  emphasize 

(rf  two  or  more  subjects  in  precisely  the  same  sense,  the  transcendence  of  the  Divine  perfection,  in  some 

(Sec  AiTALooY.)  cases  an  abstract  noun  b  substituted  for  the  corre- 

n.  Source   op    our   Natural   Knowledge   op  sponding  adjective;  as,  God  b  Intelligence;  or,  a^in. 

God.— To  correct,  as  far  as  possible,  the  inadequate  some  word  of  intensive,  or  exclusive,  force  is  joined 

character  of  the  concepts  through  which  we  must  to  the  attribute;  as,  God  alone  b  good,  God  b  good- 

fonnulate  our  idea  of  God,  the  first  step  b  to  dis-  ness  itself,  God  b  all-powerful,  or  supremely  power- 

tinguish  created    perfection   into    two  kinds,    viz.,  fuL 

mixed  F|erfections  and  pure  perfections.    A  pure  per-        IV,  Deductive    Development. — Having    estab- 

fection  b  one  whose  exact  concept  does  not  include  Ibhed   the  exbtence  of    God    from   metaphysical, 

any  note  formally  expressive  of  defect  or  limitation;  physical,  and  moral  arguments,  the  theologian  selects 

fiw  content  of  the  idea  b  entirely  positive.    The  some  one  of  the  attributes  which  these  proofs  au- 

idca  of  a  mixed  perfection,  on  the  contrary,  formally  thorize  him  to  predicate  of  the  Divinity  and,  by 

or  directly  connotes,  along  with  what  b  positive  in  unfolding  its  implications,  reaches  a  number  of  other 

the  perfection,  some  privation  or  deficiency.    Ex-  attributes.     For  instance,  if  God  b  Pure  Actuality, 

ampfes  of  the  former  are  power,  truthfulness,  will;  that  b,  free  from  all  static  potency,  it  follows  that, 

as  an  instance  of  the  latter,  materiality  may  be  since  change  implies  a  transition  from  an  antecedent 

offered    For,  though  the  reality  that  belongs  to  potential  condition  to  a  subsequent  condition  in 

matter  b,  of  course,  a  participation  of  exbtence  and  which  the  potentialitjr  b  realized.  God  b  immutable, 

activity,  yet  the  concept  of  it  connotes  the  imper-  Here  we  reach  the  point  where  tne  term  Attribute  b 

^ions  (^  that  particular  kind  of  exbtence  which  eniployed  in  its  strict  sense. 
B  composite  and  subject  to  disintegration.    Asain,        V.  Essence  and  Attributes. — ^Transcendentally 

penionality  b   a    pure  perfection;   for,  as  Catholic  one,  absolutelv  free  from  composition,  the  Divine  Be- 

phikMophy  teaches,  though  the  finite  character  of  ing  b  not,  and  may  not  be  conceived  as,  a  fundamen- 

mman  p^sonality  comes  mto  play  in  the  awakening  tal  substrate  in  which  qualities  or  any  other  modal 

trfseif-consciousness,  yet  limitation  b  not  an  essential  determinations  inhere.    The  reality  to  which  the 

constituent  of  personality.     All  terms  that  stand  for  various  attributes  are  ascribed  b  one  and  indi vbible. — 

pure  perfections  are  predicated  analogically  of  God,  "Quae  justitia^"  says  St.  Augustine,  "ipsa  bonitas; 

and  are  desLmated  attributes  in  the  wide  sense  of  quae  bonitas,  ipsa  beatitudo." — In  thb  respect,  the 

tbe  word.    When  terms  which  signify  mixed  per-  relation  of  the  attributes  to  the  Divine  nature  might 

fectiooa  are  predicated  of  God,  the  analogy  becomes  be  illustrated  by  the  various  reflections  of  one  and 

»  faint  that  the  locution  b  a  mere  metaphor.  the  same  object  from  a  concave,  a  convex,  and  a 

in.  Inductive  Development  of  Attributes. —  plane  mirror.    Nevertheless,  to  systematize  the  idea 

Tbe  elaboration  of  the  idea  of  God  b  carried  out  of  God,  and  to  draw  out  the  nch  content  of  the 

aiong  three  convolving  lines:  (1)  The  positive  way  knowledge  resulting  from  the  proofs  of  God's  exbt- 

<rf  ousalitv. — In  virtue  of  the  principle  that  what-  ence,  some  primary  attribute  may  be  chosen  as 

e^  excdlence  is  contained  in  an  effect  b  repre-  representing  one  aspect   of  the  Divine  perfection 

>«rted  in  the  eflficiency  of  the  cause,  reason  affirms  from  which  the  others  may  be  rigorously  deduced. 

^  every  positive  perfection  of  created  being  has  Then  arises  a  logical  scheme  in  which  the  derivative 

^tnnscendental  analogue  in  the  first  cause.     Hence,  attributes,  or  perfections,  stand  towards  one  another 

ftona  the  existence  of  an  intelligent  being,  man,  in  in  a  relation  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the  essence 

tfe  cosmos,  we  rightly  infer  that  God  b  inteUigent,  and  the  various  properties  and  qualities  in  a  material 

w  is  to  say,  His  infinite  perfection  b  superabund-  substance.     In  thb  arrangement  the  primary  per- 

KitlT  adequate   to  all  the  operations  of  intellect,  fection   is   termed    the   metaphysical   essence,    the 

^J  ihe  negative  way. — ^If  we  fix  our  attention  pre-  others  are  called  attributes.    The  essence,  too,  may 

csdy  on  the    Infinity  of   God,  then,  focusing  the  be  regarded  as  that  cliaracterbtic  which,  above  all 

«if5tioQ  not    upon    the  positive   content   of    any  others,  dbtinguishes  the  Deity  from  everything  else, 

^'oted  perfection,  but  upon  the  fact  that^  because  Upon  the  question,  which  attnbute  b  to  be  considered 

^  JB  finite  it  is  determined  in  kind  and  limited  in  pnmary.  opinions  differ.     Many  eminent  theologiant^ 

JJpee,  we  may  affirm  that  it  b  not  found  in  God.  favour  tne  conception  of  pure  actuality  {Actus  Purus) 

We  nay  say,  e.  g.,  that  He  b  not  int^igent.    The  from  which  simplicity  and  infinity  are  directly  de 


ATTEIBUTES  64  ATTftlBUTKA 

duced.  Most  modem  av^thors  fix  on  aseity  (AseUaa;  Gilbert  de  la  Porr^e,  who  maintained  a  real,  ontoloei- 
a==**  from  "  sc***  himself  "),  or  self-existence;  for  the  cal  distinction  between  the  Divine  £lssence  and  the 
reason  that,  while  all  other  existences  are  derived  attributes.  His  opinion  was  condemned  b^  the 
frorp,  and  depend  on,  God,  He  possesses  in  Himself.  Coimcil  of  Reims  (1148).  St.  Thomas  defimtively 
absolutely  and  independently,  the  entire  reason  of  expressed  the  doctrine  which,  after  some  contro- 
His  uncaused,  infinite  Being.  In  this,  the  most  pro-  versies  between  Scotists  and  Thomists  upon  minor 
found  and  comprehensive  distinction  between  the  points  and  subtleties,  and  with  some  divergence  of 
Divinity  and  everything  else,  all  other  distinctions  opinion  upon  imimportant  details^  is  now  the  coin- 
are  implicitly  expressed.  Whether,  and  in  what  mon  teaching  of  C&tholic  theologians  and  philoso- 
way,  the  distinctions  between  the  attributes  and  the  phers.  It  may  be  8\immarized  as  follows:  Tne  idea 
metaphysical  essence,  and  among  the  attributes  of  God  is  derived  from  our  knowledge  of  finite  beings, 
themselves,  have  an  ontological  basis  in  the  Divine  When  a  term  is  predicated  of  the  finite  and  of  the 
nature  itself,  was  a  subject  which  divided  Nominal-  Infinite,  it  is  used,  not  in  a  univocal,  but  in  an 
ists  and  Realists,  Thomists  and  Scotists,  in  the  aee  analogical  sense.  The  Divine  Perfection,  one  and 
of  Scholasticism  (cf.  Vacant,  Diet,  de  th^l.  cathoT.,  invisible,  is,  in  its  infinity^  the  transcendental  analogue 
I,  2230-34).  of  all  actual  and   possible   finite  perfections,    oy 

VI.  Division    op    Attributes. — ^Taking    as    the  means  of  an  accumulation  of  analogous  predicates, 
basis  of  classification  the  ways  by  which  the  attributes  ^  methodically  co-ordinated,  we  endeavour  to  form  an 
are  developed,  they  are  divided  into  positive  and  '  approxim^^te  conception  of  the  Deity  who,  because 
ne^tive.     Amonjg  the  n^ative  attributes  are  sim-  He  is  Infinite,  cannot  be  comprehended  by  finite 
plicity,  infinity,  inamutabuity.    The   chief   positive  intelligence.     Modem    philosophy    presents    a    re- 
attributes    are    unity,     truth,     goodness,    beauty,  markaole  gradation,  from   Pantheism,  which  finds 
omnipotence,  omnipresence,  intellect  and  will,  per-  God  in  everjrthing,  to  Agnosticism,  which  declares 
sonality.     Some  authors  divide   them   into   incom-  that  He  is  beyond  the  readi  of  knowledge.     Spinoza 
municable   and  communicable.     The   former  class  conceives  Goa  as  "a  substance  consisting  of  infinite 
comprises  those  which  belong  to  God  alone  (e.  g.,  attributes    each   of    which    expresses   eternal   and 
all-wise,  self-existent,  omnipotent)  to  the  latter  oelong  infinite  essence  ".    The  two  attnbutes  manifested  to 
those  which  are  predicable,  analogically,  of  God  and  us  are  thought  and  extension.     At  the  other  ex- 
creatures;   as  good,   just,   intelligent.     Again,   the  treme  we  find  Agnostics  of  the  school  of  Herbert 
divine  nature  may  be  considered  either  as  static,  or  Spencer  (see  Agnosticism)  and  some  followers  of 
as  the  source  of  activity:  hence  another  division  into  He^l,  who  hold  that  the  nature  of  God,  or,  to  use 
quiescent  and  active.     Finally,  some  perfections  in-  their   favourite  term,   "the   Absolute",   is   utterly 
volve  a  relation  to  things  distinct  from  God,  while  unknowable,  and  its  existence  not  determined  to 
others  do  not;  and  from  this  standpoint  theologians  any  mode;    therefore,  to  predicate    of    it   various 
divide  the   attributes   into   absolute  and   relative,  attributes,  expressive  of  determinations,  is  idle  and 
The    various    classifications    adopted    by    modem  misleading.     Between   the   finite   and    the   Infinite 
Protestant  theologians  are  due  partly  to  the  results  there  is  no  conmion  ground  of  predication*  hence, 
of  philosophical  speculation  and  partly  to  new  con-  words  which  signify  finite  perfections  can  have  no 
ceptions  of  the  nature  of  religion.     Schleiermacher,  real  meaning  when  predicated  of  God*  they  become 
e.  g.,  derives  the  attributes  of  God  from  our  three-  mere  empty  symbols.    All  theolo^cal  attempts  tx» 
fold  consciousness  of  absolute  dependence,  of  sin,  and  elaborate  an  idea  of  God  are  vam,  and  result  in 
of  grace.    Others,  with  Lipsius,  distinguish  the  meta-  complete  absurdity  when  they  conceive  God  after 
physical  attributes  from  the  psychological  and  the  man  s  image  and  likeness  (see  Anthropomorphism), 
ethical.    A   simpler   division   groups    omnipotence,  and  circumscribe  the  Infinite  in  terms  borrowed  from 
omnipresence,  eternity,  omniscience,  and  unity  as  human  psychology.    Criticism  of  this  kind  indicates 
the  metaphysical  predicates,  justice  and  goodness  that  its  authors  have  never  taken  the  trouble  to 
as  the  moral  attributes.    The  fundamental  attribute  understand  the  nature  of  analogical  predication,  or 
is,  according  to  Ritschl,  love;   according  to  Pro-  to  consider  fairly  the    rigorous    logical    process  of 
fessor  Royce,  omniscience.     The  main  difficulty  with  refining  to  which  terms  are  subjected  before  being 
these  writers  centres  about  the  idea  of  God  as  a  per-  predicated  of   God.     It   often   happens,   too,    that 
sonal  being.  writers,   after   indul^ng   liberally   in   eloquent    de- 

VII.  Revelation. — ^The  supernatural  knowledge  nunciation  of  theologicsu  anthropomorphism,  proceed, 


tribution  that  govern  the  one  hold  good  also  for  the  morphic,  in  an  ultimate  analysis,  than  "  will  "  and 

other.  "intelligence".    The  position  of  the  Catholic  Church, 

Vin.  Historical  Development. — ^In  the  fourth  declared  in  the  Fourth  Lateran  Council  (1215),  is 

century  Aetius    and    Eunomius    maintained    that,  again  clearly  stated  in  the  following  pronouncement 

because  the  Divine  nature  is  simple^  excluding  all  of  the  Vatican  Council: 

composition  or  multiplicity,  the  various  terms  and  "The   Holy   Catholic   Apostolic   Roman   Church 

names  applied  to  God  are  to  be  considered  synony-  believes  and  professes  that  there  is  one  living  and 

mous.     Otherwise    they    would    erroneously    imply  true  God,  Creator  and  Lord  of  heaven  and  earth, 

coinposition  in  God.    This  opinion  was  combated  omnipotent^    eternal,    iimnense,    incomprehensible, 

by  St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  St.  Basil,  and  St.  Gregory  infinite  in  intellect  and  will  and  in  all  perfection; 

of  Nyssa  (In  Eunom.,  P.  G.,  XLV).    The  princi-  Who,  being  One,  singular,  absolutely  simple  and  un- 

ple  of  attribution  received  more  precise  statement  changeable  spiritual  substance,  is  to  be  regarded  as 

at  the  hands  of  St.  Augustine,  in  his  investigation  of  distinct  really  and  in  essence  from  the  world,  most 

the  conditions  of  intellectual  knowledge  (De  Genesi  blessed  in  and  from  Himself,  and  unspeakably  ele- 

ad  Litteram,  IV,  32).     In  the  ninth  century,  John  vated  above  all  things  that  exist,  or  can  be    con- 

Scotus   Erigena,    who    ws3   largely    influenced    by  ceived,  except  Himself. " 

Neo-Platonism,  transmitted  through  the  works  of  „     _             _  „        ..     ..  ^   , 

the   P8eud<>:Dj,nysi«9,   contributea   to   bring   into  ^,-^  ??2"lVi>f&,:'^v"ll^'5=;  ^"^Z.  llTk  iL3: 

clearer  relief  the  analogical  character  of  predication  Wilhelm  and  Scannkll,  A  Manual  of  Catholic  rheoloai 

(De    Diving     Naturft,     Lib.     I).       The     Nominalists  (New  York,  1892);    I,  v;  Ghatby,  La  connaUmnce  de  LH^u 

reWved  the  views  of  Eunonriius   and  the  opposition  y-g*  ja^^^fg^  'io^^^r'^iJ!:  ^  i^T^ 

of  the  Realists  was  earned  to  the  other  extreme  by  (Phtib,  1903);  Flint.  Theim  (Edinburgh,  1876);  Iv^kbaob! 


ATTRITION  65  ATT&ITIOir 


TkMm  in  tA«  LifiifU  of  Modem  Science  and  PkOoi 
York.  1899);  Ladd,  The  Pkiloeoph' 
1905):  IixiNOWOBTH,  Personal^, 


VJS'^,  ^.-P^»SP*v  (New  andria  (Strom.,  Vll)  speaks  of  righteousness  which 

^, .  _  ..,.Jm/!^ulnaTDivk^TJ^^^  comeB  of  love  and  righteousness  arising  from  fear, 

Knd  New  York,  1903);  Frasbb,  PhUosophy  of  Theism  (Edin-  and  m  the  Strom.,  II.  ch.  vu,  he  si)eaks  at  length  on 

1896),  U.          .^^^"•'w  w  *^twwK*«o  sncuwgy  u^ew  xotk,  forward  against   his   position.    The  most  striking 

James  J.  Fox.  sentence  is  the  one  wherein  he  says: '' cautious  fear  is 

therefore  shown  to  be  reasonable,  from  which  arises 

Attrition,  or  Imperfect  Contrition  (Lat.ottero,  "to  repentance  of  previous  sins",  etc.    St.  BasU   (4th 

wear  away  by  rubbme";  p.  part,  attntus). — ^TheCoun-  interrogatoiy  on  the  Rule)  speaks  of  the  fear  of  God 

cfl  of  Trent  (Sess.  XIV,  Chap,  iv)  has  defined  contrition  and  of  His  judgments,  and  he  asserts  that  for  those 

as  "sorrow  of  soul,  and  a  hatred  of  sin  committed,  who  are  beeinnmg  a  life  of  piety  "exhortation  based 

with  a  firm  purpose  of  not  sinning  in  the  future",  on  fear  is  of  greatest  utility",  and  he  quotes  the  wise 

This  hatred  of  sm  may  arise  from  various  motives,  man  asserting,  "The  fear  of  God  is  tne  beginning  of 

may  be  pr6mpted  by  various  causes.     If  the  detes-  wisdom"  (P.  G.,  XXXI).    St.  John  Chrysostom  may 

tation  of  sin  arise  from  the  love  of  God,  Who  has  be  auoted  in  the  same  sense  (P.  G.,  XLIX,  154).    8t. 

been  grievously  offended,  then  contrition  is  termed  Ambrose,  in  the  fifteenth  sermon  on  the  Psalm  cxviii 

perfect;  if  it  arise  from  anv  other  motive,  such  as  speaks  at  large  on  godly  fear  which  beg[et8  charity, 

loes  of  heaven,  fear  of  hell,  or  the  heinousness  of  begets  love :  nunc  timorem  sequitur  charUas    (P.  L., 

guilt,   then   it   is   termed   imperfect   contrition,   or  xv,  1424),  and  his  disciple,  St.  Augustine,  treats  fully 

attrition.    That  there  exists  such  a  disposition  of  the  eodliness  of  fear  as  a  motive  to  rep^itanoe.    In 

soul  as  attrition,  and  that  it  is  a  goodly  thing;  an  the  I61st  of  his  sermons  (P.  L.,  XXXVlII,  882  sqa.) 

impulse  of  the  Spirit  of  God,  is  the  clear  teaching  of  he  speaks  of  refraining  from  sin  for  fear  of  Goa's 

the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XIV,  iv).    "And  as  to  judgments,  and  he  asks:  "Dare  I  say  such  fear  is 

that  imperfect  contrition  which  is  called  attrition,  wrong?"    He  replies  that  he  dare  not,  for  the  Lord 

because  it  is  commonly  conceived  either  from  the  Christ  uiging  men  to  refrain  from  wrongdoing  suff- 

consideration  of  the  turpitude  of  sin,  or  from  the  gested  the  motive  of  fear.    "  Fear  not  those  who  kul 

fear  of  hell  and  of  pimisnment,  the  council  declares  the  body  ",  etc.  (Matt.,  x).    True,  what  follows  in  St. 

that  if  with  the  hope  of  pardon,  it  excludes  the  wish  Augustine  has  been  subject  to  much  dispute,  but  the 

to  sin,  it  not  only  does  not  make  man  a  hypocrite  general  doctrine  of  the  godliness  of  fear  is  here  pro- 

and  a  greater  sinner,  but  that  it  is  even  a  gift  of  pounded,  and  the  difficulty,  if  aught  there  be,  touches 

Grod,  and  an  impulse  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  who  does  the  other  question  hereinafter  treated  anent  "Initial 

not  indeed  as  yet  dwell  in  the  penitent,  but  who  Love  ". 

only  moves  him;  whereby  the  penitent,  beiii^  assisted.  The  word  itself,  attrition,  is  of  medieval  origin, 

prepares  a  way  for  himself  unto  justice,  and  although  Father  Palmieri  (De  Poenit.,  345)  asserts,  on  the  au- 

this  attrition  cannot  of  itself,  without  the  Sacra-  thority  of  Aloysius  Mingarelli,  that  the  wOTd  is  thrice 

ment  of  Penance,  conduct  the  sinner  to  justification,  found  in  the  works  of  Alanus  of  Lille,  who  died  at 

y^et  does  it  dispose  him  to  receive  the  grace  of  God  an  advanced  age  in  the  year  1203;  but  its  use  in  the 

m  the  Sacrament  of  Penance.     For  smitten  profitably  school  is  contemporaneous  with  William  of  Paris, 

-^ith  fear,  the  Ninivites  at  the  preaching  of  Jonas  Alexander  of  Hales,  and  Blessed  Albert.    Even  with 

did  fearful  penance  and  obt^^ined  mercy  from  the  these  men  its  meaning  was  not  so  precise  as  in  after 

Lord."    Wherefore  anent  attrition,  the  council   in  years;  though  thev  all  agreed  that  of  itsdf  it  did  not 

Canon  V,  Sess.  XIV,  declares:  "If  any  man  assert  that  suffice  to  justify  the  sinner  in  God's  sight.     (See  the 

attiition  ...  is  not  a  true  and  a  profitable  sorrow;  Scholastic  traditions  in  article  Absolution,  and  Pal- 

that  it  does  not  prepare  the  soul  for  grace,  but  that  mieri,  loc.  cit.).    This  fear  is  godly,  since  it  excludes 

it  makes  a  man  a  hypocrite,  yea^  even  a  greater  not  only  the  will  to  sin,  but  also  the  affection  for  sin. 

sinner,  let  him  be  anathema."    This  doctrine  of  the  There  would  perhaps  have  been  little  difficulty  on  thb 

council  is  in  accord  with  the  teaching  of  the  Old  and  point  if  the  distinction  were  kept  in  mind  between 

the  New  Testament.    The    Old  Testament  writers  that  fear  which  is  termed  aerviltSf  which  touches  will 

praise  without  hesitation  that  fear  of  God  which  is  and  heart,  and  that  fear  known  as  servilUer  aeroilie, 

really  "the  beginning  of   wisdom"  (Ps.  ex).     One  which  though  it  makes  man  refrain  from  perform- 

of  tne  commonest  forms  of  expression  found  in  the  ing  the  sinful  act,  leaves  the  will  to  sin  and  tne  affeo- 

Hebrew  scriptures  is  the  "exhortation  to  the  fear  of  tion  thereto. 

the  Lord"  (Ecclus.,  i,  13;  ii,  19  sqq.).    We  are  told  Attrition  in  the  Sacrament  op  Penance. — ^The 

that  "without  fear  there  is  no  justification"  (ibid.,  Church  not  only  regards  the  godliness  of  fear  as  a 

i,  28;  ii,  1;  ii,  19).    In  this  fear  there  is  "confidence  motive  to  repentance,  but  expresidy  defines  that 

of  strength"  and  it  is  "a  fountain  of  Ufe"  (Prov.,  xiv,  attrition,  though  it  justifies  not  without  the  Saora- 

26,  27);  and  the  Psalmist  prays   (Ps.  cxviii,  120):  ment  of  Penance,  nevertheless  disposes  the  sinner  to 

"iHerce  thou  my  flesh  with  tny  fear:  for  I  am  afraid  receive  grace  in  the  sacrament  itself  (Sess.  XIV,  iv). 

of  thy  judgments."  This  particular  phase  of  the  doctrine  of  contrition 

New  Testament. — ^Even  when  the  law  of  fear  had  in  penance  is  nrst  taught  with  deamess  by  the 

given  way  to  the  law  of  love,  Christ  does  not  hesitate  Schoolmen  of  the  twdfth  century,  and  particularly 

to  inculcate  that  we  must  "  fear  him  who  can  de-  by  St.  Thomas,  who  gathered  into  a  united  whole  the 

stroy  both  soul  and  body  into  hell"  (Matt.,  x,  28).  jarring  opinions  of  his  predecessors    (See  the  Scholas- 

Cwtainly,  too,  the  vivid  account  of  the  destruction  tic  in  article  Absolution).     Though  some  still  pre- 

of  Jeru^em,  typical  of  the  final  destruction  of  the  ferred  to  follow  the  Lombards  who  insisted  on  penect 

world,  was  intended  by  Jesus  to  strike  terror  into  contrition,  after  St.  Thomas  there  was  little  division 

the  hearts  of  those  who  heard,  and  those  who  read;  in  the  schools  up  to  the  time  of  the  Council  of  Trent, 

nor  <^n  one  doubt  that  the  last  great  judgment  as  At  the  council  there  was  some  opposition  to  a  clear 

portrayed  by  Matthew,  xxv,  31  sqq.,  must  Imve  been  definition,  some  of  the  Fathers  insisting  on  the  ne- 

described  by  Christ  for  the  purpose  of  deterring  men  cessity  of  perfect  contrition,  and  it  was  perhaps  for 

from  sin  by  reason  of  God's  awful  judgments.    The  this  reason  that  the  decree  was  couched  as  above, 

Apostle  kppears  not  less  insistent  when  he  exhorts  leaving  it  still  possible  to  doubt  T^^ether  attrition 

us  to  work  out  "our  salvation  in  fear  and  trembliM"  was  a  proximate,  or  only  a  remote,  disposition  for 

lest  the  anger  of  God  come  upon  us  (Phil.,  ii,  12).  justification  in  the  sacrament.     To-oay  tne  eommon 

The  Fathers  of  the  earliest  da^^  of  Christianity  have  teaching  is  that  the  council  simply  intended  to  define 

spoken  of  fear  of  God's  punishments  as  a  goodly  the  sufficiency  of  attrition  (Vacant,  Diet,  de  thM.^ 

virtue  that  makes  for  salvation.     Clement  of  Alex-  col.   2246-47).    And   this  would  seem  reasonabla* 

n. 


ATTUDA  66  AUBEBY 

because  it  is  the  clear  teaching  of  the  Church  that  [negantem  necessUatem  aliqiudis  diisdionis  Dei]  in  the 

perfect  contrition  justifies  the  sinner  even  without  attrition  conceived  through  fear  of  hell,  which  to- 

the  Sacrament  of  Penance.     If  perfect  contrition,  day  (1667)  seems  the  one  more  generally  held  by 

then,  were  always  necessary,  why  aid  Christ  institute  scholastic  theologians,  or  that  affirming  the  necessity 

a    particular  sacrament,  since    justification    would  of  the  said  love,  imtil  something  shall  have  been 

always  be  imparted  independently  of  the  sacramental  defined  in  this  matter  by  this  Holy  See."    The  au- 

cerenaony?    If  attrition  is  sufficient  for  justification  thoritative  statement  of  Alexander  VII  leaves  the 

in  the  ^crament  of  Penance,  then  there  seems  no  question  still  open  as  Benedict  XIV  teaches  in  ''De 

reason  to  deny  its  sufficiencv  when  there  is  question  Synodo  ",  Bk.  Vll,  xiii,  n.  9.     Still  it  is  clear  that 

of  remitting  sin  through    baptism,  for  the  reason  Alexander  considered  as  more  probable  the  opinion 

given  above  will  apply  eaually  in  this  place.    The  stating  attrition  as  sufficient  for  justification  m  the 

question  has  also  been  asked  apropos  of  attrition,  Sacrament  of  Penance  even  if  it  included  not  the 

when  one  receives  a  sacrament  of  the  living  in  mortal  b^nninjg  of  love.    The  censure  latce  serdenUa  was 

sin,  of  which  sin  he  is  not   conscious,  wiU  attrition  omitted  in  the  "  Apostolic®  Sedis  ".     On  the  formula, 

with  the  sacrament  suffice  unto  justification?    The  "Exattrito  fit  contritus'*,  cf.  Vacant,  Diet,  de  th^., 

answer  is  generally  given  in  the  affirmative.     See  St.  col.  2256  sqq. 

Thomas.  Sumnaa  Theol.,  Ill,  2,  a.  7  ad  2*°»,  7ed.,  2;  Edward  J.  Hanna. 

Billot,  De  Poenit.,  p.  152.  ***«-»-,        a'a  i  *  t>u      •     •      a  •     »#■ 

CoiJDmoN8.-ffiat  attrition  may  make  for  iustifi-  ^u^"'"*^  *  Yr  f M^jlof •  "^^^  '•"  A"*  ^Jlll' 

cation,itm«sttemtenor,«upernatLl,unive™il,aad  ''''^„^i^'^^'''A^l'^^^V\^^^^.^i;^'^ 

sovereign.  (See  CondUtons  m  article  CoNTRmON.)  of  Greek  and  Roman  Gcogr.,  I.  336. 
Interior,  for  the  Council  of  Trent  requires  that  it.,vj,,,  ,.  , 
should  exclude  the  will  to  sin.  Supernatural,  for  ^?J?*'*1®'  Jean-Michel-d  Astorg,  canon  regular, 
Innocent  XI  condemned  the  proposition,  ^'Probabile  ^^^J^^^  Capitular  of  Pamiere,  b.  1639;  d.  4  August, 
est  sufficere  attritionem  naturalem  modo  honestam  ".  l^^^'  ^^^^"^^  educated  at  Toulouse  (France),  en- 
Universal,  for  the  motives  of  attrition  (fear  of  hell,  *®^®^  ^^^  Semmaiy  of  Pamiers,  and  later  joined  the 
loss  of  heaven,  etc.)  are  of  such  a  nature  as  to  em-  ^"?^  regular  who  formed  the  cathedral  chapter  of 
brace  aU  sins.  Sovereign,  for  here  again  the  ordinary  ^J^^\  ^'ocese.  » After  the  death  of  the  bishop,  Francois 
motives  of  attrition  (fear  of  hell,  etc.)  make  one  hate  Caulet,  Aubardde  was  chosen  vicar  capitular.  As 
sin  above  aU  other  evil.  It  has  been  questioned  administrator  of  the  diocese,  he  t»ok  up  and  earned 
whether  thb  would  be  true  if  the  motive  were  fear  ^^  vigorously  the  resistance  of  Caulet  to  the  roy^ 
of  temporal  punishments  (Genicot,  T.  11,  n.  274;  Bil-  demands  m  the  matter  of  the  Reffalia.  He  refused 
lot,  De  Pcemt.,  159  sq.).  The  Reformers  denied  the  J^  recognize  royal  nominations  to  local  ecclesiastical 
honesty  and  godliness  of  attrition,  and  held  that  it  sim-  benefic^,  and  excommunicated  the  canons  appointed 
ply  made  man  a  hypocrite.  (Bull  of  Leo  X,  Exurge  ^Z,  ^^®  ^i^S'  "^^^^  they  attempted  to  exercise  their 
Domine,  prop.  VI;  Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  XIV,  office.  He  was  arrested  by  royal  order,  and  im- 
can.  iv.)  They  were  followed  by  Baius,  Jansen,  Poisoned  for  six  years  at  Caen,  where  he  died.  His 
and  his  disciples,  who  taught  that  fear  without  courageous  resistance  is  remarkable  at  a  time  when 
charity  was  bad,  since  it  proceeded  not  from  the  ecclesiastical  servility  in  France  had  reached  its 
love  of  God.  but  love  of  self  (see  prop.  7,  14,  15,  ^^^^'  ^\  Jungmann  remarks  (in  Herder,  K.  L., 
condemned  by  Alexander  VIII,  7  December,  1690;  \  ]^^V  ^^^\  .^  well-knowTi  Jansenistic  rigorism 
also  44,  61,  62,  condemned  by  Clement  X,  "Uni-  ^l  Caulet  and  his  clergy  was  partly  responsible  for 
gwiitus  ",  8  September,  1717.  Also  Bull  of  Pius  VI,  ^^^^^  stubborn  defiance  of  Louis  XIV;  they  rightly 
"Auctorem  Fidei"    prop.  25).  feared  that  the  nominees  of  the  king  would  not  be- 

Catholic  writers  m  the  seventeenth  century  ques-  long  to  their  faction.  ,  ,  ,  „  ^  ^ 
tioned,  whether  attrition  must  of  necessity  be  ac-  ^''^^'^^  ^  AssembUe  du  dergi  de  Fmnee  de  1682. 
companied  at  least  by  the  beginning  of  the  love  of  i^omas  j.  feHAHAN. 
God,  and,  that  granted,  whether  such  love  was  a  Aubermont,  Jean-Antoine  b',  of  Bois-le-Diic, 
disinterested  love  of  God  for  His  own  sake,  or  whether  theologian,  d.  22  November,  1686.  He  joined  the 
it  might  not  be  that  love  termed  ccmcupisceniiw,  or  Dominicans  in  1633,  taught  philosophy  and  theology- 
love  of  God  because  He  is  our  ^reat  good.  Some  in  several  convents  of  his  order,  was  made  doctor  of 
held  that  in  every  real  act  of  attrition  there  must  be  theology  at  Lou  vain  in  1652,  and  president  of  the 
the  beginning  of  love;  others  denied  categorically  local  Dominican  college  in  1653.  His  theological 
this  position,  exacting  only  that  sorrow  which  ex-  writings  are  mostly  in  defence  of  papal  infaUibility 
eludes  affection  for  sin,  and  hope  of.  pardon;  others  (1682)  and  against  the  Galilean  teachings  of  the 
insisted  that  there  must  be  at  least  a  beginning  of  Declaration  of  1682.  Shortly  before  his  death  he 
that  love  which  has  been  termed  above  concupis-  defended  against  Papebroch  St.  Thomas  of  Aquin^i 
centice;  while  still  others  exact  only  that  love  which  authorship  of  the  Mass  for  Corpus  Christi. 
begets  hope.  On  these  opinions  see  Vacant,  Diet,  de  Quetif-Echard,  SS.  0.P„  II,  709;  Vacant,  D%cL  de  Thioi. 
thiol.,  s.  v.  Attrition,  cols.  2252,  2253,  2254,  etc.  ^""^'^  ^'  ^^^'  rp„  to 
On  the  controversy,  particularly  in  Belgium,  see  ihomas  j.  &hahan. 
DOllinger  and  Reusch  (Diet.,  col.  2219).  Thecontro-  Aubery,  Joseph,  Jesuit  missionary  in  Canada, 
versy  waxed  so  warm  that  Alexander  VH  issued  a  b.  at  Gisors  in  Normandy,  10  May,  1673;  d.  at  St. 
decree,  6  May,  1667,  in  which  he  declares  his  distress  Francois,  Canada,  2  July,  1755.  At  the  age  of 
at  the  almost  scandalously  bitter  disputes  waged  seventeen  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  for 
by  certain  scholastic  theologians  as  to  whether  the  four  years  studied  in  Paris.  •  He  arrived  in  Canada 
act  of  attrition  which  is  conceived  through  fear  of  in  1694  and  completed  his  studies  at  Quebec,  where 
hell,  but  excludes  the  will  of  sinning  and  counts  on  he  was  also  instructor  for  five  years,  and  where  he 
obtaining  the  mercy  of  recovering  grace  through  the  was  ordained  in  1700.  Assigned  to  the  Abnaki 
Sacrament  of  Penance,  reguires  in  addition  some  act  mission,  he  re-established  in  1701  the  mission  at 
of  love  of  God,  and  then  '^enjoins  on  all  of  whatever  Medoctec  on  the  St.  John  River,  which  appears  to 
rank,  under  pain  of  incurring  the  severest  ecclesiasti-  have  been  abandoned  by  the  Franciscans  about  a 
cal  penalties,  not  to  presume  in  future  when  discuss-  year  earlier.  In  1708  he  was  ^ven  charge  of  the 
ing  the  aforesaid  act  of  attrition  to  brand  with  any  Abnaki  reduction  at  St.  Fran9ois,  and  exercised  the 
nmrk  of  theological  censure,  or  wrong,  or  contempt,  ap)ostolate  in  that  single  mission  for  neany  iuJf  sl 
either  one  or  the  other  of  the  two  opinions;  that  century.  Aubery  is  said  to  have  been  an  aDie 
denying  the  necessity  of  some  sort  of  love  of  God  lin^niist.  but  unfortunately  his  numArous  MSS..  with 


AUBIGHAO  67  AUOH 

the  mission  registers,  were  destroyed  by  fire  in  1759.  an  extended  work  on  the  theme,  entitled  "Conjeo- 

He  also  wrote  several  memorials  m  opposition  to  the  tures  acad^miques,  ou  dissertation  sur  Tlliade".     He 

claims  of  the  English  in  Acadia,  and  sent  them  to  died  before  he  was  able  to  make  the  final  revision, 

the  French  Government,  urginjg  that  the  boundaries  and  it  was  not  published  until   1715,  forty  years 

between  the  French  and  English  possessions  should  after  his  death.    The  work  was  known  to  Wolf,  and 

be  determined    by   mutual   agreement.    To    these  though  the  French  scholar  anticipated  many  of  his 

memorials  he  added  a  map,  giving  the  boundaries  own  views   he  does   him    scant   justice.      A  Qer- 

as  defined  by  the  treatv  of  Utrecht.     His  plan,  how-  man  critic  declares  that  d'Aubignac's  arguments  are 

ever,  was  not  acceptecl.     These  valuable  documents  substantially  as  strong  as  WoU's,  in  some  respects 

are  still  preserved  in  the  Paris  archives.    Chateau-  stronger,  and  that  if  Wolf's  "Prolegomena"  produced 

briand  reproduces  the  hte^story  of   Father  Aubery  greater  and  more  lasting  results,  this  is  due  less  to 

in  the  character  of  the  missionary  in  his  ''Atala".  the  character  of  his  arguments  than  to  the  greater 


^4  bbf.  d'A  ubignac 

,__-  ,».    ~^- Altertum  und  fur  Pd- 

18»«-                                                ^                 _,    -,  dagoffik  (Leipzig,  1905)   XV. 

Edward  P.  Spillane.  Charles  G.  Herbermann. 

k^ui.^^^  v^.^rr^r^  tiA^«, r^,  a««At.»  «««^«,««:  Aublgiie,  Jean-Henri  Merle  d'.    See  Reforma- 

AuDignac,  rRANfois  11edelin,Abbe  D  ,gramman-  ^jqj. 

an,  poet,  preacher,  archjBologist,  philologist,  b.  at  Paris,  .*                _               ,^       .,,            ..,^, 

4  August,  1604;  d.  at  Nemoura,  27  July,  1676.     He  ^^^^^?_3^^'  Pierre  d  ,  Grand  Master  of  the  Order 

took  his  name  from  an  abbey  that  was  granted  him.  of  bt.  John  of  Jerusalem,  b.  1423;  d.  1503.     He  made 

Mter  completmg  his  classical  and  theological  studies,  ^is  first  campaigns  against  the  Turks,  and  fought 

be  was  appointed  by  Cardinal   Richelieu  instructor  next  under  the  French  Dauphin  in  a  >var  agamst 

to  the  latter's  nephew,  the  young  Due  de  Fronsac,  to  ^'^^  Swiss  (1444).     It  was  on  his  return  from  thif 

whose  gratitude  he  owed  a  pension  of  4,000  Hvres.  last  expedition  that  he  obtained  from  Charles  VII 

This  appointment,  as  well  as  his  own  inclination,  led  pnnission  to  join  the  Hospitallers.     The  year  1460 

him  to  devote  his  time  to  literary  studies,  especially  fo^^d  ^^^  Castellan  of  Rhodes,  and  he  soon  after 

to  the  classics.     He  was   drawn   into   the   contro-  became  captain-general  of  the  city,  which  had  been 

verey  between  the  ancients   under  the  leadership  the  seat  of  the  order  since  1309,  and  was  now  the 

of  Boileau,  and  the  moderns  under  Perrault,  his  ch»ef  obstacle  to  Ottoman  supremacy  m  the  Med;- 


'*Z6nobie",  but  abo  a  work  entitled  "Pratique  du  ^^^,  }^  ^?  time  m  making  what  preparations  he 

Th^tre".  could  for  the  defence.     A  letter  to  the  houses  of  his 

The  ahh6  interests  modern  scholars  chiefly  because  ^^^^  brought  him  whatever  men  and  money  they 

of  his  attitude  on  what  is  known  as  the  ^'^  Homeric  could  spare.     Additional  sums  came  from  Sixtus  IV 

Question".     He  was    one    of    the    first  to  doubt  and  Louis  XI,  together  with  some  of  the  bravest 

the  existence  of  Homer;   he  even  propounded  the  soldiers   of   Italy   and    France.     Yet   with   all   his 

theory  that  the  Iliad  is  made  up  of  a  number  of  in-  exertions  he  ys^as  able  to  muster  no  more  than  450 

dependent  ballads  gathered  and  put  together  by  a  kn»g^ts  and  2,000  auxiliaries.     The  Turkish  arma- 

compUer  not  very  much  later  than  the  supposed  ment,  which  appared  before  Rhodes  23  May,  1480, 

dat^  of  Homer,  whom  he  took  to  be  Lycurgus.    This  fas  overwhelmingly  superior  in  numbers,  and  was 

firet  compilation,  howevtr,  was  not  final,  as  the  poem  furnished  with   the   best   artillery  then  obtainable, 

continued  to  be  handed  down  by  the  recitation  of  ^^t  the  example  of  d  Aubusson's  good  right  arm,  and 

rhapsodiats  who  again  divided  the  work  into  sep-  ^^  omnipresence,  made  heroes  of  all  the  defenders. 

arat«  songs,  Pisistratus  making  the  final  redaction.  Aft^  three  months  of   ahnost   incessant   fighting. 

These  views  were  based  partly  on  statements  in  the  which  cost  him  25,000   of  his   best  warriors,  the 

Greek  historians,  partly  on  reasons  drawn  from  the  Turkish  commander  was  forced  to  raise  the  siege, 

poem  itself.     D'Aubignac  dwelt  on  the  impossibility  For  this  brilliant  achievement  d'Aubusson  received 

of  tiansmittmg  so  long  a  poem  without  the  aid  of  writ-  a  cardmal  s  hat,  and  was  revered  by  all  Christendom 

ing  which  he,  as  did  Wolf,  beUeved  to  be  unknown  to  as  "the  Shield  of  the  Church  ".     In  his  subsequent 

Homer.     He  drew  arguments  from  the  construction  of  snorts  to  form  a  league  that  would  dnve  the  Turks 

the  epic,  its  lack  of  unity  and  its  multiplicity  of  themes,  ^^om  Constantinople,  he  failed, 

the  quarrdi  of  Achilles  bein^treated  of  m^  only  a  few  ^^^^^^^^^^"^^3^^  tt  ^T^on' tof^'l^iZ^S^r:  "^ 

books.     The    name    Iliad    he    considered    a  misno-  of  the  Grand-MaaUra  .  ,  .  of  St.  John  .  .  .  (Naples,   1636); 

mer,  since  Troy  is  not  the  subject  of  the  story.     The  Flandrin,  HUtory  of  the  KnighU  of  Rhodes  (Paris,  1876). 

Diad,  he  contended,  has  no  suitable  ending;  the  •^-  *^-  ^-  Vuibert. 
read«^s  curiosity  reniains  unsatisfied.  It  contains  Auch  (Augusta  Auscorum),  Archdiocese  of, 
many  cantos  that  might  be  omitted/  not  only  with-  comprises  the  Department  of  (Jers  in  France.  Be- 
out  detriment  but  with  positive  advantage  to  the  fore  the  Revolution  it  had  ten  suffragan  sees:  Acqs 
action  of  the  story.  Besides  these  general  consid-  (Dax)  and  Aire,  afterwards  united  as  the  Diocese  of 
entions,  he  adduced  numerous  details  which  consti-  Aire:  Lectoure,  later  reunited  with  the  Archdiocese 
tute  flaws  in  the  poem  as  we  possesa  it.  but  which  of  Auch;  Couserans,  afterwards  united  with  the 
would  be  entirely  justified  in  separate  oallads.  In  Diocese  of  Paraiers;  Oloron,  Lescar,  and  Bayonne, 
short,  there  are  few  objections  made  to  the  Iliad  united  later  as  the  Diocese  of  Bayonne;  Bazas,  after- 
by  inod^n  scholars  on  sesthetical  and  rhetorical  wards  united  with  the  Archdiocese  of  Bordeaux; 
pounds  which  are  not  touched  upon  by  the  French  Comminges,  united  later  with  the  Archdiocese  of 
humanist.  The  arguments  against  a  single  author,  Toulouse;  and  Tarbes.  Up  to  1789  the  Arch- 
diawn  from  the  character  of  the  language,  the  in-  bishops  of  Auch  bore  the  title  of  Primate  of  Aqui- 
tcrmixture  of  the  dialects  and  the  hke,  d'Aubignac  taine,  though  for  centuries  there  had  been  no  Aqui- 
couki  not  present,  because  linguistic  studies  in  his  taine.  The  Archdiocese  of  Auch,  re-established  in 
(fay  had  not  advanced  sufficiently  to  enable  him  1882,  was  made  up  of  the  former  archdiocese  of  tlie 
to  appreciate  the  "Homeric  Question"  from  this  same  name  and  the  former  Dioceses  of  Lectoure, 
pcint  of  view.  Though  the  abb6  had  on  many  Condom,  and  Lombez.  Condom  was  previously  a 
pccaMona  set  forth  in  writing  his  opinions  on  Homer,  suffragan  of  Bordeaux,  and  Lombez  of  Toulouse; 
t  was  only  shortly  before  his  death  that  he  wrote  thenceforth  the  suffragans  of  Auch  were  Aire,  Tarbes, 


AUOKLAlfD  68  AUOTOttSM 

and  Ba^onne.  A  local  tradition  that  dates  back  to  5,000  ha^  been  baptized,  "and  there  were  about  five 
the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century  tells  us  that  or  six  times  as  manv  catechumens."  In  1845  Dr. 
Taiuinus,  fifth  Bisho[>  of  Eauze  (Elusa),  abandoned  Pompallier  changed  his  headquarters  to  Auckland 
his  episcopal  city,  which  had  been  destroyed  by  the  In  1848  Auckana  and  Wellington  were  erected  into 
Vandals,  and  transferred  his  see  to  Auch.  Eauze,  sees.  The  Marist  Fathers  were  withdrawn  to  the 
in  fact,  probably  remained  a  metropolitan  see  till  Wellington  diocese  in  1850.  The  Rev.  James  Mc- 
about  the.  middle  of  the  ninth  century,  at  which  time,  Donald  then  became  the  principal  missionary  to  the 
owing  to  the  invasions  of  the  Northmen,  it  was  re-  Auckland  Maoris.  The  Maori  missions  in  New  Zea- 
imit^  to  the  Diocese  of  Auch,  which  had  existed  land  were  paralyzed  by  the  series  of  native  wars 
since  the  fifth  century  at  least  and  then  became  an  between  1843  and  1869.  They  were  taken  up  in 
archdiocese.  The  first  Bishop  of  Auch  known  to  the  Auckland  diocese  by  ;the  Mill  Hill  Fathers,  in 
history  is  the  poet,  St.  Orientius  (first  half  of  the  1886.  The  Sisters  of  Mercy  were  introduced  in 
fifth  century),  m  honour  of  whom  a  famous  abbey  1850.  In  1868  Dr.  Pompallier  went  to  France,  re- 
was  foundea  in  the  seventh  century.  Cardinal  Mel-  signed,  and  died  in  1870.  He  was  succeeded  by 
chiorde  Pohgnac,  author  of  the  "An  ti-Lucrdce,"  was  Dr.  Thomas  William  Croke  (1870-74),  afterwardis 
Archbishop  of  Auch  from  1725  to  1741.  The  cathe-  Archbishop  of  Cashel.  After  five  years,  Father 
dral  of  Sainte  Marie,  a  Gothic  structure  with  a  Walter  Bisschop  Steins,  S.J.,  was  appointed  to 
Byzantine  facade,  is,  in  spite  of  this  incongruity,  Auckland  (1879-81).  He  was  succeeoed  by  Dr. 
very  imposing;  its  fifteenth-century  windows  are  John  Edmund  Luck,  O.S.B.  (1882-96).  The  Right 
said  to  be  the  most  beautiful  in  France.  The  ancient  Rev.  George  Michael  Lenihan,  consecrated  15  No- 
episcopal  sees  of  Condom  and  Lombez  had  a  monastic  vember,  1896,  succeeded  him. 

origin.     Bossuet  was  non-resident  Bishop  of  Cbndom        Statistics. — At   the  census  of   1901,  the  white 

for  two  years  (1668-71).     At  the  end  of  the  year  population  of  the  Auckland  Provincial  District  was 

1905  the  Archdiocese  of  Auch  contained  238,448  in-  175,938  (of  whom  27^246  were  Catholics)'  Maoris, 

habitants;    29  parishes,  478    succursal    or  mission  21,291.    The    population    of    the    Kermaaecs    was 

churches,  and  61  vicariates.  eight,  all  non-CSitnolics.    The  official  estimate  of  the 

GaUia  Christiana  (od.  Nova.  1715).  I.  965-1010,  1325-30,  total  white  population  of  the  Auckland  Provincial 

and  I>ocum«nte,  169-172  and  202;  Duchesne,  Fa«((P»rfpMcopaux  ninfrinf     ^1    TWAmhAr    IQOfi    wm   211  2.^^-   CatholiP 

de  Vancienne  GauU,  II,  89-102:    Montlezun,  Vie  dea  mxinU  A^WtriCt,  61    L>ecemDer.  ItfUO,  waS   ZIM^,  V/atnouc 

eviqueM  de  la  mitropole  d'Auch  (Auch,  1857);    Chevalier,  population  of  Auckland  Provincial  District  (which  IS 

Topo-bibL  (Paria,  1894-99),  251-252.  coterminous  with  the  Diocese  of  Auckland  if  the  Ker- 

Georqes  Goyatj.  madec  Islands  be  included),  32,272:  population  of  the 

A^««    r«^^^r«,r*.  ^«     T«  iHAQ  «  ^^,..^^.'1  ^f  A„«k  Kermadec  Islands,  five,  all  non-Catholics.    According 

A  ^'  »^t    S^^  /V  J  i^Ho^    «n  ^L^ht  to  "  New  Zealand  Stotistica,  1904  ",  p.  503,  there  weii 

''r't^J^^  fTf  PafhXl  of  C^Ant"  .«rt^r^  in  the  Auckland  Provinciai  District,  at  the  close  of 

?K°"'?»'K!r     A?*  ^•.n^^W  n  1077  ?n«a?n^I,^  1904.  37  Catholic  schoob,  with  96  teachers  and  2,393 

their  tithes.     At  a  council  neia  in  1077  (near  Cliovem-  ^„  -i*       rpu^  f^iiy^,«;.>«  «r™  ♦i^^  ^r.i<^;oof  ;m>i  afaf ;««;/»« 

populania)  William,  Archbishop  of  Auch.  was  deposed  P^Pi'^H /^^""^irpU,^®  2fi!lim^ 

by  Gerald  legate  of  Gregory  /ll.     In  1276  a  coWil  {"'  ^PV^'  ^^06:  secular  clergy,  26    MiUHdlFatbeR 

wM  held  at  Auch  in  defenc^  of  ecclesiastical  jurisdicv  Jf'irr ''ITP^*!^  .'A'  J^.^i^v,^  Hi^^^Tf '9I 

tion  and  immunities.    In  1851  a  provincial' council  Sli^'t"   ,2r."R*»&i^l^*SSL?^'^^^ 

of  Auch  drew  up  a  number  of  decrees  concerning  <'^""'*'^' I»  =  S^l*'"*"*  lr^teK^*tii3*^'  !.?^ 

^^ec^iitriuSL''^'"'''^'  ^"'"'^  ''°'^''^'  °u^^-ZV':^''^i^^ir&foi>r^''J^ 

ml^^C^..  X?x!  W3.  XXV.  107.  217-281:  CAZAn-  «nd  higii  fhools  13 ;  parochial  schools,  25 ;  orphan- 

KKS,  ConcileaefynodeBdu  diocese  d*  Auch,  in  Revue  deOatcoffne  ageS,  2:    home    for    the    ageO    poor,   1;  hospital,  1  ; 

(1878).  XIX.  70-84;  112-126;  CHEVAihER.  Topo-bibl,  (Paria,  children  in  Catholic  schools,  2,600. 

1894-99)    251.  Pompallier,  Early  Hiatory  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Oceania 

A»«vi«»«^     rk,^^«««    ^B.     ^rx»^»«;o^    *U^    ■D^,r:«  CE.  T.,  Auckland,  1888);  Cardinal   Moran,  Hietory  of   the 

Auckland,    Diocese    of,    COmpns^    the    Provm-  hatholic  Church  i^  Auetralaeia  {Sydney,  no  dsLte):  Mabbhaui^ 

cial  Distnct  of  Auckland  (New  Zealand),  with  ite  Christian  Mieeione  (New  York,  1896);  New  Zealand  Census, 
islete,  and  the  Kermadec  Group.  Area,  21,665  yol.  IWI  (WeUington,  1902);  New  Zealand  Statistics  (Well^ 
square  miles.  On  Trinity  Sunday,  1835,  the  Vicariate  "'**^"'  1905-06).  Henry  W  Cleary 
Apostolic  of  the  Western  Pacific  was  erected  by- 
Pope  Gregory  XVI.  The  Abbd  Jean  Baptiste  Fran-  Anctorem  Fidei,  a  Bull  issued  by  Pius  VI,  28 
gois  Pompallier  was  chosen  as  its  first  vicar.  The  August,  1794,  in  condemnation  of  the  Gallican  and 
territory  under  his  jurisdiction  comprised  all  New  Jansenist  acts  and  tendencies  of  the  Synod  of  Pistoia 
Zealand,  the  present  Vicariates  Apostolic  of  Fiji,  (1786).  To  understand  its  bearing,  it  is  well  to  ob- 
(Ilentral  Oceanica,  British  New  Guinea,  Dutch  New  serve  that  Leopold  II,  Grand  duke  of  Tuscanv(1765- 
Guinea,  New  Pomerania,  (part  of)  Gilbert  Islands  90),  pursued  the  ecclesiastical  policy  of  his  brother. 
New  Caledonia,  Navigators'  Islands,  New  Hebrides,  Joseph  II  of  Austria;  i.  e.  he  practically  arrogated 
and  the  Prefectures  Apostolic  of  North  Solomon  Is-  to  himself  supreme  authority  over  all  ecclesiastical 
lands  and  Northern  New  Guinea.  The  new  vicar  was  matters  within  his  dominions.  In  1785  he  sent  fifty- 
consecrated  in  Rome,  30  June,  and  sailed  from  Havre,  seven  articles  to  each  bishop  in  the  grand  duchy, 
24  December,  1836,  accompanied  by  the  Marist  with  orders  to  consider  them  in  a  diocesan  ^od,  as 
Fathers  Servant  and  Bataillon  (I^yons),  Chanel  and  a  preliminary  to  a  national  ^od.  in  which  they  were 
Bret  (Belley),  and  three  lay-brothers.  Father  Bret  finally  to  be  discussed.  Scipio  de'  Ricci,  Bishop  of 
died  on  the  voyage.  Father  Bataillon  (afterwards  Pistoia,  held  his  diocesan  synod,  and  approved  not 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  Ontral  Oceanica)  was  left  at  only  the  fifty-seven  articles  drawn  up  oy  order  of 
Wallis  Island,  and  Father  Chanel  (Blessed  Peter  Leopold,  but  added  a  number  of  others  of  similar 
Chanel,  Protomartyr  of  Australasia)  at  Futuna.  import.  Among  them  were  the  following;  All  eccle- 
Dr.  Pompallier  and  Father  Ser\'ant  reached  Hokianga  siastical  authority  comes  directly  from  the  members 
(Auckland  Province)  10  January,  1838,  and  were  of  the  Church  at  large,  whose  commissioned  minis- 
provided  for  by  an  Irish  Catholic,  Thomas  Poynton.  ters  the  pastors  are.  The  pope  is  only  ministerially 
At  that  time  there  were  probably  fewer  than  100  head  of  the  Church.  Bishops  do  not  depend  on  the 
white  (Catholics  in  all  New  Zealand.  Other  Marist  pope  for  any  jurisdiction  in  the  ^vemment  of  their 
Fathers  arrived  in  1839  and  subsequent  years.  The  diocese.  In  diocesan  synods  pansh  priests  have  the 
missions  to  the  aborigines  (Maoris)  became  very  sue-  same  right  of  voting  and  deciding  as  the  bishop, 
oessful,  despite  grave  calumnies  propagated  by  Reserved  cases  should  be  abolished.  Excommuni- 
Wesleyan  trader-missionaries.     By  April,  1846,  about  cation  has  only  an  external  effect.    It  ia  ouDeratitkui 


AXJDIA1I8                                69  AUDIFniEDI 

to  have  more  devotion  towards  one  sacred  image  of  the  highest  rank,  being  considered  as  equal  to  the 

than  towards  another.    Civil  rulers  have  the  right  pope,  sit  near  him  during  audience,  under  the  same 

of  maldng  impediments  diriment  of  matrimony  and  oatdachin  or  canopy.    The  attendance  of  guards  and 

of  dispensing  from  them.     Bishops  are  not  bound  to  chambeiiains  andf  court  officials  is  always  doubled 

make  an  oam  of  obedience  to  the  pope  before  their  when  such  audiences  are  given.     In  the  ordinary 

consecration.    AU  religious  orders  should  hve  under  audiences  given  to  priests  and  lay  persons  the  general 

the  same  rule  and  wear  the  same  habit.    Each  church  practice  is  that  they  present  a  letter  of  recommends^ 

should  have  only  one  altar;  l^e  hturgy  should  be  tion  from  the  bishop  of  their  diocese,  which  is  pre- 

in  the  vernacular,  and  only  one  Mass  should  be  eel-  sented  to  the  rector  of  the  national  college  in  Rome 

ebrated  on  Sundays.     Leopold   caused  a  national  of  the  country  from  which  thev  come.     The  rector 

synod  to  be  held  at  Florence  in  1787,  but  he  did  not  procures  from  the  master  of   the  chamber  the  nee- 

find  the  other  bishops  as  pliant  as  Scipio  de'  Ricci.  essary  card  of  admission.     Amongst  the  instructions 

Nevertheless  he  continued  assuming  ail  ecdesiastical  printed  on  this  card  are  those  regulating  the  dress  to 

authority,  prohibited  all  appeals  to  the  pope,  and  be  worn  on  such  occasion:  for  priests  the  cassock 

even  2U)pointed  bishops,  to  whom  the  pope  of  course  with  a  lar^e  black  mantle  (Jerraiolone)^  such  as  Roman 

rcfusecf  canonical  institution.    Finally,  the  Bull '' Auo-  secular  pnests  wear;  for  lay  men,  evening  dress  with 

torem  Fidel"  was  published,  in  whicE  eighty-five  arti-  white  cravat;  for  ladies,  a  black  drees  with  black 

des  taken  from  the  Synod  of  Pistoia  were  catalogued  lace  veil  on  the  head.     On  these  occasions  it  is  for- 

and  condemned.    After  the  publication  of  the  Bull,  bidden  to  present  to  the    pope  for  his  signature 

Sdpio  de'  Ricci  submitted.     In  1805  he  took  occa-  written  requests  for  indulgences,  faculties^  privileges, 

non  of  the  presence  of  Pius  YJf.  in  Florence,  on  his  or  the  like.     Since  the  election  of  Pope  Pius  X  there 

way  to  Rome  from  his  exile  m  France,  to  ask  in  has  been  some  concession  in  the  matter  of  drees  for 

person  for  pardon  and  reconciliation.    He  died  re-  the  laity  in  public  audience;  apparently,  in  order  that 

Ssntant,   1810,  in  the  Dominican  convent  of  San  every  ''man  of  good- will ",  non-Catholic  as  well  as 

arco  at  Florence.  Catholic,  who  desires  to  see  the  pope  may  have  his 

DEMziNosa-STAHL.  Enchiridion  Sj/mbolorum  el  DeAnit.  (9th  wish  fulfilled.     This  has   increased  the  numb«r  of 

tip^^^J^X^kt^'-il^^i.  ^%iti^ tSil,-^.  P««0!«  '«»iyed  in  audience,  but  it  has  lessened 

Suuo  e  Ckiesa  aoUo  Leopoldo  I  (Florence.  1856);  Rbumont,  occasions  for  the  pope  s  Utterances  on  various  aspects 

Getchichte  von  Toacana,  II.  167  sqq.;  Gklli,M emorie  di  of  the  tendencies  of  the  time,  which  distinguished 

£SSTr^^i^i°^/?S'i?g'i>^~l85KfT'SA^  ^)%!^^^^^^^o{Uo  XIII  and  of  the  latter  yea« 

272-81;  VI,  407-15.  of  Pius  IX,  and  which  were  statements  that  awakened 

M.  O'RioROAN.  profound  interest. 

HuMPHBBT.  Urba  et  Orbit,  or  the  Pope  ae  Bishop  and  Pontiff 

AndianS.     See  Anthropomorphism.  (London,  ISOO);    L'Egliae  catholique  h  la  fin  du  XIX^  nicle 

Audiencet,  Pontifical,  the  receptions  given  by  **^  '  p,  l,  Connellan. 
the  pope  to  cardinals,  sovereigns,  princes,  ambassa- 
dors, and  other  persons,  ecclesiastical  or  lay,  having  AudifCredi,  Giovanni  Battista,  b.  at  Saoivio, 
business  with  or  interest  in  the  Holy  See.  Such  near  Nice,  in  1734^  d.  at  Rome,  July,  1794.  He 
audiences  form  an  important  part  of  the  poi)e's  entered  the  Dominican  Order,  and  soon  attracted 
daily  duties.  Bishops  of  every  rite  in  communion  attention  b}r  his  taste  for  books  and  his  talent  for 
with  the  Holy  See,  and  from  every  nation,  come  to  the  exact  sciences.  After  being  occupied  in  various 
Rome,  not  only  to  venerate  the  tombs  of  the  Apos-  houses  as  professor  and  bibliographer,  he  was  at 
ties,  but  also  to  consult  the  supreme  pastor  of  the  length  transferred  to  the  Dominican  house  of  studies 
Churclu  Thd  master  of  the  chamber  (Maestro  di  (S.  Maria  sopra  Minerva),  and  was  placed  in  chaise 
Contfra),  whose  office  corresponds  to  that  of  grand  (1765)  of  the  great  Bibliotheca  Casanatensis,  founded 
chamberiain  in  royal  courts,  is  the  personage  to  whom  in  17()0  by  Cardinal  Girolamo  Casanata.  Audiffredi 
all  requests  for  an  audience  with  tne  pope  are  made,  published  a  bibliographical  work  in  four  folio  volumes 
even  those  which  the  ambassadors  and  other  mem-  entitled  ''Catalogus  bibliothec®  Casanatensis  Hb- 
beis  of  the  Diplomatic  Corps  present  through  the  rorum  typis  impressorum,  1761-1788".  The  work 
cardinal  secretary  of  state.  He  is  one  of  the  four  remains  unfinished,  not  proceeding  beyond  the  letter 
Palatine  Predates  who  are  in  frequent  relations  with  L,  and  contains  a  list  of  his  own  publications, 
the  pope,  and  his  office  is  regarded  as  leading  to  the  Similar  works  were  the  "Catalo^us  historico-criticus 
caidmalate.  The  pope  receives  every  day  the  Romanarum  editionum  sseculi  XV"  (Rome,  1786, 
cardinal  prefect  of  one  or  other  of  the  sacred  quarto),  and  the  more  extensively  planned  ''Cata- 
congregations.  At  these  audiences  decrees  are  lo^us  historico-criticus  editionum  Italicarum  ssculi 
signed  or  counsel  given  by  the  pope,  and  hence,  by  XV '*  fibid.,  1794,),  which  was  to  give  an  account 
their  very  nature,  they  are  of  no  slight  importance  of  books  printed  in  twenty-six  Itafian  cities.  Au- 
to the  prjictical  work  of  the  Church.  Prelates  con-  diffredi  did  not  live  to  complete  the  work.  The 
nected  with  other  institutions  either  in  Rome  or  first  part,  extending  to  the  letter  G,  contains  a 
abroad,  generals  and  procurators  of  religious  orders,  short  biography  of  the  author  introduced  by  the 
are  also  received  at  regular  intervals  and  on  statea  publisher.  Audiffredi 's  position  enabled  him  to 
days.  The  days  and  hours  of  regular  audiences  are  become  an  expert  antiquarian,  and  he  found  time 
specified  on  a  printed  form  which  is  distributed  to  all  to  cultivate  his  mathematical  talent  and  to  devote 
cardimds  and  persons  whose  duty  and  privilege  it  is  himself  to  astronomy.  He  built  a  small  observatory, 
to  have  such  audience.  This  printed  form  is  changed  and  at  intervals  busied  himself  with  observation, 
every  six  months,  as  the  hours  of  atidience  vary  The  eighteenth  century  was  much  occupied  with  the 
according  to  the  season.  Audiences  to  sovereigns  or  problem  of  solar  parallax.  In  1761  and  1769  transits 
princes  travelQin^  under  their  own  names  and  titles  of  Venus  were  observed,  and  Audiffredi  contributed 
are  invested  with  special  ceremonies.  When  the  to  the  work  in  his  publication, ''Phenomena  coelestia 
pope  was  a  temporal  ruler  the  master  of  the  cham-  observata — investigatio  parallaxis  soils.  Exercitatio 
ber,  notified  beforehand  by  the  secretary  of  state  Dadei  Ruffi"  (anagram  for  Audiffredi).  The  pre- 
of  the  proximate  arrival  in  Rome  of  a  soverei|^,  dieted  reappearance  in  the  middle  of  the  century 
went,  accompanied  by  the  secretary  of  ceremonial,  of  Halley's  comet  intensified  scientific  interest  in 
tereral  miles  beyond  the  city  gates  to  meet  him.  cometic  orbits.  The  epoch  was  favoured  with  a 
Returning  to  Rome,  he  notified  the  pope  of  the  event,  number  of  brilliant  objects  of  this  kind,  and  that  of 
and  visited  the  sovereign  to  acquaint  him  with  the  1769  distinguished  itself  by  its  great  nucleus  and 
day  and  hour  of  the  pontifical  audience.    Sovereigns  by  the  taU  which  stretched  over  more  than  half 


AUDIN                                   70  AUDITOR 

the  sky.    AudifTredi  took  observations  of  the  positions  and  frequently  quoted  approvingly.     He  also  de- 

of  the  comet  and  published  his  results  under  the  title,  voted  himself  to  historical  studies,  especially  in  il* 

''Dimostrazione  aella  staxione  delta  cometa,  1769"  lustration  of  the  papacy,  bringing  to  them  absolutely 

(1770).     A  general  taste  and  capacity  for  the  natu-  good  intentions,  assiduous  industry,  and  much  just 

ral  sciences  distinguished  this  learned  Dominican,  and  acute  observation,  such  as  was  not  then  common 

but,  like  that  of  many  savants,  Audiffredi's  life  was  in  the  circle  which  surrounded  him.     Nevertheless 

one  of  retirement  and  obscurity.  these  historical  labours  had  no  great  intrinsic  value, 

H.  De  Laak.  especially  at  a  time  when  so  large  a  number  of  docu- 

™®^^  ^®^  being  published.     For  this  reason  they 
Audin,  J.-M.-ViNCENT,  b.  at  Lyons  m  1793;  d.  m  are  no  longer  sought  after  by  students. 
Paris,  21  February,  1851.     He  first  studied  theology  Audisio  had  no  deep  insight  into  theology  and  law, 
in  the  seramary  of  Argentidre,  and  afterwards  pur-  and  often  displayed  deplorable  lapses  on  these  sub- 
sued  the  study  of  law.     He  passed  his  law  exam-  jects  in  his  writings  and  his  lectures.     At  the  time 
ination  but  never  practised   his  profession^  having  of  the  Vatican  Council  he  was  accused  of  Gallicanism, 
decided  to  enter  on  a  literary  career.     His  first  pub-  to  the  great  grief  of  hb  patron  Pius  IX.  and  his  work 
lications    were:    "La    lanteme    magique"    (1811);  on  political  and  religious  society  in  the  nineteenth 
"Blanc,  bleu  et  rouge"  (1814);   "Tableau  histonque  century  was  condemned  by  the  Church.     Audisio, 
des  6v6nemente  qiu  se  sont  accomplis  depuis  le  retour  however,  was  profoundly  Catholic  in  feeling,  and  not 
de  Bonaparte    jusqu'au    r^tablissenient    de    Louis  only  did  he  fully  submit  to  the  condemnation  of  his 
XVIH"  (1815).     He  also  contributed  to  the  "Jour-  book,  but  he  warmly  protested  against  the  accusation 
nal  de  Lyon "  founded  by  BaUanche.     He  ?oon  left  of  heterodoxy  and  d&obedience.     He  was  a  fervent 
his  native  city  and  settled  m  Paris  where  he  opened  upholder  of  papal  and  Catholic  rights  against  the 
a  bookstore  and  at  the  same  time  was  active  with  political  liberalism  of  Piedmont.     He  was  one  of  the 
his  pen.     He  first  published  articles  of  a  political  founders  of    the  Catholic  irUransigeard  paper,  the 
cast,  and  historical  tales  in  the  style  of  the  time,  "Armonia^of  Turin.-    It  waa  for  this  reason  that  he 
such  as  "Michel  Morin  et  la  Ligue  *;  "Florence  ou  fell  a  victim  to  the  anti-clerical  influence  which  had 
la Religieuse";  " Le  Regicide",  and  others.     He  then  deprived  him  of  his  post  at  Supeiga. 
took  up  historical  writing,  his  first  work  of  this  kind  feut  in  Rome  Audisio  united  himself  with  that  clique 
bemg  "  Le  Concordat  entre  L^n  X  et  Fran<?ois  I«  "  of  liberal  Italian  ecclesiastics  (such  as  Monsignor  Liv- 
(1821),  which  is,  for  the  most  part,  a  translation  of  erani)  who  advocated  reforms  and  concessions  not  al- 
that  document.    This  was  followed  by  his  "  Histoire  ^ays  just  and  often  premature,  and  who  professed  doc- 
de  la  St.  Barth^lemy"  (2  vols.,  1826).    These  two  trines  of  little  weight,  sometimes  false,  often  inexact, 
works  were  fauly  well  received  although  some  eccle-  Iq  this  enviromnent  Audisio  compromised  himself, 
siastical  critics  accused  him  of  bemg  too  favourable  but  his  figure  remaias  that  of  an  extremely  religious 
to  the  Protestante.    Audin  publicly  defended  him-  and  charitable  priest  and  of  an  eager  student  devoted 
self  against  this  imputation,  and  a«^rted  his  firm  to  the  Holy  See  and  to  the  Church.     Some  pages  of 
behef  in  the  doctrines  of  the  Cathohc  Church.     He  his  works  on  the  popes  still  merit  consultation, 
now  began  his  most  important  work,  the  history  of  The  works  of  Audisio  are:  "Lezioni  di  Eloquenza 
the   Protestant   Reformation,    which   he   published  Sacra"  (several  editions);  "Juris  Natur®  et  Gentium 
from  1839  to  1842  m  four  booKs,  as  follows:  (l)"His-  PubUci  Fimdamenta"  (Rome.  \6b2)\  "idea  storica 
tou^  de  la  vie,  des  ouvrages  et  de  la  doctrine  de  delladiplomaziaecclesiastica'^  (Rome,  1864);  "Storia 
Luther"  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1839;  2d  ed.,  3  vols.,  1850);  religiosa  e  civile  dei  papi "    (5  vols.,  Rome,  1860); 
(2)  "Histou^  de  la  vie,  des  ouvraces  et  de  la  doc-  "  Sistema  politica  e  religiosa  di  Federico  II  edl  Pietro 
trine  de  Calvin"   (2  vols.,  1841;  2d  ed.,  1851);  (3)  ^ella  Vigna"  (1866);  "Delia  society  politica  e  reli- 
" Histoire  de  L6on  X  et  de  son  si6cle"  (2  vols.,  1844;  gjosa  rispetto  al  secolo  XIX"  (Florence,  1876),  con- 
2d  ed.,  1851);  (4)  "Histoire  de  Henn  VIII  et  du  demned  by  decree  of  the  Holy  Office,  April,  1877: 
schisme  d' Angleterre "  (2  vols.,  1847;  2d  ed.,  1862).  "Vita  di  Pio  IX". 

The  author  claims  to  have  based  his  statements  upon  Nxwva  Endchpedia  Italiana  (SuppL,  I,  1889);  Voet  delta 

researches  which  he  made  in  the  archives  of  various  VeriUi  (Rome,  29  September,  1882). 

European  cities,  especially  in  the  archives  of  the  U.  Benigni. 

Vatican.    The  work  shows  that  this  assertion  can-  Auditor,  the  designation  of  certain  officials  of  the 

not  be  accepted  in  its  entirety.    The  volumes  are  Roman  Curia,  whose  duty  it  is  to  hear  (Lat.  axidire) 

written  in  a  romantic  manner,  and  contam  many  ^nd  examine  the  causes    submitted   to  the  pope, 

particulars  which  sober  criticism  has  long  proved  to  xhey  cannot,  however,  give  a  decision  unless  they 

n.    These 

_      part  of  the  Roman  Ouria  since  the 

and  contemporary  literature,  and  of  the  general  con-  Middle   Ages.    Amongst    the    principal    dignitaries 

dition  of   Germany  at   that  period"    (Kirchenlex.,  bearing  tSs  title  are:    (1)  AudUor  PajxB.     This  of- 

8.  V.  Luther).             .    T,r      ,  filial  was  at  first  the  adviser  of  the  pope  in  consis- 

La  Grande  Encyclopidxe,  IV,  611 ,                    KmscH  ^^^  *^^  theological  matters,  but  he  aft«n\'ard3 

received  also  judicial  power  in  civil  and  criminal 

Audisio,  GuGLiELMO,  b.  at  Bra,  Piedmont,  Italy,  cases.     Since  1831,  however,  his  duties  are  restricted 

1801 ;  d.  in  Rome.  27  September,  1882.     He  was  pro-  to  certain  ecclesiastical  affairs,  such  as  assisting  at 

feasor  of  sacred  eloquence  in  the  episcopal  seminary  the  examinations  of  episcopal  candidates  for  Italy 

of  Bra,  appointed  presiding  officer  of  tne  Academy  and  the  transaction  of^  matters  relating  to  favours, 

of  Superga  (Turin)  by  King  Charles  Albert,  but  was  etc.      (2)  Auditor  Camera  or  Audiior  Oentral,     This 

expelled  from  this  office  because  he   was  opposed  official  originally  had  very  extended  powers,  such  as 

to  the  irreligious  politics  of  the  Piedmontese  Govern-  judging  appeals  against  the  decisions  of  bishops ^ 

ment.     He  then  went  to  Rome,  where  Pius  IX  ap-  and  proc^ing  against  bishops  themselves  in  im- 

pointed  him  professor  of  natural  and  popular  ri^ts  portant  cases  and  even  punishing  them  without   a 

m  the  Roman  University,  and  Canon  of  the  Vatican  special  commission  from  the  pope.     He  could  also 

Basilica.  take  co^izance  of  all  cases  of  civil,  criminal,  and 

Audisio  was  a  pious  and  charitable  priest,  and  mixed   jurisdiction   in   the   States   of   the  Church, 

spent  large  sums  in  benevolent  works.     He  was  an  Nearly  all  these  and  similar  powers  have  now  been 

excellent  teacher  of  sacred  eloquence,  and  his  manual  withdrawn,  and  the  tribunal  of  the  Camera  Apt^^ 

on  the  subiect  was  Iranslated  into  many  languages  Udica  is  at  present  limited  almost  entirely  to  ex- 


AUDBAN  71  ▲UBBAN 

peditinc  oommissioiis  in  certain  well-defined  cases.  1640:  d.  in  PaCris,  1703,  went  to  Paris,  after  being 

(3)  Amiton  of  the  Rota  were  originally   chaplains  tau^t  engraving  by  his  father  and  his  uncle,  to 

of  the  pope.     By  degrees   thev   were  constituted  receive  instruction  trou)  the  painter  Lebrun,  who 

into    a   tnbunal,  and  are    said    to    have  derived  gave  him  some  of  his  paintings  to  reproduce.    He 

their  name  from   the  round  table    (Lat.  rota)  at  worked  in  Paris  four  years,  and   in   1665   went  to 

iriiich  thev  sat.    Important  cases  laid  before  the  Rome,  where  he  remained  three  years  and,  it  is  said. 

Hcdv  See  by  sovereigns  and  nations  were  referred  became  a  pupU  of  Carlo  Maratta.     He  etched  as  well 

to  the  Rota  for  iudnnent,  and  its  decisions  became  as  engraved,  and  produced  in  Rome  some  plates — 

precedents  for  all  other  tribunals.     It  also  served  as  notably,   a   portrait   of   Pope   Clement   I A   which 

a  supreme  court  for  civil  cases  in  the  States  of  the  brought  him  much  admiration.     At  the  suggestion 

Cburch.    At  present,  however,  the  Auditors  of  the  of  Colbert,  Louis  XIV  sent  for  the  artist  aim  made 

Rota  are  restricted  practically  to  giving  deliberative  him  engraver  to,  and  pensioner  of  the  king,  with 

opinions  in  processes  of  beatification  or  canonization  apartments  at  the  factory  of  the  Gobelins.    This 

and  deciding  questions  of  precedence  between  eccie-  recognition  of  his  great  ability  spuired  Audran  to 

nastical  di^itaries.    They  are  generally  also  at-  even  greater  endeavours,  in  which  he  was  further 

tached  as  Consultors  to  various  Koman  Congrega-  encouraged  by  his  former  patron,  Lebrun,  more  of 

tions.  whose  paintings  he  reproduced,  notably  the  ^*  Battles 

Baaw.  T*e  Roman  Cotart  {New  York,  1806);  Ferraris,  of  Alexander".     In  November,  1681,  he  was  made 

S^'cLf^  1889)  ^     ^^'  HuMPHRET,  Urbs  et  ^  member  of  the  CouncQ  of  the  Royal  Academy  of 

William  H.  W.  Fanning.  Painting     The  first  productions  of  Gerard  Audran 

were  stiff  and  dry,  and  his  subsequent  onginal  and 

Andran,  the  family  name  of  four  generations  of  dis-  vigorously  brilliant  st^de  is  credited  to  the  counsels 

tin^ished  French  artists,  natives  of  Paris  and  Lyons,  of  Maratta,  Ciro  Ferri,  and,  notably,  of  his  lifelong 

which  included  eight  prominent  engravers  and  two  friend  Lebrun.     A  second  visit  to  Rome  was  made. 

painters.    They  flourished  in  the  seventeenth  and  where  was  signed  the  plate  after ''The  Four  Cardinal 

ei^teenth  centuries,  and  some  of  their  productions  Virtues'',  b^r  Domenicnino,  which  is  in  the  church  of 

rank  among  the  finest  examples  of  the  art  of  the  San  Carlo  ai  Catinari.    Among  the  original  works  of 

burin.  this  famous  engraver  are  the  portrait  of  the  Rospiff^ 

Charles,  b.  in  Paris,  1594;  d.  1674,  was  the  elder  liosi  Pope,  al^dy  alluded  to,  those  of  Samuele 

of  two  brothers,  some  say  cousins  (the  other  being  Sorbiere,   Andrea   Argoli   of   Padua,  the  Capuchin 

daude  the  First),  who  attained  reputation  as  en-  Benoit  Langlois,  the  Bishop  of    Angers  Henri  Ar- 

gravers.     Charles,  who  reached  by  far  the  greater  nauld,  and  the  sculptor  Frangois  du  Quesnoy,  called 

eminence,  after  receiving  some  instruction  in  draw-  Fiamingo,    ''Wisdom    and    Abundance   above    two 

ing,  went  as  a  young  man  to  Rome  to  study  further  C^enii",  and  the  vignette,  "St.  Paul  preaching  at 

the  engraver's  art,  and  while  there  produced  some  Athens ",    Particularly  esteemed  among  the  plates 

[dates  which  attracted  attention.     He  engraved  in  of  Gerard  Audran  are  two  after  cartoons  of  Raphael 

pure  line,  and  took  the  work  of  Cornelius  Bloemart,  "The  death  of  Ananias"  and  "Paul  and  Bamal:^  at 

with  whom  he  studied,  as  his  model.     On  his  return  Lystra",    "The   Martyrdom    of    St.  Agnes",    after 

from  Italy  the  engraver  lived  for  some  years  in  Lyons  Domenichino,    and     '  Coriolanus"    after    Poussin. 

before  settling  in  Paris.    Among  his  two  hundred  or  Amon^  the  other  painters  whose  works  he  reproduced 

more  plates  are  several  original  portraits,  including  are  Titian,  Rubens,  Giulio  Romano,  Annibale  Ca^ 

one  of  Henry  II,  Prince  of  Oond^,  and  reproductions  racci,   Pietro   da  Cortona,   Guercino,   Guido   Reni, 

of  worics  by  Titian,  the  Caracci,  Domenichino,  Palma  Palma  the  Younger,  Lanfranco,  Min^rd,,  Coypcl, 

the  Younger,  Albano  and  Lesueur.  Lesueur,  Bourguignon,  Lafa^e,  and  Girardpn.    He 

Claude  the  First,  b.  in  Paris,  1597;  d.  at  Lyons,  was  at  times  assisted  by  his  nephews,  Benoit  the 

1677,  studied  with  Charles,  but  in  his  portrait  ana  Elder  and  Jean.     In  1683  Gerard  published  a  work 

allegoncal  plates,  which  were  not  many,  adopted  a  called  "The  Proportions  of  the  Human  Body  meas- 

8(»newhat  different  manner.     He  became  professor  ured  by  the  most  Beautiful  Figures  of  Antiquity'', 

of  engraving  in  the  Academy  of  Lyons,  and  left,  to  which  has  been  translated  into  English. 

perpetuate  his  branch  of  the  family  and  its  artistic        Claude  the  Third,  son  of  Germain,  and  the  second 

reputation,  three  sons:  Germain,  Claude  the  Second,  painter  of  the  family,  .b.  at  Lyons,  1658;  d.  in  Paris, 

and  Gerard,  the  last  of   whom  became  the  most  1734,  was  notable  as  being  the  master  of  the  famous 

famous  artist  among  the  Audrans.  Watteau.     He  studied  with  his  father  as  well  as  under 

Germain,  the  eldest  son  of  Claude  the  First,  b.  at  his  uncles,  Germain  and  Qaude  the  Second.    Chosen 

Lyons,  1631;  d.  1710,  was  a  pupil  of  his  uncle  Charles  cabinet  painter  to  the  king,  he  was  also  for  nearly 

and  worked  both  in  Paris  and  Lyons.     Among  his  thirty  vears  keeper  of  the  palace  of  the  Luxembour;^. 

plates  are  portraits  of  Richelieu  and  Charles  Em-  where  he  died.    He  executed  considerable  work  in  oil 

manu^  of  Savoy  (the  latter  after  F.  de  la  Monce) .  and  fresco  in  various  royal  residences. 

kuidscapes  after  Toussin,  and  fancies  and  ornamental        Benoit  the  Elder,  third  son  of  Germain,  b.  at  Ly- 

designs,  after  Lebrun  among  others.     His  four  sons  ons,  1661;  d.  1721,  in  the  vicinity  of  Sens,  was  first 

were  Claude  the  Third,  Benoit  the  Elder,  Jean,  and  taught  the  family  art  by  his  father  and  then  by  his 

Lotus.  uncle  Gerard.     He  made  an  excellent  reputation  by 

Clattde  the  Second,  son  of  Claude  the  First,  b.  at  his  reproduction  of  portraits   and  historical  works. 

Lyons,  1639;  d.  in  Paris,  1684,  was  the  first  painter  Among  his  best  productions  are  "The  Seven  Sacra- 

in  the  family.     After  receiving  instruction  in  orawing  ments    .    after  Poussin,  and  "The  Bronze  Serpent ", 

from  his  uncle  Charles,  he  went  to  study  painting  in  after  Lebrun.    He  became  a  M^nber  of  the  Academy 

Rome.     On  his  return  to  Paris  he  entered  the  studio  and  engraver  to  the  king. 

of  the  cdebrated  historical  painter  Charles  Lebrun,        Jean,  fourth  son  of  (^armain,  b.  at  Lyons,  1667; 

on  whose  style  he  formed  his  own.    Audran  was  d.  1756,  became,  next  to  his  celebrated  uncle  Gerard, 

Lebmn's  assistant  in  the  paintii^,  among  others  of  his  the   best   engraver    of    the    family.    He    studied 

irorks,  of  the ''Battle  of  Arbela^ and  the  "Passage  of  first    under   nis    father    and  then  with  his  uncle. 

theOranicus".    He  painted  in  fresco  with  much  skill.  He  had  already  distinguished  himself  at  the  early 

imder  the  direction  of  his  master,  the  grand  gallery  age  of  twenty.     He  was  rewarded  for  his  subsequent 

of  the  Toileries,  the  great  staircase  at  \^rsaiUes,  and  successes  by  being  made  (in  1707)  engraver  to  the 

tiie  ehapel  near  by,  at  Sceaux,  of  the  ch&teau  of  that  king,    with   the   regular   pension  and   the  Gobelin 

enb^htened  patron  of  art,  Prime  Minister  Colbert.  apartments.     This  was  followed  next  year  by  mem- 

(Urakd,  tnird  son  of  Claude  the  First,  b.  at  Lyons,  bership  in  the  Academy.    Jean  Audran  worked  until 


AUmrBBUOOXB                          72  AUOXE 

lie  was  eighty.    His  masterpieoe  is  ooDsidered  to  be  title  nmning,  "A  New  Discovery  that  Enables  thi 

''The  Rape  of  the  Sabines   ,  after  Poussin.    Amon^  Physician    from    the    Percussion    of    the    Human 

his  {dates  are  portraits  after  Gobert — those  of  Louis  Thorax  to  Detect  the  Diseases  Hidden  Within  the 

XV,  Vandyke,  Coypel,  Largjillidre,  Rigaud,  Trevisani,  Chest". 

and  Vivien — and  compositions  alter,  among  others,  Like    most    medical    discoveries,    Auenbrugger's 

Raphael.  Rubens,  the  Garacci,  Guide  Reni,  Domen-  method  of  diagnosis  at  first  met  with  neglect.    Be- 

ichino,  Pietro  da  Cortona,  Albano,  Maratta,  Philippe  fore  his  death,^owever,  it  had  aroused  the  attention 

de  Qiampagne,  Marot,  Poussin,  and  Nattier.     His  soq  of  Laennec,  who,  following  up  the  ideas  suggested  by 

was  Benoit  the  Younger.  it,  discovered  auscultation.     Since  then,  Auenbrugger 

LouiB,  the  youngest  son  of  Germain^  b.  at  Lyons,  has  been  considered  one  of  the  great  foundera  of 

1670:   d.  in  Paris,  c.  1712,  studied  with  his  father  modem  medicine.     He  lived  to  a  happy  old  age, 

and  his  unde  Gerard.     He  assisted  his  brothers,  and  especially  noted  for  his  cordial  relations  with  Uie 

did  few  original  plates.    A  work  of  his  to  be  noted  vounger  members  of   his   profession,   and   for  his 

is  ''The  Seven  Acts  of  Mercy ",  after  Bourdon.  kindness  to  the  poor  and  to  those  suffering  from 

BBNorr  the  Younger,  b.  in  Paris,  1698;  d.  in  the  tuberculosis.    He  is  sometimes  said  to  have  died  in 

same  place,  1772,  was  the  last  of   the   remarkable  the  typhus  epidemic  of  1708,  but  the  burial  register 

family  to  have  any  historical  importance  artistically,  of  the  parish  church  in  Vienna,  of  which  he  had  been 

He  was  a  pupil  of  his  father  and  did  plates  after,  for  half  a  century  a  faithful  member,  shows  that  he 

among  others,  Veronese,  Poussin,  Watteau,  Lancret,  did  not  die  until  1807. 

and  Natoire.  Leopotj>  Auenbruoger,  Jahreab.  d.  Ver,  d.  Aertzte  in  Steier^ 

Prospbr  Gabribl,  a  grandson  of  Jean,  b.  in  Paris,  V3^,iS?^iJ^}:  **??^?i.  ^^^?^^^^^\dS^!^'  ^ 

^'7AA,  A    1Q10.  k^  o^,\^;^  «r;*u  ku  „*«^lJ  tl^^vU  ♦kJ  Ge§«U3chaH  fur  Natur  und  Hetlkunde  CDresden,  1863);  Walsh, 

1744;  d.  1819;  he  studied  with  his  uncle,  Benoit  the  Makera^ Modem  Medicine  (New  York.  1907). 

Younger,  and  etched  some  heads.    He  gave  up  art  James  J.  Walsh. 

for  the  law  and  became  professor  of  Iiebrew  m  the  «   «          r         •»                                    i*  ▼>      l. 

CoU^  de  France  Anisees,  Jobst  Bernhard  von,  canon  of  Bambierg 

D^LBMw.  Le$  Aiidran;  Bbtan.  DicHonary  of  Painten  a^d  WOrzburg,  b.  28  March,  1671,  on  the  family 

amd  Engravm-B,  estate  of  Mengersdorf;  d.  2  April,  1738.     He  was 

Augustus  van  Cleef.  baptized  a  Lutheran,  but   educated   (1683-90)  as 

Auenbragger  (or  von  Auenbrugo),  Leopold,  an  %.  Catholic   through   the   efforts  of  his  uncle  C^ii 

Austrian  physician,  b.  19  Nov.,  1722;  d.  17  May,  1807.  Sigmund,  ca-non  of  Bamberg  and  WilnbuTg.     He 

He  was  the  mventor  of  percussion  in  physical  diagno-  ^^^  ^oo"  advanced  to  the  same  dignity  m   both 

sis  and  is  considered  one  of  the  small  group  of  men  to  ^^i*"^^^'  was  provost  of  Bamberg  m  1723  and  hdd 

whose  original  genius  modem  medicine  owes  its  pres-  2}'^^^  offices  of  distinction  m  both  cities     After  1709 

ent  position.  He  was  a  native  of  Graz  m  Styria,  an  he  devoted  the  revenues  of  his  benefices  to  the  este^ 

Austrian  province.     His  father,  a  hotel-keeper,  gave  [whment  of  a  house  of  studies  at  Bambere:  m  1728 

his  son  every  opportunity  for  an  exceUent  preSmi-  tS.S?^^®^  ^P?""  '^  ^r®  ^^a^  ^-^'^^  ^^5''  1^^."^* 

nary  education  in  his  native  town  and  then  sent  ^200,000).    This    Aufsees    Seminary,    or   Institute, 

him  to  Vienna  to  complete  his  studies  at  the  univer-  ^^  destined  for  the  reception  of  poor  boys  from  the 

sity.    Auenbrugger  was  graduated  as  a  physician  at  P^oceses  of  Bamberg  and  WUrzbui^.    They  were  to 

the  age  of  twenty-two  and  then  entered  the  Spanish  ^  supported  there  dunng  the  entire  time  of  theu- 

MiUtary  Hospital  of  Vienna  where  he  spent  ten  years,  f^udi^  at  the  public  academies.     He  originally  m- 

His  observations  and  experimental  studies  enabled  J^"^®4„*^„  T^.,  ^'^  ''^^"iJSx*"  charge,  but  by  his 

him  to  discover  that  by  tapping  on  the  chest  with  'ast  will  (17  February.  1738)  turned  it  over  to  the 

the  finger  much  important  information  with  regard  ^^  ?'    the  cathedral   clmptera  of    Bambei^.  and 

to  diseased  conditions  within  the  chest  might  be  W(irabui«.     It  was  opened  m  1741,  and  continued 

obtained  '^   beneficent   career    until    the   beginning   of    the 

Ordinarily,  the  lungs  when  percussed,  give  a  sound  nineteenth  century,  when  the  secularization  of  the 

like  a  drum  over  wWch  a  heavy  cloth  has  been  placed,  property  of    the    ecclesiastical    pnncipalities    took 

When  the  lung  is  consoUdated,  as  in  pneumonia,  P^-    The  edifice  was   then  turned  over  to   the 

then  the  sound  produced  by  the  tapping  of  the  finger  nospital  for  incurables,  and  the  revenues  applied 

is  the  same  as  when  the  fleshy  part  of  the  thigh  is  ^  P^rt  to  scholarships  (Shpendien).    King  Ludwig 

tapped.    AuenbruMer  found  that  the  area  over  the  I  reopened  it  as  a  liouse   of    studi^   {Kdntgl^^ 

heart  gave  a  mod^ed,  dull  sound,  and  that  in  this  ^wii^emiruir)     under    governmental    supervision, 

way  the  Umits  of  heart-duUness  could  be  determined.  The  director  and  the  prefects  are  pnests,  but  the 

This  gave  the  first  definite  information  with  regard  Goyernmwit  appoints  holders  of  the  42  free  places 

to  pathological  changes  in  the  heart.    During  his  and  the  20  places  for  youths  who  pay,  also   the 

ten  years  of  patient  study,  Auenbrugger  confirmed  officers  of  the  institute,  and  administers  its  revenues, 

these  observations  by  comparison  with  post-mortem  WrmiANN  in  K^rchenUx,,  I.  1616.                  gHAHAK 
specimens,  and  besides  made  a  number  of  experi- 

mental   researches   on    dead   bodies.    He   iniected  Auger,  Edmond,  b.  1530,  near  Troyes;  d.  at  Cbmo, 

fluid  into  the  pleural  cavity,  and  showed  that  it  Italy,  31  January,  1591,  one  of  the  great  figures  in 

was  perfectly  possible  by  pereussion  to  tell  exactly  the   stormy  times   in   France,  when  the  Calvinists 

Uie  hmits  of  the  fluid  present,  and  thus  to  decide  were  striving  to  get  possession  of  the  throne.     He 

when  and  where  efforts  should  be  made  for  its  re-  entered   the   Society  of   Jesus   while   St.    Ignatius 

moval.  was  still  living,  and  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  most 

His  later  studies  during  this  ten-year  period  were  eloquent  men  of  his  time.     Mathieu  calls  hina  the 

devoted  to  tuberculosis.     He  pointed  out  how  to  **Chrysostom    of    France".    Wherever    he    went, 

detect  cavities  of  the  lungs,  and  how  their  location  throngs  flocked  to  hear  him,  and  the  heretics  them- 

and  size  might  be  determined  by  pereussion.     He  selves  were  always  eager  to  be  present,  captivated 

also  recognized  that  information  witn  regard  to  the  as  they  were  by  the  cnarm  of  his  wisdom  and  the 

contents  of  cavities  in  the  lungs,  and  the  conditions  delicac^r  of  his  courtesy  in  their  regard.    His  en- 

of  lung  tissue  might  be  obtain^  by  placing  the  hand  trance  into  France  as  a   priest  was  in  the  citj-  of 

on  the  chest  and  noting  the  vibration,  or  fremitus,  Valence,   where  the   bishop  had  just  apostatized, 

produced  by  the  voice  and  the  breath.    These  obser-  and  the  Calvinists  were  then  in  possession.       The 

vations  were  published  in  a  little  book  now  considered  efforts  of  Auger  to  address  the  people  ^ere  followed 

one  of  the  most  important  classics  of  medicine.    It  by  his  bein^  seized  and  sentenced  to  be  burned  to 

was  called  '^Inventum  Novum'',  the  full  English  death.    While  standing  on  the  pyre,  he  harangued 


(1h  multitude,  and  so  won  their  good  will  that  th^  of  the  government  district  of  Upper  Bavaria,  and 
wbd  for  hie  deliverance.  Viret,  especially,  the  a  ameil  part  of  the  government  district  of  C«itnd 
chief  ontor  of  the  Calvinista,   wanted   to   have   a     Franconia, 

public  digeuasion  with  him  to  convert  him,  Aiuer  I.  Histoht.  (1)  Early  Period. — The  present  ci^ 
na  eooseauently  sent  to  prison  for  the  night,  but  of  Augsbu:^  appears  Ld  ^rabo  aa  Damasia,  a  stroi:^ 
tlM  Cktbolics  rescued  him  before  the  conference  hold  of  the  Ltcatii;  in  14  b.  c.  it  became  a  Roman 
to^  place.  We  find  him  afterwards  in  Lyons,  dur-  colony  known  as  Augusta  Vindelioorum,  received  thtt 
in^  a  pestilence,  devotins  himself  to  the  plague-  rights  of  a  city  from  Hadrian  and  soon  became  of 
■tncknu  When  the  peet  had  ceased,  in  cons^uence  great  importance  aa  an  araenal  and  the  p<»nt  of  juno- 
of  1  vow  he  made,  the  authorities,  in  gratitude,  tion  of  several  im)Kirtaat  trade  routes.  The  begin- 
utiblished  a  colle^  of  the  Society  to  which  Auger  niogsof  Christianity  within  the  limits  of  the  present 
mktd,  much  to  tfaeir  astonishmeDtj  that  the  children  diocese  arc  shrouded  in  obscurity:  its  teachings  were- 
of  the  Calviuiats  might  be  admitted.  His  whole  probably  brought  thither  by  Boldiers  or  merchanta. 
lifs  was  one  of  constant  activity,  preaching  and  According  to  the  acta  of  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Afra, 
idministering  the  responsible  offices  of  Provincial,  who  with  her  handmaids  suSered  at  the  stake  (or 
Rector,  etc.  that  were  entrusted  to  him.  He  was  Christ,  there  existed  in  Augsburg,  early  in  the  'ourtfi 
pmcnt  in  at  le«st  two  battles,  and  was  remarkable  century,  a  Chriatian  community  undw  Bishop  Nat<- 
IM-  hia  influence  over  the  soldiers.  He  was  Gnally  ciasua;  St.  Dionysius,  imde  of  St,  Afra,  is  mentioned 
made  confessor  of  King  Henry  III,  the  fiiat  Jesuit    aa  his  sucoeBsor. 

to  have  that  troublesome  chaif^  put  upon  bim.  (2)  Medieval  Period. — Nothing  authentic  is  known 
Hw  difficulty  of  his  position  was  increased  by  the  about  the  history  of  the  Augsbuif  Cliurch  during  Um 
[act  that  the  League  was  just  then  being  formed  Inr 
the  Catholic  succession.  Its  principles  and  methods 
rae  thought  to  trench  on  the  royal  prertttatjve; 
but  Sixtus  V  waa  in  favour  <rf  it.  Several  Jesuits. 
notably  the  Provincial,  Mathieu,  who  was  depoeea 
I7  Acquaviva,  were  its  stanch  upholders.  Auger's 
pontion  was  intoleraUe.  Loyal  to  the  king,  he 
wH  detested  by  the  leaguers,  who  at  Lyons,  the  city 
Ihat  he  had  saved,  threatened  to  throw  him  into  the 
Khoae.  They  compromised  by  expelling  him  from 
the  city.    The  general    commanded  him  to  reliii' 

r'lh  the  post  of  confessor,  but  the  king  secured 
pope's  onler  for  him  to  stay.  FinaUy,  Auger 
prevailed  on  the  monarch  to  release  him,  and  lie 
vithdiew  to  Como  in  Italy,  where  he  died.  Shortly 
aflenrards  Henry  was  assassinated.  Like  Coniaius 
in  Germany,  Auger  published  a  Catechism  for  France. 
It  appeared  at  first  in  Latin,  and  later  he  published 
it  in  Gre^  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  Blessed  Eu- 
(tiarist,  instructions  for  soldiers,  translations,  some 
literary  compositions,  and  also  drew  up  the  statutefl 
for  congregations,  especially  one  in  which  the  king 
"M  interested,  called  the  Congregation  of  Penitents. 
There  is  a  letter  Whim  called  "Spiritual  Su^r", 
thoo^  he  did  not  give  it  that  title.  He  had  written 
uaadrese  to  tbe  people  of  Toulouse  to  consde  them 
in  the  distress  brought  on  by  the  calamities  of  the 
civil  war.  It  so  took  the  popular  fancy  that  the 
tuthontiea  of  the  city  puMiahea  it  under  this  curious 


e.  dt  J.,  II;  SouuEKvooKL. 
VuTona  iUatra.  V. 

T.  J.  Caupbbll, 

SoiTTH  DooB  or  TSS  Caisdhui,,  / 


AngiUB,  or  Apan<&,  a  titular  see  of  Cyrens ._ 

Northern  Africa.    It  was  situated  in  an  osBis  inthe  centuries  immediately  succeeding,  but  it  survived  the 

ubyan  desert  which  is  still  one  of  the  chief  stations  collapse  of  Roman   power  in  Germany  and  the  tur- 

(Audjelah,   Aoudjila)    on    the    caravan   route   from  bulence  of  the  great  migrations.     It  is  true  that  two 

C«ro   to   Fernan.     Its   toreats   of   date-palma   were  catalogues  of  the  Bishops  of  Augsburg,  dating  from 

fimous  m  the  time  of  Herodotus   (IV,   172);  they  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centu™,  mention  several 


•liU  crown  the  three  small  hills  that  nse  out  of  an  bishops  of  this  primitive  period,  but  the  firat  whose 

unbroken  desert  of  red  sand  which  in  the  near  vicinity  record  has  received  indubitable  historical  corrobora- 

u  Btron^y   impregnated   with   salts   of   aoda.     The  tion  ia  St.  Wikterp  (or  Wichpert)  who  was  bishop 

Boalem  popuUtion  la  now  about  10,000  and  is  gov-  ^bout  739  or  768.     He  took  part  in  several  synoda 

enied  by  an  official  of  the  Bey  of  Tripoli  who  draws  convened  by  St.  Boniface  in  Germany;  in  company 

from  the  oasis  an  imnual  revenue  of  812,000,  ^ith  St,  Magnus,  he  founded  the  monastery  of  Fite- 

jte^^^S^n'^SSS^.f'l^^v/i'^s  U"<K^»  ««n;  and  OiSt  Boniface  he  d»ii«ted  the  monae. 

Bt  fiTiy  rri[iiii(  (Laulon,  1861),  128,  133.  terr  at  Benediktt>euren.     Under  either  St.  Wikterp 

Tbouas  J,  Shahan.  or  his  successor,  Taxzo  (or  Toizo),  about  whom  little 

.      .  „     „  is  known,  many  monasteries  were  established,  e.  g. 

Augsburg,  Confession  or.    See  Conftosionh  of  Wewobmnn  Enwangen,Pomng,Ottobeuren,   At  this 

fan,  PBOTKBrAirr.  time,  also,  the  see,  hitherto  suffragan  to  the  Patri- 

Angiburg,    Diocbsb    of,    in    the   Kingdom   of  archate  of  Aquileia,  was  placed  among  the  sufftagan 

Bnaria,  Germany,  suffiagan  (A  the  Archdiocese  of  sees  of  the  newly  founded  Archdiocese  of  Mainz  <74<S) 

Vimidi-FTeising.  embraciiw  the  entire  government  St.  Sintpert  (c,  810),  hitherto  Abbot  of  the  monastery 

^rtiict  of  Swabia  and  Neuburg,  the  western  part  of  Murbach,  and  a  relative  of  Charlemagne,  ren» 


AUGBBITBG  74  AUOSBURa 

vated  many  churches  and  monasteries  laid  waste  in  periods  of  conflict  into  which  the  Bishops  of  Augsburg 
the  wars  of  the  Franks  and  Bavarians,  and  during  were  drawn,  often  against  their  will,  in  their  capaoiti? 
the  incursions  of  the  Avari;  he  built  the  first  cathe-  as  Princes  of  the  Empire,  and  the  life  of  the  Church 
dral  oi  Augsburg  in  honour  of  the  Most  Blessed  accordingly  suffered  decline.  Under  Siboto  von  Lech- 
Virgin;  and  obtained  from  the  Emperor  Charlemagne  feld  (1227-47)  monasteries  of  the  newly  founded  men- 
an  exact  definition  of  his  diocesan  limits.  His  ju-  dicant  orders  were  first  established  in  Augsburg.  A 
risdiction  extended  at  that  time  from  the  Iller  east-  celebrated  member  of  the  Franciscans  was  David  of 
ward  over  the  Lech,  north  of  the  Danube  to  the  Alb,  Augsburg,  and  of  the  Dominicans,  Albertus  l^Iagpus 
and  south  to  the  spurs  of  the  Alps.  Moreover,  va-  of  Lauingen.  Additional  causes  of  coi^ict  were  the 
rious  estates  and  villages  in  the  valley  of  the  Danube,  troubles  that  arose  between  the  Bishops  of  Augsbuig 
and  in  the  Tyrol,  belonged  to  the  diocese.  Among  and  the  city  authorities.  During  the  strug^es  be- 
the  bishops  of  the  following  period  a  certain  number  tween  the  popes  and  emperors,  Augsbuig,  1^  other 
are  especially  prominent,  either  on  account  of  the  large  cities  tlux>ughout  the  greater  part  of  Germany, 
offices  they  mled  in  the  Empire,  or  for  their  personal  attained  enormous  wealth,  owing  to  the  industrial  and 
qualifications;  thus  Witgar  (887-87),  Chancellor  and  commercial  activity  of  the  citizens.  From  time  to 
Archchaplain  of  Louis  the  German;  Adalbero  (887  time  efforts  were  made  to  restrict  as  much  as  possible 
-910),  of  the  line  of  the  Counts  of  Dillingen,  confi-  the  ancient  civil  rights  of  the  bishops  and  their 
dant  and  friend  of  Emperor  Amulf,  who  entrusted  stewards,  and  even  to  abrogate  them  entirely.  From  a 
Adalbero  with  the  education  of  his  son,  the  German  state  of  discontent  the  citizens  passed  to  open  violence 
King  Louis  the  Child, .  distinguished  for  generosity  under  the  Bishop  Hartmann  von  Dillingen  (1248-86), 
to  the  monasteries.  The  See  of  Augsbuig  reached  and  wrung  from  the  bishops  many  municipal  liberties 
the  period  of  its  greatest  splendour  under  St.  UlHch  and  advantages.  A  characteristic  instance  is  the  con- 
(d23-973);  he  raised  the  standard  of  training  and  fumation  by  Emperor  Rudolph  of  Habsburg  at  the 
discipline  among  the  cleigy  by  the  reformation  of  Reichstag  held  in  Augsburg  (1276)  of  the  ^tadtbuchj 
existmg  schools  and  the  establishment  of  new  ones,  or  municipal  register,  contaming  the  ancient  customs, 
and  by  canonical  visitations  and  synods;  he  provided  episcopal  and  municipal  rights,  etc.,  specified  in  detail; 
for  the  poor,  and  rebuilt  decayed  churches  and  mon-  on  the  same  occasion  Augsburg  was  recognized  as  a 
asteries.  During  the  incursion  of  the  Hungarians  Free  City  of  the  Empire.  Hartmann  bequeathed  to 
and  the  siege  of  Augsburg  (955),  he  sustained  the  the  Church  of  Augsburg  his  paternal  inheritance, 
courage  of  the  citizens,  compelled  the  Hungarians  to  including  the  town  and  castle  of  Dillingen.  Peace 
withdraw,  and  contributed  much  to  the  decisive  vie-  reigned  under  the  succeeding  bishops,  of  whom 
tory  on  the  Lcchfeld  (955).  He  built  churches  in  hon-  Frederick  I  (1300-31)  acquired  for  his  see  the  castle 
our  of  St.  Afra  and  St.  John,  founded  the  monastery  and  stronghold  of  Fiissen;  Ulrich  II,  von  Schdneck 
of  St.  Stephen  for  Benedictine  nuns,  and  undertook  (1331-37),  and  his  brother  Henry  III  (1337-48) 
three  pilgrimages  to  Rome.  The  diocese  suffered  remained  faithful  to  Emjjeror  Louis  the  Bavarian: 
much  during  the  episcopate  of  his  successor,  Henry  I  Markward  I,  von  Randock  (1348-65),  again  redeemed 
(973-982),  for  he  sidea  with  the  foes  of  Emperor  the  mortgaged  property  of  the  diocese,  and  by  the 
Otto  II,  and  remained  for  several  months  in  prison,  favour  of  Emperor  Charles  IV  was  made  Patriarch 
After  h\k  liberation  he  renounced  his  former  views  of  Aquiieia  (1365).  New  dissensions  between  the 
and  bequeathed  to  his  church  his  possessions  at  Gei-  Bishop  and  the  city  arose  under  Burkhard  von  Eller- 
senhausen.  The  diocese  attained  great  splendour  bach  (1373-1404),  whose  accession  was  marked  by 
under  Bishop  Bruno  (1006-29),  brother  of  Em-  grave  discord  growing  out  of  the  overthrow  of  the 
peror  Henry  II;  he  restored  a  number  of  ruined  ralrizier,  or  aristocratic  government,  and  the  rise  in 
monasteries,  founded  the  church  and  college  of  St.  municipal  power  of  the  crafts  or  guilds.  Irritated  by 
Maurice,  placed  Benedictine  monks  in  the  collegiate  Burkhard 's  support  of  the  nobility  in  their  struggle 
church  of  St.  Afra,  and  added  to  the  episcopal  pos-  with  the  Swabian  cities,  the  inhabitants  of  Augsburg 
sessions  by  the  gift  of  his  o\v'n  inheritance  of  Strau-  plundered  the  dwellings  of  the  canons,  drove  aome 
bing.  Under  Bishop  Henry  II  (1047-63),  the  guardian  of  the  clergy  from  the  city  (1381),  destroyed,  after 
of  Henry  IV,  the  diocese  secured  the  right  of  coinage  a  short  intei-val  of  respite  (13^),  the  episcopal  strong- 
and  was  enriched  by  many  donations;  under  Embrico  hold,  the  deanery,  and  the  mint,  and  became  almost 
(or  Emmerich,  1063-77)  the  cathedral  was  dedicated  completely  independent  of  the  bishop.  Burkhard 
(1066),  and  the  canonicate  and  church  of  St.  Peter  proceeded  with  great  enei^  against  the  heresy  of 
and  St.  Felicitas  were  built.  During  the  last  years  the  Wychfites  who  had  gamed  a  foothold  in  Auffs- 
of  this  episcopate  occurred  the  auarrel  of  Emperor  burg,  and  condemned  to  the  stake  five  persons  who 
HenrylV  with  the  papacy  in  which  Embrico  took  the  refused  to  abjure.  After  the  death  of  Eberhard  II 
imperial  side  and  only  temporarily  yielded  to  the  papal  (1404-13),  a  quarrel  arose  in  1413  because  the  city 
legate.  The  struggle  continued  under  his  successors:  of  Augsburg  declined  to  recognize  the  la^'ful  Bishop, 
four  anti-bishops  were  set  up  in  opposition  to  Siegfriea  Anselm  von  Nenningen  (1413-23),  and  set  up  in 
11  (1077-96).  Hermann,  Count  von  Vohburg  (1096  opposition  Friedrich  von  Grafeneck  who  had  been 
or  1097-1132)  supported  with  treachery  and  cunning  presented  bv  Emperor  Sigismund.  This  trouble 
his  claim  to  the  see  he  had  purchased,  violently  perse-  was  settled  by  Pope  Martin  V,  who  compelled  both 
cuted  the  Abbot  of  St.  Afra,  and  expelled  him  from  bishops  to  resign,  and  on  his  own  authority  replaced 
the  city.  Only  after  the  conclusion  of  the  Concordat  them  by  Peter  \T>n  Schauenberg,  Canon  of  Bamberg 
of  Worms  (1122)  did  Hermann  obtain  the  confirma-    and  Wurzburg  (1423-69). 

tion  of  the  pope  and  rehef  from  excommunication.  Peter  was  endowed  by  the  Pope  with  extraordinary 
The  political  disturbances  resulting  from  the  dissen- *  faculties,  made  cardinal  and  legate  a  latere  for  aU 
sions  between  the  popes  and  the  German  emperors  Germanjr.  He  worked  with  zeal  and  energy  for  the 
reacted  on  the  Church  of  Augsburg.  There  were  reformation  of  his  diocese,  held  synods  and  made 
short  periods  of  rest,  during  which  ecclesiastical  life  episcopal  visitations  in  order  to  raise  the  decadent 
received  a  forward  impulse,  as,  for  instance,  under  moral  and  intellectual  life  of  the  clergy;  he  restored 
Bishop  Walther  II.  Count  Palatine  von  Dillingen  the  discipline  and  renewed  the  fallen  splendour  of 
(1133-52),  under  whom  the  possessions  of  the  dio-  many  monasteries,  canonries.  and  collegiate  churches, 
cese  were  again  consolidated  and  increased  by  his  He  completed  the  rebuilding  of  the  cathedral  in  Gothic 
own  inheritance;  under  Udalskalk  (1184-1202),  who  style,  consecrated  it  in  1431,  and  in  1457  laid  the 
with  great  ceremony  placed  the  recently  discovered  cornerstone  of  the  new  church  of  Sta  Ulrioh  and 
bones  of  St.  Ulrich  in  the  new  church  of  Sts.  Ilrich  Afra.  Succeeding  prelates  carried  on  the  refor- 
Aod   Afra.    These   days  of   peace  altematx^d  with    mation  of  the  diocese  with  no  less  solicitude  and 


AU08BUR0  75  AUGSBUEQ 

Among  them  were  Johann  II,  Count  of  Werdenberg  in  1537  joined   the  League  of  ^malkald.    At  thfl 

(1469-86),  tutor  to  the  emperor's  son,  afterwards  beginning  of  this*  year  a  decree  of  the  council  was 

Emperor  Maximilian  I,  Who  convened  a  synod  in  made,  forbidding  everywhere  the  celebration  of  Mass. 

DiUmgen,  and  encouraged  the  recently  invented  art  preaching,    and    all    ecclesiastical    ceremonies,    ana 

of  printing;  Friedrich  von  Zollem  (1486-1505)  pupil  giving  to  the  Catholic  clergy  the  alternative  of  en- 

of  the  great  preacher  Geiler  von  Kaysersberg,  and  rolling  themselves  anew  as  citizens  or  leaving  the 

founder  of  a  college  in  Dillingen,  who  held  a  sjrnod  city.    An  overwhelming  majority  of  both  secular  and 

in  the  same  city,  promoted  the  printing  of  liturgical  regular  clergy  chose  banishment;  the  bishop  with- 

books,  and  greatlv  enriched  the  possessions  of  the  drew  with  the  cathedral  chapter  to  DiUingen,  whence 

diocese;  Henry  IV,  von  Lichtenau  (1505-17),  a  great  he  addressed  to  the  pope  ana  the  emperor  an  appeal 

friend  ^nd  benefactor*  of   monasteries   and   of   the  for  the  redress  of  nis  grievances.    In  the  city  of 

poor,  and  patron  of  the  arts  and  sciences.     During  Augsburg   the    Catholic    churches   were   seized   by 

the  episcopate  of  these  bishops  Augsburg  acquired,  Lutheran  and  Zwinglian  preachers;  at  the  command 

through  tne  industry  of  its  citizens,  a  world-wide  of  the  council  pictures  were  removed,  and  at  the  in- 

eommeroe.    Some  members  of  its  famiUes,  e.  g.  the  stigation  of  Bucer  and  others  a  disgraceful  storm  of 

Fugeers  and  the  Welsers,  were  the  greatest  merchants  pKjpular  iconoclasm  followed,  resulting  in  the  destruc- 

of  their  time;  they  lent  la^e  sums  of  money  to  the  tion  of  many  splendid  monuments  of  art  and  an- 

emperors  and  princes  of    Germany,  conducted  the  tiquity.    The    greatest    intolerance    was    exercised 

financial  enterprises  of  the  papacy,  and  even  extended  towaixis  the  Catnolics  who  had  remained  in  the  city: 

their  operations  to  the  newly  discovered  continent  of  their  schools  were  dissolved;  parents  were  compelled 

America.    Amoiig  the  citizens  of  Augsburg  famous  to  send  their  children  to  Lutheran  institutions;  it  was 

at  that  time  in  literature  and  art  were  the  numanist  even  forbidden  to  hear  Mass  outside  the  city  under 

Conrad  Peutinger;  the  brothers  Bernard  and  Conrad  severe  penalties. 

Adrfmann  von    Adelmannsfelden;  Matthias    Lang,        Under  Otto  Truchsess  von  Waldbur^  (1543-73)  the 

secretary  to  Emperor  Frederick  III,  and  later  Car-  first  signs  of  improvement  were  noted  m  the  attitude 

dinal  and  Archbishop  of  Salzburg;   tne  distinguished  towards  Catholics.    At  the  outbreak  of  hostilities 

winters  Holbein  the  elder,  Burgkmair  and  others.  (1546)  between  the  emperor    and    the    League  of 

With  wealth,  however,  came  a  spirit  of  worldliness  Smalkald,  Augsburg,  as  a  member  of   the  legume, 

and  cupidity.    Pride  and  a  super-refinement  of  cul-  took  up  arms  against  Charles  V,  and  Bishop  Otto 

ture  furnished  the  rank  soil  in  which  the  impending  invested    and    plundered    Fiissen,   and    confiscated 

religious  revolution  was  to  find  abundant  nourish-  nearly  aU  the  remaining  possessions  of  the  diocese, 

ment.  After  the  victory  at  Muhlberg  (1547),  however,  the 

(3)  Ref(rrinaiion  Period. — ^The  Reformation  brought  imperial  troops  marched  against  Augsburg,  and  the 

disaster  on  the  Diocese  of  Augsburg.    It  included  city  was  forced  to  beg  for  mercy,  surrender  twelve 

1,050  parishes  with  more  than  500,(W0  inhabitants,  pieces  of  artillery,  pay  a  fine,  restore  the  greater  num- 

Besides  the  cathc^iral  chapter  it  could  boast  eight  oer  of  churches  to  the  Catholics,  and  reimburse  the 

collegiate  foundations,  forty-six  monasteries  for  men,  diocese  and  the  clergy  for  the  property  confiscated, 

and  thirty-eight  convents  for  women.     Luther,  who  In  1547  the  Bishop,  Otto  von  Truchsess,  who  had 

was  summoned  to  vindicate  himself  in  the  presence  meanwhile  been  created    cardinal,  returned  to  the 

of  the  papal  i^ate  before  the  Reichstag,  at  Augs-  city  with  the  cathedral  chapter,  followed  shortly  af- 

burg  (1518),  found  enthusiastic  adherents  in  this  terwards  by  the  emperor.     At  the  Diet  held  at  Augs- 

diocese  among  both  the  secular  and  regular  clergy,  burg  in    1548   the   so-called     **  Augsburg  Interim" 

but  especiidly  among  the  Carmelites,  in  whose  con-  was  arranged.     After  a  temporary  occupation  of  the 

vent  erf  St.  Arme  he  dwelt;  he  also  found  favour  city  and  the  suppression  of  Catholio  services  by  the 

among  the  city  councillors,  burghers,  and  tradesmen.  Elector,    Prince    Maurice    of    Saxony    (1552),    the 

Biahop  Christopher  von  Stadion  (1517-43)  did  all  in  "Rehgious  Peace  of  Augsburg"  was  concluded  at  the 

his  power  to  arrest  the  spread  of  the  new  teachings;  Diet  of  lo55;  it  was  followed  by  a  long  period  of 

he  called  learned  men  to  the  pulpit  of  the  cathedral,  peace.    The  disturbances  of  the  Reformation  were 

among  others  Urbanus  Rhegius,  who,  however,  soon  more  disastrous  in  their  results  throughout  the  dio- 

went  over  to  Luther -he  convened  a  synod  at  DiUingen,  cese  and  adjoining  lands  than  within  the  immediate 

at  which  it  was  forbidden  to  read  Luther's  writings;  precincts  of  Augsburg.     Thus,  after  many  perturba- 

he  promulgated  throughout  his  diocese  the  Bull  of  tions  and  temporary   restorations  of  the  Catholic 

Uo  X  (15^)  against  Luther;  he  forbade  the  Car-  religion,  the  Protestants  finally  gained  the  upper 

melites,  who  were  spreading  the  new  doctrine,  to  hand  in  WUrtemberg,  Oettingen,  Neuburg,  the  free 

Sreachj  he  warned   the  magistrates  of  Augsburg,  cities  of  Nordlingen,  Memmingen,  Kaufbeuren,  Din^ 

[emnungen,  and  other  places  not  to  tolerate  the  kelsbtihl,  Donauworth,  Ulm,  in  the  ecclesiastical  terri- 

reformers,  and  he  adopted  other  similar  measures,  tory  of  Feuchtwangen  and  elsewhere.    Altogether 

Despite  sdl  this,  the  followers  of  Luther  obtained  the  during  these  years  of  rehgious  warfare  the  Diocese  of 

upper  hand  in  the  city  council,  and  by  1524,  various  Augsburg  lost  to  the  Reformation  about  250  parishes, 

CSihoIic  ecclesiastical  usages,  notably  the  observance  24  monasteries,  and  over  500  benefices.    Although 

of  fast  days,  had  been  alx)lished  in  Augsburg.    The  the  religious  upheaval  brought  with  it  a  great  loss  of 

apostate  priests,  many  of  whom,  after  Luther's  ex-  worldly  possessions,  it  was  not  without  beneficial  effect 

ample,  had  taken  wives,  were  supported  by  the  city  on  the  religious  life  of  the  diocese.    Bishop  Christopher 

councU,  and  the  Catholics  were  denied  the  right  of  von  Stadion,  while  trying  to   protect  Catholicism 

preaching.    The  Anabaptists  also  gained  a  strong  from  the  inroads  of  the  Reformation,  had  sought  to 

lolbwing  and  added  fuel  to  the  fire  of  the  Peasants*  strengthen  and  revive  ecclesiastical  discipline,  which 

War,  in  which  many  monasteries,  institutions,  and  had  sadly  declined,  among  both  the    secular  and 

eartks  were  destroyed.    At  the  Diet  of  Augsburg  in  the  regular  clergy.    The  work  was  carried  on  even 

1530,  at  which  the  so-called  Augsburg  Confession  more  energetically  by  Bishop  Otto  Truchsess,  who 

was  delivered  to  Emperor  Charles  V  in  the  chapel  of  achieved   a   fruitful  counter-reformation.     By  fre- 

the  episcopal  palace,  the  emperor   issued  an  edict  quent  visitations  he  sought  to  become  familiar  with 

aeeording  to  which  all  innovations  ,were  to  be  abol-  existing  evils,  and  by  means  of  diocesan  synods  and 

iabed,  and  Catholics  reinstated  in  their  rights  and  a  vigorous  enforcement  of  measures  against  ignorant 

ftopaty.    The  city  council,  however,  set  itself  up  and  dissolute  clerics,  secular  and  regular,  he  endeav- 

moppoirition,  recalled  (1531)  the  Protestant  preachers  oured  to  remedy  these  conditions.     He  advanced 

who  had  been  expatriated,  suppressed  Cathohc  ser-  the  cause  of  education  by  founding  schools;  he  suna- 

Fkes  in  ail  churches  except  the  cathedral  (1534),  and  moned  the  Jesuits  to  his  diocese,  among  others  Blessed 


AUGBBUBO                               76  .AUOBBUBO 

'Peter  Canisius,  who  from  1549,  in  the  capacity  of  Dioceee  of  Augsburg  was  gjiven  to  the  Elector  oi 
cathedral  preacher,  confessor,  and  catechist,  exercised  Bavaria,  who  took  possession  1  December,  1802. 
a  remarkably  fruitful  and  efficacious  ministry.  In  The  cathedral  chapter,  together  with  forty  canoni- 
1549  Bishop  Otto  founded  a  seminary  in  Dillingen  for  cates,  fort^-one  benefices,  nine  colleges,  twenty-five 
the  training  of  priests,  obtained  from  the  pope  (1554)  abbeys,  thirty-four  monasteries  of  the  mendicant 
a  decree  raising  it  to  the  rank  of  a  university,  and  in  orders,  and  two  convents  were  the  victims  of  this 
1564  gave  the  direction  of  the  new  university  to  the  act  of  secularization.  Unfortunately,  owing  to  the 
Jesuits,  for  whom  he  had  built  a  college  in  DiUingen.  inconsiderate  conduct  of  the  commissioners  ap>- 
It  is  due  to  his  untiring  labours  and  those  of  Canisius  pointed  by  the  Bavarian  minister,  Montgelas,  in- 
that  much  larger  portions  of  the  diocese  were  not  lost  niunerable  artistic  treasures,  valuable  IxK^ks,  and 
to  the  Church.  Under  the  immediate  successors  of  documents  were  destroyed.  For  five  years  after  the 
Otto  the  revival  instituted  by  him  progressed  death  of  the  last  bishop  of  princely  rank  (1812)  the 
rapidly,  and  many  excellent  decrees  were  formulated.  episco{Md  see  remained  vacant;  the  parts  of  the  dio- 
Under  Marquard  II  von  Berg  (1575-91)  a  pontifical  oese  Iving  outside  of  Bavaria  were  separated  from 
boarding  school  (cdumnatua)  was  founded  in  Dillingen,  it  and  annexed  to  other  dioceses.  It  was  not  until 
colleges  were  established  by  the  Jesuits  in  Landsberg,  1817  that  the  Concordat  between  the  Holy  See  and 
and,  through  the  bounty  of  the  Fugger  family,  in  Augs-  the  Bavarian  government  reconstructed  the  Diocese 
burg  (1580).  Heinrich  von  KnOringen,  made  bishop  of  Augsbui^,  and  made  it  subject  to  the  Metroi)olitan 
at  the  early  a^  of  twenty-eight,  took  especial  interest  of  Munich-Filing.  In  1821  the  territory  subject  to 
in  the  University  and  the  Seminary  of  Dillingen,  both  the  ecclesiastical  authority  of  Augsburg  was  increased 
of  which  he  enriched  with  many  endowments;  he  by  the  addition  of  sections  of  the  suppressed  See  of 
convened  severd  s3rnods,  converted  Duke  Wolfgang  Ck>nstance,  and  the  present^  limits  were  then  defined, 
of  Neuburg  to  Catholicism,  and  during  his  long  (5)  The  Nineteentk  Century. — ^As  the  new  bishop, 
episcopate  (1598-1646)  reconciled  many  Protestant  Franz  Karl  von  Hohenlohe-SchillingsfUrst,  died 
cities  and  parishes  to  the  Catholic  Church,  being  aided  (1819)  before  assuming  office,  and  Joseph  Maria  von 
in  a  particular  manner  by  the  Jesuits,  for  whom  he  Fraimberg  was  soon  called  to  the  archiepiscopal 
foimcfed  establishments  in  Neubui^,  Memmingen,  and  See  of  Bambeig,  there  devolved  upon  their  success- 
Kaufbeuren.  By  means  of  the  Edict  of  Restitution  ors  the  important  task  of  rearranging  the  external 
of  Emperor  Fenunand  II  (1629),  vigorously  and  even  conditions  and  reanimating  religious  life;  which  had 
too  forcefully  executed  by  the  bishop,  the  Thirty  suffered  sorely.  Igpatius  Albert  von  Riegg  (1824- 
Years'  War  first  accomplished  an  almost  complete  36)  was  successful  in  his  endeavours  to  further  the 
restoration  of  the  former  possessions  of  the  Diocese  of  interests  of  souls,  to  raise  the  standard  of  popular 
Augsburg.  The  occupation  of  Augsburg  by  Gustavus  education  through  the  medium  of  numerous  ordi- 
Adolphus  of  Sweden  (1632)  restored  temporarily  the  nances  and  frequent  visitations.  He  assigned  the 
balance  of  power  to  the  Protestants.  Until  the  relief  administration  and  direction  of  studies  in  the  Lyceum 
of  the  citv  oy  the  imperial  troops  (1635)  the  Catho-  to  the  monks  of  the  Benedictine  Abbey  of  St.  Stephen 
lies  were  nard  pressed  and  were  forced  to  give  up  all  in  Augsbuig.  founded  by  King  Ludwig  (1834). 
they  had  gained  by  the  Edict  of  Restitution.  Fi-  Petrus  von  Kicharz  (1837-55)  displayed  ener^  and 
nally,  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia  (1648)  established  persistent  zeal  in  promoting  the  interests  of  his  dio- 
eauality  between  Catholics  and  Protestants,  and  was  cese  and  the  Catholic  Church  in  general,  and  en- 
foilowed  by  a  long  period  of  internal  peace.  On  ac-  coura^ed  the  giving  of  missions  to  the  people,  the 
count  of  the  losses  entailed  on  the  diocese  by  the  establishment  of  many  religious  institutions  for  the 
treaty,  a  solemn  protest  was  laid  before  the  imperial  care  of  the  sick  and  for  educational  purposes,  and 
chancery  by  Bishop  Si^und  Franz,  Archduke  of  carefully  superintended  the  training  of  ttie  cleigy. 
Austria  (1646-65).  This  bishop,  on  account  of  his  The  same  spirit  characterized  the  labours  of  the  suo- 
youth,  ruled  the  diocese  through  administrators,  ceedin|;  bishops:  Michael  von  Deinlein  (1856-58), 
and  later  resigned  his  office.  His  successor,  Johann  who  aUer  a  short  episcopate  was  raised  to  the  Arch- 
Christopher  von  Freiberg  (1665-90),  was  particularly  bishopric  of  Bambeig;  Pankratius  von  Dinkel  (1858- 
desirous  of  liauidating  the  heavy  burden  of  debt  94),  imder  whom  both  seminaries  and  the  deaf  and 
borne  by  the  chapter,  but  was  nevertheless  generous  dumb  asylum  were  established  in  DiUingen,  and 
towards  churches  and  monasteries.  His  successor,  many  monastic  institutions  were  founded;  Petrus  von 
Alexander  Sigmund  (1690-1737),  son  of  the  Palatine  Hotzl  (1895-1902)  whose  episcopate  was  marked  by 
Elector,  guarded  the  purity  of  doctrine  in  liturgical  the  attention  paid  to  social  and  intellectual  pursuits, 
books  and  prayerbcNoks.  Johann  Friedrich  von  and  the  number  of  missions  given  amons  the  people 
Stauffenberg  (1737-40)  founded  the  Seminary  of  as  well  as  by  the  solemn  celebration  of  the  beatifica- 
Meersburg  and  introduced  missions  among  the  people,  tion  of  the  pious  nun  Crescentia  HOss.  He  was 
Joseph,  Landgrave  of  Hesse-Darmstadt  (1740-68)  ex-  succeeded  by  Maximilian  von  Lingg,  b.  at  Nesselwang, 
humed  with  sreat  ceremon}r  the  bones  of  St.  Ulrich  8  March,  1842;  ordained  priest,  22  July,  1865;  ap- 
and  instituted  an  investigation  into  the  life  of  Cr(»-  pointed  bishop,  18  March,  1902,  consecrated,  20  July, 
centia  Hdss  of  Kaufbeuren,  who  had  died  in  the  odour  1902. 

of  sanctity.  Klemens  Wenzeslaus,  Prince  of  Saxony  II.  Reugious  Stati8TIC8. — ^According  to  the  cen- 
and  Pohmd  (176S-1812),  made  a  great  number  of  sus  of  1  December,  1900,  the  Dioceee  of  Auflsbuig 
excellent  disciplinary  regulations,  and  took  measures  contained  777,958  CathoUcs  and  about  100,000  (3 
for  their  execution;  after  the  suppression  of  the  other  beliefs;  at  present  there  are  about  818,074 
Society  of  Jesus  he  afforded  its  members  protection  Catholics.  Socially,  the  population  is  chiefly  of  the 
and  employment  in  his  diocese;  he  made  a  vigorous  middle  class;  recently,  however,  on  account  of  the 
resistance  to  the  rapidly  spreading  Rationalism  and  great  growth  of  the  mdustrial  arts  in  the  city  of 
infiddity,  and  was  honoured  by  a  visit  from  Pope  Augsbun,  in  Lechhausen,  Memmin^n,  and  other 
Pius  VI  (1782).  places,  the  working  classes  are  increasing  in  numbers. 
(4)  French  Revolution  and  Secularization. — ^During  Leaving  out  of  consideration  the  lareer  cities,  in  which 
this  episcopate  b^an  the  world-wide  upheaval  in-  the  various  denominations  are  well  represented,  it 
augurated  by  the  French  Revolution.  It  was  destined  may  be  said  that  the  southern  part  of  the  dioceee, 
to  put  an  end  to  the  temporal  power  of  the  Church  Algftu  and  the  adjoining  parts  of  Altbayem  (Bavaria 
*n  uermany,  and  to  bring  about  the  fall  of  Augsburg  proper),  are  almost  entirely  Catholic,  while  in  the 
from  the  dignity  of  a  principality  of  the  Empire,  northern  part  a  mixture  of  creeds  predominates. 
In  1802,  bv  act  ef  the  Delegation  of  the  Imperial  That  small  portion  of  Mittelfranken  ^Central  Fran- 
Diet  {Reichedeputationsrezess)  f  the  territory  of  the  oonia)  which  belongs  to  the  diocese  is  overwbehD' 


AU08BX7BO  77  AUOSBURG 

incly  Prot€6tant.    The  relations  between  the  various  lingen;  the  Diocesan  Seminary  for  boys  at  Dillingen; 
raigious  denominations  are  in  general  friendly  and  St.  Stephen's  Catholic  House  of  Studies  at  Au^buig, 
peaceable.    For  the  work  of  sacred  ministry  the  dio-  under  the  direction  of  the  Benedictines,  which  in* 
oeee  is  divided  into  40  deaneries  (1  city  deanery  at  eludes  a  Lyceum,  a  cl^ssic^  Gymnasium,  ^  a  royal 
Au^buig,    and    39    rural    deaneries),    with    862  senunaryof  studies  and  an  institute  for  higher  educa- 
paoshes,  31  parochial  curacies,  16  curacies,  226  bene-  tion;  there  are  besides  about  forty  students  of  the 
noes,  6  preaching-offices  {PrGdikaturen),  227  chap-  Diocese  of  Augsburg  who  dwell  in  the  Georgianum 
laincies.    In  general  each  parish  is  complete  and  at  Mimich  and  attend  the  courses  of  the  University, 
independent,   out    in    the    mountainous    southern  The  state,  or  communal,    institutions    of    higher 
section  there  are  many  parishes  to  which  are  at-  studies  for  boys  number  28  in  the  Diocese  of  Augs- 
tached  from  fifty  to  a  nimdred  dependent  churches  buix;  5  gymnasia,  1  Realgymnasium,  I  seminary  of 
(fUiakirchen),     The  cathedral   chapter  consists  of  stuaies,  5  Progymnasia,  2  Latin  schools,  7  RecUschulen, 
the  provost  of  the  cathedral,  a  dean  of  the  cathedral,  3  agricultural  winter  schools,  1  ReaUchtde  with  Latin, 
8  canons,  and  6  vicars.     In  1907  the  clexgy  of  the  1  normal  school,  and  2  preparatory  schools.    We 
diocese  numbered  1,439:  815  parish  priests  and  paro-  must  also  mention  the  Cassianeum  in  Donauw5rth, 
chial  curates,  49   parochial    vicars,  11    curates,  73  a  Catholic  institute  of  pedagogy,  which  includes  a 
beneficed   clergymen,  53    vicars    of    benefices,  180  training-school,  a  publishing  house  for  books  and 
chaplains  and  assistant  {)rie6ts,  49  prebendaries  and  periodic^,  a  printing  press,  and  other  appurtenances, 
clerical  professors  (not  including  the  professors  of  in  all  of  these  institutions  Catholic  instruction   is 
the  Bcunedictine  Abbey  of  St.  Stephen  in  Augsburg);  given  to  Catholic  students  by  Catholic  cleigymen. 
74  priests  twnporarily  stationed  in  the  diocese,  95       IV.  Charitable    Institutions. — ^The    charitable 
re^ujars,  40  priests  engaged  in  other  dioceses  or  on,  institutions  of  the  diocese  are  for  the  most  part  the 
missions.    Of  the  religious  orders  of  men  there  are  property  of  the  civic  parishes  or  the  unions  (Vereine), 
the  following  establismnents:  Benedictines,  3  (Au^-  or  local  associations;  they  are  administered,  however, 
bmg,Andecns,  Ottobeuren),  with  33  priests,  6  clerics,,  mostly  by  religious  communities  to  whom  is  also 
56  kiy  brothers ;   Mission  Society  of  St.  Benedict^  1  confided  the  care  of  the  sick,  or  children,  and  of 
(St.  Ottilien),  with  36  priests  (12  at  present  outside  the  aged.    There  are  37  hospitals,  24  infirmaries,  12 
the  diocese),  31  clerics.  117  lay  brothers;  Franciscans,  protectories,  2  asylums  for  children,  8  orphanages, 
3,  with  7  priests  and  22  lay  brothers;  Capuchins,  5,  3  institutions  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  12  houses  for 
with  28  priests,   18  clerics,  and   37   lay  brothens;  the  poor  and  orphans,  3  poorhouses,  1  hospital  for 
Brothers  of   Mercy,  6,  with  4  priests  and  54  lay  priests,  1  home  for  invalids,  3   institutions  f or  ser- 
brothers.    Altogether  there  are  18  establishments  vants  under  the  patronage  of  the   Blessed  Vii^in 
conducted  by  the  male  orders,  with  108  priests,  55  {Martenan8talten)j  1  House  of  St.  Anne  (Annasttft) 
dmcSf  and  286  lav  brothers.     Far  more  numerous  for  the  factory  girls  in  Au^burg,  1  House  of  St. 
are  the  female  oraers  and  religious  congregations;  Elizabeth  for  incurables,  5  Institutions  for  various 
they  number  226  establishments  and  branches,  with  other  purposes  (e.  ^.  the  'Kneippianum  in  Wdrishofen). 
2,815  members.    They  are:  Sisters  of  Mercy  of  St.  One  (jatholic  institution  of  Augsburg  deserves  spe- 
Vincent  de  Paul,  59  houses,  with  392  sisters;  Fran-  cial  mention:  the  Fuggerei,  founded  in  1519  by  three 
dscans,  with  their  mother-houses  at  Augsbuig,  Dil-  brothers  (Ulrich,  Georg,  and  Jakob)  of  the  Fuggers. 
Inigen,  Kaufbeuren,  and  Mindelheim,  71  establish-  It  consists  of  an  extensive  block  of  53  houses  with 
ments,   with   735  sisters:    Arme    Framiskanennnen  106  apartments;  in  accordance  with  the  conditions 
with  mother-house  at  MaUersdorf ,  34  establishments,  of  the  foundation  these  must  be  let  at  a  very  small 
with  171  sisters;  Englische  Frdtdein  (English  Ladies),  rent  to  indigent  people.    It  is  a  noble  and  durable 
11  convents  with  311  ladies,  160  lay  sisters,  and  43  memorial   of   the  spirit   of  Christian  charity  that 
novices;  Dominican  nuns,  11  convents  with  271  choir  abounded  in  the  Catholic  Middle  Ages.    In  recent 
sisters,  17  lay  sisters,  and  36  novices;  Poor  School  times  other  works  of  Christian  charity  have  been 
Asters,  21  foundations  with   166  sistera.  Eliaahelh-  inaugurated.    The  good  priest  and  superintendent 
erinnen  (Sisters  of    St.  Elizabeth),  4  foundations  of  studies  (/^eiw).  Father  Wagner  of  Dillingen,  es- 
with  41  sisters  and  5  novices;  Sisters  of  the  Most  tablished  many  institutions  for  the  deaf,  dumb,  and 
H<iy  Redeemer  with  their  mother-house  at  Ober-  blind;  Father  Ringeisen,  parish  priest  of  Ursberg,  es- 
bronn  in  Alsace,  61  foundations  with  24  sisters;  Cis-  tablished  there  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  for  the  exercise 
tercian  nuns,  1  convent  with  29  choir  nims,  15  lay  of  every  form  of  charity.     For  aged  and  infirm  priests 
sisters,  and  2  novices;  Mission  Sisters  of  St.  Benedict,  there  exists  a  fund  with  1,277  subscribers  and  a 
1  convent  with  65  sisters  and  9  novices;  Sisters  oi  reserve  of    1,550,000   marks    ($387,500).    There  is 
St.  Joseph  of  Ursberg,  7  foundations  with  231  sisters  also  an  association  for  the  support  of  infirm  priests,  * 
and  92  novices.  with  792  members  and  a  fund  of  26,000  marks 
ni.  Education. — ^As  the  primary  schools  in  Bava-  ($6^500).    Prominent  among  the  numerous  social- 
ria  are  the  property  of  the  local  civic  corporation  and  pohtical  and  religious  associations  of  the  diocese  are 
under  State  control,  there  are  no  parochial  schools  in  16  Catholic  apprentices'  unions  (Lehrlinpsvereine)^  the 
the  strict  sense  of  the  word.    According  to  the  Bava-  local  union  in  Augsburg  mainlining  its  own  home 
rian  Constitution  of  1818  nothing  more  is  assured  for  apprentices;  49  Catholic  journeymen's   unions 
to  the  Church  than  the  direction  of  religious  instruo-  (Ge8eUenvereine)f4JJmoiiB  of  St.  Joseph;  52  Catholic 
tion  and  the  surveillance  of  religious  life  m  the  school,  workin^gmen's  unions;  19  Catholic  students'  clubs;  3 
^  exercises  this  right  in  1,074  primary  schools  of  Catholic  clubs  for  working  women,  with  504  mem- 
the  Diocese  of  Augsbui^^,  by  means  of  6  ecclesiastical  bers;  7  Catholic  ''Patronages"  for  working  people;  the 
county  (Bezirk)  school-inspectors  and  50  ecclesias-  Ulrich-union  for  the  support  of  seminaries;  the  Men's 
tical  district  school-inspectors.     However,  in  many  Catholic  Association,  the  Christian  Peasants' Lea^e; 
d  the  girls'  schools  {Mddchenschiden)  the  direction  the  Cecilian  Club;  St.  Mary's  Protectory  for  girls; 
of  studies  is  confined  entirely  to  religious  societies  the  Young  Women's  Association,  and  the  Association 
under  State  inspection.    Thus  the  Poor  School  Sis-  of  (I^istian  Mothers.    Annual  pilgrimages  jp;ive  visi- 
ters have  charge  of  the  studies  in  19  schools,  the  ble  evidence  of  the  vigorous  religious  life  of  the  dio- 
Franctscans  in  35,  the  Dominican  nuns  in  11,  the  cese.     Such  pilgrimages  are  those  of  the  Holy  Cross 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Ursberg  in  3'  the  English  (11  May)  and  to  the  tomb  of  St.  Ulrich  at  Augsburg 
Ladies  are  excellent  teachers  for  the  higher  educa-  (4  July).    There  are  abo  processions  to  the  holy 
tion  of  women,  and  conduct  11  institutes  for  girls,  mountain  of  Andechs  during  the  rogation  days,  and 
For  the  training  of  priests  there  are  the  Lyceum  to  the  monastery  of  Lechfeld  since  the  vear  of  the 
iDd  the  Diocesan  Seminary  for  ecclesiastics  at  Dil-  cholera  (1854).    Other  pilgrimages  are  those  to  the 


AU08BURG  78  AU0U8TA 

reHcs  of  St.  Rasso  at  Graf  rath,  to  the  church  of  the  portance  in  the  general  ecclesiastical  and  political 

Holy  Sepulchre  {Unsers  Herm  Ruh)  near  Friedberg,  development  of  Western  Christendom.    Two  general 

and  to  Maria  Siebeneich.  imperial  e^ods  were  held  in  Augsburg.    The  first, 

V.  Ecclesiastical     Art     and    Monuments. —  convened  in  August,  952,  through  the  efforts  of  Em- 
Among  the  ecclesiastical  monuments  of  the  Diocese  peror  Otto  the  Great,  provided  for  the  reform  of 
of  Augsburg  the  cathedral  holds  first  place.    It  was  abuses  in   civil  and  ecclesiastical  life.     Frederick, 
begun  in  the  Roman  style  in  994,  dedicated  1010,  Archbishop    of    Mainz',    presided,    and    three  arch- 
and  remodeled,  1331-1431,  into  a  Gothic  church  with  bishops    and    twenty    bishops    of    Germany    and 
five  naves;  it  was  then  that  the  lofty  east  choir  with  northern  Italy  took  part.     Eleven  canons  were  pro- 
its  circle  of  chapels  was  added.    The  towers  were  in-  mulgated   concerning   ecclesiastical   life  and   other 
creased  in  height  in  1488-89  and  1564.     Among  the  matters  of  church  discipline.    A  similar  synod,  con- 
innumerable  art  treasures  of  the  cathedral  may  be  vened  by  Anno,  Archbishop  of  Cologne  (27  October, 
mentioned   the  vestments  of  St.   Ulrich;  the  four  1062),  was  occupied  with  the  internal  conditions  of 
altars  with  paintings  by  the  elder  Holbein  illustrating  the  empire  and  the  attitude  of  the  Church  of  Ger- 
the  life  of  the  Blessed  Virgin;  the  celebrated  bronze  many  towards  the  schism  of  Cadalus,  anti-pope  dur- 
doors  of  the  left  lateral  nave,  adorned  with  remark-  ing  the  reign  6i  Alexander  II.    The  diocesan  synods 
able  reliefs,  and  dating  from  the  first  half  of  the  of  Augsburg  correspond  as  a  rule  with  the  synodal 
deventh  century;  the  ancient  stained  windows,  some  system  as  carried  out  in    other  parts   of  Germany, 
of    which   go    back    to  the  eleventh   and  twelfth  We  find  in  this  diocese,^  elsewhere  in  Germany,  the 
centuries;   the  interesting    tombs  and  slabs  of  the  synodi  ver  villas,  convened  under  the  influence  of 
fourteenth  and  succeeding  centuries,  both  in  the  the  Carlovingian  capitularies.    They  were  visitation- 
cath^lr^  itself  and  in  the  adjoining  cloister,  and  synods,  held  by  the  bishop  assisted  by  the  arch- 
many  other  objects  of    value  and  mterest.     The  deacon  and  the  local  lord  or  baron  (GaugraJ).    Their 
church   of    Sts.  Ulrich   and  Afra,  built    1467-1594,  purpose  was  inquisitorial  and  judicial.    After  the 
in  the  Gothic  style,  contains  the  tomb  of  St.  Ulrich,  time  of  St.  Ulrich  (923-973),  and  in  close  relation  to 
the.stone  sarcophagus  of  St.  Afra,  the  Fugger  chapel  the  system  of  provincial  councils,  diocesan  synods 
witn  the  memorial  to  Hans  Fugger,  and  three  magni-  were  held  at  stated  times,  chiefly  in  connection  with 
ficent  altars  in    rococo    style.     The    Late   Gothic  matters  of  ecclesiastical  administration   (legaUzing 
church  of  the  Holy  Cross  was  renovated,  early  in  the  of  important  grants  and  privileges,  etc.),  and  the 
eighteenth  century,  in  florid   Roman  rococo  style,  settlement  of  disputes.     After  the  thirteenth  cen- 
and  is  a  favourite  place  of  pilgrimage.     Among  the  tuiy   these   diocesan   synods   assumed    more   of   a 
chief  ecclesiastical  edifices  outside  the  city  of  Augs-  legislative  character;  decrees  were  issued  regulating 
burg  are  the  Romanesque   basilicas  of  Altenstadt,  the   lives   of    both   ecclesiastics   and   laymen,    and. 
Ursberg,  Thierhaupten;  the  Gothic  churches  of  Kais-  church  discipline  was  secured  by  the  publication  of 
heim,    Dinkelsbiihl,    DonauwOrth,    Landsberg;   the  diocesan    statutes.     The    earliest    extant    are    of 
ancient  abbey-churches  of   Andechs   (very  rich   in  Bishop  Friedrich  (1309-31).    These  diocesan  synods 
relics  and  costly  reliquaries),     Benediktbeuren,  Dies-  fell  into  decay  during  the  course  of  the  fourteenth 
sen,  Fllssen,  Kempten,  Ottobeuren,  and  Wessobrunn,  •  century. 

all  restored  and  ornamented  in  sumptuous  barocco        In  consequence  of  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Basle 

or  rococo  style.  the  synods  of  the  Diocese  of  Augsburg  rose  again 

Khamu,  Hi^wrdda  Auguatana  chronologice  tripartita  (Au$s-  to   importance,  SO   that   after  the  middle  of  the  fif- 

SZei-i^T/e^^/:  lTl\^r„;  ^X^' ^:S^'^cctZ"T^u'J^'J^  J^enth    century   they  were    once    more    frequently 

(Augsburg,  1785);  Veith.  Biblioiheca  Aumtatana  (Augsburg,  held,  as  for  example:  by  the  able  Bishop  Feter  von 

1785-96);  Braun,    Qeachichie    der    Dischbfe   von    Augsburg  Schauenburg  (1424-69)  and  his  successor,  Johann  von 

(Augsburg,  1813-15);    Id.,  Htatortsch-topographvtche  Beschrei-  Wt»rHpnhiir<y     nlsn    hv  Fripdrirh    von    Zollprn    n4SR^ 

buna  der  Didzeae  Augaburg  (Augsburg.   1823);  Id.,  Die  Dom-  W eraenburg     also    Dy  rneoricn    VOn    AOliern   (14e>D; 

kir^  zu  Augsburg  (kxigahuT^,  1829);  Monumenia  episconatuM  and     Heinnch     VOn     Liechtenau    (1606).        Ihe    tWO 

Auovftani,  in  Monuments  B<nca  (yixmich,  1SAI~47)  XXXlll-  Bishops   Christopher    von    Stadion    (1517-43)    and 

^^rii^£IS"'ii^t)!''!dTi;Sf4rr1^^0^SAiX  Ottofmchsess  von  Waldbu^  (1543-73)  made  use 

Bistuma  Augaburg  {A^xi^sbxirg,  1856-60);  id.,  Dna  Biahitn  Auga-  of  dlOCesan    synods    (1517,   1620,  1643  m    Dlllmgen, 

burghiatoriachundatatiaHachbeachrieben  (vol.  II- V I,  Augsburg,  and  1536    in  Augsburg)  for  the  purpose  of  checking 

1864-1906:  vols.  V  and  VI  by  Schroder;   vol.   I   haa  not  yet  xu      nmDTP«i«   of    fViP    Reformation    throiiirh    fliA    im 

appeared  in  print);  Uopp,  Pfrilnfleatatistik  dca  Bistuma  Auga-  *"®   progress   Ot    tne   Keionnauon    tnrougn   tUe   im- 

burg  {Augsburg,  1906);  B\vM\^s,0c8chichte  dea  Algdu  {Kemp-  provement  of  ecclesiastical  life.     At  a  later   period 

ten.  1880-95);  many  original  manuscripts  in  ZiHachriit  dea  there  were  but  few  ecclesiastical  assembHes  of  this 

Hiatoriachen  Veretna  fOr  Schwaben  und  Neuburg  (Augsburg,  \r\r^A.  oq  pnrlv  ns.  1 'ifi?    thp  Rvnorl  of  flmf  vAar    orm 

1874  aqq,;  1903);    JahreaberiAJxt  dea  Historischcn  \  errina  DU-  *^^^i^  eariV  as  IDO/,  ine  synOQ  OI  luat  year,  con- 

lingen  (Dillingen,  1888  sqq.).   For  the  histor\'  of  the  city  of  vened   for  the  purpose  of  carrying  out  the  reforms 

Augaburg  see:  Stetten-  (Augsburg,    1745-58);     Meyer.  Ur-  instituted  by  the  Council  of  Trent,  shows  signs  of 

"^a^X!^  ^/o^Jl;^l?ai^5;!f7^E?-  '^U^:  {^^l  «!«  decline  of  the  synod  a«  a  diocesan  institution. 

Werner  (Augsburg.  1900.  with  details  on  earlier  literature).  The  Bishops  of  Augsburg  were,  moreover,  not  only 

For  the  history  of  the  fine  arts  in  Augsburg  see  Merz.  Die  the  ecclesiastical  superiors  of  their  diocese,  but  after 

f^r  Ba?;.  'AuX^'^n'"SJl^dZr£:St  '(Ba"X^:  t^e  tenth  century  possessed  the  Wia  the  right  of 

1893);  KEMPFAZ^Au(7«6ur(7  (100  plates,  Berlin.  1898):  ScHRo-  holdmg  and  admimstenng  royal  fiefs  with  concomi- 

DER,  Die  Domkircfu!  zu  Avpabwrg  (Augsburg.  1900);  Friesen-  tant  jurisdiction.    The  right  of  coinage  was obtained 

T^&i^^Ji'rtl''7:^a^rilm"L^T'''S^'J^l  J-y  St    Wnch.    At   a  kter   peri«l   disputes  were 

Kunat  (Munich,  1901);  IIieul,  Augaburg  (Leipzig,  1903).  frequent  between  the  bishops  and  the  Civic  authon- 

Joseph  Lins.  ties,  which  culminated  in  an  agreement  (1389)  by 

-        ,  _  _  «     T^  which  the  city  was  made  practically  independent  of 

Augsburg,  Religious  Peace  of.    See  Reforma-  the  episcopal  authority.     (See  Augsburg.) 

TION.  Hartzheim,  Concilia  GermanuK  (Cologne,  1749);  Hefelb. 

Anirshurir    STWonq   of From    thp    fitnA  nf    Rf  Conciliengeach.    (2d    ed     Freiburg,    1873);   Steiner.   5i;no</» 

AUgSDlU-g,   DTNODS   OF.      T rom    inc    Ume   OI    St.  ^^^    Auguatance   (1766):    Steichele,  Daa  Biatum  Augaburg 

Bomface  (d.  754),  especially  during  periods  of  earnest  hiatoriach  und  atatUtiach  beachrieben  (Augsburg,  1864);  ScHMio 

revival  of  religious   and   ecclesiastical   life,   synods  in  Kirchenlex.,  1, 1651-55.  t  p  tt 

were  frequently  convened  by  the  bishops  of  Germany,  ''•  *  •  K^irsch. 

and  sometimes  by  those  of  individual  ecclesiastical        Augury.     See  Divination. 

provinces.     As  the  German  bishops  were,  on  the  one        Augusta,  a  titular  see  of  Qlicia  in  Asia  Minor, 

nand,  princes  of   the  empire,  and   the  emperor  was,  whose  episcopal  list  (363-434)  is  ^ven  in  Gams  (435). 

on  the  other,  the  superior  protector  of  tne  Roman  Several  cities  bore  the  same  name  in  Roman  antiquity. 

Church, '  these  synods  came  to  have  no  little  im-  some  of  which  are  yet  flourishing,  e.  g.  Augusta 


AU0U8TIN                               79  AUQUSTINB 

Ausoomm    (Auch  in   Southern   France);   Augusta  in  ^^7^*V*^/\h  ^^?--    "^^  iormm  gives  a  comprrfieMh^ 

Batavorum  (Leyden  in  Holland);  Augusta  Asturica  ^**°^  °'  ^^^ "  wnunga.               tt^^„^  a   r  xroo 

(.Astorga  in  Spain);   Aueusta   Prsetoria    (Aosta  in  .                                 henry  a.  uanss. 

Northern  Italy);  Augusta  Emerita  (M6rida  m  Spain);  Augustinei  Rule  of  Saint. — The  title,   Rule  of 

Augusta  Rauracorum  (Augst  in  Switzerland)*  Au-  St.  Augustine,  has  been  applied  to  each  of  the  fol- 

gustaSuessonum  (Soissons  in  France);  Augusta  Taur-  lowing  documents:    (1)  Letter   ccxi  addressed  to  a 

inorum  CTurin  in  Italy);  Augusta  Trevirorum  (Trier  community  of  women;  (2)  Sermons  ccclv  and  ccclvi, 

in    Germany);    Augusta    Trinobantum    (London);  entitled  "De  vit&  et  moribus  clerioorum  suorum"; 

Augusta  Vindelicorum  (Augsburg  in  Grermany).  (?)  *  portion  of  the  Rule  drawn  up  for  clerks  or 

Lbqotbk,  OriCTw  ChrieL  (1740).  II,  879-880;  Smith,  Diet.  Consortia  Tnonachorum;  (4)  a  Rule  known  as  Regula 

of  Grtek  and  Roman  Geogr.,  1,  d38.                     q„,„,„  secunda; '&nd    (5)   another  Rule   called:    "De   vitA 

1 HOMAS  J .  aHAHAN.  eremiticA  ad  sororem  Uber."    The  last  is  a  treatise  oi^ 

Aagiutan  von  AUeld  (Alveldt,  or  Alveldianus),  eremitical  life  by  Blessed  JElred,  Abbot  of  Rievaubc, 
one  of  the  earliest  and  most  aggressive  opponents  of  England,  who  died  in  1166  and,  as  the  two  preceding 
Luther,  b.  in  the  village  of  Alfeld,  near  Hildesheim,  rules  are  of  unknown  authorship,  it  follows  that 
from  which  he  took  his  surname;  d.  probably  in  1532.  none  but  Letter  ccxi  and  Sermons  ccclv  and  occlvi 
Nothing  is  known  of  his  parentage,  youth,  and  early  were  written  by  St.  Augustine.     Letter  ccxi  is  ad- 
traimng.     He  first  comes  into  prominence  as  a  Fran-  dressed  to  nuns  in  a  monastery  that  had  been  gov- 
ciscan  of  the  R^ular  Observance,  belonging  to  the  ?rned  by  the  sister  of  St.  Augustme,  and  in  which 
Saxon  Provmceofthe  Holy  Cross.    The  absence  of  his  ^is  cousm  and  niece  lived     His  object  m  wntmg  it 
narae  on  the  matriculation  rosters  of  the  philosophi-  was  merely  to  qmet  troubles  incident  to  the  nonu- 
cal  and  theological  universities  of  Erfurt,  Rostock,  nation  of  a  new  supenor,  and  meanwhile  he  took 
Leipzig,  and  Wittenbei^,  usually  frequented  by  the  occasion  to  expatiate  upon  some  of  the  virtues  and 
members  of  the  above-named  province,  leaves  the  practices  essential  to  the  religious  life.     He  dwells 
presumption  that  he  made  his  studies  in  one  of  the  "P^n  chastity,  poverty,  obedience,  detachment  from 
monastic  schools.    At  the  solicitation  of  Adolf  of  ^^^  world,  the  apportionment  of  labour-,  the  mutual 
Anhalt,  Bishop  of  Merseburg,  in  1520,  being  already  duties  of  superiors  and  inferiors,  fraternal  charity. 
Lector  of  Holy  Writ  at  Leipzig,  he  entered  the  theologi-  prayer  m  wmmon,  fasting  and  abstmence  propor- 
cal  arena  to  controvert  the  Lutheran  heresy  (Mencken,  tionate  to  the  strength  of  the  mdividual,  care  of  the 
Scriptores  rer.  Ger.,  II,  56).     On  20  January,  1521,  sick,  silence,  reading  dunng  mea^,  etc.    In  his  two 
he  presided  at  the  public  theological  disputation  sennons  "De  vitA  et  moribus  clencorum  suorum" 
held  at  Weimar,  between  Lange,  Mechler,  and  the  Augustme  seeks  to  dispel  the  suspicions  harboured 
Franciscans,  on  the  merit  of  monastic  vows  and  ^Y  ^^^  faithful  of  Hippo  against  the  clergy  leading  a 
life  (Kapp.  Kleinere  Nachlese  nUtzlicher  Urkunden  monastic  life  with  him  m  his  episcopal  residence, 
xur  Erl&uterung    der    Reformationsgeschichte,   II,  The  perusal  of  these  sermons  discloses  the  fact  that 
514,   Leipzig,  1727),  the   result  of  which  has  not  ^^^  bishop  and  his  priests  observed  strict  poverty 
been  handM  down,  though  it  called  forth  a  satiri-  ^"^^l  conformed  to  the  example  of  the  Apostles  and 
calpoem  at  the  time  (ib.,   520).     In   1523   he  be-  «arly  Christians  by  usmg  their  money  in  common, 
ttme  Guardian  of  the  monastery  at  Halle,  in  which  This  was  caUed  the  Apostolic  Rule.    St.  Augustine, 
position  he  is  still  found  in  1528.     In  1529  he  was  however,   dilated   upon   the   rehgious   hfe   and  its 
elected  Provincial  of  the  Saxon  Province  of  the  Holy  obhgations  on  other  occasions.    Aurelius,  Bishop  of 
Qross.  Carthfige,  was  greatlv  disturbed  by  the  conduct  of 
Alfeld  was  a  man  of  fine  linguistic  attainments,  a  monks  who  indulged  m  idleness  under  pretext  of 
fluent  Latinist,  familiar  with  the  ancient  classics,  contemplation,    and    at  his  request  St.  Augustine 
conversant  with  Greek  and  Hebrew,  and  well  ac-  published  a  treatise  entitled  "Deoperemonachomm" 
quainted  with  the  humanistic  WTitings  of  his  day.  wherein  he  proves  by  the  authority  of  the  Bible, 
Hffl  theology  was  that  of  medieval  scholasticism,  m  ^^e  example  of  the  Apostles,  and  even  the  exigencies 
which  he  proved  "that  the  old  theological  training  of  life,  that  the  monk  is  obliged  to  devote  himself 
did  not  leave  the  antagonists  of  Luther  helpless  and  ^  serious  labour.    In  several  of  his  letters  and  ser- 
unprepared  in  combating   the   novel,  and   to   the  nions  is  to  be  found  a  useful  complement  to  his 
theologically  disciplined  mind  contradictory,  asser-  teaching  on  the  monastic  life  and  the  duties  it  im- 
tions*^  (Otto,    Johannes    Cochlaeus,    132,    Breslau,  Poses.    These  are  easy  of  access  in  the  Benedictine 
1874).     Aa  Lector  of  Holy  Writ,  he  devoted  much  edition,  where  the  accompanying  table  may  be  con- 
attention  and  thought  to  the  Bible,  so  that  he  can  suited  under  the  words:  moruichi,  monachce,  numr 
state  that  "from  my  childhood  I  have  devoted  my  aaterium,  monastica  vita,  safhctimoniales, 
time  and  life  to  it"  (Super  Apostolic^  Sede,  etc.,  iii  a).  The  letter  written  by  St.  Augustine  to  the  nuns  at 
In  the  textual  studies  of  the  Greek  and  Hebrew  ver-  Hippo  (423),  for  the  purpose  of  restoring  harmony 
fiions,   the   translation  of  Erasmus,   the  exegetical  m  their  community,  deals  with  the  reform  of  certam 
writings  of    Faber  Stapulensis  (Lefevre   d'Etaples)  Phases  of  monasticism  as  it  is  understood  by  him. 
and  the  Complutensians,  he  shows  a  keen,  analytical  This  document,  to  be  sure,  contains  no  such  cl«ir, 
mind  and  sound  judgment.     His  memory  and  reputa-  minute  prescnptions  as  are  found  m  the  Benedictine 
tion,  however,  rest  on  his  polemical  activity  and  Rule,  because  no  complete  rule  was  cA'er  written  prior 
writings.     The  latter  are  marred  at  times  by  a  tone  ^  *"«  time  of  St.  Benedict;  nevertheless,  the  Bishop 
of  bitterness  and  sarcasm  that  detract  from  their  of  Hippo  is  a  law-giver  and  his  letter  is  to  be  read 
mtrinsic    worth  and  gave  his  opponents,   notably  weekly,  that  the  nuns  may  guard  against  or  repent 
Lonicer,   Luther's  amanuensis   (Biblia  nova  Alvel-  any  infringement  of  it.     He  considers  poverty  the 
densis  Wittenbergae  Anno  MDXX)  opportunity  to  foundation  of  the  rehgious  life,  but  attaches  no  less 
cwisure    the    catalogued  epithets  flung   at  Luther  importance  to  fraternal  charity,  which  consists  in 
(Cvprian,  NQtzliche  Urkunden  zur  ErlHuterung  der  living  m  peace  and  concord.    The  superior,  m  par- 
Reformationsgeschichte,  II,  158).    If  it  be  remem-  tjcular,  is  recommended  to  practise  tins  virtue  al- 
beied  that  Luther  calls  him  hos  Lipsicus  (De  Wette,  though  not,  of  course,  to  the  extreme  of  omittmg  to 
Briefe,  Sendschreiben,  etc.,  I,  446);  asinus  (op.  cit.,  chastise  the  guiltjr.    However,  St.  Augustine  leaves 
451, 453,  533);  Lipsiensis  onaqer  (op.  cit.,  446);  Lipsi-  her  free  to  determine  the  nature  and  duration  of  the 
auis  asinus  (op.  cit.,  471,  473,  542),  merely  to  single  punishment  imposed,   m  some  cases  it  being  her 
out  a  few  controversial  amenities,  his  literary  style  privilege  even  to  expel  nuns  that  have  become  m- 
may  be  meaaurably  condoned.  corrigible.     The  supenor  shares  the  duties  of  her 
\,  Pater  Auffu$tinvdnAlftId(Frmb}jTg,  1899);  Floss  oflBce  with  certain  members  of  her  commumty,  on« 


AUOUSTINE  80  AUaUSTINX 

of  whom  has  charge  of  the  sick,  another  of  the  cellar,  these  two  families  claiming  him  exclusively  as  its 
another  of  the  wardrobe,  while  still  another  is  own.  It  was  not  so  much  the  establishing  of  an 
custodian  of  the  books  which  she  is  authorized  to  historical  fact  as  the  settling  of  a  claim  of  precedence 
distribute  among  the  sisters.  The  nuns  make  their  that  caused  the  trouble,  and  as  both  sides  could  not 
own  habits,  which  consist  of  a  dress,  a  cincture  and  a  be  in  the  right,  the  quarrel  would  have  continued 
veil.  Prayer,  in  common,  occupies  an  important  indefinitely  had  not  Pope  Sixtus  IV  put  an  end  to 
place  in  their  life,  being  said  in  the  chapel  at  stated  it  by  his  Bull  '^Summum  silentium'^  (1484).  The 
nours  and  according  to  prescribed  forms,  and  com-  silence  thus  imposed,  however,  was  not  perpetual, 
prising  hymns,  psalms,  and  readings.  Certain  and  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centiuies 
praters  are  simply  recited  while  others,  especially  controversies  were  resumed  between  the  Canons  and 
mdicated,  are  chanted;  but  as  St.  Augustine  enters  the  Hermits,  but  all  to  no  avail.  Pierre  de  Saint- 
into  no  minute  details,  it  is  to  be  supposed  that  each  Trond,  Prior  of  the  Canons  Regular  of  St.  Martin  of 
monasterjr  conformed  to  the  liturgy  of  the  diocese  Louvain,  tells  the  story  of  these  cjuarrels  in  the 
in  which  it  is  situated.  Those  sisters  desiring  to  lead  preface  to  his  "Examen  Testamenti  S.  Augustini'* 
a  more  contemplative  life  are  allowed  to  follow  special  (Louvain,  1564).  Gabriel  Pennot,  Nicolas  Deenos, 
devotions  in  private.  The  section  of  the  Rule  that  and  Le  Large  uphold  the  thesis  of  the  Canons;  Gan- 
appUes  to  eating,  although  severe  in  some  respects,  dolfo,  Lupus,  Giles  of  the  Presentation,  and  Noris 
is  Dy  no  means  strict  TOyond  observance  and  the  sustain  that  of  the  Hermits.  The  Bollandists  with- 
Bishop  of  Hippo  tempers  it  most  discreetly.  Fasting  hold  their  opinion.  St.  Augustine  followed  the 
and  aostinence  are  recommended  only  in  proportion  monastic  or  religious  life  as  it  was  known  to  his  con- 
to  the  physical  strength  of  the  individual,  and  when  temporaries,  and  neither  he  nor  they  even  thought 
the  saint  speaks  of  obligatorjr  fasting  he  specifies  of  establishing  among  those  who  had  embraced  it 
that  such  as  are  unable  to  wait  for  the  evening  or  any  distinction  whatever  as  to  congregations  or 
ninth  hour  meal  may  eat  at  noon.  The  nuns  par-  orders.  This  idea  was  conceived  in  a  subsequent 
take  of  very  frugal  fare  and,  in  all  probability,  ab-  epoch,  h^nce  St.  Au^stine  cannot  be  said  to  have 
stain  from  meat.  However,  the  sick  and  infirm  are  belonged  to  any  particular  order.  He  made  laws  for 
objects  of  the  most  tender  care  and  solicitude,  and  the  monks  and  nuns  of  Roman  Africa,  it  is  true,  and 
certain  concessions  are  made  in  favour  of  those  who,  he  helped  to  increase  their  numbers,while  they,  in  turn, 
before  entering  religion,  led  lives  of  luxury.  Diuing  reverb  him  as  their  father,  but  they  cannot  be  classed 
meals  some  instructive  matter  is  to  be  read  aloud  as  members  of  any  special  monastic  family, 
to  the  nuns.  Although  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine  St.  Augustine's  Influence  on  Monachism. — 
contains  but  few  precepts,  it  dwells  at  great  len^h  When  we  consider  Augustine's  ^reat  prestige,  it  is 
upon  reli^ous  virtues  and  the  ascetic  Ufe,  this  bemg  easy  to  understand  why  his  writings  should  have  so 
characteristic  of  all  primitive  rules.  In  his  sermons  influenced  the  development  of  Western  monachism. 
ocdv  and  ccclvi  the  saint  discourses  on  the  monastic  His  Letter  ccxi  was  read  and  re-read  by  St.  Benedict, 
observance  of  the  vow  of  poverty.  Before  making  who  borrowed  several  important  texts  from  it  for 
their  profession  the  nuns  divest  themselves  of  all  insertion  in  his  own  rule.  St.  Benedict's  chapter  on 
their  ^oods,  their  monastery  being  responsible  for  the  labour  of  monks  is  manifestly  inspired  oy  the 
supplying  their  wants,  and  whatever  they  may  earn  treatise  "De  opere  monachorum  ',  that  has  done 
or  receive  is  turned  over  to  a  common  fund,  the  so  much  towaros  furnishing  an  accurate  statement 
monasteries  having  the  right  of  possession.  In  his  of  the  doctrine  commonly  accepted  in  religious 
treatise,  ''De  opere  monachorum  ,  he  inculcates  the  orders.  The  teaching  concerning  religious  poverty  is 
necessity  of  labour,  without,  however,  subjecting  it  clearly  formulated  in  the  sermons  "  De  vit&  et  moribus 
to  any  rule,  the  gaining  of  one's  livelihood  rendering  clericorum  suorum"  and  the  authorship  of  these  two 
it  indispensable.  Monks  of  course,  devoted  to  the  works  is  sufficient  to  earn  for  the  Bishop  of  Hippo 
ecclesiastical  ministry  observe,  ipso  fado,  the  precept  the  title  of  Patriarch  of  monks  and  religious.  Tne 
of  labour,  from  wmch  observance  the  infirm  are  influence  of  Augustine,  however,  was  nowhere 
legitimately  dispensed.  These,  then,  are  the  most  stronger  than  in  southern  Gaul  in  the  fifth  and  sixth 
important  monastic  prescriptions  found  in  the  rule  centuries.  L^rins  and  the  monks  of  that  school  were 
and  writings  of  St.  Augustine.  familiar  with  Augustine's  monastic  writings,  which, 

Monastic  Life  of  St.  Augustine. — Augustine  together  with  those  of  Cassianus,  were  the  mine 
was  a  monk;  this  fact  stands  out  unmistakaoly  in  from  which  the  principal  elements  of  their  rules 
the  reading  of  his  life  and  works.  Although  a  priest  were  drawn.  '  St.  Csesanus,  Archbishop  of  Aries,  the 
and  bishop,  he  knew  how  to  combine  the  practices  great  organizer  of  religious  life  in  that  section,  chose 
of  the  religious  life  with  the  duties  of  his  office,  and  some  of  the  most  interesting  articles  of  his  rule  for 
his  episcopal  house  in  Hippo  was  for  himself  and  monks  from  St.  Augustine,  and  in  his  rule  for  nuns 
some  of  his  clergy,  a  veritable  monastery. '  Several  quoted  at  length  from  Letter  ccxi.  Sts.  Augustine 
of  his  friends  anofdisciples  elevated  to  the  episcopacy  and  Csesarius  were  animated  by  the  same  spirit 
imitated  his  example,  among  them  Alypius  at  Tagaste,  which  passed  from  the  Archbishop  of  Aries  to  St. 
Possidius  at  Calama,  Profuturus  and  Fortunatus  at  Aurelian,  one  of  his  successors,  and,  like  him,  a 
Cirta,  Evodius  at  Uzalis,  and  Boniface  at  Carthage,  monastic  lawgiver.  Augustine's  influence  also  ex- 
There  were  still  other  monks  who  were  priests  and  tended  to  women's  monasteries  in  Gaul,  where  the 
who  exercised  the  ministry  outside  of  the  episcopal  Rule  of  Csesarius  was  adopted  either  wholly  or  in 
cities.  All  monks  did  not  live  in  these  episcopal  part,  as,  for  example,  at  Sainte-tlroix  of  Poitiers, 
monasteries;  the  majority  were  laymen  whose  com-  Juxamontier  of  Besan^on,  and  Chamali^res  near 
munities,  although  under  the  authority  of  the  bishops,  Clermont. 

were  entirely  (ustinct  from   those  of  the   clergy,        But  it  was  not  alwajrs  enough  merely  to  adopt  the 

There  were  religious  who  lived  in  complete  isolation,  teachings  of  Aueustine  and  to  quote  him;  the  author 

belon^g  to  no  community  and  having  no  legitimate  of  the  regula  TamcUensis'  (an  unknown  monastery 

supenor;  indeed,  some  wandered  aimlessly  about,  in  the  Rhone  valley)  introduced  into  his  work  the 

at  the  risk  of  giving  disedification  by  their  vagabond-  entire  text  of  the  letter  addressed  to  the  nims,  having 

age.    The  fanatics  known  as  CircumceUumes  were  previously  adapted  it  to  a  community  of  men  by 

recruited  from  the  ranks  of  these  wandering  monks,  making  slight  modifications.    This  adaptation  was 

and  St.  Augustine  qften  censured  their  way  of  living,  surely  made  in  other  monasteries  in  tne  sixth  or 

The  religious  life  of  the  Bishop  of  Hippo  was,  for  seventh  centuries,  and  in  his  ''Codex  regularuni" 

a  lone  time,  a  matter  of  dispute  oetween  the  Canons  St.  Benedict  of  Aniane  published  a  text  similarly 

R^uuur  and  the  Hermits  of  St.  Augustine,  each  of  modified.    For  want  of  exact  information  we  cannot 


AU0U8TINX  81  AUOUSTINE 

ny  in  which  monasteries  this  was  done,  and  whether  mous  monastery  of  St.  Andrew  erected  by  St.  Gregory 
they  were  numerous.     Letter  ccxi,  which  has  thus  out  of  his  own  patrimony  on  the  Cselian  liill.    It  was 
become  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine,  certainly  consti-  thus  amid  the  religious  intimacies  of  the  Benedictine 
tuted  a  part  of  the  collections  known  under  the  gen-  Rule  and  in  the  bracing  atmosphere  of  a  recent  founda- 
eral  name  of  ''Rules  of  the  Fathers''  and  used  by  tion  that  the  character  of  the  future  missionary  was 
the  founders  of  monasteries  as  a  basis  for  the  prac-  formed.    Chance  is  said  to  have  furnished  the  oppor- 
tiees  of  the  religious  life.    It  does  not  seem  to  nave  tunity  for  the  enterprise  which  was  destined  to  link 
\xtJi  adopted  by  the  regular  conunimities  of  canons  his  name  for  all  time  with  that  of  his  friend  and 
or  of  clerks  which  began  to  be  organized  in^he  eighth  patron,  St.  Gregory,  as  the  "true  beginner"  of  one 
and  ninth  centuries.     The  rule  given  tliem  bv  St.  of  the  most  important  Churches  in  Christendom  and 
Chrodegang,  Bishop  of  Metz    (742-766),  is  almost  the  medium  by  which  the  authority  of  the  Roman 
entirely  dniwn  from  that  of  St.  Benedict,  and  no  See  was  established  over  men  of  the  English-speaking 
more  decided  traces  of  Augustinian  influence  are  race.     It  is  unnecessary  to  dwell  here  upon  Bede's 
to  be  found  in  it  than  in  the  decisions  of  the  Council  of  well-known  version  of  Gregory's  casual  encounter 
Aachen  (817),  which  may  be  considered  the  real  con-  with  English  slaves  in  the  Roman  market  place  (H.  E., 
stitutions  of  the  Canons  Regular.    For  this  influence  II,  i),  which  is  treated  under  Gregoi^  the  Ureat  (q.  v.). 
we  must  await  the  foundation  of  the  clerical  or  Some  Ave  years  after  his  elevation  to  the  Roman 
canonical  communities  established  in  the  eleventh  See  (590)  Gregory  began  to  look  about  him  for  ways 
century  for  the  effective  counteracting  of  simony  and  and  means  to  carry  out  the  dream  of  his  earlier  davs. 
clerical  concubinage.     The  Council  of  Lateran  (1059)  He  naturally  turned  to  the  community  he  had  ruled 
and  another  council  held  at  Rome  four  years  later  more  than  a  decade  of  years  before  in  the  monastery 
approved  for  the  members  of  the  clergy  the  strict  on  the  Cselian  Hill.    Out  of  these  he  selected  a  corn- 
community  life  of  the  Apostolic .  Age,  such  as  the  pany  of  about  forty  and  designated  Augustine,  at 
Bishop  of  Hippo  had  caused  to  be  practised  in  his  that  time  Prior  of  St.  Andrew's,  to  be  their  representa- 
episcopal  house  and  had  taught  in  his  two  sermons  tive  and  spokesman.    The  appointment,  as  will  ap- 
iieretolore  cited.     The  first  communities  of  canons  pear  later  on,  seems  to  have  oeen  of  a  somewhat  in- 
adopted  these  sermons  as  their  basis  of  organization,  determinate  character;  but  from  this  time  forward 
This  reform  movement  spread  rapidly  throughout  until  his  death  in  604  it  is  to  Augustine  as  ''strength- 
Latin  Europe  and   brougnt  about  the  founcmtion  ened  bv  the  confirmation  of  the  blessed  Father  Gre^;- 
of  the  regular  chapters  so  numerous  and  prosperous  ory"  {roboratua  confirmatione  beati  pairis  Gregoni. 
during  the  Middle  Ages.    Monasteries  of  women  or  Bede,  H.  E.,  I,  xxv)  that  English,  as  distinguished 
of  canonesses  were  formed  on  the  same  plan,  but  not  from  British,  Christianity  owes  its  primary  mspira- 
accq^ling  to  the  rules  laid  down  in  the  sermons  **  De  tion. 

vitAet  moribus  clericorum".    The  letter  to  virgins  The  event  which  afforded  Pope  Gregory  the  oppor- 

was  adopted  almost  inamediately  and  became  the  tunity  he  had  so  long  desired  of^  carrying  out  his  great 

rule  of  tne  canons  and  canonesses;  hence  it  was  the  missionary  plan  in  favour  of  the  English  happened  in 

religious  code   of   the   Premonstratensians,   of   the  the  year  595  or  596.    A  rumour  h^  reached  Rome 

bouses  of  Canons  R^ular,  and  of  canonesses  either  that  the  pagan  inhabitants  of  Britain  were  readv  to 

nthered  into  congregations  or  isolated,  of  the  Friars  embrace  the  Faith  in  great  numbers,  if  only  preachers 

Preachers,  of  the  Trinitarians  and  of  the  Order  of  could  be  found  to  instruct  them.    The  first  pmn  which 

Mercy,  both  for  the  redemption  of  captives,  of  hospi-  seems  to  have  occurred  to  the  pontiff  was  to  take 

taller  communities,  both  men  and  women,  dedicated  measures  for  the  purchase  of  English  captive  boys  of 

to  the  care  of  the  sick  in  the  hospitals  of  the  Middle  seventeen  years  of  age  and  upwards.    These  he  would 

Ages,  and  of  some  military  orders.  have  brought  up  in  the  Catholic  Faith  with  the  idea 

AcGumxiAN    FotTNOATioNs.— See   aiao  under  individual  of  ordaining  them  and  sending  them  back  in  due  time 

titles.  Canons.  Rboular  of  thb  Lateran  (Austin),  HERMrre  as  apostles  to  their  own  people.    He  accordingly  wrote 

K^^^'SS^H^fB^^^Sir"  ffxi[SS^"»l;  ^/STcIS:  *<»  &us,  a  presbyter  entrusted  with  the^aSminis- 
Amwromaws,  Brotherhood  or  the  Apostleb  and  or  Vol-  tration  ol  a  small  estate  belonging  to  the  patnmony 
WTART  PovKiTY.  BROTHERS  or   Merct.  Bbthlehemitbs,    of  thc  Romau  Church  in  Gaul,  asking  him  to  secure 

SrnST^^°S'rX  lr^E\X^£^:^riJi;    J^e  revenues  a«d  .set  them  ,^de  for  this  purFK.se. 

8«rmone9  eedv,  ceeLvi,  P.  L.^  XXXIX,  1668-81;  Idem,  D€  (Greg.,  Epp.,  VI,  VU  m  Mlgne,  P.  L.,  LXXVII.)  It  is 
9fm  monathapan,  op.  cH^  XL,  647-862;  Besse,  Le  mono-    possible,  not  only  to  determine  approximately  the 

feS.^P2S^  teS^=  J°S&iSI?2;r'(&AnSwt  ^^  of  these  evente,  but  also  to  jn/icate  the  pa'rticu- 

HiLTar^M<oir0  de9  ordreMreUaieuxetmUitavre*  (Paris,  1792).  lar  quarter  of  Bntam  from  which  the  rumour  had 

lU,rV;ni^BvcamB.J>ieOr^  come.    iEthelberht  became  King  of  Kent  in  559  or 

'tSj^oi^§^:A^ovs^^^^  ordinU  560   fnd  in  less  than  twenty  years  he  succeeded  in 

Ermiiarvm  S.  Auauatini  (Rome,  1628);  Pamphilii,  Chronicon  establishing  an  overlordship  that  extended  from  the 

rnhnU  fnttrum  Eremitarum   S.  AugusHni  (Rome,   1681);  borders  of  the  country  of  the  West  Saxons  eastward 

l;^'5^'tUSrS2^;Si,?ILri?7^rc^^^^^  *?  t^e  s«v  and  as  far  north  as  the  Humber  and  the 

nrtirumiaiutrium  ex  inline  Eremitarum  S.Augu9tinii  Antwerp,  I  rent.  Ine  idaxons  01  Miaolesex  and  Of  iliSsex,  to- 
1658);  (SRATiANtJS,  AruuiaeiM  Aufn^atmiqna,  in  qud  ecnpiorea    gether  with  the  men  of  East  Anglia  and  of  Mercia, 

n!S:4'r7^rivt/^T^ui  !ru;Sr«^54"SJ  ««>*  t^us  brought  to  acknowledge  Wm  as  Bretwalda. 
«Mti(«i»ofw  Fratrum  Eremitarttm  exctdceatorum  onHnie  S,  and  ne  acquired  a  political  unportance  which  began 
Amuatini  (Cambrmi.  1668).  .    ^     .  to  be  felt  by  the  Franldsh  princes  on  the  other  side  of 

^  SS^^S^SZ^uJ^^n:  JS:S.r^.  ?^i  ^^^  S!!r^--  "^^^"^  of  Paris  gave  him  his  daugh- 
(VteBua,  i66a)\Hi9toria  degli  wymini  iUustri  die  fuorono  ter  Bertha  in  mamage,  stipulatmff,  as  part  of  the 
gioMoii  Moriffia  (Viomu^  1604);  Hermeneoildo  de  San-    nuptial  agreement,  that  she  should  be  allowed  the 

i^'SSwd^  l^So"''''*'^        *"''*^  ^              ^^*"  ^^^  exercise  of  her  reUgion.     The  condition  was 

J.  M.  Bbssb.  accepted  (Bede,  H.  E.,  I,  xxv)  and  Luidhard.  a 

Framdsh  bishop,  accompanied  the  princess  to  ner 

Augustine  of  Oanterbmy,  Saint,  first  Archbishop  new  home  in  Canterbury,  where  the  ruined  church  of 

ofGanterbury,  Apostle  of  the  English;  date  of  birth  un-  St.   Martin,  situated  a  short  distance  beyond  the 

imown;  d.  28  May,  604.    Symbols:  cope,  pallium,  and  walls,  and  dating  from  Roman-British  times,  was  set 

nitre  as  Kshop  of  Canterbury,  and  pastoral  staff  and  apart  for  her  use  (Bede,  H.  E.,  I,  xxvi).    The  date  of 

Supds  as  missionary.     Nothing  is  known  of  his  vouth  this  marriage,  so  important  in  its  results  to  the  future 

exeept  that  he  was  probably  a  Roman  of  the  better  fortunes  of  Western  Christianity,  is  of  course  largely 

dMB,  and  that  early  m  life  he  became  a  monk  in  the  fa^  a  matter  of  conjecture;  but  from  the  evidence  fur- 

IL— 6 


AUGUSTIKB  82  AU0U8TINS 

nished  by  one  or  two  scattered  remarks  in  St.  Greg-  King  ^thelberht's  orders  until  arrangements  could 

ory's  letters  (Epp. ,  VI)  and  from  the  circumstances  be  made  for  a  formal  interview.    The  king  replied  tc 

which  attended  tne  emergence  of  the  kingdom  of  the  their  messengers  that  he  would  come  in  perjon  from 

Jutes  to  a  position  of  prominence  in  the  Britain  of  Canterbury,  which  was  less  than  a  dozen  miles  away, 

this  period,  we  may  safely  assmne  that  it  had  taken  It  is  not  easy  to  decide  at  this  date  between  the  four 

place  fully  twenty  years  before  the  plan  of  sending  rival  spots,  each  of  which  has  claimed  the  distinction 

Augustine  and  his  companions  suggested  itself  to  the  of  being  the  place  upon  which  St.  Aufustine  and  his 

pope.  companions  first  set  foot.    The  Boarded  Groin,  Sto- 

The  pope  was  obliged  to  complain  of  the  lack  of  nar,  EbbSfleet,  and  Richborough — the  last  named,  if 
episcopal  zeal  among  iEthelberht*s  Christian  neigh-  the  present  course  of  the  Stour  has  not  altered  in  thir- 
lx)urs.  Whether  we  are  to  understand  the  phrase  ex  teen  hundred  y^ars,  then  forming  part  of  the  mainland 
vicinis  (Greg.,  Epp.,  VI)  as  referring  to  Gaulish  prel-  — each  has  its  defenders.  The  ciuious  in  such  matters 
ates  or  to  the  Celtic  bishops  of  northern  and  western  may  consult  the  special  literature  on  the  subject 
Britain,  the  fact  remains  tnat  neither  Bertha's  piety,  cit^  at  the  close  of  this  article.  The  promised  int^- 
nor  Luidhard's  .preaching,  nor  iEthelberht's  tolera-  view  between  the  king  and  the  missionaries  took  place 
tion,  nor  the  supp)osedly  robust  faith  of  British  or  within  a  few  days.  It  was  held  in  the  open  air,  svh 
Gaulish  neighbouring  peoples  was  found  adequate  rfivo,  says  Bede  (H.  E.,  I,  xxv),  on  a  level  spot,  proba- 
te so  obvious  an  opportunity  until  a  Roman  pontiff,  bly  under  a  spreading  oak  in  deference  to  the  king's 
distracted  with  the  cares  of  a  world  supposed  to  be  dread  of  Augustine's  possible  incantations. .  His  fear, 
hastening  to  its  eclipse,  first  exhorted  forty  Benedic-  however,  was  dispelled  by  the  native  grace  of  manner 
tines  of  Italian  blooa  to  the  enterprise.  The  itinerary  and  the  kindly  personality  of  his  chief  guest  who  ad- 
seems  to  have  been  speedily,  if  vaguely,  prepared;  the  dressed  him  through  an  interpreter.  The  message 
little  company  set  out  upon  their  long  journey  in  the  told  "how  the  compassionate  Jesus  had  redeemed  a 
month  of  June,  596.  They  were  armed  with  letters  world  of  sin  by  His  own  agony  and  opened  the  King- 
to  the  bishops  and  Christian  princes  of  the  countries  dom  of  Heaven  to  all  who  would  believe"  (iElfric, 
through  which  they  were  likely  to  pass,  and  they  were  ap.  Haddan  and  Stubbs,  III,  ii).  The  king's  answer, 
further  instructed  to  provide  themselves  with  Frank-  while  gracious  in  its  friendliness,  was  curiously  pro- 
ish  interpretefs  before  setting  foot  in  Britain  itself,  phetic  of  the  relij^ous  after-tempter  of  his  race.  "Your 
Discouragement,  however,  appears  early  to  have  words  and  promises  are  very  fair"  he  is  said  to  have 
overtaken  them  on  their  way.  Tales  of  the  uncouth  replied,  "but  as  they  are  new  to  us  and  of  uncertain 
islanders  to  whom  they  were  going  chilled  their  enthu-  import,  I  cannot  assent  to  them  and  give  up  what  I 
siasm,  and  some  of  their  number  actually  proposed  have  long  held  in  common  with  the  whole  English 
that  they  should  draw  back.  Aupistine  so  far  com-  nation.  But  since  you  have  come  as  strangers , from 
promised  with  the  waverers  that  He  agreed  to  return  so  great  a  distance,  and,  as  I  take  it,  are  anxiolts  to 
m  person  to  Pope  Gregory  and  lay  before  him  plainly  have  us  also  share  in  what  you  conceive  to  be  both 
the  difficulties  which  they  might  be  compelled  to  excellent  and  true,  we  will  not  interfere  with  you,  but 
encounter.  The  band  of  missionaries  waited  for  him  receive  you,  rather,  in  kindly  hospitality  and  take 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Aix-en-Provence.  Pope  care  to  provide  what  may  be  necessary  for  your  sup- 
Gregory,  however,  raised  the  drooping  spirits  of  port.  Moreover,  we  make  no  objection  to  your  win- 
Augustine  and  sent  him  back  without  delay  to  his  ning  as  many  converts  as  you  can  to  your  creed", 
faint-hearted  brethren,  armed  with  more  precise,  and  (B^e,  H.  E.,  I,  xxv.) 
as  it  appeared,  more  convincing  authority.  The  king  more  than  made  good  his  words.    He  In- 

Augustine  was  named  abbot  of  the  missionaries  vited  the  missionaries  to  take  up  their  abode  in  the 

(Bede,  H.  E.,  I,  xxiii)  and  was  furnished  with  fresh  royal  capitsd  of  Canterbury,  then  a  barbarous  and 

letters  in  which  the  pope  made  kindly  acknowledg-  half-ruined  metropolis,  built  by  the  Kentish  folk  upon 

ment  of  the  aid  thus  far  offered  by  Protasius,  Bishop  the  site  of  the  ola  Roman  military  town  of  Durover- 

of   Aix-en-Provence,  by  Stephen,  Abbot  of   L4rins,  num.    In  spite  of  the  squalid  character  of  the  city, 

and  by  a  wealthy  lay  official  of  patrician  rank  called  the  monks  must  have  made  an  impressive  picture 

Arigius  [Greg.,  Epp.,  VI  (indie,  xiv)  num.  62  sqq.;  as  they  drew  near  the  abode  "over  against  the  King'^* 

sc.  3,  4,  5  of  the  Benedictine  series].    Augustine  must  Street  facing  the  north",  a  detail  preserved  in  William 

have  reached  Aix  on  his  return  journey  some  time  Thome's  (c.  1337)  "  Chronicle  of  the  Abbots  of  St. 

in  August;  for  Gregory's  message  of  encouragement  Augustine's  Canterbury,"  p.  1759,  assigned  them  for 

to  the  party  bears  the  date  of  July  the  twenty-third,  a  dwelling.     The  striking  circumstances  of  their  ap- 

596.    whatever  may  have  been  the  real  source  of  the  proach  seem  to  have  lingered  long  in  popular  remem- 

passing  discouragement  no  more  delays  are  recorded,  brance;  for  Bede,  writing  fully  a  century  and  a  third 

The  missionaries  pushed  on  through  Gaul,  passing  up  after  the  event,  is  at  pains  to  describe  how  they  came 

through  the  valley  of  the  Rhone  to  Aries  on  their  way  in  characteristic  Roman  fashion  (moTe  suo)  bearing 

to  Vienne  and  Autun,  and  thence  northward,  by  one  "the  holy  cross  together  with  a  picture  of  the  Sever- 

of  several  alternative  routes  which  it  is  impo^ible  eign  Kin^,  Our  Ix>rd  Jesus  Christ  and  chanting  in 

now  to  fix  with  accuracy,  until  they  came  to  Paris,  unison  this  litany",  as  they  advanced:  "We  beseech 

Here,   in  all   probability,   they  passed  the  winter  thee,  O  Lord,  in  the  fulness  of  thy  pity  that  Thine 

months;  and  here,  too,  as  is  not  unlikely,  considering  anger  and  Thy  wrath  be  turned  away  from  this  city 

the  relations  that  existed  between  the  family  of  the  and  from  Thy  holy  house,  because  we  have  sinnea: 

reigning  house  and  that  of  Kent,  they  secured  the  Alleluia!"     It  was  an  anthem  out  of  one  of   the 

services  of  the  local  presbyters  suggested  as  inter-  many  "Rogation  "litanies  then  beginning  to  be  f  anail- 


ship  has  not  been  recorded.     Boulogne  was  at  that  Migne,  P.  L.,  LXXV;  Duchesne's  ed.,  "Liber  Pon- 

time  a  place  of  some  mercantile  importance;  and  it  is  tificalis",  II,  12.)    The  building  set  apart  for  theh- 

not  improbable  that  they  directed  their  steps  thither  use  must  have  been  fairly  large  to  afford  shelter  to  a 

to  find  a  suitable  vessel  in  which  they  could  complete  community  numbering  fully  forty.     It  stood  in  the 

the  last  and  not  least  hazardous  portion  of  their  Stable  Gat«,  not  far  from  the  ruins  of  an  old  heathen 

journey.    All  that  we  know  for  certain  is  that  they  temple;  and  the  tradition  in  Thorn's  day  was  that 

landed  somewhere  on  the  Isle  of  Thanet  (Bede,  H.  E.,  the   parish   church  of  St.   Alphage   approximately 

I,  xxv)  and  that  they  waited  there  in  obedience  to  marked  the  site  (Chr.  Aug.  Abb.^  1759),   Here  Au^us- 


AUOUSTINE                              83  AITOX78TINX 

• 

tine  and  his  companions  seem  to  have  established  the  official  collection  of  St.  Gregory's  correspondence 
without  delay  the  ordinary  routine  of  the  Benedictine  preserved  in  the  registry  of  the  Roman  Church, 
rule  as  practised  at  the  close  of  the  sixth  century;  and  (Haddan  and  Stubbs,  III,  .336;  Dudden,  "Gr^ory 
to  it  they  seem  to  ha\'e  added  in  a  aui6t  way  the  apofi-  the  Great",  II,  130,  note;  Mason,  "Mission  of  St. 
tolic  ministry  of  preaching.    The  church  dedicated  to  Augustine  ",  preface,  pp.  viii  and  ix;  Duchesne, "  Orig- 
St.  Martin  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  city  which  had  ines",  3d  ed.,  p.  99,  note.)    It  contains  nine  responsa, 
been  set  apart  for  the  convenience  of  Bishop  Luidhard  the  most  important  of  which  are  those  that  touch 
and  Queen  Bertha's  followers  many  years  before  was  upon  local  differences  of  ritual,  the  question  of  juris- 
also  thrown  open  to  them  until  the  king  should  permit  diction,  and  the  perpetually  recurring  problem  of 
a  more  highly  organized  attempt  at  evangelization,  marriage  relationships.  "Why",  Augustine  had  asked 
The  e\iaentsincerityof  the  missionaries,  their  single-  "since  the  faith  is  one,  should  there  be  different 
mindedness,  their  courage  under  trial,  and,  above  all.  usages  in  different  churches;  one  way  of  saying  Mass  in 
the  disinterested  character  of  Augustine  himself  ana  the  Koman  Chureh,  for  instance,  and  another  in  the 
the  unworldly  note  of  his  doctrine  made  a  profoimd  Church  of  Gaul?"    The  pope's  reply  is,  that  while 
impression  on  the  mind  of  the  king.    He  asked  to  be  "Augustine  is  not  to  forget  the  Church  in  which  he 
instructed  and  his  baptism  was  appointed  to  take  has  been  brought  up",  he  is  at  liberty  to  adopt  from 
place  at  Pentecost.     Whether  the  queen  and  her  the  usage  of  other  Churches  whatever  is  most  likely 
Frankish  bishop  had  any  real  hand  in  the  process  of  to  prove  pleasing  to  Almighty  God.     "  For  institu- 
this  comparatively  sudden  conversion,  it  is  impossible  tions",  he  adds,  "are  not  to  he  loved  for  the  sake  of 
to  say.    St.  Gregory's  letter  written  to  Bertna  her-  places;  but  places,  rather,  for  the  sake  of  institu- 
«df,  when  the  news  of  the  king's  baptism  had  reached  tions".    With  regard  to  the  delicate  question  of  juris- 
Rome,  would  lead  us  to  infer,  that,  while  little  or  diction  Augustine  is  informed  that  ne  is  to  exercise 
Dothing  had  been  done  before  Augustine's  arrival,  no  autHbrity  over  the  churches  of  Gaul;  but  that  "all 
afterwards  fhere  was  an  endeavour  on  the  part  of  the  the  bishops  of  Britain  are  entrusted  to  him,  to  the 
que«n  to  make  up  for  past  remissness.     The  pope  end  that  the  unlearned  may  be  instructed,  the  waver- 
writes:    "Et  cjuoniam.   Deo   volente,  aptum  nunc  ing  strengthened  by  persuasion  and  the  per^'e^se 
tempus  est,  agite,  ut  (uvinA  gratis  co-operante,  cum  corrected  with  authority".    [Greg.,  Epp.,  Xl  (indie, 
augmento   possitis  cjuod   n^ectum  est  reparare".  iv),  64;  Bede,  H.  E.,  I,  xxvii.]    Augustine  seized  the 
[Greg.,  Epp.,  XI  (indic,  iv),  ^.]  The  remissness  does  firet  convenient  opportunity  to  carry  out  the  graver 
seem  to  nave  bc^n  atoned  for,  when  we  take  into  provisions  of  this  last  enactment.    He  had  already 
account  the  Christian  activity  associated  with  the  received  the  pallium  on  the  return  of  Peter  and  Law- 
names  of  this  royal  pair  during  the  next  few  months,  rence  from  Kome  in  601.    The  original  band  of  mis- 
^helberht's  conversion  naturally  gave  a  great  im-  sionaries  had  also  been  reinforced  by  fresh  recruits, 
petus  to  the  enterprise  of  Augustine  and  nis  com-  among  whom  "the  first  and  most  distinguished",  as 
panion&     Augustine  himself  determined  to  act  at  B^e  notes,  "were  Mellitus,  Justus,  Paulinus,  and 
once  upon  the  provisional  instructions  he  had  re-  Ruffinianus".    Of  these  Rumnianus  was  afterwards 
ceived  from  Pope  Gregory.    He  crossed  over  to  Gaul  chosen  abbot  of  the  monastery  established  by  Augus- 
and  sought  episcopal  consecration  at  the  hands  of  tine  in  honour  of  St.  Peter  outside  the  eastern  walls 
Viigflius,  the  Metropolitan  of  Aries.     Returning  aJ-  of  the  Kentish  capital.     Mellitus  becaipe  the  first 
most  immediately  to  Kent,  he  made  preparations  for  En^ish  Bishop  of  London;  Justus  was  appointed  to 
that  more  active  and  open  form  of  propaganda  for  the  new  see  of  Rochester,  and  Paulinus  became  Metro- 
which  ^thelberht's  public  baptism  had  prepared  a  politan  of  York. 

way.  It  is  characteristic  of  the  spirit  which  actuated  uEthelberht,  aa  Bretwalda,  allowed  his  wnder 
Aufustine  and  his  companions  tnat  no  attempt  was  territory  to  be  mapped  out  into  dioceses,  and  ex- 
made  to  secure  converts  on  a  large  scale  by  tne  em-  erted  himself  in  Augustine's  behalf  to  bring 
pfoyment  of  force.  Bede  teUs  us  that  it  was  part  of  about  a  meeting  with  the  Celtic  bishops  of  South- 
the  king's  uniform  policy  "  to  compel  no  man  to  em  Britain.  The  conference  took  place  in  Malmes- 
embrace  Christianity  (H.  E.,  I,  xxvi)  and  we  know  bury,  on  the  borders  of  Wessex,  not  far  from  the 
from  more  than  one  of  his  extant  letters  what  the  Severn,  at  a  spot  long  described  in  popular  legend 


ceremony  probably  took  place  in  the  waters  of  the  not  compromise.  He  insisted  on  an  unconditional 
Swale,  not  far  from  the  mouth  of  the  Medway.  News  ^rrender  on  the  Easter  controversy;  on  the  mode  of 
of  these  extraordinary  events  was  at  once  dispatched  administering  the  Sacrament  of  Baptism;  and  on  the 
to  the  pope,  who  wrote  in  turn  to  express  his  duty  of  taking  active  measures  in  concert  with  him 
joy  to  hjs  friend  Eulogius,  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  to  for  the  evangelization  of  the  Saxon  conquerors.  The 
Aiimtine  himself,  and  to  the kineand  oueen.  (Epp.,  Celtic  bishops  refused  to  yield,  and  the  meeting  was 
VlTljXxx;  XI,xxviii;  ibid.,lxvi;  Bede,  H.  E.,I,xxxi.  broken  up.  A  second  conference  was  afterwards 
xxm.)  Augustine's  message  to  Gregory  was  carriea  planned  at  which  only  seven  of  the  British  bishops 
by  Lawrence  t^e  Presbyter,  afterwards  Archbishop  of  convened.  They  were  accompanied  this  time  by  a 
Canterbury,  and  Peter  one  of  the  original  colony  of  groupof  their  "most  learned  men"  headed  by  Dinoth, 
misaonary  monks.  They  were  instructed  to  ask  for  the  abbot  of  the  celebrated  monastery  of  Bangor-is- 
nawe  Go6p>el  labourers,  and,  if  we  may  trust  Bede's  coed.  The  result  was,  if  anything,  more  discouraging 
anxmnt  in  this  particular  and  the  curious  ^up  of  than  before.  Accusations  of  unworthy  motives  were 
lettera  embodied  in  his  narrative,  they  bore  with  tnem  freely  bandied  on  both  sides.  Augustine's  Roman 
1  list  of  dubia,  or  questions,  bearing  upon  several  regard  for  form,  together  with  his  punctiliousness  for 
points  of  discipline  and  ritual  with  regard  to  which  personal  precedence  as  Pope  Gregory's  representa- 
Aorustine  awaited  the  pope's  answer.  live,  gave  umbrage  to  the  Celts.  They  denounced 
fte  genuineness  of  the  document  or  libeUti8f  as  the  Archbishop  for  his  pride,  and  retired  behind  their 
Bede  caUs  it  (H.  E.,  II,  i),  in  which  the  pope  Is  jdlcj^ed  mountains.  As  they  were  on  the  point  of  withdraw- 
to  have  answered  the  doubts  of  the  new  archbishop  ing,  they  heard  the  only  angry  threat  that  is  recorded 
has  not  been  seriously  called  in  (question;  thougn  of  the  saint:  "If  ye  will  not  have  peace  with  the  breth- 
lekolirs  have  felt  the  force  of  the  objection  which  St.  ren,  ye  shall  have  war  from  your  enemies;  and  if  ye 
Boniface,  writing  in  the  second  quarter  of  the  eighth  will  not  preach  the  way  of  life  to  the  English,  ye  shall 
eentiiry,urges,  viz.thatnotraceof  itcouldbefoimdin  suffer  the  punishment  >of  death  at  then:  hands". 


AU0U8TINX  84  AU0U8TINX 

Popular  imagination,  some  ten  years  afterwards,  saw  Ahras,  about  60  miles  from  Bona  (ancient  Hippo> 

a  terrible  fulnlment  of  the  prophecy  in  the  butcheiy  Regius),  and  at  that  time  a  small  free  city  of  pro* 

of  the  Bangor  monks  at  the  hands  of  ^thelfrid  the  co^ular  Numidia  which  had  recently  been  converted 

Destroyer  in  the  great  battle  won  by  him  at  Chester  from  Donatism.     Although  eminently  respectable, 

in  613.  his  family  was  not  rich,  and  his  father,  Patncius,  one 

These  efforts  towards  Catholic  unity  with  the  Celtic  of  the  curtales  of  the  city,  was  still  a  paean.  How- 
bishops  and  the  constitution  of  a  well-defined  hier-  ever,  the  admirable  virtues  that  made  Monica  the 
archy  for  the  Saxon  Church  are  the  last  recorded  acts  ideal  of  Christian  mothers  at  length  brought  her 
of  the  saint's  life.  His  death  fell  in  the  same  year  husband  the  grace  of  baptism  and  of  a  holy  death, 
says  a  very  early  tradition  (which  can  be  traced  back  about  the  year  371.  Augustine  received  a  Christian 
to  Archbishop  Theodore's  time)  as  that  of  his  beloved  education.  His  mother  had  him  signed  with  the  cross 
father  and  patron.  Pope  Gregory.  Thorn,  however,  and  etux>lled  among  the  catechumens.  Once,  when 
who  attempts  always  to  give  the  Canterbury  version  very  iU,  he  asked  for  baptism,  but,  all  danger  being 
of  these  legends,  asserts — somewhat  inaccurately,  it  soon  passed,  he  deferred  receiving  the  sacrament, 
would  appear,  if  his  coincidences  be  rigorously  t^ted  thus  yielding  to  a  deplorable  custom  of  the  times. 
— that  it  took  place  in  605.  He  was  buried j  in  true  His  association  with  "men  of  prayer*'  left  three 
Roman  fashion,  outside  the  walls  of  the  Kentish  capi-  great  ideas  deeply  engraven  upon  his  soul:  a  Divine 
tal  in  a  era ve  dug  by  the  side  of  the  great  Roman  road  Providence,  the  future  life  with  terrible  sanctions, 
which  tnen  ran  from  Deal  to  Canterbury  over  St.  and.  above  all,  Christ  the  Saviour.  "From  mv 
Martin's  Hill  and  near  the  unfinished  abbey  church  tenaerest  infancy.  I  had  in  a  manner  sucked  with 
which  he  had  begun  in  honour  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul  my  mother's  milk  that  name  of  my  Saviour,  Thv 
and  which  was  afterwards  to  be  dedicated  to  his  Son;  I  kept  it  in  the  recesses  of  my  heart;  and  all 
memory.  When  the  monastery  was  completed,  his  that  presented  itself  to  me  without  that  Divine  Name, 
relics  were  translated  to  a  tomb  prepared  for  them  in  though  it  might  be  elegant,  well  written,  and  even 
the  north  porch.  A  modem  hospital  is  said  to  occupy  replete  with  truth,  did  not  altogether  carry  me 
the  site  of  his  last  resting  place.  [Stanley,  "Memo-  away"  (Confessions,  I,  iv).  \ 
rials  of  Canterbury"  (1906),  38.1  His  feast  day  in  the  But  a  sreat  intellectual  and  pioral  crisis  stifled  for 
Roman  Calendar  is  kept  on  28  May;  but  in  the  proper  a  time  lul  these  Christian  sentiments.  The  heart 
of  the  English  office  it  occurs  two  days  earlier,  the  was  the  first  point  of  attack.  Patricius,  proud  of 
true  anniversary  of  his  death.  his  son's  success  in  the  schools  of  Tagaste  and  Madaura 

Bia>E,  HuLEai.,  I  and  11;  Paulus  Diaoonub,  Johjwnes  determined  to  send  him  to  Carih&ge  to  prepare  for 

DiACONUB,  and  St.  GaU  AfSS.,  Ltvet  of  St.  Gregory  in  P,  L.,  ^   fr^^^nol^   ,^wa^r>       Tlii+     unf/^ffunnfolv     if    ro^uinvl 

LXXV;  ^piatolaf  Or^HyHU  ibid.;  Grbgobt  of  tSum,  HiaUmi  *  lorwisic  career.     But,  unfortunately,  it  required 

Francorum.  ibid..  LXXI;  Goscelin,  Life  of  8u  Gregory  in  Ada  several  months  to  collect  the  necessary  means,  and 

SS.jyLvy,  VI.  370  sqq.:  Wm.  Thobnb.  cAron.^66a/.  S,Ayg,  Augustine  had  to  spend  his  sixteenth  year  at  Tagaste 

in  Twyeden's  Decern  Scrtptoree    (London,  1652;,  pp.  1758-  •     J     iHlpnfiiw  wViirh  W5«  f«.tjil  ir^  his  virfiiP-  hp^avp 

2202;  Haddan  and  Stubbs,  Councile  and  EcdeeuutuxU  Doctp-  "i  ^'^  KUeness  wnicn  was  laiai  to  nis  viriue,  ne  ^\e 

menu  relating  to  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  (Oxford.  1869-1873.  himself  up  tO  pleasure  With  all  the  vehemence  Of  an 

3  volB.)^  Mason  (ed.),  Tje  Alianon  of  St.  Auguatine  according  to  ardent  nature.    At  first  he  prayed,  but  without  the 

t^'^^'S^'SlS^rl'tfi^^&^ll^'^ot  «"'^"'  ^^^^  of>i^  heara   and  when  he  reache.^ 

Bombay,  1905);  St.  GaUen  MS.,  «d.  Gabquist   (1904);  Stan-  Carthage,  towards  the  end  of  the  year  370,  every 

LET.  MemoritiU  of  Canterbury  (London.  1856,   1906);   Bab-  circumstance  tended  to  draw  him  from  his  true 

t^^^^^%7oiT'ZJ^n^i^:^^7i^^  ooui«e:  the  many  seductions  of  the  gr«.t  city  that 

pagnona  (Vt^riB,  1897):  L±v±QVK,  St.  Auguetin   de  Canterbury,  was    stlU    half    pagan,    the    hcentiousness    of    Other 

m  ^-deBQuetu^iet    (1899),  xxi,    363-423;  Mabtwxi.  students,  the  theatres,  the  intoxication  of  his  literary 

i"^  ZI^A^S^e'i^t^A^J^).  "'^^'^^  "^  '^'^  Bviccess,  and  a  pn>ud  desire  always  to  be  first   even 

CoRNEUUS  Clipford.  ^  ©vil.     Before  long  he  was  obhged  to  confess  to 

Monica  that  he  had  formed  a  sinful  liaison  with  the 

Aagnstine  of  Hippo,  Saint,  Doctor  of  the  Church,  pMerson  who  bore  him  a  son  (372),  "the  son  of  his 

b.  13  November,  354;  d.  28  August,  430; — "a  philo-  sin" — an  entanglement  from  which  he  only  delivered 

sophical  and  theological  genius  of  the  first  order,  himself  at  Milan  after  fifteen  years  of  its  thraldom.^ 

dominating,  like  a  pyramid,  antiquity  and  the  sue-  Two  extremes  are  to  be  avoided  in  the  appreciation 

ceeding  ages  ....  Compared  with  the  great  philoso-  of  this  crisis.    Some,  like  Mommsen,  misled  perhaps 

phers  of  past  centuries  and  modem  times,  he  is  the  by  the  tone  of  grief  in  the  "Confessions",  have  exag- 

equal  of  tnem  all;  among  theolo^ans  he  is  undeniably  serated  it :  in  the  "  Realencyklop^ie ''  (3a  ed..II,  268) 

the  first,  and  such  has  been  his  influence  that  none  of  LooTs  reproves  Mommsen  on  this  score,  and  yet  he 

the  Fathers,  Scholastics,  or  Reformers  has  surpassed  himself  is  too  lenient  towards  Augustine,  when  he 

it". — ^The  extraordinary  part  played  by  the  great  claims  that  in  those  days,  the  (5nurch  permitted 

Bishop  of  Hippo,  and  thus  eulogized  by  Philip  Shaff  concubinage.    The  "Confessions"  alone  prove  that 

in  his  "History  of  the  Christian  Church",  accounts  Loofs  did  not  understand  the  17th  canon  of  Toledo, 

for  the  length  of  this  article  treating  I.  His  Life;  However,  it  may  be  said  that,  even  in  his  fall,  Au- 

II.  His  Works;    III.  His  Function  as  a  Doctor  of  gustine  maintained  a  certain  dignity  and  felt  a  com- 

the  Church;  IV.  His  System  of  Grace;  V.  Augustin-  punction  which  does  him  honour,  and  that,  from 

ism  in  History.  the  age  of  nineteen,  he  had  a  genuine  desire  to  break 

I.  His  Life. — ^Augustine's  life  is  unfolded  to  us  the  chain.    In  fact^  in  373,  an  entirely  new  inclination 

in  documents  of  unrivalled  richness,  and  of  no  great  manifested  itself  m  his  life,  brought  about  bv  the 

character  of  ancient  times  have  we  information  com-  reading  of  Cicero's  "Hortensius"  whence  he  imbibed 

parable   to   that   contained   in  the   "Confessions",  a  love  of  the  wisdom  which  Cicero  so  eloquently 

which  relate  the  touching  story  of  his  soul,  the  "Re-  praises.      Thenceforward    Augustine    looked    upon 

tractations",  which  give  the  history  of  his  mind,  rhetoric  merely  as  a  profession;  his  heart  was  in 

and  the  "Life  of  Augustine",  written  by  his  friena  philosophy. 

Posaidius,  telling  of  the  saint's  apostolate.    We  will        Unfortunately,  his  faith,  as  well  as  his  morals, 

confine  ourselves  to  sketching  the  three  periods  of  was  to  pass  throujgh  a  terrible  crisis.    In  this  same 

this  great  life:   (1)  the  young  wanderer's  gradual  year,  373,  Augustine  and  his  friend  Honoratus  fell 

return  to  the  Faith;  (2)  the  doctrinal  development  mto  the  snares  of  the  Manichseans.    It  seems  strzuige 

of  the  Christian  philosopher  to  the  time  of  his  episco-  that  so  great  a  mind  should  have  been  victimized 

pate;  and  (3)  the  full  development  of  his  activities  by  Oriental  vapourings,  synthesized  by  the  Persian 

upon  the  episcopal  throne  of  Hippo.  Mani  (215-276)  into  a  coarse,  material  dualism,  and 

(1)  Augustine  was  bom  at  Tagaste,  now  Souk-  introduced  into  Africa  scarcely  fifty  years  previously 


AUOTTSTHnB  85  AtrOUSTINS 

Aagustine  himsdf  tells  us  that  he  was  enticed  by  the  sect^  his  mind  rejected  Manichsan  d<>ctrineft 
the  promises  of  a  free  philosophy  unbridled  by  faith;  The  illusion  had  lasted  nine  years. 
bjrtne  boasts  of  the  Manichseans,  who  claimed  to  have        But  the  reli^ous  crisis  of  this  great  soul  was  only 
discovered  contradictions  in  Holy  Writ;  and,  above  to  be  resolved  m  Italy,  under  the  i^uence  of  Ambrose. 
all.bjrthe  hope  of  finding  in  their  doctrine  a  scien-  In  383  Augustine,  at  the  age  of  twenty-nine,  yielded 
tifiic  explanation  of  nature  and  its  most  mysterious  to  the  irresistible  attraction  which  Italy  had  for  him, 
phenomena.     Augustine's  inquiring  mind  was  en-  but  his  mother  suspected  his  departure  and  was  so 
thusiastic  for  the  natural  sciences,  and  the  Mani-  reluctant  to  be  separated  from  hun  that  he  resorted 
chseans  declared  that  natiure  withheld  no  secrets  to  a  subterfuge  and  embarked  under  cover  of  the 
from  Faustus,  their  doctor.     Moreover,  being  tor*  night.    He  1m3  only  just  arrived  in  Rome  when  he 
tumi  by  tt^  problem  of  the  origin  of  evil,  Augustine,  was  taken  seriously  ill;  upon  recovering  he  opened 
in  default  of   solving   it,  aclmowledged   a  conflict  a  school  of  rhetoric,  but,  disgusted  by  the  tricks  of 
of  two  principles.     And  then,  a^in,  there  was  a  his  pupils,  who  shamelessly  defrauded  him  of  their 
veiy  powerful  charm  in  the  moral  irresponsibility  re-  tuition  fees,  he  applied  for  a  vacant  professorship  at 
suiting  from  a  doctrine  which  deniea  liberty  and  Milan,  obtained  it,  and  was  accepted  by  the  prefect, 
attributed  the  commission  of  crime  to  a  foreign  prin-  Symmachus.     Having  visited  Bishop  Ambrose,  the 
ciple.  fascination  of  that  saint's  kindness  induced  him  to 
Once  won  over  to  this  sect,  Augustine  devoted  become  a  regular  attendant  at  his  preachings.    How- 
himsdf  to  it  with  all  the  ardour  of  his  character;  ever,  before  embracing  the  Faith,  Augustine  under- 
lie read  all  its  books,  adopted  and  defended  all  its  went  a  three  years'  stru^le  during  which  his  mind 
opinions.     His  furious  proselytism  drew  into  error  passed  througn  several '(^tinct  phases.    At  first  he 
bs  friend  Alypius  and  Romanianus,  his  Maecenas  of  turned  towards  the  philosophy  of  the  Academics, 
Tagaste,  the  friend  of  his  father  who  was  defraying  with  its  pessimistic  scepticism;   then  neo-PIatonic 
'  the  expenses  of  Augustine's  studies.    It  was  during  philosophy  inspired  him  with  genuine  enthusiasm. 
this  Manichiean   period   that   Augustine's   literary  At  Milan  ne  had  scarcely  read  certain  works  of  Plato 
fscolties  reached  tneir  full  development,  and  he  was  and,  more  especially,  of  Plotinus,  before  the  hope 
^iU  a  student  at  Carthage  when  he  embraced  error,  of  finding  the  truth  dawned  upon  him.    Once  more 
His  studies  ended,  he  snould  in  due  course  have  he  began  to  dream  that  he  and  his  friends  might 
entered  the  forum  litigioaum,  but  he  preferred  the  lead  a  life  dedicated  to  the  search  for  it,  a  life  purged 
(areer  of  letters,  and  rossidius  tells  us  that  he  re-  of  all  vulgar  aspirations  after  honours,  wealth,  or 
turned  to Tag^hste  to  "teach  grammar*'.    The  young  pleasure,  and  with  celibacy  for  its  rule  (Confessions, 
professor  captivated  his  pupils,  one  of  whom,  Alypius,  YI).     But  it  was  only  a  dream;  his  passions  still 
oardiy  yotmger  than  his  master,  loath  to  leave  him,  enslaved  him.     Monica,  who  had  joined  her  son  at 
liter  following  him  into  error,  was  afterwards  bap-  Milan,  prevailed  upon  h^m  to   become  betrothed, 
tized  with  him  at  Milan,  eventually  becoming  Bishop  but  his  afi^nced  bnde  was  too  yoimg.  and  although 
of  Tagaste,  his  native   city.     But  Monica  deeply  Augustine  dismissed  the  mother  of  Adeodatus,  her 
deplored  Augustine's  heresy  and  would  not  have  place  was  soon  filled  by  another.    Thus  did  he  pass 
received  him  into  her  home  or  at  her  table  but  for  through  one  last  period  of  struggle  and  anguish. 
the  advice  of  a  saintly  bishop,  who  declared  that  Finally,  through  the  reading  of  the  Holy  Scriptures 
"the  son  of  so  many  tears  coma  not  perish".    Soon  light  penetrated  his  mind.     Soon  he  possessed  the 
afterwards  Augustine  went  to  Carthage,  where  he  certainty  that  Jesus  Christ  is  the  only  way  to  truth 
continued  to  teach  rhetoric.     His  talents  shone  to  and  salvation.    After  that,  resistance  came  only  from 
f'ven  better  advantage  on  this  wider  stage,  and  by  the   heart.     An  interview  with  Simplicianus,   the 
an  indefatigaUe  pursuit  of  the  liberal  arts  his  in-  future  successor  of  St.  Ambrose,  who  told  Augustine 
feOect  attained  its  full  maturity^  Having  taken  part  the  story  of  the  conversion  of  the  celebrated  neo- 
in  a  poetac  tournament,  he  carried  off  the  prize,  and  Platonic  rhetorician,  Victorinus  (Confessions,  VIII, 
the  rroeonsul  Vindicianus  publicly  conferred  upon  i,  ii),  prepared  the  way  for  the  grand  stroke  of  grace 
him  the  corona  agonistica.     It  was  at  this  moment  which,  at  the  age  of  thirty-three,  smote  him  to  the 
of  literaiy  intoxication,  when  he  had  just  completed  ground  in  the  garden  at  Milan  (September,  386). 
his  first  work  on  sesthetics,  now  lost,  that  he  oe^n  A  few  days  later  Augustine,  bein^  ill,  took  advantage 
to  repudiate  Manichseism.     Even  when  Augustine  of  the  autumn  holioays  and,  resigning  his  professor- 
vis  in  his  first  fervour,  the  teachings  of  Mani  had  ship,  went  with  Monica,  Adeodatus,  and  his  friends 
heoi  far  frcmi  quieting  his  restlessness,  and  although  to  C;assisiacum,  the  country  estate  of  Verecimdus, 
^  has  been  accused  (h  becoming  a  priest  of  the  sect,  there  to  devote  himself  to  the  pursuit  of  true  philoso- 
^  was  never   initiated   or   numbered  among  the  phy  which,   for  him,   was   now   inseparable   from 
** elect",  but   remained  an  "auditor" — the  lowest  Christianity. 

fiegree  m  the  hierarchy.    He  himself  gives  the  reason        (2)  {From  S86  to  S95), — Augustine  gradually  be- 

for  his  disenehantment.    First  of  all  there  was  the  came  acquainted  with  Christian  doctrine,  and  in 

fttrful  d^yravitjr  of  Blanichsan  philosophy — "They  his  mind  the  fusion  of  Platonic  philosophy  with  re- 

♦tertioy  evoything  and  build  up  nothing";  then,  vealed  do^noas  was  takine  place.  ,  The  law  that 

the  dreadful  immorality  in  contrast  with  their  af-  eovemed  tnis  change  of  thought  has  of  late  years 

fectation  of  virtue;  the  leebleness  of  their  arguments  been  frequently  misconstrued;  it  is  sufficiently  im- 

in  OQotiOTerBy  with  the  Catholics,  to  whose  Scrip-  portant  to  be  precisely  defined.     The  solitude  of 

taral  agamenta  their  only  reply  was:. "The  Scrip-  Cassisiacum  realized  a  long-cherished  dream.     In 

lures  hsve  been  falsified   .     But,  worse  than  all,  his  books  "Against  the  Acs^emics",  Augustine  has 

^  did  not  find  science  among  them — science  in  the  described  the  ideal  serenity  of  this  existence,  en- 

JMdcTn  RDse  of  the  word — thSit  knowledge  of  nature  livened  only  by  the  passion  for  truth.    He  completed 

«rf  its  laws  which  they  had  promised  mm.    When  the  education  of  his  yotmg  friends,  now  by  literary 

^  qoertioiied  tbrai  concerning  the  movements  of  readings   in   common,   now  by  pnilosopmcal   con- 

^he  flten,  none  of  them  could  answer  him.    "Wait  ferences  to  which  he  sometimes  invited  Monica,  and 

^  PaailQi**,  they  said,  "he  will  explain  everything  the  accounts  of  which,  compiled  by  a  secretary,  have 

''>yoa**.    9)Mi8ti]s  of  Mileve,  the  celebrated  Mani-  supplied  the  foundation  of  the  "Dialogues".    Licen- 

<^^i^lMiOpy  st  last  came  to  Carthage;  Augustine  tins,  in  his  "Letters",  would  later  on  recall  these 

^^  tti  qfOestioned  him,  and  discovered  in  his  delightful  philosophical  mornings  and  evenings,  at 

rwpoMBi  Hm  TC^KB^  rhetorician,  the  utter  stranger  which  Augustine  was  wont  to  evolve  the  mo^  ele- 

to  &n  seiaitMd  cnuture.    The  spell  was  broken,  and,  vating  discussions  from  the  most  commonplace  in- 

il!hoQ|^  Attgivitine  did  not  mimediately  abandon  cidents.    The  favourite  topics  at  their  conferences 


AUGUSTINE                              86  .AUaUSTIHE 

were  truth,  certainty  f Against  the  Academics),  true  at  any  time  sacrificed  the  Gospel  to  Plato.    The 
happiness  in  philosopny   (On  a  Happy  Life),  the  same  learned  critic  thus  wisely  concludes  his  study: 
Providential  order  of  the  world  and  the  prbblem  of  *'So  long,  therefore,  as  his  philosophy  agrees  with 
evil  (On  Order)  and  finally  God  and  the  soul  (Solil-  his   religious   doctrines,    St.    Augustine   is   frankly 
oquies.  On  the  Immortality  of  the  Soul).  neo-Platonist;   as   soon   as   a   contradiction  arises, 
Here  arises  the  curious  question  |>ropounded  by  he  never  hesitates  to  subordinate  his  philosophv  to 
modem  critics:  Was  Augustine  a  Christian  when  he  religion,  reason  to  faith.    He  was,  fiirst  of  all,  a  Chris- 
wrote    these    "Dialogues"    at    Cassisiacum? — Until  tian;  tne  philosophical  questions  that  occupied  his 
now  no  one  had  doubted  it:  historians,  relying  upon  mind  constantly  found  themselves  more  and  more 
the  "Confessions",  had  all  believed  that  Augustine's  relegated  to  the  backgroimd"  (op.  cit.,  155).    But 
retirement  to  the  villa  had  for  its  twofold  object  the  the  method  was  a  dangerous  one;  in  thus  seeking 
improvement  of  his  health  and  his  preparation  for  harmony   between   the   two   doctrines   he  thought 
baptism.     But   certain   critics  nowadays  claim  to  too  easily  to  find  Christianity  in  Plato,  or  Platomsm 
have  discovered  a  radical  opposition  between  the  in  the  Gospel.    More  than  once,  in  his  "Ketractations" 
philosophical  "Dialogues"  composed  in  this  retire-  and  elsewhere,  he  acknowledges  that  he  has  not 
ment  and  the  state  of  soul  described  in  the  "Con-  always  shunned  this  danger.    Thus  he  had  imagined 
fessions".     According  to  Hamack,  in  writing  the  that  ih  Platonism  he  discovered  the  entire  doctrine 
"Confessions"  Augustine  ipust  have  projected  upon  of  the  Word  and  the  whole  prologue  of  St.  John, 
the  recluse  of  386  the  sentiments  of  the  bishop  of  He   likewise   disavowed   a    good   number   of    neo- 
400.    Others  go  farther  and  maintain  that  the  recluse  Platonic  theories  which  had  at  first  misled  him — the 
of  the  Milanese  villa  could  not  have  been  at  heart  cosmological    thesis   of    the   universal    soul,   which 
a  Christian,  but  a  Platonist;  and  that  the  scene  in  makes  the  world  one  immense  animal — the  Platonic 
the  garden  was  a  conversion  not  to  Christianity,  but  doubts  upon  that  grave  question:  Is  there  a  single 
to  pnilosophy,  the  genuinely  Christian  phase  begin-  soul  for  all  or  a  distinct  soul  for  each?    But  on  the 
ning  only  in  390.     But  this  interpretation  of  the  other  hand,  he  had  always  reproached  the  Platonist^, 
"Dialogues"  cannot  withstand  the  test  of  facts  and  as  Schaff  very  properly  remarks  (Saint  Augustine, 
texts.    It  is  admitted  that  Augustine  received  bap-  New  York,  1886,  p.  51),  with  being  ^orant  of, 
tism  at  Easter,  387;  and  who  could  suppose  that  it  or  rejecting,  the  fundamental  points  of  Christianity: 
was  for  him  a  meaningless  ceremony?    So  too,  how  "first,  the  great  mystery,  the  Word  made  flesh;  and 
can  it  be  admitted  that  the  scene  in  the  garden,  the  then  love,  resting  on  the  basis  of  humility".    They 
example  of  the  recluses,  the  reading  of  St.  Paul,  the  also  ignore  grace,  he  says,  giving  sublime  precepts 
conversion  of   Victorinus,   Augustine's  ecstasies  in  of  morality  without  any  help  towards  realizing  them, 
reading  the  Psalms  with  Monica  were  all  invented  It  was  this  Divine  grace  that  Augustine  sought 
after  the  fact?   A^ain,  as  it  was  in  388  tliat  Atigustine  in  CJhristian   baptism.     Towards   the   beginning  of 
wrote  his  beautiful  apology  "On  the  Holiness  of  Lent,  387,  he  went  to  Milan  and,  with  Adeodatus 
the  Catholic  Church",  how  is  it  conceivable  that  he  and  Alypius,  took  his  place  among  the  competenUs, 
was  not  yet  a  Christian  at  that  date?    To  settle  the  being  baptized  by  Ambrose  on  &6ter  Day,  or  at 
argument,  however,  it  is  only  necessary  to  read  the  least  during' Easter-tide.    The  tradition  maintaining 
"Dialogues"    themselves.      They    are    certainly    a  that  the  Te  Deum  was  sung  on  that  occasion  by  the 
purely  philosophical  work — a  work  of  youth,  too,  bishop  and  the  neophyte  alternately  is  groundless, 
not  witnout  some  pretension,  as  Augustine  ingen-  (See  Te  Deum,  The.)     Nevertheless  this  legend  is 
uously  acknowledges   (Confessions,  IX,  iv)j  never-  certainly  expressive  of  the  joy  of  the  Church  upon 
theless,  tliey  contain  the  entire  history  of  his  Chris-  receiving  as  her  son  him  who  was  to  be  her  most 
tian  formation.     As  early  as  386,  the  first  work  illustrious  doctor.    It  was  at  this  time  that  Augustine, 
written  at  Cassisiacum  reveals  to  us  the  great  un-  Alypius,  and  Evodius  resolved  to  retire  into  solitude 
derlying  moti  ve  of  his  researches.     The  object  of  in  Africa.    Augustine  imdoubtedly  remained  at  Milan 
his  philosophy  is  to  give  authority  the  support  of  until  towards  autumn,  continuing  his  works:  "On 
reason,  aiici  "for  him  the  great  authority,  that  which  the  Immortality  of  tne   Soul"  and   "On  Music", 
dominates  all  others  and  from  which  he  never  wished  In  the  autumn  of  387,  he  was  about  to  embark  at 
to  deviate,  is  the  authority  of  Christ";  and  if  he  loves  Ostia,  when  Monica  was  summoned  from  this  life, 
the  Platonists  it  is  because  he  counts  on  finding  In  all  literature  there  are  no  pages  of  more  exquisite 
amon^  them  interpretations  always  in  harmony  with  sentiment  ihan  the  story  of  her  saintly  death  and 
his  faith  (Against   the   Academics,  III,  c.  x).    To  Augustine's  grief  (Confessions,  IX).     Augustine  re- 
be  sure  such  confidence  was  excessive,  but  it  remains  mamed  several  months  in  Rome,  chiefly  engaged 
evident  that  in  these  "Dialogues"  it  is  a  Christian,  in  refuting  Manichseism.     He  sailed  for  Africa  after 
and  not  a  Platonist,  that  speaks.    He  reveals,  to  us  the  death  of  the  tyrant  Maximus  (August,  388)  and 
the  intimate  details  of  his  conversion,  the  argument  after  a  short  sojourn  in  Carthage,  returned  to  his 
that  convinced  him  (the  life  and  conquests  of  the  native  Tagaste.     Immediately  upon  arriving  there, 
Apostles),  his  progress  in  the  Faith  at  the  school  of  he  wished  to  carry  out  his  idea  of  a  perfect  life, 
St.  Paul  (ibid.,  II,  ii)Lhis  delightful  conferences  with  and  began  by  selling  all  his  goods  and  givmg  the  pro- 
his  friends   on   the   Divinity  of  Jestis  Christ,   the  ceeds  to  the  poor.    Then  he  and  his  friends  withdrew 
wonderful  transformations  worked  in  his  soul   by  to  his  estate,  which  had  already  been  alienated,  there 
faith,  even  to  that  victory  of  his  over  the  intellectual  to  lead  a  common  life  in  poverty,  prayer,  and  the 
pride  which  his  Platonic  studies  had  aroused  in  him  study  of  sacred  letters.   Book  of  the  "  LX5CXIII  Ques- 
(On  The  Happy  Life,  I,  ii),  and  at  last  the  gradual  tions"  is  the  fruit  of  conferences  held  in  this  retire- 
calming  of  his  passions  and  the  great  resolution  to  ment,  in  which  he  also  wrote  "De  Genesi  contra 
choose  wisdom  for  his  only  spouse  (Soliloquies,  I,  x).  Manichseos",  "De  Magistro",  and,  "De  Vera  Ile- 
itis now  easy  to  appreciate  at  its  true  value  the  ligione". 
influence  of  neo-Platonism  upon  the  mind  of  the  Augustine  did  not  think  of  entering  the  priesthood, 
great  African  Doctor.     It  would  be  impossible  for  and,  through  fear  of  the  episcopacy,  he  even  fled  from 
anyone  who  has  read  the  works  of  St.  Augustine  to  cities  in  which  an  election  was  necessary.    One  day, 
deny  the  existence  of  this  influence;  to  be  convinced,  having  been  summoned  to  Hippo  by  a  friend  whose 
it  suflices  to  glance  at  the  passages  from  Plotinus  soul's  salvation  was  at  stake,  ne  was  praying  in  a 
and  from  Augustine  arranged  in  parallel  columns  by  church  when  the  people  suadenly  ^tnered  about 
M.  Grandgeorge  (Saint  Augustin  et  le  N^platonisme,  him,  cheered  him,  and  begged  Valerius,  the  bishop, 
1896,    117-147).     However,   it  would   be   a  great  to  raise  him  to  the  priesthood.    In  spite  of  his  tears 
exaggeration  of  this  influence  to  pretend  that  it  Augustine  was  obliged  to  yield  to  their  entrea^es, 


Avmjwrant                    87  kvavvmn 

wd  was  ordained   In  391,     The  now  priest  looked  But  he  was  above  all  the  defender  of  truth  tO-i  ' 

imoD  his  ordination  as  an  Etdditional  reason  fof  re-  the  shepherd  of  souls.     His  doctrinal  activities,  the 

sumcf  religious  life  at  Tagaste,  and  so  fully  did  influence  of  which  waa  destined  to  last  as  long  as 

Viltrius  approve  that  he  put  iome  church  property  tiie  Church  itself,  were  manifold:  he  preached  fre- 

tl  AugusUne's  disposal,  thus  en&blinK  him  to  ««-  quently,  sometimes  for  five  days  consecutively,  hia 

taMish  a  monastery— the  second  that  he  nad  founded,  sermons    breathing   a   spirit   of   charjty   that   won 


priffltly  ministry  of  five  yeara  was  admirably  all  Hearts;  ne  wrote  letlers  wmcn  scatterea  oroaacass 

ui.,lliil,  Valeriua  had  bidden  him  preach,  in  spite  through  the  then  known  world  his  solutionH_  of  the 

of  tJM  deplorable  custom  which  in  Africa  reserved  problems  of  that  day;  he  impressed  hia  spirit  upon 

that  ministry    to    bishops.      Augustine    combated  divera  African  councils  at  which  he  assisted,  for  in- 

ieia^,  efipecially  Manichffiism,  and  his  success  was  stance,  those  of  Carthage  in  398,  401,  407,  419  and 

prodigiouH.     Fortunatus,  one  of  their  great  doctors,  of  Mileve  in  416  and  418;  and  lastly  struggled  in- 

wbom  Augustine  had  challenged  in  public  conference,  detatigably    against    all    errors.      To    relate    these 

las  BO  huraiiiated  by  bis  defeat  that  he  fled  from  struggles   were  endless;   we  shall,   therefore,  select 

Hippo.    Augustine  also  abolished  the  abuse  of  hold-  only   the  chief  controversies  and  indicate  in  each 

in^&iqueta  in  the  chapels  of  the  martyra.    He  took  the  doctrinal  attitude  of  the  great  Bishop  ot  Hippo, 

pari, SOctober, 393, in  thePlenaryCouncilof  Africa,  (a)   The  Maniduxan  CtmlTOversy  and  Ihe  Problem 

presided  ovst  by  Aureiius,  Bishop  of  Carthage,  and,  of  Evil. — After  Augustine  became   bishop  tlie  zea! 

it  ihe  request  of  the  Wshops.  was  obliged  to  deliver  which,  from  the  time  of  his  baptism,  he  had  man' 

adwMurse  which,  in  its  completed  form,  afterwards  fest«d  in  bringing  his  former  co-religionUts  into  the 

berarne  the  treatise  "  De  Fide  et  symbolo".  true  Church,  took  on  a  more  paternal  form  without 

(3)  (from   396  to  430).— Enfeebled   by  old   age,  losinc  its  pristine  ardour— "Let  those  rage  a^nst 

VileriUB,  Bishop  of  HippOi  obtained  toe  audiori-  us  nbo  know  not  at  what  a  bitter  cost  tiuth  :s  a^- 


"shrai  irf  Aureliua,  Primate  ot  Africa,  to  associate  tained.  ...  As  tor  me,  I  should  show  you  the  same 

Auguatiiie  with  himself  as  coadjutor.    Augustine  had  forbearance  that  my  brethren  hod  for  me  when  1, 

lo  idign  himself   t«   consecration  at  the  hands  of  blind,   was   wandering   in   your  doctrines"   (Contra 

"cptius.  Primate  of  Numidia.    He  was  then  forty-  Epistolam  Fundamenti,  iii).    Among  the  most  mem- 

''OiMdwas  to  occupy  the  See  ot  Hippo  for  thirty-  orable  events  that  occurr^  during  this  controversy 

Swrjfeani.    The  new  bishop  understood  well  how  to  was  the  great  victory  won  in  404  over  Felix,  one  of 

MnUne  the  exercise  of  bis  pastoral  duties  with  the  the  "elect"  of  the  Manichsans  and  the  great  doctor 

Wtcrides  of  the  religious  life,  and  although  be  left  ot  the  sect.    He  was  propagating  his  errors  in  Hippo, 

I*  eonvHit,  his  episcopal  residence  became  a  monas-  and  Augustine  invited  him  to  a  public  conference 

lay  vb^e  he  lived  a  community  life  with  his  clergy,  the  issue  ot  which  would  necessanly  cause  a  great 

■lio  bound  themsdvea  to  observe  religious  poverty,  stir;   Felix   declared   himself  vanquished,  embraced 

Wii  it  m  order  of  rei^lar  clerics  or  ot  monks  that  the  Faith,  and,  together  with  Augustine,  subscrilDed 

J«  thus  founded? — This  is  a  question  often  asked,  the  acts  of  the  conference.    In  his  writings  Augustine 

'"t  we  feci  that  Aufrustina  gave  but  little  thought  successively  refuted  Mani  (397),  the  famous  Faustus 

'osuchdistinctions.     Be  that  as  it  may,  the  episcopal  (4(X)),   Secundinus   (405),  and   (about  415)   the   fa- 

""ae  o[  Hippo   became  a  veritable  nursery  which  talistic  Priscillianiata  wliom  Paulus  Orosius  had  de- 

*P(tiai  ihe  toundoTB  of  the  monasteries  that  were  nounced  to  him.    These  writings  contain  the  saint's 

■ni  mread  all  over  Africa  and  the  bishops  who  oc-  clear,  unquestionable  views  on  the  eternal  problem 

'*|Ml  the  neighbouring  sees.      Poesidius   (Vita  S.  of  evil,   views  based  on  an  optimism  proclniming, 

*%!<«.,  xxii)  enumerates  ten  of  the  saint's  friends  like  the  Platoniats,  that  every  work  of  God  is  good 

™  dieciples  who  were  promoted  to  the  episcopacy,  and  that  the  only  source  of  moral  evil  is  the  liberty 

^n  A  waa  that  Augustine  earned  the  title  ot  pa-  of  creatures   (De  Civitate  Dei,  XIX,  e.  xiii,  n.  2). 

^nnk  of  the  religious,  and  renovator  of  the  clerical,  Augustine  takes  up  the  defence  of  free  will,  even  in 

Mb  MiicL  nian  as  he  is.  with  such  ardour  that  his  works  against 


AVaUSTINB  88  AUGUSTINE 

^e  Manichffians  are  an  inexhaustible  storehouse  of  the  Bishop  of  Hippo  himself  was  several  times  at« 

ar^mnents  in  this  still  living  controversy.  tempted  (Letter  Ixxxviii,  to  Januarius,  the  Donatist 

In  vain  have  the  Jansenists  maintained  that  bishop).  This  madness  of  the  Circumcelliones  re- 
Augustine  was  imconsciouslv  a  Pela^an  and  that  auired  harsh  repression,  and  Aufustine,  witnessing 
he  afterwards  ackncwledffed  the  loss  of  hberty  through  tne  many  conversions  that  resulted  therefrom,  thence- 
the  sin  of  Adam.  Modem  critics,  doubtless  xmtBr  forth  approved  rifid  laws.  However,  this  important 
miliar  with  Augustine's  complicated  system  and  restriction  must  be  pointed  out:  that  St.  Augustine 
his  peculiar  terminology,  have  gone  much  farther,  never  wished  heresy  to  be  punishable  by  oeathr- 
In  the  "Revue  d'histoire  et  de  litSSraturereligieuses"  Voa  rogamus  ne  occidatU  (Letter  o,  to  the  P«)- 
(1899,  p.  447),  M.  Margival  exhibits  St.  Augustine  as  consul  Donatus).  But  the  bishops  still  favoured 
the  victim  of  metaphysical  pessimism  unconsciously  a  confer^ioe  with  the  schismatics,  and  in  410  an 
imbibed  from  Manichsean  doctrines.  '' Never '\  savs  edict  issued  by  Honorius  put  an  end  to  the  refusal 
he,  "will  the  Oriental  idea  of  the  necessity  and  tne  of  the  Donatists.  A  solemn  conference  took  place 
eternity  of  evil  have  a  more  zealous  defender  than  at  Carthage,  in  June,  411,  in  presence  of  286  Catho- 
this  bishop".  Nothing  is  more  opposed  to  the  facts,  lie,  and  279  Donatist  bishops.  The  Donatist 
Augustine  acknowledges  that  he  imd  not  yet  under-  spokesmen  were  Petiiian  of  Constantine,  Primian 
stood  how  the  first  ^od  inclination  of  the  will  is  a  of  Carthage,  and  Emeritus  of  Ceesarea;  the  Catholic 
gift  of  God  (Retractations,  I,  xxiii,  n.  3);  but  it  orators,  Aurelius  and  Augustine.  On  the  historic 
should  be  remembered  that  he  never  retracted  his  Question  then  at  issue,  the  Bishop  of  Hippo  proved 
leading  theories  on  liberty,  never  modified  his  the  innocence  of  Cscilian  and  his  consecrator  Felix, 
opinion  upon  what  constitutes  its  essential  condition,  and  in  the  dogmatic  debate  he  established  the  Catho- 
that  is  to  say,  the  fu^l  power  of  choosing  or  of  de-  lie  thesis  that  the  Church,  as  long  as  it  is  upon  earth, 
ciding.  Who  will  dare  to  say  that  in  revising  his  can,  without  losing  its  holiness,  tolerate  sinners 
own  writings  on  so  important  a  point  he  lacked  within  its  pale  for  the  sake  of  converting  them, 
either  clearness  of  perception  or  sincerity?  In  the  name  of  the  emperor  the  Proconsul  Marcellinus 

(b)  The  Donatist  Controversy  and  the  Theory  of  sanctioned  the  victory  of  the  Catholics  on  all  points. 

the  Church. — ^The  Donatist  schism  was  the  last  episode  Little  by  little  Donatism  died  out,  to  disappear  with 

in  the  Montanist  and  Novatian  controversies  which  the  conune  of  the  Vandals. 

had  agitated  the  Church  from  the  second  century.  So  amply  and  ma^ificently  did  Augustine  de- 
While  the  East  was  discussing  under  varying  sheets  velop  his  tneory  on  tne  Church  that,  according  to 
the  Divine  and  Christological  problem  of  the  Word,  Specht,  "he  deserves  to  be  named  the  Doctor  of  the 
the  West,  doubtless  because  of  its  more  practical  Cnurch  as  well  as  the  "Doctor  of  Grace*';  and  Mohler 
genius,  took  up  the  moral  question  of  sin  m  all  its  (Dogmatik,  351)  is  not  afraid  to  write:  "For  depth 
forms.  The  general  problem  was  the  holiness  of  the  of  feeling  and  power  of  conception  nothing  written 
Church;  could  the  smner  be  pardoned,  and  remain  on  the  Church  since  St.  Paul's  time,  is  comparable 
in  her  bosom?  In  Africa  the  question  esoecially  to  the  works  of  St.  Augustine".  He  has  corrected, 
concerned  the  hoUness  of  the  hierarchy.  The  oishops  perfected,  and  even  excelled  the  beautiful  pages  of 
of  Numidia,  who,  in  312,  had  refused  to  accept  as  St.  Cyprian  on  the  Divine  institution  of  the  Church, 
validtheconsecrationofOsBCilian,  Bishop  of  Carthage,  its  authority,  its  essential  marks,  and  its  mission  in 
by  a  iraditor,  had  inaugurated  the  schism  and  at  the  economy  of  grace  and  the  aoministration  of  the 
the  same  time  proposed  these  grave  questions:  Do  sacraments.  The  Protestant  critics,  Domer,  Binde- 
the  hierarchical  powers  depend  upon  the  moral  mann,  B6hringer  and  especially  Renter,  loudly  pro- 
worthiness  of  the  priest?  How  can  the  holiness  of  claim,  and  sometimes  even  exaggerate,  this  rble  of 
the  Church  be  compatible  with  the  im worthiness  of  the  Doctor  of  Hippo;  and  while  Hamack  does  not 
its  ministers?  quite  agree  with  them  in  every  respect  he  does  not 

At  the  time  of  Augustine's  arrival  in  Hippo,  the  hesitate  to  say  (History  of  Dogma,  II,  c.  iii):  "It  is 

scliism  had  attained  immense  proportions,  naving  one  of  the  points  upon  which  Augustine  specially 

become  identified  with  political  tendencies — perhaps  affirms    and    strengthens    the    Catholic    idea.  .  .  . 

with  a  national  movement  against  Roman  dommation.  He  was  the  first  [I]  to  transform  the  authority  of  the 

In  any  event,  it  is  easy  to  discover  in  it  an  under-  Church  into  a  religious  power,  and  to  confer  upon 

current  of  anti-social  revenge  which  the  emperors  practical  religion  the  gift  of  a  doctrine  of  the  Churcn.  *' 

had  to  combat  by  strict  laws.     The  strange  sect  He  was  not  the  first,  for  Domer  acknowledges  (Au- 

known  as  "Soldiers  of  Christ",  and  called  by  Catho-  eustinus,  88)  that  Optatus  of  Mileve  had  expressed 

lies  CircumceUioTies  (brigands,  vagrants),  resembled  the  basis  of  the  same  doctrines.    Augustine,  however, 

the  revolutionary  sects  of  the  Middle  Ages  in  point  deepened,  systematized,  and  completed  the   view« 

of  fanatic  destructiveness — a  fact  that  must  not  be  of  St.  Cypnan  and  Optatus.     But  it  is  impossible 

lost  sight  of,  if  the  severe  legislation  of  the  emperors  here  to  go  into  detail.    (See  Specht,  Die    Lenre  von 

is  to  be  properly  appreciated.  derKircnenachdemhl.  Augustinus,  Padatom,  1892.) 

The  history  of  Augustine's  struggles  with  the  (c)  The  Pelagian  Controversy  and  the  Doctor  of 
Donatists  is  also  that  of  his  change  ofopinion  on  the  Grace. — ^The  close  of  the  struggle  against  the  Do- 
employment  of  rigorous  measures  against  the  here-  natists  almost  coincided  with  the  l^ginnings  of  a 
tics;  and  the  Church  in  Africa,  of  whose  councils  very  grave  theological  dispute  which  not  only  ^vas  to 
he  had  been  the  very  soul,  followed  hun  in  the  change,  demand  Augustine's  imremitting  attention  up  to 
This  change  of  views  is  solemnly  attested  by  the  the  time  of  ms  death,  but  was  to  become  an  eternal 
Bishop  of  Hippo  himself,  especially  in  his  Letters,  problem  for  individuals  and  for  the  Church.  Farther 
xciii  (in  the  year  408).  In  the  beginning,  it  was  on  we  shall  enlarge  upon  Augustine's  system;  here  we 
by  conferences  and  a  friendly  controversy  that  he  need  only  indicate  the  phases  of  the  controversy. 
sought  to  re-establish  unity.  He  inspired  various  Africa,  where  Pelagius  and  his  disciple  Celestius  had 
conciliatory  measures  of  the  African  councils,  and  sought  refuge  after  the  taking  of  Home  by  Alaric, 
sent  ambassadors  to  the  Donatists  to  invite  them  was  the  principal  centre  of  tne  first  Pelagian  dis- 
to  re-enter  the  Church,  or  at  least  to  urge  them  to  turbances;  as  early  as  412  a  coimcil  held  at  Carthage 
send  deputies  to  a  conference  (403).  The  Donatists  condemned  Pelagians  for  their  attacks  upon  the  doc- 
met  these  advances  at  first  with  silence,  then  with  trine  of  original  sin.  Among  other  books  directed 
insults,  and  lastly  with  such  violence  that  Possidius.  against  them  by  Augustine  was  his  famous  "  De 
Bishop  of  Calamet,  Augustine's  friend,  escaped  naturd  et  gratis  '.  Thanks  to  his  activity  the  con- 
death  only  by  flight,  the  Bishop  of  Bagala  was  damnation  of  these  innovators,  who  had  succeeded 
left  covered  with  horrible  wounds,  and  the  life  of  in  deceiving  a  synod  convened  at  Diosoolis  in  Palee* 


AUOUSTIHE  89  AVOXTBTIinE 

tme,  was  reiterated  by  councils  held  later  at  Carthage  (a)  The  "Conieesions*'  (towards  a,  d.  400)  a^ 
and  Mileve  and  confirmed  by  Pope  Innocent  I  (417).  in  the  Biblical  sense  of  the  word  confUeri^  not  an 
A  second  period  of  Pelagian  mtrigues  developed  avowal  or  an  account,  but  the  prai^  of  a  soul  that 
at  Rome,  but  Pope  Zosimus,  whom  the  stratagems  admires  the  action  of  God  \Wtmn  itself.  Of  all  the 
of  Celestius  had  for  a  moment  deluded,  being  en-  works  of  the  holy  Doctor  none  has  been  more  uni- 
lightened  by  Augustine,  pronounced  the  solemn  versally  read  and  admired,  none  has  caused  more 
condemnation  of  these  heretics  in  418.  Thenceforth  salutaiy  tears  to  flow.  Neither  in  respect  of  pene- 
the  combat  was  conducted  in  writing  against  Julian  trating  analysis  of  the  most  complex  impressions 
of  Eclanum,  who  assumed  the  leadership  of  the  party  of  the  soul,  nor  communicative  feeling,  nor  elevation 
and  violently  attacked  Augustine.  Towards  426  of  sentiment,  nor  depth  of  philosophic  views,  is  there 
there  entered  the  lists  a  school  which  afterwards  any  book  like  it  in  all  literature,  (b)  The  "Retrac- 
acquired  the  name  of  Semipelagian,  the  first  members  tations"  (towards  the  end  of  his  life,  426-428)  are  a 
bdng  monks  of  Hadrumetum  in  Africa,  who  were  revision  of  the  works  of  the  saint  in  chronological 
followed  by  others  from  Marseilles,  led  by  Cassian,  order,  explaining  the  occasion  and  dominant  idea 
the  celebrated  abbot  of  Saint-Victor.  Unable  to  of  each.  They  are  a  guide  of  inestimable  price  for 
admit  the  absolute  gratuitousness  of  predestination,  seizing  the  progress  of  Augustine's  thought,  (c)  The 
tbeysou^t  a  middle  course  between  Augustine  and  ''Letters*',  amounting  in  the  Benedictme  collection 
Pdagius,  and  maintained  that  ^ace  must  be  given  to  270  (53  of  them  from  Augustine's  correspondents), 
to  those  who  merit  it  and  denied  to  others:  hence  are  a  treasure  of  the  greatest  value,  for  the  knowledge 
foodwill  has  the  precedence,  it  desires,  it  asks,  and  of  his  life,  influence  and  even  his  doctrine. 
God  rewards.  Informed  of  tiieir  views  by  Prosper  (2)  Philosophy. — ^These  writings,  for  the  most 
of  Aquitaine,  the  holy  Doctor  once  more  expounded,  part  composed  in  the  villa  of  Cassisiacum,  from 
it  "DePrsedestinatione  Sanctorum",  how  even  these  nis  conversion  to  his  baptism  (386-387),  continue 
first  desires  for  salvation  are  due  to  the  grace  of  God,  the  autobiography  of  the  saint  by  initiating  us  into 
which  therefore  absolutely  controls  our  predestina-  the  researches  and  Platonic  hesitations  of  his  mind. 
UoQ.  There  is  less  freedom  in  them  than  in  the  Confessipns. 

(d)  Struggles  against  Arianiam  and  Cloaina  Years, —  They  are  literary  essays,  writings  whose  simplicity 
In  426  the  holy  Bishop  of  Hippo,  at  the  age  of  is  tne  acme  of  art  and  el^ance.  Nowhere  is  the 
sevens-two,  wishing  to  spare  his  episcopal  city  the  style  of  Augustine  so  chastened,  nowhere  is  his 
turmoil  of  an  election  after  his  death,  caused  both  language  so  pure.  Their  dialogue  form  shows  that 
deigy  and  people  to  acclaim  the  choice  of  the  deacon  they  were  inspired  by  Plato  and  Cicero.  The  chief 
Heradius  as  his  auxiliary  and  successor,  and  trans-  ones  are:  ''Contra  Academicos*'  (the  most  important 
ferred  to  him  the  administration  of  externals.  Au-  of  all);  "De  Beati  VitA";  "De  Ordine";  tne  two 
gustine  might  then  have  enjoyed  some  rest  had  books  of ''Soliloquies",  wmch  must  be  distinguished 
Africa  not  been  agitated  by  the  imdeserved  disgrace  from  the  "Soliloquies"  and  "Meditations"  which 
tnd  the  revolt  of  Count  Boniface  (427).  The  Goths,  are  certainly  not  authentic;  "  De  Immortalitate 
sent  by  the  Empress  Placidia  to  oppose  Boniface,  animse";  "De  Magistro"  (a  dialogue  between  Au- 
and  the  Vandals,  whom  the  latter  summoned  to  his  gustine  and  his  son  Adeodatus):  and  six  curious 
aoiBtance,  were  all  Arians.  Maximinus,  an  Arian  books  (the  sixth  ecpeciallv)  on  Music, 
bishop,  entered  Hippo  with  the  imperial  troops.  (3)  General  Apolooy. — (a)  In  the  "City  of  God" 
The  holy  Doctor  defended  the  Faith  at  a  public  con-  (begun  in  413,  but  tne  books  XX-XXII  are  of  426) 
ference  (428)  and  in  various  writings.  Being  deeply  Augustine  answers  the  pagans,  who  attributed  the 
grieved  at  the  devastation  of  Africa,  he  laboured  fall  of  Home  (410)  to  the  abolition  of  pagan  worship, 
to  effect  a  reconciliation  between  Count  Boniface  Considering  this  problem  of  Divine  Providence  with 
and  the  empress.  Peace  was  indeed  re-established,  regard  to  uie  Roman  Empire,  he  widens  the  horizon 
but  not  witn  Genseric,  the  Vandal  king.  Boniface,  stul  more  and  in  a  burst  of  genius  he  creates  the 
vanquished,  sought  refuge  in  Hippo,  whither  many  philosophy  of  history,  embracing  as  he  does  with  a 
bisliops  had  al^ady  fled  for  protection  and  this  ^ance  the  destinies  of  the  w&rld  grouped  around  the 
well  fortified  dty  was  to  suffer  the  horrors  of  an  Qiristian  religion,  the  only  one  which  goes  back  to 
ei^iteen  months'  siege.  Endeavouring  to  control  the  banning  and  leads  humanity  to  its  final  term, 
hia  Anguish,  Augustine  continued  to  refute  Julian  "The  City  of  God"  is  considered  ss  the  most  im- 
of  Ecliuium;  but  early  in  the  siege  he  was  stricken  portant  work  of  the  great  bishop.  The  other  works 
with  what  he  realized  to  be  a  fatiu  illness,  and,  after  chiefly  interest  theologians;  but  it,  like  the  "Con- 
three  months  of  admirable  patience  and  fervent  fessions",  belongs  to  general  literature  and  appeals 
prayer,  departed  from  this  land  of  exile,  in  the  to  every  soul.  The  "Confessions"  are  theology 
eeven^-eixth  year  of  his  a^e.  which  has  been  lived  in  the  soul,  and  the  history  of 

n.  asB  Works. — ^Augustme  was  one  of  the  most  God's  action  on  individuals,  while  "The  City  of  God" 
potific  geniuses  that  humanity  has  ever  known,  and  is  theology  framed  in  the  history  of  humanity,  and 
B  admired  not  only  for  the  number  of  his  works,  but  explaining  the  action  of  God  m  the  world,  (b) 
alw  for  the  variefy  of  subjects,  which  traverse  the  Otner  apolo^tio  writings,  like  the  "De  VerA  Re- 
wfaole  realm  of  thought.  The  form  in  which  he  casts  ligione"  (a  httle  masterpiece  composed  at  Tagaste, 
liis  work  exercisefl  a  very  powerful  attraction  on  3§9-391),  "De  Utilitate  Credendi"  (391),  "Liber 
tbe  reader.  Bardenhewer  praises  his  extraordinary  de  fide  rerum  quse  non  videntur"  (400),  and  the 
sam)lene8S  of  expressioh  and  his  marvellous  gift  "Letter  CXX  to  Oonsentius".  constitute  Augustine 
of  describing  interior  things,  of  painting  the  various  the  great  theorist  of  the  Faitn,  and  of  its  relations 
^tes  of  the  soul  and  the  facts  of  the  spiritual  world,  to  reason.  "He  is  the  first  of  the  Fathers ''.  says 
His  latinity  bears  the  stamp  of  his  age.  In  general,  Hamack  (Dogmengeschichte,  III,  97)  '*  who  felt  the 
bis  style  is  noble  and  chaste;  but,  says  the  same  need  of  forcing  his  faith  to  reason".  And  indeed  he, 
author,  "in  his  sermons  and  other  popular  writings  who  so  repeatedly  afl^rms  that  faith  precedes  the 
be  purposely  drops  to  the  language  oi  the  people  .  intelligent  apprehension  of  the  truths  of  revelation — 
A  detuled  analysis  is  impossible  here.  We  shall  '  he  it  is  who  marks  out  with  greater  clearness  of  defi- 
oeidy  indicate  his  principal  writings  and  the  date  nition  and  more  precisely  than  anyone  else  the  func- 
(often  approximative)  of  their  composition.  tion  of  the  reason  in  preceding  and  verifying  the 

0)  Autotdography  and  Correspondence. — ^The"Con-  witness's  claim  to  credence,  and  in  accompanying 
wons"  are  the  history  of  his  heart;  the  "Retrac-  the  mind's  act  of  adhesion.  (Letter  to  Consentius, 
Nations",  of  his  mind;  while  the  "Letters"  show  hift  n.  3,  8,  etc.)  What  would  not  have  been  the  stupe- 
^etivity  in  the  Church.  faction  of  Augustine  if  anyone  had  told  him  that 


AvauBTnnB  go  avousthiz 

faith  must  close  its  eyes  to  the  proofs  of  the  divine  But  the  hermeneutics  of  Augustine  merit  great 

testimony,  under  the  penalty  of  its  becoming  science!  praise,  especially  for  their  insistence  upon  the  stem 

—Or  if  one  had  spoken  to  nim  of  faith  in  authority  law  of  extreme  prudence  in  determining  the  meaning 

giving  its  assent,  without  examining  any  motive  of  Scripture:  We  must  be  on  our  guard  against  giving 

which  might  prove  the  value  of  the  testimony! —  interpretations   which  are   hazardous   or  opposed  to 

It  surely  cannot  be  possible  for  the  human  mind  to  science,  and  so  exposing  the  word  of  God  to  the  ridicule 

accept  testimony  without  known  motives  for  such  of  unbelievers   (Do  Genesi  ad  litteram,  I,  xix,  xxi, 

acceptance,  or,  again,  for  any  testimony,  even  when  especially  n.  39).    An  admirable  application  of  this 

learnedly  sifted  out,  to  give  the  science — the  inward  well-ordered  liberty  appears  in  his  thesis  on    the 

view — of  the  object.  simultaneous    creation    of    the    universe,    and    the 

(4)  Controversies  with  Heretics. — (a)  Against  the  gradual  development  of  the  world  under  the  action 

Manichseans;    "De   Moribus  Ecclesi®  CathoUcse  et  of  the  natural  forces  which  were  plac^  in  it.     Cer- 

de  Moribus  Manichaeorum"   (at  Rome,  368);   "De  tainly  the  instantaneous  act  of  the  Creator  did  not 

Duabus   Animabus"    (before   392);    "Acts   of   the  produce  an  org^ized  universe  as  we  see  it  now. 

Dispute  with   Fortunatus   the   Manichffian"    (392);  But.  in  the  beginning,  God  created  all  the  elements 

"Acts  of  the   Conference  with  Felix"  (404);    "Ete  of  tne  world  in  a  confused  and  nebulous  mass   (the 

Libero  Arbitrio" — very    important    on    the  origin  word  is  Augustine's — Nebtdosa  species  apparet;  **De 

of    evil;    various    writings    "Contra  Adimantum'';  Genesi  ad  litt.",  I,  n.  27),  and  in  this  mass  were 

against  the  Epistle  of  Man!  (the  foundation);  against  the  mysterious   germs    (rationes  seminales)   of    the 

Faustus  (about  400);  againstSecundinus  (405),  etc.  future  beings  which  were  to  develop   themselves, 

rmit.     Is 

mean 

grasp  than 


pie  ^ , 

Parmeniam",  "Contra  Cresconium",  etc. — a  good  Science,  ancf  Faith,  pp.  58-66,  French  tr.)  properly 

number  of  letters,  also,  relate  to  this  debate,     (c)  felicitates   him   on   naving   been   the   precursor   of 

Against  the  Pelagians,  in  chronological  order,  we  modem  thought.    But  if  we  mean  that  he  admitted 

have:  412,  "De  peccatorum  meritis  et  remissione"  in  matter  a  power  of  differentiation  and  of  gradual 

(On     merit    and     forgiveness);     same    year,    "De  transformation,  passing  from  the  homogeneous  to 

spiritu  et  litterA"  (On  the  spirit  and  the  letter);  the  heterogeneous,  the  most  formal  texts  force  tis 

416,  "De  Perfectione  justitiae  hominis" — ^important  to  recognize  that  Augustine  proclaimed  the  fixity  of 

for    understanding     relaeian    impeccability;    417,  species,  and  did  not  admit  that  "from  one  identical 

"De  Gestis  Pelagu"  — a  nistory  of  the  Council  of  primitive   principle,    or    from    one   germ,    different 

Diospolis,  whose  acts  it  reproduces;  418,  "De  GratiA  realities  can  issue".     This  judgment  of  the  Abb6 

Christi  et  de  peccato  originali";  419,  "De  nuptiis  et  Martin  in  his  very  searching  study  on  this  subject 

concupiscentia";     and   other     writings     (420-428);  (S.  Augustin,  p.  314)  must    correct   the  conclusion 

"Against  Julian  of  Eclanum"— the  last  of  this  series,  of  Father  Zahm.     "The  elements  of  tliis  corporeal 

worid  have  also  their  well  defined  force,  and  their 
proper  quality,  from  which  depends  wliat  each  one 
of  them  can  or  cannot  do,  and  wliat  reality  ought 

Perse verantise"  (429). — (e)  Against  Arianism:  "Con-  or  ought  not  to  issue  from  each  one  of  them.    Hence 

tra  sermonem  Arianorum'*  (418)  and  "Collatio  cum  it  is  tnat  from  a  grain  of  wheat  a  bean  cannot  issue, 

Maximino  Arianorum  episcopo"  (the  celebrated  con-  nor  wheat  from  a  bean,  nor  a  man  from  a  beast,  nor 

ference  of  Hippo  in  428).  a  beast  from  a  man  "  (De  Genesi  ad  litt.,  IX,  n.  32). 
(5)  Scriptural  Exegesis, — ^Augustine   in   the   "De        (6)  Dogmatic    and    Moral    Exposition. — (a)     The 

DoctrinA  Christian^''  (b^un  in  397  and  ended  in  fifteen  books  "De  Trinitate",  on  ^^hich  he  worked 

426)  gives  us  a  genuine  treatise  of  ex^esis,  historically  for  fifteen  years,  from  400  to  416,  are  the   most 

the  first  (for  St.  Jerome  wrote  rather  as  a  contro-  elaborate   and    profound    work    of    St.    Augustine. 

versialist).    Several  times  he  attempted  a  commen-  The  last  books  on  the  analogies  which  the  mystery 

tary  on  Genesis.     The  great  work  "De  Genesi  ad  of  the  Trinity  have  with  our  soul  are  much  discussed, 

litteram"  was  composed  from  401   to  415.     The  The  saintly  author  himself  declares  that  they   are 

"  Enarrationes  in  Psalmos"  are  a  masterpiece  of  only  analogous  and  are  far-fetched  and  very  obscure, 

popular  eloquence,  with  a  swing  and  a  warmth  to  (b)   The      Enchiridion",  or   handbook,    on    Faith, 

them  which  are  inimitable.    On  the  New  Testament:  Hope,  and  Love,  composed,  in  421,  at  the  re<que8t 

the  "De  Sermone  Dei  in  Monte  (during  his  priestly  of   a   pious   Roman,    Laurentius,   is   an   admirable 

ministry)  is  especially  noteworthy;  "De  Consensu  svnthesis  of  Augustine's  theolo^,  reduced  to    the 

Evangelistarum    (Harmony   of    the   Gospels— -400):  three  theological  virtues.     Father  Faure  has  g^ven 

"Homilies  on   St.   John"   (416),  generally  classea  us  a  learned  commentary  of  it,  and  Harnack  a  de- 

among  the  chief  works  of  Aujpistine;  the  "Exposi-  tailed   analysis    (Hist,    of  dogmas.   III,  205,  221). 

tion  of     the  Epistle  to  the  ualatians"  (324),  etc.  (c)    Several    volumes    of    miscellaneous    questions, 

The  most  remaricable  of  his  Biblical  works  illustrate  amonj^  which  "Ad  Simplicianum ''^  (397)   has    been 

either  a  theory  of  exegesis  (one  generally  approved)  especially  noted,     (d)  Numberless  writings  of    his 

which   delights   in   finding  mystical   or   allegorical  have  a  practical  aim:  two  on  "Lying"  (374  and  420), 

interpretations,  or  the  style  of  preaching  wmch  is  five    on    "Continence",    "Marriage",    and    "Holy 

founded  on  that  view.    His  strictly  exegetical  work  Widowhood",    one    on    "Patience",    another     on 

Is  far  from  equalling  in  scientific  value  that  of  St.  "Prayer  for  the  Dead"  (421). 

Jerome.  His  knowledge  of  the  Biblical  languages  (7)  Pastorals  and  Preaching. — The  theory  of 
was  insufficient:  he  read  Greek  with  difficulty;  as  preaching  and  religious  instruction  of  the  people 
for  Hebrew,  all  that  we  can  gather  from  the  recent  is  given  in  the  "De  Catechizandis  Rudibus"  (400) 
studies  of  Schanz  and  Rottmanner  is  that  he  was  and  in  the  fourth  book  "De  DoctrinA  Christian  A", 
familiar  with  Punic,  a  language  allied  to  Hebrew.  The  oratorical  work  alone  is  of  vast  extent.  Besides 
Moreover,  the  two  grand  qualities  of  his  g^enius —  the  Scriptural  homilies,  the  Benedictines  have  col- 
ardent  feeling  and  prodigious  subtlety; — carried  him  lected  363  sermons  which  are  certainly  authentic; 
away  into  interpretations  that  were  violent  or  more  the  brevity  of  these  suggests  that  they  are  steno- 
ingenious  than  solid.  graphic,   often   revised  by  Augustine   himself.       If 


AXTGumra                    91  AtrGusTin 

the  Doctor  in  him  predominates  over  the  orator,  any  direct  control  over  politics,  and  Hamack  adds 
tfhepossesses  less  of  colour,  of  opulence,  of  actuality,  that  perhaps  he  had  not  the  qualifications  of  a 
and  of  Oriental  charm  than  St.  John  Ghrysostom,  statesman.    If  Augustine  occupies  a  place  apart  in 
we  find,  on  the  other  hand,  a  more  nervous  logic,  the  history  of  humanity,  Eucken  and  men  of  his 
bolder  comparisons,  greater  elevation  and  greater  calibre  agree  that  it  is  as  a  thinker,  his  influence  being 
profundity  of  thought,  and  sometimes^  in  his  bursts  felt  even  outside  the  realm  of  theology,  and  playing 
of  emotion   and    ms   daring   lapses   mto  dialogue-  a  most  potent  part  in  the  orientation  of  Western 
form,  he  attains  the  irresistible  power  of  the  Greek  thought.     It  is  now  universally  conceded  that,  in 
orator.    The    oratorical    merit    of    Augustine    has  the  intellectual  field,  this  influence  is  unrivalled  even 
recently  been  placed  in  strong  relief  by  ftottmanner  by  that  of  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  Augustine's  teach- 
in  "  Historisches  Jahrbuch  ",   1898,  p.  894;  and  H.  ing  marks  a  distinct  Qpoch  in  the  histor^r  of  Christian 
Pope,  0.  P.,  in  "The  Ecclesiastical  Review",  Sep-  thought.     The  better  to  emphasize  this  important 
lember,  1906.  fact  we  shall  try  to  determine:  (1)  the  rank  and  de- 
EdiHms  of  St.  Augustine's  works. — ^The  best  edition  gree  of  influence  that  must  be  ascribed  to  Augustine; 
of  his  complete  works  is  that  of  the   Benedictines,  (2)  the  nature,  or  the  elements,  of  his  doctrinal  in- 
eleven  tomes  in  eight  folio  volumes  (Paris,  1679-  fluence;    (3)   the  general  qualities  of  his  doctrine; 
1700).   It  has  been  often  reprinted,  e.  g.  by  Qaiune  and  (4)  the  character  of  his  genius. 
(Paris,  1836-39),  in  eleven  octavo  volumes,  and  by  (1)  The  greatest  of  the  Doctors, — It  is  first  of  all  a 
Migne,  P.  L.,  XXXII-XLVII.    The  last  volume  of  remarkable  fact  that  the  great  critics,  Protestant 
the  Migne  reprint  contains  a  number  of  important  as  well  as  Catholic,  are  almost  unanimous  in  placing 
eartier  studies  on  St.  Augustine — Vivde.  Noris,  Merlin,  St.  Augustine  in  the  foremost  rank  of  Doctors  and 
particularly  the  literapy  history  of  tne  editions  of  proclaiming  him  to  be  the  greatest  of  the  Fathers. 
Ao^ine  from  SchOnemann's  ^'Bibl.  hist.  lit.  patrum  Such,  ind€^,  was  also  the  opinion  of  his  contem- 
Lat."  (Leipzig,  1794).     For  critical  remarks  on  the  poraries,  judging  from  their  expressions  of  enthusiasm 
Benedictine,  or  Maiurist,  edition,  see  R.  Kukula  and  gathered  by  the  Bollandists.    The  popes  attributed 
0.  Rottmanner  in  the  reports  of  the  Vienna  Academy  such  exceptional  authority  to  the  Doctor  of  Hippo 
of  Science  for  1890,  93,  98.    Since  1887  a  new  edition  that,  even  of  late  years,  it  has  given  rise  to  lively 
of  St.  Augustine  has  been  appearing  in  the  "Corpus  theological    controversies.       Peter    the    Venerable 
Scriptorum  Eccl.  Latinorum  '  of  the  Vienna  Academy  accurately  summarized  the  general  sentiment  of  the 
— the  "Confessiones"  by  P.  ICndll   (XXXIII),  the  Middle  Ages  when  he  ranked  Augustine,  immediately 
"DeCivitate  Dei",  by  E.  Hoffmann  (XL),  etc.    The  after  the  Apostles;  said  in  modem  times  Bossuet, 
pnocipal  tractates  of  St.  Augustine  are  also  found  in  whose  genius  was  most  Like  that  of  Augustine,  assigns 
the  collection  of  H.   Hurter,   "  SS.   PP.    Opuscula  him  the  first  place  amon^  the  Doctors,  nor  does  he 
selecta'*  (Innsbruck,   1868  sqq.). — English  transla-  simply    call    him    "the   mcomparable   Augustine", 
rww.— Dr.  Pusey's  "Library  of  the  Fathers"  (Ox-  but  "the  Eagle  of  Doctors",  "the  Doctor  of  Doctors". 
ford,  1839-55)  contains  translations  of  many  works  If  the  Jansenistic  abuse  of  his  works  and  perhaps 
of  St.    Augustine — the     "Confessions",    sennons,  the  exaggerations  of  certain  Catholics,  as  well  as  the 
treatises,  expositions  on  the  Psalms,  and  "Homilies  attack  of  Richard  Simon,  seem  to  have  alarmed 
on  John".    It  is  well  supplemented  by  the  "Angus-  some  minds,  the  general  opinion  has  not  varied. 
tinian  Library"  of  Marcus  Dods  (Edinburgh,  1872-  In   the  nineteenth    century   Stdckl    expressed    the 
76, 15  vols.,  8vo),  which  contains  a  great  number  of  thought  of  all  when  he  said,  "Augustine  has  justly 
translations,  from  the  pens  of  Cunningham,  Findlay.  been  called  the  greatest  Doctor  of  the  Catholic  world  . 
Salmond,  Holmes,  Wallis.  and  others — the  "City  of  And  the  admiration  of  Protestant  critics  is  not 
God'',  the  "Confessions",  the  Anti-Donatist,  Anti-  less  enthusiastic.    More  than  this,  it  would  seem  as 
Pelagian,  and    Anti-Manichsean    works,    "On    the  if  they  had  in  these  latter  days  been  quite  specially 
Trinity",  "Sermon  on  the  Mount",  "Harmony  of  fascinated  by  the  great  figure  of  Aioustine,  so  deeply 
the  Gospels",  "On  Christian  Doctrine",  the  "En-  and  so  assiduously  have  they  studied  him  (Binde- 
fhiridion",  "On  the  Faith  and  the  Creed",  "On  mann.  Schaff,  Domer,  Renter.  A.  Hamack,  Eucken, 
Catechizing   the    Ignorant".     These    volumes,   en-  Scheel,  and  so  on)  and  all  of  tnem  agree  more  or  less 
riched  with    other    translations    and    introductory  with  Hamack  when  he  says:  "Where,  in  the  history 
discouraej,  were   reprinted  imder  the  editorial  di-  of  the  West,  is  there  to  be  found  a  man  who,  in  point 
rection  of  Dr.  Phihp  Schaff  (New  York,  1886-88,  of  influence,  can  be  compared  with  him?"     Luther 
8  vols.).  Dr.Pusey's  translation  of  the"  CJonfessions",  and  Calvin  were  content  to  treat  Augustine  with  a 
1»  says  himself,  is  a  revision  of  the  version  of  W.  little  less  irreverence  than  they  did  the  other  Fathers, 
Watta  (London,  1650),  with  addition  of  a  lengthy  but  their  descendants  do  him  full  justice,  although 
Preface  and  notes;    the  same  translation,  reprinted  recognising  him  as  the  Father  of  Roman  Catholicism. 
«  Boston   (1843),   and   then  reputed  anonymous.  According  to  Bindemann,  "Augustine  is  a  star  of 
furnished  Dr.  W.  G.  T.  Shedd  (Andover,  I860)  with  extraordinary  brilliancy   in  the  firmament   of   the 
tbe  text  for  his  "excellent  original  introduction  in  Chiu-ch.    Since  the  Apostles  he  has  been  unsurpassed". 
^hich  he  clearly  and  vigorously  characterizes  the  In  his  "History  of  the  Church  "Dr.  Kurtz  calls  Augus- 
Confeasions  and  dwiws  a  comparison  between  them  tine  "the  greatest,  the  most  powerful  of  all  the 
ukI  the  Confessions  of  Rousseau"  (Schaff,  Hist,  of  Fathers,  him  from  whom  proceeds  all  the  doctrinal 
ttie  Christian   Church,  5th   ed..  New  York,   1903,  and  ecclesiastical  development  of  the  West,  and  to 
P  1005).    The  earliest  English  translation  of  the  whom  each  reciuring  crisis,  each  new  orientation 
''Deavitate  Dei"  bears  the  title:  "Of  the  Citie  of  of  thought  brmgs  it  back".     Schaff  himself  (Saint 
Hod  with  the  learned  conmients  of  Jo.  L.  Viv^,  Augustine,  Melanchthon  and  Neander,  p.  98)  is  of  the 
Eaj^isbed  first  by  J.  H(ealey),  London,  1610".   There  same  opinion:  "While  most  of  the  great  men  in  the 
is  a  German  (Catholic)  translation  of  several  works  history  of  the  Church  are  claimed  either  by  the 
of  St.  Augustine  in  the  "  Kempten  Bibliothek  der  Catholic  or  bv  the  IVotestant  confession,  and  their 
Kffphenvater"  (1871-79,  8  vob.).  influence  is  therefore  confined  to  one  or  the  other. 
UL  His  Function  as  a  Docttor  op  the  CnxmcH. —  he  enjoys  from  both  a  respect  equally  profound  ana 
^^the  critics  endeavour  to  determine  Augustine's  enduring".    Rudolf  Eucken  is  bolder  still,  when  he 
P^m  the  history  of  the  Church  and  of  civnization,  says:  "On  the  ground  of  Christianity  proper  a  single 
*>^ean  be  no  question  of  exterior  or  political  in-  philosopher  has  appeared  and  that  is  Augustine", 
fiance,  such  as  was  exercised  bv  St.  Leo,  St.  Gregory,  The  English  writer,  W,  Cunningham,  is  no  less  ap- 
c'^ Si.  Bernard.    As  Reuter  justly  observes,  Augustine  preciative  of  the  extent  and  perpetuity  of  this  ex- 
*^  bishop  of  a  third-rate  city  and  had  scarcely  traordinary  influence:  "The  whole  life  of  the  medieval 


AUGUBTnnB  92  Auansmrx 

Church  was  framed  on  lines  which  he  has  suggested:  but  according  to  others  utterly  deplorable.    Theie 

its  religious  orders  claimed  him  as  their  patron;  its  fantasies  do  not  survive  the  reading  of  the  texts, 

mystics  found  a  sympathetic  tone  in  his  teaching;  and  Hamack  himself  shows  in  Augustine  the  heir 

its  polity  was  to  some  extent  the  actualization  of  his  to  the  tradition  that  preceded  him.     Still,  on  the 

picture  of  the  Christian  Church:  it  was  in  its  various  other  hand,  his  share  of  invention  and  originality 

parts  a  carrving  out  of  ideas  wnich  he  cherished  and  in  the  development  of  dogma  must  not  be  imored, 

diffused.     Nor  does  his  influence  end  with  the  de-  although  here  and  there,  on  special  questions,  human 

cline  of  medievalism:  we  shall  see  presently  how  weaknesses  crop  out.     He  resized,  better  than  any 

closely  his  language  was  akin  to  that  of  Descartes,  of  the  Fathers,  the  progress  so  well  expressed  by 

who  gave  the  mst  impulse  to  and  defined  the  special  Vincent  of  Li^rins,  his  contemporary,  in  a  page  that 

character  of  modem  philosophy."    And  after  having  some  have  turned  against  him. 
established  that  the  doctrine  of  St.  Augustine  was        In  general,  all  Cliristian  dogmatics  are  indebted 

at  the  bottom  of  ail  the  struggles  between  Jansenists  to  him  for  new  theories  that  &tter  justify  and  ex- 

and  Catholics  in  the  Church  of  France,   between  plain  revelation,  new  views,  and  greater  clearness 

Arminians  and  Calvinists  on  the  side  of  the  Reform-  and  precision.    The  many  struggles  with  which  he 

ers,  he  adds:  "And  once  more  in  our  own  land  when  was  identified,  together  with  the  speculative  turn 

a  reaction  arose  against  rationalism  and  Erastinian-  of  his  mind,  brought  almost  every  question  within 

ism  it  was  to  the  African  Doctor  that  men  turned  the  scope  of  his  research.    Even  his  way  of  stating 

with  enthusiasm:  Dr.  Pusey's  edition  of  the  Con*-  problems  so  left  his  impress  upon  them  that  there 

feasiona  was  among  the  first-fruits  of  the  Oxford  is  no  problem,  one  might  almost  say,  in  considering 

Movement".  which  the  theologian  does  not  feel  the  study  of 

But  Adolf  Hamack  is  the  one  who  has  oftenest  Augustine's  thought  to  be  an  imperative  obligation, 

emphasized  the  unique  r61e  of  the  Doctor  of  Hippo.  Certain  dogmas  in  particular  he  so  amply  developed, 

He  has  studied  Augustine's  place  in  the  history  of  so  skilfully  unsheathing  the  fruitful  eerm  of  the 

the  world  as  reformer  of  Cnristian  piety  and  his  truths  from  their  envelope  of  tradition,  tnat  many  of 

influence  as  Doctor  of  the  Church.    In  his  study  of  these  dogmas  (wrongly,  in  our  opinion)  have  been 

the  "Confessions"  he  comes  back  to  it:  "No  man  set  down  as  "Augustinism".     Augustine  was  not 


said  that  we  are  the  sons  of  the  Renaissance  and  the  (op.  cit.,  97)  has  very  properly  said:  "His  appearance 

Reformation,  but  both  one  and  the  other  depend  in  the  nistory  of  aogma  forms  a  distinct  epoch, 

upon  him".  especiallv  as  regards  anthropological   and  soterio- 

(2)  Nature  and  different  aspects  of  his  doctrinal  logical  doctrines,  which  he  advanced  considerably 
influence. — ^This  influence  is  so  varied  and  so  complex  further,  and  brought  to  a  greater  clearness  and  pre- 
that  it  is  difficult  to  consider  imder  all  its  different  cision,  than  they  had  ever  luid  before  in  the  conscious- 
aspects.  First  of  ail,  in  his  writings  the  great  bishop  hess  of  the  Church".  But  he  is  not  only  the  Doctor 
collects  and  condenses  the  intellectual  treasures  of  of  Grace,  he  is  also  the  Doctor  of  the  Church:  his 
the  old  world  and  transmits  them  to  the  new.  Har-  twenty  years'  conflict  with  Donatism  led  to  a  com- 
nack  goes  so  far  as  to  say:  "It  would  seem  that  the  plete  exposition  of  the  dogmas  of  the  -Church,  the 
miserable  existence  of  the  Roman  empire  in  the  West  great  work  and  mjrstical  Body  of  Christ,  and  true 
was  prolonged  until  then,  only  to  permit  Augustine's  Kingdom  of  God,  of  its  part  in  salvation  and  of  the 
influence  to  be  exercised  on  universal  history".  It  intimate  efficacy  of  its  sacraments.  It  is  on  this 
was  in  order  to  fulfil  this  enormous  task  that  Provi-  point,  as  the  very  centre  of  Augustinian  theology, 
dence  brought  him  into  contact  with  the  three  that  Renter  has  concentrated  those  "  August inische 
worlds  whose  thought  he  was  to  transmit:  with  the  Studien"  which,  according  to  Hamack,  are  the  most 
Roman  and  Latin  world  in  the  midst  of  which  he  learned  of  recent  studies  on  St.  Augustir  e.  Mani- 
lived,  with  the  Oriental  world  partially  revealed  to  chsean  controversies  also  led  him  to  state  clearly  the 
him  through  the  study  of  Manichseism,  and  with  great  questions  of  the  Divine  Being  and  of  the  nature 
the  Greek  world  shown  to  him  by  the  Platonists.  of  evil,  and  he  might  also  be  called  the  Doctor  of 
In  philosophy  he  was  initiated  into  the  whole  content  Good,  or  of  good  principles  of  all  things.  Lastly, 
ana  aU  the  subtilties  of  the  various  schools,  without,  the  very  idiosyncrasy  of  his  genius  and  the  practical, 
however,  giving  his  allegiance  to  any  one  of  them,  supematiu^,  and  Divine  imprint  left  upon  all  his 
In  theolo^  it  was  he  who  acquainted  the  Latin  intellectual  speculations  have  made  him  the  Doctor 
Church  witn  the  great  dogmatic  work  accomplished  of  Charity. 

in  the  East  during  the  fourth  century  and  at  the  Another  step  forward  due  to  the  works  of  Augus- 

beginning  of  the  fifth;  he  popularized  the  results  of  tine  is  in  the  language  of  theology,  for,  if  he  did 

it  by  giving  them  the  more  exact  and  precise  form  not  create  it,  he  at  least  contributed  towards  its 

of  the  Latm  genius.  definite  settlement.    It  is  indebted  to  him  for  a  great 

To  synthesis  of  the  past,  Augustine  adds  the  in-  number  of  epigrammatic  formulae,  as  significant  as 

comparable  wealth  of  his  own  thought,  and  he  may  they  are  terse,  afterwards  singled  out  and  adopted 

be  said  to  have  been  the  most  powerful  instrument  b^  Scholasticism.     Besides,  as  Latin  was  more  con- 

of  Providence  in  development  and  advance  of  dogma,  cise  and  less  fluid  in  its  forms  than  Greek,  it  was 

Here  the  danger  has  been  not  in  denying,  but  in  wonderfully  well  suited  to  the  work.     Augustine 

exaggerating,  this  advance.     Augustine's  aogmatic  made  it  the  dogmatic  language  par  excellence,  and 

mission  (in  a  lower  sphere  and  apart  from  inspiration)  Anselm.  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  others  followed  his 

recalls  that  of  Paul  in  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel,  lead.    At  times  he  has  even  been  credited  with  the 

It  has  also  been  subject  to  the  same  attacks  and  pseudo-Athanasian  creed  which  is  imdoubtedly  of 

occasioned  the  same  vagaries  of  criticism.    Just  as  it  later  date,  but  those  critics  were  not  mistaken  who 

was  sought  to  make  of  Paulinism  the  real  source  of  traced  its  inspiration  to  the  formulsB  in  "De  Trini- 

Christianity   as   we   know   it — a  svstem   that   had  tate".    Whoever  its  author  may  have  been,  he  was 

smothered   the   primitive   germ   of   the   Gospel   of  certainly  familiar  with  Augustine  and  drew  upon  his 

Jesus — so  it  was  imagined  that,  under  the  name  of  works.    It  is  unquestionably  this  rift  of  concise  ex- 

Augustinianism,    Augustine    hod    installed    in    the  pression.  as  well  as  his  charity,  tnat  has  so  often 

Church  some  sort  of  syncretism  of  the  ideas  of  Paul  caused  tne  celebrated  saying  to  be  attributed  to  him: 

and  of  neo-Platonism  which  was  a  deviation  from  "In  essentials  unity,  in  non-essentials  liberty,  in  ed] 

ancient  Christianity,  fortunate  according  to  some,  things  charity". 


AtrotrsTHis                   d3  AuauSTon! 

« 

Au^tine  stands  forth,  too,  as  the  great  inspirer  knowledge  becomes  moral,  religious  knowled^,  Of 
of  religious  thought  in  subsequent  ages.     A  whole  rather  a  moral,  religious  conviction,  an  act  of  faith  on 
volume  would  not  be  sufficient  to  contain  the  full  the  part  of  man,  who  gives  himself  up  imreservedly''. 
account  of  his  influence  on  poster! tv;  here  we  shall  And  with  still  ^eater  energy  Bdhringer  has  said: 
merely  call  attention  to  its  principal  manifestations.  "The  axis  on  which  the  heart,  life,  and  theology  of 
Itis,inthefirst  place,  a  fact  of  paramount  importance  Augusnne  move  is  God".     Oriental  discussions  on 
that,  with  St.  Augustine,  the  centre  of  aogmatrc  the  Word  had  forced  Athanasius  and  the  Greek 
and  theological  development  changed  from  East  to  Fathers  to  set  faith  in  the  Word  and  in  Christ,  the 
West  Hence,  from  this  view-point  again,  he  makes  Saviour,  at  the  very  summit  of  theology;  Augustine, 
an  epoch  in  the  history  of  dogma.    The  critics  main-  too,  in  his  theolo^,  places  the  Incarnation  at  the 
tain  that  up  to  his  time  the  most  powerful  influence  centre  of  the  Divme  plan,  but  he  looks  upon  it  as 
iras  exertea  by  the  Greek  Church,  the  East  having  the  great  historic  manifestation  of  God  to  humanity — 
been  the  classic  land  of  theology,  the  great  work-  the  Idea  of  God  dominates  all:  of  God  considered  in 
shop  for  the  elaboration  of  dogma.    From  the  time  His  essence  fOn*  the  Trinity),  in  His  government 
of  Augustine,   the   predominating  influence   seems  (The  City  of  God),  or  as  the  last  end  of  all  Christian 
to  emanate  from  the  West,  and  the  practical,  reab'stic  life  (Enchiridion  and  On  the  Christian  Combat). 
spiiii  of  the  Latin  race  supplants  the  speculative  Lastly,  Augustine's  doctrine  bears  an  eminently 
and  idealistic  spirit  of  Greece  and  the  East.    Another  Catholic  stamp  and  is  radically  opposed  to  Protes- 
fact,  no  less  salient,  is  that  it  was  the  Doctor  of  Hippo  tantism.    It  is  important  to  establish  this  fact,  prin- 
who,  in  the  bosom  of  the  Church,  inspired  the  two  cipally  because  of  the  change  in  the  attitude  of 
seemindy    antagonistic    movements,    Scholasticism  Protestant  critics  towards  St.  Augustine.     Indeed, 
and  Mysticism.     From  Gregory  the  Great  to  the  nothing  is  more  deserving  of  attention  than  this 
Fathers  of  Trent,  Augustine^  theoloeical  authority,  development  so  highly  creditable  to  the  impartiality 
indisputably  the  highest,  dominates  all  thinkers  ana  of  modem  writers.     The  thesis  of  the  Protestante 
is  a{H)eaIed  to  alike  by  tne  Scholastics  Anselm,  Peter  of  olden  times  is  well  known.    Attempts  to  monopo- 
Lomoard,  and  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  by  Bernard,  lize  Augustine  and  to  make  him  an  ante-Reformation 
Hugh  of  St.  Victor,  and  Tauler,  exponents  of  Mys-  reformer,  were  certainly  not  wanting.     Of  course 
tidsm,  all  of  whom  were  nourished  upon  his  writings  Luther  had  to  admit  that  he  did  not  And  in  Augustine 
and  penetrated  with  his  spirit.    There  is  not  one  of  justification  by  faith  alone,  that  generating  prmciple 
even  the  most  modem  tendencies  of  thought  but  de-  of  all  Protestantism;  and  Schaff  tells  us  that  he 
rives  from  him  whatever  it  may  have  of  truth  or  of  consoled  himself  with  exclaiminjg  (op.  cit.,  p.  100): 
profound  religious  sentiipent.     Learned  critics,  such  "Augustine  has  often  erred,  he  is  not  to  be  trusted. 
as  Haraack,  have  called  Augustine  "the  first  modem  Although  good  and  holy,  he  was  yet  lacking  in  true 
man**,  and  in  truth,  he  so  moulded  the  Latin  world  faith  as  well  as  the  other  Fathers. '     But  in  general, 
that  it  is  really  he  who  has  shaped  the  education  of  the  Reformation  did  not  so  easily  fall  into  line,  and 
modem  minds.     But.  without  going  so  far,  we  may  for  a  long  time  it  was  customary  to  oppose  the  great 
quote  the  German  philosopher,  Eucken:  "It  is  per-  name  of  Augustine  to  Catholicism.     Article  20  of 
hapfl  not  paradoxical  to  say  that  if  our  age  wishes  to  the  Confession  of  Augsburg  dares  to  ascribe  to  him 
take  up  and  treat  in  an  independent  way  the  problem  justification  without  works,  and  Melanchthon  invokes 
of  religion,  it  is  not  so  much  to  Schleiermacher  or  nisauthority  in  his  "Apologia  Confessionis".     In  the 
Kant,  or  even  Luther  or  St.  Thomas^  that  it  must  last  thirty  or  forty  years  all  has  been  changed,  and 
refer,  as  to  Augustine.  .  .  .  And  outside  of  religion,  the  best  Protestant  critics  now  vie  with  one  another 
tiiere  are  points   upon   which   Augustine   is   more  in  procladming  the  essentially  Catholic  character  of 
modem  than  Hegel  or  Schopenhauer".  Augustinian  doctrine.    In  fact  they  go  to  extremes 
(3)  The  dominatinq  qualities  of  his  doctrine, — The  when  they  claim  him  to  be  the  founder  of  Cathol- 
better  to  understand  St.  Augustine's  influence,  we  icism.    It  is  thus  that  H.  Renter  concludes  his  very 
mist  point  out  in  his  doctrine  certain  general  char-  important  studies  on  the  Doctor  of  Hippo:  "I  con- 
actCTistics  which  must  not  be  lost  sight  of,  if,  in  reading  sider  Augustine  the  founder  of  Roman  Catholicism 
iia  works,  one  would  avoid  trouolesome  misappre-  in   the   West.  .  .  .  This   is  no   new   discovery,   as 
^fcnsions.    First,  the  full  development  of  the  great  Kattenbusch  seems  to  believe,  but  a  truth  long  since 
Doctor's  mind  was  progressive.    It  was  by  stages,  recognized    by    Neander,    Julius    Kdstlin,    Domer, 
often  aided  by  the  circumstances  and  necessities  of  Schmidt,  ,  .  .  etc. ".     Then,  as  to  whether  Evan- 
controversy,  that  he  arrived  at  the  exact  knowledge  of  gelicalism  is  to   be  found  in  Aueustine,  he  says: 
«ch  truth  and  a  clean-cut  perception  of  its  place  "Formerly  this  point  was  reasoned  out  very  diflfer- 
in  the  synthesis  of  revelation.    He  also  requires  that  ently  from  what  it  is  nowadajrs.  .  .  .  The  phrases  so 
lii3readersshouldknowhowto"advance  with  him",  mucn  in  use  from  1830  to  1870:  Atugustine  is  the 
It  is  necessary  to  study  St.  Augustine's  works  in  Father  of  evarigelical  Protestantism  and  Pdagius  is 
toffical  order  and,  as  we  shall  see,  this  applies  the  Father  of  Catholicism ,  are  now  rarely  met  with, 
pwticulariy  to  the  doctrine  of  grace.  They  have  since  been  acknowledged  to  be  untenable, 
AuFustinian  doctrine  is,  again,  essentially  theo-  although   they  contain   a   partictda  veri'\     Philip 
fcpcu,  and  has  God  for  its  centre.    To  be  sure  Au-  Schaff   reaches   the  same   conclusion;   and   Domer 
prtioe  is  a  great  philosopher,  and  F^nelon  said  of  says,  "It  is  erroneous  to  ascribe  to  Augustine  the 
"in:  "If  an  enlightened  man  were  to  gather  from  the  ideas  that  inspired  the  Reformation".    No  one,  how- 
boob  of  St.  Augustine  the  sublime  truths  which  this  ever,  has  put  this  idea  in  a  stronger  light  than  Har- 
pttt  man  has  scattered  at  random  therein,  such  a  nack.     Quite  recently,  in  his  14th  lesson  on  "The 
tOQpendium    [extrait],    made    with    discrimination,  Essenceof  Christianity",  he  characterized  the  Roman 
Wd  be  far  superior  to  Descartes'  Meditations  ".  Church  by  three  elements,  the  third  of  which  is  Au- 
Aad  indeed  just  such  a  collection  was  made  by  the  custinism,  the  thought  and  the  piety  of  St.  Augustine. 
Otatorian  ontologist,  Andr6  Martin.    There  is  then  "In  fact  Augustine  has  exertea  over  the  whole  inner 
f  philosophy  of  St.  Augustine,  but  in  him  philosophy  life  of  the  Church,  religious  life  and  religious  thought, 
■  80  intimately  coupled  with  theology  as  to  be  in-  an  absolutely  decisive  influence."     And  again  he 
•parable  from  it.     Protestant  historians  have  re-  says,  "In  the  fifth  century,  at  the  hour  when  the 
•wkfid  this  characteristic  of  his  writings.     "The  Church* inherited  the  Roman  Empire,  she  had  within 
**rkl*',  says  Eucken,  "interests  him  less  than  the  her  a  man  of  extraordinarily  deep  and  powerful 
•^ion  of  God  in  the  world  and  especially  in  ourselves,  genius:  from  him  she  took  her  ideas,  and  to  this 
^  and  the  soul  are  the  only  subjects  the  knowledge  present  hour  she  has  been  unable  to  break  away  from 
^  which  ought  to  fire  us  with  onthufiiasm.     All  them".    In  his  "History  of  Dogma"  (finglish  tr., 


AUOUSTDIS  94  AUOUSTINS 

V,  234, 235)  the  Bame  critic  dwells  at  length  up<m  the  of  Aristotle,  the  knowledge  and  intellectual  sujk 
features  of  what  he  calls  the  "popular  Catholicism"  pleness  of  Origen,  the  grace  and  eloquence  of  Baal 
to  which  Augustine   belong.     These  features  are  and   Chrysostom.     Whether   we    consider   him  u 
(a)  the  Church  as  a  hierarchical  institution  with  doc-  philosopher,    as    theologian,    or    as    exegetist  .  .  . 
trinal  authority*  (b)  eternal  life  by  merits,  and  dis-  ne  still   appears   admirable  .  .  .  the   unquestioned 
regard  of  the  JProtestant  thesis  of  "salvation  by  Master  of  all  the  centuries."     Philip  Schaff  (op. 
faith" — that  is,  salvation  by  that  firm  confidence  cit.,  p.  97)  admires  above  all  "such  a  rare  imion  of 
in  God  which   the   certainty    of  pardon  produces;  the  speculative  talent  of  the  Greek  and  of  the  prac- 
(c)  the  forgiveness  of  sins*  in  the  Cnurcn  and  by  the  tical  spirit  of  the  Latin  Church  as  he  alone  possessed". 
Church;  (d)  the  distinction  between  commands  and  In  all  these  opinions  there  is  a  great  measure  of 
counsels — between  grievous  sins  and  venial  sins —  truth;  nevertheless  we  believe  that  the  dominating 
the  scale  of  wicked  men  and  good  men — the  various  characteristic  of  Augustine's  genius  and  the  true 
degrees  of  happiness  in  heaven  according  to  one's  secret  of  his  influence  are  to  be  found  in  his  heart- 
deserts;  (e)  Augustine  is  accused  of  "outdoing  the  a  heart  that  penetrates  the  most  exalted  speculations 
superstitious  ideas"  of  this  popular  Catholicism —  of  a  profound  mind  and  animates  them  with  the 
the  infinite  value  of  Christ's  satisfaction — salvation  most  ardent  feeling.    It  is  at  bottom  only  the  tra- 
considered   as   enjoyment  of  God  in   heaven — the  ditional  and  general  estimate  of  the  saint  that  we 
mysterious    efficacy  of    the    sacraments   (ex   opere  express;  for  he  has  always  been  represented  with  a 
overato) — Mary's  virginity  ^ven  in  childbirth — "the  heart  for  his  emblem,  just  as  Thomas  Aquinas  ^^nth 
iaea  of  her  purity  and  her  conception,  unique  in  their  a  sun.    Mgr.  Bougaud  thus  interprets  this  symbol: 
kind".     Hamack  does  not  assert  that  Augustine  *' Never  did  man  unite  in  one  and  the  same  soul 
taught    the    Immaculate    Conception,    but    Schaff  such  stem  rigour  of  logic  with  such  tenderness  of 
(op.  cit.,  p.  98)  says  unhesitatingly:  "He  is  responsi-  heart".    This  is  also  the  opinion  of  Hamack,  B6h- 
ble  also  for  many  grievous  errors  of  the  Roman  ringer,   Nourisson,    Storz,    and   others.     Great  in- 
Church  ...  he  anticipated  the  dogma  of  the  im-  tellectuality  admirably  fused  with  an  enlightened 
maculate  conception  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  his  mysticism  is  Augustine's  distinguishing  characteris- 
ominous   word.  Roma    lociUa   est,  caiisa  finita  est^  tic.   Truth  is  not  for  him  only  an  object  of  contempla- 
might  almost  be  quoted  in  favour  of  the  Vatican  tion;  it  is  a  good  that  must  be  possessed,  that  must 
decree  of  papal  infallibility".  be  loved  and  lived  by.    What  constitutes  Augustine's 

Nevertheless,  it  were  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  genius  is  his  marvellous  gift  of  embracing  tmth 

modem  Protestants  relinquish  all  claim  upon  Au-  with  all  the  fibres  of  his  soul;  not  with  the  heart 

gustine;  they  will  have  it  that,  despite  his  essential  alone,  for  the  heart  does  not  think;  not  with  the  mind 

Catholicism,  it  was  he  who  inspired  Luther  and  Calvin,  alone,  for  the  mind  grasps  only  the  abstract  or,  as  it 

The  new  thesis,  therefore,  is  that  each  of  the  two  were,  lifeless  truth.    Augustine  seeks  the  living  truth, 

Churches  may  claim  him  in  turn.    Burke's  expression  and  even  when  he  is  combating  certain  Platonic 

quoted  by  Schaff  (ibid.,  p.   102)  is  characteristic:  ideas  he  is  of  the  family  of  Plato,  not  of  Aristotle. 

"  In  Augustine  ancient  and  modem  ideaa  are  melted  He  belongs  indisputably  to  all  ages  because  he  is  in 

and  to  his  authority  the  papal  Church  haa  as  much  touch  with  all  souls,  but  he  is  pre-eminently  modem 

right  to  appeal  as  the  Churches  of  the  Reformation",  because  his  doctrine  is  not  tne  cold  light  of  the 

No  one  notes  this  contradiction  more  clearly  than  School;  he  is  living  and  penetrated  with  personal 

Loofs.    After  stating  that  Augustine  has  accentuated  sentiment.     Religion  is  not  a  simple  theory,  Chris- 

the  characteristic  elements  of  Western   (Catholic)  tianity  is  not  a  series  of  dogmas;  it  is  also  a  life,  as 

Christianity,  that  in  succeeding  ages  he  became  its  they  say  nowadays,  or,  more  accurately,  a  source 

Father,  and  that  "  the   Ecclesiasticism  of  Roman  of  hfe.    However,  let  us  not  be  deceived.    Augustine 

Catholicism,  Scholasticism,  Mysticism,  and  even  the  is  not  a  sentimentalist,  a  pure  mystic,  and  heart 

claims  of  the  papacy  to  temporal  rule,  are  founded  alone  does  not  account  for  his  power.    If  in  him  the 

upon  a  tendency  mitiated  by  nim",  Loofs  also  affirms  hard,  cold  intellectuaUty  of  the  metaphysician  ^ves 

that  he  is  the  teacher  of  all  the  reformers  and  their  place  to  an  impassioned  vision  of  truth,  that  truth 

bond  of  union,  and  concludes  with  this  strange  para-  is  the  basis  of  it  all.    He  never  knew  the  vaporous 

dox:  "The  history  of  CathoHcism  is  the  history  of  mysticism  of  our  day,  that  allows  itself  to  be  lulled 

the  progressive  elimination  of  Augustinism".     The  by  a  vague,  aimless  sentimentalism.     His  emotion 

singular  aptitude  of  these  critics  for  supposing  the  is  deep,  true,  engrossing,  precisely  because  it  is  bom 

existence  of  flagrant  contradictions  in  a  genius  like  of  a  strong,  secure,  accurate  dogmatism  that  -wishes 

Augustine  is  not  so  astonishing  when  we  remember  to  know  what  it  loves  and  why  it  loves.    Christianity 

that,  with  Renter,  they  justify  this  theory  by  the  is  life,  but  life  in  the  eternal,  unchangeable  truth, 

reflection:  "In  whom  are  to  be  found  more  frequent  And  if  none  of  the  Fathers  has  put  so  much  of  his 

contradictions  than  in  Luther  ? "    But  their  theories  heart  into  his  writings,  neither  has  any  turned  up)on 

are  based  upon  a  false  interpretation  of  Augustine's  tmth  the  searchlight  of  a  stronger,  clearer  intellect, 
opinion,  which  is  frequently  misconstrued  by  those        Augustine's  passion  is  characterized  not  by  violence, 

who  are  not  sufficiently  familiar  with  his  language  but  by  a  communicative  tenderness;  and  his   ex- 

and  terminology.  quisite    deHcacy    experiences    first    one    and     then 

(4)  The  character  of  his  genius. — We  have  now  to  another  of  the  most  intimate  emotions  and  tests 
ascertain  what  is  the  dominating  quality  which  them;  hence  the  irresistible  effect  of  the  "Con- 
accounts  for  his  fascinating  influence  upon  posterity,  fessions".  Feuerlein,  a  Protestant  thinker,  has 
One  after  another  the  critics  have  consiaered  the  brought  out  in  reUef  (exaggeratedly,  to  be  sure,  and 
various  aspects  of  this  great  genius.  Some  have  leaving  the  marvellous  powers  of  his  intellect  in 
been  particularly  impressed  by  the  depth  and  the  shade)  Augustine's  exquisite  sensibility — ^^rhat 
originality  of  his  conceptions,  and  for  these  Augustine  he  calls  the  "feminine  elements"  of  his  genius.  He 
is  the  great  sower  of  the  ideas  by  which  future  minds  says:  "It  was  not  merely  a  chance  or  accidental 
are  to  live.  Others,  like  Jungmann  and  Stockl,  have  past  that  his  mother,  Monica,  played  in  his  in- 
praised  in  him  the  marvellous  harmony  of  all  the  tellectual  development,  and  therein  lies  what  es- 
mind's  higher  qualities,  or,  again,  the  universahty  sentially  distinguishes  him  from  Luther,  of  "whom 
and  the  compass  of  his  doctrine.  "In  the  great  it  was  said:  'Everything  about  him  bespeaks  the 
African  Doctor",  says  the  Rev.  J.  A.  Zahm  (Bible,  man'".  And  Schldsser,  whom  Feuerlein  quotes,  is 
Science  and  Faith,  Fr.  tr.,  p.  66),  "we  seem  to  have  not  afraid  to  say  that  Augustine's  works  contain 
found  imited  and  combined  the  powerful  and  pene-  more  genuine  poetry  than  all  the  writings  of  the 
trating  logic  of  Plato,  the  deep  scientific  conceptions  Greek  Fathen.    At  least  it  cannot  be  denied  that  no 


Auousmrx  95  AuauSTiNs 

tiunker  ever  caused  so  many  and  such  salutary  tears  dred  years  that  have  followed.    Even  to  our  days 

to  flow.    This  characteristic  of  Augustine's  genius  interior  and  living  piety  amon^  Catholics,  as  well 

explains  his  doctrinal  woric.     Christian  dogmas  are  as  the  mode  of  its  expressionrhas  been  essentially 

considered  in  relation  to  the  soul  and  the  great  Augustinian:  the  soul  is  permeated  by  his  sentiment, 

duties  of  Christian  life,  rather  than  to  themselves  it  feels  as  he  felt  and  rethinks  his  thoughts.     It  is 

and  in  a  speculative  fashion.     This  alone  explains    the  same  with  many  Protestants  also,  and  they  are 

his  division  of  theology  in  the  "Enchiridion",  which  by  no  means  among  the  worst.    And  even  those  to 

at  first  si^t  seems  so  strange.     He  assembles  all  whom  dogma  is  but  a  relic  of  the  past  proclaim  that 

(^iristian  doctrine  in  the  three  theological  virtues,  Augustine's  influence  will  live  forever." 

considering  in  the  mysteries  the  di£ferent  activities        This  genuine  emotion  is  also  the  veil  that  hides 

of  the  som  that  must  Uvo  by  them.    Thus,  in  the  certain  faults  from  the  reader  or  else  makes  him 

incarnation,  he  assigns  the  greatest  part  to  the  moral  oblivious  of  them.    Says  Eucken:  "Never  could  Au- 

side,  to  the  triumph  of  humility.     For  this  reason,  gustine   have   exercised   all    the   influence   he   has 

also,  Augustine's  work  bears  an.  imprint,  \mtil  then  exercised  if  it  had  not  been  that,  in  spite  of  the  rhe- 

unknown,  of  living  personality  peeping  out  every-  torioal  artifice  of  his  utterance,  absolute  sincerity 

where.     He  inaugurates  that  literature  in  which  the  reigned  in  the  inmost  recesses  of  his  soul".   iHis 

author's  individualitv  reveals  itself  in  the  most  ab-  frequent  repetitions  are  excused  because  they  are 

straet  matters,  the  *' Confessions"  being  an  inimitable  the  expression  of  his    deep    feeling.     Scha^  says: 

example  of  it.    It  is  in  this  connexion  that  Hamack    "  His  books,  with  all  the  faults  and  repetitions  of 

admires  the  African  Doctor's  gift  of  psychological  isolated  parts,  are  a  spontaneous  outflow  from  the 

observation  and  a  captivating  facility  for  portraying  marvellous  treasures  of  his  highly-gifted  mind  and 

his  penetrating  observations.    This  talent,  he  says,  his   truly   pious   heart".      (St.   Augustine,    p.   96  ) 

is  toe  secret  of  Augustine's  originality  and  greatness.  But  we  must  also  acknowledge  that  his  passion  i } 

Again,  it  is  this  same  characteristic  that  distinguishes  the  source  of  exaggerations  and  at  times  of  errors 

hSa  from  the  other  Doctors  and  gives  him  ms  own  that  are  fraught  with  real  danger  for  the  inattentive 

^»cial  temperament.    The  practical  side  of  a  ques-  or  badly  disposed  reader.    Out  of  sheer  love  for  Au- 

^on  appealed  to  the  Roman  mind  of  Ambrose,  too,  Justine   certain   theologians   have   endeavoured   to 

but  he  never  rises  to  the  same  heights,  nor  nK>ve8  lustify  all  he  wrote,  to  admire  all,  and  to  proclaim 

the  heart  as  deeply  as  does  his  disciple  of  Milan.     Je-  him  infallible,  but  nothing  could  be  more  detrimental 

Toroe  is  a  more  learned  exe^etist,  better  equipped  in  to  his  glory  than  such  excess  of  praise.    The  reaction 

respect  of  Scriptural  erudition;  he  is  even  purer  in  his  alread]^  referred  to  arises  partly  from  this.    We  must 

style;  but,  despite  his  impetuous  ardour,  he  is  less  recognize  that  the  passion  for  truth  sometimes  fixes 

animated,  less  striking,  tnan  his  correspondent  of  its  attention  too  much  upon  one  side  of  a  complex 

Hippo.  ^  Athanasius,   too,   is  subtile  in  the  meta-  Question;  his  too  absolute  formulse,  lacking  quali- 

physical  analysis  of  dogma,  but  he  does  not  appeal  to  ncation,  false  in  appearance  now  in  one  sense  now 

the  heart  and  take  hold  of  the  soul  like  the  African  in  another.    "The  oratorical  temperament  that  was 

Doctor.    Origen  played  the  part  of  initiator  in  the  his  in  such  a  high  degree ",  says  Becker,  very  truly 

Eastern  Church,  just  as  Augustine  did  in  the  West-  [Revue    d^histoire    ecdieiaatiquej     15    April,     1902, 

em,  but  his  influence,  imfortunate  in  more  ways  p.  379),  "the  kind  of  exaltation  that  befitted  his 

than  one,  was  exercised   rather  in  the  sphere  of  rich  ima^ation  and  his  loving  soul,  are  not  the  most 

speculative   intelligence,   while   that  of   Augustine,  reliable  m  philosophical  speculations".    Such  is  the 

owing  to  the  qualities  of  his  heart,  extended  far  origin  of  the  contradictions  alleged  against  him  and 

beyond  the  realm  of  theology.    Bossuet,  who  of  all  of  the  errors  ascribed  to  him  by  the  predestinarians 

geniuses  most  closely  resemoles  Augustine  by  his  of  all  ages.    Here  we  see  the  r6le  of  the  more  frigid 

eievatwn  and  his  umyersality,  is  his  superior  in  the  minds  of  Scholasticism.     Thomas  Aquinas  was  a 

ddlfulness  and  artistic  finish  of  his  works,  but  he  necessary  corrective  to  Augustine.    He  is  less  great, 

has  not  the  alluring  tenderness  of  soul;  and  if  Au-  less  oripnal,  and,  above  all,  less  animated;  but  the 

gustine  fulminates   less,   he   attracts   more  power-  calm  didactics  of  his  intellectualism  enable  him  to 

fuUy,  subjugating  the  mind  with  gentleness.  castigate   Augustine's   exaggerations   with   rigorous 

Thus  may  Augustine's  universal  influence  in  all  criticism,  to  impart  exactitude  and  precision    to  his 

succeeding  ages  be  explained:  it  is  due  to  combined  terms — in  one  word,  to  prepare  a  dictionary  with 

gifts  of  heart  and  mind.     Speculative  genius  alone  which  the  African   Doator  may  be   read  without 

does  not  sway  the  multitude;  the  Christian  world,  danger. 

apart  from  professional  theologians,  does  not  read        IV.  His  System  op  Grace. — It  is  unquestionably 

Inonias  Ac^uinas.    On  the  other  hand,  without  the  in  the  great  Doctor's  solution  of  the  eternal  problem 

Hear,  defimte  idea  of  dogma,  mysticism  founders  of  frc^om  and  grace — of  the  part  taken  by  God  and 

u  soon  as  reason  awakes  and  discovers  the  empti-  by  man  in  the  affair  of  salvation — ^that  his  thought 

neas  Of  metaphors:  this  is  always  the  fate  of  vague  stands  forth  as  most  personal,  most  powerful,  and 

pietism,  whether  it  recognize  Christ  or  not,  whether  most  disputed.    Most  personal,  for  he  was  the  first 

It  be  extolled  by  Schleiermacher,  Sabatier,  or  their  of  £dl  to  synthesize  the  great  theories  of  the  Fall, 

disciples.     But  to  Augustine's  genius,  at  once  en-  grace,  and  free  will;  and  moreover  it  is  he  who,  to 

H^tened  and  ardent,  the  whole  soul  is  accessible,  reconcile  them  all,  has  furnished  us  with  a  profound 

and  the  whole  Church,  both  teachers  and  taught,  explanation  which  is  in  very  truth  his,  and  of  which 

'^  permeated  by  his  sentiments  and  ideas.    A.  Har-  we  fiind  no  trace  in  his  predecessors.     Hence,  the 

naek,  more  than  an^  other  critic,  admires  and  do-  term  Avgustinism  is  often  exclusively  used  to  desig- 

ambes  Augustine's  influence  over  all   the  life  of  nate  his  system  of  grace.    Most  vorverfuly  for,  as  all 

(^nistian  people.    If  Thomas  Aquinas  is  the  Doctor  admit,  it  was  he  above  all  others  wno  won  the  triumph 

of  the  Schools,  Augustine  is,  according  to  Hamack,  of  libertv  against  the  Manichseans,  and  of  grace 

the  inspirer   and    restorer  of   Christian   piety.     If  against  tne  Pelagians.    His  doctrine  has,  in  the  main, 

Thomas  inspires  the  canons  of  Trent,  Au^^tine,  been  solemnly  accepted  by  the  Church,  and  we  know 

heades   having    formed    Thomas    himself,    inspires  that  the  canons  of  the  Council  of  Orange  are  bor- 

the  inner  life  of  the  Church  and  is  the  soul  of  all  the  rowed  from  his  works.     Most  dismded,  also. — Like 

pttt  reforms  effected  within  its  pale.    In  his  "Es«  St.  Paul,  whose  teachings  he  develops,  he  has  often 

■aiee  erf  CSiriirtianity "   (14th  lesson,  1900,  p.  161)  been  quoted,  often  not  understooa.     Friends  and 

Hanttdc  shows  how  CathoUcs  and  Protestants  live  enemies  have  exploited  his  teaching  in  the  most 

'Toa  xrte  piety  of  Augustine.    "  His  living  has  been  diverse  senses.     It  has  not  been  gasped,  not  only 

feOBKantly  reuved  in  the  course  of  the  fifteen  hun-  by  the  opponents  of  liberty,  and  nence  by  the  Re 


AUCfrtTSTINl  96  AVOUraiNE 

formers  of  the  sixteenth  century,  but  even  to-day,    prepares  efficacious  motives  for  the  will);  and  grace 

by  Protestant  critics  the  most  opposed  to  the  cruel  for  salutary  and  supernatural  acts,  given  with  the 
predestinationism  of  Calvin  and  Luther,  who  father    first  preludes  of  faith.    The  latter  is  the  grace  of  the 

that  doctrine  on  St.  Augustine.    A  tecnnical  study  sons,  gratia  filiorum;  the  former  is  the  grace  of  all 

would  be  out  of  place  here;  it  will  be  sufficient  to  men,  a  grace  which  even  strangers  and  infidels  (filii 

enmiciate  the  most  salient  thoughts,  to  enable  the  concubinarumy  as  St.  Augustine  sa3rs)  can  receive  (De 

reader  to  find  his  bearings.  Patientid,  xxvii,  n.  28). 

(1)  It  is  regarded  as  incontestable  to-day  that  the  (b)  The  second  priuciple|,  the  affirmation  of  liberty 
system  of  Augustine  was  complete  in  his  mind  from  even  under  the  action  of  efficacious  grace,  has  always 
tne  year  397 — that  is,  from  the  beginning  of  his  been  safeguarded,  and  there  is  not  one  of  his  anti- 
episcopate,  when  he  wrote  lis  answers  to  the  "Qufles-  Pelagian  works  even  of  the  latest,  which  does  not 
tiones  Diversse'^of  Simplician.  It  is  to  this  book  that  pocdtively  proclaim  a  complete  power  of  choice  in 
Augustine,  in  his  last  years,  refers  the  Semipelagians  man;  ''not  but  what  i'u  does  not  depend  on  the  free 
for  the  explanation  of  his  real  thought.  This  im-  choice  of  the  will  to  embrace  the  faith  or  reject  it, 
portant  fact,  to  which  for  a  long  time  no  attention  but  in  the  elect  this  will  is  prepared  by  God"  (De 
was  paid,  has  been  recognized  by  Neander  and  es-  Prsedest.  SS.,  n.  10).  The  great  Doctor  did  not  re- 
tablished  by  Gangaut,  and  also  by  recent  critics,  such  proach  the  Pelagians  with  re<juiring  a  power  to 
as  Loofs,  Reuter,  Tunnel,  Jules  Martin  (see  also  choose  between  good  and  evil;  m  fact  he  proclaims 
Cunningham,  St.  Austin,  1886,  pp.  80  and  175).  with  them  that  without  that  power  there  is  no  re- 
It  will  not,  therefore,  be  possible  to  deny  the  authority  sponsibility,  no  merit,  no  demerit;  but  he  reproaches 
of  these  texts  on  the  pretext  that  Augustine  in  his  old  tnem  with  exaggerating  tais  power.  Julian  of 
age  adopted  a  system  more  antagonistic  to  liberty.  Eclanum,  denying  the  sway  of  concupiscence,  con- 

(2)  Tne  system  of  Pelagius  can  to-day  be  better  oeives  free  will  as  a  balance  in  perfect  equilibrium, 
imderstood  than  heretofore.  Pelagius  doubtless  de-  Augustine  protests:  this  absolute  equilibrium  existed 
nied  original  sin,  and  the  immortality  and  integrity  in  Adam;  it  was  destroyed  after  original  sin;  the 
of  Adam;  in  a  word,  the  whole  supernatural  order,  will  has  to  struggle  and  react  against  an  inclination 
But  the  parent  idea  of  his  system,  which  was  of  stoic  to  evil,  but  it  remains  mistress  of  its  choice  iOptis 
origin,  was  nothing  else  than  the  coniplete  "emanci-  imperfectum  contra  Jidiartum,  III,  cxvii).  Thus, 
pation"  of  human  liberty  with  regard  tb  God,  and  when  he  says  that  we  have  lost  freedom  in  conse- 
its  limitless  power  for  good  and  for  evil.  It  depended  auence  of  the  sin  of  Adam,  he  is  careful  to  explain 
on  man  to  attain  by  himself,  without  the  grace  of  tnat  this  lost  freedom  is  not  the  liberty  of  choosing 
God,  a  stoic  impeccability  and  even  insensibility,  or  between  good  and  evil,  because  without  it  we  could 
the  absolute  control  of  his  passions.  It  was  scarcely  not  help  sinning,  but  the  perfect  liberty  which  was 
suspected,  even  up  to  our  time,  what  frightful  calm  and  withotd  stru^Uy  and  which  was  enjoyed 
rigorism  resulted  from  this  exaggeration  of  the  powers  by  Adam  in  virtue  of  his  original  integrity. 

of  liberty.    Since  perfection  was  possible,  it  was  of        But  is  there  not  between  these  two  principles  an 

obligation.    There  was  no  longer  any  distinction  be-  irremediable  antinomy?    On  the  one  hand,  there  is 

tween  precepts  and  counsels.     Whatever  was  good  aflirmed  ail  absolute  and  unreserved  power  in  God 

was  a  duty.    There  was  no  longer  any  distinction  be-  of  directing  the  choice  of  our  will,  of  converting  every 

tween  mortal  &nd  venial  sin.     Every  useless  word  hardened  sinner,  or  of  letting  every  created   will 

merited  hell,  and  even  excluded  from  the  Church  the  harden  itself;  and  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  afiinned 

children  of  God.     All  this  ha«  been  established  by  that  the  rejection  or  acceptance  of  grace  or  of  tempta- 

hitherto  unedited  documents  which  Caspar!  haspub-  tion  depends  on  our  free  will.    Is  not  this  a  contra- 

lished  (Briefe,  Abhandlungen,  und  Predigten,  Cnris-  diction?    Very  many  modem  critics,  among  whom 

tiania,  1890).  are  Loofs  and  Hamack,  have  considered  these  two 

(3)  The  system  of  St.  Augustine  in  opposition  to  affirmations  as  irreconcilable.  But  it  is  because, 
this  rests  on  three  fundamental  principles:  (a)  God  according  to  them,  Augustinian  ^race  is  an  irresistible 
is  absolute  Master,  by  His  grace,  of  all  tne  determina-  impulse  given  by  God,  just  as  in  the  absence  of  it 
tions  of  the  will;  (b)  man  remains  free,  under  the  every  temptation  inevitably  overcomes  the  will, 
action  of  grace;  (c)  the  reconciliation  of  these  two  But  in  reality  all  antinomy  disappears  if  we  ba\'e 
truths  rests  on  the  manner  of  the  Divine  eovemment.  the  key  of  the  system;  and  this  key  is  found  in  the 

(a)  The  first  principle,' viz.,  that  of  the  absolute  third  principle:  the  Augustinian  explanation  of  the 

sovereignty  of  God  over  the  will,  in  opposition  to  the  Divine  government  of  wills,  a  theory  so  original,  so 

emancipation  of  Pelagius,  has  not  always  been  un-  profound,  and  yet  absolutely  unknown  to  the  most 

derstood  in  its  entire  significance.     We  think  that  perspicacious     critics,    Hamack,    Loofs,    and     the 

numberless  texts  of  the  holy  Doctor  signify  that  not  rest. 

only  does  every  meritorious  act  require  supernatural        Here  are  the  main  lines  of  this  theory:  The  will 

grace,  but  also  that  every  act  of  virtue,  even  of  never  decides  without  a  motive,  without" the  attrac- 

infidels,  should  be  ascribed  to  a  gift  of  God,  not  in-  tion  of  some  good  which  it  perceives  in  the  object. 

deed  to  a  supernatural  grace   (as  Baius  and  the  Now,  although  the  will  may  be  free  in  presence  of 

Jansenists  pretend),  but  to  a  specially  efficacious  every  motive,  still,  as  a  matter  of  fact  it  takes  diC- 

providence  which  has  prepared  this  good  movement  ferent  resolutions  according  to  the  different  motives 

of  the  will  (Retractations,  I,  ix,  n.  6).    It  is  not,  as  presented  to  it.    In  that  is  the  whole  secret  of  the 

theologians  very  wisely  remark,  that  the  will  cannot  influence  exercised,  for  instance,  by  eloquence   (the 

accomplish  that  act  of  natural  virtue,  but  it  is  a  orator  can  do  no  more  than  present  motives),   by 

fact  that  without  this  providential  benefit  it  wovld  meditation,  or  by  good  reading.    What  a  power  over 

not.     Many  misunderstandings  have  arisen  because  the  will  would  not  a  man  possess  who  could,  at  his 

this  principle  has  not  been  comprehended,  and  in  own  pleasure,  at  any  moment,  and  in  the    niost 

particular  tne  great  medieval  theology,  which  adopted  striking  manner,  present  this  or  the  other  motive 

it  and  made  it  the  basis  of  its  system  of  liberty,  has  of  action? — But  such  is  God's  privilege.     St.    Au- 

not  been  justly  appreciated.     But  many  have  been  gustine  has  remarked  that  man  is  not  the  master  of 

afraid  of  these  affirmations  which  are  so  sweeping,  his  first  thoughts;  he  can  exert  an  influence  on  the 

because  they  have  not  grasped  the  nature  of  God  s  course  of  his  reflexions,  but  he  himself  cannot*  de^ 

gift,  which  leaves  freedom  intact.    The  fact  has  been  termine  the  objects,  the  images,  and,  consequently, 

too  much  lost  sight  of  that  Augustine  distinguishes  the  motives  which  present  themselves  to  his  mind. 

very  explicitly  two  orders  of  grace:  the  grace  of  Now,  as  chance  is  only  a  word,  it  is  God  who  detei^ 

natural  virtues  (the  simple  gift  of  Providence,  which  mines  at  His  pleasure  these  first  perceptions  of 


aither  by  the  prepared  providential  action  of  exteri6r  sic  eum  vocat,  quomodo  scit  ei  congniere  ut  vocantert 
eauaes,  or  interiorly  by  a  Divine  illumination  given  non  respuat"  (op.  cit.,  I,  q.  ii,  n.  2, 12, 13). 
tothesoiil. — Let  us  take  one  last  step  with  Augustine:  Is  there  in  this  a  vestige  of  an  irresistible  grace  or 
Not  only  does  God  send  at  His  pleasure  those  at-  of  that  impulse  against  which  it  is  impossible  to 
^active  motives  which  inspire  the  will  with  its  de-  fyht,  forcing  some  to  good,  and  others  to  sin  and  hell? 
tenninations,   but,   before  choosing  between   these  It  cannot  be  too  often  repeated  that  this  is  not  an 
fliuminations  of  the  natural  and  the  supernatural  idea  flung  off  in  passing,  but  a  fimdamental  explana- 
order,  God  knows  the  response  which  the  sotdj  with  tion  which  if  not  understood  leaves  us  in  the  im- 
dlfreedonij  will  make  to  each  of  them.    Thus,  in  the  possibility   of  grasping   anything   of  his   doctrine; 
Divine  knowledge,  there  is  for  each  created  will  an  but  if  it  is  seiz^  Atigustine  entertains  no  feelings  of 
indefinite  series  ot  motives  which  de  facto  (but  very  uneasiness  on  the  score  of  freedom.    In  fact  he  sup- 
freely)  win  the  <x>nsent  to  what  is  good.    God,  there-  poses  freedom  everywhere,  and  reverts  incessantly 
fore,  can,  at  His  pleasure,  obtain  the  salvation  of  to  that  knowledge  on  God's  part  which  precedes 
Judas,  if  He  wishes,  or  let  Peter  go  down  to  perdition,  predestination,  directs  it,  and  assures  its  mfallible 
No  freedom,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  will  resist  what  He  result.    In  the  "De  Dono  perseverantiae"  (xvii,  n.  42), 
has  planned,  although  it  always  keeps  the  power  of  written  at  the  end  of  his  life,  he  explains  the  whole 
going  to  perdition.    Consequently,  it  is  God  alone,  of  predestination  by  the  choice  of  the  vocation  which 
in  His  perfect  independence,  who  determines,  by  the  is  foreseen  as  efficacious.     Thus  is  explained  the 
choice  of  such  a  motive  or  such  an  inspiration  (of  chief  part  attributed  to  that  external  providence 
which  he  knows  the  future  influence),  whether  the  which  prepares,  by  ill  health,  by  warnings,  etc.,  the 
will  is  going  to  decide  for  good  or  for  evil.    Hence,  good  thoughts  which  it  knows  will  bring  about  good 
the  man  who  has  acted  well  must  thank  God  for  resolutions.      Finally,    this   explanation   alone   nar- 
having  sent  him  an  inspiration  which  was  foreseen  monizes  with  the  moral  action  which  he  attributes 
to  be  efficacious,  while  that  favour  has  been  denied  to  victorious  grace.    Nowhere  does  Augustine  repre- 
to  another.    A  fortiori ^  every  one  of  the  elect  owes  sent  it  as  an  irresistible  impulse  impressed  by  the 
it  to  the  EKvine  goodness  alone  that  he  has  received  stronger  on  the  weaker.    It  is  always  an  appeal,  an 
a  series  of  graces  which  God  saw  to  be  infallibly,  invitation  which   attracts   and  seeks   to   persuade, 
though  freely,  bound  up  with  final  perseverance.  He  describes  this  attraction,  which  is  without  violence, 
Assuredly   we   may   reject   this   theory,   for   the  under  the  graceful  image  of  dainties  offered  to  a 
Cbureh,  which  always  maintains  the  two  principles  child,  green  leaves  offered  to  a  sheep  (In  Joannem, 
oftheabeolutedependenceof  the  will  and  of  freedom,  tract,  xxvi,  n.  5).     And  always  the  infallibility  of 
has  not  yet  adopted  as  its  own  this  reconciliation  of  the  result  is  assured  by  the  Divine  knowledge  wnich 
the  two  extremes.    We  may  ask  where  and  how  God  directs  the  choice  of  the  invitation, 
knows  the  effect  of  these  graces.     Augustine  has  (4)  The  Au^ustinian  predestination   presents  no 
always  affirmed  the  fact;  he  has  never  inquired  about  new  difficulty  if  one  has  understood  the  function  of 
the  mode;  and  it  is  here  that  Molinism  has  added  to  this  Divine  knowledge  in  the  choice  of  graces.    The 
and  developed  his  thoughts,  in  attempting  to  answer  problem  is  reduced  to  this:  Does  God  in  his  creative 
this  question.     But  can  tne  thinker,  who  created  decree  and,  before  any  act  of  human  liberty,  deter* 
and  until  his  dying  day  maintained  this  system  which  mine  by    an  immutable  choice  the  elect  and  the 
is  80  logically  concatenated,  be  accused  of  fatalism  reprobate? — Must  the  elect  during  eternity  thank 
and  Mimichseism?  God  only  for  having  rewarded  their  merits,  or  must 
It  remains  to  be  shown  that  our  interpretation  they  also  thank  Him  for  having,  prior  to  any  merit  on 
exactly  reproduces  the  thought  of  the  great  Doctor,  their  part,  chosen  them  to  the  meriting  of  this  reward? 
The  texts  (indicated  in  Vacant 's  "Diet,  de  th^ologie  One  system,  that  of  the  Semipelagians,  decides  in 
catholique",  I,  col.  2390  sqq.)  are  too  numerous  favour  of  man:  God  predestines  to  salvation  all  alike, 
and  too  long  to  be  reproduced  here.     But  there  is  and  gives  to  all  an  equal  measure  of  grace;  human 
one  work  of  Augustine,  dating  from  the  year  397,  in  liberty  alone  decides  whether  one  is  lost  or  saved; 
which  he  clearly  explains  his  thought — a  work  which  from  which  we  must  logically  conclude  (and  they 
he  not  only  did  not  disavow  later  on,  but  to  which  really  insinuated  it)  that  the  number  of  the  elect  ^A 
in  particular  he  referred,  at  the  end  of  his  career,  not  fixed  or  certain.     The  opposite  system,  that 
those  of  his  readers  who  were  troubled  by  his  con-  of  the  Predestinationists  (the  Semipelagians  falsely 
stant  affirmation  of  grace.     For  example,  to  the  ascribed  this  view  to  the  Doctor  of  Hippo),  affirms 
monks  of  Adrumetum   who   thought   that   liberty  not  only  a  privileged  choice  of  the  elect  by  God, 
was  irreconcilable  with  this  affirmation,  he  addressed  but  at  the  same  time  (a)  the  predestination  of  the 
a  copy  of  this  book  "De  Diversis  cjusestionibus  ad  reprobate  to  hell  and  (b)  the  absolute  powerlessness 
Simphcianum ",  feeling  sure  that  their  doubts  would  of  one  or  the  other  to  escape  from  tne  irresisttble 
be  dissipated.     There,  in  fact,  he  formulates  his  imf^lse  which  drags  them  either  to  good  or  to  eviL 
thoughts  with  great  clearness,    oimplician  had  asked  This  is  the  system  of  Calvin. 

how  he  should  imderstand  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  Between  these  two  extreme  opinions  Augustine 

ix,  on  the  predestination  of  Jacob  and  Esau.    Au-  formulated    (not    invented)    the    Catholic    dogma, 

rlne  first  lays  down  the  fundamental  principle  of  which  affirms  these  two  truths  at  the  same  time: 

Paul,  that  every  good  will  comes  from  grace^  so  (a)  the  eternal  choice  of  the  elect  by  God  is  very 

that  no  man  can  take  glory  to  himself  for  his  merits,  real,  very  gratuitous,  and  constitutes  the  grace  of 

and  this  grace  is  so  sure  of  its  results   that  human  graces;  (b)  but  this  decree  does  not  destroy  the  Divine 

liberty  wm  never  in  reality  resist  it,  although  it  has  will  to  save  all  men,  which,  moreover,  is  not  realized 

the  power  to  do  so.    Then  he  aflirms  that  this  effica-  except  by  the  human  liberty  that  leaves  to  the  elect 

dotu  grace  is  not  necessary  for  us  to  he  able  to  act  weU^  full  power  to  fall  and  to  the  non-elect  full  power  to 

but  because,  in  fact,  without  it  we  would  not  wish  to  rise.     Here  is  how  the  theory  of  St.   Augustine, 

«d  weU.    From  that  arises  the  great  difficulty:  How  already  explained,  forces  us  to  conceive  of  the  Divine 

doei  the  power  of  resisting  grace  fit  in  with  the  cer-  decree:  Before  all  decision  to  create  the  world,  the 

tainty  of  the  result?    And  it  is  here  that  Augustine  infinite  knowledge  of  God  presents  to  Him  all  the 

replie*:  There  are  many  ways  of  inviting  faith.    Souls  graces,  and  different  series  of  graces,  which  He  can 

beme  differently  disposed,  God  knows  what  invitation  prepare  for  each  soul,  along  with  the  consent  or  re- 

1BWM  aceeptedf  wiiat  other  will  not  be  accepted,  fusal  which  would  follow  in  each  circumstance,  and 

Okihr  those  are  the  elect  for  whom  God  chooses  the  that  in  millions  and  millions  of  possible  combinations. 

rantetlon  which  is  foreseen  to  be  efficacious,  but  Thus  He  sees  that  if  Peter  had  received  such  another 

God  eoaid  convert  them  all:  "Cujus  autem  miseretur,  grace,  he  would  not  have  been  converted;  and  if  on 

n.— 7 


AUOUSTINI  98  AUOUSTUX 

the  contrary  such  another  Divine  appeal  had  been  of  men  to  His  graces.   If,  then,  the  lists  are  definitive, 

heard  in  the  heart  of  Judas,  he  would  have  done  if  no  one  will  pass  from  one  series  to  the  other,  it  is 

penance  and  been  saved.    Thus,  for  each  man  in  not  because  anyone  cannot  (on  the  ccmtrary,  all  can), 

particular  there  are  in  the  thought  of  God,  limitless  it  is  because  God  knew  with  infallible  knowledge  that 

possible  histories,  some  histories  of  virtue  and  sal-  no  one  would  wish  to.    Thus  I  cannot  effect  that  God 

vation,  others  of  crime  and  damnation;  and  God  will  should  destine  me  to  another  series  of  graces  than  that 

be  free  in  choosing  such  a  world,  such  a  series  of  which  He  has  fixed,  but,  with  this  grace,  if  I  do  not 

graces,  and  in  determining  the  future  history  and  save  myself  it  will  not  be  because  I  am  not  able,  but 

final  destiny  of  each  souL    And  this  is  precisely  what  because  I  do  not  wish  to. 

He  does  when,  among  all  possible  worlds,  by  an        Such  are  the  two  essential  elements  of  Augustiniao 

absolutely  free  act,  He  decides  to  realize  the  actual  and  Catholic  predestination.     This  is  the  dogma 

world  with  all  the  circumstances  of  its  historic  evo-  common  to  all  the  schools,  and  formulated  by  all 

lutions,  with  all  the  graces  which  in  fact  have  been  theologians:  predestination  in  its  entirety  is  abeoitUely 

and  will  be  distributed  until  the  end  of  the  world,  qratuitoue^  (ante  merita).    We  have  to  insist  on  this, 

and  consequently  with  all  the  elect  and  all  the  repro-  because  many  have  seen  in  this  immutable  and 

bate  who  God  foresaw  would  be  in  it  if  de  facto  He  gratuitous  choice  only  a  hard   thesis  peculiar  to 

created  it.  St.  Augustine,  whereas  it  is  pure  dogma  (barring  the 

Now  in  the  Divine  decree,  according  to  Augustine,  mode  of  conciliation,  which  the  Church  still  leaves 

and  according  to  the  (Ilatholic  Faith  on  this  point,  free).     With  that  established,  the  long  debates  of 

which  has  been  formulated  by  him,  the  two  elements  theologians  on  special  predestination  to  glory  ante  or 

pointed  out  above  appear:    (a)  The    certain    and  poet  merita  are  tar  from  having  the  importance  that 

gratuitous  choice,  of  the  elect — God  decreeing,  indeed,  some  attach  to  them.     (For  a  fuller  treatment  of 

to  create  the  world  and  to  give  it  such  a  series  of  this  subtile  problem  see  the  ''Diet,  de  th^l.  cath.,  I, 

graces  with  such  a  concatenation  of  circumstances  coll.  2402  sqc^.)    I  do  not  think  St.  Augustine  entered 

as  should  bring  about  freely,  but  infallibly,  such  that  debate;  m  his  time,  only  dogma  was  in  question, 

and  such  results  (for  example,  the  despair  of  Judas  But  it  does  not  seem  historically  permissible  to  main- 

and  the  repentance  of  Peter),  decides,  at  the  same  tain,  as   many  writers  have,  that  Augustine   first 

time,  the  name,  the  place,  the  number  of  the  citizens  taught  the  milder  system  (post  merita) ,  up  to  the  year 

of  the  future  heavenly  Jerusalem.     The  choice  is  416  (In  Joan,  evang.,  tract,  xii,  n.  12),  and  that 

immutable:  the  Ust  closed.     It  is  evident,  indeed,  afterwards,  towards  418,  he  shifted  his  ground  and 

that  only  tnose  of  whom  (jod  knows  beforehand  that  went  to  the  extreme  of  harsh  assertion,  amounting 

they  win  wish  to  co-operate  with  the  grace  decreed  even  to  predestinationism.     We  repeat,  the  facts 

by  Him  will  be  saved.    It  is  a  gratuitous  choice,  the  absolutely  refute  this  view.    The  ancient  texts,  even 

gift  of  gifts,  in  virtue  of  which  even  our  merits  are  a  of  397,  are  as  affirmative  and  as  categorical  as  those 

gratuitous  benefit,  a  gift  which  precedes  all  our  of  his  last  years,  as  critics  like  Loofs  and  Renter  have 

merits.    No  one,  in  fact,  is  able  to  merit  this  election,  shown.    If ^  therefore,  it  is  shown  that  at  that  time 

God  could,  among  other  possible  worlds,  have  chosen  he  inclined  to  the  milder  opinion,  there  is  no  reason 

one  in  wnich  other  series  of  graces  would  have  to  think  that  he  did  not  persevere  in  that  sentiment, 
brought  about  other  results.     He  saw  combinations        (5)  The  part  which  Augustine  had  in  the  doctrine 

in  which  Peter  would  have  been  impenitent  and  Judas  of  Original  Sin  has  been  brought  to  light  and  deter- 

con verted.    Itns  therefore  prior  to  anv  merit  of  Peter,  mined  only  recently. 

or  any  fault  of  Judas,  that  God  decided  to  five  them  In  the  first  place,  it  is  no  longer  possible  to  maintain 
the  graces  which  saved  Peter  and  not  Juoas.  God  seriously,  as  was  formerly  the  fashion  (even  among 
does  not  wish  to  give  paradise  gratuiiously  to  any  on^;  certain  Catholics,  like  Richard  Simon),  that  Augus- 
but  He  gives  very  gratuOoudy  to  Peter  the  graces  tine  invented  in  the  Church  the  hitherto  unknown 
with  which  He  laiows  Peter  will  be  saved. — Mys-  doctrine  of  original  sin,  or  at  least  was  the  first  to 
terious  choice!  Not  that  it  interferes  with  liberty,  introduce  the  idea  of  pimishment  and  sin.  Domer 
but  because  to  this  question:  Why  did  not  God,  himself  (Augustinus,  p.  146)  disposed  of  this  asser- 
seeing  that  another  grace  would  have  saved  Judas,  tion,  which  lacks  verisimilitude.  In  this  doctrine 
give  it  to  him?  Faith  can  only  answer,  with  Angus-  of  the  primal  fall  Augustine  distinguished,  with 
tine:  O  Mystery!  O  Altitudo!  (De  Spiritu  et  litterA,  greater  insistency  and  clearness  than  his  predecessors, 
xxxiv,  n.  60). — (b)  But  this  decree  includes  also  the  the  punishment  and  the  sin — the  chastisement  which 
second  element  of  the  Catholic  dogma:  the  very  sin-  strips  the  children  of  Adam  of  all  the  original  privi- 
cere  will  of  God  to  give  to  all  men  the  power  of  leges — and  the  fault,  which  consists  in  this,  that 
saving  themselves  ana  the  power  of  damning  them-  the  crime  of  Adam,  the  cause  of  the  fall  is,  without 
selves.  According  to  Augustine,  God,  in  his  creative  having  been  committed  personall^r  by  his  children, 
decree,  has  expressly  excluded  every  order  of  things  nevertheless  in  a  certain  measure  imputed  to  them, 
in  which  grace  would  deprive  man  of  his  liberty,  in  virtue  of  the  moral  union  established  by  God  be- 
every  situation  in  which  man  would  not  have  the  tween  the  head  of  the  human  family  and  his  de- 
power  to  resist  sin,  and  thus  Augustine  brushes  scendants. 

aside  that  predestinationism  which  has  been  attrib-  To  pretend  that  in  this  matter  Augustine  waa  an 
uted  to  him.  Listen  to  him  speaking  to  the  Manich-  innovator,  and  that  before  him  the  Fathers  afifirmed 
scans:  ''AH  can  be  saved  if  they  wish";  and  in  his  the  punishment  of  the  sin  of  Adam  in  lus  sons,  but 
"Retractations"  (I,  x),  far  from  correcting  this  as-  did  not  speak  of  the  fault,  is  a  historical  error  now 
sertion,  he  confirms  it  emphatically:  ''It  is  true,  proved  to  demonstration.  We  may  discuss  the 
entirely  true,  that  all  men  can,  if  they  wish".  But  thought  of  this  or  that  pre-Au^pstinian  Father,  but, 
he  always  goes  back  to  the  providential  preparation,  taking  them  as  a  whole,  there  is  no  room  for  doubt. 
In  his  sermons  he  says  to  all:  "It  depends  on  you  The  Protestant  R.  Seeberg  (Lehrbuch  der  Dog- 
to  be  elect"  (In  Ps.  cxx.  n.  11,  etc.):  "Who  are  the  mengeschichte,  I,  p.  256),  after  the  example  of 
elect? — You,  if  you  wish  it"  (In  Ps.  Ixxiii,  n.  5).  many  others,  proclaims  it  by  referring  to  TertuUian, 
But,  you  will  say,  according  to  Augustine,  the  lists  CJommodian,  St.  Cyprian,  and  St.  Ambrose.  The 
of  the  elect  and  reprobate  are  closed.  Now  if  the  expressions,  faidtt  sin,  stain  (culpa,  peccatum,  tnaciUa) 
non-elect  can  gain  heaven,  if  all  the  elect  can  be  lost,  are  repeated  in  a  way  to  dispel  all  doubt.  The  truth 
why  should  not  some  pass  from  one  list  to  the  other?  is  that  original  sin,  while  being  sin,  is  of  a  nature  es- 
You  forget  the  celebrated  explanation  of  Augustine:  sentially  different  from  other  faults,  and  does  not 
When  God  made  His  plan.  He  knew  infallibly,  before  exact  a  personal  act  of  the  will  of  the  children  of  Adam 
His  choice,  what  would  be  the  response  of  tne  wills  in  order  to  be  responsible  for  the  fault  of  their  father. 


AUauSTIinB                              99  AUOUBTINX 

wbieh  is  morally  imputed  to  them,    Coiise^ueutly,  it  was  one  of  his  disciples,  Gregory  the  Great,  who, 

the  Fathers— the  Greeks  especially — have  ii^isted  on  after  being  formed  in  his  sdiool,  popularized  his 

its  penal  and  afflictive  character,  which  is  most  in  theories.     The  r61e  of  Origen,  who  engrafted  neo- 

evidence,  while  Augustine  was  led  by  the  polemics  Platonism  on  the  Christian  schools  of  the  East,  was 

(rf  the  Pelagians  (and  only  by  them)  to  lay  emphasis  that  of  Augustine  in  the  West,  with  the  difference, 

on  the  mom  aspect  of  the  fault  of  the  human  race  however,  that  the  Bishop  of  Hippo  was  better  able 

in  its  first  father.  to  detacn  the  truths  of  Platonism  from  the  dreams 

With  regard  to  Adam's  state  before  the  fall  Au-  of  Oriental  imagination.    Hence,  a  current  of  Platonic 

gustine  not  only  afi&rmed,  a^nst  Pela^us,  the  gifts  ideas  was  started  which  will  never  cease  to  act  upon 

of  inunortality,    impassibility,    integrity,    freedom  Western  thought.     This  influence  shows  itself  in 

from  error,  ami,  above  all,  the  sanctifying  grace  of  various  ways.    It  is  found  in  the  compilers  of  this 

Divine  adoption,  but  he  emphasized  )ts  absolutely  period,  who  are  so  numerous  and  so  well  deserving 

gratuitous  and  supernatural  character.     Doubtless,  of  reo^nition — such  as  Isidore,  Bede,  Alcuin — who 

considenne  the  matter  historically  and  de  facto,  it  drew  abundantly  from  the  works  of  Augustine,  just 

was  only  tne  sin  of  Adam  that  inflicted  death  on  us —  as  did  the  preachers  of  the  sixth  century,  and  nota- 

Au£ustme  repeats  it  again  and  ag^in — because  God  bly  St.  Cse^rius.    In  the  controversies,  especially  in 

hid  safeguarded  us  against  the  law  of  our  nature,  the  great  disputes  of  the  ninth  and  twelfth  centuries 

But  de  jwre  neither  immortality  nor  the  other  ^aces  on  the  vahdity  of  Simoniacal  ordinations,  the  text  of 

were  our  due,  and  Augustine  recognized  this  m  af-  Augustine  plays  the  principal  part.    Carl  Mirbt  has 

finning  that  God  could  have  made  the  condition  in  published  on  this  point  a  very  interesting  study: 

which  we  were  actually  bom    the  primitive  cour  ''Die  Stellune  Augustins  in  der  Publizistik  des  gre- 

dition  of  our  first  parents.     That  assertion  alone  gorianischenlurohenstreits"  (Leii)zig,  1888).    In  the 

is  the  very  reverse  of  Jansenism.    It  is,  moreover,  pre-Thomistic  period  of  Scholasticism,  then  in  process 

formally  confirmed  in  the  ''Retractations"  (I,  ix,  of  formation,  namely,  from  Anselm  to  Albert  the 

D-  6).  Great,  Augustine  is  the  great  inspirer  of  all  the  mas- 

(6)  Does  this  mean  that  we  must  praise  every-  ters,  such  as  Anselm,  Aoelard,  Hugo  of  St.  Victor, 

thing  in  St.  Augustine's  explanation  of  grace?— Cer-  who  is  called  by  his  contemporaries,  another  Angus- 

tainly  not.     And  we  shall  note  the  improvements  tine,  or  even  the  soul  of  Augustine.    And  it  is  proper 

made  by  the  Church,  through  her  doctors,  in  the  to  remark,  with  Cunningham  (Saint  Austin,  p.  178), 

original  Augustinism.    Some  exaggerations  have  been  that  from  the  time  of  Anselm  the  cult  of  Augustinian 

abandoned,  as,  for  instance,  the  condemnation  to  ideas  exercised  an  eiK)rmous  influence  on  English 

M  of  children  dyine  without  baptism.    Obscure  and  thought  in  the  Middle  Ages.    As  regards  Peter  Ix)m- 

ambiguous  formuise  nave  been  eliminated.    We  must  bard,  his  Sentences  are  little  else  than  an  effort  to 

say  iraokly  that  Augustine's  literary  method   of  synthesize  the  Augustinian  theories. 

^phasizing  his  thought  by  exaggerated  expressions.  While  they  do  not  form  a  system  as  rigidly  bound 

isuing  in  troublesome  paradoxes,  has  often  obscurea  together  as  Thomism,  yet  Father  Mandonnet  (in  his 

^  doctrine,  aroused  opposition  in  manv  minds,  or  learned  study  of  Siger  de  Brabant^  and  M.  de  Wulf 

led  them  into  error.    Also,  it  is  above  all  important,  (on  Gilles  de  Lessines)  have  bee^  able  to  group  these 

in  order  to  comprehend  his  doctrine,  to  oompile  theories  together.    Aiul  here  let  us  present  a  summary 

an  Augustinian  dictionary,  not  a  priori,  but  after  sketch  of  those  theses  regarded  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 

^  objective  study  of  his  texts.    The  work  would  be  tury  as  Augustinian,  and  over  which  the  battle  was 

long  and  laborious,   but  how  many  prejudices  it  fought.    First,  the  fusion  of  theology  and  philosophy; 

would  dispel !  the  preference  given  to  Plato  over  Aristotle — the 

The  Protestant  historian  Ph.  Schaff  (St.  Augustine,  latter  representing  rationalism,  which  was  mistrusted, 

P-  102)  writes:  "Tl^  great  genius  of  the  African  whilst  the  idealism  of  Plato  exerted  a  strong  attrac- 

umrch,  from  whom  the  Middle  Ages  and  the  Refor-  tion — ^wisdom  regarded  rather  as  the  philosophy  of 

mation  have  received  an  impul^  alike  powerful,  the  Good  than  the  phUosophv  of  the  True.     As  a 

•  though  in  different  directions,  has  not  vet  fulfilled  oonsequence,  the  disciples  of  Augustine  always  have 

the  work  markedoutiior  him  in  the  counsels  of  Divine  a  pronoimced  tinge  of  mysticism,  while  the  disciples 

Wisdom.    He  serves  as  a  bond  of  union  betweep  the  of  St.  Thomas  may  be  recognized   by  their  very 

tvo  antagonistic  sections  of  Western  (Christendom ,  accentuated    intelleotualism.      In    psychology    the 

and  encourages  the  hope  that  a  time  mav  come  when  illuminating  and  immediate  action  of  God  is  the 

ihe  mjustice  and  bitterness  of  strife  will  be  forgiven  origin  of  our  intellectual  knowledge  (at  times  it  is 

^forgotten,'andthediscordsof  the  past  be  drowned  pure  ontologism);  and  the  faculties  of  the  soul  are 

forever  in  ihe  sweet  harmonies  of  perfect  knowledge  made  subsULntially  identical  with   the  soul  itself. 

^  perfect  love".    May  this  drea^n  be  realized!  They  are  its  functions,  and  not  distinct  entities  (a 

V.  AuGUBTiNiaM  IN  liiSTORY. — The  influence  of  thesis  which  was  to  keep  its  own  partisans  in  the 

the  Doctor  of  Hippo  has  been  so  exceptional  in  the  Scholasticism  of  the  future  and  to  be  adopted  by 

Qiureh,  that,    after   having   indicated   its  general  Descartes):  the  soul  is  a  substance  even  without  the 

characteristjcs  (see  above),  it  is  proper  to  indicate  body,  so  tnat  after  death,  it  is  trulv  a  person.    In 

^  principal  phases  of  the  historical  development  of  coonology,  besides  the  celebrated  thesis  of  raiiones 

^  doctrine.     The  word  A,tigu9tini9m  designates  at  aeminaU^,  which  some  have  recentlv  attempted  to 

rimes  the  entire  group  of  philosophical  doctrines  of  interpret  in  favour  of  evolutionism,  Augustinism  ad- 

^ngvistine,  at  others,  it  is  restrict^  to  his  system  of  mitted  the  multiplicitv  of  substantial  forms  in  com- 

pace.  Hence,  (1)  philosophieal  Augustinism;  (2)  the-  pound  beings,  especially  in  man.    But  especially  in 

ojogical  Au^pistinism  on  grace;  (3)  laws  which  gov-  the  impossibility  of   creation  ab  cetemOf  or  the  es- 

cnied  the  nutimtion  of  Augustinism.  sentially  temporal  character  of  every  creature  which 

(1)  Philo9Qpnical  Aypuftiniam, — ^In  the  history  of  is  subject  to  chan^,  we  have  one  of  the  idecus  of 

(wMophical  Augustinkm  we  may  distinguish  tnree  Augustine  which  his  disciples  defended  with  greater 

^^(hstinct  phases.    First,  the  period  of  its  almost  constancy  and,  it  would  appear,  with  greater  success. 

cxawive  triumph  in  the  West,  up  to  the  thirteenth  A  second  period  of  veiy  active  struggles  came  in 

^e&tvy.    During  the  long  ages  which  were  darkened  the  thirteentn  century,  and  this  has  onl^  lately  been 

hy^the  invasion  of  the  barbarians,  but  which  were  recognized.     Renan  (Averroes,  p.  259)  and  others 

ikercrtlieleas  burdened  with  the  responsibility  of  safe-  believed  that  the  war  against  Tnomism,  which  was 

Sttnfatg  the  sciences  of  the  future,  we  may  say  that  just  then  beginning,  was  caused  by  the  infatuation 

AOgntine  was  the  Great  Master  of  the  West.    He  of  the  Franciscans  for  Averroism;  but  if  the  Fran- 

*■!  ftbiolatdy  without  a  rivals  or  if  there  was  one,  ciscan  Order  showed  itself  on  the  whole  opposed  to 


AUOUBTINS  100  AUaUBTm 

8t.  Thomas,  it  was  simply  from  a  certain  horror  at  solemnly  promulgated  at  Orange,  and  ^ve  theii 

philosophical  innovations  and  at  the  neglect  of  Au-  consecration  to  tne  triumph  of  Augustinism  (529). 

eustinism.    The  doctrinal  revolution  brought  about  In  the  ninth  century,  a  new  victory  was  gained  ovei 

Dv  Albert  the  Great  and  Thomas  Aquinas  in  favour  the  predestinationism  of  Gottschalk  in  the  assem- 

ot  Aristotle  startled  the  old  School  of  Augustinism  blies  of  Savonni&res  and  Toucy   (859-860).     The 

among  the  Dominicans  as  well  as  among  the  Francis-  doctrine  of  the  Divine  will  to  save  all  men  and  the 

cans,  but  especially  among  the   latter,  who  were  universality  of  redemption  was  thus  consecrated  by 

the  disciples  of  the  eminent  Augustinian  doctor,  St.  the  public  teaching  of  the  Church.    In  the  Middle 

Bonaventure.    This  will  explain  the  condemnations.  Ages  these  two  truths  are  developed  by  the  great 

hitherto  little  understood,  of  many  propositions  of  Doctors  of  the  Church.    Faithful  to  the  principles  of 

St.  Thomas  Aquinas  three  years  after  his  death,  on  Augustinism,  they  place  in  especial  relief  his  theory 

the  7th  of  March,  1277,  by  the  Bishop  of  Paris,  and  on  Divine  Providence,  which  prepares  at  its  pleasure 

on  the  18th  of  March,  1277,  by  the  Archbishopof  the  determinations  of  the  will  by  exterior  events  and 

Canterbury,  Robert  Kilwardby,  a  Dominican.    The  interior  inspirations. 

Augustinian  school  represented  tradition;  Thomism.        In  the  fourteenth  century  a  strong  current  of 
progress.    The  censure  of  1277  was  the  last  victory  ot  predestinationism  is  evident.    To-day  it  is  admitted 
a  too  rigid  Augustinism.    The  happy  fusion  of  the  that  the  origin  of  this  tendency  goes  back  to  Thomas 
two  methods  in  the  two  orders  of  Franciscans  and  Bradwardin,  a  celebrated  professor  of  Oxford,  who 
Dominicans  little  by  little  brought  about  an  agree-  died  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (1349),  and  whom 
ment  on  certain  points  without  excluding  differences  the  best  critics,  along  with  Loofs  and  Hamack, 
on  others  which  were  yet  obscure  (as,  K)r  instance,  recognize  to  have  been  the  inspirer  of  Wyclif  himself, 
the  unity  or  the  multiplicity  of  forms),  at  the  same  His  book  ''De  causd  Dei  contra  Pelagium"  gave  rise 
time  that  it  made  for  process  in  all  the  schools,  in  Paris  to  disputes  on  Augustinian  "predeterminar 
We  know  that  the  canomzation  of  St.  Thomas  caused  tion",  a  word  which,  it  huEul  been  thought,  was  in- 
the    withdrawal    of    the    condemnations    of    Paris  vented  by  Banes  in  the  sixteenth  century.    In  spite 
(14  February,  1325).    Moreover,  the  wisdom  or  the  of  the  opposition  of  theologians,  the  idea  of  absolute 
moderation  of  the  new  school  contributedpower-  determinism   in  the  name   of   St.   Augustine  was 
fully  to  its  triumph.   Albert  the  Great  and  St.  Thomas,  adopted  by  Wyclif  (1324-87),  who  formulated  his 
far  from  being  adversaries  of  St.  Augustine,  as  they  universal  fatalism,  the  necessity  of  Kood  for  the  eleci 
were  reported  to  be,  placed  themselves  in  his  school,  and  of  evil  for  the  rest.    He  fancied  that  he  found  in 
and  while  modifying  certain  theories,  took  over  into  the   Aug^tinian   doctrine   the   Strang   conception 
their  system  the  doctrine  of  the  African  bishop,  which  TOcame  for  him  a  central  doctnne  that  over- 
How  many  articles  in  the  "Summa"  of  St.  Thomas  threw  all  morality  and  all  ecclesiastical,  and  even 
have  no  other  object  than  to  incorporate  in  theology  civil,  government.     According  as  one  is  predestined 
this  or  the  other  theory  which  was  cherished  by  or  not,  everything  changes  its  nature.    The  same  sins 
St.  Augustine  (to  take  only  one  example,  that  of  are  mortal  in  the  non-elect  which  are  venial  in  the 
exemplar  ideas  in  God).    Hence,  there  was  no  longer  predestined.   The  same  acts  of  virtue  are  meritorious 
any  school  strictly  Augustinian,  because  every  school  m  the  predestined,  even  if  he  be  actually  a  wicked 
was  such.    They  all  eluninated  certain  specid  points  man  which  are  of  no  value  in  the  non-elect.    The 
and  retained  the  same  veneration  for  the  master.  sacraments  administered  by  one  who  is  not  pre- 

From  the  third  period  of  the  fifteenth  century  to  destined  are  always  invalid;  more  than  that,  no  juris- 
our  days  we  see  less  of  the  special  progress  of  phil-  diction  exists  in  a  prelate,  even  a  pope,  if  ne  be  not 
osophical  Augustinism  than  certain  tendencies  of  an  predestined.  In  the  same  way,  there  is  no  power, 
exaggerated  revival  of  Ratonism.  In  the  fifteenth  even  civil  or  political,  in  a  prince  who  is  not  one  of 
century  Bessarion  (1472)  and  Marsilio  Ficino  (1499)  the  elect,  ancl  no  right  of  property  in  the  sinner  or 
used  Augustine's  name  for  the  purpose  of  enthroning  the  non-elect.  Such  is  the  basis  on  which  Wyclif 
Plato  in  the  Church  and  excludmg  Aristotle.  In  established  the  communism  which  aroused  the  so- 
the  seventeenth  centijuy,  it  is  impossible  to  deny  cialist  mobs  in  England.  It  is  incontestable  that  he 
certain  resemblances  between  Cartesianism  and  the  was  fond  of  quoting  Augustine  as  his  authority*  and 
philosophy  of  St.  Augustine.  Malebranche  was  his  disciples,  as  we  are  assured  by  Thomas  Natter 
wrong  m  ascribing  his  own  ontologism  to  the  great  Waldensis  (Doctrinale,  I,  xxxiv,  |  6),  were  con- 
Doctor,  as  were  also  many  of  his  successors  in  the  tinually  boasting  of  the  profound  knowledge  of  their 
nineteenth  century.  great   Doctor,   whom    they   called   with   emphaais 

(2)  Theological  Avgustinism, — ^The  histoiy  of  Au-  "John  of  Augustine".  Shiney,  in  his  Introduction  to 
gustine's  system  of  grace  seems  to  blend  almost  in-  "Zizaniorum  Fasciculi",  has  even  pretended  that 
aistinguiBfaiably  with  the  progressive  developments  of  the  theories  of  Wyclif  on  God,  on  tne  Incarnation, 
this  dogma.  Here  it  must  suffice,  first,  to  enumerate  and  even  on  property,  were  the  purest  Augustinian 
the  principal  phases;  secondly,  to  trace  the  general  inspiration,  but  even  a  superficial  comparison,  ii 
laws  of  development  which  mitigated  Augustinism  this  were  tne  place  to  make  it,  would  show  how  base- 
in  the  Church.  less  such  an  assertion  is.    In  the  sixteenth  century 

After  the  death  of  Augustine,  a  whole,  century  of  the  heritage  of  Wyclif   and  Hus,  his  disciple,  was 

fierce  contests  (430-529)  endea  in  the  triumph  of  always  accepted  in  the  name  of  Augustinism  by  the 

moderate  Augustinism.     In  vain  had  Pope  St.  Ce-  leaders  of  the  Reformation.     Divine  predestination 

lestine  (431)  sanctioned  the  teachings  of  the  Doctor  from  all  eternity  separating  the  elect,  who  were  to  be 

of  Hippo.    The  Semipelagians  of  the  south  of  France  snatched  out  of  tne  mass  of  perdition,  from    the 

could  not  understand  the  predilection  of  God  for  reprobate  who  were  destined  to  hell,  as  well  as  the 

the  elect,  and  in  order  to  attack  the  works  of  St.  Au-  irresistible  impulse  of  God  drawing  some  to  salvation 

ffustine  they  made  use  of  the  occasionally  exaggerated  and  others  to  sin — such  was  the  fundamental  doc- 

formulse  of  St.  Fulgentius,  or  of  the  real  errors  of  trine  of  the  Reformation.    Calvinism  even  adopted 

certain  isolated   predestinationists,  as,  for  example,  a  system  which  was  ''logically  more  consistent,  but 

Lucidus,  who  was  condemned  in  the  Council  of  Aries  practically  more  revolting",  as  Schaff  puis  it    (St. 

(476).    Happily,  Prosper  of  Aquitaine,  by  his  modera-  Augustine,  p.  104),  by  wEcn  the  decree  of  r^roba- 

tion,  and  also  the  unlcnown  author  of  **  De  Vocatione  tion  of  the  non-elect  would  be  independent  of    the 

omnium  jgentium",  bv  his  consoling  thesis  on  the  fall  of  Adam  and  of  original  sin  (Supralapsariaiusm). 

appeal  acmressed  to  all,  opened  the  way  to  an  agree-  It  was  certain  that  these  harsh  doctrines  would  l>rii\g 

ment.     And  finally,  St.  CsBsarius  of  Aries  obtained  their  reaction,  and  in  spite  of  the  severities  of  tbe 

from  Pope  Felix  iV  a  series  of  Capitula  which  were  Synod  of  Dordrecht,  which  it  would  be  int 


AUOUBTIMB                              101  AUOUBTINX 

^  oompftre  with  the  Council  of  Trent  in  the  matter  (Seas.  VI,  can.  2);  against  Protestant  predestination* 
d  mooeretion,  Arminianism   triumphed   over   the  ism  it  proclaimed  the  freedom  of  man,  with  his  double 
(Uvinistic  thesis.  power  of  resisting  grace  (posae  disserUire  n  velU — 
We  must  note  here  that  even  Protestant  critics,  Sess.  VI,  can.  4)  and  of  domg  good  or  evil,  even  be- 
with  a  loyalty  which  does  them  honour,  have  in  these  fore  embracing  the  Faith  (can.  o  and  7). 
latter  times  vindicated   Augustine   from  the  false  In  the  seventeenth  century  Jansenism  adopted, 
interpretations  of  Calvin.    Domer,  in  his  ^  Gesch.  der  while  modifying  it,  the  Protestant  conception  of 
piDt.  Th^logie",  had  already  shown  the  instinctive  original  sin  and  the  state  of  fallen  man.    No  more 
repugnance  of  Anglican  theologians  to  the  horrible  than  Luther  did  the  Jansenists  admit  the  two  orders, 
theorieB  of  Calvin.    W.  Cunningham  (Saint  Austin,  natural  and  supernatural.    All  the  gifts  which  Adam 
p.  82  aqq.J  has  very  frankly  called  attention  to  the  had    received — immortality,    knowledge,    integrity, 
complete  doctrinal  opposition  on  fundamental  points  sanctifying  grace — are  absolutely  reauired  by  the 
which  exists  between  the  Doctor  of  Hippo  and  the  nature  of  man.    Original  sin  is,  therefore,  again  re- 
French  Reformers.    In  the  first  place,  as  regards  the  fl&rded  as  a  profound  alteration  of  human  nature, 
state  of  human  nature,  which  is,  according  to  Calvin,  From  which  the  Jansenists  conclude  that  the  key  to 
totally  depraved,  for  Catholics  it  is  very  difficult  to  St,  Augustine^s  system  is  to  be  found  in  the  essential 
msp  the  Protestant  conception  of  origiiud  sin  which,  difference  of  the  Divine  government  and  of  grace,  before 
for  OUvin  and  Luther,  is  not,  as  for  us,  the  moral  and  after  the  Fall  of  Adam.    Before  the  Fall  Aoam 
degradation  and  the  stain  imprinted  on  the  soul  of  enjoyed  complete  hberty,  and  grace  save  him  the 
erery  son  of  Adam  by  the  fault  of  the  faUier  which  power  of  resisting  or  obeying;  after  the  Fall  there 
iB  imputable  to  each  member  of  the  family.    It  is  was  no  longer  in  man  liberty  properly  so  called;  there 
Dot  tne  deprivation  of  grace  and  of  all  other  super-  was  only  spontaneity  (libertas  a  coactione^  and  not 
natural  gifts;  it  is  not  even  concupiscence,  understood  libertas  a  necessitate),    Grace,  or  delectation  in  the 
in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word,  as  the  struggle  of  good,  is  essentially  efficacious,  and  necessarily  vio- 
bue  and  selfish  instincts  against  the  virtuous  tend-  torious  once  it  is  superior  in  degree  to  the  opposite 
endes  of  the  soul;  it  is  a  profound  and  complete  concupiscence.    The  struggle,  which  was  prolonged 
mbversion  of  human  nature:  it  is  the  physical  altera-  for  two  centuries,  led  to  a  more  profound  study  of 
tion  of  the  very  substance  ot  our  soul.    Our  faculties,  the  Doctor  of  Hippo  and  prepared  the  way  for  the 
understanding,  and  will,  if  not  entirely  destroyed,  definite  triumph  of  Augustinism,  but  of  an  Au^stin- 
are  at  least  mutilated,  powerless,  and  chained  to  ism  mitigated  in  accordance  with  laws  which  we 
evil.    For  the  Reformers,  original  sin  is  not  a  sin.  must  now  indicate. 

it  is  <A«  sin,  and  the  permanent  sin,  living  in  us  and  (3)  Laws  whidi  governed  the  mitigation  of  Au- 

cansing  a  continual  stream  of  new  sins  to  spring  from  qxistinism. — In  spite  of  what  Protestant  critics  may 

our  nature,  which  is  radically  corrupt  and  evil,  have  said,  the  Church  has  always  been  faithful  to 

For,  as  our  being  is  evil,  every  act  of  ours  is  equally  the  fimdamental  principles  defended  by  Augustine 

evil   Thus,  the  Protestant  theologians  do  not  ordi-  ajgainst  the  Pelagians  and  Semipelagians,  on  original 

narily  speak  of  the  sins  of  mankind,  but  only  of  the  sin,  the  necessity  and  ntituity  of  grace,  the  absolute 

AR,  which  makes  us  what  we  are  and  defiles  every-  dependence  on   God  for  salvation.     Nevertheless, 

thing.   Hence  arose  the  paradox  of  Luther:  that  even  great  progress  was  made  along  the  line  of  CTadual 

in  an  act  of  perfect  charity  a  man  sins  mortally,  mitigation.    For  it  caimot  be  denied  that  the  doc- 


beeause  he  acts  with  a  vitiated  nature.    Hence  that    trine  formulated  at  Trent,  and  taught  by  all  our 

other  paradox:  that  this  sin  can  never  be  effaced,  but    theologians,    produces    an    impression    of 

remains  entire,  even  after  justification,  although  it    suavity  ana  greater  clarity  than  this  or  that  passa^ 


will  not  be  any  longer  imputed;  to  efface  it,  it  would  in  the  works  of  St.  Augustine.    The  causes  of  this 

be  necessary  to  m<xlify  pn3r8ically  this  human  being  softening  down,  and  the  successive  phases  of  this 

which  is  sin.    Calvin,  without  going  so  far  as  Luther,  progress  were  as  follows: — 

has  nevertheless  insisted  on  this  toti^  corruption.  First,    theologians    began    to    distinguish    more 

"Let  it  stand,  therefore,  as  an  indubitable  truth  clearly  between  the  natural  order  and  the  super- 

which  no  engines  can  shake '\  says  he  (Institution  11.  natural,  and  hence  the  Fall  of  Adam  no  longer  ap- 

V, }  10)/' tmtt  the  mind  of  man  is  so  entirely  alienated  peared  as  a  corruption  of  human  nature  in  its  con- 

irom  th^  righteousness  of  God  that  he  cannot  con-  stituent  parts;  it  is  the  loss  of  the  whole  order  of 

ceive,  desire,  or  design  anythin^^  but  what  is  weak,  supernatural  elevation.     St.   Thomas    (Summa,   I, 

distorted,  foul,  impure,  or  iniqmtous,  that  his  heart  'Q.  Ixxxv,  a.  1)  formulates  the  ereat  law  of  the  pres- 

M  80  thoroughly  environed  by  sin  that  it  can  breathe  ervation,  in  guilty  Adam's  children,  of  ail  the  fac-. 

ont  Dothhig  but  corruption  and  rottenness;  that  if  ulties  in  their  essential  inte^ity:  "Sin  (even  original) 

iome  men  occasionally  make  a  show  of  goodness,  neither  takes  away  nor  diminishes  the  natural  en- 

their  mind  is  ever  interwoven  with  hypocrisy  ana  dowments".     Thus    the    most    rigorist  Thomists, 

(iecdt,  their  soul  inwardly  bound  with  the  fetters  Alvarez,  Lemos,  Contenson,  agree  with  the  great 

of  wickedness".     "Now",  says  Cunningham,  "this  Doctor  that  the  sin  of  Adam  has  not  enfeebled 

<ioctnne.  whatever  there  may  be  to  be  said  for  it,  (intrinsece)  the   natural  moral  forces  of  humanity. 

is  not  tne  doctrine  of  Saint  Austin.    He  held  that  Secondly,  such  consoling  and  fundamental  truths 

«n  is  the  defect  of  a  good  nature  which  retains  ele-  as  God's  desire  to  save  all  men,  and  the  redeeming 

inents  of  goodness,  even  in  its  most  diseased  and  death  of  Christ  which  was  really  offered  and  ac- 

corrupted  state,  and  he  ^ves  no  countenance,  what-  cepted  for  all  peoples  and  all   individuaLs — these 

ever  to  this  modem  opinion  of  total  depravity",  truths,  which  Aupistine  never  denied,  but  which 

It  is  the  same  with  Calvin's  affirmation  of  the  irre-  he  left  too  much  m  the  background  and  as  it  were 

nstible  action  of  God  on  the  will.   Cunningham  shows  hidden  under  the  terrible  formulas  of  the  doctrine 

that  these  doctrines  are  irreconcilable  with  liberty  of  predestination,  have  been  placed  in  the  full  light, 

ud  respoasibility,  whereas,  on  the  contrary,  "St.  have  been  developed,  and  applied  to  infidel  nations, 

Austin  IS  careful  to  attempt  to  harmonise  the  belief  and  have  at  last  entered  into  the  ordinary  teaching 

in  God's  omnipotence  with  hiunan  responsibility"  of  theology.    Thus  our  Doctors,  without  detracting 

(8t  Austin,  p.  §6).    The  Council  of  Trent  was  there-  in  the  least  from  the  sovereignty  and  justice  of  God, 

^fauthful  to  the  true  spirit  of  the  African  Doctor,  have  risen  to  the  highest  idea  of  His  goodness:  that 

od  maintained  pure  Au^^ustinism  in  the  bosom  of  God  so  sincerely  desires  the  salvation  of  all  as  to 

the  Cltunsh,  by  its  defimtions  against  the  two  op-  give  absolutely  to  all,  immediately  or  mediately,  the 

poiite  excesses.     Against  Pelagianism  it  reaffirmed  means  necessary  for  salvation,  and  always  witn  the 

vi^hial  m  and   we  absolute  necessity  of  grace  desire  that  man  should  consent  to  employ  those 


▲UOUBTINE  102  AUQXjnrm 

means.  No  one  falls  into  hell  except  by  his  own  demnation  of  doctrines  which  are  to-day  univeraally 
fault.  Eren  infidels  will  be  accountable  for  their  taught  in  all  the  schools.  Thus.inthejprojectof  ceiih 
infidelity.  St.  Thomas  expresses  the  thought  of  all  sure  reproduced  by  Serry  (*'  Historia  Congregationis 
when  he  says:  "It  is  the  common  teaching  that  if  de  Auxiliis",  append.,  p.  166)  the  first  proposition  is 
a  man  bom  among  the  barbarous  and  infidel  nations  this:  "In  statu  naturse  lapste  potest  homo,  cum  solo 
really  does  what  Ties  in  his  power,  God  will  reveal  concursu  general!  Dei,  emcere  opus  bonum  morale, 
to  mm  what  is  necessary  for  salvation,  either  by  quod  in  ofdine  ad  finem  hominis  naturalem  sit  ver» 
interior  inspirations  or  by  sending  him  a  preacher  virtutis  opus,  referendo  iUud  in  Deum,  sicut  referri 
of  the  Faith"  (In  Lib.  II  Sententianmi,  dist.  23,  potest  ac  deberet  in  statu  naturali"  (In  the  state  of 
Q.  viii,  a.  4,  ad  4*").  We  must  not  dissemble  the  fallen  nature  num  can  with  only  the  general  eon- 
fact  that  this  law  changes  the  whole  aspect  of  Divine  curntut  of  God  do  a  good  moral  work  wmch  may  be 
Providence,  and  that  St.  Augustine  had  left  it  tob  a  woric  of  true  virtue  with  regard  to  the  natural 
much  in  tne  shade,  insisting  only  upon  the  other  end  of  man  by  referring  it  to  God,  as  it  can  and 
aspect  of  the  problem:  namely,  that  God,  while  ought  to  be  referred  in  the  natural  state).  Thus  they 
making  a  sufficing  appeal  to  all,  is  nevertheless  not  sought  to  condemn  the  doctrine  held  by  all  the 
bound  to  choose  alwavs  that  appeal  which  shall  in  Scholastics  (with  the  exception  of  Gregory  of  Rimini), 
fact  be  efficacious  and  shall  be  accepted,  provided  and  sanctioned  since  then  by  the  condemnation  of 
that  the  refusal  of  consent  be  due  to  the  oostinacy  Proposition  Ivii  of  Baius.  For  a  long  time  it  was  said 
of  the  sinner's  will  and  not  to  its  lack  of  power.  Thus  that  the  pope  had  prepared  a  Bull  to  condemn 
the  Doctors  most  eagerly  approved  the  axiom,  Molina;  but  to-day  we  learn  from  an  autograph  doc- 
FacierUi  quod  in  se  est  Deus  rum  denegat  gratiamr—  ument  of  Paul  V  that  liberty  was  left  to  tne  two 
God  does  not  refuse  grace  to  one  who  does  what  he  schools  until  a  new  Apostolic  decision  was  given 
can.  (Schneeman  "Controversianim  de  Div.  grat.",  1881, 

Thirdly,  from  principles  taught  by  Augustine  con-  p.  289).    Soon  after,  a  third  interpretation  of  Au- 

sequences  have  been  drawn  which  are  cleariy  de-  gustinism  was  offered  in  the  Church,  that  of  Noris, 

rived  from  them,  but  which  he  had  not  pointed  out.  Belleli,  atnd  other  partisans  of  moral  predetermina- 

Thus  it  is  incontestably  a  principle  of  St.  Augustine  tion.    This  system  has  been  called  Avgustinianism, 

that  no  one  sins  in  an  act  which  he  cannot  avoid —  To  this  school  belong  a  niunber  of  theologians  who, 

"Quis  enim  peccat  in  eo  quod  caveri  non  potest?"  with  Thomassin,  essayed  to  explain  the  infalliUe 

Tins  passage  from  "De  libero  arbitrio"  (III,  xviii,  action  of  grace  without  admitting  either  the  scierdia 

n.  50)  is  anterior  to  the  year  395;  but  far  from  re-  media  of  the  Molinists  or  the  pfavsical  predetermina- 

tracting  it  he  approves  and  explains  it,  in  415,  in  tion  of  the  Thomists.    A  detaued  study  of  this  inter- 

the  "De  naturft  et  ffratifi,",  Ixvii,  n.  80.    From  that  pretation  of  St.  Augustine  mav  be  found  in  Vacant 's 
pregnant  principle  theologians  have  concluded,  first,       Dictionnaire  de  th^logie  catholique",  I,  ools.  2485- 

that  grace  sufficient  to  conquer  temptations  never  2501;  here  I  can  only  mention  one  very  important 

fails  anyone,  even  an  infidel;  then,  against  the  Jan-  document,  the  last  in  which  the  Holy  See  nas  ex- 

senists,  they  have  added  that^  to  deserve  its  name  of  pressed  its  mind  on  the  various  theories  of  theologjans 

sufficient  grace^  it  ought  to  give  a  real  power  which  for  reconciling  grace  and  liberty.    This  is  the  Brief 

is  complete,  even  relatively  to  the  actual  difficulties,  of  Benedict  XI V  (13  July,  1748)  which  declares  that 

No  doubt  theologians  have  groped  about,  hesitated,  the   three   schools — ^Thomist,   Augustinian    (Noris), 

even  denied;  but  to-day  there  are  very  few  who  and  Molinist — ^have  full  right  to  defend  their  theories, 

would  dare  not  to  recognize  in  St.  Augustine  the  The  Brief  concludes  with  these  words:  "This  Apos- 

affirmation  of  the  possibility  of  not  sinning.  tolic  See  favours  the  liberty  of  the  schools;  none  of 

Fourthly,  certain  secondary  assertions,  which  the  systems  proposed  to  reconcile  the  liberty  of  man 
encumbered,  but  did  not  make  part  of  the  dogma,  with  the  onmipotence  of  God  has  been  thus  far  con- 
have  been  lopped  off  from  the  doctrine  of  Augustine,  demned  (op.  cit.,  col.  2555). 

Thus  the  Church,  which,  with  Augustine,  has  always        In  conclusion  we  must  indicate  bri^y  the  official 

denied  entrance  into  Heaven  to  unbaptized  children,  authority  which  (he  Church  attributes  to  St.  Augustine 

has  not  adopted  the  severity  of  the  great  Doctor  in  in  the  questions  of  grace.     Numerous  and  solemn  are 

condemning  such  children  to  bodily  piEiins,  however  the  eulogies  of  St.  Augustine's  doctrine  pronounced 

slight.     And  little  by  little  the  milder  teaching  of  by  the  popes.    For  instance,  St.  Gelasius  I  (1  No vem- 

St.  Thomas  was  to  prevail  in  theology  and  was  even  ber,  49d),  St.  Hormisdas  (13  August,  520)  Boniface  11 

to  be  vindicated  against  unjust  censure  when  Pius  VI  and  the  Fathers  of  Orange  (529),  John  II    (534), 

condemned  the  pseudo-synod  of  Pistoja.     At  last  Au-  and  many  others.     But  the  most  important  docu- 

gustine's   obscure  formulse  were  abandoned  or  cor-  ment,  that  which  ought  to  serve  to  interpret  all  the 

rected,  so  as  to  avoid  regrettable  confusions.    Thus  others,  because  it  precedes  and  inspires  tnem,  is  the 

the    expressions  which  seemed  to  identify  original  celebrated  letter  of  St.  Celestine  I  (431),in  which  the 

sin  witn  concupiscence   have   given  way  to  clearer  pope  guarantees  not  only  the  orthodoxy  of  Augustine 

formulae  without  departing  from  the  real  meaning  a^inst  his  detractors,  but  also  the  great  merit  of 

which  Augustine  sought  to  express.  his  doctrine:  "So  great  was  his  knowledge  that  my 

Discussion,  however,  is  not  yet  ended  within  the  predecessors  have  always  placed  him  in  the  rank  of 
Church.     On  most  of  those  points  which  concern  the  masters",  etc.    This  letter  is  accompanied  by  a 
especially  the  manner  of  the  Divine  action  Thomists  series  of  ten  dogmatic  capittUa  the  origin  of  inrluch 
and  Mohnists  disagree,  the  former  holding  out  for  an  is  uncertain,  but  which  have  always  been  regarded, 
irresistible  predetermination,  the  latter  maintaining,  at  least  since  Pope  Hormisdas,  as  expressing   the 
with  Augustine,  a  grace  whose  infallible  efficacy  is  re-  faith  of  the  Church.    Now  these  extracts  from  African 
vealed  by  the  Divine  knowledge.     But  both  of  these  councils  and  pontifical  decisions  end  with  this  re- 
views affirm  the  grace  of  God  and  the  liberty  of  man.  striction:  "As  to  the  questions  which  are  more  prp- 
The  lively  controversies  aroused  by  the  "Concordia"  found  and  difficult,  and  which  have  given  rise  to 
of  Molina  (1588)  and  the  long  conferences  de  auxiliis  these  controversies,  we  do  not  think  it  necessarv  to 
held   at   Rome,    before   Popes   Clement   Vlli   and  impose  the  solution  of  them". — In  presence  of  those 
Paul  V,  are  well  known.    Tnere  is  no  doubt  that  a  documents  emanating  from  so  high  a  source,  ougVit 
majority  of  the  theologian-consultors  thought  they  we  to  say  that  the  Church  has  adopted  all  the  teach- 
discovered  an  opposition  between  Molina  and  St.  Au-  inp  of  St.  Augustine  on  grace  so  that  it  is  never  per- 
gustine.     But  their  verdict  was  not  approved,  and  missible  to  depart  from  that  teaching?  Thr^ans^wers 
(what  is  of  great  importance  in  the  history  of  Au-  have  been  given:   (a)  For  some,  the  authority    of 
gustinism)  it  is  certain  that  they  asked  for  the  cop-  St.   Augustine  is  absolute  and  irrefragable.       The 


Auouamn  10< 

luKOitt^  went  bo  far  m  to  fonnulste,  with  H&ver- 
Quuu,  thia  propoeitioD,  condemneii  by  Alexander  VIJI 
(7  December,  1690):  "Ubi  quis  invenerit  doctrioam 
iD  Augustino  clare  fundatftm,  illam  absolute  potest 
tcnere  et  docere,  non  icspiciendo  ad  ullam  pontificia 
boUun''  {Where  one  has  found  a  doctrine  dearlr 
bind  on  St.  Augustine,  he  can  hold  «nd  teach  it 
ihgolutely.  without  referring  to  any  pontifical  Bull). 
Thia  ig  iDadmiseible.      None  of  the  pontifical  appro- 
balitma  has  a  meaning  so  absolute,  and  the  eavUtJa 
mtke  ui  express  reservation  for  the  profound  and 
difficult  questions.    The  popes  themselves  have  per- 
mitted s  departure  from  the  thought  of  St.  Augustine 
in  Ihe  matter  of  the  lot  of  children  dying  nithout 
bsptiam  (Bull  'JAuctorem  Fidei",  28  August,  1794). 
(b)  OtlieiB  again  have  concluded  that  the  eulogiea 
in  question  are  merely  vague  fonnulie  leaving  full 
liberty  lo  withdraw  trtmi  St.  Augustine  and  to  SUune 
hiiD  on  every  point.    Thus  Launoy,  Richard  Simon, 
md  otherg  have  maintained  that  Augustine  had  been 
in  eiTor  on  the  very  gist  of  the  problem,  and  had 
roily  taught   predrattinationism.      But   that   would 
'mtpij  that  for  fifteen  centuries  the  Church  took  as 
it«  yiide  an  adversary  of  its  faith,     (c)  We  must  con- 
duce, with  the  greater  number  of  theologians,  that 
Augustine  has  a  real  normrUive  authority,  hedged 
■boat,  however,  with  reserves  and  wise  Umitations. 
In  the  capital  questions  which  constitute  Ute  faith 
of  the  Church  in  those  matters  the  Doctor  of  Hippo  is 
truly   the   authoritative    %vitnesB    of   tradition;    for 
nampie,  on  theexistenceof  original  sin,  the  necessity 
of  gnee,  at  least  for  every  salutary  act;  the  giatut' 
towDess  of  the  ^t  of  God  which  precedes  all  merit 
of  man  because  tt  is  the  cause  of  it;  the  predilection 
tor  tbe  elect  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  liberty  of 
man  and  his  responsibility  for  his  transgressions. 
But  the  secondary  problems,  concemii^  the  mode 
rather  than  the  fact,  are  left  by  the  Church  to  the 
prudent  study  of  theologians.    Thus  all  schools  unite 
m  a  great  respect  for  the  assertions  of  St,  Augustine. 
At  present  this  attitude  df  fidelity  and  respect  is 
all  the  more  remarkable  as  Prol«ataQts,  who  were 
formerly  so  bitter  in  defending  the  predestination  of 
(ilvin,  arc  to-day  almcwt  unanimous  m  rejecting  what 
tbey  themselves  call  "  the  boldest  defiance  ever  given 
Id  lesson  and  conscience"  fOr^tillat,  "Dogjnatique", 
in,  p.  329).     Schleiermacher,  it  is  true,  maintains 
it,  Dut  he  adds  to  it  tbe  Orlgenist  theory  of  universal 
rairation  by  the  final  restoration  of  all  creatures,  and 
be  ia  followed  in  this  by  Farrar,  Lobstein,  Pfisler,  and 
others.    The  C^lvSnist  dogma  is  to-day,  eHpecially  in 
Eo^and,  altogether  abandoned,  and  oft«n  replaced 
br  pure    Pela^nism    (Beyschlag).      But    among 
nntestant  critics  the  best  are  drawing  near  U>  the 
Catholic    interpretation    of   St.    Augustine,   as,    fm* 
example,   Gr£tillat,    in    Switzerland,    and    Stevens, 
Bnice,  and  Moiley  (On  the  Augustinian  Doctrine  of 
Predestination) ,  in  England.    Sanday  (Romans, p.  50) 
ilw  declares  the  mystery  to  be  unfathomable  for 
man  yet  solved  by  God — "And  so  our  solution  of 
the  problem   of  Free-will,  and  of  the  problems  of    j 
biatwy  and  of  individual  salvation,  must  finally  lie    ■> 
b  the  full  acceptance  and  realisation  of  what  is    f| 
iaiffied  by  the  infinity  and  the  omnwcietKt  of  God".     » 
Tun  Goncludiug  words  recall   the  true  system  of 
Ai^uitine  and  permit  us  to  hope  that  at  least  on 
this  question  there  may  be  a  union  of  the  two  Churches 
in  a  wise  Augustinism. 

Wiitu  ON  THB  LiTB  Or  8t.  Auqitstihb. — Tha  shiif  orisiaal 
■BVEB  ar*  hia  own  Conftationt  and  hiji  Ufa  tVUa  S.  Aureta 
'-fliriiQ  by  hia  fricod  PoHiTiiua,  in  Vol.  XI  of  the  Bena- 
£mi£ti^  (P.  t..  XXXII):  for  l«raed  itluxtration  ot  tha 
■at  a(  PiMiditia  aM  tha  Boltudiita  CnpHn  uid  Stiltiho  in 
jWi  86.  (17*3).  AQfuat.  VI.— Amon*  the  prioeipia  modoro 
■^ubica  of  the  saiat  the  lollonmc  %ie  worthy  of  iDention; 
([As  ^B(.  tx  tjut  potiHimum  icriviii  ommnata  (by  hia 
-  ■  0  editon.  vwjr  usuniM.  tiaaed  on  the  aola  of 
r  P.  h.,  JCKXIIl]  Kloth,  ftr  U.  Kir(A«a.*«r, 
"  ■-  -1,  lBW);FoujoiiLAT.  Afutoinde5.'4uau(- 
a,  «DB  Mtdt  <Paria.  ISIS-Ul;  BniDULUor. 


^iVUrti-MnalParia.  16«1,2     .._     

of  the  Scnptunl  cnnuiiant&nea  ol  Bt.  Augiutioa  according  u 
lh«  ordar,of  tha  Biblical  books;  Ideu,  ConaiTrlaiUia  Aagut- 

unfu^mS^Ai^.  <Twr*M[Piirie,  16M,  2  vokTlolioTMoialiNl 
Notion  Au^iutinumrtB  de  VhtmitieviMvt  (Clermoat-Fomrndt 
leoa);  DoDUB,  St.  Aagxi*tin  a  la  BMe  in  Rivun  Bibiiqui:  tat 
1893-^, — On  KrAfe  and  on  FclacioniBm;  see  the  aevec  rrudite 
di»erl^ioDa  oT  G«aHiitR,  addod  to  hia  edition  of  llABiua 
HmciTOB  {Parii,  1B73;  P.  i.,  XLVIII);  PiTAvroa,  D,  Ftia- 
aitnonm tt SrMitiiiaiiianortimhmtn{,Vti\B,lM3)\  Hona.nii- 
loria  PHaaiana,  ....  additU  VwtdiciiM  Auffuatmamr  {Pmii%. 
1ST3^:  Heklih,  Virilabk  eUf  ia  omraou  dt  S.  Atigmtin 
cenSv  ItM  POaffimi  in  R^utation  da  critivim,  tic.,  de  U.  Bayl* 
"  ■  ■  {Paria,  1732),  P.  L..  XLVII;  Wiooem, 
"  IR17  da  AaffU4tmitmu4  und  Ptiaffionu 


.  . tUfruof  DtK^int-    Auguatiru  ajtd  lAf  Peloffian   Confrp- 

vrrij/,  Tht  Decitirpment  of  (*«  DortriiM  of  Infant  Sairalum 
iHewYoA,  1SQ8I:  Rotthaiines.  D«r  Aumikuiumuj  (Hnnich. 
lS92)(Poauufcmi>>c(.diCUaLai<A.,  I,  22a»-Z472,.aq>ecb 


▲UQU8TINIAN  104  AUikVBTimAm 

2875-2406;  Chbvaubr.  Ripertaire  det  mntroeB  huL  du  moyen  family  circles,  in  workshops,  and  places  where  work- 

iinism  see.  besides  the  above  quoted  works  of  MANDONNirr  uc  papers  establisnea  by  them  have  a  greater  circu- 

And  Db  Wulf,  Webner,  Dis  Auffuatinibdie,  Ptytkoloffie  in  lation    than    many    famous    non-^hristian    papers. 

ft'^N 'T*"^^'*^*n'*^    ^tn««rfuna  tmJ  Gwtottufw  (Vienna.  Until  recently  no  popular  Catholic  paper  has  reached 

1882):  Idem,  Der  AuguBttnumut  xn  der  SchoUutxk  ae«  tpAteren  '^"»'**  "owcx^vij^  uvr  t^puuu  ^(»uuvrM^  i^«t^A  t^  A^^^^y 

MUtdaUen  (Vienna.  1883).  also  other  studies  of  the  same  a  degree  of  Circulation  equal  to  that  of     La  Croix 

author  on  Bede,  Aicuxn,  OuiUaume  d'Auvtrgtiet  St,  Tfumaa  or  of  "Le  P^lerin'^.    These  two  papers  are  issued  at 

Mutnat,  Suaret;  EuRLE,  Der  Auau9tinumu9  und  djsr  Arts-  ^^    rate  of  three  milhon  per  week;  Saturdays  this 

ioUlttmtu  xn  der  Scholaatik  gegen  Ende  dea  XI IL  JahrhunderU,  .     .        ^     j  !^    /^        *f!J;"  *^     »»«^«.,  fc^vv**x*»/       u*" 

in  Archiv  fUr  Litteratur  undKircheno,  dee  MiUekdtera  (1889).  IS  increased  to  four  milhon  copies.     To  this  must  be 

For  theohoical  Augustinism  see  all  doctrine-histories.    Modern  added    the    circulation    of    6()0.(XX)    COpiies   of    "  The 

StSL'f^T^':  SS"^o^'ut?i'o.°LrB'L5?JSr{BI  Hyes^of  the  Sainte-,  70,000.o/  the  " ^^ Contempo- 

Molinist  Suabbz.   the  Sorbonnist   Tournblt.   particularly  rams ",  besides  the  many  copies  of  the  "  Revue  scien- 

SciPioNB  Mapfei, /«(oria  teolopica  delle  dottrine  e  deUe  opt-  tifique":  "Cosmos":      Questions   actuellefi":   "Les 

fvumi coreene'^einaueprimi^^  j^^y^o^  je  rOrient";  the  "Petit  Bleu",  and  many 

divtna  orcuria,  del  Ubero  arbttrto,  e  della  predeettnanone  (Trent,  -^^ir  r      Xi.'i         »,*'*'"      *       %/^rr         u         »**«"v 

1742;  Latin,  Frankfort.  1766).    Cf.  also  Gaillard,  Eiude  sur  others.    In  Chile,  where  these  Fathers  have  been 

I'hietoire  de  la  doctrine  de  lacprdce  depute  S,  Auguetin  (Lyons-  for  thirteen  years,  they  publish  in  Spanish  "  Echoes 

l^-,J.'!S^i::^'r^:A'ii!;::^^  ?~«°  the  Saj^ctuary  ofl^urdes^    6  theirjoumal- 

Unie  lee  iKSologiene  iuequ'au  ooneile  de  Trente.  et  depute  oe  istic  work  they  were  aided  by  the  Oblate  bisters  of 

ooncUe  dee  plue  cSlebree  doctewe  dee  vnivereitie  de  y Europe  the  Assumption,   an  order  established   by   them   to 

cHBBNB,  Le  PrideeHnaHameme  (Paris.  1724);  Moelby.  sl  are  not  confined  to  that  field.    Until  the  suppression 

Auguetine'e  Doctrine  of  PredeeHnation   (London,   1865),,  see  they  directed  the  women's  section  in  the  publishing 

&JtBJt]^:  (?^i)fx3?^f.  5^TS:oSri4''«SSJ  ^^  "f  the  "Chnstiaa  IW  "  as  weU  as  the  hospi- 

dee  hi.  AuguBtin  in  der  Ldtre  von  der  Onade  und  PrOdeetination  tals,  orphan  asylums,  and  schools. 

in  Tub.  O^ol.  Quartaleehrift  (1801);    Idem,  Der  heUige  Fauetue         Among  other  works  carried   on   by  the  Assump- 

von  Ries  (Stuttgart,  1806).  ^>,^^  t>_ ^.,,^5.  tionists  m  France  prior  to  their  suppression  was 

.  ,      ^  ^  ^  EuGfeNB  POETAU6.  ^^  ^j  ^^^  " Assodation  of  Our  Lady  Sf  Salvation", 

▲ugUBtiniftn  Canozui  and  CanoneBses.    See  Can-  a  society  devoted  to  prayer,  almsgiving,  and  setting 

ONB  AND  Canonesse8,Reqular.  a  good  example  for  the  reformation  of  the  working 

▲ugUBtinians  of  the  ▲ssamption,  or  Assttmf-  class.  This  society  was  established  in  eighty  dio- 
TIONISTS. — This  congregation  had  its  ori^  in  the  ceses,  and  it  succeeded  in  drawing  the  higher  classes 
Ck)llege  of  the  Assumption,  established  in  Ntmes,  of  society  more  closely  to  the  workingmen.  It  en- 
France,  in  1843,  by  toe  Rev.  Emmanuel  d'Alzon  couraged  everjrwhere  social  prayer,  and  social  and 
vicar-general  of  that  diocese,  some  account  of  whose  national  expiation,  and  discoura^d  human  respect, 
life  and  work  is  given  at  the  end  of  this  article.  Al-  social  apostasy,  and  isolation  in  piety.  It  raised 
though  it  was  organized  in  1847,  the  members  did  not  funds  to  convey .  workmen,  pilgrims,  paupers,  and 
take  their  first  vows  until  1850;  they  took  their  public  sick  poor  to  Lourdes.  tf>  the  number  of  a  thousand 
vows  at  Christmas  of  the  next  year.  A  second  nouse  each  year:  it  was  zealous  in  the  cause  of  workmen's 
was  established  in  Paris,  and  they  continued  their  work  clubs,  and  of  Cathohc  schools,  and  was  active  in 
there,  encouraged  by  the  Holy  See.  The  oongrega*  the  movement  in  favour  of  the  keeping  of  Sunday 
tion  was  formally  approved  by  a  Brief  of  26  Novem-  as  a  day  of  rest.  Another  field  of  missionary  labour 
ber,  1864.  The  chief  objects  of  the  congregation  was  found  among  the  Newfoundland  fisnermen. 
are  to  combat  the  spirit  of  irreligion  in  Europe  and  Every  year  12,0(X)  or  15,0(X)  fishermen  leave  the 
the  spread  of  schism  in  the  East.  To  this  end  the  coasts  of  France,  Belgium,  and  Ireland,  to  go  to  the 
Assumptionists  have  devoted  themselves  to  the  Banks  of  Newfoundland  for  codfish.  The  Prot- 
work  of  Catholic  higher  and  secondary  education,  cstants  have  long  maintained  a  flotilla  of  hospital 
to  the  spread  of  truth  by  means  of  the  Press,  to  the  ships,  with  which  they  go  to  the  aid  of  these  un- 
conduct  of  pilgrimages,  and  to  missionary  work  in  fortunate  men  and,  while  ministering  to  their  ma- 
the  East,  in  addition  to  their  college  at  Ntmes  they  terial  needs,  draw  their  souls  to  heresy.  The  As- 
estabhshed  Apostolic  schools  where  poor  students  sumptionists  found  here  a  field  for  their  activity- 
were  educated  for  the  priesthood  without  expense  and  zeal.  They  have  organized  the  most  prominent 
to  themselves.  They  established  "La  Bonne  Presse",  Catholic  sailors  into  a  committee  and  have  been 
which  issued  periodicals,  pamphlets,  and  books  in  encouraged  to  equip  two  Cathohc  hospital  ships, 
great  numbers,  the  chief  pubhcation,  "La  Croix",  which  now  succour  the  unfortunate  fishermen.  The 
appearing  simultaneously  m  several  different  cities,  vessels  have  alreadv  been  wrecked  twice,  but  have 
Their  activities  provoked  the  resentment  of  the  been  replac^ed,  anci  the  Assumptionists  have  con- 
French  Government,  and  in  1900  the  congregation  tinned  their  labours. 

was  suppressed  within  French  territory,  this  action        The   Assumptionists   have   been   active   missioik* 

being  based  on  the  charge  that  they  were  accumula-  aries  in  the  Orient,  where   at  the  present  time  3DO 

ting  a  fund  to  be  used  in  a  royalist  movement  to  of    the    congregation,   Fathers  ana  Brothers,    and. 

overthrow  the  Republic.    Many  of  the  Assumption-  nearly  400  Ssters  are  engaged.    Their  labours  take 

ists  left  France  after  this,  but  some  remained  as  them  from  the  Balkans  to  the  Dead  Sea.    They  have 

secular  priests  under  the  authority  of  various  bishops,  estabhshed  there  twenty-two  permanent  residences. 

At  the  time  of  their  suppression  the  Assumption-  thirty  regular  missionary  stations,  and  fifteen  ixk- 

ists  maintained  twenty  Apostolic  schools  which  in  stitutions  entrusted  to  the  Oblates  of  the  Assump- 

twenty-five  years  gave  more  than  500  priests  to  the  tion.    In   the   schools   in  Turkey  in   Europe   and 

secular  clergy.    These  schools  have  all  been  closed,  Turkey   in    Asia    the    Assumptionists   have    2,500 

but  the  coi^gre^tion  has  taken  up  the  work  in  other  scholars.    Here  the  Oblates  have  opened  a  hospital, 

?uarters.    Similar  schools  have  been  established  in  an   orphanage,    and   nine    gratuitous   dispensaiiee, 

taly,  Belgium,  England,  and  the  United  States,  where  they  care  for  about  30,000  sick  every  yei^c 

*  La  Bonne  Presse "  was  purchased  at  the  time  of  Of  the  twenty-two  public  churches  of  the  congr^ist.. 

the   suppression   by  Paul    Feron-Vrau,   a   wealthy  tion  in  the  'East  twelve  are  parishes,  and  in  four  of 

manufacturer  of  Lisle,  and  all  its  publications  have  them  the  Offices  are  held  in  the  rites  of  the  Orient 

been    continued    without    any    change  of    poUcy.  (Greek,  or  Slav).    These  rites  the  Assumptionists  hatve 

Much  of  the  good  accompUshed  by  the  Assumption-  embraced  to  render  the  teaching  of  the  Gospel 

ists  was  effected  through  this  medium.    They  en-  fruitful.    The  Orientals,  whether  from  love  of 

tered  into  comnetition  witi»  the  irreUgious  press  in  legitimate  traditions,  or  from  ignorance,  make  of 


Avatrtmmt                  lo5  AtrdTnltimiS 

e9[teriGr  fonn  of  the  rites  a  question  of  supreme  im-  in  the  eity  of  BroUa8a,with  its  population  of  100,000, 

portanoe.    Called  in  1862  to  work  for  the  conversion  they    have    established   a  large    college    and    two 

of  the  Bulgarians  to  Catholic  unity,  the  Assump-  churches,  one  of  which  is  the  Latin  parish.    The 

tiomstB  founded   in   the  Turkish  quarter   of   Ad-  towns  of  Eski-Ohehir,  Ismid,  Sultan  Eschoir,  Koniah 

rianople,  and  in  Karagatch  the  European  quarter,  (Iconium),  Fanaraki  have  each  a  residence  for  the 

a  readenoe  with  a  Slav  church  and  a  Latin  church,  priests  with  a  public  church;  the  Oblate  Sisters  are 

&  ho^tal,  three  schools  and  a  Bulgarian  seminary  of  also  establishea  in  these  places.    At  Jerusalem  the 

the  Greek  and  Slav  Rites,  in  which  forty  young  men  Assumptionists  have  erected  the  Hostelry  of  Our 

receive  their  maintenance  and  are  prepared  for  the  Lady  of  France  for  the  reception  of  pilgrims,  an- 

office  of  the  sacred  ministry.     A  ramilar  work  is  being  nexed  to  which  is  a  scholasticate  of  forty  religious. 

done  at  Philippopoli,  the  cradle  of  the  Oriental  mis-  They  have  established  there  also  the  Society  of  the 

fiions  of  the  Assumptionists.    There  is  also  a  primary  Crois^  of  Purgatory,  and  they  have  a  church  in 

school,  attended  by  200  scholars,  and  an  educational  which  to  receive  the  Latin  pilgrims.    The  Eucharis- 

institute,  man^  of  the  former  pupils  of  which  occupy  tic  Congress  at  Jerusalem  m  1893  was  held  in  the 

important  official  positions  in  Eastern  Rumelia.    Tne  Hostelry  of  Our  Lady  of  France. 

Aasumptionists  have  also  churches  and  schools  of  £}mmanuel-Joseph-Marie-Maurice  d'Alzon,  founder 

different  rites  at  Yamboli  and  Varna.  and    first    Superior    General   of    the    Augustinians 

At  the  instance  of  Cardinal  Vincenzo  Vannutelli,  of  the  Assumption  was  bom  at  Le  Vigan,  France, 

vben  he  was  Apostolic  delegate,  the  Assumptionists  30  August,  1810,  and  died  at  Ntmes,  21  November, 

went  to  Constantinople  and  established  themselves  in  1880.     He  was  a  member  of  a  noble  family,  and, 

the  Turkish  quarter  at  Koum-Kapou.    The  animosity  being  an  only  son,   encountered  strong  opposition 

of  the  Turks  and  the  jealousy  of  the  Greeks  and  Ar-  when  he  decided  to  enter  the  clerical  state.     He 

menians  caused  the  new  missionaries  to  be  very  studied  at  the  seminary  of   Montpellier  and  later 

badly  received.    To  escape  persecution  they  worked  at  Rome,  where  he  was  ordained  priest  26  Decem- 

OQ  their  building  at  night,  doing  their  masonry,  car-  ber,  1834.     On  his  return  to  France  the  next  year  he 

pentry  and  painting  themselves.    By  this  stratagem  was  appointed  Vicar-General  of  the  Diocese  of  Nimes, 

they  constructed  their  church  of  Anastasia,  the  nrst  which  position  he  hdd  for  forty-five  years,  serving 

church  consecrated  to  Catholic  worship  in  this  quar-  imder   four   bishops.     Among   nis   earliest   notable 

ter  since  1453.    This  church,  to  favour  the  conver-  works  was  the  establishment  at  Nlmes  in  1843  of  the 

aon  of  the  schismatics,  was  consecrated  to  the  Greek  College  of  the  Assumption,  for  the  education  of  the 

Rite  and  dedicated  by  the  Apostolic  delegate  himself,  children  of  the  aristocracy.    This  college  later  be- 

Tbe  ocmgregation  possesses  other  Greek  churches  at  came  the  cradle  of  his  oongre^tion.    He  was  associ- 

Ksdikoi  (Chalcedon),  on  the  Asiatic  bank  of  the  Bos-  ated    with    Gu^ranger,    Loms    VeuiUot,    and  other 

poruB,  and  at  Gallipoli.    In  order  to  prepare  a  native  champions  of  the  Catholic  cause.     With  the  "  Revue 

clergy,  the  Assumptionists  have  opened  at  Stamboul  de  Tenseignem^it  chr^tien  ",  ^ich  he  founded  and 

(Constantinople)  a  jjetit  s^minaire,  where  sixtv  youn^  directed,  ne  restored  the  Christian  spirit  in  classical 

men  are  instructed  in  the  Greek  Kite.    At  Kadikoi,  studies.    To    combat    Protestantism    in    southern 

in  the  great  Leonine  seminary,  thev  follow  with  the  France  he  established  the  Association  of  St.  Francis 

ordinary  theological  course  special  lessons  in  prepa-  de  Sales.     He  also  suggested  the  idea  of  the  ecclesias- 

ration  for  tiae  pastoral  ministiy.    They  are  also  given  tical  caravan,  formeoDy  the  priests  at  Ntmes,  who 

iastnictions  in  liturgy,  history,  canon  law  and  in  by  request  of  Mgr.  Plan  tier  came  to  Rome  to  visit  the 

the  Greek,  Turkish,  and  Slav  languages.     At  the  day  sovereign  pontiff.    This  was  the  beginning  of  the  great 

of  its  opening  this  seminarv  had  Uiirty  scholars  and  French  pilgrimages  called  the  national  pilgrimages,  the 

eight  professors.    At  Stamboul,  as  at  Kadikoi,  there  directors  of  which  were  for  many  years  the  religious  of 

are  flourishing  schools  for  boys  and  girls,  with  more  the  order  founded  by  Pdre  d'^zon.     By  his  "  alum*- 

than  700   scnolars   in   attendance.    They   do   not  nats'',or  Apostolic  schools,  he  supplied  the  education 

taiSkce  for  receiving  all  the  scholars  who  present  of  the  poor  children  called  to  the  priesthood,  who,  ow* 

themselves.    To  the  labours  of  teaching  are  united  ing  to  lack  of  means,  could  not  be  admitted  to  the 

thoee  of  the  apostleship,  in  behalf  of  the  natives  as  seminaries.    The  Fathers  of  the  Assumption  opened 

well  as   foreigners.    At  Stamboul  and  at  Kadikoi,  fifteen  of  these  houses  which  in  twenty-five  years 

the  priests  preach  and  hear  confessions  in  Italian,  ^ve  more  than  500  priests  to  the  secular  clergy. 

French,    German,    Greek,    and    Turkish.    In    the  To  sustain  this  work  of  charity,  Pdre  d'Alzon  founded 

various  houses   established  throughout  the  empire  the  Association  of  Our  Lady  of  Vocations,  enriched 

at  least  ten  living  languages  are  spoken.    Greeks,  with  numerous  indulgences,  by  Pius  IX  and  Leo  XIII. 

Latins,  and  Orientals  imite  for  the  conferences  of  The  brotherhood,  by  a  decree  of  the  Holy  See,  has 

St  Vincent  de  Paul,  and  the  Sisters  visit  and  care  been  canonically  established  in  the  chapel  of  the 

for  the  sick  to  the  number  of  10,000  annually.  College  of  Ntmes,  and  has  received  the  approbation 

Their  knowledge  of  the  Oriental  lan^ua^  has  of    many  bishops.     P^    d'Alzon    was    much    es- 

been  of  p-eat  service  to  the  Assumptionist  Fathers  teemed  oy  the  Popes  Gregory  XVI  and  Pius  IX. 

in  their  journalistic  labours.    Twelve  of  the  Fathers  The  latter  in  1863  sent  him  to  Constantinople  to 

who  are  the  most  skilled  in  these  studies  write  in  found  in  the  East  the  missions  of  the  Congregation 

the   Oriental    Review.    They    have    their    special  of  the  Assumption.    More  than  once  he  was  pro- 

buUetin,   "Les  Echos    de  TOrient'^    which    circu-  posed  for  the  episcopate,  but  he  always  declined  the 

lates  among  Greeks  and  Orientals.    Because  of  the  nonour,  prefemng  to  devote  himself  to  the  woric  of 

Oriental  love  of  splendour  in  external  worship  the  his  congregation.          Thomas  Gaffnbt  Taatfe. 

feasts  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  are  celebrated  with 

great  pomp.     With  the  consent  of  the  authorities,  Ali^stinas,  ANTomus,  historian  of  canon  law  and 

and  under  the  protection  of  a  corps  of  soldiers,  the  Archbishop  of  Tarrajgona  in  Spain,  b.  at  Saragossa 

prooessiQns  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  are  conducted  26  Feb.,  1517,  of  a  distinguished  family;  d.  at  Tanur 

thnra^  all  the  streets  around  Santa  Sophia.     The  gona,  31  May,  1586.    After  finishing  ius  studies  at 

CathcSc  funerals  solemnized  with  reverential  pomp  AlcaUL  and  Salamanca,  he  went  to  Bologna  (1536), 

produce  also    a  great   effect   upon    the  impression-  to  Padua  (1537),  and  to  Florence  (1538)  in  which 

able  natives.     In    1890    the    Congregation  of   the  latter  place  be  examined  the  famous  ''Codex  Floren- 

Propaganda    confided    to    the    Assumptionists    the  tinus"  of  the  Pandects  and  made  the  acquaintance 

temiory  in  Asia  Minor  extending  from  Broussa  to  of  such  learned  men  of  the  new  historical  school  as 

Angora.   It  practically  embraces  the  ancient  Bithynia.  Andrea  Alciati,  to  whom  he  owed  a  confirmation  of 

Abeady  six  residences  have  been  established  tnere;  his  pronounced  bent  towards  a  positive  snd  critical 


AUOnSTINUS       ^                   106  A90USTOW 

treatment  of  the  ancient  materials  of    canonical  the  time  and  place  of  their  compilation,  it  is  clear 

jurisprudence.     In    1541    he    took    his    degree    of  that  he  did  not  believe  them  earUer  than  the  time 

Doctor  of  Civil  and  Canon  Law  and  in  1544,  at  the  of  Pope  Damasus  (360-384)  or  even  of  the  seventh 

request  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V,  he  was  made  century   ''CoUectio   Hispana".    His   notes   on   the 

Auditor  of  the  Rota  by  Paul  III.    In  1555  he  was  correlated  ''Capitula  Hadriani ''  (Angilramni)  were 

sent  by  Paul  IV  to  England,  with  a  message  of  con-  published    at    Cologne    in    1618.       His    powerfid 

natulation  for  Queen  Mary  and  as  Counsellor  to  genius   was    truly   universal.    Classical    pnilolo^, 

Cardinal  Pole.    In  1556  hie  was  made  Bishop  of  epigraphy,  numismatics,  above  all  the  history  of  civil 

Alife,  in  the  Kingdom  of  Naples,  and  in  1561  was  and  ecclesiastical  law  found  in  him  an  investigator 

transferred  to  Lerida  in  his  native  Spain.     He  as-  whose  boldness  and  insight  were  extraordinary  for 

sisted  during  three  years  at  the  Council  of  Trent  and  that  period  of  incipient  historico-critical  rest^urch. 

urged^  ardently  the  reformation  of  the  clergy.     "  It  Death  surprised  him  at  the  patriotic  task  of  an  edi- 

is  our  fault '',  he  said  in  the  council,  ''  that  so  great  tion  of  the  works  of  the  Spanish  writer,  St.  Isidore 

an  agitation  has  arisen  in  France  and  Germany.    We  of  Seville.    The  works  of  Augustinus  were  printed  in 

must  begin  with  the  reformation  of  the  clergy.    It  ei^t  volumes  at  Lucca  (1775-74);  his  lif e  by  Siscarius 

is  your  business,  O  Fathers,  to  save  b^  your  decrees  is  m  the  second  volume  1-121. 

the  common  weal  of  the  Church  that  is  now  threat-  ,  Maabsen.  CTmcA;.  d.  Q%^«n  und^  Liu,  det.  can,  R^ehta  im 

ptiaH  "     Tn  li^Tfi  hft  wjwi  nmmnipH  hv  ClrMmrv  XTTT  Ahendumd^,  etc,  (Grats.  1870),  I,  xix-xxxiv;  Von  Scherer  m 

enea.        An  Id/O  ne  was  promoiea  Oy  Uregory  Alll  KirthenUx.:  Schott,  Laud.  Punebr.  d.  viri.  Ant.  Auffuetun,  in 

to  the  arcmepiscopal  see  of  1  arragona.  OaUandi,  Ch  veL  Ca$vmum  collect,  dueertatMmum  eyiloffe  (Mains. 

Augustinus  is  one  of  the  foremost  figures  of  the  U^*    p^swolub,  JJ»  cL  uq.  interpnta,  (Leipaig.  1721 ); 

Catholic  Counter-Reformation  that  set  in  with  so  much  S^Stola/^fSSTct^J^  iIm?'  ^'*"'*'''*'   ^'^'    ^'^^ 

vigour  and  success  in  the  latter  half  of  the  sixteenth  *         *  Thomas  J  Shahan 

centurv.     His    chosen    field    was    the    fonles    or  j^y^g^xinxiM  Maria,  O.  D.  C.     See  Cohen,  Hbr^ 

original  sources  of  ecclesiastical  law  both  papal  and  w^aJv                 «*«»»«»»  ^.     ,  ^,    ^^^^             , 

conciliar.    The  basis  of  the  medieval  canon  law  was    '^^^^'  

the  "Decretum"  of  Gratian,  a  useful  codification  of  AugUfltinuB  Novellas,  O.  S.  A.    See  AooamNO 

the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century,  the  ecclesiastical  Novell. 

law-book  of  the  schools  and  the  universities,  of  great  AugaBtinus  TriumphUB.      See  Hermfts  of  St. 

academic  authority,  but  never  formally  approvc^d  by  Augustine. 

the  popes  as  church  legislation.    Its  matenab,  never  AugUBtinuB-Ver^n,  The,  an  association   organ- 

hitherto  critically  illustrated  as  to  their  prominence  i^ed  in  1878  to  promote  the  intereste  of  the  Catholic 

and  form,  and  often  badly  corrupted  as  to  their  text,  preas,  particularly  the  daily  press,  of  Germany.    The 

stood  in  need  of  judicious  sifting  and  elucidation,  society  proposes  to  attain  its  end  (1)  by  giving  its 

It  was  to  this  task  that  the  young  Augustinus  ad-  moral    support   to    the    establishment    of   Catholic 

dressed  himself  from  1538  to  1543.    In  the  latter  papers;   (2)  by  furnishing  trustworthy  information 


medieval   Benedictine   of    Bologna.    This   text   re-  by  representmg    the    interests    of    the    profession: 

mained  his  life-long  study;  towards  the  dose  of  his  (5)  by  securing  positions  and  giving  information  and 

career,  after  important  services  rendered  during  ten  assistance  in  fJl  matters  connected  with  journalism, 

years  to  the  "  (Jorrectores  Romani "  in  their  edition  free  of  charge;  and  finally  (6)  by  endeavouring  to  bring 

of  Gratian  (Rome,  1582),  he  finished  his  own  magis-  about  the  harmonious  co-operation  of  Catholic  pub- 

terial  examination  of  the  work:  it  was  not,  however,  lishers,  as  well  as  uniformity  in  treating  the  ques- 

Sublished  until  after  his  death,  "  De  Emendatione  tions  of  the  day.     The  lack  of  organization  on  the 

iratiani  dialogi   (30)  libri  II"   (Tarragona,   1587).  part  of  the  Catholic  Press  first  became  obvious  at  an 

Other  important  publications  of  the  sources  of  dvil  early  stage  of  the  KuUurkampf;  several  unsuccessful 

and  ecclesiastical  law  occupied  his  pen.    Thus  he  attempts  were  made  to  supply  the  deficiency,  among 

published  in  1567  an  edition  o^  the  Bvzantine  im-  others  the  formation  of  a  society  of  publishers.    The 

penal  constitutions,  in  1576  his  "IV  Antique  Col-  first  feasible  steps  were  taken  at  the  (^tholic  CJonven- 

lectiones   Decretalium",   in   1582  a  treatise  on  the  tion  at  WOrzburg:  at  subsequent  gatherings  plans 

"Penitential  Canons"  together  with  a" PoBoitentiale  were  matured,  and  at  DOsseldorf,  15  May,  1878,  a 

Romanum"    discovered    oy  him.     From    1557    he  programme  was  drawn  up  which  is  sunstantially 

sought  earnestly  for  the  necessary  patronage,  papal  followed    out    in    the    present    Augustinus- Verein. 

or  recal,  to  enable  him  to  publish  the  hitherto  un-  DOaseldori  became  the  centre  of  the  Verein,  which, 

edited  Greek  text  of  the  ancient  ecclesiastical  coun-  ik>w  that  it   has  spread  throughout  Germany,   is 

cils,  and  for  that  purpose  examined  many  archives  in  divided  into  ten  groups,  corresponding  to  geographi- 

Italy  and  Germanv;  the  fruits  of  his  Ubours  were  cal  divisions,  each,  to  a  large  extent  autonomous, 

reaped  at  a  later  date  by  others.    Among  the  more  A  general  assembly  is  held  annually.    The  Verein 

valuable  of  his  posthumous  publications,  and  appealr  has  its  own  organ,  the  ''Augustinusbtatf,  published 

ing  stron^y  to  modem  historical  tastes,  is  a  cntical  at  Krefeld.     ft  also  conducts  a  literary  &ireau,  a 

examination  of  several  early  medievcd  collections  of  beneficial  society,  a  parliamentary  correspondence 

canon  law  that  served  as  original  material  fcMr  the  association  of  the  Centre  Party,  in  Ba'lin,  and  an 

"Decretum"  of  Gratian.    This  work,  that  Maassen  employment  agency.     In   1904  the  society  had    a 

and  von  Scherer  speak  of  with  respect,  is  entitled  regular  membership  of  850,  in  addition  to  the  asso- 

"  De  quibusdam  veteribus  Canonum  Ecclesiastioorum  ejate  membership. 

CoUectionibus  Judicium  et  censura",  and  was  pub-  KdcK  in  Bucbberqeb,  XirdUicA.  ^otuttftr.;  Mbur  in  Kir- 

lishedat  Rome  (1611)  with  the  second  and  third  parts  chcnUx.                                                  r»  •»#  t> 

of  his  "Juris  Pontificii  Veteris  Epitome"  (to  Inno-  '^'  *^-  I^udge. 

cent  III,  1198-1216),  the  first  part  of  which  appeared  ▲ugustopolis,  a  titular  see  of  Palestine,  suffragan 

at  Tarragona  in  1587.     It  contains  biographical  and  of  Petra.     Its  episcopal  list  (431-536)  is  given   in 

text-critical    notes  on  a  number    of    collectors  of  Gams  (p.  454).    There  were  two  other  sees  of  the  saxne 

ecclesiastical  laws,  from  the   sixth   to  the   twelfth  name,  one  in  Cihcia,  a  suffrs^gan  of  Tarsus,  the  o^er 

century.     In  this  work  he  treats  progressively  of  the  in  Phiygia  (Asia  Minor),  suffragan  of  Synnada.      Its 

peeudo-Isidorian  Decretals,   and  while  he  did  not  episcopal  list  (Gams,  p.  446)  extends  from  359  to  869. 

dispose  of  sufficient  material  to  demonstrate  thor-  Lequien,  Onent  Chrut.  (1740),  II.  727-728;  I,  845-88^ 

oughly  their  spurious  character  or  to  attempt  to  fix  Augiutow,  Diocese  of.    See  Senjt. 


AUGUSTUS  107  AUNABIUS 

Aiigiistii8.^The  name  by  which  Caiub  Julius  by  Augjistus  in  the  adminiBtration  of  Rome,  and  hie 
Gasar  Octavianus,  the  first  Roman  Emperor,  in  policy  in  the  Orient  are  of  especial  sigmficance  to 
whose  reign  Jesus  Christ  was  bom,  is  usually  known;  Ihe  historian  of  Christianity.  The  most  important 
b.  at  Rome,  62  b.  c;  d.  a.  d.  14;  It  is  the  title  event  of  his  rei^  was  the  birth  of  Our  Lord  (Luke, 
irhich  he  received  from  the  Senate  27  B.  c,  in  grati-  ii,  1)  in  Palestine.  The  details  of  Christ's  hfe  on 
tude  for  the  restoration  of  some  privileges  of  which  earth,  from  His  birth  to  His  death,  were  very  closely 
that  body  had  been  deprived.  The  name  was  after-  interwoven  with  the  purposes  and  methods  pursued 
wards  assumed  by  all  his  successors.  Augustus  by  Augustus.  The  Emperor  died  in  the  seventy- 
belonged  to  the  gene  Odavia  and  was  "^the  son  of  sixth  year  of  his  age  (a.  d.  14^.  After  the  battle  of 
CWus  Octavius,  a  praetor.  He  was  the  grand-  Act^um,  he  received  into  his  favour  Herod  the 
nepbew  of  (Caius)  Julius  Csesar,  and  was  named  in  Great,  confirmed  him  in  his  title  of  King  of  the  Jews, 
the  tatter's  will  as  his  principal  heir.  After  the  and  fixanted  him  the  territory  between  Galilee  and 
murder  of  .Julius  Csesar,  the  young  Octavianus  the  Trachonitis.  thereby  winning  the  gratitude 
proceeded  to  Rome  to  gain  possession  of  his  inheri-  and  devotion  of  Herod  and  his  house.  After  the 
tonce.  Though  originally  in  league  with  the  repub-  death  of  Herod  (750,  a.  u.  c),  Augustus  divided 
bean  party,  he  eventually  allied  himself  with  Mark  his  kingdom  between  his  sons.  One  of  them,  Arche- 
Antony.  Through  his  own  popularity,  and  in  oppo-  laus,  was  eventually  banished,  and  his  territory, 
atioQ  to  the  will  of  the  senate  ne  succeeded  (43  b.  c.)  together  with  Iduixiffia  and  Samaria,  were  added  to 
in  obtaining  the  consulate.  In  the  same  year  he  the  province  of  Syria  (759,  a.  u.  c).  On  this  occar- 
entered  into  a  pact  with  Antony  and  Lepidus  by  sion,  Augustus  caused  a  census  of  the  province  to 
vhich  it  was  a^^ed  that  for  five  years  they  would  be  taken  by  the  le^te,  Sulpicius  Quirimus,  the  cir- 
control  the  affairs  of  Rome.  This  (second)  Trium-  cuffistAiicee  of  which  are  of  great  importance  for 
virate  (tremri  re^pu6/iccB  ean«^u67uia?)  so  apportioned  the  ri^t  calculation  of  the  birth  of  Christ.  See 
the  Roman  dominions  that  Lepidus  received  Spain:  Roman  Empire;  Luke.  Gospel  of. 
AntoDV,  Graul:  and  Augustus,  Africa,  Sicily,  ana  "^o  <^^  aources  for  me  life  of  Augustus  are  the  Latin 
S^iniA  Th«  firat  nonn^rtAH  mnvA  nf  fhft  Trinm-  writers,  Suetonius,  Tacitus,  Ybixeius  pATERcuims,  and 
Mrainia.    ine  nrst  conceriea  move  oi  tne  inum-  cicbro  (in  his  EpistUs  tuid  ^hilippica);  the  Greek  writers, 

vnate  was   to    proceed    against    the    murderers   of  Nicholas  of  Damascus,  Dio  Cassius,  and  Plutarch.    See 

Gb^T  and  the  party  of  the  S^iate  vmder  the  leader-  &l^o  ^    official    autobiography,   the    famous  Monvmentum 

ship  of  Brutus   and   Cassius.    A   crushing   defeat  ^SPrSTt  *^1•fi^^^f f  ^^^  (^Berlin,  1883), .and  by  Fairlbt 

__»'.«.  t^*  "*'"*'  jXT  t  21         X  \u     u  XXI  ^t^^tjiTm-      •  (Philadelphia,  1808),  with  tr.;  Tillemont,  Htstotre  de8  empe- 

was  inflicted  on  the  latter  at  the  battle  of  Phlhppi  r«ur»,  etc.  (Brussels,  1732);  Merivale,  History  <i  the  Romane 

(42  b.  c),  after  which  the  fate  of  Rome  rested  practl-  itndsr  the  Emjnre  (London.  1850-62);  SMrrn,  DicL  of  Greek 

««y  m  the  hands  of  two  m«».    Lepidus,  .alwavs  T'cSSSSIii^^^^^^^i^f tJ^t^Z'^^, 

toated  with   neglect,    sought    to    obtam    Sicily    for  xvi-xviil:  Ramsay,  Was  Christ  bom  at  Bethlehemf  (New  York 

iunmf,  but  Augustus  86on  won  over  his  troops,  and,  '^^  London,  1808);  The  Ckitr^  under  the  Boman  Empire  (ibid., 

» lis  Bubmission.  sent  him  to  Rome  where  he  spent  l^l^^^^St^r.' i^lf:^!^^' ^^i^ti^"^  '^ 

toe  rest  of  nis  life  as  pontl/ex  maximus.  acter  of  the  legends  that,  at  an   early  date,  made  Augustiis 

A  new  division  of   the  territory  of  the  Republic  oneof  the'* prophets of€?nri8t'',»ee Graf,  I2oman<ttofn«»u>ria 

behm^n    Anfnnv  sltiA    AnoiiatiiA  rofliiltAH     hv  whinh  e  nelie  jntma^/irutnoHi  tLU  Medio  Bvo  (Turin,  1882).  I,  ix,  308, 

oM^rcen  Antoiw  ana  Augustus  resuitea,  Dy  wtucn  33,   ^  ^^  q^^  ^  Hastinqs,  Dia.  of  Christ  and  tfU  Oospeli 

the  former  took  the  East  and  the  latter   the  West.  (New  York,  1906)  s.  v.  Augustus,  1, 143-46. 

When  Antony  put  away  his  wife  Octavia,  the  sister  Patrick  J.  Healt. 

<rf  Augustus,    through    infatuation    for    Cleopatra,         .       , •      1         .^x       a  a 

dvil  war  again  ensued,  whose  real  cause  is  doubtless  .   Aumbry,  variously  wntten  Ambry,  or  Aumbryb. 

to  be  sought  in  the  conflicting  intereste  of  both,  '«  *  denvative  through  the  French  of  the  classiea 

and  the  long-standing  antagonism  between  the  East  O'™'?^^.  or  medieval  Latin  almanum.     Its  original 

ttd  the  West.     The  foUowers  of  Antony  were  routed  "leaning  was  a  cupboard  and  it  has  never  lost  this 

in  the  naval  battle  of  Actium  (31  b.  c),  and  Augustus  "^^.  ^^J'^P'^  ^ense^  but  even  m  classical  Lat;m  it  had 

WM  left,  to  aU  intend  and  purposes,  the  master  of  acquired  m  addition  the  ^cial  sigmfication  of  a 

the  Roman  world.     He  succeeded  in  bringing  peace  cupboard  for  holding  books     This  Emi ted  meamng 

to  the  long-distracted  Republic,  and  by  his  modera-  was  widely  prevalent  in  the  Middle  Ag^.    Thus 

tioQ  in  dealing  with  the  senate,  his  munificence  to  »^.*^e  tenthnientury  rule  of  Cluny  the  hbrwy  is 

the  army,   and    his  generosity  to   the   people,   he  ^^M^^^  armarium  and  the  official  who  had  charge 

atrengthened   his   posftion  and  became  iThujt,  if  ,f  '^  arrmriua  while  by  an  arrangement  which  was 

not  in  name,  the  firat  Emperor  of  Rome.    His  policy  ^^^^  ^^^  ^»^f  .^y  observed  both  m  Benedictine  and  m 

of  preserving  intact  the  repubUcan  forms  of  adminii  °*^^'  monastic  hoi^s,  this  armariua,  or  bbranan, 

trstion  and  of  avoiding  aU  semblance  of  absolute  was  usually  identical  with  the  precentor     In.Elfnc's 

power  or  monarchy  dW  not  dimmish  his  authwity  ^glo-Saxon  glossary,   compiled  at  the  begmmnc 

or  weaken  his  control.    Whatever  may  be  said  in  ?^  ^^%  eleventh   century,    the   Anglo-Saxon   word 


eofisoiidatinK   the    loosely  orgtmized   Homan  state  ^          *       ^           •                     ^    •     / 

iato  a  dosTand  well-knit  whole.     He  was  a  patron  ^^S^  ccwrfrum  m^e  amamentarw   (a  monastenr 

of  art,  letters,  aiid  science,  and  devoted  large^ums  without  a  hbrarjr  is  like  a  fortre^  without  an  arsenal^^ 

of  umey  to  the  embeUishment  and  enlargement  of  ^^^^^s  tl^s  owing  to  the  number  of  cupboards  and 

^me.    It  was  his  wcU-known  boast  that  he  "found  Pf^^  "^!?  ^^'  «*?"^8  vestments,  church  plate, 

itof  briek  and  left  it  of  marble".    Under  his  manage-  ^^^-i  f^  ^.^^d  armarium  was  a^  not  unfrequentiy 

nant,  industry  and   commerce  increased.    Seciw%  ^^^  ^°f  *i^ wTu^^iL.^l'"''^^  *4t  "^^t  ^  ^  "^"^ 

•nd  apidity  of  intercouree  were  obtained  by  meaii  ^  the  fact  that  the  books  were  themselves  m  many 

ol  aiS^w  highways.    He  undertook  to  remove  ^^^  X®P*  j^ .  **^f.  sacnsty.     In  German  the  word 

by  Wi4tion  ^  difloitier  and  confusion  in  life  and  ^Irnerei  s,  derivative  of  armanum,  has  the  meamng 

■CttTblOuirilt    about,    in   great    measure,    by    the  ^^c^^"^^^^  Care  of  Books  (Cambridjje,  1902),  67-88;  Ml. 

WU  WBIS.     Hw  court  Ufe  was  simple  and  unosten-  cbakl,  desckidUe  des  deutsehenVoUces  (RSbui*,  1903),  42-62; 

titiDW.     Severe  laws  were  made  for  the  purpose  of  Q/isqubt,    EnoHsh    Monastic   Life    (London,    1904),    51-55; 

fte  mimoraUty  of  the  ^mes  and  the  theatres  was  Herbert  Thuroton. 

vhed,  and  new  laws  mtroduced  to  regulate  the 

ittooffieedmenandslAves.    The  changes  wrought  AunariiM   (or  Aunacharius),  Saint,  Bishop  of 


AUBEA  108  AUSEUUB 

Auxerre  in  France,  b.  573,  d.  603.   Beingof  noble  birth,  the    monetary    system    thoroughly    revised.    His 

he  was  brought  up  in  the  royal  court,  but  evinced  a  scheme  for  the  complete  unification  of  the  Empira 

desire  to  enter  the  clerical  state,  was  ordained  priest  led  him  to  attempt  to  establish  the  worship  of  the 

b^  St.  Syagrius  of  Autun,  and  eventually  was  made  sun  as  the  supreme  god  of  Rome.''    During  the  early 

Bishop  of  Auxerre.     His  administration  is  noted  for  years  of  his  reign  Aurelian   exhibited  remarkable 

certain  important  disciplinary  measures  that  throw  justice  and  tolerance  towards   the  Christians.     In 

li^ht  on  the  religious  and  moral  life  of  the  Merovin-  Z72,  when   he  had   gained  possession   of   Antioch, 

gian  times.    He  caused  solemn  litanies  to  be  said  after  defeating  ZenoBia  in  several  battles,  he  was 

daily  in  the  chief  centres  of  population,  by  rotation,  appealed  to  by  the  Christians  to  decide  whether  the 

and  on  the  first  day  of  each  month  in  the  lar^r  "Church    building"    in    Antioch    belonged   to  the 

towns  and  monasteries.    He  enforced  a  regular  daily  orthodox  bishop  Domnus,  or  to  the  party  repre- 

attendance  at  the  Divine  Office  on  the  P^rt  both  of  sented  by  the  favourite  of  Zenobia,  Paul  of  Samo- 

regular  and  secular  cler^.     He  held  (581  or  585)  an  sata,  who  had  been  deposed  for  heresy  b^  a  synod 

important  synod  of  four  bishops,  seven  abbots,  thirty-  held  three  or  four  years  before.     His  decision,  based 

five  priests,  and  four  deacons,  for  the  restoration  of  probably  on  the  Edict  of  Gallienus,  was  that  the 

ecclesiastical  discipline  and  the  suppression  of  pop-  property  belonged  to  those  who  were  in  union  with 

ular  pagan  superstitions,  and  caused  the  lives  ot  his  the  bishops  of  Italy  and  of  the  city  of  Rome  (Eus., 

Predecessors  .Miator  and  Germanus  to  be  written.  Hist.  Ecci..  VII,  xxvii-xxx).     As  this  act  was  based 

[e  was  buried  at  Auxerre,  where  he  has  always  on  political  motives,  it  cannot  be  construed  into  one 

been  held  in  veneration.     His  remains  were  later  en-  of  friendliness  for  the  Christians.    As  soon  as  he  was 

closed  in  a  golden  chest,  but  were  partially  dispersed  at  liberty  to  carry  out  his  schemes  for  internal  re- 

by  the  Huguenots  in   1567.    A  portion,  however,  form  Aurelian  revived  the  policy  of  his  predeces- 

was  placed  in  the  hollow  pillar  of  a  crypt,  and  saved,  sor  Valerian,  threatened  to  rescind  the  Kdict  of 

His  feast  is  celebrated  25  September.  Gallienus,  atid  commenced  a^rstematic  persecution 

BuTLKB,  LitJea  o/  thf  Sainu.  25_  September;  P|ner,  in  of  the  followers  of  Christ.    The  exact  date  of  the 

^^J^^0&^l^^-^t^^r.T-y%7'-^.  *  jfifuguration  of  this  policy  >  not  known. .  It  is 

Thomas  J.  Shahan.  "Kely,  however,  that  an  edict  was  issued  in  the 

A««*4^.    /n^iA^^\    «  ♦;♦!«    «i«^«  4^  ^^«:»  »^Ii^«  summer  of  275  and  despatched  to  the  governors  of 

.n^^ J^„£ntl^^i?,?77>^     f l.f  ^F n.^^  t^c  provincos,  but  AurclUn  was  slain  before  he  could 

and   documente:    BttZ^     the    ch^  put  It  into  execution.    Tradition  refers  to  his  reign  a 


commentaries  made  by  St.  Thomas  Aquinas.     Le-  kL,.-«J3:««    Vr.«:„«.,„    o«JL    7^*.^\   ♦i>«*    ui*  «««« 

genda,  a  coUection  of  lives  of  saints  'iegendte)  by  ^^S^P^fJ'  I?'p^U^„i''t^  fl  ^^UTr. 

Sacoplj  da  Voragine,  Archbishop  of   Gi7oa  in  thi  !!P!?Sf'i?l  ^^itllhTSL^^^n  hLr^l^l^r^J^t 

thirt^nth  centuiy.     Summa  flWtenm,  also  Sum-  e"^"^'.*^,  Si  1.^^-  «^S    "..Tf  ^^wt« 

— «    J -.-I.-*— «•«.,«•«•     «    ^»»^,ia    ^^u^^^^uiA^    r^f     *u^  peril.        It  would  seem    ,ne  said,     as  if  you  were 

^nir^  nS?f  S' th.  fcT.U^?^^^™  TY  ^  ^oldxm  your  meetings  in  a  churcll  of  the  Christians 

WJLT^l  ^t^,«:«   n^^^  ^7a  ^-h^  instealo'f  in  a  temp&  of  aU  the  gods";  from  which 

Irran^n^l^'  ^'^rl.'^^&l'^'h  ^clfn^T^hl^'^f^h^^'^^uil^rlhh^'^'rf 

St.  Thomas  Aquinas  prepared  by  Pietro  da  ^rgamo.  t"*'^^J^a'j'?iirthrbundh^  IS'r^^t^i 

Aurelian  (Lucius  Domitius  Aurelianus),  Roman  worship  of  the  Christians  were  becoming  more  and 

Emperor,  270-275,  b.  of  humble  parents,  near  Sirmium  more  conspicuous  ". 

in  raimonia,  9  September,  214;  d.  275.     At  the  age  Homo,  Eaaai  mr  le  r^qns  de  Vemperettr    Aur&ien    (Paris, 

of  twenty  he  entered  the  militanr  service,  in  wWcf,  mH^^rSLd^  /t'^Si^^J^wn^^S^^^^ 

because  of  exceptional  abdity  and  remarkable  boddy  ieiuchr,  fur  wBaenKh^ftiiche  Theol.,  XLVIII  (new   Beries, 

strength,  his  advancement  was  rapid.    On  the  death  XIII),  Oct.,  1906;  Diet.  Chritt.  Biofp-.  s.  v.  Aweiian,  I,  22©; 

of  Claudius  he  was  proclaimed  Emperor  by  the  army  5S<=h'J«'»»  ^*ft.  «»««nn«  de  W»^JPww.  iMC).  I,  465- 

at  Sirmium,  and  became  sole  master  of  the  Roman  PATRTrnr  T  TTRAT-e 

domimons  on  the  smcide  of  his  nval  Oumtillus,  the 

candidate  of  the  Senate.    When  Aurdian  assumcKi  AureliopolU,  a  titular  see  of  L^rdia  in  Asia  lienor, 

the  reins  of  government  the  Roman  world  was  di-  whose    episcopal    list    (325-787)  is  given  in   Gams 

vided  into  tmee  sections:  the  Gallo-Roman  Empire,  (P-  447). 

established    by    Postumus,    comprising    Gaul    and  Lequmn,  Orietw  Chntt,  (1740).  I.  8ft5-«96;  III.  869-962. 

Britain;  the  kingdom  of  Palmyra,  which  held  sway  AlireUas,  Archbishop  of  Carthage  from   388   to 

over  the  entire  Orient,  including  Egypt  and  the  423.     From  the  time  of  St.  Cyprian,  Carthase  was 

greater  part  of  Asia  Minor,  and  the  Roman  Empire,  one  of  the  foremost  sees  in  Christendom.    Its  bishop, 

restricted  to  Italy,  Africa,  the  Danubian  Provinces,  though  not  formally  bearing  the  title  of  Primate, 

Greece,  and    Bithynia.    On    the    upper    Danube,  confirmed    the   episcopal    nominations    in    all    the 

Rhsetia  and  Northern  Italy  were  overrun  by  the  provinces  of  Africa,  convoked  and  presided  at  the 

Juthuiw,  while   the   Vandals    were    preparing   to  plenary  councils,  which  were  held  almost   yearlv, 

invade  rannonia.    The  internal  affairs  of  Kome  were  and  si^ed  the  synodal  letters  in  the  name  of  all  t£e 

equally  deplorable.       The  anarchy  of   the  legions  participants.     Such  a  post  Aurelius  occupied  with 

and  the  frequent  revolutions  in  preceding  reigns  had  distinction  at  a  time  when  Africa  hdd  the  Intel- 

shattered  the  imperial  authority;  the  treasury  was  lectual  leadership  in  the  Church.    His  episcopate 

empty  and  the  monetary  system  ruined.    With  no  coincided  with  the  last  great  effort  made   bv   the 

support  but  that  afforded  by  the  army  of  the  Danube.  Donatists  to  uphold  a  losing  cause,  and  witK  the 

Aurelian  undertook  to  restore  the  material  and  moral  first  appearance  of  Pelagianiam.     Both  these  crises 

unity  of  the  Empire,  and  to  introduce  whatever  re-  Aurelius  met  with  eouai  decision  and  wisdom.     A 

forms  were  necessary  to  give  it  stability.    Enormous  man  of  conciliating  oisposition,  and  a  great   k>ver 

as  this  project  was,  in  the  face  of  so  many  obstacles,  of  peace,  his  tendency  to  an  indulgent  treatment 

he  succeeded  in  accomplishing  it  in  less  than  five  of    repentant    Donatists    was    conspicuous    in    the 

years.    When  he  died,  tne  frontiers  were  all  restored  synodal  acts  of  his  own  church,  ancl  in  the  plenary 

and  strongly  defended,  the  unity  of  the  Empire  was  coimcils    over  which   he   presided  he    consistently 

established,  the  administration  was  reoi^ni^ed,  the  upheld  the  same  moderate  policy.     But  when  the 

finances  of  the  Empire  placed  on  a  sound  Tooting,  and  rk)natist8  reBorted  to  rebellion  and  wholesale  niur- 


AUBBiIUI                              im  AURKJUB 

(far,  he  joined  his  oolleaguee  in  ^pealing  to  the  trate  into  a  rich  and  tempting  temtQrv.      People 

secular  power.    He  was  the  first  to  unmask  and  with    strange-somiding    names,    the    Marcomanni, 

denounce  Pelagianism.    In  412  he  exconmiunicated  Varistee,  Hermanduri,  Quad!,  Suevi,  Jazy^es,  Vandals, 

and  drove  from  Carthage  Cslestius,  the  disciple  of  collected  along  the  Danube,  crossed  the  frontiers, 

Peiagius.    In  416  he  condenmed  them  both,  in  a  and  became  tne  advance-guard  of  the  great  migra- 

synod  of  sixty-eight  bishops  of  the  Proconsulate,  tion  known  as  the  "Wandering  of  tl^  Nations", 

aod  induced  Innocent  I  to  brand  their  two  principal  which  four  centuries  later  culmmated  in  the  ovei- 

erron  by  defining   the  necessity  of  grace  and  of  throw  of  the  Western  Empire.     The  war  against 

uhni  baptisuL     When  Pope  2i06imus  allowed  him-  these  invaders  conunenced  in  167,  and  in  a  short  time 

jelf  to  be  deceived  by  Pelsgius's  lyinf;  professions,  had  assumed  such   threatening   proportions  as  to 

he  held  (417)  a  plenary  council  of  his  Afnoan  brethren,  demand  the  presence  of  both  emperors  at  the  front, 

and  in  their  names  warned  the  pontiff,  who  in  turn  Lucius  Verus  died  in  169,  and  Marcus  was  left  to 

(418)  cond^nned  the  heresiarchs.    Aurelius  is  men-  carry  on  the  war  alone.     His  difficulties  were  im- 

tiooed  in  the  African  martyrolcMry  on  20  July.  measurably  increased  by  the  devastation  wrought  by 

LnwQ,  L'Afrique    dtrHi^ne  CFim,   lO^)*   I;    Pab-  the  plague  carried  westward  by  the  returning  legions 

71  a£Su'%  ?5rf^f  Si-iSSSi/jjS;.  '^]-  ^  a^.  of  V^™«..V  i^'^  '^d  earthquakes,  and  by  inunda- 

410^18;  PoBTALit  in  I>M<.  de  tMoL  eaih.  s.  r.  AuguBtm,  tions  which  destroyed  the  vast  grananeS  of  Rome 

A.  J.  B.  VuiBERT.  and  their  contents.    In  the  panic  and  terror  caused 

by  these  events  the  people  resorted  to  the  extremes 

Anroliiu  Antoninoi,  Marcus^  Roman  Emperor,  of  superstition  to  win  back  the  favour  of  the  deities 

A.  D.  161-180,  b.  at  Rome,  26  Apnl,  121;  d.  17  March,  through  whose  anger  it  was  believed  these  visitations 

180.    His  father  died  while  Marctis  was  yet  a  boy,  were    inflicted.      Strange    rites    of    expiation    and 

aod  be  was  adopted  by  his  grandfather,  Annius  Verus.  sacrifice  were  resorted  to,   victim^  were  slain  by 

In  the  first  pages  of  his  ''  Meditations "  Qi,  i-xvii)  thousands,  and  the  assistance  of  the  gods  of  the 

he  has  left  us  an  account,  unique  in  antiquity,  of  Orient  sought  for  as  well  as  that  of  the  gc^  of  Rome. 

his  education  by  near  relatives  and  by  tutors  of  dis-  During  the  war  with  the  Quadl  in  174  there  took 

tinctioD;  diligence,  mtitude^  and  hardiness  seem  to  place  the  famous  incident  of  the  Thundering  Legion 

hare  been  its  chief  diaractenstics.    From  his  earliest  {Legio  Ftdminatrix,  Fxdminea,  Fulminata)  which  nas 

E)  enjoyed  the  friendship  and  patronage  of  the  been  a  cause  of  frequent  controversy  between  Chris- 
r  Hadrian,  who  bestowed  on  him  the  honour  tian  and  non-Christian  writers.  The  Roman  army 
luestrian  order  when  he  was  only  six  years  old,  was  surrounded  by  enemies,  with  no  chance  of  escape, 
made  him  a  member  of  the  Sahan  priesthooa  at  eight,  when  a  storm  burst.  The  rain  poured  down  in 
and  compelled  Antoninus  Pius  inunediately  after  his  refreshing  showers  on  the  Romans,  while  the  enemy 
own  adoption  to  adopt  as  sons  and  heirs  both  the  were  scattered  with  lightning  and  hail.  The  parched 
young  Marcus  and  Ceionius  Commodus,  known  later  and  famishing  Romans  received  the  saving  drops 
as  t&  Emperor  Lucius  Verus.  In  honour  of  his  first  on  their  faces  and  parched  throats,  and  after- 
adopted  fatner  he  chtmged  his  name  from  M.  .£lius  wards  in  their  helmets  and  shields,  to  refresh  their 
Aumius  Verus  to  M.  Aurelius  Antoninus.  By  the  horses.  Marcus  obtained  a  glorious  victory  as  a 
wiD  of  Hadrian  he  espoused  Faustina,  the  daughter  of  result  of  this  extraordinary  event,  and  his  enemies 
Antoninus  Pius.  He  was  raised  to  tne  consulship  in  were  hopelessly  overthrown.  That  such  an  event 
140,  and  in  147  received  the  '' tribunician  power",  did  really  happen  is  attested  both  by  pagan  and 
(See  Roman  EImperor.)  In  all  the  later  years  of  the  Christian  writers.  The  former  attribute  the  occur- 
life  of  Antoninus  Pius,  Marcus  was  his  constant  com-  rence  either  to  magic  (Dion  Cassius,  LXXI,  8-10) 
paoion  and  adviser.  On  the  death  of  the  former  (7  or  to  the  prayers  of  the  emperor  (Capitolinus,  "  Vita 
March,  161)  Marcus  was  inmiediately  acknowledged  Marci ",  aXIV:  Themistius,  "Orat.  XV.  ad  Theod. "; 
as  emperor  by  the  Senate.  Acting  entirely  on  nis  Glaudian, '^Deoext.Oons.  Hon.",  V,  340 sqq.; ''Sibyl, 
own  initiative,  he  at  once  promoted  his  adopted  Orac.",  ed.  Alc^candre,  XII,  196  sqq.  Cf.  Bellori, 
toother  Lucius  Verus  to  theposition  of  colleague,  with  "  La  Colonne  Antonine  '\  and  Ecloid,  " Doctrina 
equal  rights  as  emperor.  With  the  accession  of  Mar-  Nummorum'^  111,64).  The  Christian  writers  at- 
nu  the  great  Pax  Romana  that  made  the  era  of  the  tributed  the  fact  to  the  prayers  of  the  Christians 
Antonines  the  happiest  in  the  annals  of  Rome,  and  who  were  in  the  army  (Claudius  ApoUinaris  in  Euseb. . 
perhaps  of  mankind,  came  to  an  end,  and  witn  his  ''Hist.  Eccl.  ",  V,  5;  TertuUian,  "Apol.  *\  v;  aa 
reign  the  glory  of  the  old  Home  vanished.  Younger  Scap.  c.  iv),  and  soon  there  grew  up  a  legend  to  the 
peoples,  untainted  by  the  vices  of  civilization,  and  effect  that  in  consequence  of  this  miracle  the  em- 
boiwinf  nothmg  of  the  inanition  which  comes  from  peror  put  a  stop  to  tne  persecution  of  the  Christians 
over-refinement  and  over-indulgence,  were  preparing  (cf.  Euseb.  and  Tert.  opp  cit.).  It  must  be  conceded 
to  Btnij^e  for  the  lead  in  tl^  direction  of  human  that  the  testimony  of  Claudius  ApoUinaris  (see 
(iestiny.  Marcus  was  scarcely  seated  on  the  throne  SmithandWace,  "Diet,  of  Christ.  Biogr.",  1, 132-133) 
vhen  the  Picts  commenced  to  threaten  in  Britain  is  the  most  valuaUe  of  all  that  we  possess,  as  he 
the  recently  erected  Wall  of  Antoninus.  The  Chatti  wrote  within  a  few  years  of  the  event,  and  that  all 
aod  Cbauci  attempted  to  cross  the  Rhine  and  the  credit  must  be  given  to  the  prayers  of  the  Christians. 
Qpper  reaches  of  the  Danube.  These  attacks  were  though  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  we  shoula 
<a^  repelled.  Not  so  with  the  outbreak  in  the  accept  the  elaborate  detail  of  the  story  as  ^ven  by 
Orient,  which  commenced  in  161  and  did  not  cease  Tertullian  and  later  writers  [Allard,  op.  cit.  infra, 
antil  166.  The  destruction  of  an  entire  legion  (XXII  pp.  377,  378:  Renan,  "Marc-AurMe"  (6th  ed.,  Paris, 
Daotttnana)  at  Elegeia  aroused  the  emperors  to  the  1891),  XVII,  pp.  273-278;  P.  de  Smedt,  "Principes 
gravity  of  the  situation.  Lucius  Verus  took  com-  de  la  critique  hist."  (1883),  p.  133].  The  last  years 
nttad  of  the  troops  in  162  and,  through  the  valour  of  the  reign  of  Mareus  were  saddened  by  the  appear- 
aad  skfll  of  his  lieutenants  in  a  war  known  officially  ance  of  a  usurper,  Avidius  Cassius,  in  the  Orient, 
aa  the  BeUum  Armemacum  et  Parthicumf  waged  over  and  by  the  consciousness  that  the  empire  was  to 
tW  wide  area  of  Syria,  Cappadocia,  Armenia,  Meso-  fall  into  unworthy  hands  when  his  son  Commodus 
potifflia,  and  Media,  was  able  to  celebrate  a  glorious  should  come  to  the  throne.  Mareus  died  at  Vindo- 
trinmph  in  166.  For  a  people  so  long  accustomed  bona  or  Sirmium  in  Pannonia.  The  chief  authori- 
^petee  as  the  Romans  were,  this  war  was  wellnish  ties  for  his  life  are  Julius  Capitolinus,  "Vita  Maroi 
htaL  It  taxed  all  tl:»ir  resources,  and  the  wiuv-  Antonini  Philosophi"  (SS.  Hist.  Aug.  IV):  Dion 
<hiwal  of  the  legions  from  the  Danubian  frontier  Cassius,  "Epitome  of  Xiphilinos";  Herodian;  Fronton 
9aveia  opportunity  to  the  Teutonic  tribes  to  pene-  "Epistolse"  and  Aulus  Qellius  "Noctes  Atticte". 


▲umvLnrft  no  jL9»B^irt 

Marcus  Aurdius  was  one  of  the  best  men  of  heathen  of  Trajan  jgkve  way  to  a  more  severe  temper.  Ii 
antiquity.  Apropos  of  the  Antonines  the  judicious  Southern  Uaul,  at  least,  an  imperial  re8orii>t  in- 
Montesquieu  says  that,  if  we  set  aside  for  a  moment  augurated  an  entirely  new  and  much  more  violent 
the  contemplation  of  the  Christian  verities,  we  can-  era  of  mreecution  (Eus.,  Hist.  EccL,  V,  i,  46). 
not  read  the  life  of  this  emperor  without  a  softening  In  Asia  Minor  and  in  S3rria  the  blood  of  Chnstians 
feeling  of  emotion.  Niebunr  calls  him  the  noblest  flowed  in  tork^nts  (Allard,  op.  cit.  infra,  pp.  375. 
character  of  his  time,  and  M.  Martha,  the  historian  376,  388,  380).  '  In  genend  the  recrudescence  of 
of  the  Roman  moralists,  savs  that  in  Marcus  Aure-  persecution  seems  to  have  come  immediately  through 
lius  "the  philosophy  of  Heathendom  grows  less  the  local  action  of  the  provincial  governors  impdled 
proud,  draws  nearer  to  a  Christianity  which  it  by  the  insane  outcries  of  terrified  and  demoralized 
Ignored  or  which  it  despised,  and  is  ready  to  fling  city  mobs.  If  any  general  imperial  edict  was  issued, 
itself  into  the  arms  of  the  Unknown  God ".  On  the  it  has  not  survived.  It  seems  more  probable  that 
other  hand,  the  warm  eulogies  which  many  writere  the  "new  decrees"  mentioned  by  Eusebius  ^Hist 
have  heaped  on  Marcus  Aurelius  as  a  ruler  and  as  a  EccL,  IV,  xxvi,  5)  were  local  ordinances  of  municipal 
man  seem  excessive  and  overdrawn.  It  is  true  that  authorities  or  provincial  governors;  as  to  the  em- 
the  most  marked  trait  in  his  character  was  his  peror,  he  maintained  affainst  the  Christians  the  ex- 
devotion  to  philosophy  and  letters,  but  it  was  a  isting  legislation,  though  it  has  been  aigued  that  the 
curse  to  mankind  tnat  "he  was  a  Stoic  first  and  imperial  edict  (Digests,  XLVIII,  xxix,  30)  against 
then  a  ruler".  Hb  dilettanteism  rendered  him  those  who  terrify  by  superstition  "the  fickle  minds 
utterly  unfitted  for  the  practical  affairs  of  a  laige  of  men"  was  directed  against  the  Christian  soci- 
empire  in  a  time  of  stress.  He  was  more  concerned  ety.  Dudiesne  savs  (Hist.  Ancienne  de  TEglise, 
witn  realizing  in  .his  own  life  (to  say  the  truth,  a  Paris,  1906,  p.  21Q)  that  for  such  obscure  sects  the 
stainless  one)  the  Stoic  ideal  of  perfection,  than  he  emperor  womd  not  condescend  to  interfere  with  the 
was  with  the  pressing  duties  of  nis  oflice.  laws  of  the  empire.    It  is  clear,  however,  from  the 

Philosophy  became  a  disease  in  his  mind,  and  cut  scattered  references  in  contem^rary  writing  (Cdsus, 
him  off  from  the  truths  of  practical  life.  He  was  "In  Orijien.  Contra  Celsiun  ",  VIII,  169;  Melito,  in 
steeped  in  the  grossest  superstition;  he  surrounded  Eus. /' Hist.  Eccl.  *',  IV,  xxvi;  Athenagoras,  "I^egatio 
himself  with  charlatans  and  magicians,  and  took  with  pro  ChristialKs  ",  i)  that  throughout  the  empire  an 
seriousness  even  the  knavery  of  Alexander  of  Abo-  active  pursuit  of  the  Christians  was  now  und^taken. 
noteichos.  The  highest  oflices  in  the  empire  were  In  order  to  encourage  their  numerous  enemies,  the 
sometimes  conferred  on  his  philosophic  teachers,  ban  was  raised  from  the  cfetofor^,  or  "denouncers", 
whose  lectures  he  attended  even  after  he  became  and  they  were  promised  rewards  for  all  cases  of 
emperor.  In  the  midst  of  the  Parthian  war  he  successfu  conviction.  The  impulse  given  by  this 
found  time  to  keep  a  kind  of  private  diary,  his  legislation  to  an  unrelenting  pursuit  of  the  foUowers 
famous  "Meditations",  or  twelve  short  books  of  of  C!hrist  rendered  their  condition  so  precarious  that 
detached  thoughts  and  sentences  in  which  he  gave  many  changes  in  ecclesiastical  omnization  and 
over  to  posterity  the  results  of  a  rigorous  self-  discipline  date,  at  least  in  embryo,  m>m  this  rei^. 
examination.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  letters  Another  sii^ificant  fact,  pointing  to  the  growing 
dbcovered  amon^  the  works  of  Pronto  (M.  Com.  numbers  ana  influence  of  the  Christians,  and  the 
Frontonis  Reliquise,  Berlin,  1816)  this  history  of  his  increasing  distrust  on  the  part  of  the  imperial  au- 
inner  life  is  the  only  work  which  we  have  from  his  thorities  and  the  cultured  dasses,  is  that  an  active 
pen.  The  style  is  utterly  without  merit  and  di*-  literary  propaganda,  emanating  from  the  imperial 
tinction,  apparently  a  matter  of  pride,  for  he  tdls  surroundings,  was  commenced  at  this  period.  The 
us  he  had  learned  to  abstain  from  rhetoric,  and  Qynic  philosopher  Crescens  (see  Justin  Martyr) 
poetry,  and  fine  writing.  Though  a  Stoic  aeeply  took  part  in  a  public  disputation  with  St.  Justin  in 
rooted  in  the  principles  developed  by  Seneca  and  Rome.  Pronto,  the  preceptor  and  bosom  friend  of 
Epictetus,  Aurelius  cannot  be  said  to  have  any  Marcus  Aurelius,  denounced  the  followers  of  the 
consistent  system  of  philosophy.  It  might  be  said,  new  religion  in  a  formal  discourse  (Min.  Felix. 
perhaps,  in  justice  to  this  seeker  after  righteous-  "Octavius",  cc.  ix,  xxxi)  and  the  satirist  Lucian  of 
ness  ,  that  his  faults  were  the  faults  of  his  Samosata  turned  the  shafts  of  his  wit  against 
philosophy  rooted  in  the  principle  that  human  them,  as  a  party  of  ignorant  fanatics.  No  better 
nature  naturally  inclined  towards  evil,  and  needed  proof  of  the  tone  of  the  period  and  of  the  wide- 
to  be  constantly  kept  in  check.  Only  once  does  he  spread  knowledge  of  Christian  beliefs  and  prac- 
refer  to  Christianity  (Medit.,  XI.  iii),  a  spiritual  tices  which  prevailed  amone  the  pagans  is  needed 
regenerative  force  that  was  visibly  increasing  its  than  the  contemporary  "True  Word"  of  C^us 
activity,  and  then  only  to  brand  the  Christians  with  (see  Orioen),  a  work  in  which  were  collected  all 
the  reproach  of  obstinacy  (rapdra^is),  the  highest  the  calumnies  of  pagan  malice  and  all  the  ar^- 
social  crime  in  the  eyes  of  Roman  authority.  He  ments,  set  forth  with  the  skill  of  the  trained  rhetori- 
seems  also  Hbid.)  to  look  on  Christian  martyrdom  cian,  which  the  philosophy  and  experience  of  the 
as  devoid  of  the  serenity  and  calm  that  should  ac-  V^&^  worid  could  muster  against  the  new  creed, 
company  the  death  of  the  wise  man.  For  the  The  earnestness  and  frequency  with  which  the  Chris- 
possible  relations  of  the  emperor  with  Christian  tians  replied  to  these  assaults  by  the  apologetic 
bishops  see  Abercius  of  Hierapolis,  and  Melito  of  works  (see  Athenaooras,  MiNUcrus  Feux,  Theo- 
Sardis.  philus  op  Anttoch)  addressed  directly  to  the  em- 

In  his  dealings  with  the  Christians  Marcus  Aurelius  perors  themselves,  or  to  the  peo^e  at  laige,  show 

went  a  step  farther  than  any  of  his  predecessors,  now  keenly  alive  they  were  to  tne  dangers  arising 

Throughout    the    reigns  of    Trajan,  Hadrian,    and  from  these  literary  or  academic  foes. 
Antoninus  Pius,  the  procedure  followed   by  Roman        From  such  and  so  many  causes  it  is  not  surprising 

authorities    in    their  treatment  of    the  Christians  that  Christian  blood  flowed  freely  in  all  parts  of  the 

was  that  outlined   in  Trajan's    rescript  to  Pliny,  empire.     The  excited  populace  saw  in  the  misery 

by  which  it  was  ordered  that  the  Christians  should  ana  bloodshed  of  the  period  a  proof  that  the  gods 

not  be  sought  out;  if  brought  before  the  courts,  were  angered   by  the   toleration  accorded  to    the 

le^    proof    of    their    guilt    should    be    forthcom-  Christians;  consequently,  they  threw  on  the  latter 

•  "tic         


ing.    [For   the    much-disputed    rescript  "Ad  con-    all    blame    for    the    incredible    public    calamities. 
ventum  Asia"  (Eus.,  Hist.  EIccl.,  IV,  xiii),  see  An-    Wh®*^®'  ^^  ^^  famine  or  pestilence,  drought   or 

Tertull.,  "Apologeti- 
leanem  (Fhiow  the 


TONiNTS  Pius].    It  is  clear  that  during  the  reign  of    floods,  the  cry  was  the  same  (Tertull.,  'VApologeti- 
Aurelius  the  comparative  leniency  of  the  legislation    cimi",  V,  xli):    Christianos  ad 


AUSBOLA  111  AXTBIBSVILLE 

Christians  to  the  lion.)     The  pages  of  the  Apolo-  eiven  to  the  settlement  on  the  St.  Lawrence  opposite 

nets  show  how  frequently  the  Christians  were  con-  Lachine   which   was    established   for   the   Iroquois 

donned  and  what  penaltiee  they  had  to  Endure,  and  converts  who  wanted  to  withdraw  from  the  cor- 

theee  vague  and  general  references  are  confirmed  by  ruption  of  their  pagan  kinsmen.    To  the  village  on 

some  contemporary  "Acta"  of  unquestionable  au-  the  Mohawk  Jogues  and  Goupil  were  brought  in 

thority.  in  which  tne  harrowing  scenes  are  described  1642  as  prisoners,  and,  in  1646,  Jogues  again,  with 

in  aU  their  rrueeome  details.    Among  them  are  the  Lalande.    In  1644  Bressani  was  tortured  there,  and 

"Acta"  of  Justin  and  his  companions  who  suffered  later  on  Poncet.    In  1655-56-57  Le  Moyne  came  as 

at  Rome  (c.   165),  of  Carpus,  Papyhis,  and  Aga-  ambassador  to  make  peace:  and  the  year  after  the 

thonica,  who  were  pnt  to  death  in  Asia  Minor,  of  punitive  expedition  of  the  Marquis  de  Tracy  a  per- 

tbe  SdUitan  Martyrs  in  Numidia,  and  the   touch-  manent    nussion    was    established    (1667).      There 

ing  Letters  of   tba   Churches   of    Lyons    and   Vi-  Father    Boniface,    James   de    Lamberville,    Fremin 

ennc  ^us.,  Hist.   BiccL,  V,  i-iv)   in  which  is  con-  Bruyas,  Pierron,  and   others  laboured  until    1684, 

teined  the  description  of  the  tortures  inflicted  (177)  when  the  mission  waa  destroyed.    The  famous  Indian 

on  Blandina  ana  her  companions  at  Lyons.     Inci-  girl,  Tegakwitha,  was  bom  there.    From  it  she  escaped 

dentj^y,  this  document  throws  much  light  on  the  to  Canada.    While  the  missionaries  were  in  control 

cbaracter  and   extent   of   the   persecution   of   the  of  Ossemenon  and  the  adjacent  Indian  towns,  the 

Christians  in  Southern  Gaul,  and  on  the  share  of  the  Mohawk  converts  were  remarkable  for  their  exact 

emperor  therein.  Christian  life,  and  in  many  instances  for  their  exalted 


m^^    v^w.uo    *«««     ^^^«^^    <<«^w»  ^®  exact  location  of  this  village,  which  is  so 

*«  wrtfetrfion*  penrfa1^**«<i"^J^W«  »t^fe«  0^  intimately    associated    with    the    establishment    of 

1892).  ec.  vi-vii;   Rrman,  Mare-AwHa  H  la  fin  du  monde  Christiamty  in  New  York,  was  for  a  time  a  subject 

K^  i!P^J^\Jii^u!:^A^l  VSu\  5SSn  ^^Ll!^'  of  considerable  dispute.    The  researches  of  John  Gil- 

Nero  to  Marcua  Aiareltua  (L^naon,  190^)t00o-oll,  SLaapasswi!  o,  ,        »^,  ,    ,  *  j.i.     i.*  j.   __       r  At 

Farbab,  Marcus  Awelius  In  Seekers  after  dod  (London,  mary  Shea,  whose  knowledge  of  the  history  of  the 

iwo.)   His  Mediiations  have  been  tranaUted  into  Eni^b  eaiiy  mission  was  SO  profound,  at  first  favoured  the 

lL^rS^\J^''AJ}:^^^l^^^i^^^  view  that  the  old  village  was  on  the  other  side  of 

uu  Cenrt  Ues  ArUontns)  (Faru,  1863);    DARTiONU-fETBON,  xi_      ■»«•  i        i        .        »     Z^-  m  -u        tt-h        ■%* 

Mfirc-AwHe  dans  aes  rapports  avec  le  Christianisme  (Paria.  the    Mohawk    at    what    IS    now   Tnbes    Hill.      More 

18W).  thorough    investigations,    however,    aided    by  the 

Patrick  J.  Hbalt.  conclusions  of  Gen.  J.  S.  Clarke  ot  Auburn,  whose 

A    aaI       q     V  knowledge  of  Indian  sites  both  in  New  York  and 

inreMt.    See  Nimbus.  Huropia  is  indisputable,  have  shown  finally  that  the 

AveoH  (AvRB^UB,  d'Auriol,  ORir  ,),  Petrus.  oresent  Auriesville  is  the  exact  place  in  which  Father 

a  Franciscan    philosopher    and    theologian,   callea  Jogues  and  his  companions  suffered   death.     The 

on  account  of  hk  elo<[uence  Doctor  facimdus,   b.  basic  evidence  is  the  fact  that,  up  to  the  time  of  their 
1280  at  Toulouse  (or  Verberie-sur-Oise);  d.  10  Jan-*  destruction  by  de  Tracy,  the  villages  were  certainly 

uanr,  1322  (Denifie;  other  dates  assigned  are  1330  on  the  south  side  of  the  Mohawk  and  west  of  tli^ 

ana  1345).    He  entered  the  Orcter  of  Friars  Minor,  Schoharie — ^as  is  clear  from  contemporary  maps,  and 

ftudied  at  Toulouse,  taught  theolo^  there  and  at  ^m  Jogue8's,Bressani's,  and  Poncet 's  letters.    JoUet, 

Pkris  and  became   (1319)   nrovincial  of  his  order  one  of  the  most  accurate  cartographers  of  the  time, 

(Province  of  Aquitaine).    John  XXII  appointed  him  puts  the  villaffe  of  Ossemenon  at  tne  junction  of  the 

Arcfabishopof  Aix  (1321).    He  defended  the  doctrine  Schoharie  and  Mohawk.     To  further  particularize 

of  the  Immaculate  Conception  in  apublic  disputation  it,  Jogues  said  the  village  was  on  the  top  of  the  hill, 

at  Toulouse  (1314),  in  his  "De  Uonceptione  Maris  a  quarter  of  a  league  from  the  river.    The  ravine  in 

Vnginis"  and  "Repepcussorium"   (replv  to  pppo-  which  Goupil 's  bcxiy  was  found  is  also  specified  by 

unte  of  the  doctrine),  in  his  "Sermons     and  in  nis  Jo^ee,  ana  he  speaks  of  a  watercourse  and  a  rivulet 

cooMnentary  on  St.  Bernard's  teaching.    His  other  muting  there — a  feature  still  remaining.    The  dis- 

pnncipal  works  are  the  commentary  on  the  "Sen-  tances  f rom  Andagaron  and  Tionontoguen  given  by 

tences"    of    Peter    Lombard    (Rome,    1696-1606),  Father  Joeues  also  fix  the  exact  locality. 
"Quodlibeta'',    and    "Breviarium    Bibliorum'',    an        Satisfied  that  the  precise  spot  had  be^  determined, 

introduction  to  the  Scriptures  with  literal  commen-  ten  acres  of  land  on  the  hill  were  purchased  in  1884 

tary,  which  appeared  in  numerous  editions  at  Venice  by  the  Rev.  Joseph  Loyzanoe,  o.  J.,  who  was  at 

Paris,  and  Lou  vain.    A  new  edition  by  Seeboeck  was  that  ^me  parish  priest  of  St.  Joseph's,  Troy.  N.  Y..  and 

publiiiied   at    Quaracchi   in    1896.     In   philosophy  who  had  all  his  life  been  an  ardent  student  ot  the 

Aureoli  was  a  Conceptualist  and  a  forerunner  of  lives  of  the  early  missionaries.     Father  Lojrsance 

Occam.     He  critioised  the  doctrine  of  St.  Thomas  erected  a  small  shrine  on  the  hUl,  under  the  title  of 

and  defended,  though  not  in  all  points,  the  views  of  Our  Lady  of  Martyrs,  and  he  was  the  first  to  lead  a 

ScotuB.    His  writings  on  the  Iminaculate  Conception  number  of  pilgrims  to  the  place,  on  the  16th  of  August 

were  published  by  ^trus  de  Alva  in  the  "Monumenta  of  that  yesx,  which  was  the  anniversary  of  the  nrst 

Seraphiea  Imm.  Concept''.  arrival  of  Father  Jogues  as  an  Iroquois  captive. 

MSSF«4j^<>»««»«^*<f'  II.  463;  Stawonik  mDerKaOuiilik,  Four  thousand  people  went  from  Albany  and  Troy 

'^k^1^:^::Si^!Srpl^:^{l^':it^i»i^^  ««  that  day     d^er  parishes  subeeciuently  adopted 

E.  A.  Pace.  *he  practice  of  visitmg  AunesviUe  during  the  summer. 

Frequently  there  are  as  many  as  four  or  five  thou- 

Alireiu  Codes.    See  Codex.  sana  people  present.     The  grounds  have  been  since 

Amkoltf  Oonf esBicn.    See  Conpession.  extended  beyond  the  original  limits  for  the  purp^ 

-n-niiiM  vvjuooiMwu.    »w  v^^rx^oii^i^.  ^^  kccpiug  the  surrouudings  free  from  undesirable 

AnriasyiUe,   the  site    of    the    Mohawk  village,  buildini^.     Many  of  the  pilgrims  come  fasting  and 

Montgomery  Co.,  New  York,  U.   S.  A.,  in  which  receive  rioly  Communion  at  the  shrine.    The  entire 

Father  I^ac  Jogues  and  his  companions,  Goupil  day  is  passed  in  religious  exercises,  but  anjrthing 

md  Lalande,  were4>ut  to  death  for  the  Faith  by  tne  which  could  in  the  least  savour  of  any  public  cult  of 

liMfians.    It  is  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Mohawk,  the  martyrs  is  sedulously  euarded  against,  as  such 

•bool  forty  miles  west  of  Albany.    Auries  was  the  anticipation  of  the  Church's  official  action  would 

BUM  of  u!e  last  Mohawk  who  lived  there,  and  ttom  seriously  interfere  with  the  cause  of  their  canoniza- 

tltt  the  present  designation  was  formed.     It  was  tion,  which  is  now  under  consideration  at  Quebec, 

known    among    the   Indians   as   Ossemenon,    also  The  present  buildings  on  the  site  are  only  of  a  tem^ 

Gadawa^  and  Caughnawaga,  the  latter  being  also  porary  nature.    If  the  Church  pronounces  on  the 


AURISPJ^                               112  AUfONIUI 

reality  of  the  martyrdom  of  the  three  miasionaries,  Toaw.  §foria  di  Bcnifado  VUl  (Modu  CMnno.  ISJW);  Juwe^ 

more  suitable  edifices  wiU  be  erected.  ^S^i^!'^'  vnr  ^^fniT^ll  pll^^^^Phk^ 

Shea.  Life  of  /.o^  ^.oQuea.  SJ,  (New  York.  lB^2);JemsU  ^  j£rf  (Paria.  1861):' Fimkb,  A%U  den  Taoen  Btmifas  Vni 

AnnaU  of  the  Shrtne  (New  York);  Wynne,  A  Shnne  tn  me  \P  n»Hir»i>nAv 

Mohawk  VaUey  (New  York,  1905).  •"•  ^  «^lORDAN. 

T.  J.  Campbell.  AuBoniiui,  Dbcxuus  Maonub,  a  professor  and  poet 

Aurispa,  Giovanni,  a  famous  Italian  humanist  ^  about  a.   d.  310;   d.,  probably,  about  a.  d   m, 

and  coUector  of  Greek  manuscripts,  b.  about  1369  The  son  of  a  physiciaii  of  Bordeaux,  he  studied  firet 

at  Noto.  in  SicUy;  d.  at  Ferrara  m  1459.    It  is  not  i"?  that  city,  then  at  Toulouse,  with  his  uncle  iEmibiM 

known  where  he  first  studied.    In  1418  he  went  to  Mamus  Arbomis.    The  latter  havmg  gone  to  teach 

Constantinople  to  learn  Greek  and  to  collect  codices,  m  CoMt^tmople,  Ausomus  returned  to  Bordeaux, 

So  industrious  was  he  that  he  was  accused  to  the  where  he  became  profesror  of  grammar,  and  later  od 

Greek  emperor  of  despoiling  the  city  of  boo|w.     He  ?f  rhetonc.  ^Between  364  and  868,  Valentmian  I 

returned  to  Venice  in  1423  with  238  volumes  of  S^»*»^j^„^  Tner  to  teach  his  son  GraUan.    In 

classical    authore,    purchased     at    Constantinople.  ^^^.J^^J^^^.-^^^'^Jfi^ff^SlP®?/^ J^  ^^^ 

Among  his  treasures  were  the  celebrated  ''Codex  "         "  *  ''"'"   -     — -        ^       ^    ..— .            ~v 
Laurentianus"    (seven   plays   of   Sophocles,  six   of 
iGschylus,  Apollouius's    Angonautica  ')  of  the  tenth 

century,  the  Iliad,  Demosthenes,  Plato,  Xenophon,  ^  ^  t  ^x.  xa  ^  •  •  ^i  ..u  us 
ete.  The  next  year  Aurispa  went  to  Bologna,  where  ^en  Prefect  of  the  West  conjomUy  wiUi  his  boti 
he  became  professor  of  ^reek  at  the  university.  ?esperiU8  O^etween  August,  378,  and  July,  379). 
As  a  teacher  he  was  not  very  successful.  Thence  I?  ^79.^®  hec^m%  consul.  After  the  assassmation 
he  was  invited  to  Florence,  where  he  also  hdd  the  ^  Gratikn,  hw  benefactor  (383),  Ausomus  mov«i  to 
chau-  of  Greek.  Later  he  went  to  Ferrara.  In  1441  Bordeaux,  where  he  hved  among  many  admirmg 
he  was  appointed  secretary  to  Pope  Eugene  IV.  ™^^/  and  wrote  a  great  deal  of  poetiy.  He 
Six  yeare  later  Pope  Nicholas  V  r^ppointed  him  l-ved  through  almost  the  whole  of  the  fourth  cen- 
to the  same  post.  Besides  being  a  tireless  collector  ^^ry?  The  wntmgs  of  Ausomus  are  generally 
of  manuscripts,  Aurispa  was  a  poet  of  some  merit.  ?^ort,  and  they  form  a  miscellaneous  coUection  which 
His^published  works  include  lettera,  epigrams,  and  ^  t'o^J^^^y^^^,)  "Epigrams":   short 

Voio^*  Die   Wiedei^>eiamno   dee   klae^itchm    AUerihwne  Ppems  on  different  subjects,  often  trandated  from  the 

(Berlin,  1893);  Sabbadxnx,  Bio^ra^  <iocMm«n<ato  tf»  GuivaniM  Greek  Anthology.     (2)  "  Parentaha '' :    thirty  eulo- 

Avriapa  (Noto,  1890).                                       -d,,^^™  gics  on  dec  \sc3^  relatives,  with  some  occasional  ex- 

£.DMUND  BURKE.  pressious  of  personal  sentiment  '(about  379).     (3) 

Aurora  LacU  Butilat. — ^This  is  one  of  the  so-  "  Commemoratio  profeesorum  Burdigalensium  "\  a 
called  Ambroeian  hymns,  but  its  author  is  unknown,  collection  like  the  preceding,  giving  an  idea  of  a  uni- 
It  has  been  revised  and  separated  into  three  hymns  versity  in  the  fourth  century  ^ter  389).  (4)  "  Mo- 
for  the  Roman  Breviarv.  The  firat  sixteen  lines  sella  '^:  a  description  of  the  River  Moselle  and  the 
form  the  hymn  for  Lauds  from  Low  Sunday  to  the  country  through  which  it  flows,  written  while  travel- 
Ascension,  and  begin  in  the  revised  form,  Aunra  ijng  from  Bingen  to  Trier  (c.  371).  This  poem  has  a 
Cadum  Pvrpurat.  There  are  many  English  versions  certain  local  and  archaobgical  interest.  (5)  Charm- 
in  use  among  Protestents.     Dr.  J.  M.  Neale's  trans-  in^  poems  relating  to  Bissula  (after  368).     (6)  Many 


and  Evangelists  for  paschal  time  at  the  first  and  grandson  (about  380);  '' Cupido  crucifixus '':  descrip- 
second  Vespers  and  Matins.  This  hymn  has  also  tion  of  a  painting  in  a  dining-room  at  Trier,  which  rep- 
been  translated  into  English.  The  Gregorian  melody  resented  Cupid  as  tormented  in  hell  by  the  women 
is  in  the  third  mode  and  may  be  found  in  the  "  Ves-  who  pursued  him  on  earth,  eto.  (7)  "  Gratiarum 
perale  Romanum  ".  Lines  33  to  the  end  of  the  actio  dicta  domino  Gratiano  Augusto  ",  in  which  Au- 
ancient  hymn  form  **  Paschale  Mimdo  Gaudium,''  the  sbnius  expresses  in  prose  his  thanks  for  having  been 
hymn  at  Lauds  in  the  Ck>mmon  of  Apostles  inpaschal  made  consul.  This  was  read  at  Trier  in  379,  and  is 
time.  Among  the  EnsHsh  versions,  besides  Dr.  made  up  of  flowers  of  rhetoric  and  conventional  flat- 
Neale's,  are  those  of  J.  A.  Johnston  in  his  "En^h  teries.  (8)  ''  Ephemeris  ":  the  account  of  daily  du- 
Hymnal"  (1852),  "With  sparkling  rays  mom  decks  ties,  from  morning  to  night;  a  fragment  (379).  In 
the  sky";  E.  Oaswall,  "Lyra  Catholica"  (1849),  this  work  is  found  a  morning  prayer  composed  of 
"The  dawn  was  purpUng  o'er  the  skv'';  J.  D.  Cham-  Biblical  expressions  in  which  the  doctrine  of  the  Trin- 
bers,  "  Lauda  Svon '  ^  (1857),  "  Light'is  very  mom  its  ity  is  set  forth  in  detailed  formulae  directed  against  the 
beams  displays   .  l»resies  of  the  times.     (9)  "Lettera":   twenty-five 

BiuMKR.  Oeechichfs  rfM^wieij  (Freiburg,  1895);  Juliak.  epistles,  mostly  in  verse.    The  most  interesting  are 

Dtci.  of  Hymnoloffy  (New  YoA.  1893).     ^^^^  ^^^^^  address^  to  St.  Paulinus  of  Nola  (393)  and  m  them 

.         ,.      _,-.        -  ^^         ,,         J   e-   -r.         I.*  Ausonius  bewails  a  conversion  that  deprives  the  State 

,«^^?"^  ™*i.  *  r       ^r?rr^;P^u.v  •4?^°JP?r,  and  literature  of  the  benefit  of  such  a  briUiant  mind, 

1301,  bv  Pope  Boniface  VIII  to  Phihp  the  Fair,  ^nd  tries  to  lead  the  saint  back  to  worldly  life  at 


gardle»  of  papal  authonty.  He  drove  from  their  vided  society.  aO)  "PraBfatiuncula":  prefaces  and 
sees  thcwe  bishops  who,  hi  opposition  to  his  will,    envois  to  pdems. 

rei^med  faithful  to  the  pope.  This  letter  is  couchad  n.  School  Exbroises  and  FRAOMmra.— These  ar« 
m  firm  but  internal  terms.  It  pomts  out  the  evik  chiefly  mnemonic  verse:  "  Caesaree  ",  on  the  Roman 
the  king  has  bought  to  his  kingdom,  to  Church  and    ©mperore;  consular  annals;  "Ordo  nobilium  urbium  ". 

Rome  and  endins 
'^  a  collection  ot 
the  months,  the 


The 

Magnum 
EMdm 


oomplete  text  of  thi«  Bull  in  found  in  the  BidlaHitm    «.i-„j«-  ^^itmU^m*  ^^^  .  "  PA«.;^^k<n '»  /P^n4-ArtfA^   JL««rv««, 
m  (Luxemburg.  1730).  IX.  121  sqa.:  cf.  Hbfsle-    calendar,  weighte,  etc.,    /OTOchffi    (Contents),  prose 

Lsa,  ConeiiitnoeeehiehiM  (Praibuii,  1^),  VI,  324-338;    headings  for  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyaaey.    It  is  doubt- 


Axmmr                      113  AvntLkLik 

ful  whether  Ansonras  wrote  these,  but  they  were  others.    Among  his  writings  are:   "The  Christian 
at  least  the  work  of  a  member  of  the  circle  to  which  Moderator:  or  rerseoution  for  Itdigion  condemned 
be  belonged;  short  poems  on  the  labours  of  Her-  by  the  Light  of  Nature,  by  the  Law  of  God,  the  Evi> 
cules;  on  the  Muses;  on  ethical  subjects  (tranda-  dence  of  our  own  Principles,  but  not  by  the  Practice 
tioL5  of  Greek  originals,  inspired  by  Pythagorean  of  our  Commissioners  for  Sequestrations — In  Four 
philoeophy).    Other  writings  are  lectures  by  a  pro-  Parts  "  (London,  1652, 4to.)*    it  was  published  under 
tcfisor;  Epitaphs,   eulogies  on  dead   heroes  of  the  the  pseudonym  of  William  Birchlev,  and  in  it  he 
Troii^  War,  modelled  filter  the  Greek,  and  epitaphs  on  frequently   disclaims   the   pope's    deposing   power. 
Niobe,  Diogenes,  etc.,  trandated  from  tne  Greek;  *'  In  this  work,  Austin  assummg  the  disguise  of  an 
Epyilia,  various  pieces,   among  others  an  enigma  independent,  shows  that  Cathmics  did   not  really 
on  the  nimiber  three,  a  diversion  of  a  courtier  forced  hold   the  odious  doctrines   vulgarly  attributed  to 
to ^  to  war  (368);  ''Cento  nuptialis''  (an  ingenious  them,  and  makes  an  eneigetic  appeal  to  the  inde- 
conoeit  of  the  same  origin,  tne  result  of  a  wager  pendents  to  extend  to  the  t^erents  of  the  persecuted 
made  with  Valentinian),  extracts  from  Virgil,  tne  church  such  rights  and  privileges  as  were  granted  to 
omdusion  of  which  fc(mst<m7na(io  mo^montt)  is  not  other  religious   bodies     (Diet,    of   Nat.   Biogr.,  II, 
vciy  refined  (368);  "  Technopaegnion  ",  a  collection  264).     "The  Oatholique's  Plea;  or  an  Explanation  of 
of  verses  in  which  each  ends  in  a  monosyllable;  the  the  Roman  Catholick  Belief ,  Concerning  their  Church, 
authenticity  of  the  Consul  Ausonius's  prayer,  written  Manner  of  Worship,  Justification,  Civil  Government, 
in  ropalic   verse    (verse    composed   successivdy  of  Together  with  a  Catalogue  of  all  the  Poenal  Statutes 
words  of  one,  two,  three,  four,  five  syllables  and  against   Popish   Recusants,   All   which   is   humblv 
80  on)  is  doubtful;  "Ludus  septem  sapientum'';  this  submitted  to  serious  consideration,  By  a  Catholick 
product  of  the  seven  sages  is  a  kind  of  scholastic  Gentleman"  (London,  1659,  18mo.),afso  under  the 
drama,  in  which,  after  a  prologue,  each  sage  recites  pseudonym  of  William  Birchlev;  '' Reflections  upon 
a  proverb;  at  the  end,  they  invite  the  audience  to  the  Oaths   of   Supremacy  and   Allegiance;  or   the 
applaud.    It  is  a  document  interesting  for  the  his-  Christian  Moderator,  The  Fourth  Part,  By  a  Catho- 
U>iy  of  pedagogy  ana  also  for  the  medieval  drama,  lick  Gentleman,  an  obedient  son  of  the  Church  and 
To  appraise  Ausonius  justly  it  must  be  borne  in  loyal  subject  of  his  Majesty"  (London,  1661);  "A 
mind  tnat  he  represents  the  professor  of  the  fourth  Punctual  Answer  to  Doctor  John  Tillotson's  book 
coitury.    Some  of  his  works,  therefore,  written  for  called  'The  Rule  of  Faith'  "  (imfinished);  "Devo- 
the  scQool  and  in  the  spirit  of  the  school,  frequentlv  tions.  First  Part:  In  the  Ancient  Way  of  Offices, 
tranriations  from  the  Greek,  are  unimportant.    A  With  Psalms,  Hynms,  and  Prayers  for  every  Dav  in 
versifier  to  whom  any  subject  could  appeal   (the  the  Week,  and  every  Holiday  in  the  Year ".     It  is 
more  difficult  and  the  lees  poetical  it  was,  the  better),  not  kiK)wn  when  and  where  the  first  edition  appeared; 
Auaooius  knew  by  heart  the  works  of  his  predeoes-  the  second,  a  duodecimo,  is  dated  1672.     An  edition 
sors,  but  by  his  taste  and  nietrical    peculiarities  printed  at  Edinburgh,  1789,  contains  a  life  of  the 
showed  himself  a  disciple  rather  of  the  poets  of  the  author,    presumably    by    Dodd.    This    work    was 
new  school  {neoUricif  poetic  innovators  of  the  time  adapted  to  the  uses  of  the  Anglican  Church  in  Hicks's 
of  the  Severi)  than  of  the  classic  poets.     In  this  "Harmony  of  the  Gospels",  etc.   (London,  1701), 
work  the  letters  to  Paulinus  of   Nola  are  an  excep-  and  has  l)een  often  reprinted  as  a  stock  book  under 
tbn  to  the  whole,  which  is  almost  void  of  ideas,  the  title  of  Hicks's  Devotions.     "Devotions,  Second 
Auaonius's  attitude  in  regard  to  Christianity  should  Part,  The  Four  Gospels  in  one,  broken  into  Lessons, 
be  explained  in  the  same  way.    The  paganism  of  his  with  Reeponsories^  To  be   used    with    the    Offices, 
works  is  the  paganism  of  the  schools,  and,  if  one  Printed  AimoDommi,  1676  "  (2  vols.,  Paris,  12mp),  a 
would  base  on  that  the  doubt  that  he  was  a  Christian,  posthumous  work,  divided  into  short  chapters  with 
invcredy,  his  literarjr  manner  of  treating  mythology  a  verse  and  prayer  at  the  end  of  each.    The  prayers, 
should  make  it  Questionable  whether  he  was  a  pagan,  says  GiUow,  "gave  rise  to  offence  under  the  impres- 
Bm  the  paschal  prayer,  and  still  more,  the  prayer  sion  that  they  favoured   Blackloe's  doctrine  con- 
of  the  "  Ephemeris  ",  could  not  have  been  written  by  oeming  the  middle  state  of  souls,  and  on  account 
a  pagan.     An  orthodox  Christian  in  his  prayers,  he  of  this  the  work  was  not  republished ''.    A  third  part 
was  a  pagan  in  the  class-room.     Hence  his  works,  of  the  "Devotions"  was  never  printed;  it  contained, 
which^redass-roomproductions,  may  very  naturally  according  to  the  author's  own  statement  "Prayers 
seem  pagan.     It  is  said  that  after  the  edict  of  Julian  for  all  occasions,  framed  by  an  intimate  friend  ac- 
(362)  Ausonius  had  to  give  up  teaching;  but  there  cording  to  his  (Austin's)  directions,  and  overlooked 
is  nothing  to  prove  this,  nor  is  there  any  proof  to  by  himself ".     He   also   wrote   several   anonymous 
the  contrary,  as  Julian  died  the  fdlowing  year.    It  is  pamphlets  against  the  divines  who  sat  in  the  West- 
supposed  that,   like   some   of   his   contemporaries,  minster  Assembly. 

Ausonius  remained  a  catechumen  for  a  long  time.  Qillow,  BibU  DicL  Eng,  Cath.,  I,  87-90;  Coopsr  in  Diet, 

It  is  possible  that  he  was  not  baptized  until  the  time  ^^  ^^-^  ^^»  ^^'                      av,^„.«  t  g,,  „,^t 

wh^  we  lose  all  trace  of  him,  in  the  last  sUent  and  I^omas  J.  bHAHAN. 

EDmoN^^^i^KL^in  ^ciiumenta  Qemumim   HUUmea;  ^  -^1"^   OanOIUI,     See  CanonS  AOT  CanonESSES, 

Aud0n9tttUiq}d99imi  (Berlin,  1883),  II;  Peipbr  in  BtbHotheca  RequLAR. 

l^^?&^^m)^^SL,X^^rr^K^^>'^  „  ^^^  'ri""-    See  Canons  and  Canonesses. 

nUeftteder  r&niachen  LUeratur  (Munich,  1004),  IV.  1,  20-40,  RSGULAR. 

fSS^J^'^^SSA  ^^irii^i^r'  ^-«-'  «  <*«  AuitraBa  (also  known  as  New  Holland  tUl-about 

Paul  Lbjay.  1817)  is    geographically    the  world's    great  island- 

contment.    PoHtically,  the  mainland,  with  the  ad- 

Anstin,   John,  an   English   lawyer   and  writer,  joining  island  of  Tasmania,  forms  the  Commonwealth 

b.  1613  at  Walpole.  in  Norfolk;  d.  London.  1669.  of  Australia.    This  is  imder  the  British  Crown  and 

He  was  a  student  of  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  consists  of  the  following  six  Stktes,   which   were 

aod  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  about  1640  embraced  tne  federated  on  1  Jan.,  1901,  and  are  here  named  in  the 

OKthoiic  Faith.     He  was  highly  esteemed  in  his  pro-  order  in  which  they  became  separate  colonies  of  the 

^ttrion  and  was  looked  on  as  a  master  of  English  British  Empire:  New  South  Wales  (1788);  Tasmania 

style.    His  time  was  entirely  devoted  to  books  and  (1S03);  Western  Australia  (1826);  South  Australia 

liteivy  pursuits.    He  enjoved  the  friendship  of  such  (1836):    Victoria    (1851);    and   Queensland    (1859). 

«ho!ar8  as  the  antiquary  Blount,  (Christopher  Daven-  'The  Commonwealth   covers  an   area  of   2,980,632 

port  (Franciscus  a  Santa  Clara),  John  Sergeant,  and  square  miles.    It  is,  territorially,  about  one-fourth 

n.- 


AXraTRALI4  114  AUflTEALIA 


times  larger  than  Germany  or  France,  and  about  on  their  first  consignment  to  the  guardianship  of  the 
twenty-five  times  larger  than  the  British  Isles.  At  law.  In  many  illustrious  cases,  a  long  and  dan- 
the  census  of  1901  the  population  of  the  six  States  gerous  residence  in  the  most  depraved  penal  settle- 
was  as  follows:  New  South  Wales,  1,359,943;  Western  ments  was  unable  to  extinguish  these  noble  char- 
Australia,  182,553;  Victoria,  1,201,341;  Queensland,  aoteristios.'^  During  the  first  three  decades  of  the 
503,266;  South  Australia,  362,604;  Tasmcmia,  172,475.  nineteenth  century  the  convict  population  was 
This  gave  the  Commonwealth  in  1901  a  total  popu*  notably  increased  by  the  addition  of  many  who  had 
lation  of  3,782,182.  The  official  estimate  of  the  taken  part  in  the  agitations  in  connexion  with 
total  population  for  December,  1905,  was  4,002,893.  tithes,  the  Charter  and  Reform  movements,  the 
I.  The  Convict  System. — ^The  north  and  west  Combination  Laws,  and  the  Com  Laws.  During  the 
coasts  of  Australia  figure  in  the  maps  of  Spanish  and  first  fifty  years  and  more  of  the  Australian  penal 
Portuguese  navigators  as  far  back  as  about  the  year  settlements,  convictions  and  sentences  of  deporta- 
1530.  But  it  was  the  War  of  American  Independ-  tion  were  matters  of  fearful  facility.  For  no  provi- 
ence  that  led  to  the  settling  of  the  white  man  on  the  sion  was  made  for  the  defence  of  prisoners  unable 
shores  of  the  ^reat  lone  continent.  At  that  time,  to  procure  it  for  themselves;  the  right  of  defence 
and  until  the  mneteenth  century  was  well  advanced,  throughout  the  entire  trial  was  not  recognized  till 
the  maxim  of  Paley  and  of  others  of  his  school,  that  1837;  jurors  were  allowed  to  act  as  witnesses;  and, 
crime  is  most  eflfectually  prevented  by  a  dread  of  belongmg,  as  they  generally  did,  to  **  the  classes " 


of  England "   (IV,  309),   "  more  than  six  hundred  sumption  of  guilt  (See  National  History  of  England, 

different  offences  had  been  made  capital — a  state  of  IV,  310). 

law  unexampled  in  the  worst  periods  of  Roman  or  Convictism  endured  in  New  South  Wales  from  its 
Oriental  despotism  *\  Transportation  was  the  ordi-  first  foundation  in  1788  till  1840.  Tasm§,nia  re- 
nary  commutation  of,  or  substitute  for,  the  slip-knot  mained  a  penal  colony  till  1853.  Transportation  to 
of  the  hangman.  From  1718  to  1776  British  con-  Norfolk  Island  ceased  in  1855.  Moreton  Bay  (in  the 
victs  had  been  sent  in  considerable  numbers  annually,  present  State  of  Queensland)  becfune  a  convict  station 
imder  contractors,  into  servitude  on  the  American  m  1824  and  remained  one  till  1839^  Western  Aus- 
mainland.  The  traffic  was  stopped  by  the  War  of  traiia  began  as  a  penal  settlement  in  1826.  It  oon- 
Independence.  At  the  close  of  the  struggle  the  tinned  as  such  for  only  a  very  brief  space.  Owing 
British  prisons  and,  later  on,  the  prison-hulks  to  the  dearth  of  free  labour,  convicts  (among  whom 
overflowed.  The  colony  of  New  South  Wales  (till  was  the  gifted  John  Boyle  O'Reilly,  a  political 
1826  synonymous  with  the  whole  Australian  main-  prisoner)  were  reintroduced  from  1849  till  186& 
land)  was  established  as  a  convict  settlement  by  an  when  the  last  shadow  of  "the  system ''  was  lifted 
Order  in  CJouncil  dated  6  Decembw,  1785.  On  13  from  Australia.  Two  noted  Catholic  ecclesiastics 
May,  1787,  "the  first  fleet",  provisioned  for  two  years,  (Dr.  UUathome  and  Dr.  Willson,  first  Bishop  of 
left  England,  'with  1,030  souls  on  board,  of  whom  Hobart)  took  a  prominent  and  honoured  part  in 
696  were  convicts.  They  reached  Botany  Bay  on  the  long,  slow  movement  which  led  to  the  aboli- 
20  January,  1788.  They  abandoned  it  after  a  few  days  tion  of  the  convict  svstem  in  New  South  Wales, 
because  of  its  shallow  waters,  and  laid  the  founda-  Tasmania,  and  Norfolk  Island.  Almost  froqi  the 
tions  of  Sydney  on  the  shores  of  the  noble  and  dawn  of  the  colonization  of  New  South  Wales  and 
spacious  harbour  to  which  they  gave  the  name  of  Tasmania,  voluntary  settlers  went  thither,  at  first 
rort  Jackson.  The  men  who  founded  Sydney  and  as  stragglers,  but  in  a  steady  stream  when  the  ad- 
the  Commonwealth  of  Australia  "may  have  been  vantages  of  the  country  became  known,  when  irre- 
convicts",  says  Davitt,  "but  they  were  not  neces-  sponsible  military  rule  ceased  (in  1824)  and  when 
sarily  'criminals',  such  as  we  are  familiar  with  free  selection  and  assisted  immigration  were  planks 
to-day.  Some  account  must  be  taken  of  what  con-  in  the  policy  of  the  young  Australian  colonies.  The 
stituted  a  crime  in  those  transportation  days,  and  first  free  settlers  came  to  Queensland  (known  till  its 
of  the  hideously  unjust  sentences  which  were  in-  separation  in  1859  as  the  Moreton  Bay  District  of 
flicted  for  comparatively  trivial  offences"  (Life  and  New  South  Wales)  in  1824,  just  in  advance  of  the 
Progress  in  Australasia,  193-194).  convicts;  to  Victoria  (known  till  its  separation  in 
Within  the  next  decade,  the  ranks  of  the  original  1851  as  the  Port  Phillip  District  of  New  South 
convict  population  were  swelled  by  a  goodly  percent-  Wales)  in  1835,  and  to  South  Australia  in  1836. 
age  of  the  1,300  unoffending  Catholic  peasants  from  The  gold  discoveries  of  the  fifties  brought  a  great 
the  North  and  West  of  Ireland  who  were  seized  and  inrush  of  population,  chiefly  to  Victoria  and  New 
deported  by  "Satanides"  Carhampton  and  the  Ulster  South  Wales.  Events  have  moved  rapidly  since 
magistrates  during  the  Orange  reign  of  tettoT  in  1795-  then.  The  widened  influences  of  religion,  the  influx 
96,  "without sentence", as Lecky says,  "without trial,  of  new  blood,  the  development  of  resources,  pros- 
without  even  the  colour  of  legality  (Ireland  in  the  perity,  education,  and  the  play  of  free  institutions 
Eighteenth  Century,  III,  419  ;  England  in  the  Eight-  nave  combined  to  rid  the  southern  lands  of  the 
eenth  Century,  VIII,  250).  After  the  insurrection  traces  of  a  penal  system  which,  within  living  memory, 
of  1798,  "a  stream  of  Irish  political  prisoners  was  threatened  so  much  permanent  evil  to  tne  moral, 
poured  into  the  penal  settlement  of  Botany  Bay,  social,  and  political  progress  of  Australia.  The 
and  they  played  some  part  in  the  eariy  history  of  dead  past  has  buried  its  dead, 
the  Australian  colonies,  and  especially  of  Australian  The  reformation  of  the  criminal  formed  no  part  of 
CathoL'cism"  (Lecky,  England  in  the  Eighteenth  the  convict  system  in  Australia.  "  The  body  ,  says 
Century,  VIII,  250).  In  his  "CJatholic  Mission  in  Bonwick,  "rather  than  the  soul,  absorbed  the  atten- 
Australia"  (1836),  Dr.  Ullathome  says  of  those  early  tion  of  the  governors  "  (First  Twenty  Years  of  Austra- 
Irish  political  convicts:  "Ignorance  or  violation  of  lia,  218).  "Vengeance  and  cruelty",  says  Erskine 
religious  principle,  the  knowledge  or  habits  of  a  May,  "  were  it^  only  principles;  charity  and  refonna- 
criminal  life,  were  scarcely  to  any  extent  recognizable  tion  formed  no  part  of  its  scheme"  (Constitutional 
features  in  this  unhappy  class  of  Irish  political  pris-  Historyof  England,  111,401).  For  the  convict,  it  was 
oners.    On  the  contrary,   the  deepest  and  purest  a  beast-of-burden  lijfe,  embittered  by  the  lash,  the  iron 


AUSTRALIA  115  ADSTRALIA 

ball,  the  punishment-cell,  the  prison-hulk,  the  chain-  ary.    Methodism  (then  a  branch  of  the  Anglican 

gsmg,  and  the  "  hell".    "  The '  whipping-houses '  of  the  Establishment)  made  a  feeble  beginning  in  Australia 

Mississippi'',  says  Dilke,  "had  their  parallel  in  New  in  1813;  Presbyterianism  in  1823;  other  Protestant 

South  Wales;  a  look  or  word  would  cause  the  hurry-  denominations    at     later    dates    O^onwick,    First 

ing  of  a  servant  to  the  post  or  the  forge,  as  a  pre-  Twenty  Years  of  Australia,  240).    In  1836,  when 

liminary  to  a  month  in  a  chain-gang  on  the  roads"  Dr.  UUathome  wh>te  his  pamphlet,  "The  Catholic 

(Greater  Britain,  8th  ed.,  373).    For  idleness,  for  Mission  in  Australia ",  Catholic  and  other  dissidents 

disobedience,  for  drunkenness,  for  evenr  trivial  fault,  were  still  compelled   to  attend   the  more  or  less 

the  punishment  was  "the  lash  I — the  lash! — the  lash  I"  perfunctory  services  of   the   Anglican   Church    (in 

(Dr.  UUathome,   in   Cardinal   Moran's   History  of  Moran,  op.  cit.,  153).    The  penalties  for  refusal,  pro- 

the  Catholic    Church    in   Australasia,    156).    And  vided  at  various  times  in  (jreneral  Orders,  consisted 

the  "cat"  was  made  an  instrument  of  tortirre  (Dflke,  in  reduced   rations,  imprisonment,  confinement   in 

Greater  Britain,  8th  ed.,  374).    Matters  were  even  prison-hulks,  the  stocks,  and  the  urgent  pressure  of 

worse  in  the  convict  "hells"  of  New  Norfolk  (estab-  the  public  flagellator's  "cat-o'-nine-tails" — twenty- 

lished  in  1788),  and  of  Port  Arthur  and  Mac^quarie  five  lashes  for  the  firet  offence,  fifty  for  the  second. 

Harbour  in  Tasmania.     In  1835  Dr.  Ullathome  went  and  for  the  third,  the  road-gangs,  or  transportation 

to  New  Norfolk  to   prepare   thirty-nine  supposed  to  the  "  living  death "  of  the  convict  heUs.     (Seethe 

conspirators  for  an  aorupt  passage  into  eternity,  official  and  other  evidence  in  Moran,  op.  cit.,  11*-1 9.) 

Twenty-six  of  the  condemned  men  were  reprieved.  As  late  as  5  March,  1843,  a  convict  named  Bernard 

They  wept  bitterly  on  receiving  the  news,  "whilst  Trainer  was  sentenced  to  fourteen  dajrs'  imprison- 

thoee  doomed  to  die,  without  exception,  dropped  ment  in  Brighton  jail  for  refusing  to  attend  the 

on  their  knees  and  with  dry  eyes  thanked  God  tney  Protestant  service    (Therry  MSS.,   in  Moran,    19). 

were  to  be  delivered  from  so  horrid  a  place  ".    They  This  abuse  of  power  continued  in  Tasmania  till  1844 

"manifested  extraordinary  fervour  and  repentance   .  ^ogan.  The  Irish  in  Australia,  3d  ed.,  257-258). 

received  their  sentence  on  their  knees  "  as  the  will  Both  in  New  South  Wales  and  Tasmania,  the  children 

of  God",   and  on  the  morning  of  their  execution  of  Catholic  convicts  and  all  orphans  under  the  care 

"they  feU  down  in  the  dust  and,  in  the  warmth  of  of  the  State  were  brought  up  in  the  profession  of 

their  gratitude,  kissed  the  very  feet  that  had  brought  the  dominant  creed.     In  1792  there  were  some  three 

them  peace"  (Ullathome  in  Moran,  op.  cit.,  164).  hundred  Catholic  convicts  and  fifty  Catholic  freemen 

For  a  long  period  Australian  officials  and  ex-officials  (mancipists)  in  New  South  Wales.     Nine  years  later, 

were  to  all  intents  and  purposes  a  great  "ring"  of  in  1801,  there  were  5,515  inhabitants  in  the  penal 

spirit-dealers.     Rum  became  the    medium  of  com-  settlement  (Bonwick,  First  Twenty  Years  of  Aus- 

merce,  just  as  tobacco,  and  maize,  and  leaden  bullets  tralia,    17^176).     About   one-third   of   these   were 

were  in  the  earlv  days  of  New  England  (History  of  Catholics;  but  no  regular  statistics  of  religious  beUef 

New  South  Wales  from  the  Records,  II,  271-273).  were  kept  at  the  time  (Kenny,  The  Catholic  Church 

The  cost  of  building  the  first  Protestant  church  in  Aus-  in  Australasia  to  the  Year  1840,  20).    Among  the 

tralia  (at  Sydney)  was,  as  the  pastor's  balance  sheet  "little  flock"  there  were  three  priests  who  had  been 

shows,  in  part  paid  in  rum  Top.  cit.,  II,  66).     "Rum-  unjustly  transported  on  a  charge  of  complicity  in 

sdling  ana  rum-distilling  deoauched  the  convicts  and  the  Irisn  insurrection  of  1798— Fathers  James  Harold, 

their  guards"  (Jos^,  History  of  Australia,  21),  and  James  Dixon,  and  Peter  O'Neill.    The  last-mentioned 

the  moral  depravity  that  grew  up  under  the  system  priest  had  been  barbarously  scourged  on  a  suborned 

is  described  by  Dr.  Ullathome  as  "  too  frightful  even  charge  of  having  abetted  murder — a  crime  of  which 

for  the  imagination  of  other  lands"  (Moran,  op.  cit.,  he  was  afterwards  proved  to  be  wholly  innocent, 

pp.  8-11,  and  "  Historical    Records  of  New  South  '  Father  Harold  was  tne  uncle  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  William 

Wales,  n  and  III,  passim).    The  Irish  Catholic  con-  Vincent  Harold,  O.P.,  famous  in  the  Hogan  Schism 

victs — "most  of  whom",  says  Ullathome  (in  Moran,  in  Pliiladelphia,  and  en  route  to  Ireland  in  1810,  from 

op.  cit.,  152-153),  "  were  transported  for  the  infringe-  Australia,  he  visited  Philadelphia  (Moran,  op.  dt.,  33). 
meat  of  penal  laws  and  for  agrarian  offences  and  mi-        These  priests  were  strictly  forbidden  the  exercise  of 

nor  delinquencies" — had  generally  (according  to  the  their  sacred  ministry.     After  repeated  representa- 

same  eyewitness)  a  lively  dread  of  the  depravity  of  tions,  Father  Dixon  was  at  length,  by  order  of  the 

the  prison  hells  of  the  system.     Irish  Catholic  female  Home  Government,  conditionally  emancipated,  and 

convicts  were  also  saved  to  a  notable  extent  by  their  permitted  to  celebrate  Mass  once  a  month,  under 

robust  faith  from  the  profligacy  which,  almost  as  a  galling  restrictions  (see  Historical  Records  of  New 

matter  of.  course,  overtook  tneir  less  fortunate  sisters  South  Wales,  V,  110).     He  offered  the  Holy  Sacrifice 

from  other  countries  (McCarthy,  History  of  Cur  Own  for  the  first  time  in  New  South  Wales,  15  May,  1803. 

Times,  ed.  1887,  I,  467;  UUatnome,  in  Moran,  157-  There  was  no  altar-stone;  the  chalice,  the  work  of  a 

158).    Long  before,  similar  testimony  was  given  by  convict,  was  of  tin;  the  vestments  were  made  of 

John  Thomas  Bigge,  after  he  had  spent  three  years  parti-coloured  old  damask  curtains  sacrificed  for  the 

(1819-22)  in  Australia  as  Special  Commissioner  from  occasion,  and  the  whole  surroimdings  of  this  mem- 

tbe  Britisb  Government  to  investigate  the  working  orable  event  in  the  history  of  the  Church  in  Australia 

of  the  transportation  system.     In  his  final  report  bespoke  the  poverty  of  Bethlehem  and  the  desolation 

(dated  6  May,  1822)  he  said:  "The  convicts  em-  of  Calvary.    After  little  more  than  a  year,  Father 

barked  in  Ireland  generally  arrive  in  New  South  Dixon's  precious  privilege  was  withdrawn,  and  the 

Wales  in  a  very  healthy  state,  and  are  found  to  be  last  state  of  the  Catholic  convicts  became  worse 

more  obedient  and  more  sensible  of  kind  treatment  than  the  first.     Father  O'Neill  had  in  the  meantime 

during  the    passage  than   any  other  class.    Their  (1803)  been  restored  to  Ireland,  with  his  character 

separation  from  their  native  coimtry  is  observed  to  completely    vindicated.      In     1808    Father    Dixon, 

make  a  stronger  impression  upon  their  minds,  both  broken  down  in  health,  was  permitted  to  return  to 

on  their  departtnre  and  during  the  voya^."  his  native  diocese.    Two  years  later  he  was  followed 

n.  Pehiod  op  Persecution. — The  mfluences  of  to  Ireland  by  Father  Harold,  and  till  1817  a  deep 

religion  were  not  allowed  to  remedy  to  any  great  spiritual  desolation  brooded  over  the  infant  Church 

extent  the  '^  <''u  animalism  and  inhumanity  of  the  in  Australia.    In  the  last-mentioned  year  there  were 

wnvict  systen       Anglicanism  was  de  factor  although  some  6,000  Catholics  in  and  about  Sydney  alone, 

not  de  jurCf  the  established  religion  of  the  Australian  The  representations  of  the  returned  priestly  exDes 

p^ial  colonies.     But   the   Anglican   chaplain,   fre-  resulted  at  length  in  the  appointment  of  Fath^  Jere- 

quently  a  farmer,  run-holder,  and  magistrate,  was  miah  Flynn,  an  Irish  CJistercian,  as  Prefect  Apostolic 

more  conspicuously  a  civil  than  a  religious  function-  of  New  Holland.    Obstacles  were  thrown  in  nis  way 


AU8TBSBSETHA  120  AtftmBlBTHA 

Fiction, — Dftniel  E.  Deniehy,  lawver,  statesman,  Moran,  in  Sydnev,  in  1894);  "  The  Madonna "  (Mel* 

iournalist,  will  be  best  remembered  for  his  clever  bourne,  1897);  '^The  Garland  of  St.  Joseph  "  (1906). 

skit,  "  How  I  Became  Attorney-General  of  Barataria",  A  usefi^  "  Catholic  Almanac  and  Family  Annual "  ia 

which  was  famous  in  its  day,  and  is  still  as  readable  published  for  the  Diocese  of  Maitland.    Illustrated 

as    ever.    James    Francis    Hogan    published    "An  scholastic  annuals  are  also  issued  by  most  of  the  O&th- 

Australian  Christmas  Collection"  of  colonial  stories  olic  colleges  for  boys,  and  by  some  of  the  secondaiy 

and   sketches.     Ambrose    Pratt  is   the   author   of  schools  for  girls. — In  size,  literary  quality,  successful 

''The  Great  Push  Experiment",  ''Franks,  Duellist",  management,  and  influence,  the  Catholic  newspapera 

and    ''Three    Years    with    Thunderbolt".    Among  and  magazines  of  Australia  easily  outrival  the  rest 

other  Australian  Catholic  writers  of  fiction  whose  of  the  religious  press  in  the  Commonwealth.    Manv 

work  has  appeared  in  book  form  are  the  following:  Catholic  names  of  note  in   the  political,  judicial, 

Miss  Tennyson,  Roderick  Quinn,  Laura  Archer  (a  Uterar^r,   and  scientific  history  ot   Australia  were, 

collection  of  Queensland  tales),  F.  M.  Komer  (pen  for  a  time  at  least,  associated  with  the  religious  or 

name,  "George  Garnet"),  a  Loretto  nun   (author  of  secular  press  of  the  country.     Among  them  may  be 

"  I  Never  Knew  "),  the  Rev.  P.  Hickey  ("  Innisfail  **)•  mentioned:  Sir  Charles  Gavan  Duffv;  the  Right  Hon. 

"Australian  Wonderland"  is  a  cleverly  written  book  William  Bede  Dalley,  P.C,  Q.C.;  the  Hon.  John  Hu- 

for  children,  in  which  two  sisters  (one  of  them  a  Sis-  bert  Plunkett,  Q.C..  M.L.C.;  Sir  Roger  Therry;  Rich- 

ter  of  Mercy)  collaborated.    Newspaper  and  periodi-  ard  Sullivan  (brotner  of  A.  M.  and  T.  D.  Sullivan); 

ctd  literature  has  also  been  enriched  with  some  excel-  Judges  Therry,  Real,  Power,  O'Connor,  Casey,  Hey- 

lent  work  in  fiction  by  Australian  Catholic  writers.  don,  and  Omnlan;  the  Hon.  Edward  Butler,  Q.C., 

Poetry. — Among  tne  poets,  two  Irish  singers,  M.L.C..  and  his  brother,  Thomas  Butler;  E.  W.  O'Sulli- 
"Eva"  of  the  Nation  (Mrs.  Kevin  Izod  O'Doherty)  van;  Sir  John  O'Shannasgr,  K.C.M.G.;  the  Hon.  Sir 
and  "Thomasine",  are  now  (1907)  passing  tne  Patrick  Jennings,  K.C.M.G.,  LL.D.,  M.L.C.;  Edward 
evening  of  their  lives  in  humble  retirement  in  Queens-  Whitty,  the  brilliant  Anglo-Irishman,  who  ended  his 
land.  Roderick  Flanagan  (the  historian  of  New  days  in  Melbourne;  William  A.  Duncan,  C.M.G.;  Rod- 
South  Wales)  published  m  his  day  a  volume  of  verse,  erick  Flemagan;  Daniel  E.  Deniehy;  Philip  Mennell, 
Victor  J.  Daley  was  a  gifted  and  prolific  verse-writer,  F.R.G.S.;  John  Farrell;  Victor  J.  Daley;  the  Rev. 
but  his  only  published  work  is  "At  Dawn  and  Dusk".  Julian  E.  Tenison  Woods;  the  Hon.  J.  V.  O'Loghlen; 
John  Farrell,  for  a  time  editor  of  the  Svdnejr  Daily  the  Hon.  Hugh  Mahon;  J.F.  Hogan;  Benjamin  Hoare; 
Telegraph,  was  the  author  of  "How  He  Died,  and  Roderick  and  P.  E.  Quinn;  F.  J.  Bloomfield;  Am- 
Other  Poems".  In  1897  he  wrote  a  "Jubilee  Ode"  brosePratt;HelenK.  Jerome;  John  Hughes,  K.C.S.G.; 
which  was  pronounced  to  be  finer  than  Kipling's  John  Gavan  DufTv;  Frank  Leverrier  (noted  as  a 
"Recessional"  as  a  piece  of  national  stock-taking,  scientist);  Kenneth  McDonall; — Nicholson:  Frank 
Roderick  Quinn  has  written  "The  Higher  Tide  ,  and  Martin  Donohoe;  Ernest  Hoben;  C.  Brennan; 
and  "The  Circling  Hearths";  Edwin  J.  Brady,  a  T.  Courtney;  and  others.  Phil  May  first  won  fame 
poet  of  the  sea  and  wharfside,  "The  Way  of  Many  as  a  caricaturist  in  the  columns  of  an  illustrated 
Waters";  Bernard  O'Dowd,  "Dawnward"  and  "Dar-  weekly  published  in  Sydney.  A  number  of  able  lay 
rawill  of  the  Silent  Land";  Cornelius  Moynihan,  and  clerical  writers  are  associated  with  the  Catholic 
"  Feast  of  the  Bunya,  An  Abori^nal  Ballad ",  with  a  newspapers  and  jperiodicals  of  Australia, 
preface    containing         '          .     .     •     .     «         .  m.^     a        ..  _  ,   ^^^    .  ._.___  j      x. 

and    ethnologica" 

blacks;   the    He^ 

dramas  in  blank  verse;  J.  Hood,  "Land  of  the  Fern";  PlenarySynods  of  1886  and  1896:  Historical  Recordt  of  New 

Tolin  Tl   O'Hnpo    "ftoniTfl  nf  fhft  RniifH"   OA  ao>-ioa^  Soysih  Wales;  Bennett,   South  Australian  Almanac  C1%M)': 

JOtm  J5.  U  nara,     songs  OI   tne  »OUtn      (Jd  senes),  Kbnnt.  The  Catholic  C)iureh  in  Auetralia  to  the  Year  1840; 

"  Sonnets,    Odes,   and   Lyncs     ;  the  Rev.   M.  Wat-  Flanagan,   History  of  New  South   Wales  (1862);   The»ry. 

son,    S.J.,   a  series  of    seven    handsomely  illustrated  New  South  Wale$  and  Victoria  {1863);  The  National  Hilary 

Christmas.booklete  in  ver^e  which  have  gonet|m>urii  i^Sti^'^'  ^li^^l^SS^'/^S^^J'W^ 

many  editions.     Volumes  of  verse  have  also  been  pub-  Q888):  Bonwick,  The  Port  PhiUip  Settlement  (1888).  and 

lished  by  Marion  Miller  ("  Songs  From  the  Hills  "),  The  First  Twenty  Yem-s  of  Auetralia{l883);  Filhtok  History 

anA   T{/»na  WftllanA  r**  A  Kiifth  (lirl'ia  Slnnira  "^      CL^ttvo  qf  Tasmania  (,ISS4);  Dtlkk,  Greater  Brttawi  il885)jMcCA»Tar. 

ana  Kena   Wallace  r  a  Busn  Uirl  S  »>ngs    ;.    Home  ]^^fc^  of  Our  Own  Times  (1887);  Hogan,  The  frish  in  Aue- 

meritorious    work    by    Australian    Cathohc    poetic  tralia    (1888);    Sutherland,    History   of   Australia    (1888); 

writers   (mcluding   various  odes,  etc.,  by  the    Rev.  hvunpiLTZ,    Among    CannibaU    {18W))\    Hutchinson,    Am- 

J.  J.  Malpne)  haa  not  appeared  m  Beparate  fonn.  5«!«^„ ^'S;?Xa89CT.i  JiSlT  «1i^^*'S^^ 

Catholic  Journalism  in  Austraha  had  a  long  and  Wales  from  the  Records  (1894);  Moran,  History  of  the  Catholic 

thorny  road  to  travel  before  it  reached  assured  sue-  Church   in  Australasia:    H baton,    Australian   Dictionary  of 

PASS       TUirintiinir  with    "  Thp  Ohmnirlft  "  (fnunf\txA  in  i>oto«  (1807);  Davitt,  Life  and  Progress  in  Australasia  (1808); 

cess.     J5eginmng  Wim        ine  Onromcie      (tOimaed  m  Coohlan,  StoHeHcs  of  the  Seven  Colonies  of  Australasia  from 

Sydney,  m  1839),  the  way  was  strewn  with  failures,  2861  to  1899  (lOOO);  Jos*.  History  of  Australia  (1901);  CooH- 

wnicb,   however,   helped   to  form  the  steps  leading  ^'^  *>">  'E^ma,  Progress  of  Australasia  in  the  NineteenA 

othere    to    better    ggs     The    existing    CathoUo  ^'^i^Slu^^'^^X^^^-^^'^-'^  ^'^^^' 

newspapers  and  penodicals  of  Austraha,  with  their  of  Central  Auioralia  (1904),  and  The  Northern  Tribes  of  Central 

dates  of  foundation,  are,  Weekly:  Sydney,  N.  S.  W.,  Australia  C1904);  Hall,  States  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand 

"  The  Freeman's  Journal "  (the  oldest  emsting  news-  <^«06>J  ^**  ^^tralasum  Catholic  ^ed^  M  1906. 
paper  in  Austraha,  founded  and  first  edited  by  Arch-  henry  w  .  ^leaby. 

deacon  McEncroe  in  1850) ;  and  "  The  Catholic  Press  "        Atistrebertha,  Saint,  Virgin,  bom  c.  630  at  Ther- 

(1895):  Melbourne,  Victoria,  "The  Advocate  "  (1868),  ouane  in  the  modem  department  of  Pas-de-Calais  in 

*'  The  Tribune  "  (1900);  Brisbane,  Queensland,  "  The  France;  d.  10  February,  703  or  704.    When  her  father 

Australian  "  (founded  by  Dr.  0*Quinn  in  1878),  "  The  desired  to  give  her  in  marriage  to  a  jroung  nobleman, 

Age  "  (1892);  Adelaide,  South  Australia,  "  The  South-  she  fled  from  home  and  took  the  veil  from  the  hands 

em  Cross"  (1889);  Perth,  W.  A.,  "The  W.  A.  Rec-  of  Bishop  Saint-Omer.    Some  time  later  she  entered 

ord  "  (1874);  Launceston,  Tasmania,  **  The  Monitor  "  the  monastery  of  Port  on  the  Somme,  where  she  was 

(founded  in  1894  by  amalgamating  "  The  Catholic  later  elected  prioress.    Soon  afterwards  she  was  ap- 

Standard  "  of  Hobart,  and  "  The  Morning  Star "  of  pointed  first  abbess  of  the  newly  erected  convent 

Launceston). — Monthly:  Melbourne,  **The  Austrah'an  of  Pavilly  in  Lower  Seine.    Under  her  direction  the 

Messenger"  (1887);  'The  Austral  Light "  (an  eccle-  nuns"  of  Favilly  became  so  celebrated  for  sanctity 

si astical  property  since  1899);  Sydney, ''The  Annals  that  parents  came  from  all  sides  to  place  their 

of  Our  Lady". — Quarterly  and  Annual:  "The  Au»-  daughters  under  the  guidance  of  Austrebertha.     Her 

tralasian  Catholic   Recora  "   (founded  by  Cardinal  name  is  in  the  Roman  martyrology  and  she  is  hon- 


AUSTRALIA 
ST.  FRANCIS  XAVIBR-S  CATHEDRAL,  ADELAIDE  ST.  PATRICK'S  COLLEGE,  MANLY.  SYDNEY 


§8 


AXr8TB»C01in71                          121  AUSTBO-HUKaABLUff 

oared  as  patron  at  Montreuil  in  the  department  of  The  only  strip  of  coast  land  in  Austria-Hungary  li^s 

Piis-dfrOBlais.  on  the  Adriatic  and  has  a  length  of  1,366  miles 

IUnbkk,   The   Bwi^didy!^   CtOendar  JUmdoD,    1896);  (2,200  km.).    The  countries  which  border  on  Austria- 

J^^f:^tA^k£Si/?SS/Hfe^^^  H^'f^T  are:  lUly,  Switzerland,  the  princip^ty  of 

MTrwAgr.   Off.  Liechtenstein,    Bavana,    Saxony,    Prussia,    Russia, 

Rumania,  Servia,  Turkey,  and  Montenegro. 

iostramoniiiB,  Saint,  Apojstk  and  Bishop  of  Au-  Church  Hibtort.— The  Austro-Hungarian  Mon- 

veipe  (c.  314).    All   that   is  certainly  known  of  arohy  was  created  by  the  union  gf  the  Gepnanic, 

AuBtrenonius  is  deduced  from  a  few  brief  sentences  Slavonie,  and  Hungarian  piovinces  which  now  lie 

in  the  writings    of    St.  Gregory   oi    Tours*  (Hist,  within  its  territory.    This  union  took  place  in  1526. 

Fnoc,  I,  zxx,  and  De  Glori&  Confessorum,  c.  xxix).  Upon  the  death  of  Louis  II  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia 

Acconung  to  this  authority  he  was  one  of  the  seven  at  the  battle  of  Mohdcs,  in  that  year,  Bohemia  and 

bishops  sent  from  Rome  into  Gaul  about  the  middle  Hun|;ary  were  united  to  the  Austrian  possessions  of 

of  the  third  century;  he  laboured  in  Anveargne  and  Ferdmand  I,  of  the  Hapsburg  family.    This  union 

is  said  to  have  been  the  fint  Bishop  of  Clennont.  was  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  succession  as  well 

But  from  a  study  of  the  episeopal  lists  as  ffiven  by  as  the  result  of  a  free  choice.     Up  to  1526  each  of 

St.  Gregory  himself,  St.  Austremonius  could  hardly  these  three  divisions  of  the  present  empire  had  its 

have  antedated  the  commencement  of  the  fourth  own  separate  religious  history. 

coitur^,  since  his  third  successor  died  in  385.    It  is  A.  ^arly  CkriHianity, — ^The  Romans  in  the  time 

more  hkely,  therefore,  that  he  was  the  contemporary  of  Augustus  took  possession  of  those  pro\4nce8  of 

of  the  three  Bishops  of  Aquitaine  who  attended  the  the  present  Austria-Hungary  which  lie  south  of  the 

Council  of  Arks  in  314.     He  was  not  a  martyr.    His  Danube.    In  the  course  of  time  they  buQt  roads, 

eult  began  about  the  middle  of  t^e  sixth  century,  founded  cities,   turned   the   territory  into  Roman 

when  C^tius,  a  deacon,  saw  a  vLuon  of  angels  about  provinces,  and  here  and  there  converted  the  inhabi- 

kig  neglected  tomb  at  Issoire  on  the  Couse.    His  tants  to  Christianity.    The  cities  of  Aquileia  and 

body  was  afterwaids  translated  to  Volvic,  and  in  Salona,  episcopal  sees  from  the  middle  of  the  first 

761tothe  Abbey  of  Mauzac.    Towards  the  middle  of  century,  were  craitres  of  Christianity  for  Noricum 

the  ninth  oentiuy ,  the  head  of  the  saint  was  brought  and    rannonia.    In    the    year    294    five   Christian 

to  St.-Yvoine,  near  Issoire,  and  about  900  was  re-  workmen  were  thrown  from  the  marble  bridges  of 

tuned  to  Issoire,  the  original  phice  of  burial.  Sirmium  (Mitrowitz)  into  the  Save  and  drowned. 

Ada  55.,  Nov,  I,  ^aq.;  Anal,  B^,^  XIII, .33-46;  Af*-  During  the  persecution  of  the  Christians  under  the 

^2(«^S5^'  ^^^Srm\  c^r'i^^cJTtr  (i^  Empeit>r  Diocletian    in  304,  the  soldier  Florianus 

iM9.},  2d  ed.,  380, 391.  was  thrown  mto  the  Enns  at  Lauriacum  (Lorch). 

Francib  p.  Hayxt.  The  house  of  Augustinian  canons,  at  St.  Florian, 

.    ^.       ^      ^             „                  _  _  in  Upper  Austria,  now  stands  on  the  spot  where  the 

Austria.    See  Austro-Hungakian  Monarcht.  body  <rf  this  saint  was  buried.    A  tradition  gives 

Aaitro-Hnngarian  Monarchy,  The. — By  this  the  same  date  for  the  martyrdom  of  the  two  bishops 
Dame  is  designated  the  Ehnropean  monarchy  whose  Victorinus  of  Petovia  (Pettau  in  Southern  Styria) 
(bminions  Imve  for  their  main  life-distributing  and  Qulrinus  of  Siscia,  who  met  death  where  the 
artery  the  River  Danube,  in  its  course  from  Engel-  Kulpa  empties  into  the  Save.  Even  at  this  period 
tooell,  near  Passau,  to  Orsova.  South  of  the  Qbnstianity  must  have  had  a  large  number  of  ad- 
Danube  lie  the  Austrian  Alpine  provinces  and  the  herents  in  these  districts,  for  already  an  established 
provinces  of  Carinthia  and  Camiola'  north  of  the  organization  is  found  here.  The  bisnops  of  Noricum 
Danube  are  the  Carpathian  and  Sudetic  provinces,  were  imder  the  control  of  the  Patriarcn  of  Aquileia, 

.\rea  and    Population. — The   monarchy   as   a  while  Pannonia  was  subject  to  the  Metropolitan  of 

vbole  has  an  area  of  about  262,577  square  miles  Sirmium. 

((^^7  squiu^  kilometres),  and  a  population  of  The  last  representative  of  Christian  culture  among 

about  48,592,000.     This  gives  it  the  second  place  in  the  Roman  inhalu tants  of  the  Danube  district  is  St. 

extent  of  territory,  and  toe  third  pla<»  in  respect  to  Severinus.    The  story  of  his  life,  by  his  pupil  Eugip- 

population,  among  the  political  divisions  of  £iut>pe.  pius,  is  the  only  written  document  we  nave  for  the 

m  average  density  of  its  population  is,  approxi-  history  of  the  Danubian  provinces  during  the  last 

matelj,  isis  to  the  sauare  mile.    The  monarchy  years  of  Roman  occupation.     Severinus  settled  near 

inlds  sway  over:   (a)  tne  kingdoms  and  provinces  the  present  city  of  Vienna,  built  a  monastery  for 

|^^)re8eiited  in  Uie  Austrian  ParUament,  or  Keichsrat,  himself  and  his  companions,  and  led  so  austere  a 

vmch  have  together  an  area  of   115,095  sq.   m.  life  that  even  in  winter,  when  the  Danube  was  frozen, 

(300^  sq.  km.)  and  a  population  kA  26,969^12;  he  walked  up  and  down  over  the  ice  barefoot.    His 

(b)  the  provinces  of  the  Hungsurian  Crown  which  nave  journeys  upon  the  frozen  river  were  errands  of  conso- 

a  total  area  of   127,204  sq.   m.  (329,851   sq.  km.)  lation  to  tne  despairing  provincials,  who  saw  them- 

^  a  popdation   of   19,885,465;    (c)   Bosnia  and  selves  threatened  on  all  sides  by  bands  of  marauding 

HerxegoVina,  with  an  area  of  19,678  sq.  m.  (51,028  barbarians.    In  these  journeys  Severinus  travelled 

^  km.)  ffitul  a  population  of  1,737,000,  occupied  as  far  as  Castra  Batava  (Passau),  and  inland  from 

^  administ^fed  hy  AustriarHungary,  though  still  the  river   up   to   Juvavum    (Salzburg).    God   had 

^^Korettcally  a  part  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.    These  granted  him  the  gift  of  prophecy.     When  Odovakar 

populations  indude  a  great  variety  of  races.    In  (Odoaoer),  King  of  the  Heruli,  set  out  on  his  march 

the  Austrian  territory  there  are:  Oermans.  9,171,000;  aj^ainst  Rome,  ne  came  to  the  saint  and  asked  for 

^hs,  5,955,000;    Poles,    4,259,000;    Kuthenians,  his  blessing.    Severinus  spoke  prophetically:   ''Go 

'^376^;  Slovenes,  1 ,193,000;  Italians  and  Ladini-  forward,  my  son.    To-day  thou  art  still  clad  in  the 

^  TVflOO^    In  Hungary  the  population  is  com-  worthless  skins  of  animals,  but  soon  shalt  thou  make 

?p6ed  oC:  Magyars,  9,180,000:  Rumanians,  2^867,000;  gifts  from  the  treasures  of  Italy. "    After  Odovakar 

^^ainana,   2338,000;    Slovaks,    2.055,000;    Croats,  had  overthrown  the  Roman  Empu«  of  the  West. 

^•734,000;   Serbs,    1,079,000;   Rutnenians,   443,000.  and  had  made  himself  master  of  Italy,  he  sent  ana 

Tbe  inhabitants   of   Bosnia  and   Herzegovina  are  invited  Severinus  to  ask  from  him  some  favour, 

^o^^roatians.  Severinus  only  asked  the  pardon  of  one  who  had  been 

^  CKntals   of   the   three   main   divisions  are:  condemned  to  banishment.    The  Alamannic  king, 

AtBtria,  Vienna,  with  1,675,000  inhabitants;  Hun-  Gibold,  also  visited  him  in  Castra  Batava,  and  the 

P'J,  Budapest,  with  732,000  inhabitants;   Bosnia  saint  begged  as  a  personal  grace  that  the  king  cease 

sn  Herzegovina,  Serajevoi  with  38,000  inhabitants,  from   ravaging   the  Roman   temtory.    His   usual 


AVnBO'BXnX^MBIAM  122'  AUVrftO-HUllCMLBIAN 

salutation  was  "Sit  nomen  Domini  bened]etUIn'^  and  drove  tke  Gertnans  to  the  outskirts  of  the  coun- 
corresponding  to  our  "Praise  be  to  Jesus".  When  try,  the  Czechs  of  Prague  were  the  most  important 
Severinus  lay  dying  the  sobs  of  his  disciples  prevented  division.  In  a.  p.  871  their  prince,  Borziwoy,  and 
their  praying;  he  himself  began  to  recite  the  last  his  wife,  LudmiUa,  consented  to  receive  baptism 
psalm,  and  with  the  closing  words  of  this  psalm,  from  Sti  Methodius.  From  this  time  on  the  history 
"Omnis  spiritus  laudet  Dommum",  he  passed  away  of  Bohemia  is  an  account  of  the  struggles  between 
(482).  Six  years  later  the  Romans  withdrew  from  two  contending  parties,  the  Ghristian-uermaiuc  and 
this  region,  taking  the  body  of  the  saint  with  them,  the  National  Heathen.  At  the  insti^tion  <^  the 
and  returned  to  Italy.*  Here  he  was  buried  with  National  Heathen  party  the  saintly  Ihike  Wenad 
suitable  honour  in  the  castle  of  Luculanum,  near  (Wenceslaus)  I  was  murdered  by  his  brother,  Boles- 
Naples.                                                     P  law  I.     But  even  Boleslaw  had  to  rule  according  to 

B.  The  Middle  Ages. — During  the  period  of  migra-  the  wishes  of  the  Christian-Germanic  party,  and  his 

tions  which  followed  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  son  Boleslaw  II  foimded  the  Bishopric  of  Prague 

Austria  was  the  fighting-ground  of    the    barbaric  (973).    The  new  see  was  placed  under  the  Archbimop 

hordes  which  pour^  through  it.     Vindobona  dis-  of  Mains,  and  its  first  bishop  was  the  Saxon  Dithmar. 

appeared  from  the  face  of  the  earth;  Pannonia  was  His  successor,  St.  Adalbert  (Wojtech),  met  a  martyr's 

entirely  laid  waste  by  the  Avars,  a  people  related  death  (997)  at  the  hands  of  the  heathen  Slavs  of 

to  the  Huns.    The  same  fate  befell  Styria,  Cflurinthia,  Prussia,  whom  he  sought  to  bring  to  the  truth.    The 

and  Camiola,  desolated  by  the  Slovenes,  who  now  Benedictine   Order   came    into    Bohemia   with  the 

took  possession  of  those  provinces.    The  land  lying  founding  of  the  monastery  of  Borevnov  by  Boleslaw 

on  the  upper  Drave  has  since  borne  the  name  of  II,  and  Boleslaw's  sister,  Milada,  was  the  nrst  abbess 

"Pustertw  '    (from    the    Slovenic    puat,    "waste"),  of  St.  Qeorge,  the  Benedictine  cloister  for  women  in 

The  (>oats  and  Serbs  seized  the  country  south  of  Prague.     Duke  Bretislaw  seized  Gnesen  and  brought 

the  Save.    The  Croats  are  the  first-bom  sons  of  the  the  body  of  St.   Adalbert  in  triumph  to  Prague. 

Church   among   the   Slavs.    They  were   converted,  Dabrowka,  the  daughter  of  Boleslaw  I,  married  the 

about  the  year  650,  by  Roman  priests.    The  Baju-  Polish  Duke  Mieczyslaw,  and  the  latter  was  baptuoed 

varii  (Bavarians),  a  people  from  the  West,  spread  in  966.    The  son  of  Mieczyslaw  laid  the  foundation 

themselves  over  the  whole  of  Upper  Austria.     St.  of  an  enduring  churoh-organization  by  forming  the 

Rupert,  Bishop  of  Worms,  baptized  the  Bavarian  four   bishoprics   of    Posen,    Kolberg,    Breslau,   and 

duke,  Theodo,  at  Regensburg  (Ratisbon)  and  be-  Cracow,  and  placing  them  under  the  Archbishopric 

came  the  Apostle  of  the  Austrian  Bajuvarii.    He  of  Gnesen,  wnich  had  been  established  in  the  year 

travelled  ana  preached  nearly  as  far  as  Lauriaoum.  1000. 

settled  in  Salzburg,  and  there  erected  a  see  ana  The  Magyars,  a  people  from  the  Ural-Altai  region, 

founded  the  monastery  of  St.  Peter  (c.  700).     St.  moved  forward  in  895  into  the  Avarian  Wilderness 

Peter's  is  the  oldest  Benedictine  monastery  which  on   the  Theiss.     Attempts   to   convert   them   were 

has  had  a  continuous  existence  down  to  our  own  made  by  the  court  of  Byzantium  as  well  as  by  St. 

times,  Monte  Cassino  having  been  repeatedly  de-  Wolfgang,  a  monk  of  Maria  Einsiedeln,  by  Pilicrim, 

stroyed    and    deserted.     The    Benedictine    ofoister  Bishop  of  Passau,  who,  as  successor  of  the  Bisnops 

for  women,  Nonnberg,  founded  by  Rupert's  niece  of  Loreh,  wished  to  be  Metropolitan  of  all  Paxmoma, 

Ehrentraut,   is  also   still   standin|^.    The   Bavarian  and  by  Adalbert  of  Prague.    Thus  it  was  brought 

Duke  Tassilo  founded  the  Benedictine  monasteries  about  that  the  Magyar  rmer  G^za,  great  grandson  of 

of  Mondsee   (748)   and  Kremsmtknster  (777).    The  Arpad,  and  his  wife  Sarolta  were  favourably  inclined 

Bishops  of  Salzburg  brought   the  Christian  Faith  to  Christianity.    The  real  Apostle  of  the  Magyars, 

and  Cferman  customs  to  the  Slavs.     A  quarrel  broke  however,  was  G^a's  great  son,  St.  Stephen.     Ste- 

out,    however,    between    the   Carinthians   and    the  phen  received  a  Christian  education  and  was  b^ 

Patriarch    of    Aquileia.     Charlemagne    raised    the  tized  by  St.  Adalbert.     Upon  the  occasion  of  his 

Carinthian  see  of  Salzburg  to  an  archbishopric  in  marriage  with  Gisela,  sister  of  the  future  emperor, 

798,  settled  the  dispute  with  Aauileia  by  making  St.  Henry  II,  Stephen  vowed  to  give  his  people  the 

the  Drave  the  dividing  line  of  tne  two  provinces,  blessings  of  Christianity.     One  of  the  most  important 

and  in  803  established  the  border  territones  known  measures  taken  by  him  for  the  security  of  the  new 

as  the  Mark  of  Friuli  and  the  East  Mark.  fcuth  was  the  founding  at  Gran  of  an  arehbishopric 

Moravia  was  won  to  Christianity  by  two  brothers,  with  ten   subordinate   sees.     As   Stephen's   patron 

Methodius    and    Constantine,    Greek    monks    from  saint  in  battle  had  been  St.  Martin,  he  founded  the 

Thessalonica,  known  in  history  as  the  Apostles  of  Benedictine    monastery    of    Martinsberg.     He    also 

the    Slavs.     Constantine    invented    the    Glagohtio  founded   hospices  for  the  reception  of  Hunii^arian 

alphabet,  translated  the  Bible  into  Slavic,  and  com-  pilgrims  at  Kavenna,  Rome,  and  Jerusalem.    Astri- 

posed  the  litur^  in  that  language.     But,  as  Sfdzburg  ous,  the  Abbot  of  Martinsberg,  obtained  for  him, 

and  Passau  laid  claim  to  the  region  in  which  iAie  from  the  pope,  the  title  of  king.     Sylvester  II  sent 

brothers  worked,  complaint  was  made  against  them  Stephen  a  crown  of  gold  and,  according  to  a  tradition 

by    the   German    ecclesiastics.     Pope    Hadrian    II,  (which,  however,  is  not  well  founded)  a  Bull  'which 

however,  authorized  the  liturgy  in  the  Slavic  Ian-  decreea  to  the  Kiiigs  of  Hungary  the  privilege  of 

guage.     Constantine  remained  at  Rome  in  a  monas-  the  ''Apostolic  Majestv"  (c{.  v.).     Having  a  sreat 

tery  and  took  the  name  of  Cyril,  while  Methodius,  devotion  to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  Stephen  caused  him- 

after  many  fruitful  labours  as  Arehbishop  of  Pannonia  self  to  be  crowned  on  the  festival  of  the  Assumption, 

and  Moravia,  died  6  April,  885,  at  Vehlehrad,  on  the  the  15th  day  of  August,  in  the  year  1000,  and  cliurch  - 

River*  Marchu    The  Apostles  of  the  Slavs  are  now  historianshavegiven  to  Hungary  the  title  of  "Mary's 

(pursuant  to  a  decree  of  Leo  XIII)  commemorated  Realm''    (Regnum   Marianum), 

throughout  the  Catholic  Church  on  the  5th  d^  of  The  gradual  advance  of  Christianity  in  Austria 

July.    The  Latin  Liturgy  was  reintroduced  in  Mora-  towards  the  east  is  shown  in  the  shifting  of  the  abode 

via  by  Swatopluk,  the  successor  of  Duke  Ratirtaus,  of  the  early  rulers  of  the  Babenberg  (BamberK)  line 

and  soon  after  his  death  the  Magyars  overthrew  the  from  Melk,  on  the  Kahlenberff,  to  Vienna.    One  of 

3mpire  of  Great  Moravia  (906).     When  Moravia  is  this  family,  Leopold  I,  the  Illustrious,  had  already 

affain  heard  of  m  history  (founding  of  the  bishopric  founded  at  Melk  an  establishment  of  secular  canons. 

of  CHmiitz,  1063),  it  is  a  province  of  Bohemia.  These  were  replaced  in  1089  by  twelve  Benedictine 

Christianity  was  introduced  into  Bohemia  from  monks  from  Lambach.    At  the  time  when  Leopold's 

Moravia.     Of  the  Slavic  tribes  which  at  the  «nd  of  youngest  son,  Adalbert  I,  the  Victorious,  was  mar- 

tbe  fifth  century  controlled  the  interior  of  Bohemia  grave,  three  youths  left  this  regk)n  to  go  to  Paris  to 


AUSTRO-HUiroAaiAK  123^  AtnTrao-HuvaABiAN 

gtody.    Wfine  on  their  way,  thej  were  obliged  to  new  castle  for  hinwelf  (dchweizerhof)  and  the  church 

spend  a  night  in  the  open  and  fell  to  speaking  of  the  of  St.  Miehael.    The  church  was  intended  for  the 

future.    Each  wished  to  become  a  bishop,  and  each  benefit  of  the  duke's  attendants,  retainers,  servants, 

^Dwed  that,  if  ever  a  bishop,  he  would  found  a  monas-  and  the  townspeoj^cJ  who  settled  around  the  castle. 

tenr.    One,  Gebhard,  became  Archbishop  of  SaUburg  The  scheme  to  form  a  bishopric  at  Vienna  was  not 

and  founded  Admont  and  the  Diocese  of  Gurk:  an^  carried  out,  but  Eberhard  II  of  Salzburg  founded 

other,  Adalbero,  Bishop  of  Wtkrsbxirg.  founded'  the  bishoprics  at  Seckau  and  Lavant,  for  sWria  and 

monastery  of  Lambach;  while  the  third,  St.  Altmanii  Oarinthia.     Leopold's  son  and  successor,  Frederick 

of  Faasau,  founded  Gdttweig  for  twelve  canons  under  II,  the  last  of  the  Babenberg  line,  was  knighted  with 

the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine.     The  canons  at  G^Vttweig  much  religious  pomp  at  the  feast  of  the  Furification 

irere  replaced  after  the  lapse  of  ten  years  by  Beiae^  of  the  Virgin,  1232,  in  the  castle  church.     Bishop 

dictines  from  St.  Blasien  in  the  Black  Foreet.    All  Gebhard  of'  rassau  celebrated  Mass  and  gave  the 

three  of  these  bishops  remained  true  to  Gregory  VII  consecrated  sword  to  the  duke,  two  hundr^  young 

in  the  controversy  of  investitures.    The  Cnisades  nobles    receiving    knighthood    at    the    same    time. 

began  during  the  reign  of  the  Margrave  Leopold  11.  After  the  ceremony  the  voung  duke  rode  at  the  head 

the  Saint,  and  many  of  the  crusading  armies  traversed  of  the  newly  made  knights  to  Penzing,  where  jousts 

Austria    Leopold^   mother,   Ida,   took  part  in   a  were  held. 

pflgriokage  of  which  Thiemo,  Archbishop  of  Salzbut^,        Wit^iin  a  short  space  of  time  the  national  dynasties 
«'as  the  leader.    The  archbishop  met  the  death  of  a  of  the  countries  under  discusEaon  died  out  in  the  male 
martyr,  smd   Ida  was   made  a  prisoner.      Leopold  lines:  the  Babenberg  Dynasty  (Austria)  in  1246,  the 
erected  a  church  on  the  Kahlenberg  and  foxmded  Arpadian  (Hungary)  in  1301,  and  the  Premyslian 
the  monasteries  Klostemeuburg  and  Heilieenkreus.  (Bohemia)  in  lS)6.     In  1282  the  German  Emperor, 
His  wife,  Agnes,  widow  of  the  Hohenstaufen  Duke  Rudolph  of  Hapeburg,  gave  Austria  in  fief  to  his  son 
Frederick,  tore  him  eiriiteen  children.    Their  third  Albrecnt.    To  Austria  and  Styria  the  dukes  of  the 
son,  Otto,  studied  at  Faris,  entered  the  Cistercian  Hapsburg  line  soon  added  Oarinthia,  Camiola,  the 
monastery  of  Morimond,  became  Bishop  of  Freising,  T3npol,  and  the  Mark  of  the  Wends.    The  rulers  of 
and  wrote  a  chronicle,  "De   Duabus  CSvitatibus*^,  tms  line  are  deserving  of  great  praise  for  their  aid  in 
and  a  second  work,  "Libri  Duo  De  Gestis  Friderici  I",  developing  chiutjh  life  in  these  territories.    Albrecht 
By  reason  of  these  two  works  he  is  the  most  noted  I  founded  the  court  (Hofburff)  chapel  in  his  castle; 
German  historian  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Duke  Rudolph  IV  in  1359  laid  the  comer-stone  of 
After  a  hard  strugi^e,  the  sainfly  King  Ladidaus  the  Gothic  reconstruction  of  the  church  of  St.  Ste- 
(d.  1095)  succeeded  m  regulating  the  ecclesiastical  phen.    A  hundred  and  fifty  years  elapsed  before 
and  dvil  affairs  of  Hungary.    He  founded  the  Bishop-  the  great  tower  of  the  church  was  completed    With 
ric  of  Grosswardein  and  smnmoned  the  di^nitwries  the  consent  of  the  pope  the  same  duke  founded  the 
of  the  Church  and  the  State  to  a  diet  at  Sisabolcs.  University  of  Vienna  in  1365.    The  university  was 
This  diet  is  often  called  a  synod,  on  account  of  the  modelled  on  the  one  at  Paris  and  possessed  ^*eat 
many  decisions  arrived  at  in  church  matters.    The  privile^  (freedom  from  taxation,  right  of  adimnis- 
priests  were  ordered  to  observe  celibacy  strictly,  the  tering  justice).     When  part  of  the  Council  of  Basle 
laity  were  commanded  to  keep  Sunday  and  least*  separated  from  Eugenius  IV  and  set  up  Felix  V  as 
days  and  to  abstain  from  inmiorality.     Ladislbus  antipope,  the  theofogical  faculty  of  the  university, 
concjuered    Croatia,    whose    duke,    Zwonimir,    had  of  which  at  that  time  the  celebrated  Thomas  Eben- 
received  from  a  Iqgate  of  Gregory  VII  at  Salona  dorffer  of  Haselbach  was  a  member,  sided  with  the 
(1076)  a  banner,  sword,  crown,  and  sceptre,  with  antipopei     But  the   papal   legate,   John   Carvajal, 
the  title  of  kibig,  in  return  for  which  he  nad  sworn  and  Mneaa  Sylvius  Ficcolomim,  the  emperor's  gov- 
fealty  to  the  pope.  emmental  secretary,  prevailed  upon  Frederick  III 
Henry  H,  Jasomirgott,   was  the  first  Duke  of  to  espouse  the  cause  of  Eugenius  and  to  sign  the 
Austria.    He  built  rf  residence  for  himself  at  Vienna  Concordat  of  Vienna  (1448).    The  concordat  pro- 
Urn  Hof)t  in  which  was  the  Pancraz  chapel,  and  vided  that  the  annates  and  the  confirmation  dues 
founded  the  Schottenkloster.  for  BenecUctine  monks  should  be  restored  to  the  pope,  that  the  pope  should 
from  St,  Jacob's  at  Regensburg.     Octavian  Wohmer,  have  the  right  to  appoint  to  the  canonries  in  the 
an  arddtect  from  Cracow,  erected  for  the  new  duke  uneven  months,  and  that  the  filling  of  ecclesiastical 
the  church  of  St.  Stephen,  to  which  the  parish  of  vacancies  at  Rome  should  be  reserved  to  him.    The 
St.  Peter  was  added.     Leopold  V,   the   Virtuous,  concordat  was  gradusdly  accepted  by  all  of  the  Ger- 
wn  of  Henry  II,  took  part  in  the  Third  Crusade  and  man  rulers,  and  up  to  the  present  time  the  relations 
fou^t  so  bravely  that,  as  we  are  told,  his  annour  between  the  German  Church  and  the  papacy  are 
was  stained  blood  red,  and  ot^  the  part  under  the  regulated  by  its  provisions.     In  1452  Frederick  was 
sword  belt  remained  white.     However,  Richard  the  crowned  emperor  at  Rome,  bein^  the  last  emperor 
lionbearted  tore  down  the  Austrian  banner  at  the  to  be  crowned  in  that  citrjr.    In  his  rei^  the  Bishop- 
storming  of  Asc^on  and  the  enraged  duke  went  home  rics  of  Laibach  (1462),  Vienna,  and  Wiener-Neustadt 
at  once.    While  on  his  way  to  England,  Richard  was  (both  the  latter  in   1460)  were  founded.     Diuing 
sozed  at  Erdberg,  and  held  a  prisoner  by  the  duke  this  period  a  great  many  monastic  houses  were 
^  Dttarenstein.     Crusaders  being  xmdfer  the  proteo-  foun^d  in  Austria,  especially  by  the  more  recently 
tion  of  the  pope,  Celestine  III  put  Leopold  V  under  established  orders:  Carthusian  houses  were  founded 
the  ban.    To  tins  the  duke  paid  no  attention;  but  at   Mauerbach,    Gaming,    Agsbach;    Franciscan   at/ 
^ben  be  fell  with  hffl  horse,  at  Graz,  broke  a  leg,  and  Vienna,  Klostemeuburg,  St.  P5lten,  Maria  Enzers- 
foond  h&Qself  near  death,  his  conscience  smote  him;  dorf ,  Pupping;  Dominican  at  Graz  and  Retz. 
he  sent  for  Albert  III,  Archbishop  of  Salzburg,  who        Under  the  Luxembourg  line  Bohemia  attained  a 
ns  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  received  absolution  high  degree  of  material  and  spiritual  prosperity, 
from  Mm.    FrSierick  I,  the  eldest  son  of  Leopold  V,  C^u'les  TV,  before  his  reign  began,  succeeded  m 
rafed  only  six  yeoia  and  died  while  on  a  crusade,  having  Prague  raised  to  an  archbishopric   (1344), 
The  PKgn  of  his  brother,  Leopold  VI,  the  Glorious,  and  in  this  way  made  the  country  ecclesiastically 
w  a  brilliant  one.     He  too  went  on  a  crusade  ana  independent  of  Germany.    Charles  had  been  a  stu- 
endeavcrared  first  to  capture  Damietta,  the  kev  to  dent  at  Paris,  and  immediately  upon  ascending  the 
^QQMiem,  but  was  obliged  to  return  home  without  throne  he  founded  the  University  of  Prague  (1348), 
Wing    accomplished    anything.     He    married    a  the  first  imiversity  on  German  sou.    Master  Matthias 
^untine  princess  and  formed  relations  with  men  of  Anras  and  Peter  Parler  from  Schwftbisch-Gmiind 
01  Greek  learning  and  culture.    The  duke  built  a  began  the  neetion  of  the  stately  Cathedral  of  St 


AXTBTBO-HUirOABIAN  124  ATmTBO-HITVaAEIAN 

Wtus   which   is   now   nearing   completion.    Parler  who  was  also  called  the  "Shaven"  (//oZy)  becauBe  he 

also  erected  the  Teynkirche  (Tejrn  church)  in  Praffue,  had  been  a  monk.    After  Zizka's  death  the  extreme 

and  the  church  of  St.  Barbara  in  Kuttenberg,  wnile  radicals  took  the  name  of  "Orphans"  because  no 

Matthias  of  Anras  built  the  fortress-castle  of  Karl-  one  was  worthy  to  take  Zizka's  place.    They  were 

stein.    The  crown  jewels  of  Bohemia  were  preserved  finally  conquered,   and   an   agreement,   called  the 

in  the  sumptuous  chapel  at  Karlstein.     But  Bohemia  CompacUUa  (Treaty  of  Iglau)   based  on  the  Four 

had  a  sudaen  fall  from  the  height  it  had  attained.  Articles  of  Prague,  was  made  with  the  moderate  party 

King  Wenzel  (Wenoeslaus),  son  of  Chaiies  IV,  had  (1436).    The  Compactata  provided:  that  in  Bohemia 

no  control  of  his  temper,  and  began  a  <juarrel  with  everyone   who   demanded   it  should   receive  Holy 

the    archbishop.    The    archbishop's    vioar-general,  Conmiunion  under  both  kinds;  mortal  sins  should  be 

John  of  Pomuk  (St.  John  Nepomucene),  refused  to  punished,  but  only  by  the  legal  authorities;  the  Word 

tell  what  he  had  heard  in  confession.    He  was  first  of  God  should  be  freely  expounded  by  clergy  ap- 

tortured  and  then,  gan;ed  and  bound^  was  thrown  at  pointed  for  the  purpose;  ecclesiastics  should  manage 

night  into  the  River  Moldau.    At  this  time  the  first  their  property  according  to  the  rules  of  the  church, 

siens  appeared  in  Bohemia  of  a  religious  agitation  After  this,  Hussitlsm  lived  on  in  the  "Bohemian 

which  was  destined  to  bring  the  great^t  sorrow  both  Brethren",  who  elected  a  bishop  at  Lhota  near 

to  Bohemia  and  to  the  adjoining  countries.    Jerome  Reiohenau  (1467),  and  were  finally  carried  into  the 

of  Prague  had  become  acquainted  with  the  writings  current  of  the  Reformation. 

of  Wyclif  at  Oxford.     He  returned  home,  bringing        In  Hungary  Christian  culture  fiourished  during 

the  teachiiigs  of  Wyclif  with  him,  and  communicatea  the  reign  of  the  House  of  Anjou.    Louis  the  Great 

them  to  his  friend  Hus.    Hus  came  from  Husinetz  foimded  universities  at  Altofen  and   Filnfkirchen, 

near  Prachatitz.     He  was  the  child  of  a  peasant,  and  built  the  fine  cathedral  at  Kaschau.     When 

and   had   become  professor  of  i>hilosophy  at  the  Constantinople  was  captured  by  the  Turks  (29  May, 

University  of   Prague,   preacher  in  the   Bohemian  1453).  a  cry  of  horror  resounded  throughout  Europe, 

language  at  the  Bethlehem  chapel,  and  confessor  to  and  the  pope  sent  forth  John  Capistran  to  preach  a 

Queen  Sophia.    A  complaint  was  brought  in  the  crusade.    The  saintly  monk  came  with  an  immense 

university  against  Hus  on  account  of  his  teaching,  following  from  Italy  to  Germany,  Bohemia,  and 

Of  the  four  "Nations"  {Saxons,  Bavarians,  Poles.  Hungary.     He  preached  in  the  open,  as  the  churches 

and  Bohemians),  which  had  votes  in  the  affairs  ot  coula  not  hold  his  hearers.    A  stone  pulpit  with  a 

the  university,  only  the  Bohemians  voted  for  Hus.  statue  of  the  saintly  Capbtran  stands  on  the  east 

Hus  then  turned  a  personal  into  a  national  affair,  side  of  St.  Stephen's  Cathedral,  Vienna.    A  hundred 

King  Wenzel  issued  a  command  that  henceforth  the  thousand  people  crowded  the  s(juare  and  the  roofs 

Bohemians  should  have  three  votes,  and  the  other  of  the  houses  to  hear  him.    This  was  the  more  re^ 

"Nations"  only  one  vote.     Upon  this  5,000  students  markable    because    Capistran    preached    in    Latin, 

and  the  German  professors  withdrew  and  founded  Yet  all  who  saw  and  heard  him  were  moved  to  their 

the  University  of  Leipzig.    The  university  was  now  innermost   souls.    The   Turks,    in    1456,    tried    to 

simply  a  national  one,  and  Hus  without  interference  capture  Belgrad,  the  key  to  Hungary.    The  papal 

taught  the  following  doctrines:  the  church  consists  legate,  John  Carvaial,  and  John  Capistran  raised  a 

only  of  the  elect;  no  man  is  a  temporal  ruler,  no  man  crusading  army  witn  which  John  Hunyady  was  able 

is  a  bishop,  if  he  be  in  mortal  sin;  the  papal  dignity  to  defeat,  at'  Belgrad,  a  Turkish  army  much  more 

is  an  outcome  of  the  imperial  power;  obedience  to  numerous.    This  was  called  the  "  Battle  of  the  Three 

the  church  is  the  invention  of  men.     Hus  was  sua-  Johns".     Hunyady  and  Capistran  died  shortly  after- 

pended  by  Archbishop  Zbinko;  he  appealed  to  the  wards  from  camp  fever.     Hunyady 's  son  had  been 

pope  (Alexander  V)  and  then  to  Jesus  Christ.    John  educated  by  John  Vitez,  Bishop  of  Grosswardein, 

XaIII  placed  Hus  under  the  ban,  Prague  under  an  afterwards  Archbishop  of  Gran.    This  prelate   in- 

interdict,  and  called  the  Council  of  Constance.    The  stilled  such  a  love  of  learning  into  his  pupil  that 

£knperor  Si^mund  gave  Hus  a  safe-conduct  which  when  the  latter  ascended  the  throne  as  Matthias 

protected  him  from  acts  of  violence  on  the  part  of  Corvinus,  he  gathered  learned  men  about  him,  re- 

the  indignant  Germans  through  whose  territory  he  established   the  decayed   university  at  Ofen^  and 

nust  pass,  but  not  from  the  verdict  of  the  council,  founded   a   new   university   at   Pressburg.     Thirty 

Hus  was    repeatedly  examined  before  the  council,  copyists  were  kept  busy  at  Of  en  transcribing  the 

but  would  not  retract  his  opinions;  the  members  of  Greek    and    Latin    classics.    The    volumes,    which 

the  council,  therefore,  unammously  condemned  his  were  beautifully  illuminated  and  handsomely  bound, 

errors  and  delivered  him  to  the  secular  power,  by  were  known  as  Corvinian  books, 
which,  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  the  land  at  the        C.  Modem  Times, — If  in  analyzing  church  history 

time,  he  was  condemned  to  death  at  the  stake  (1415).  Christian  antiquity  is  taken  to  represent  the  period  of 

Jerome  of  Prague  suffered  the  same  death  the  next  ^e  life  and  labours  of  the  Church  among  the  peoples 

year.    While    at   Constance    Hus    sanctioned    the  influenced  by  Greek  and  Roman  civilization,  and  the 

receiving  of  the  sacrament  in  both  kinds  which  had  Middle  Ages  the  period  of  the  Church's  life  and  labours 

been  introduced  by  Master  Jacob  of  Miez  (Calix-  among  the  Germans  and  the  nations  which   came 

tines).    As  a  former  monk,  John  of  Selau,  was  lead-  into  contact  with  them,  then  the  modem  period  of 

ing  a  procession  a  stone  was  thrown  at  him  from  a  history  must  be  taken  as  that  in  which  the  influence 

window  of  the  town  hall.    The  throng,  led  by  the  of  the  Church  began  to  extend  throughout  the  whole 

knight  John  Zizka  of  Trocnov,  attacked  the  town  world.    Modern    times    would,    acoordinff    to     this 

hall   and  threw  the  judge,  the  burgomaster,  and  theory,  begin  with  the  discovery  of  the  Isiew  World, 

several  members  of  the  town  council  out  of  the  win-  But  if  the  beginning  of  the  modem  era  is  made,  as  it 

dow  into  the  street,  where  they  were  killed  by  the  usually  is,  to  coincide  with  the  Reformation,   then 

fall.    This  is  known  in  historyas  the  "First  Defenes-  it  is  further  marked  by  the  rise  of  that  monarchy 

tration  of  Prague".     King  Weniel  was  so  excited  which  was  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Austrian, 

by  the  episode  that  he  was  struck  with  apoplexy  and  Slavonian,    and    Hungarian    provinces    under     the 

died.    The  Hussite  wars  caused  fearful  devastation  Hapsburgs  in   1526. 

not  only  in  Bohemia,  but  in  the  adjacent  countries        Ferdinand  of  Hapsburg,  the  ruler  of  the  German- 

as  well.     Fortunately,  the  Hussites  divided  into  the  Austrian  crown  provinces,  had  married,   at    Linz 

more  moderate  Calixtines,  under  John  of  Rokyzana.  Anna   of   Hunwiry   and    Bohemia.    When    Anna's 

and  the  "Taborites",  so  called  from  the  city  ana  brother,  Louis  n,  was  killed  in  the  desperate  battle  of 

mountain  which  they  named  Tabor.    The  Taborites  Moh^U^  (1526),  Ferdinand  of  Austria  succeeded  by 

were  led  by  John  2iaka  and  Prooopius  the  Great,  right  of  inheritance  and  election  as  King  of  Bohemia 


AUSTttO-mTNttAltUir  125  Anttto-HUKQABIAM 

and  Hungary.    The  new  doctrine  taug^ht  at  Witten-  most  impoHiant  factor  in  the  defence  of  the  F^th 
berg  was  soon  brought  into  the  Austrian  provinces,  and  the  elevation  of  Christian  life.     Ferdinand  I 
Minera  were  the  first  to  spread  the  new  teaching,  obtained  from  St.  Ignatius  the  founding  of  a  Jesuit 
Noble  families  frequently  sent  their  sons  to  German  college  in  Vienna.    The  first  two  Jesuits  came  to 
universities,  and   even   to  Wittenberg,  and    these  Vienna  in  1551.    They  were  followed,  the  next  year, 
students  often  returned  with  Protests^t  ideas,  and  by  St.  Peter  Canisius,  the  first  Orerman  member  ol 
even    brought    Protestant     preachers    with    them,  the  order,  were  assigned  the  abandoned  Carmelite 
The  constant  danger  from  the  Turks  in  Austria  was  monastery  Am   Hof ,   obtained   two   chairs  in   the 
exceedingly  opportune  for  the  new  religious  move-  theological  faculty,  and  founded  a  gymnasium  with 
nsent.    One  of  the  first  preachers  of  the  new  doctrine  a  theological  seminary  attached.     St.  Peter  Canisius 
inViennawasPaulof  Spretten  (Speratus),aSwabian,  was  named  court  preacher,  and  for  a  time  was  ad- 
wbo  had  been  driven  out  of  Salzburg  on  account  of  ministrator  of  the  Diocese  of  Vienna.     He  still  in- 
ius   Lutheran    views.    The   new    doctrine   entered  fluences    the  present    day    through    his    "Summu  • 
Huneary    and    Transylvania    through    merchants  Doctrinse  Chnstianse'^;    an  abridpnent    of    which, 
vrho  brought  Lutheran  books  with  them,  and  it  took  called  the  catechism  of  Canisius,  is  still  in  use.    A 
bold,  more  especially,  among  the  Grerman  population  few  years  later  the  Jesuits  founded  at  Praguo  ."^i 
of  the  Zipser  region  and  among  the  Saxons  of  Transyl-  eymnasium,  a  theological  school,  and  a  university  . 
vania.    siiiyia  Biro^  known  as  Devay,  from  the  place  for  philosophical  and  theological  studies,  which  in 
of  his  origin,  Deva  m  Transylvania,  has  been  called  contradistinction  to  the  ''Carolinum"  was  called  the 
"the  Luther  of  Hungary".     Most  of  the  Hungarian  "Clementinum".    They  also  founded  schools  at  Inns- 
bishops  had  fallen  at  the  battle  of  Mohdcs,  and  the  bruck  and  at  IVmau.     The  tutor  and  court  preacher 
subsequent  disputes   concerning   the  succession   to  of  Maximilian  il,  Ferdinand's  eldest  son,  was  Sebas- 
the   throne   distracted   the    monarchy.     For   these  tian  Pfauser,  a  man  of  Protestant  tendencies.     It 
reasons  the  new  doctrines  spread  rapicfly,  and  Devay  was  feared  that  Maximilian  would  embrace  the  new 
VBS  able  to  bring  over  to  it  such  noble  families  as  creed,  but  the  papal  nuncio.  Bishop  Hosius  of  Erm- 
the  Batthyany  and   Bocskay.     It  was   then   that  land,  pointed  out  to  him  those  inconsistencies  in  the 
Calvinism  b^n  to  be  called  m  Hungary  Magyar  hit  Protestant  doctrine  which  prove  its  falsity.     Maxi- 
(Hungarian  laith),  Lutheranism  N ernes  hit  (German  mQian  II  gave  permission  to  lords  and  Imights  to 
faith),  and  Catholicism  Igaz  hit  (Right  faith).    Equal  follow  the  Augsburg  Confession  in  their  own  castles, 
success  accompanied  the  preaching  of  John  Gross  of  cities,   and   villages.     David   Chytrftus  of  Rostock 
Cronstadt  in  Transylvama,  despite  the  efforts  of  drew  up  for  the  Ptotestants  a  form  of  church  service. 
George     Utyeszenich    to    check    him.     XJtyeszenich  In  Bohemia  the  Evangelicals  united  with  the  Bohe- 
(also  called,  after  his  mother,  Martinuzzi)  was  prior  mian  and  Moravian  Brethren,  and  called  the  new 
of   the    Pauline    monastery   at    Szenstochov    near  agreement  the  "Bohemian  Confession".    They  had 
CracoWy  and  governed  Transylvania  as  euardian  of  a  consistory  of  fifteen   to  which  the  Evangelical 
John  Sigismund  Zdpolyas.     Gross  addea  Honter  to  clergy  were  subordinate.     Maximilian's  position  in 
hit  name  in  memory  of  his  deliverance  by  an  elder  the  part  of  Hungary  controlled  by  them  was  a  difi^ 
bush   (in  the  Transylvanian  dialect  horUert)  from  cult  one,  because  rebels  cpncealed    their   political 
death  by  drowning.     In  order  to  secure  the  crown  schemes  under  the  doak  of  a  struggle  for  religious 
for  her  son,  John  Sigismund  Zdpolyas,  his  mother,  freedom.     His  brother  Charles  was  master  of  the 
Isabella,  was  obliged  to  sanction  the  decisions  of  the  inner  Austrian  provinces,  Styria,  Carinthia,  Camiola, 
diet  which  met  at  Thorenburg  (Torda)  near  IQausen-  and  GOrz.     He  summoned  the  Jesuits  to  Graz  and, 
buiv.     These  granted  to  adherents  of  the  Augsburg  in  the  religious  pacification  of  BrOck,  granted  the 
Comession    equal    rights    with    the    Catholics.    In  free  exercise  of  religion  at  Graz,  Klagenfurt,  Laibach, 
Boheniia    and    Moravia    Lutheranism    first    found  and  Judenburg.    In  return  he  demanded  that  the 
adherents  among  the  Germans  and  especially  among  Protestants  should  leave  him  and  his  coreligionists 
the  sect  of  the  Utraquists.     Just  as  the  UapsburK  undisturbed    in    their    faith,    rights,    and    estates; 
Ehrnasty  showed  itself  at  this  period  to  be  the  shield  besides  this  the  Lutheran  f)reacher8  and  teachers 
of  Christianity  against  the  advance  of  Islam,  so  also  were  obliged  to  leave  the  cities,  market  towns,  and 
it  proved  itself  ay  its  constancy  and  zeal  to  be  the  estates  under  the  personal  rule  of  the  archduke, 
support  of  the  Faith  against  the  religious  innova-  In  order  to  counteroalance  the  endowed  schools  of 
tions.     Pope  Pius  IV  conceded  the  cup  to  the  laity  the  Styrian  provinces  the  Archduke  Charles  founded 
in  the  Archdioceses  of  Gran  and  Prague,  a  concession,  the  University  of  Graz  (Carolina)  in  1586.     Charies's 
however,  withdrawn  by  St.  Pius  V.     Ferdinand  I  son  Ferdinand  (later  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  II) 
sought  in  many  ways  to  be  of  aid:  by  his  mandates,  was    educated  at  Ingolstadt,  and    while    there    he 
by  the  inspection  of  convents  and  parishes,  by  his  declared,  "I  would  rather  give  up  land  and  people 
care   in   selecting   competent  ecclesiastics,   by   the  and  go  away  in  nothing  but  a  snirt  than  sanction 
introduction  of  the  newly  established  Society  of  Jesus,  what  might  be  injurious  to  religion".    When  he 
and  by  proposals  which  were  sent  to  the  Council  became    ruler    he    appointed    commissioners    who 
of  Trent  in  support  of   reforms.      The    mandates  cleared   the    land    of    these    preachers     (ranters), 
of  Ferdinand  were  of  little  use,  but  the  inspections  The  bishops  George  Stobftus  of  Lavant  and  Martin 
and  the  enforcement  of  the  decisions  of  the  Ck)uncil  Breimer  (n  Seckau  (the  Hammer  of  the  Heretics) 
of  Trent  had  effect.    The  Bishops  of  Vienna,  Fabri  were  at  the  heiid  of  these  reformatory  commissions. 
(Heigerlein),  and  Frederick  Nausea  (a  Latinization  But  no  blood  was  shed  in  this  counter-reformation, 
of  Grau;  Nausea ,  horror,  disgust)  were  unusual  men.        At  the  distribution  of  provinces  Archduke  Ferdi- 
With  unfla^ng  zeal  both  preached  on  Sundays  and  nand,  husband  of  Philippina  Welser    had  received 
feast  days  m  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Stepheh  and  took  the  Tyrol.    The  diet  of^  1570  decided  the  relieious 
part  in  the  religious  movement  by  tne  publication  position  of  that  province.    The  governor,  Jacob  of 
of  theological    pamphlets.    Nausea's   sermons    are  Pagrsbach,  declared  firmly  that  to  grant  the  wishes 
characterized  in  a  rude  rhyme  of  the  day: —  of  the  Protestants  would  be  contrary  to  the  customs 
Viel  tausend  Menschen  standen  da  and  ordinances  of  the  land  and,  further,  that  it  would 
Efl  predigt  Bischof  Nausea,  be  folly  to  rend  religion,  the  strongest  tie  which  binds 
Wie  er  denn  pflegt  zu  aller  Zeit  hearts    together.     All    classes    agreed    with    him. 
Sein'  Sch&flein  zgebn  selbst  die  Weid.  Kudolph  II ,  Maximilian's  eldest  son  and  successor. 
"Many  thousands  gather  where  Bishop  Nausea  lived  m  the  Hradschin  at  Prague,  where  he  carried 
eaehes,  and  himself,  as  his  wont  is,  feeds  his  flock",  on  his  studies  in  alchemy  and  art.    The  Archduchy 


<— In  the  Austrian  provinces  the  Jesuits  were  the    of  Austria  was  ruled  by  his  brother  Ernst.    Ernst 


AUSTBO-HUHOABIAir  126  AXZSTBO-HUKOiJtlAN 

was  aided  by  Melchior  Khlefil,  who  bnoujdit  about  eentloDess  of  his  character,  and  his  strong  patriotic 
the  counter^^reformation  in  Austria.    Khlesl  was  the  feeling.     He  brought  about  the  return  of  fifty  noble 
child  of  Protestant  parents;  his  father  had  been  a  famiUes  to  the  mother  church  and  was  the  author  of 
baker  in  Vienna.     He  was  converted  by  the  court  the  first  Catholic  polemic  in  the  Hungarian  language, 
preacher,  George  Scherer.     From  the  time  of  Scher^  a  "Guide  to  Catholic  Truth".    He  founded  at  T^rmau 
until  the  su^nsion  of  the  order  the  court  preachers  ^  university  which  was  later  transferred  to  Budapest, 
were  ohosen  m  imbroken  succession  from  the  Jesuits,  and  also  the  Hungarian  CioUege  at  Rome.     Believing 
Khlesl  became  Provost  of  8t.  Stephen's,  Chancellor  that  the  preservation  of  reugion  requires  worthy 
of  the  univ^«ity,  and  Bishop  ot  Vienna.     During  servants   he   founded   at   Vienna,    1623,   a   college 
the  reigns  of  Ernst  and  his  brother  Matthias,  Khlesl  (Pazmaneum)   for  the  training  and  instruction  of 
was  all  powerfuL     Rudolph  II  having  shut  himself  clergy  for  all  the  dioceses  of  Hungary.     Ferdinand  II 
up  in  Prague,  the  members  of  the  Hapsburg  family  called  Pdzmdn  his  friend.    This  emperor  raised  the 
chose  the  Archduke  Matthias  to  be  theu*  head.    The  bishops  of  Vienna  to   the  rank  of   prince-bishops 
Bohemians  held  to  Rudolph  II,  but  wrung  from  him  (1631).     When  the  terrible  religious  war  came  to  an 
a  resofript  (Majestdisbrief)  in  1609.    This  confirmed  end  in  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  and  the  diplomats 
the  Bohemian  Confession,  granted  the  Protestants  played  with  religious  establishments  and  monasteries 
,  permission  to  use  the  universitjr,  and  gave  them  as   Doys  play  with  nuts,   and   invented  the    term 
the  right  to  choose  a  consistory;  it  also  allowed  the  "secularization"  to  express  the  secular  appropria- 
three  temporal  estates  of  lords,  knights,  and  cities  tion  of  the  Church's  estates,  the  Hapsburg  pnnces 
having  chartered  rights  to  build  Protestant  churehes  were  not  willing  to  commit  Austria  to  such  a  policy, 
and  schools.    Contrary   to   the   provisions  of  this  At  this  crisis  the  Hapsbui^  Eh^asty  obeyed   the 
agreement,  subjects  of  the  Archbishop  of  Prague  directions  of  Providence.     Had  the  house  of  Haps- 
built  a  Protestant  church  at  Klostergrab,  and  sub-  burg  then  come  forward  as  champions  of  the  new 
jects  of  the  Abbot  of    Braunau   did  the  same  at  doctrine  which  originated  at  Wittenberg,  it  would 
braunau.    The  bishops  ordered  these  to  be  closed,  have  been  easy  to  renew  the  shattered  imperial  power 
and  when  the  Emperor  Matthias  supported   them  in  Germany  and  give  to  the  crown  of  the   Holy 
the  result  was  (1620)  the  "  Second  Defenestration  of  Roman  Empire  a  lustre  far  exceeding  that  of  any 
Prague"  with  which  the  Thirty  Years  War  began,  other  JBuropean   diadem.     But '  reverence   for   God 
The  Elector  Palatine  Frederick  V,  the  head  of  the  and  Holy  CJhurch  had  greater  \Veight  with  the  em- 
Protestant  League  and  of  the  German  Calvinists,  .perors  of  this  line  than  worldly  advantage.     For  one 
was  elected  King  of  Bohemia.    The  cathedral  was  hundred  and  twenty  years  they  battled  with  the 
altered    to    suit   Calvinistic    church    services.    The  stonns  which  the  so-called  Reformation  had  stirred 
altars  were  demolished,  the  pictures  destroyed,  and  up,  while  the  armies  of  Islam  attacked  Vienna  and 
Scultetus,  the  court  preacher,   arranged  a  church  the  edge  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  was  pushed  forward 
service.     No  ruler  ever  began  to  reign  imder  more  as  far  as  Raab.     Even  when  Louis  XIV  forced  his. 
distressing    conditions    than    Ferdinand    II.    The  way  in  from  the  West,  bringing  calamity  in  his  train, 
insurgents  under  Thum  stood  before  the  gates  of  and  the  war  cry  of  the  Osmanli  was  heard  within  the 
Vienna;  those  unfriendly  to  Catholicism  wiuiin  the  imperial  citadel,  the  rulers  of  Austria  stilf  trusted  in 
city  made  conmion  cause  with  the  enemy.     Ferdi-  God.     Innocent  XI  sent  subsidies,  and  the  saintly 
nand,  however,  never  lost  courage.     Khlesl,  Bishop  Father  Marco  D'Aviano  aroused  Christian  enthusiasm 
of  Vienna,  proved  to  be  too  weak  and  was  therefore  Iw  preaching  a  crusade.    The  feast  of  the  Holy  Name 
confined  firat  in  the  castle  of  Ambras  and  Uien  in  of  Mary  is  a  reminder  that  on  the  12th  of  September, 
the  castle  of  Sant'  Angelo  at  Rome.     He  lived  to  have  1683,  the  power  of  Islam  was  forever  broken  before 
the  satisfaction  of  being  restored  in  state  to  his  the  walls  of  Vienna,  and  that  the  inheritance  of  St. 
diocese.     He  founded  in  Vienna  the  Himmelspfort-  Stephen  was   then  freed  from  the  Turkirfi   yoke, 
kloster,  which  commemorates  the  beautiful  legend  Goa  sent  the  rulers  of  Austria  to  do  His  woric,  and 
of  the  truant  nun  whose  place  as  doorkeeper  was  that  they  did  it  is  an  honour  exceeding  that  of  the 
taken  during  her  absence  by  the  Blessed  Virgin.  quickly  fading  garlands  which  victory  twines  about 
After  the  battle  of  the  White  Mountain.  Ferdinand  the  victor's  chariot.     During  this  period  the  Piarist 
took  severe  measures  against  the  .disturbers  of  the  and  UrsiUine  orders  were  active  in   the  work    of 
peace;  they  were  driven  out  of  the  country,  and  education.     New  bishoprics  were  founded  at  Leit- 
finally  the  rescript,  which  had  been  the  source  of  so  meritz  (1656)  and  KOniggrfitz  (1664).     Charles  VI 
much  trouble,  was  annulled.     A  new  constitution  raised  Vienna  in  1722  to  an  archbisnopric.     While 
was  published  which,  among  other  provisions,  made  France  at  this  time  pointed  with  pride  and  reverence 
the   clergy   the   highest   estate   of   the   land.    The  to  its  famous  divines,  the  great  preacher  of  Vienna 
emperor  was  obliged  to  give  Upper  Austria  in  pledge  was  the  always  clever,  but  often  eccentric,  Augus- 
to  Bavaria  as  security  for  the  cost  of  the  war.    The  tinian,    Father    Abraham    a    Sanct&   Clari,    whose 
cruelties  of  the  Bavarian  troops  and  Ferdinand's  family   name   was   Ulrich   Mefeerie.     For   example, 
order,  requiring  the  people  either  to  leave  the  country  preaching  on  the  feast  of  the  conversion  of  St.  Paul 
or  to  return  to  the  old  belief,  led  to  a  peasant  revolt  (Pauli)^  ne  announced  as  his  theme  Gauli^  MauH 
under  the  leadership  of  Stephen  Fadinger,  the  pro-  and  Fault.    Gauli  he  interpreted  to  mean  pride  and 


and  the  Protestants  retired  into  the  little-frequented  The  fifty  years  preceding  the  French  Rev<dution 
mountain  districts.  In  Hungary  the  Government  are  known  in  histoiy  as  the  period  of  the  *'  Enligh ten- 
could  not  accomplish  so  much.  However,  Peter  ment".  The  Rationalist  writers  of  this  period 
Pdzmdn  laboured  with  success  against  the  spread  believed  that  by  enlightenment,  in  their  sense  of 
of  the  new  religious  doctrines.  Pdzmdn  was  born  at  the  word,  a  cure  could  be  found  for  the  evils  of  the 
Grosswardein  (Nagy  Vdrad)  of  Calvinistic  parents,  time,  and  a  means  of  promoting  the  happiness  of 
At  sixteen  he  changed  his  creed,  then  entered  the  mankind.  Men  were  led  more  and  more  away  from 
Society  of  Jesus  and  studied  at  Cracow,  Vienna,  and  the  influence  of  the  Church,  the  loftier  aspirations  of 
Rome.  At  Rome  Bellarmine  and  Vasquez  were  noble  and  pious  souls  were  scorned,  and  only  the 
amouK  his  teachers.  When  professor  at  Graz  he  claims  of  a  refined  sensuality  deemed  worthy  of 
publi^ed  the  "Imitatio  Chnsti".  He  finally  re-  consideration.  The  new  ideas  made  their  way  into 
turned  to  Hungary,  became  Primate,  and  gained  great  Austria,  and  that  country  became  the  birthplace  of 
influence  for  &e  Church  through  bis  eloquence,  the  Josephinism,  so  called  from  the  Emperor  Joseph  II, 


AUSTBO-HUNOAmAir  127  AUiTBO-HUNaABIAN 

wbose  policy  and  leeislatioii  embodied  these  ideas,  alone;  51  in  Lower  Austria.    The  property  of  theK 
Marift  Theresa  forbade  the  sale  of  the  book  written  conventual  institutions  was  turnea  into  a  fund  foi 
l^Fehfonius,  but  soon  its  sale  to  the  learned  and  churoh  expenses,  which  was  to  be  administered  by 
discreet  was    permitted.    Urged    b^  her    council,  thi^  ieveral  provinces.    In  Lower  Austria  alone  231 
Maria  Theresa    issued    the    "Placitum    r^um",  new   parishes  were  formed.    Much  discontent  was 
made  a  stole-tax    ordinance   and    obtained  from  caused   by  the  appointment  of    an  "ecclesiastical 
Boudict  XIV  a  reduction  of  the  feast  days.     By  court  oommission  '  which  issued  a  number  of  arbi- 
thislastregulation  all  the  Apostles  are  conunepiorated  trary  regulations  concerning  public  worship:  only 
OD  the  feast  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  and  all  the  martyrs  one  Mass  was  to  be  celebrated  m  a  church,  and  that 
in  the  Mass  uid  Breviary  on  the  feast  of  St.  Stamen,  at  the  haj^  altar;  in  parish  churches,  auring  the 
The  empress  also  abolished  the  convent  prisons,  and  seasons  of  fasting,  only  two  fast-day  sermons,  on 
ordered  that  passages  in  the  Breviary  lessons  for  the  Wednesday  smd  Friday^  must  be  preached;  after- 
feast  of  St  Gregorv  VII  which  are  opposed  to  tljte  noon  devotions,   the  Litany  of  Loretto,  and  the 
increase  of  the  secular  power  should  be  covered  over  Rosaiv  were  forbidden;  a  requiem  might  be  cele- 
vith  paper.    She  also  put  a  stop  to  public  excom-  bratea  in  a  parish  church  upon  the  occasion  of  a 
municatioDs  and  public  penances.    Tne  last  public  death,  but  not  upon  the  anniversary^  it  was  forbidden 
penance  (1769)  was  that  of  a  merchant  at  P^aw.art  to  e^qboee  the  Blessed  Sacrament  m  a  monstrance, 
m  Lower  Austria  who  had  struck  an  ecclesiastic.    He  the  cibprium  must  be  used  instead;  only  when  the 
stood  for  an  hour  at  the  church  door  hpldiqg  a  black  Host  was  displayed  could  more  than  six  candles  be 
candle.    When  Qement  XIV  suppressed  the  ^dclety  placed  on  the  altar.    A  special  regulation  forbade 
ofJesus,  the  Archbishop  of  Vienna,  Cardinal  Migaxu,  the  dr^sing  of  statues  of  the  Virgin  and  ordered 
sought  to  save  that  oraer  in  Austria.     ''If  the  menn  that  the  bodies  of  the  dead  should  be  buried  in  sacks 
b»8  (^  the  ord^  should  be  scattered,  it  wo^ld  not  and  covered  with   G|uicklime.     Further  ordinances 
be  easy  to  fill  their  places;  it  would  cost  much  ex-  forbade  the  illumination  and  ornamentation  of  sacred 
pnise  and  time  to  bnng  conditions  back  to  the  point  pictures,  the  exhibition  of  relics,  and  pilgrimages, 
at  idiich  these  priests  had  left  their  work  if  th^y  The  Edict  of  Toleration  (1781)  granted  the  private 
vere  forced  to   abandon  it."    Just  twenty  years  exercise  of  their  religion  to  Lutherans  and  Calvinists. 
later  Ifigazai  begged  the  Emperor  Francis  11  to  re-  The  marriage  law  of  1783  runs:  ''Marriage  in  itself 
establish  the  order.     "I  can  prove  to  Your  Majesty",  is  regarded  as  a  purely  civil  contract.     Both  this 
be  said,  "that  even  the  late  French  ambassador,  who  contract  and  the  privileges  and  obligations  arising 
was  certainly  an  unprejudiced  witness,  did  not  hesi-  from  it  are  entirely  dependent  for  uieir  character 
tate  to  say  that  but  for  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits  and  force  on  the  secular  laws  of  the  land.''    In  1783, 
Frinoe  would  never  have  suffered  from  the  Revolu-  also,  all   schools,  episcopal    and   monastic,  for  the 
tion,  which  brought  such  terrible  results  in  its  train,  training  of  the  clergry  were  abolished,  and  general 
Three  months  before  the  death  of  Your  Majesty's  seminaries  were  founded  at  Vienna,  Budapest,  Pavia, 
grandmother  I  heard  her  say,  'Oh,  if  I  had  only  and  Lou  vain,  with  branches  at  Graz,01matz,  Prague, 
roOowed  your  advice  and  had  availed  myself  of  your  Innsbruck,  Freiburg,  and  Pressburg.    This  measure 
statements r  "    After  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits  was  intended  to  check  the  influence  of  the  bishops 
their  property  was  converted  into  a  fund  for  the  aid  in  the  training  of  ecclesiastics,  and  to  obtain  devoted 
of  stuoents,  and  the  whole  system  of  education  was  servants  of  the  State.     The  Minister  of  State,  Van 
remodelled  from   top   to   bottom.    Rautenstrauch,  Swieten,  took  care  that  the  new  schools  were  supplied 
Abbot  of  Braunau,  drew  up  a  new  scheme  for  a  theo-  with  suitable  teachers  and  superintendents, 
logiealoourse,  in  which  there  should  be"  no  squaobles        The  first    lodge    of    Freemasons^   "Zu  den  drei 
of  schoob  and  scholastic  chaos".     Father  Gratian  Kcuionen",  was  formed  at  Vienna  m  1742;  a  lodee 
Marx,  of  the  Congrejgation  of  the  Pious  Schools,  cidled  "Zu  den  gekrOnten  Sternen   und   zur   Red- 
pl&nned  a  Realgymnasium  (high  school  without  Greek)  Hchkeit"  was  formed  soon<  after  at  Prague.    Joseph 
^thsix  classes,  which  prov^  very  successful.    The  11,  however,  had  no  alliance  with  Freemasons.     "I 
common  schools,  which  Maria  Theresa  had  called  a  know  little  about  their  secrets",  he  said,  "as  I  never 
political  necessity,  were  reorganized  by  Abbot  John  had  the  curiosity  to  take  part  in  their  mummeries".' 
iSDu  Fdbiger  of    Sagen  in  Prussian  Silesia,  each  Still,  his  words,  "The  Freemason  societies  increase 
parish  being  given  a  primary  school,  each  aistrict  and  are  now  to  be  found  in  the  smallest  cities", 
a  hi^  school,  and  the  capital  of  each  province  a  show   the   rapid   growth   of   the   order.    Although 
Qormal  school  with  whi^h  an  institute  for  training  many  of  the  representatives  of  the  Church  failed  to 
tetchers  was  connected.    Felbiger  wrote  the  neces-  meet  the  new  tendencies  with  force  and  courage, 
sanr  eehool  books.     The  school  at  Kaplitz  in  southern  the  Prince- Archbishop  of  Vienna,  Cardinal  Migazzi. 
Bohc  uia,  under  the  sup>ervision  of  tne  parish  priest,  attacked  them  boldly.      He   wrote  vigorously  and 
Ferdinand   Kindermann,   was   noted   as   a   model  defended  the  Church  with  energy.    He  was  well 
ftbooL  supported  by  the  Primate  of  Hungary,  Count  Joseph 
In  ten  years  Joeeph  11  published  6,200  laws,  court  Batthydnyi,   and,  in   the  lower   provinces   by  tne 
ll^uiations,  and  ordinances.    Even  those  measures  Cardinal  Count  von  Frankenberg.     But  their  efforts 
vfich  were  good    and   appropriate  in   themselves  were  in  vain;  the  movement  continued  to  grow.     In 
l^&erally  bore  the  evidences  of  precipitancy.     His  this  condition  of  affairs  Pius  VI  felt  it  necessary  to 
^ay  first  ordii^nces  were  directed  against  the  govern-  take  some  action,  and  he  resolved  to  visit  Vienna. 
vioii  of  t^  Catholic  Church  and  aroused  discontent  This  visit  (1782)  was  very  opportune  for  the  emperor 
1^  thdr  interference  with  the  affairs  of  the  Church,  and  the  leaders  of  the  new  tendency  in  the  empire. 
^ aooeptance  of  papal  decrees  without  the  sanction  Eybel  issued  the  libellous  pamphlet,  "Was  ist  der 
<rf  the  uovernment  was   forbidden.    The    bishops  Papst?"    The  value  of  the  pamphlet  literature  of 
*^  forbidden  to  apply  for,  or  make  use  of,  the  the  Josephinist  movement  is  not  in  proportion  to  its 
Wqtieimial  faculties  of  the  Holy  See,  on  the  ground  amount.    The  roads  traversed  by  the  papal  cort^e 
^  they  had  full  authority  to  act  for  themselves,  were  lined  with  the  faithful  who  were  eager  to  obtam 
^  the  other  hand,  they  were  not  allowed  to  issue  the  blessing  of  the  Holy  Father.    The  emperor  met 
Pastoral  letters  or  instructions  without  the  sanotion  the  pope  at  Wiener-Neustadt.  and  on  the   22d  of 
of  the  Government.     The  Government  soon  b^j^ian  March  the  two  heads  of  the  Cnristian  world  entered 
^  ciote  those  monasteries  which  were  not  occupied  the  imperial  city.    The  emperor  showed  the  pope 
^  the  spiritual  care  of  a  community,  teaching  or  every  attention,  but  his  chancellor  of  state,  Prince 
soning,  and  all  the  brotherhoods  were  suspended.  Kaunitz,  was  less  considerate.    At  Easter  the  pope 
^^t  738  religious  bouses  were  closed;  13  in  Viennai  celebrated  High  Mass  in  the  church  of  St.  Stephen 


AtnTBO-HtmOABIAM  128  AVBTBO-HimOARIAir 

and  afterwards  blessed,  from  the  balodn^  of  the  .permitted^toapointnotfar  distant",  and  Saturday 

church  facing  Am  Hof ,  the  vast  throng  which  filled  evening  devotions  were  also  allowed  (without  Bene^ 

the  sauare.     But  the  object  of  the  pope's  visit  was  diction,  however),  as  well  as  the  exposition  of  relics. 

fainea  only  in  part,  although  it  may  oe  said  that  the        Francis  II  was  a  devout  and  conscientious  Chri»- 

osephinist  fanaticism  began  to  give  place  to  a  more  tian,  and  a  ruler  who  wished  to  be  a  father  to  hie 

sober  mood.    When  the  Holy  Father  left  Vienna,  people.     Nevertheless,  it  was  during  his  reign  that 

22  April,  after  a  stay  of  just  one  month,  the  emperor  what  ia  called  the  Josephinist  system  struck  firmer 

accompanied  him    as    far    as    Mariabrunn.     Here,  roots.    In  the  first  place,  the  struggle  with  France, 

after  praying  in  the  church,  the  two  parted.   The  next  which  lasted  over  twenty  years,  demanded  all  the 

year  the  emperor  visited  Rome,  where  the  Spanish  energies  of  the  Government,  and  during  this  reign 

ambassador,  Azara,  and  Cardinal  Bemis  are  said  to  both  dersy  and  people  grew  more  accustomed  to 

have  had  a  moderating  effect  upon  him.    Thare  was  the  Josephinist  regulations.     But  in  addition  to  this 

no  break  with  the  Curia.  Francb  I  dung  witii  a  childlike  devotion  to  the 

One  work  of  lasting  value  which  this  empm)r  memory  of  his  uncle  Joseph  II,  whom  he  called  his 

undertook  was  in  connexion  with  diocesan  boimdaries.  second   father.    And,    furthermore,   whenever  any 

He  took  from  the  Diocese  of  Passau  that  part  which  concession  was  made  to  the  Church,  the  supporters 

lies  in  Austria  and  formed  with  it  the  See  of  Lina;  of  Joeephinism  raised  an  outcry.    In  1793,  for  in- 

the  episcopal  residence  was  transferred  from  Wiener-  stance,  the  Government  was  informed  that  in  the 

Neustadt  to  St.  P6lten,  Brejgenz  was  made  the  seat  church  of  St.  Stephen  Mass  was  celebrated  simul- 

of  a  vicar-^neral,  and  a  bishopric  was  founded  at  taneouslv  at  several  altars,  and  that  in  several  places, 

Leoben.    The  worst  blunder  committed  by  Joseph  II  at  the  afternoon  litanies.  Benediction  was  ^ven  with 

in  his  later  years  was  his  obstinate  adherence,  in  spite  the  monstrance.    A  priest  had  been  the  mformant. 

of  the  warnings  of  Cardinal  Frankenberg,  to  the  After  repeated   conferences   the   cardinal  obtained 

scheme  of  erecting  a  general  seminary  at  Ix>uvain.  permission  to  have  two  Masses  said  at  the  same  time 

Van  Swieten  put  Stdger  in  charge  of  it.    Stdger  was  m  the  church  of  St.  Stiephen   but  "  the  Benediction 

one  of  the  few  Catholic  priests  who  had  committed  coidd  be  given  only  once  at  the  close  of  the  service", 

themselves  unreservedly  to   the   "Enlightenment"  The  almost  insurmountable  diflSculty  in  the  way  of 

movement.     Maria  Theresa  had  dismissed  him  from  reform  was  the  ecclesiastical  court  commission.    It 

his  position  as  teacher  of  church  history,  and  his  was  the  only  means  of  communication  between  a 

opinions  were  to  be  found  in  print  in  his  compendium  bishop  and   the  emperor.     Migazzi  wished,  above 

of  church  history.    The  career  of  Aurelius  Fessler  everything,  to  eliminate  this  dimcultv.     "I  am  in  all 

is  a  still  more  distressing  example  of  the  influence  of  things",   ne   said,    "Your    Majesty  s   most   dutiful 

the  new  spirit.     Fessler  was  bom  in  Hungary  and  subject.     But    in    his    ecclesiastical    character    the 

came  to   Vienna  as  a  Capuchin  monk.    There  he  chief  shepherd  must  say  boldly  that  the  placing  of 

became  acquainted  with  Eybel,  and  as  an  offset  to  such  fetters  upon  the  guardians  of  the  Church  is  an 

Eybers  "Was  ist  der  Papst?"  issued  "Was  ist  der  offence  to  all  Catholics,  and  it  is  a  still  neater  offence 

Kaiser?"    Appointed  prof essor  of  theoloffv  at  Lem-  that  this  power  is  given  to  men  of  worioly  or  untrust- 

berg,  he  entered  the  Freemason  lodge  "JrhOnix  zur  worthy  reputation,  and  even  to  men  known  to  be 

runden  Tafel",  but  was  soon  obliged  to  leave  Lem-  dangerous  or  of  notorious  character."    The  emperor, 

berg  "on  account  of  debt  and  frivolous  demeanour  indeed,  sought  to  do  away  with  the  worst  features 

unsuited  to  his  calling".     He  became  a  Lutheran,  of  the  svstOTi  which  had  come  down  to  him  from 

established  himself  in  Beriin  as  legal  counsellor  in  his  predecessors.    He  authorized   the   prayer,    the 

ecclesiastical  and  school  cases,  got  a  divorce  in  order  solemn  benediction  of  graves,  and  the  pilgrimages 

to  marry  again,  and  accepted  a  professorship  in  the  to  Mariazell  (the  first  of  which,  in  1792,  was  led  by 

academy  at  St.  Petersburg.     Obliged  to  leave  this  Migazzi   himself),   and   the   draping  of  "the    poor 

position  in  a  year's  time  ^'on  account  of  atheistical  statues  of  the  Mother  of  God", 
opinions",  he  succeeded  in  becoming  an  Evangelical        Afan  cannot  at  will  be  stirred  to  activity  or  lulled 

bii^op,  and  died  at  St.  Petersburg.    His  "Reminis-  to  sleep.    However,  at  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 

cences  of  My  Seventy  Years'  Pilgrimage"  presents  teenth  century  a  number  of  circumstances  combined 

a  melancholy  picture  of  long  and  wearv  wanderings,  to  bring  about  an  increase  of  the  religious  spirit  in 

Although  the  reforms  of  Joseph  II   were  well-  Austria.    In  1802,  the  emperor  issued  two  circulars, 

intentioned,  yet  the  independence  of  the  Chiut^h  the  first  on  "the  means  of  elevating  the  secular 

suffered  detriment  through  them.     His  enactments  clergy"  and  the  second  on  "the  means  of  improving 

were  drafted   by  Austrian   canonists  without  any  the  regular  clerpr".    To  remedy  the  lack  of  priests, 

previous  understanding  with  the  authorities  of  the  the  firet  order  mcreased  the  number  of  gymnasia. 

Church,  and  in  violation  of  her  rights   (jus  circa  directed  the  establishment  of  a  theological  training- 

sacra).    In   many   instances   the   tender   germs   of  school,  with  a  seminary  attached,  for  each  dioceee, 

religion  were  killed,  and  a  careless,  frivolous  way  of  and  granted  stipends  to  divinity  students.     EkMdesi- 

thinking  resulted.  astics  belonging  to  an  order  were  to  wear  the  habit 

Leopold  II,  the  successor  of  Joseph  II,  entered  of  their  order,  and  must  not  live  alone;  a  profession 

Vienna,  12  March,  1790,  and  on  the  21st  of  the  same  might  be  made  in  the  twenty-first  year,  mstead  of 

month  Cardinal  Migazzi  presented  a  memorial  con-  the    twenty-fifth.     Soon    after    this    the    emperor 

ceming  the  painful  position  of  the  Austrian  Chiut^h.  transferred  to  the  bishops  the  supervision  of  religioiis 

As  a  result,  the  bishops  received  an  intimation  that  instruction  (1808)  and  the  censorship  of  theolo^cal 

they  were  at  liberty  to  point  out  any  serious  defects  works    (1814).     Kepeated    commands    Uy   officials 

in  the  existing  ecclesiastical  conditions.    This  they  required  them  to  attend  Sunday  church-services, 

did,  but,  more  especially.  Cardinal  Migazzi  enumer-  A  university  service,  with  a  university  preacher,  was 

ated  "thirteen  grievances  and  their  remedies"  in  founded  for  university  students.    Two  days   before 

his  memorandum.    Among   these   grievances  were  his  death   the  emperor  directed   his  successor    to 

"the  lack  of  monastic  discipline,  the  general  semi-  "complete  the  work  he  had  begun  of  rectifying 

naries,   the  marriage  laws,  and   the  Ecclesiastical  those  laws,  principles,  and  methods  of  managing 

Commission  which  had  assumed  to  be  the  judge  church   afiPaira   which   had   been   introduced    -since 

of  the  bishops  and  their  rights".    Leopold  II  virtu-  1780". 

ally  suspended   the   general  seminaries,   permitted        The  Archbishops  of  Vienna  acted  in  a  manner 

the  bishops  to  have  seminaries  under  their  own  worthy  of  their  high  office.    Migazzi's  successor,  in 

control,  and  granted  to  the  monasteries  the  right  to  1803,   was   Sigismund   Anton   Osunt   Hohennvarth, 

give  theologi^  courses.    Religious  processions  were  the  instructor  of  the  emperor,  and  a  pastor  seelous 


AUSTSO-HUNOASIUr  129  AUSTBO-HUHOARIAN 

In-  souk,  who  devoted  himself  especially  to  the  the  congregation  aa  an  order,  and,  filled  with  joy, 

theological  schools.    After  him  came  Vincenz  Eduard  he  pas^d   away,  praising  God,   15  March,   18^. 

Milde  (d  1853)  who  had  gained  a  good  reputation  as  Tendler,  who  followed  inHofbauer's  footsteps,  was 

a  theorist  in  pedagogics  and  as  a  practical  teacher,  bom  only  six  days  after  his  death.    Hofbauer  was 

An  important  part  in  arousing  the  Church  was  taken  beatified  in  1886.    Cardinal  Rauscher  said  of  him: 

by  the  followmg  court  preachers  of  that  period:  "Father  Hofbauer  made  the  final  arran^ment  of 

Yincenz  Damaut,  who  prepared  an  Old  Testament  the  Concordat  possible;  he  gave  to  the  spirit  of  the 

histofy;  Frint,  author  of  a  compendium  of  religious  time  a  better  direction". 

knowledge  (6  vols.),  the  man  at  whose  suggestion        There  were  at  this  time,  unfortunately,  priests 
the  emperor  in  1816  established  the  advancea  school  who  instead  of  offering  to  their  fellow-men  the  pure 
for  secular  clergy  at  St.  Augustine,  and  the  founder  wheat  of  the  truth  sought  to  give  them  the  chaff  of 
of  the  Vienna     Theologische  S^itschrift";  Vincenz  fantastic    dreams.     Among    others,   Martin    Boos 
Eduard  Milde  was  the  author  of  a  textbook  of  the  gen-  taught  that  "  the  Saviour  only  demands  from  sinners 
eral  theory  of  pedagogics  (2  vols.);  Johann  Michael  that  they  believe  in  him  and  make  his  merits  their 
Leonhard,  who  publisned  ''Christian  Doctrines"  in  own.    For  this  reason  the  formation  of  a  particular 
four  parts   and    textbooks   for   grammar   schools:  society  of  believers  in  the  living  faith  is  necessary". 
Johann  Pletz,  who  continued  Frint 's  periodical  and  Boos  supported  his  views  by  referring  to  Professor 
puUifihed  ''Dogmatic  Sermons";  Job,  confessor  to  Sailer,  but  was  imprisoned  a  whole  year  by  the 
the  queen  mother.  (Woline  Augusta;  Albert  SchlOr,  consistory  at  Augsburg.    After  this  he  nad  a  parish 
whoj>roduced  "MeditatAons  upon  the  Entire  Gospel  at  Gallenkirchen,  in  Upper  Austria,  but  was  ooliged 
for  Ecclesiastics  and  Priests",  a  work  still  fruitful,  to  resign  his  position.    Thomas  P6schel,  a  curate, 
The  priests  whom  the  emperor  received  into  Austria  at  Ampfelwang,  in  Upper  Austria,  received  a  heav- 
after  the  secularisation  ot  the  abbeys  in  the  empire  enly  revelation   that   the  millennium  had   begun, 
woe  also  very  active.    Thirty-five  monks  who  came  This  was  to  be  preceded  by  the  arrival  of  Antichrist, 
from  St.  Blasien,  in  the  Black  Forest  to  St.  Paul  in  who  had  just  appeared  in  the  person  of  Napoleon. 
Garinthia  pursued  serious  studies;   twenty-five  from  P6schel  died  at  Vienna  in  the  infirmary  for  priests. 
Wiblingen  entered  Austrian  abbeys.    Among  these  The  "Manharter"  in  Tyrol  took  the  name  of  the 
'were  &bastian  Z&ngerle,  who,  "praying,  working,  peasant  Manhart,  who,  influenced  by  the  assistant 
and  bravely  fighting",  bequeathed  ms  diocese  oi  curate  Easpar  Hagleitner,  maintained  that  the  acts 
Seckau  in  exc(^ent  condition  to  his  successor;  and  of  the  Tyrolese  ecclesiastics  who  had  sworn  fealty 
Gregor  Thomaa   Ziegler,   who,   while   pjrofessor   of  to  Napoleon  were  invalid.    The  Archbishop  of  Salz- 
dogmatics  at  Vienna,  wrote  "On  Theological  Ration-  buig,   Augustine   Gruber,  and  Cardinal  Cappellari 
aHam",  "Foundation  of  the  Catholic  Faith",  and  a  (Gregory  XVI)  quieted  the  peasants.  . 
"life  of  Job".    Their  efforts  were  aided  by  the       In  1848,  when,  as  was  said  at  the  bishops'  confer- 
oonverts    Frederick    von    Sohlegel    and    Zachariafl  ence  at  WUrzburg,  "  the  judgment  of  God  was  passed 
Werner.    Mettemich  was  Schlegel's  patron.    Schle-  on  thrones  and   peoples",   the  devastating  storm 
gera  lectures  on  modem  history  and  on  ancient  and  broke  out  in  Austria.     Even  Foster,  a  pro^ssor  of 
modem  literature,  delivered  at  Vienna,  had  a  bene-  theology  at  the  University  of  Vienna  and  a  university 
ficialeffect,  and  the  "Konkordia",whidi  he  founded,  preacher,  led   students   astray.    The    Prince- Arch- 
advocated  Catholic  interests.     Werner's  conversion  oishop  of  Vienna,  Vincenz  Eduard  Milde,'  issued  a 
was  finaJly  effected  by  the  confession  of  St.  Peter,  warning  to  the  entire  clergy  "to  keep  within  the 
In  reading  the  "Imitation  of  Christ  "his  eye  happened  limits  of  their  calling".     Nevertheless,  the  revolu- 
to  fall  on  the  only  words  of  Peter  contained  m  the  tionary  spirit  soon  threatened  the  Church.     Public 
WOTk  (Im.,  Ill,  Uii,  I).     He  called  th^  "Imitation  of  demonstrations     were    made     against    Archbishop 
Christ  "the  "pith  of  all  books".    (ToUe.lege,)    During  Milde  and  the  papal  nuncio,  because  Pius  IX  was 
the  sessions  of  the  Congress  he  preacned  at  Vienna  said  to  have  blessed  the  Italians  who  marched  out 
with  such  intense  feeling  that  at  times  he  wept  as  he  to  fight  the  Austrians.    The  Redemptorists  were 
recalled  with  remorse  nis  youthful  errors.    For  a  driven  out  of  Vieima,  and  the  Jesuits  out  of  Graz. 
while  Hohenwarth  entertained  him  in  his  palace  and  Ronge,  whose  followers  abused  the  words  German 
DaJberg  gave  him'a  gold  pen  which  he  presented  to  and  Catholic  by  calling  themselves  "German-Catho- 
the  shrine  at  Ms^azeiL    Werner,  who  died  eleven  lie",  preached  in  the  Odeon  at  Vienna  and  in  the 
days  after  preaching  a  notable  sermon  on  the  feast  of  taverns  at  Graz.     Unfortunately,  Ronee  was  joined 
the  Epii>luuiy.  in  1823,  was  buried  at  Maria  Enzers-  by  Hermann  Pauli,  assistant  at  Erdberg,  and  by 
dorf  beode  Hessed  Clement  Maria  Hofbauer.     Hof-  Hirschberger,   chaplain   at   the   home  for  disabled 
bauer  was  a  man  of  saintly  character  and  prayerful  soldiers.    Pauli  and  Hirschberger  came  to  a  sad  end: 
life  who^  as  confessor  and  preacher,  exercised  an  the  former  died  in  an  insane  asylum,  the  latter  com- 
extraordmary  ii^uence  over  many  and  was  a  source  mitted  suicide. 

of  lig^t  and  instruction  for  Vienna  and  Austria.  He  With  these  exceptions,  the  clergy  of  Vienna  be- 
was  bom  at  Twss^iii  in  Moravia^  entered  the  Re-  haved  admirably.  In  May  the  curate,  Sebastian 
demptorist  Order  at  Rome  as  its  first  German  mem-  Brunner,  came  to  the  defence  of  the  Church  against 
her  and  was  active  in  the  order  at  Warsaw.  He  the  hostile  press  by  issuing  the  "Kirchenzeitun^", 
suffered  for  tlie  Faith,  being  confined  in  the  fortress  and  the  bishops  of  various  dioceses  sent  memorials 
of  KOs^in,  and  after  coming  to  Vienna  was  appointed  and  addresses  to  the  ministry,  the  imperial  diet  and 
anistant  to  the  rector  of  the  Italian  church  through  the  emperor,  such  as:  a  statement  of  the  bishops  of 
the  influence  of  Archbishop  Hohenwarth.  He  was  the  Arcndiocese  of  Moravia  drawn  up  by  Kutschker; 
finaHy  made  confessor  to  the  Ursulines.  Without  petition  of  the  Prince-Bishop  of  Lavant  to  the  Im- 
Doiajr  effort  he  produced  deep  effects.  Among  his  perial  Diet;  petition  of  the  Archbishop  of  Gdrz  to 
peutentfl  were:  Adam  von  Milller,  court  councillor  the  Ministry;  "What  are  the  Relations  of  Church 
and  author,  whose  last  words  were  "Only  those  and  State?  An  Answer  by  the  bishops  of  Bohemia"; 
facta  are  worthy  of  notice  which  the  Catholic  Church  memorial  of  the  Archbishopric  of  Salzburg  to  the 
leeociifles  as  true";  Schlegeh  Zacharias  Werner;  Imperial  Diet;  memorial  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Vienna 
the  Prinoeas  Jafalonowska  and  Princess  Bretzenheim;  to  the  Diet;  memorial  of  the  bishops  of  the  Arch- 
Privy  Councillor  Francis  de  Paul  Szeechenyij  Pro-  diocese  of  the  maritime  district  to  the  constitutional 
Umon  Fourerius  Ackermann,  Zangerle,  Ziegler;  imperial  diet  at  Kremsier.  All  these  brochures 
Byibopfi  Rauscher  and  Baraga.  He  converted  Sil-  sought  the  independence  of  the  Church,  the  breaking 
bert  Klinkowstr5m  and  Veith.  Hofbauer  learned  of  her  fetters  so  that  she  might  be  free  to  raise  her 
on  his  death-bed  that  the  emperor  had  recognized  hand  to  bless. 


AXTSTRO-HUNOABIAN  130  AXTSTRO-HUlfQARIAK 

As  the  apt)eals  of  individual  bishops  and  dioceses  regulate    instruction:    "All    school    instruction   oi 
had  little  effect,  the  minister  of  the  interior,  Count  Catholic  children  must  be  in  accordance  with  tha 
Stadion,  summoned  the  Austrian  bishops  to  Vienna  teachings  of  the  Catholic  Church  j  the  bishops  are 
in  order  to  obtain  a  unanimous  expression  of  their  to  have  charge  of  religious  training;  professors  of 
wishes.     Hungary  and  the  Lombardo-Venetian  prov-  theology  are  to  be  chosen  from  men  whom  the  bishop 
inces  were  not  mcluded,  as  they  were  not  yet  pacified,  holds  to  be  most  suited  to  the  position:  only  Catholics 
This  first  conference  of  the  Austrian  bishops  met,  shall  be  appointed  professors  in  the  eymnasia  [middle 
29  April  to  20  June,   1849,  in  the  archiepiscopal  schools]  set  aside  for  Catholic  children;  the  bishops 
palace.     Sixty  sittings  were  held.     Schwarzenberg,  are  to  select  the  religious  text-books*'.    The  bishops 
the  "German   cardinal",  presided,  and  the  lately  have  the  right  to  condemn  books  injurious  to  religion 
consecrated  Bishop  Rauscher  was  secretary.     Hun-  and  morals,  and  to  forbid  Cathohcs  reading  them 
gary  was  represented  by  the  Bishop  of  Pecs,  Scit-  (Art.   8).    The  ecclesiastical  judge  decides  matri- 
vosky.     Among  the  theologians  were  Court  Councillor  monial  suits  of  an  ecclesiastical  character  (Art.  10). 
Zenner,  of  Vienna;  Professor  Kutachker,  of  OlmOtz;  The  Holy  See  does  not  forbid  ecclesiastics  who  have 
Canon   Tarnoczy,    of    Salzburg*    Canon   Wiery,   of  committed  misdemeanours  and  crimes  to  be  brought 
Lavant;  Professor  Fessler,  of  Brixen;  Canon  Jab-  before  the  secular  courts  (Art.  14).    The  emperor, 
linsky,  of  Tarnow;  and  Canon  Ranolder  of  P^cs.  in   exercising   the   Apostolic   prerogative   inherited 
The  voluminous  memorials  presented  to  the  Gov-  from  his  ancestors,  or  nominating  the  bishops  to  be 
emment    by    the    conference    discussed    marriage,  canonically  confirmed  by  the  Holy  See,  wiU  in  the 
the    endowment    funds    for    religion,    school,    and  future,  as  in  the  past,  avail  himself  of  the  advice  of 
student-stipends,  livings  and  endowments  for  church-  the  bishops,  especially  of  the  bishops  of  the  archdio- 
services,    instruction,    the    administration    of    the  cese  in  wnich  the  vacant  see  lies  (Art.  19).     In  all 
church,   ecclesiastical   ofiices   and   church   services,  metropolitan  churches  the  Holy  Father  appoints  the 
monastic  houses,  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction.     In  the  highest  di^itary.    The  emperor  tetill  appoints  all 
resolutions,  which  cover  207  paragraphs,  the  bishops  other  dignitaries  and  the  canons  of  the  cathedral 
marked  out  for  themselves  a  common  course  of  action.  (Art.  22).    The  Holy  Father  empowers  the  emperor 
The  resolutions  of  this  first  conference  of  the  bishops  and  his  successors  to  present  to  all  canonries  and 
of  Austria  were  the  foundation  on  which  the  new  parishes  where  the  right  of  patronage  is  derived  from 
structure  of   the  Austrian  CJhurch  has  been  built,  the  endowment  fund  for  religious  or  educational 
Before   the   close   of   the    conference   an   episcopal  foundations,  but  in  such  cases  the  appointee  must 
committee  of  five  members  was  formed  to  press  the  be  one  of  three  candidates  nominated  by  the  bishop 
settlement  of  the  memorials,  and  to  protect  the  as  suitable  for  the  position  (Art.  25).    The  bishops 
interests  of  the  Church.     The  chairman  of  the  com-  have  the  right  to  Drine  religious  orders  into  their 
mittee  was  Cardinsd  Schwarzenberg,  the  secretary  dioceses    (Art.    28).    The   estates   which  form   the 
was    Prince-Bishop    Rauscher   of    Seckau.      Count  endowment  fund  for  religious  and  educational  foun- 
Leo  Thun,  Minister  of  Instruction,  presented  the  dations  are  the  property  of  the  Church  and  are  man- 
matter  at  last  to  His  Majesty  at  two  audiences,  and  aged  in  its  name,  tne  bishops  having  the  supervision 
the  important  imperial  decrees  of  18  and  23  April,  of  affairs;  the  emperor  is  to  aid  in  making  up  what 
1850,  were  the  result  of  these  interviews.    The  nrst  is  lacking  in  the  fund  (Art.  31). 
ordinance  defined  the  relations  of  the  Catholic  Church        The  Concordat  was  intended  to  be  binding  upon  the 
to  the  State:  Catholics  "are  at  liberty  to  apply  in  entire  monarchy,  and  to  be  carried  out  with  uniform- 
spiritual  matters  to  the  pope";  bishops  might  issue  ity  in  all  parts.    Thun,  therefore,  in  the  emperor's 
regulations   in    matters   pertaining   to    their   office  name,  called  the  bishops  of  the  entire  empire  to 
without   previous   permission    from   state   officials;  Vienna.     On  the  6th  of  April,  1856,  the  inhaoitants 
ecclesiastical    authorities    were    allowed    to    order  of  the  imperial  city  saw  66  princes  of  the  Church 
church    punishments;     careless    administrators    of  enter  the  Cathedrju  of  St.  Stephen  in  state.     These 
church  offices  could  be  suspended.    The  ordinance  ecclesiastics  represented  the  Latin,  Greek,  and  Ori- 
of  23  April  defined  the  relations  of  the  Church  to  ental  Rites;  among  them  were  German,  Hungarian, 
public  instruction:  teachers  of  religion  and  theological  Italian,   and   Polisn   bishops.    The  procession   w^as 
professors  could  not  be  appointed  without  the  con-  closed  by  the  pro-nuncio,  Cfardinal  Viale  Preld.     The 
sent  of  the  bishop,  who  could  at  any  time  withdraw  assembly  presented  to   the  Government  proposals, 
his  ratification;    the  bishop  named  one-half  of  the  requests,  and  resolutions  concerning  schools,  mar- 
examining  committee  at  theological  examinations;  riage,  church  estates,  appointment  to  ecclesiastical 
a  candidate  for  a  theological  doctorate  had  to  sub-  benefices,  monasteries,   patronage  of  livings.     The 
scribe  to  the  Tridentine  Confession  of  Faith  in  the  closing  session   was   held    17  June.    The   emperor 
presence  of  the  bishop  before  obtaining  his  degree.  received  the  bishops  in  a  farewell  audience.     On  this 

On  the  14th  of  September,   1852,  the  Emperor  occasion  Cardinal  Schwarzenberg  said:  "After  God, 

Francis  Joseph  empowered  Prince- Bishop  Rauscher  our  hope  and  trust  rest  on  Your  Majesty's  piety, 

to  act  as  his  representative  in  drawing  up  a  Concordat,  wisdom,  and  justice.    When  we  have  reached  our 

and  Pope  Pius  IX  named  as  his  representative,  Viale  dioceses  we  shall  strive  most  zealously  to  extend 

Preld,  the  papal  nuncio  in  Vienna.     In  important  the  benefits  of  the  agreement  in  all  directions", 

questions  Rauscher  was  to  consult  with  the  com-  In  order  to  make  the  Concordat  effectual,  the  bishops 

mittee  on  the  Church.    This  committee  was  com-  held  synods  in  their  dioceses:  at  Gran,  1858;  Vienna, 

posed  of  Thun,  Minister  of  Instruction;  Buol  Schauen-  1858;    Prague,    1860;    Kalocsa,    1863.     Fresh    life 

stein.  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs;  Bach,  Minister  of  showed  itself  everywnere.     It  is  now  acknowledged 

the  Interior;  R.  von  Salvotti,  Member  of  the  Imperial  that  schools  of  all  grades  accomplished  great  things 

Diet;  and  Freiherr  von  Kiibeck,  President  of  the  under  the  Concorcfet.    The  primary  schools   were 

Imperial  Diet.    The  results  of  the  conferences  were  excellently  arranged,  a  course  of  study  which  is  still 

to  be  laid  from  time  to  time  before  the  emperor  for  in  force  was  drawn  up  for  the  rymnasia,  and  the 

decision.    The  negotiations  advanced  very  slowly.  University  of  Vienna  gained  a  world  wide  reputation 

The  Hungarian  bishops  presented  special  desideria  under  Thun,  the  author  of  the  Concordat.     In  1855 

(requests),  the  Patriarch  of  Venice  presented  poatu'  the  Institute  for  Research  in  Austrian  history  was 

lata  et  desideria  (demands  and  requests).    In  order  formed.     Famous  members  of  the  medical  faculty 

to  expedite  matters,  Rauscher  spent  seven  consecu-  of  the  university  were  the  professors:  Skodra  (ijer- 

tive   months   in   Rome,   busied   with   negotiations,  cussion  and  auscultation);  Kokitansky  (pathological 

The  Concordat  was  at  last  signed  on  the  emperor's  anatomy);  Oppolzer;  Hebra;  Stellwag;  HyrU;  Brlidce, 

birthday,  1855.    It  contains  36  articles.    Arts.  5-8  and  Billroth,  the  last  named  being  the  leading  sui^ 


AUSTBO-HUHOABIAN                     131  AU8TB0-HUNQABIAN 

geon  of  the  century.    Upon  Rauscher's  suggestion  teenth  century,  John  Emanuel  Veith,  and  of  the 
the  number  of  professors  in  the  department  of  dog-  philosopher  and  priest,  Anton  Gilnther.     Veith  was 
matic  theology  of  the  University  of  Vienna  was  t)om  at  Kuttenplan,  in  Bohj^mia,  and  was  of  Jewish 
increased,  in  order  to  ensure  a  more  extended  course  parentage.     When  he  was  nine  years  old  his  spiritual 
in  this  branch.    The  new  men  called  were,  Father  struggles  began.    In  his  twenty-first  year,  led  by 
Philip  Guidi,  O.P.,  and  Father  demenS  Schrader,  Father  Hofbauer,  he  found  peace  in  the  Church.     He 
S.J.,  Doth  from  Rome.    The  lectures  were  obligatory  faithfully  kept  the  vow  he  had  made:  *'I  will  devote 
on  divinity  students  in  any  one  year  of  the  four  years'  my  entire  lite  to  the  only  thing  that  is  eternal,  and 
course,  and  were  intended  also  for  priests  desirous  therefore,  the  only  thing  that  is  important.''    Veith 
of  instruction.    The  successful  development  of  art  became  a  priest,  preached  for  fourteen  years  in  the 
during  this  period  is  shown  in  the  church  of  Altler-  Cathedral  of  St.  Stephen  at  Vienna  and  died  in  1876. 
chenfeld  in  Vienna,  which  was  consecrated  in  1861.  At  the  time  of  his  last  illness  he  was  preparing  a 
This  fine  structure  was  built  from  the  designs  of  the  translation,  with  commentary,  of  the  Canticle  of 
architect  John  George  MtiUer,  and  was  decorated  Canticles.    On  the  day  of  his  death  he  wrote  down 
with  a  series  of  murm  paintings  by  Joseph  FUhrich,  the  words  of  Sulamit: 
wofesaor  at  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  Vienna.  Neu  auch  wollen  wir  dort  oben 
These  paintings  combine  art  and  true  dogma  most  Lieb  und  Treue  ihm  geloben. 
admiraoly,    and   Ftihrich   is   in    them   a   veritable  — "Afresh  will  we  there  above  vow  to  him  our  faith 
teacher  of  the  Faith.     He  was  bom  at  Krazau  in  and  love."    Then,  putting  the  pen  aside,  he  said, 
Bohemia,  studied  art  first  at  the  academv  in  Prague,  "It   is  finished",  and  breathed  nis  last.     (Life  by 
afterwards  for  two  years  at  Rome,  and  coming  to  LOwe.)    Richness  of  thought  and  a  classic  elegance 
Vienna  passed  forty-two  studious  and  fruitful  years  of  speech  characterized   Veith 's  sermons.     Among 
there  (ci.  1876),     Among  the  large  number  of  his  those  published  are:"  Die  Leidenswerkzeuge  Chris  ti"; 
religious  paintings  the  most  famous  are:  The  Pater-  " DenkbQchlein  von   der  gOttlichen  Liebe";   "Das 
nosier;  the  Way  of  the  Cross,  in  the  church  of  St.  Friedensopfer":    "  Lebensbilder   aus    der    Passions- 
John  on  the  Prater,  Vienna,  copies  of  which  can  be  geschichte";  "Die  heiligen  Berge"  (2  vols.):  "Ho- 
found  in  all  parts  of  the  world;  the  Way  to  Bethle-  milienkranz"  (5  vols.);  "Der  verlome  Sohn   ;  "Die 
hem;  illustrations  of  the  Psalter  and  the  Imitation  Samaritin";  "Die  Erweckung  des  Lazarus";  "Mater 
of  CSm'st;   the  Prodigal  Son;   the   ^ook  of  Ruth.  Dolorosa";  "Festpredigten"  (2  vols.);  "Homiletische 
The  manner  in  which  Ftihrich  developed  his  scheme  VortrSge"    (7  vols.);   "Der  Blindgebome";   "Poli- 
of  thought  in  the  series  of  pictures  in  the  Altlerchen-  tische   Passionspredigten ";    "Eucharistie";    "Welt- 
feld  church   is  extremely  impressive.     Pictures  in  leben  und  Christen tum";  "Charitas";  "Worte  der 
churches,  according  to  his  view,  were  not  merely  Feinde  Christi";  "Misericordia"  (Psalm  Miserere); 
decorative;  through  the  senses  they  must  imfold  to  "Das  Vaterunser";  "Weg,  Wahrheit,  und  Leben"; 
the  spirit  that  inner  life  of  faith  which  finds  its  full  " Dodekatheon "  ^2  vols.);  "Die  Miichte  des  Unheils"; 
development  in  the  church.     In   the  vestibule  of  "Die  Anfange   der   Menschenwelt";    "Die   Stufen- 
the  church,  six  pictures  portray  the  work  of  creation,  psalmen";  "Prophetic  und  Glaube";  " Homiletische 
and  a  seventh  sets  fortn  the  rest  of  the  Creator  on  Aehrenlese"  (2  vols.);  "Meditationen  uber  den  118. 
the  Sabbath.    The  paintings  in  the  two  side  aisles  Psalm";  "Hundert  Psalmen";  "Der  Leiden we^  des 
represent  the  Church  of  the  Old  Testament,  which  Herm";  "  Stechpalmen ";  "Dikaiosyne,  Die  Epistel- 
kept  alive  the  longing  for  salvation  and  proclaimed  reihe  des  Kirchenjalu-es".     Karl  Werner,   the  son 
its  coming.     The  paintings  of  the  middle  aisle  por-  of  a  teacher,  was  born  at  Hafnerbach  in  Lower 
tray  the  fulfilment  of  the  promise  by  scenes  from  Austria  and  died  in  1888.     He  w^as  first  professor  of 
the  life  of  Christ.     Between  the  historical  pictures  moral  theology  at  St.  Pdlten,  then  professor  of  higher 
are  placed  at  intervals  the  figure  of  the  Saviour  with  exegesis  at  the  University  of  Vienna.     In  Vienna  he 
appropriate   historical  emblems,  such  as  Christ  as  was  appointed  member  of  the  advisory  council  of 
a  gardener,  with  a  hoe  on  the  shoulder.    This  is  the  mmister  of  instruction,  and  wtis  elected  member 
foffi)wed  by  a  picture  of  the  owner  of  the  vineyard  of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences.     Amon^  the 
conunanding  the  gardener  to  cut  down  the  imfruitful  many  worts  of  learned  research  Werner  published 
tree.    Then    Christ   aa   shepherd,    followed   by   an  are:  "System  der  Ethik"   (2  vols.);  "Grundlinien 
allegorical  picture  of  the  transferring  of  the  ofiice  of  der  Philosophic";    "Der  hi.  Thomas  von  Aquino" 
shepherd  to  Peter;  Christ  the  wayfarer,  followed  by  (3  vols.);   "Franz  Suarez  und  die  Scholastik  der 
a  representation  of  the  man  who  fell  among  thieves;  letzten  Jahrhunderte "   (2   vols.);   "Geschichte  der 
Christ    the    sower,    followed    by    the    approaching  apologetischen  und  polemischen  Literatur  der  christ- 
liarvester   with   his  sickle.    These  paintm§^,   with  lichen    Theologie";  ^'Geschichte    der    katholischen 

ur  Ge^en- 

christlich- 

Ehrwur- 

Tbe  conception  running  through  the  whole  series  of  Sige  unci  seine  Zeit":  "Alkuin  und  seinJahrhundert"; 

i)aintings,  from  those  in  the  vestibule  to  that  of  the  "Gerbert  von  Aurillac,  die  Kirche  und  Wissenschaft 

nigh  altar,  is   that   the    paradise  lost  by  the  first  seiner  Zeit";  "Giambattista  Vico  als  Philosoph  und 

human  beings  is  offered  to  us  again  by  the  second  gelehrter    Forscher":    "Johannes    Duns    Scotus"; 

Adam  in  the  new  heaven.  "Geschichte  der  Scholastik  des  spateren  Mittelalters" 

At  this  moment  of  renewed  energy  in  the  church.  (5  vols.);  "Geschichte  der  italienischen  Philosophic 

Austria  possessed  bishops  who  would  have  excited  des  19.  Jahrh. "    Many  of  Werner's  treatises  are  to 

the  envy  of  little  Cappaaocia  at  the  time  of  the  three  be  found  in  the  reports  of  the  sessions  of  the  philo- 

great  Cappadocians.     Among  these  Austrian  bishops  sophico-historical  section  of  the  Imperial  Academy 

were:  cWainal  Schwarzenberg  (d.  1886)  and  Cardinal  of  Sciences.    Anton  Gtinther,  founder  of  the  Gun- 

Ranscher   (d.    1875^    life  by  Wolfsgruber);    Francis  therian  school  of  philosophy,  was  born  at  Lindenau, 

Joseph  Rudigier,  Bishop  of    Linz  (a.  1879;    life  by  near   Leitmeritz,    in    Bohemia.     He   studied    juris- 

Meindl);    Vincenz  Gasser,  Prince-Bishop  of  Brixen  prudence  and  philosophy  at  Pra^e,  and  came  under 

(d,  1879;  life  by  Zobl);  Joseph  Fessler,  Bishop  of  St.  the  influence  of  the  philosophical  ideas  of  Kant. 

Pidten  (d.  1872;  life  by  Erdinger);  John  B.  Zwerger,  Fichte,  and  Jacobi.     Blessed  Clement  Hofbauer  led 

Prince-Biahop   of    Seckau  (d.   1893;    life  by  Oer).  him  back  to  the  truth.     Giinther  was  consecrated 

The  description  of  this  period  would  not  be  complete  priest,  and  became  teacher  of  philosophy  in  noble 

vithout  mention  of  the  foremost  German  preacher  families,  especially  in  that  to  which  Scnwarzenberg, 

and  most  fruitful  German  theologian  of  the  nine-  afterwards  Cardinal,  belonged.    For  many  years  he 


AUBTRO-HUHOABIAir                    132  AUSTRO-HUHaABIAN 

filled  the  modest  Dosition  of  sacristan  of  St.  Ruprecht,  should  be  instilled.    It  was  not  possible,  however, 

the  oldest  church  in  Vienna.     After  a  life  spent  in  to  resist  the  liberal  pressure.     On  the  2l8t  of  Decern- 

ghilosophical  study  he  died  in  1876  Qife  by  Knoodt).  ber,  1867,  the  new  fundamental  laws  received  the 

tdnther's  chief  worics  are:  "Vorschule  zur  spekula^  imperial  approval.    The  first  granted  full  freedom 

tiven    Theologie    des    Christen tiuns";     "Peregrins  of  faith  and  conscience  and  freedom  in  scientific 

Gastmal*';    "Stid-    und    Nordlichter   am    Horizont  opinion.    The    second    declared:    "All    jurisdiction 

spekulativer  Theologie";  "Januskdpfe  fttr  Philoso-  in  the  state  is  exercised  in  the  name  of  the  emperor". 


Justes-Milieux  in  der  deutschen  Philosophie  gegen-  tion.    Two  professors  of  dogmatics  did  not  take  the 

warti^rZeit";  "EurystheusundHerakles  ';  "Lvdia"  oath;  these  were  Schrader,  3ie  Jesuit,  and  Hyacinth 

(a  philosophical  annual,  in  oc^aboration  with  Veith).  Pellegrinetti,    the   Dominican   successor   of    Guidi. 

Honestly    intending    to    defend    fdth   against    the  They  were  obliged  to  resign   their  professorships, 

philosophical  doubtmgs  which  are  constantly  arisine  and  their  places  nave  not  yet  been  filled, 
in  mpdem  times,  GUnther  fell  into  the  mistake  of        During  this  same  period  the  dual  constitution  was 

making  the  mysteries  of  faith  d^)endent  on  their  sanctioned,  by  whicn  the  Austro-Hungarian   Mon- 

recognition  by  the  understcmding,  so  that  knowledge  archy  as  it  now  exists,  was  formed  "of  two  distinct 

was  substituted  for  faith.     A  learned  war  broke  out  co-ordinate  States  having  the  same  constitutional, 

in  Germany,  in  which  G(Ui therms  position  was  dam-  legal,    and    administrative    rights".     After   a    long 

aged  by  the  vagaries  of  his  followers,  and  at  the  end  stru^e  the  emi>eror  signed,  &  May,  1868,  the  laws 

of  five  years'  examination  the  Congregation  of  the  concerning  marriage,  schools,  and  the  status  of  the 

Index  condemned  his  writings.     After  the  first  ex-  several    denominations.    The    first   jq{    these    laws 

citement  had  subsided  GUnther  gave  a  proof  of  the  declares  marriage  to  be  a  civil  contract,  makes  the 

honesty  of  opinion  which  had  characterized  his  action  civil  marriage  obUgatory,  and  takes  from  the  Church 

from  the  start.    The  verdict  of  the  Congregation  of  the  judicial  power  pro  foro  extemo  in  matrimonial 

the  Index  was  sent  to  him  23  January,  1867;  on  suits.    The  law  concerning  schools  takes  from  the 

10  February  he  handed  Cardinal  Rauscner  his  sub-  bishop  any  control  of  the  management  as  well  as 

mission,  to  be  forwarded  to  the  Holy  Father  and  to  the  right  of  supervision.    These  powers  are  given 

Cardinal  Andrea,  Prefect  of  the  Congregation  of  the  to  an  official  scnool  committee  of  the  district  and 

Index.    The  thought   which   consoled   Gtbither  in  town,  of  which  committee  ecclesiastics  can  be  chosen 

these  days  of  trial  was  that  God  demanded  of  every  members.    The  bishops  select  the  books  used   by 

man  the  sacrifice  of  his  Isaac,  and  that  this  sacrifice  the  catechist  and   instructors  in  religious  doctrine, 

was  what  he  now  made  to  God.  The  third  law  grants  everyone  the  right  to  choose 

Goethe  sa3rs  that  the  subject  of  profoundest  interest  his  own  religion  on  attaining  the  age  of  fourteen 

in  the  history  of  the  world  is  the  battle  of  disbelief  years,  but  a  child  between  seven  and  fourteen  years 

against  faith.    This  is  still  more  true  of  the  history  of  age  cannot  change  his  or  her  religion  even  at  the 

of  the  Church.     In  1860  Austria  became  a  constitu-  wish  of  the  parents.     As  these  laws  infringed  the 

tional  monarchy,  and  in  the  next  year  the  founda-  Concordat  in  essentials,  a  secret  consistory  was  held 

tions   of   a   representative   government   were   laid,  at  Rome,  22  June,  at  which  the  pope  declared: 

The  Imperial  Parliament  was  to  consist  of  a  House  of  "  Leges  auctoritate  NostrA  apostolic^  reprobamus. 

Peers,  to  which  the  archbishops  and   prince-bishop  damnamus  et  decreta  ipsa  irrita  prorsus  nulliusque 

were  to  belong,  and  a  House  of  Deputies.     During  roboris    fuisse    ac    fore    declaramus. "     ("By    Our 

the  first  session  of  the  Parliament,  Maager,  a  Protes-  Apostolic    authority    we    reprobate    and    condemn 

tant  deputy,  attacked  the  Concordat  and  demanded  these  laws,  and  declare  that  their  purport  was,  and 

its  revision.     Upon  this  the  members  of  the  episco-  shall  be,  wholly  invalid  and  of  no  force.")     The 

pacy  in  the  Upper  House  and  some  other  bishops  bishops    upon    this    issued    pastorals.    The     joint 

met  and  prepared  a  memorial  which  was  sent  to  the  letter  of  3  June  issued  by  the  Bohemian  bishops  to 

emperor.     "Of  all  the  party  cries",  it  ran,  "which  the  clerfor  and  their  joint  pastoral  of  24  June  were 

are  put  to  eflfective  use  in  electioneering,  none  has  condemned  by  the  imperial  civil  courts  of  all  three 

so  much  prominence  at  present  as  the  word  toleration,  instances,  on  the  ground  that  they  were  a  disturbance 

True  toleration  is  exercised  by  the  Catholic  Church,  of  the  public  peace,  and  suppressed.     Penal  prooeed- 

while  the  harshest  intolerance  is  practised  on  all  ings  were  not  brought  against  Cardinal  Schwarzen- 

sides  against  the  Catholic  Church.     All  its  ordinances  berg,  but  Bishop  Francis  Joseph  Rudigier,  of  Linz, 

and  institutions  are  slandered  and  mistrusted,  and  was  prosecuted  for  his  pastoral  of  7  September, 

eveiy   exhibition   of   Catholic    conviction    is   ovei^  "On  account  of  the  misdemeanour  committed   in 

whelmed   with   scorn   and   derision,"    The   events  the  pastoral  letter" — of  calling  the  law  of  24  May  a 

just  noted  were  merely  the  forerunners  of  a  terrible  lie— -he   was   brought   before   the   Supreme    Court, 

storm  which  broke  after  the  disastrous  war  of  1866.  found  guilty  by  the  jury,  and  condemned  to  fourteen 

In  July  of  the  next  year  Deputy  Herbet  moved  the  days'  imprisonment  with  costs.    The  pastoral    was 

preparation    of    three    bills    concerning    marriage,  ordered  to  be  destroyed.     Next  day  the  emperor 

schools,  and  the  mutual  relations  of  Uie  different  in  a  decree  remitted  the  punishment  and  its  legal 

religious  denominations.     A  conference  of  twenty-  consequences.     The  bishops  disagreed  as  to  whether 

four  bishops  was  held  at  Vienna,  and  a  second  me-  the  clergy  should  permit  themselves  to  be  chosen 

morial  was  sent  to  the  emperor  which  contained  the  members  of  the  school  committees,  but  Rauscher 

following:  "A  party  has  arisen  which  has  chosen  and  Schwarzenberg,  who  were  for  the  permission, 

this  time  of  distress  for  an  attack  on  the  religion  to  carried  their  point. 

which  Your  Majesty,  the  Imperial  family,  and  a       The  definition  of  the  pope's  infallibiUty  afforded 

^eat  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  land  belong,  von  Stremayr,  the  Austrian  Minister  of  Instruction, 

We  are  in  the  presence  of  a  spectacle  which  causes  a  pretext  to  demand  the  abrogation  of  the  Concordat, 

the  enemies  of  Austria  to  smile  derisively,  and  which  on  the  plea  that  the  pope,  one  of  the  contractlni^ 

fills  Austria's  sons  with  shame  rather  than  with  parties,   had   received   from   the  definition   a    ne^ 

anxiety."    Marriage   without   the   blessing   of   the  character,  which  invalidated  the  ori^nal  agreement. 

Church,  schools  without  religion  were  demanded.  Beust,  the  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  ad£%9ased  to 

In  order  to  obtain  suitable  teachers  for  these  schools  Palomba  a  note  which  declared:   "The  Concordat 

it  was  proposed  to  found  for  the  training  of  teachers  exists  no  longer;  it  is  annulled."    The  abrogation 

institutions  where  contempt  for  all  that  is  holy  of  the  Concoraat  produced  a  gap  in  religious 


AUSTRO-HUNQARIAN                    I33  AUSTBO-HUNOABIAN 

lation.    To  remedy  this  four  bills  were  introduced,  Rauscfaer  died  (24  Nov.,  1875).    It  was  due  to  his 

January,  1874,  for  regulating  the  legal  status  of  the  wise  moderation  and  caution  that  Austria  escaped  the 

Catholic  Church,  the  taxing  of  the  fund  for  the  sup-  evils  of  a  KuUurkamvf  (religioucr  conflict).     In  1874, 

port  of  relig|ion,  the  legal  status  of  monasteries,  and  von  Stremayr  offerea  four  projects  for  bills  in  the 

the  recognition  of  new  religious  societies.    The  pope  House  of  Deputies,  one  of  wnich  dealt  with  the  legal 

expresBed,  on  the  7th  of  March,  his  grief  at  the  attack  status    of    monastic    cmmunities.     Rauscher    said 

on  the  rights  of  the  Church,  implied  in  the  assertion  that  it  "  bore  on  its  forvuead  unusual  marks  of  mis- 

tbat  the  supreme  power  in  all  matters  concerning  trust,  arbitrariness,  and  harshness.     According  to  its 

the  external  life  belonged  to  the  State.    The  bishops  provisions,  the  authority  of  the  minister  of  worship 

assembled  again  at  Vienna  and  sent  this  statement  of  the  time  being  would  be  sufhcient  to  sweep  from 

to  the  Ministry  and  the  Upper  House:  "We  repeat  ^e  earth  a  monastic  house  which  had  existed  for  a 

that  we  are  ready  to  agree  to  the  demands  wnich  thousand  years  and  to  enforce  the  sequestration  of 

the  State  makes  on  us  in  the  bill  concerning  the  legal  its  property. "    The  bill  reached  the  tipper  House 

status  of  the  Catholic  Church  as  far  as  these  demands  by   the   middle   of  January,    1876.     But  Cardinal 

are  in  harmony  with  the  Concordat  concerning  these  Schwarzenberg  succeeded,  by  means  of  a  memorial^ 

matters.    We  cannot  and  will  not  acauiesce  in  a  of  the  Austrian  archbishops  and  bishops,  in  inducing' 

proposition    the    consummation    of    wnich    would  the  emperor  not  to  sign  it,  and  the  bill  has  not  yet 

endanger  the  welfare  of  the  Church."  become  law. 

One  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  scarcity  of  priests  The  parliamentary  election  of  1879  increased  the 
which  now  began  to  be  marked  was  the  new  law  of  number  of  conservative  members  so  that  the  Right 
national   defence.      By  this  law  youths  in    their  ^ohenwari)  Party  was  in  the  majority.    In  1882,  the 
twentieth  year  during  their  course  at  a  gymnasitun  Karl  Ferdinand  University,  at  Prague,  was  divided 
were  subject  to  military  duty.    The  bishops  a^in  into  a  German  and  a  Czech  university.     Cardinal 
and  again  be^ed  for  a  relaxation  of  the  provisions  Schwarzenberg,  however,  would  not  consent  to  a 
of  the  law.     But  they  had,  for  the  time  oeing,  no  division  of  the  theological  faculty.     He  wrote  to  the 
redress  except  to  appeal  in  individual  cases  to  the  minister,  Conrad  von  Eybesfeld:  "The  Church  does 
indulgence  of  the  emperor.    When  the  bills  reached  not  wisn  the  separation  of  the  nations,  but  their 
the  upper  house  the  bishops  defended  themselves  union  in  one  body,  the  head  of  which  is  Christ, 
bravely.    Rauscher  closed  his  address  of  10  April  She  dedicates  the  olessings  of  her  activity  to  all 
with  these   worcjs:   "So-called   progress  no  longer  nations,  she  recognizes  the  ririit  of  every  peo]:de  to 
considers  it  necessary  to  conceal  its  real  aim,  and  independence,  she  respects  ana  supports  the  demands 
has  unmasked  its  hate  against  God  and  eternal  truth,  of  a  people  for  its  own  language  and  its  own  form  of 
But  Providence  has  set  a  natural  limit  to  all  things,  instruction.     But  the  Church  cannot  give  to  the 
The  destruction  of  Christianity  is  impossible,  but  claims  of  nationality  the  first  place,  they  must  always 
Austria  may  be  destroyed  if  the  war  against  relirion  be  for  her  a  secondary  interest.    The  theological 
is  not  checked  in  good  time."    Yet,  for  all  tnis,  faculty  must  impress  this  idea  upon  their  pupils 
the  first  two  bills  became  law,  7  May,  1874.    Among  and  must  not,  therefore,  drive  them  apast.    They 
other  thinffs,  the  law  concerning  the  legal  status  of  should  not  deepen  and  embitter  the  national  dif- 
the  Church  declares  that:  In  order  to  obtain  any  ferences  by  a  separation;  they  should  strive  rather 
ecclesiastical  appointment  or  living,  a  candidate  s  to  compose  these  differences.    This  duty  is  above  all 
record  of  past  conduct  must  be  blameless  when  judged  necessary  among  the  various  nationalities  of  Bohemia, 
by  the  standard  of  the  civil  law  (§  1);  if  the  Govern-  In  this  country  it  is  a  special  duty  of  the  priesthood 
nient  finds  that  an  ecclesiastical  regulation  respect-  to  seek  to  soothe  and  unify.*'    The  separation  took 
ing  a  public  church  service  is  not  consistent  with  place,  however,  directly  after  Schwarzenberg's  death, 
the  public  interest,  the  Government  shall  then  forbid  An  amendment!  to  the  school  law  which  somewhat 
'^  (§17);  the  total  number  of  Catholics  living  in  the  improved  matters  was  laid  before  the  Upper  House  in 
district  of  a  parish  form  the  parish  community  (§  35);  1883.    This  amendment  was  the  result  of  numerous 
in  order  to  cover  the  expenses  of  a  parish  a  tax  is  to  memorials  from    the    bishops    to    the  Government 
be  laid  on  its  members  (§  36);  the  ministry  of  public  and  much  effort  of  other  kinds.     During  the  debate 
worship  and  instruction  is  authorized  to  oversee  the  on  the   amendment  Cardinal  Schwarzenberg  said: 
pianagement  of  the  funds  of  the  churches  and  church  "The  bishops  for  whom  I  speak  to-day  recognize 
institutions   (§  38);  the  ministry  of  public  worship  the  value  01  the  amendment  and  are  ready  to  work 
and  instruction  is  to  take  care  tnat  the  ecclesiastical  for  its  passage.     But  this  does  not  justify  the  pre- 
joumals  do  not  go  beyond  the  sphere  of  their  proper  sumption  that  we  consider  the  amendment  as  reme- 
activity  (|  60).    The  law  concerning  contributions  dying  all  defects  of  the  school  laws,  and  that  our 
to  the  fund  for  the  support  of  religion  declares  that:  votes  are  a  corroboration  of  these  laws.     Only  a 
Afsessments  shall  be  made  on  incumbents  of  livings  denominational  system  of  common  schools  can  satisfy 
and  the  communities  of  the  regular  orders  for  the  the  claims  of  the  Church  and  of  the  Christian  com- 
fund  for  the  support  of  religion  m  order  to  meet  the  munity.    The    present    system    is    unsatisfactory, 
expenses  of  Catholic  worship  and  especially  in  order  While  we  now  give  our  support,  we  reserve  the  rignt 
to  increase  the  incomes  of  pastors  which  have  been  to  press  our  just  demands  by  way  of  legislation  in 
until  now  very  small  (§1);  the  value  of  the  entire  the  future."    The  amendment  made  certain  con- 
property  of  the  living  or  of  the  community  shall  be  cessions  to  children  who  had  attended  school  for 
taken  as  the  basis  (of  the  assessment)   (§  2);  the  six  years,  and  permitted  only  such  persons  to  be 
amount  of  the  assessments  shall  be  fixed  every  ten  made  the  principals  of  schools  as  were  competent 
years  for  the  next  ten  years  (§  9);  and  they  were  to  to  give  instruction  in  the  faith  to  which  the  majority 
be  "one-half  of  one  per  cent  on  amounts  up  to  10,000  of  the  scholars  belonged. 

florins  [$4,000],  one-and-a-half  per  cent  on  amounts  Cardinal  Schwarzenberg  had  presided  over  every 

from  10,000  florins  to  20,000  florins  [$4,000  to  $8,000],  meeting  of  the  Austrian  bishops  since  1849,  and  had 

and  10  per  cent  on  all  amounts  over  90,000  florins  always  fulfilled  faithfully  the  duties  of  the  cardinalate. 

($36,000]".     The  law  (signed  20  May)  in  regard  to  At  the  meeting  of  the  bishops  at  Vienna  in  1885  he 

the  leeaf  recognition  of  religious  societies  "accepts  was  unable,  through  illness,  to  preside  at  the  8th 

in  f all  '  the  principle  of  religious  equality.  session.    The  next  day  he  appeared,  although  unfit 

ffince  the  passage  of  these  three  laws  no  further,  to  attend.     He  was  not  able  to  be  present  again  and 

enactments  have  so  far  been  made,  with  r^ard  to  died  of  pneumonia  27  March. 

tt«  status    of    the   various  denominations  m  Aus-  A  bill  called  the  Prince  Alfred  Liechtenstein  school 

tii    In  the  year  following  their  passage  Cardinal  bill  was  introduced  in  October,  1888.    It  was  in- 


AU8TR0-HUNQABIAN  134  AUSTBO-HXmaABIAN 

tended  to  give  the  Church  greater  power  over  the  the  cost  of  living  and  the  value  of  money  hacf  varied 

schools.     But  while  the  bishops  pressed  the  demand  The  speech  from  the  throne  in  1871  and  1879  referred 

of   "Catholic    schools   for   Catholic    children",    the  to  the  improvement  of  the  material  condition  of 

social-democratic  convention  which  met  the  same  the  clergy  as  an  object  of  solicitude  on  the  part  of 

year  at  Hainburg,  took  its  stand  upon  "conmion  the  Government,  and  since  1872  state  subventions 

schools  without   religious   teaching,   the  separation  have  been  granted  for  this  purpose.     In  order  to 

of  Church  and  State,  reliei.  us  belief  is  a  private  obtain  the  money  for  this  subvention,  a  tax  for  the 

matter".     Gregr,  of  the  Young  Czech  party,  also  maintenance  of  the  religious  fund  was  created  in 

declared  in  behalf  of  his  party  associates:  "A  Liech-  1874.     But  although  a  sum  reaching  ten  per  cent 

tenstein  has  come  again  to  dig  a  grave  for  the  Bohe-  of  i}ie  capital  fund  was  demanded  every  ten  years, 

mian  nation,  the  grave  of  ignorance  a^d  demoraliza-  few  priests  received  from  it  assistance  amountmg  to 

tion."    This  was  an  allusion  to  what  had  happened  more  than  100  florins   ($40).     As  this  subvention 

after  the    battle    of    the  White    Mountain  (1620).  was  called  an  "advance"  to  the  fund  for  the  support 

Against  such  opposition  the  bill  could  not  be  carried,  of  religion  in  the  different  provinces,  the  debts  of 

in  1891  Leo  aIII  regulated  the  meetings  of  the  the  provinces  ffrew  every  year,  and  the  entire  religious 

Austrian   bisho|>s  in  a  manner  which  has  proved  funa  was  in  danger  of  being  used  up.     The  bishops, 

fruitful  in  blessings.     A  meeting  is   to   be  held  in  therefore,  sent  repeated  appeals  to  the  Government, 

Vienna  every  year.    These  meetings  are  either  special  praying  for  a  suitable  increase  of  the  salaries  of  the 

or  general.     At  these  special  meetings  committees  clergy.    In  1903  they  agreed  to  demand  for  active 

Crepare  elaborate  and  exact  reports  which  are  laid  pastors:  (a)  for  curates  a  minimum  salafy  of  1,000 
efore  the  general  assembly  that  meets  at  least  once  crowns  ($200);  for  pastors  of  second-class  parishes 
every  five  years.     These  assemblies  of  the  bishops  1,600  crowns  ($320);  for  parish  priests  without  curates, 
decide   the   course   of   the  Church.    The   Austrian  2,000  crowns  ($400);  for  parish  priests  with  curates, 
bishops  feel  and  act  as  a  unit,  as  a  harmonious  2,200  crowns  ($440);  (b)  four  retroactive  decennial 
episcopacy.     Schwarzenberg's     successor.     Cardinal  allowances  to  be  recKoned  from  the  date  of   the 
Count  Schonbom,  died  in  1899.     Cardinal  Gruscha,  grant;  the  first  allowance  to  be  100  crowns  ($20), 
Archbishop  of  V.enna,  followed  him  at  the  head  of  the  second,  200  crowns  ($40),  the  third  and  fourth 
the  episcopacy.      In   reviewing   the   action   of  the  to  be  each  250  crowns  ($50),  in  all  800  crowns  ($160). 
bishops   in   their  conferences  since  this   time,  it   is  (c)  Surplus  of  money  destined  for  pastoral  Falaries 
clear  that  the  matter  which  has   chiefly  occupied  is  not  to  be  drawn  up)on  for  the  p>ensions  of  retired 
their    attention    has    been    the    schools    of    every  clergymen.     For  retired  curates  the  bishops  suggested 
grade.     In  all  their  memorials  to  state  officials,  and  a  minimum  pension  of  100  crowns  for  curates,   and 
in  all  their  pastorals  to  the  faithful,  one  thought  of  1,900  crowns  ($380)  for  parish  priests.     In  1891 
continually   appears   like  a   vein   of  gold:   a  child  and  1894  the  bishop  requested  from  the  Minister  of 
should  learn  in  school  the  duties  of  a  Christian  and  Worship  an  exact  list  of  all  the  debts  due  by  the 
a  citizen.     This  end  can  be  realized  only  when  re-  religious  fund  in  the  hands  of  the  Government  and 
ligion  is^made  the  central  point  of  education  from  of  all  pious  foundations.     In  1891  and  1897   they 
which    eVery thing    radiates,    to    which    everything  deliberated  concerning  the  delicate  question  of  clerical 
returns.     For  this  reason  the  bishops  sought  (1897,  fees.     After  a  ten  years'  trial   (1893)   the   bishops 
1898)  to  obtain  the  consent  of  the  ministry  to  an  pointed  out  the  hardship  of  the  tax  on  the  religious 
increase  in  the  time  given  to  religious  instruction  fund,  and  pointed  out  where  amendment  should  be 
in  the  primary  and  secondary  schools.     Prizes  were  made.     The    bishops    repeatedly    discussed     (1898, 
offered  for  the  preparation  of  a  Bible  (1898).     Two  1899,  1900)  the  law  which  promised  the  formation 
catechisms,  a  larger  and  a  smaller  one,  were  prepared  of  parishes.     The  difficult  question  of  the  patronage 
after  eight  years'  work.     These  ;were  accepted  by  of  livings  was  also  taken  up  (1899).     The  Christian 
the  bishops  in   1897  and  issued  with  explanatory  character  of  the  family  lile,  the  education   of   the 
directions.     During  this  period  religious  instruction  young,  the  duty  of  voting  ("Vote,  vote  right")  were 
in  the  middle  schools  was  rearranged,  and  reli^ous  repeatedly    the    subjects    of    joint    pastoral    lettere 
exercises  were  again  introduced.     Keligious  societies  (1891,  1901).     The  bishops  cfiscussed  the  question 
(Sodalities  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary)  were  organized  of  founding  and  supporting  a  daily  religious  newa- 
in  1897  and  1902.     Religious  instruction  was  intro-  paper  (1891,  1892).     They  assured  the  Holy  Father 
duced  into   the   Sunday   industrial  schools   (1898).  of  their  agreement  with  his  letter  to  Cardinal  Guibert, 
Proposals  were  made  as  to  the  education  of  teachers  Archbishop   of   Paris,   concerning   the   disrespectful 
of  religion  in  the  middle  and  normal  schools  0901).  utterances   of  Catholic   papers   about   ecclesiastical 
The  preparation  of  a  correct  textbook  of  psychology  authorities.     They  discussea  uniform  action  in  carry- 
was  urged  (1894).     Prizes  were  ofi'ered  for  textbooks  ing  out  the  Apostolic  constitution  *'Officioruin   ac 
on  religion  (1897).     The  bishops  succeeded  in  ob-  munerum "  as  applied  to  Catholic  newspapers  (1898). 
taining  a  systematized  course  in  philosophv  for  the        As  in  our  day  large  results  are  only  obtained  by 
theological  schools  (1892);  they  obtained,  further,  a  association,  the  bishops  have  especially  encouraged 
rearrangement  of  theological  studies  and  examina-  the  formation  of  worKingmen's  unions,  of  Gesellen- 
tions.     (Dissertations  must  be  suitable  for  publica-  vereine,   the   St.    Boniface   Society    (March,     1901), 
tion  and  three  examinations  are  obligatory  for  a  the  Holy  Childhood  Society,  and  benevolent  societies 
doctorate.)    They  complained  of  the  spirit  prevalent  (Novemoer,  1897).      In  these  days  much  that  is  un- 
at  the  universities  (1891)  and  of  the  unfair  treatment  sound  rises  to  the  surface.    The  bishops  issued  Avam- 
of  the  student-societies  composed  of  faithful  CathoUc  ings  against  irreligion    and  national    embitterment 
students  (1901).  (1891).     They  encouraged  lectures  on  Freemasonry 
During  the  reign  of  Maria  Theresa  an  educational  (1897),  complained   of   the   destructive    tendencies 
fund  was  created  from  confiscated  property  of  the  which  are  undoing  the  strength  and  force  of  Austria, 
Jesuits.     Under  Joseph  II  a  reli^ous  tuna  was  created  and  condemned  tne  bad  press,  "  the  dangerous  foe  of 
from  the  church  property  administered  by  the  State  faith"  (December,  1901). 

only.     But  Josepn  II  acknowledged  that  the  State        In  1897  a  movement  was  set  on  foot  wliich  ten 

was  bound  to  pay  the  expenses  of  Catholic  worship,  years  before  would  have  been  held  to  be  impossible, 

for  which  the  church  revenues  did  not  suffice.     The  Its  name,  the  Los  von  Rom^  is  an  insult  to  Catholics, 

salary  of  parish  priests  was  fixed  at  400  florins  ($160),  its  existence  a  mortal  blow  to  Austrians.      Every 

that  of  the  curates  at  200  florins  ($80).     The  retiring  possible  misuse  of  speech  and  WTitin^  was  employed 

pension  was  made  200  florins   ($80).     These  sums  to  rob  Catholics  of  their  confidence  in  their  priests 

remained  unchanged  for  one  hundred  years,  although  of  their  attachment  to  the  holy  sacraments,  and  eveo 


AUSTRO-HUHQABIAN  135  AU8TBO-HUNOABIAN 

to  the  Church.    These  ribald  foes  spread  desolation  the  desire  of  the  parents.     But,  when  parents  so 
over  a  good  part  of  God's  vineyard  in  Austria,  requested,  Catholic  priests  baptized  those  children 
The  "Free  from  Rome"  movement  will  remain  a  who  according  to  the  law  should  be  brought  up  non- 
disgraceful  stain,  but  not  in  the  history  of  the  Catho-  Catholic.    This     practice     was     called     Wegtaufen, 
lie  Church.    Filled  with  a  sense  of  the  sacredness  of  Even  when,  in  1879,  the  criminal  code  made  the 
their  duty  as  bishops  and  Austrians,  the  episcopacy  conferring   of    baptism    under   such    circumstances 
warned  the  faithful  in  pastorals  against  the  move-  punishable,  the  priests  were  not  dismayed — "Go, 
ment  and  its  schemes  (1899,  1901).    They  addressed  baptize".    Besides    this,    they   were   regularly   ac- 
HQ  earnest  memorial  to  the  emperor  on  the  subject  qmtted  by  the  court  of  last  resort  in  the  suits  which 
(1901),  as  well  as  one  to  Kdrber,  the  head  of  the  were  brought  against  them  by  the  Protestant  pastors, 
minist^  (November,  1902),                             ^  In    1890    "denunciation"   of    such    baptisms   was 
In  1891  the  bishops  deliberated  on  cremation  and  forbidden  bv  Rome,  and  the  excitement  gradually 
funeral   addresses    by    non-Catholic    clergymen    in  subsided.    Augustine    von   Roskovdny,    Bishop    of 
Catholic  cemeteries;  in  1898  they  drew  up  a  form  of  Neutra,  was  the  most  learned  man  among  the  Huii- 
reooncDiation  for  duellists  and  their  seconds.    They  nuian  bishops  of  this  time.     Von  Roskovdny  was 
exhorted  Catholics  "to  observe  faithfully  the  ordi-  Doctor  of  Philosophy  and  Theology,  secretary  to 
Dances  against  duelling,  whether  issued  by  God,  the  Ladislaus  Pyrker,  Archbishop  of  Enau,  and  died  in 
Church,  or  the  State".     After  due  deliberations,  they  1892.     His  works  are  important  authorities:  "De 
also  adopted  resolutions  on  the  position  of  catechists  Matrimoniis    mixtis"    (7   vols.);   "Monumenta  pro 
and  the  admission  of  catechetical  teachers  into  the  independently  potestatis  eccles.  ab  imperio  civili" 
ecdesiastical  organization  and  arranged  the  manner  (13  vols.)j   "Coelibatus  et   Breviarium      (2  vols.); 
in  which  erring  ecclesiastics  "should  be  led  back  to  "Beata  Virgo  Maria  in  suo  Conceptu  imraaculata" 
their  calling  and  to  the  service  of  God  by  their  fellow-  (9  vols.);  "Romanus  Pontifex  Primas  ecclesite  et 
dcr^ymen  .     In  1891  they  issued  regulations  con-  Princeps  civilis  e  monumentis  omnium  sseculorum" 
cemmg  the  social  activity  of  the  clero'^,  and  in  1901  (16    vols.);    "Matrimonium    in    ecclesiA    Catholic^ 
concerning  clerical  conventions  and  Jegal  societies,  potestati  ecclesiastics  subjectum"  (4  vols.);   "Sup- 
The  bishops  aided  the  several  religious  communi-  plementa  ad  O)llectiones  Monumentorum  et  Litefa- 
ties,  and  watched  over  the  loyalty  of  the  religious  turae"  (10  vols.). 

orders.     In  1889  the  relation  of  the  bishops  to  the        In  1893  the  Hungarian  Parliament  began  to  meddle 
election  and  consecration  of  the  abbots  of  new  re-  with  religion.    The  head  of  the  ministry,  Wekerle, 
ligious  foundations  was  defined.     In  1891,  the  pope  introduced  three  bills  enacting  that  returns  of  mar- 
granted  permission  to  the  strictly  cloistered  orders  ria^,  births,  and  deaths  should  be  made  by  a  civil 
of  women  (Ursulines)  to  attend  university  lectures,  registrar;  that  the  Jewish  religion  should  be  legally 
The  Austrian  bishops  celebrated  the  diamond  jubi-  recognized^  that  permission  should  be  given  for  its 
Jee  of  the  consecration  of  Leo  XIII  to  the  priest-  free  exercise,  ana  the  right  to  enter  or  leave  the 
hood  and  the  golden  jubilee  of  his  consecration  to  Jewish  faith  should  be  granted.    These  bills  were 
the  episcopacy  by  joint  letters  of  veneration  to  the  soon  followed  by  others  for  the  amendment  of  the 
Holy  Father  and  by  joint  pastorals  to  the  faithfuL  marriage   laws    (civil   marriage   made   compulsory) 
In, these  letters  they  did  not  fail  to  express  their  and  concerning  mixed  marriages.     Wekerle  carried 
regret  on  the  subject  of  the  so-called  Roman  ques-  the  first  three  bills,  and  they  became  law.     Baron 
tion,  of  the  offensive  Giordano  Bruno  celebration,  Desiderius  Banffy  was  made' the  head  of  the  ministry, 
and  of  the  25th  anniversary  of  the  taking  of  Rome.  January,  1895.     In  order  to  prevent  the  passage  of 
In  1903  they  sent  a  magnificent  letter  of  congratula-  the  two  remaining  bills  by  Banffy,  the  papal  nuncio, 
tion  to  the  Hohr  Father,  Pius  X.            ^  Agliardi,   went   to   Hungary.     But   the   Hungarian 
We  must  go  back  five  hundred  years  in  the  history  ParUament  declared  that  such  interference  in  the 
of  Austria  to  findf another  ruler  who  reigned  fifty  years,  internal  affairs  of  Hungary  would  not  be  permitted. 
On  the  semi-centennial  aimiversary,  2  December,  Count  Kalnocky,  the  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  who 
1898,  of  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Francis  Joseph,  had  supported  the  nuncio,  was  replaced  by  Count 
the  bishops  issued  a  joint  pastoral  and  sent  it  with  Agenor   Goluchowskv,   and   Agliardi   was   made   a 
a  dedication   to   the  emperor.     In   the   dedication  cutlinal  and  recalled,  to  Rome.    The  road  was  now 
they  say:  "The  mysterious  counsels  of  God  have  clear.     Count  Ferdinand  Zichy  formed  the  Catholic 
ordained  that  Your  Majesty  should  spend  this  day  people's  party  in  opposition  to  Banffy's  aims;  but 
in  sorrow.    [Empress   Elizabeth    was    assassinated  without   avail.    The  two   bills   became   law.    The 
10  September.]    We  all  suffer  with  our  gracious  Lutz  amendment  on  pulpits  could  not  be  passed 
emperor  and  ruler.     But  our  grief  cannot  silence  our  during  the  lifetime  of  the  primate,  Simor,  but  after 
gratitude;  our  gratitude  to  our  Lord  God  who  has  his  death  it  was  adopted  (1899). 
preserved.  Your  Majesty  for  us,  our  gratitude  to        Article  26  of  the  Diet  of  1790  guaranteed  to  the 
Your  Majesty  for  fifty  years  of  strong  and  fatherly  Protestants  of  Hungary  the  entire  control  of  the 
protection,  for  fifty  years  of  self-sacrincing  Jove,  for  affairs  of  their  religion.    The  Government  has  hardly 
fifty  years  of  exemplary  devotion  to  Your  Majesty's  any  power  in  regard  to  either  their  churches,  their 
exalted  but  arduous  calliiig. "  schools,  or  religious  foimdations.     Since   1848  the 
Since  1851  all  the  provinces  of  the  Austrian  Crown  Cathohcs   have   been   endeavouring   to   obtain   au- 
have  been  under  one  uniform  government.     Since  tonomy.    The  Catholic  congress  of  1870  prepared 
1867,  however,  Hungary  has  been  an  independent  a  bill  to  this  end.    The  Catholic  Autonomy  Associa- 
yart   of  the  Hapsburg  monarchy,  enjoying  equal  tion,  consisting  of  the  bishops,  the  abbots,  and  cer- 
n^t0  with  the  rest.     During  the  battle  over  the  tain  elected  members,  clerical  and  lay,  exists  to  ropre- 
Concordat    which   raged    in    1867,    the   Hungarian  sent  the  Church  in  regard  to  the  faithful,  on  the  one 
t»Bhop8  did  not  app^  to  the  Concordat,  for  fear  hand,  and  the  Government,  on  the  other,  in  all 
that  the  agitation  might  spread  to  Hungary.    In  questions  of  schools,  of  church  property,  and  es- 
point  of  fact,  however,  they  neld  fast  to  the  Concor-  peciaUy  (since  the  minister  of  public  worship  might 
dat.     John  Simor,  Primate  of  Hungary  from  1866-  nappen  to  be  a  non-Catholic)  to  advise  the  king  in. 
91,  preserved  the  peace  of  the  Church  in  the  king-  the  exercise  of  his  prerogative  of  nominating  bishops. 
dcREL     There   was   a   conflict,   however,   respecting  It  is  plain  that  tne  advantage  or  disadvantage  to 
the  laws  concerning  baptism.    A  law  of  1868  enacted  the  Church  of  autonomy  would  depend  on  the  com- 
t&at  in  the  case  of  mixed  marriages  the  boys  should  position  of  the  commission.     For  this  reason  a  com- 
be btought  up  in  the  faith  of  tne  father,  the  girls  mission  such  as  Wekerle  wished  to  form  in  1894  was 
IB  that  of  the  mother,  even  if  this  were  contrary  to  rejected  by  the  bishops,  and  Zichy 's  motion,  made 


AXTSTRO-HUirOABIAH 


136 


AUSTRO-HUirOASIUr 


on  occasion  of  the  Catholic  coneress  of  1897,  did  not 
receive  government  approval.  In  order  to  strengthen 
the  claim  for  autonomy,  the  bishops,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Bishop  Count  Maylath,  and  the  heads  of 
the  orders,  in  1903,  accepted  three  proi>ositions. 
These  are:  that  the  right  to  present  to  bishoprics 
shall  remain  in  the  hands  of  the  minbter  of  worship; 
that  the  school  system  shall  remain  imaltered;  that 
the  fund  for  the  support  of  religion  shall  be  con- 
trolled by  the  minister  of  instruction.  In  1906  the 
turning-point  in  the  history  of  the  autonomv  question 
was  probacy  reached  in  the  address  from  the  throne. 
The  Minister  of  Public  worship  and  Instruction,  Count 
Albert  Apponyi,  has  alreadv  requested  the  primate 
to  state  tne  position  of  the  bishops  in  regard  to 
autonomy,  so  that  the  bill  may  be  properly  prepared. 
Ecclesiastical  ORGAmzATioN.— The  Catholic 
Church  in  Austria-Hungary  is  administered  on  the 
xC^stem  of  archiepiscopal  provinces  with  suffragan 
(uoceses,  as  follows: — 

(a)  In  the  territories  represented  in  the  Imperial 
(Austrian)  Parliament  there  are  seven  archiepiscopal 
provinces  of  the  Latin  Rite  and  one  each  of  the 
Ureek  and  Armenian  Rites.  These  provinces  com- 
prise in  the  ag^egate  34  sees.  Archdiocese  of 
Vienna  (bishopnc  1468,  prince-bishopric  1631, 
prince-archbishopric  1722),  with  suffragan  dioceses 
ol  St.  PdUen  (or  St.  Hippolytus;  transferred  from 
Wiener-Neustadt,  1784)  and  Lim  (founded  1784}. 
Archdiocese  of  Salzbitrg  (founded  c.  700,  archbishopric 
800),  with  suffra^n  dioceses  of  TrerU  (founded  in 
second  century),  nrixen  (transferred  from  S&ben  in 
tenth  century)  with  the  general  vicariate  of  Feld- 
kirch  for  Vorarlberg,  Ourk  (belonging  to  Klagenfurt, 
founded  1071),  Seckau  (belonging  to  Graz,  K>undea 
1219),  and  Lavant  (belonging  to  Marburg,  founded 
1228).  Archdiocese  of  Prague  (973-1344  subject  to 
Mainz,  1344  archbishopric),  with  suffragan  dioceses 
of  Budweis  (founded  1785),  Kdnigqrdtz  (or  Regina 
Hradecensis,  founded  1664),  and  Lettmeritz  (founded 
1665).  Archdiocese  of  Olmiitz  (founded  1063,  arch- 
bishopric 1777},  witn  suffragan  diocese  of  BrUnn 
(founded  1777).  Archdiocese  of  Gdrz  (transferred 
from  Aquileia  1751),  with  suffragan  dioceses  of  Lai' 
bach  (founded  1461),  Triest  and  Cavo  d^Istriay  Parerno 
and  Pola  (founded  sixth  century),  Veglia  (founded 
990).  ArGhdiocese  of  Zara  (JaderOf  foimded  fourth 
century,  archbishopric  1146),  with  suffragan  dioceses 
of  Sebenico  (founded  1298),  Spalato  and  Macarska 
(Spalato  erected  into  an  archbishopric  650),  Lesina 
{Pharus,  founded  in  twelfth  century),  Cattaro 
(found^  in  eleventh  century),  i^t/aa  (founded  990). 
Archdiocese  ofLemberg  {LeopoliSy  Latin  Rite;  trans- 
ferred from  Ualic  1412),  with  suffragan  dioceses  of 
Tam6w  (founded  1783,  transferred  to  Tynice,  then 
to  Boohnia,  1816),  and  PrzemyU  (founded  1340). 
The  Prince-Bishopric  of  Cracow  (founded  about 
700}  is  subject  directly  to  the  Holy  See.  The 
Catnolics  in  Silesia  are  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Prince-Bishop  of  Breslau,  who  has  a  vicar-general 
at  Teschen  and  a  summer  residence  at  Jommnes- 
berg.  The  county  of  Glatz  belongs  to  Prague. 
Lembergf  Greek-Ruthenian  Rite  (united  in  1597, 
became  an  archbishopric  in  1808),  with  suffragan^ 
dioceses  of  Przemysl  (subject  to  Lemberg  since  1818) 
and  StanislaxDOW  (foimded  1882).  Lemberg,  Ar- 
menian Rite,  was  founded  1367. 

(b)  In  Hungary  there  are  four  archdioceses  of  the 
Latin  Rite,  with  17  suffragan  dioceses;  and  one 
archdiocese  of  the  Greek  Rite,  with  six  suffragan 

•  dioceses,  making  altogether  28  sees.  Archdiocese 
of  Eszt^om  {Strigonium,  Gran;  founded  1000),  the 
incumbent  of  wmch  is  Primate  of  Hungary  and 
ex-officio  Legate  (Legatus  Natus),  with  suffragan 
dioceses  of  Nyitra  (founded  1029),  Vdcz  (Fociwm, 
Waitzen;  founded  in  eleventh  century),  Gydr  (Jau- 
rinum,  Raab:  founded  in  eleventh  century),  Veszpr^m 


(founded  1009),  SzombaMy  (Saharia,  Steinanvmgtr; 
founded  1777),  Beszterczebanya  (Neusohl;  founded 
1776),  Sz^keS'Feh^rvdr  {AJba  Regalis,  StuMwexsm- 
burg;  foimded  1777),  P^  (Serbinum,  Qnimue 
Ecdesicgy  FUnfkirchen;  founded  1009),  Eperjes  (Ku- 
thenian  Greek:  foimded  1820),  Munkdcs  (Mm- 
kaczinum;  Ruthenian-Greek;  founded  1771).  Arth- 
diocese  of  Kalocsa  and  Bdcs  (founded  1000),  with 
suffragan  dioceses  of  Nagy-Vdrad  (Varadinum  Majus, 
Grosswardein;  founded  1077),  CsanAd  [Chronadivm 
(Magyarscanad^Temesvdr) ;  founded  1035],  and  Erddy 
[Transylvania  (KarU^ury);  founded  in  twdfth  oen- 
tu^].  Archdiocese  of  Eger  (Agriay  Erlau;  foimded 
1000,  archbishopric  1804),  with  suffragan  dioceses  of 
Rozsnyd  (Rosnaviaf  Rosenau;  founded  1776),  Szatrndr- 
N^meti  (Szathmarium;  founded  IS04)  ySzepeslScepusuh 
Zips  (Szepesvdralja);  founded  1776],  Kassa  {Cassovia^ 
Kaschau;  founded  1804),  and  Sabaria  (Sacer  Mom 
PannonicBy  Martinsberg;  founded  997).  Archdiocese  of 
Zagreb  (Zagrabia,  Agram;  founded  1093,  archbishopric 
1853),  with  suffragan  dioceses  of  Djakovdr  (founded 
1781),  Zengg-Modrus  (founded  1460),  and  Kriz  {Crir 
sium,  KretdZt  Greek-Ruthenian  Rite;  founded  1777).. 
Archdiocese  of  Fogaras,  of  the  Greek  Rite  (found^ 
1721,  archbishopric  1854),  has  for  suffragan  dioceses 
Nagy-Vdrad  (Varadinum  Majus ,  Grosswardein; 
founded  1777),  Lugos  (Luaosium;  founded  1853),  and 
Szamos'Uivdr  (Armenottolis;  founded  1777). 

(c)  In  bosnia  and  Herzegovina  there  is  one  arch- 
diocese: Serajevo  (founded  1881),  with  suffnuran 
dioceses  of  Banjcduka  (founded  1881),  Trebinje  (Tri- 
bunium;  founded  in  mnth  century),  Mostar  (Man- 
datrium;  founded  1881).  The  Apostolic  field-vicar- 
iate  for  the  army  and  navy  is  directly  under  the 
control  of  the  Holy  See. 

Statistics  op  Religious  Orders. — ^The  following 
table  presents  a  summary  of  the  parent  and  branch 
houses  of  the  religious  orders  in  Austria,  together 
with  the  number  of  their  inmates: — 


* 

Male  Orders 

Female  Orders 

1 

1 

1 

S 

Diocese 

o 

03 

nj 

O 

i 

» 

HH 

m 

HH 

Vienna  (Archd,) 

St.  Pdlten 

Linz 

Salzburg  (Archd.) 

Trent 

Brixen  and  Vorarlberg. 

Lavant 

Seckau 

Gurk 

G5rz  (Archd.) 

Laibach 

Veglia 

Pola 

Triest 

Prague  (Archd.) 

Kdniggr&tz 

Leitmeritz 

Budweis 

Obnatz  (Archd.) 

Brtinn 

Lemberg  (Archd.,  Lat. 

Rite) 

Przemysl  (Lat.  Rite) . . 

Tam6w 

Lemberg   (Archd.,  Gr. 

Rite) 

Przemysl  (Gr.  Rite). .  . 
Stanislawow  (Gr.  Rite). 

Zara  (Archd.) 

Sebenico 


41 (62) 

16 

29 

11 

35 

43 

9 
31 
12 

7 
12 
11 

1 

7 
16 
12 
21 
15 
25 
13 

41  (43) 
27 
6 

6 
6 
4 
5 
7 


1,611 

505 

670 

216 

817 

1,171 

163 

8^5 

230 

105 

264 

64 

21 

81 

704 

88 

180 

188 

220 

136 

151 

369 

72 

27 
134 
25 
20 
83 


104  (195) 
73  (  94) 
124  (126) 
102 
130 
222 
13 

67    (90) 
22    (26) 
7 

19    (24) 
7      (8) 
6      (8) 
13 
76 

48    (66) 
61 

33  (36) 
80(87) 
28(30) 

153 

97  (99) 
54(55) 

8 
1 
10 
4 
4 


4,230 
874 

1,765 
998 

1,527 

2,656 
181 

1,359 
357 
238 

«8 
132 
174 

1,517 
442 
442 
396 

1,547 
327 

1,271 
698 
340 

86 
19 

44 


AUTUJUfTIO 


137 


AOTHOftITT 


Male  Orders 

Female  Orders 

Diocese 

o 

1 

S 

3 

£ 

1 

H- 1 

Spalato  and  Macaraka . 
Cattaro 

15 

3 

19 

30 

6 

542 

01 

9 

93 

004 

33 

9(14) 

2 

1 
58(73) 
30 

1 

125 

8 

Ragusa 

51 

Ct^w(Archd.) 

Breslau 

1,166 
426 

Lemberg (Arm.  Rite). 

16 

Totals 

9,970  1  1,667 

24,018 

Denominational  Statistics. — ^The  forty-nine  mil- 
lion inhabitante  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  monarchy 
are  divided,  as  to  their  reUgious  beliefs,  as  follows: — 
Aitdrian  Provinces. 

(Latin  Rite 20,661,000) 

Catholics  ]  Greek  Rite 3,134,000  [  23,797,000 

( Armenian  Rite . .  2,000  ) 

Jews. 1,225,000 

Greeka  (Eastern) 607,000 

Evangelicals 491,000 

Old^tholics  .  .* 13,000 

Of  no  confession 6,000 

Mohammedans. . .  *. 1,000 

Of  other  confessions 8,000 

Hungarian  Provinces, 

^•- 1 G^  &. : : : :  ''^&  \  ^^.^^.m 

Evangdicals ; 3,823,061 

Greeks  (Orthodox) 2,882,695 

Jews 886,466 

Unitarians 70,260 

Of  other  confessions 15,837 

Bomia  and  Herzegovina,  / 

Greeks  (Eastern) 673,000 

Mohammedans 549,000 

Catholics 339,000 

Jews. ; 8,000 

Of  other  oonJTessions 4,000 

KxmisR,  fforicum  und  Pcuinonien  (Vienn*.  1870);  Sauppb 


vwi  (Krams,  1872);  Fribbs,  Siudien  Hbmr  da»  Wirken  der 
tJntuhatimtr  in  (Etttrreich,  in  SeitenUUener  Gi(tnna8ialpro- 
tnmme,  1868-77:  Janauschck,  Oripinum  CtaUrcientium 
(\'ieniia,  1877),  I;  Fbino,  Die  KirehenatBckichU  Bdhmens 
(3  vols.,  Pnunie,  1864-66);  I^olicrkb,  Iter.  Hungar,  Monu- 
■Ata  Arpaatana  (Sane,  1848);  Mailath,  Oetchichte  der  Mag- 
vmh  (2d  ed..  Ratubon,  1852);  Wahrmund,  Dae  Ktr- 
dmpatronat  %aid  eeine  Entwickelung  in  (Eeterreich  (Vienna, 
18M);  SocHBR,  Hietoria  Provincia  AueiriaB  8,  J.  (Vienna^ 
1740);  Qraf  ton  Khetbnhillbr,  Anneiee  FertHnandet 
(Rattftxm,  1640-46):  Gindblt,  Kaieer  Rudolph  II  itnd 
«tM  Zeii  (2  vols.,  Praffue,  1863):  Schubter,  Furat^Bieehof 
Bnmur  (Gras,  1808);  Hammbr-Purobtall,  Oeechkckte  dee 
KerdinaU  Khieel  (4  vok..  1847-61);  Schuttbb,  Die  Reiee 
'iaPapelee  Fiue  Vfnaeh  Wien  in  Fontee  Rer.  Auetnme.  (Vienna, 
1892-MX  XLVII;  Brunnbr,  MyeUrien  der  AufkUtruna  in 
(Etkrrndi  (Mains,  1869);  Die  theol.  Dienere^t  am  Hofe 
Jmvlu  II  (Vienna,  1868);  Wolfboruber,  Kardmal  MtgaMxi 
CSi^CBa,  1801);  Maassen,  Neun  KapHel  Hber  frei  Kirche  und 
QemieeenefreOmt  (Gras,  1876),  ch.  vui,  pp.  370-447.  Dae 
etkrr.  KonkordaL  Zbcrokkb,  Die  theologteeh&n  Siudien  und 
isKottm  der  kamoiiedten  Kirdie  in  (Eeterreich  (Vienna  and 
lapoc.  1804);  Wafplbr,  Qeeekickie  der  theoL  FakuUOt  an 
^  K.  K,  UniveretUU  Wien  (Vienna,  1884);  Wolpsorubbr. 
^KimfcrenaenderBiechafe(E9terreiche  (Lins,  1905);  HCbner- 
Tvabcbbk,  Oeogrttphieeh^SkUieHeehe  Tabellen  (Frankfort  on 
tbe  Main,  1006):  Von  WOrzbach,  Der  groeee  (Eeterreich  Haue- 
lAott,  em  not  BiUiothek  Uog.  Lexikon  (Vienna,  1750-1850, 
U67-01);  Lboer,  HieL  of  Auetrth-HunQory,  tr.  Hnx  (London, 
UBO):  Siaieeman'e  Year-Book  (London,  1007);  Von  LtecsB, 
GmdudUe  dee  Proteeianiieinue  in  (Eeterreich  in  Umrieeen  (1002). 

C.  WOLFSGRUBER. 

AathoBtie. — The  term  is  used  m  two  senses.  It 
IB  ai^lied  first  to  a  book  or  docuqient  whose  contents 
ve  invested  with  a  roecial  authority,  in  virtue  of 
which  the  work  is  called  authentic.  In  its  second 
KDR  it  is  used  as  a  synonvm  for  ''genuine",  and 
therefore  means  that  a  work  really  emanates  from 


the  author  to  whom  it  ia  ascribed.  The  article 
Vulgate  explains  the  first  sense  of  the  word;  the 
articles  on  the  single  books  of  Sacred  Scripture 
illustrate  the  second.  F.  X.  £.  Albert. 

Authentieity  of  the  Bible. — ^The  authenticity 
or  authority  of  Holy  Writ  is  twofold  on  account  of 
its  twofold  authorsnip.  First,  the  various  books 
which  make  up  the  Bible  are  authentic  because  they 
enjov  all  the  human  authority  that  is  naturally  due 
to  t^eir  respective  authors.  Second,  they  possess 
a  higher  authenticity,  because  invested  with  a 
Divine,  supernatural  authority  through  the  Divine 
authorship  which  makes  them  the  inspired  word  of 
God.  Biolical  authenticity  in  its  first  sense  ^nust 
naturally  be  considered  in  the  articles  on  the  several 
books  of  Sacred  Scripture;  in  its  second  sense,  it 
springs  from  BibUcal  inspiration,  for  which  see  In- 
spiration. 

VxGOUROinc,  Manuel  hiUitue  (Paris,  1001),  I,  223-225; 
liAZZBLLA,  De  Virtutibue  Infueie  (Rome,  1870).  554,  555. 

F.  X.  E.  ALBERi". 

Authority,  Civil,  the  moral  power  of  command, 
supported  (when  need  be)  by  ph3miQal  coercion, 
which  the  State  exercises  over  its  members.  We 
shall  consider  here  the  nature,  sources,  limits,  di- 
visions^ origin,  and  the  true  and  false  theories  of 
authontv.  Authority  is  as  great  a  necessity  to 
mankind  as  sobriety,  and  as  natural.  By  "natural" 
here  is  meant,  not  what  accrues  to  man  without*  any 
effort, of  his  own  (teeth,  for  example),  but  what  man 
must  secure,  even  with  an  effort,  because  without  it 
he  cannot  wdl  be  man.  It  is  natural  to  man  to  live 
in  civil  societv;  and  where  there  is  civil  society,  there 
must  be  authority.  Anarchy  is  the  disruption  of 
society.  Speaking  ^;enerally,  we  may  say  no  man 
loves  isolation,  solitude,  loneliness,  the  life  of  a 
hermit;  on  the  other  hand,  while  many  dislike  the 
authority  under  which  they  live,  no  man  wishes  for 
anarchy.  What  malcontents  aim  at  is  a  change  of 
government,  to  get  authority  into  their  own  &nds 
and  govern  those  who  now  govern  them.  Even  the 
professed  anarchist  r^ards  anarchy  as  a  temporary 
expedient,  a  preparation  for  his  own  advent  to  power. 
Authority,  then,  in  the  abstract,  eveiy  man  loves  and 
cherishes;  and  rightly  so,  for  it  is  his  nature  to  live 
in  society,  and  society  is  kept  together  by  authority. 
The  model  of  hermits  was  St.  Simeon  Stylites.  so 
called  from  his  living  on  the  top  of  a  style,  of  pilku*. 
That  was  his  specitd  vocation;  he  was  no  ordinary 
man.  But  the  political  philosopher  considers  man  as 
man  ordinarily  and  normally  is.  Two  things  would 
strike  a  stranger  from  Mars  looking  down  upon  this 
planet:  how  men  on  earth  love  her£ng  togetner,  and 
qpw  they  love  moving  about.  Ordinary  man  can 
no  more  afford  to  be  solitary  than  he  can  afford  to 
be  stationanr,  though  Simeon  Stylites  was  both. 
Solitary  connnement  is  the  severest  of  punishments, 
next  to  death.  It  is  hard  to  say  whether  the  solitude 
or  the  confinranent,  proves  the  more  irksome.  This 
simple  point,  that  man  cannot  live  alone,  must  be 
insisted  upon,  for  all  errors  in  the  theory  of  au- 
thoritjr  are  rooted  in  the  assumption  that  nuin's 
living  in  society,  and  thereby  coming  to  be  jgovemed 
by  social  authority,  is  sometning  pumy  optional  and 
conventional,  a  fashion  which  man  could  very  well 
discard  if  he  would,  as  he  might  discard  the  wearing 
of  green  clothes.  Men  who  would  make  society  a 
conventional  arrangement,  and  authority  a  fashion 
of  the  hour,  have  appealed  to  the  noble  savage  as  the 
standard  of  humamty  proper,  forgetting  uiat  the 
savage  is  no  solitary,  but  a  memb^  of  a  horde,  to 
separate  from  which  would  be  death,  and  to  ignore 
the  control  of  which  would  be  death  also.  Man  must 
live  in  society,  and,  in  point  of  historical  fact,  men 
have  always  lived  in  society:  every  human  develop- 
ment is  a  social  progress.  It  is  na.tural  to  man  to 
live  in  society,  to  submit  to  authority,  and  to  be 


AX7TH0RITY  138  AUTHORITT 

governed  by  that  custom  of  society  which  or3rstaUize8  his  relations  with  his  Maker,  man  has  even  in  thii 

into  law.  life  his  domestic  interests  in  the  bosom  of  his  family. 

And  as  it  is  natural  to  the  individual,  so  is  it  his  intellectual  and  artistic  interests,  none  of  which 

natural  also  for  the  family  to  unite  with  others,  can  be  called  political  interests.    Social  and  political 

Society  cannot  stop  short  at  the  family.     As  the  life  is  not  the  whole  of  human  life.    Man  is  not  the 

individual  is  not  self-sufficient,  neither  is  the  family,  servant  of  the  State  in  his  every  action.    The  State, 

The  family  grows  and  then  multiplies.    We  have  a  the  majority,  or  the  despot,  may  demand  of  the  in- 

society  of  families;  and  that  society  grown  great,  dividual  more  than  he  is  bound  to  give.     Were 

and  controlled  as  it  needs  to  be  controlled  by  some  human  society  a  conventional  arrangement,  were 

conuBon    authority,    passes    into    a    selfHSumcient,  man,  being  perfectly  well  off  in  isolation  from  hia 

autonomous  society,  otherwise  called  a  State.    Hence  fellows,  to  agree  by  way  of  freak  to  live  in  community 

civil  authority  is  defined    as    the   moral  power  of  with  them,  uien  we  could  assign  no  antecedent  limits 

command,  supported  (when  need  be)  by  physical  to  civil  authority.    Civil  authority  would  be  simply 

coercion,  which  the  State  exercises  over  its  con-  what  was  bargamed  for  and  prescribed  in  the  arbi- 

stituent  members.     Civil  authority  is  of  God,  not  trary  compact  which  made  civil  society.    As  it  is, 

by  any  revelation  or  positive  institution,  but  by  the  civil  authority  is  a  natural  means  to  a  natural  end, 


perance,  nor   anarchy   either.     And    what    Nature  immediate  end  of  civil  authority  is  well  set  forth  by 
absolutely   rejquires,    or    absolutely   refuses   q&   in-  Suarez  (De  legibus, III,  xi,  7)  as  "the  natural  happi- 
compatible  with  her  well-being,  God  commands,  or  ness  of  the  perfect,  or  self-sufficient,  human  com- 
Gqd  forbids.    God  then  forbida  anarchy;   and  in  munity,  and  the  happiness  of  individuals  as  they 
forbidding  anarchy  He  enjoins  submission  to  au-  are  members  of  such  a  community,  that  they  may 
thority.     In  this  sense,  God  is  at  the  back  of  every  live  therein  peaceably  and  justly,  with  a  sufficiency 
State,   binding  men  in  conscience  to  observe  the  of  goods  for  the  preservation  and  comfort  of  their 
behests  of  the  State  within  the  sphere  of  its  com-  bo(Sly  life,  and  with  so  much  moral  rectitude  as  is 
petence.     "Let    every   soul    be   subject   to   higher  necessary  for  this  external  peace,  and  happiness *\ 
powers:  for  there  is  no  power  but  from  God:  and  Happiness   is   an   attribute   of   individuals.      Indi- 
those  that  are,  are  ordained  of  God.  .  .  .  Wherefore  viduals  are  not  made  happy  by  authority,  but  au- 
be  subject  of  necessity,  not  only  for  wrath,  but  also  thority  secures  to  them  that  tranquillity,  that  free 
for  conscience'  sake.  .  .  .  For  they  are  the  ministers  hand  fbr  helping  themselves,  that,  restful  enjoyment 
of  God,  ..."  (Rom,  xiii,  1,  5,  6).  of  their  own  just  winnings,  which  is  one  of  the  condi- 
Obedience,  being  a  practical  thing  and  not  a  specu-  tions  of  happiness.     Nor  does  authority  make  men 
latioUj  cannot  abstract  from  the  concrete  facts  of  the  virtuous,  except  according  to  that  rough-hewn,  out- 
case;  it  is  paid  to  the  powers  that  be,  to  the  authority  line  virtue,  which  is  called  "social   virtue",  and 
actually  in  possession.     Obedience  is  as  disobedience;  consists    mainly    of    justice.      When    the    ancients 
men  are  never  disobedient  except  to  the  government  spoke  of  "virtue"  being  the  concern  of  the  State, 
of  the  day.    But  there  are  limits  to  civil  obedience,  and  tney   meant    justice   and   efficiency.      Neither    the 
to  the  competence  of  civil  authority.    As  domestic  virtue  nor  the  happiness  of  individuals  is  cared  for 
obedience  is  not  to  be  carried  to  the  extent  of  re-  by  the  State  except  "as  they  are  members  of  the 
bellion  against  the  civil  government,  so  neither  is  civil  community".    In  this  respect,  civil  differs  from 
the  State  to  be  obeyed  as  against  Grod.     It  is  not  domestic,  or  paternal,  authority.    The  father  cares 
within  the  competence  of  the  State  to  command  any-  for  the  members  of  his  household  one  by  one,  singly 
thing  and  everything.     The  State  cannot  command  and  individually.    The  State  cares  for  4ts  memb^ 
what  God  could  not  command,  for  instance,  idolatry,  collectively,   and    for   the    individual    only    in    his 
The  authority  of  the  State  is  absolute,  that  is  to  say,  collective  aspect.     Hence  it  follows  that  the  power 
full  and  complete  in  its  own  sphere,  and  subordinate  of  life  and  death  is  inherent  in  the  State,  not  m  the 
to  no  other  authority  within  that  sphere.     But  the  family.    A  man  is  hanged  for  the  common  good  of 
authority  of  the  State  is  not  arbitrary;  it  is  not  the  rest,  never  for  his  own  good, 
available  for  the  carrying  out  of  eveiy  whim  and        This,  then,  is  one  measure  of  authority,  the  end 
.caprice.     Arbitrary  govemnient  is  irrational  govern-  which  the  State  has  in  view.    Another  is  the  stage 
ment;  now  no  government  is  licensed  to  set  reason  of  development  at  which  any  given  particular  State 
aside.    The   government    of    God    Himself   is    not  has  arrived.     For  there  is  not  one  measure  of  au- 
arbi trary;  as  bt.  Thomas  says:  "God  is  not  offended  thority  common  to  all  States.     As  the  State  de- 
by  us  except  at  what  we  do  against  our  own  good"  velops,  it  grows  in  unity,  and  greater  unity  means  an 
(Contra  Gentiles,  III,  122).    The  arbitrary  use  of  ampler  measure  of  central  authority.    There  is  far 
authority  is  called  tyranny.     Such  is  the  tyranny  more  authority  in  the  England  of  to-day  than  in 
of  an  absolute  monarch,  of  a  council,  of  a  class,  or  of  the  England  of  the  Heptarchy.     There  was   more 
a  majority.    The  liberty  of  the  subject  is  based  on  authority  in  an  Anglo-oaxon  kingdom  than   in   a 
the   doctrine    that   the   State   is   not   omnipotent,  horde  of  savages.    In  early  civil  societies  there  is  no 
Legally  omnipotent  every  State  must  be,  but  not  legislative  authority,  and  no  law,  but  only  immemo- 
morally.     A  legal  enactment  may  be  immoral,  and  rial  custom.    There  is  httle  judicial  authority,  but 
then  it  cannot  in  conscience  be  obeyed;  or  it  may  injured  men,  or  their  families  after  their    death, 
be  uUra  vires ^  beyond  the  competence  of  the  authority  right  their  own  wTongs,  murder  is  restrained,  not 
that  enacts  it,  in  which  case  compliance  with  the  by  judge,  jury,  and  executioner,  but  by  blood-feud, 
law  is  not  a  matter  of  obedience,  but  of  prudence.  On  the  otner  hand,  in  highly  civilized  societies,  es- 
In  either  case  the  law  is  tyrannical,  and  "a  tyrannical  pecially  those  of  a  democratic  character,  the  will  of 
law,  not  being  according  to  reason,  is  not,  absolutely  the  people  continually  thrusts  new  functions  upon 
speaking,  a  law,  but  rather  a  perversion  of  law"  government,  such  as  education,  the  care  of  public 
(St.  Thomas,  Summa  Theol.,  I*,  2»%  q.  92,  art.   1,  health,  the  carrying  of  letters,  the  sending  of  tele- 
ad  4).    Man  is  not  all  citizen.    He  is  a  member,  a  grams.    The  recognition  of  this  fact  has  been  called 
part  of  the  State,  and  something  else  besides.    "Man  "the  principle  of  voluntary  control".     By   it  civil 
18  not  subservient  to  the  civil  community  to  the  authority  may  be  enlarged  beyond  its  natural  and 
extent  of  his  whole  self,  all  that  he  is  and  all  that  he  essential  limits.     Like  other  principles,  "the   prin- 
has"  (St. Thomas,  Summa  Theol.,  1*  2", q.  21, art. 4,  ciple  of  voluntary  control"  may  be  pushed  too  far. 
ad  3).    To  say  nothing  of  his  eternal  interests  in  Pushed  to  the  limit,  it  woula  involve  oociaiiBm. 


AUTHORmr  139  AX7TH0BITY 

Authority,  though  varying  in  amount,  is  as  uni-  human  nature  which  God  has  created,  according  to 

versal  afi  man  is  eveiywhere.    Man  cannot  live  except  the  doctrine  of  Aristotle  above  exposed.     Belore 

underauthority,  as  he  cannot  live  out  of  civil  society.  St.  Thomas  arose,  some  churchmen  had  shown  a 

It  is  by  no  convention,  compact,  or  contract,  that  disposition  to  cry  down  the  civil  power.     They  could 

authority  takes  hold  of  him.    It  is  a  necessity  of  his  not  denj'  that  it  waa  of  God,  but  they  regarded  it  as 

nature.    But  while  civil  authority,  or  government,  one  of  the  consequences  of  the  sin  of  Adam,  and 

is  natural  and  universal,  the  distribution  of  authority,  aigued  that,  but  for  the  Fall,  man  would  have  lived 

otherwise  called  the  form  of  government,  or  the  con-  free  from  coercive  jurisdiction.     They  rehearsed  the 

stitution  of  the  State,  is  a  human  convention,  vary-  legend  of  Romulus,  and  the  asylum  that  he  opened 

ing  in  various  countries,  and  in  the  same  country  at  for  robbers.     Statesj  they  said,  usually  have  their 

different  periods  of  its  history.     It  is  scarcely  too  origin  in  rapine  and  injustice.     Others  invested  the 

much  to  say  that  there  are  as  many  various  dis-  pope  with  the  plenitude  of  seculAr  as  well  as  spiritual 

tributions  of  civil  authority,  or  various  forms  of  gov-  authority,  by  the  gift  of  Christ,  and  argued  that  kings 

erament,  as  there  are  varieties  of  vertebrate  animals,  reigned  only  as  his  vicegerents,  even  in  civil  matters. 

They  are   classified    as    monarchies,    aristocracies.  The  Aristoteleanism  of  St.  Thomas  was  opposed  to 

democracies;  but  no  two  monarchies  are  quite  alike,  all  this.     On  the  other  hand^  the  imperial  and  royal 

nor  two  democracies.     Thus  a  democracy  may  be  party  made  a  pope  of  the  king  or  emperor;  the  civil 

direct,  as  in  ancient  Athens,  or  representative,  as  in  ruler  was  as  much  an  institution  of  Christ  as  the  pope 

the  United  States.    The  monarchy  of  Edward  VII  himself,   and,  like  the  pope,  enjoyed  a  God-given 

is  different  from  that  of  George  III.  authority,  no  portion  of  which  could  validly  be  taken 

The  one  point  fixed  by  nature,  and  by  God,  is  frona  him.    Tnis  is  the  doctrine  of  "the  divine  right 

that  there  must  be  authority  everywhere,  and  that  of  kings  ".     According  to  it,  in  its  rigour,  in  a  State 

the  authority  existent  for  the  time  oeing,  under  such  once  monarchical,  monarchy  is  forever  the  only  law- 

aad  such  a  fbrm,  be  under  that  form  obeyed;  for  ful  government,  and  all  authority  is  vested  in  the 

since  there  is  no  actual  authority  in  the  coimtry  ex-  monarch,  to  be  communicated  by  him,  to  such  as  he 


ing  but  bread  and  cheese  to  eat,  and  refusing  to  eat  of  republic,  is  from  God),  has  never  been  sanctioned 

his  bread  and  cheese,  under  pretence  that  he  much  by  tne  Catholic  Church.    At  the  Reformation  it 

prefers  mutton,   condemns   nimself   to   starvation,  assumed  a  form  exceedingly  hostile  to  Catholicism, 

which  again  is  unnatural.     But  we  must  beware  of  monarchs  like  Henry  VIII,  and  James  I,  of  England, 

saying  of  any  particular  form  of  authority,  monarchy  claiming  the  fullness  of  spiritual  as  well  as  of  civil 

for  example,  or  democracy  either,  what  is  true  only  authority,  and  this  in  such  inalienable  possession 

of  authonty  in  the  abstract,  namely,  that  all  nations  that  no  jot  or  tittle  of  prerogative  could  ever  pass 

are  bound  to  live  under  it,  and  that  never  under  any  away  from  the  Crown.     Against  these  monstrous 

pretence  can  it   be  subverted.     A   country,   once  pretensions  were  fought  the  battles  of  Marston  Moor 

monarchical,  is  not  eternally  bound  to  monarchy;  and  Naseby. 

and  circumstarttes  are  conceivable  under  which  a  Against  the  same  pretensions  a  more  pacific  war- 
republic  might  pass  into  monarchy,  as  Rome  did  fare  was  waged  by  Francis  Suarez,  S.J.  Suarez 
under  Augustus,  mufeh  to  its  advantage.  Authority  argued  against  James  I  that  spiritual  authority  is 
rules  by  Divine  right  under  whatsoever  form  it  is  not  vested  in  the  Crown,  and  that  even  civil  au- 
established.  No  one  form  of  goverrunent  is  more  thority  is  not  the  immediate  gift  of  God  to  the  king, 
sacred  and  inviolate  than  another.  Change  of  per-  but  is  given  by  God  to  the  people  collectively,  and 
sons  holding  office  is  usually  provided  in  the  con-  by  them  bestowed  on  the  monarch,  according  to  the 
stitution,  sometimes  by  rotation,  sometimes  by  vote  tneory  of  the  Roman  lawyers  above  mentioned,  and 
of  the  legislative  assembly.  No  monarchical  con-  according  to  Aristotle  ana  St.  Thomas.  Authority, 
stitution  provides  for  the  change  of  the  person  of  the  he  asserted,  is  an  attribute  of  a  midtitude  assembled 
monarch  otherwise  than  by  death  or  resignation,  to  form  a  State.  By  their  nature  they  must  form  a 
Chan|^  of  the  form  of  government  can  be  effected  State,  and  a  State  must  have  authority.  Authority, 
constitutionally,  but,  as  history  shows,  as  often  as  thereiore,  is  natural  to  mankind  collectively;  and 
not,  it  is  brought  about  unconstitutionally.  When  whatever  is  natural,  and  rational,  and  indispensable 
the  change  is  complete,  the  new  government  rules  for  human  progress,  is  an  ordinance  of  God.  Au- 
by  right  of  accomplished  fact.  There  must  be  au-  thority  mast  be,  and  God  will  have  it  to  be;  but  there 
thority  in  the  country,  and  theirs  is  the  only  au-  is  no  such  natural  necessity  of  authority  being  all 
thority  available.  centred  in   one  person.     Authority  Is  a  Divine  in- 

DivisioNS. — ^The    progress    of    civilization    sub-  stitution,  but  kings  are  a  human  invention.    The 

divides    authority    into    legislative/    judicial,    and  saying  is  a  platitude  in  our  tihie;  three  centuries  ago, 

executive,  and  the  latter  again  into,  civil  and  mill-  when  Suarez  wrote,   it  was  a  bold  and  startling 

taiy.    The  king,  or  president,  is  chief  of  the  execu-  pronouncement.     Suarez  saved  his  loyalty  by  the 

tive.    Authority  agam   is  subdivided  into  imperial  concession   that   the   people   having    oestowed   the 

and  local,  the  latter  emanating  from  the  former  and  supreme  power  on  His  Majesty's  ancestors  ages  ago, 

subordinate  to  it.  their  posterity  could  not  now  resume  it,  but  it  must 

Origin. — ^The  question  of  the  origin  of  authority  descend,  like  an  heirloom,  from  the  king  to  the  king's 

seems  first  to  have  been  raised  by  the  Roman  lawyers,  son  for  all  time.    This  concession  was  not  every- 

In  their  hands  it  assumed  the  concrete  form  of  the  where  borne  in  mind  by  posterity.     Indeed  it  would 

origin  of  the  imperial  power.    This  power  they  argued  appear  a  restriction  on  the  development  of  a  State 

to  reside  primarily  in  the  Roman  people;  the  people,  for  the  distribution  of  authority  to  be  thus  fixed 

however,  did  not  exercise  nor  retain  it;  but  trans-  forever.    In  England  at  any  rate  the  restriction  has 

ferred  it  by  some  implicit  lex  regxa^  or  king-making  been  broken  through,  and  the  king  is  not  what  he 

ordinance,  as  a  matter  of  course  wholl3r,  and  irrev-  was  in  Stuart  times,  nor  the  Parliament  either, 
ocably  to  each  successive  emperor  at  his  accession.        Theories. — ^There    have    been    two    great    out- 

With  the  advent  of  Christianity,  St.  Paul's  doctrine  breaks  against  excess  of  roval  prerogative;  one  in 

came  into  prominence,  that  authority  is  of  God;  England,  in  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century; 

yet  in  no  clear  way  was  it  made  out  how*  it  came  another  in  France,  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth, 

of  God  until  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  showed  that  it  Each  of  these  two  periods  was  marked  by  the  ap- 

was  of  God  inasmuch  as  it  w^as  an  essential  of  the  pearance  of  a  great  political  writer,  Thomas  Hobbee 


AUTHORITY  140  AUTHOBITT 

in  England,  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau  in  France,  man  with  aXL  the  rest  of  mankind,  to  give  up  solitude 
Hobbes  was  a  philosopher,  Rousseau  a  rhetorician,  with  its  charms,  its  independence,  and  its  liberty  of 
Whoever  knows  Hobb^  well  can  have  little  to  learn  preying  upon  neighbours,  and  to  live  in  society,  the 
from  Rousseau.  Hobbes  is  rigidly  logical;  such  social  bocly  thus  formed  having  all  the  rights  of  the 
inconsistencies  as  appear  in  him  come  from  a  certain  individuals  contributing  to  form  it.  This  compact 
timidity  in  speaking  out,  and  a  humility  that  ap-.  of  man  with  man  to  quit  solitude  and  live  in  society, 
proaches  nigh  to  hypocrisy.  Rousseau  always  to  abandon  nature  and  submit  to  convention,  was 
speaks  boldly,  makes  no  pretence  to  orthodoxy,  and  called  by  Rousseau,  ''The  Social  Contract  ".  The 
frequently  contradicts  himself.  His  brilliant  style  body  formed  by  it,  commonly  called  the  State, 
won  him  the  ear  of  Europe;  he  popularized  Hobties.  Hpbbes  termed  The  Leviathan  ",  upon  the  text  of 
To  the  philosopher,  Rousseau  is  contemptible,  but  Job,  xli,  24,  ''there  is  no  power  upon  earth  that  can 
Hobbes  is  an  antaeonist  worthy  of  any  man's  steel,  be  compared  with  him.  ..." 
The  best  that  can  be  said  of  Rousseau  in  philosophy  To  Hobbes  and  to  Rousseau  the  State  is  omnipotent, 
is  that  he  drew  out  of  Hobbes's  principles  conclusions  containing  in  its  one  self  absolutely  all  the  rights  of  Ihe 
which  Hobbes  was  afraid  to  formulate.  Hobbes  citizens  who  compose  it.  The  wielder  of  this  tremen- 
made  of  the  king  a  despot;  Rousseau  showed  that,  douspoweris  the  General  Will,  measured  against  which 
on  Hobbesian  principles,  a  king  is  no  better  than  the  the  will  of  the  individual  citizen  is  not  only  powerle^, 
-  people's  bailiff,  unless  indeed,  by  military  force  or  but  absolutely  non-existent.  The  individual  gave  up 
otherwise,  he  can  prevent  the  people  from  assembling  his  will  when  he  made  the  Social  Contract.  "  No 
and  decreeing  his  deposition.  Hobbes  starts,  and  rights  against  the  State  ",  is  a  fundamental  principle 
Rousseau  after  him,  by  contradicting  Aristotle,  with  Hdt)be6  and  Rousseau.  To  live  in  the  State  at 
According  to  Aristotle,  man  is  "by  nature  a  State-  all  means  compliance  with  every  decree  of  the  Gen- 
making  animal";  the  individual  man,  if  he  is  to  eral  Will.  But  there  is  a  difficulty  in  locating  this 
thrive  at  all^  develops  into  the  family  man,  and  the  General  Will.  Hobbes,  with  laudable  perspicacity, 
family  man  into  the  citizen;  and  wherever  there  is  a  seeing  that  tyranny  is  better  wielded  by  one  man 
city,  or  a  nation,  there  must  be  self-government,  or,  than  by  a  multitude,  contemplates  the  multitude 
in  other  words,  civil  authority,  whether  vested  in  one  resigning  all  their  power  into  tne  hands  of  a  Single 
or  in  many.  Authority  is  the  very  breath  of  man's  Person,  and  denying  themselves  the  right  of  meet- 
nostrils,  as  he  is  a  progressive  being.  Isolation  and  ing  without  his  calling  them  together;  so  that,  by 
anarchy  are  fatal  to  human  progress.  Effort,  with-  the  simple  expedient  of  never  calling  them  together, 
out  which  man  cannot  thrive,  though  it  be  an  effort,  the  Single  Person  may  incapacitate  the  people  from 
and  not  an  initial  endowment  passively  received,  ever  resuming  the  power  wnich  is  only  theirs  when 
Aristotle  calls  "natural".  The  State-making  effort  they  are  all  assembled.  The  General  Will  in  that 
is  "natural"  to  man;  so  is  authority  "natural ",  and,  case  is  the  will  of  the  Single  Person.  Hobbes 's  loca-. 
as  such,  of  God,  adds  Thomas  Aquinas.  But  Hobbes  tion  of  the  General  Will  is  not  lacking  in  clearness, 
took  "natural"  in  quite  another  sense.  That  he  But  Rousseau  would  have  the  sovereign  authority 
held  to  be  "natural"  which  man  is,  antecedently  to  to  be  the  inalienable  right  of  the  multitude — hence 
all  effort  and  arrangement  on  his  part  to  make  him-  called  the  "Sovereign  People  ".  They  may,  if  they 
self  better.  Further,  his  philosophy  was  tinged  with  will,  employ  a  king,  or  even  an  eii\peror;  but  his 
the  Calvinism  of  his  day,  and  he  took  it  that  man  is  majesty,  in  Rousseau's  phrase,  is  "Prince"  not 
of  himself  "  desperately  wicked  ".  What  was  natural,  "  Sovereign  ",  and  at  stated  times,  without  his  calling 
then,  was  bad,  bad  on  the  whole.  Reason  being  an  them  together,  the  Sovereign  People  must  meet  and 
original  endowment  of  man.  Hobbes  allowed  reason  decide,  first,  whether  they  will  continue  to  support 
to  DO  natural.  He  allowea  also,  with  Plato,  that  a  throne  at  oil;  secondly,  whether  the  throne  shall 
wickedness  is  irrational,  by  which  concession  Hobb-  further  be  filled  by  the  present  occupant.  Rous- 
ism  is  marked  off  from  a  celebrated  theory  stated  at  seau's  location  is  also  clear,  so  long  as  it  is  under- 
the  beginning  of  the  second  book  of  Plato's  Re-  stood  that  the  General  Will  is  simply  the  will  of  the 
public,  to  which  theory  in  other  respects  it  bears  a  numerical  majority  of  the  Sovereign  People.  Such 
strong  resemblance;  the  theory  being  that  right  by  a  General  Will  is  ascertained  by  the  simple  process 
nature  is  the  interest  of  the  stronger,  and  only  by  of  counting  heads.  If  in  a  St^te  of  20,000  citizens, 
convention  becomes  the  interest  of  the  State.  15.000  vote  aye,  aye  is  the  General  Will,  not  the 
Tliis  allowing  of  wickedness  to  be  against  reason  is  a  will  of  the  majority  only,  but  of  the  whole  20,000 
weak  point  in  the  logic  of  Hobbes.  But  Hobbes  would  together;  for  though  5,000  persons  detest  the  pro- 
have  it  that  reason  is  by  nature  utterly  unable  to  posal,  such  detestation  lies  only  in  the  individual 
contend  with  wickedness,  that  it  is  overborne  by, and  will,  sometimes  called  the  "casual  A\ill",  and  the 
made  subservient  to,  passion,  and  so  is  degradea  into  individual  will  has  ceased  to  exist  by  the  Compact, 
cunning,  man  becoming  more  wicked  by  his  posses-  Personally  they  detest  the  measure,  but  with  their 
sion  of  reason.  Of  himself ,  in  his  "state  of  nature  ".  "Real  Will"  tney  approve  it.  Thus,  as  Rousseau 
Hobbesian  man  is  a  savage,  solitary,  sensual,  ana  says,  they  remain  as  free  as  the  wild  man  in  the 
selfish.  When  two  human  beings  meet,  the  natural  woods,  obey  none  but  themselves,  and  follow  their 
impulse  of  each  is  to  lord  it  over  the  other.     By  own  will  everywhere. 

force,  if  he  is  strong,  by  stratagem,  if  he  is  weak,        But  a  canker-worm  lies  at  the  root  of  this,  as  of 

every  man  seeks  to  kill  or  enslave  every  other  man  all  ultra-democratic  doctrines.    All  originate  in  a 

that  he  meets.     Man's  life  in  this  state  of  nature,  manifestly  false  supposition,  that  one  man  is  as  good 

says  Hobbes,  is  "nasty,  brutish,  and  short."    So  it  as  another.     In  any  sane  polity,  the  predominant 

would  be,  in  an  English  fen,  and  in  most  other  Intelligence  must  guide  the  counsels  of  the  State, 

places.     But  Rousseau's  imagination  carried  him  to  not  the  predominant  Will,  which  may  be  no  better 

the  Pacific  Isles;  he  became  enamoured  of  "the  noble  than  caprice.     But   intelligence   is   not   necessarily 

savage".     He  fell  in  with  Hobbes's  notion  of  the  attached  to 'majorities.     Rousseau  himself  falters  in 

"natural",  as  being  what  man  is  and  has  antecedently  presence  of  this  awkward  truth,  and  re-states  the 

to  all  human  effort.     But  the  "citizen  of  Geneva",  as  General  Will,  as  the  will  which  the  people  have  of 

he  called  himself,  was  curiously  free  from  Calvinistic  good  in  general,  albeit  in  a  particular  case  they  are 

bias,  and  believed  enthusiastically  in  the  primitive,  mistaken  in  what  they  take  to  be  good.    Thus  they 

unmade,   natural  goodness   of  man.     In   Hobbes's  will  one  thing,  and  vote  for  another.    The  Real  Will 

view,  though  not  in  Rousseau's,  man  had  every  rea-  in  this  case  is  not  to  be  gathered  from  the  actual  vote 

son  for  getting  out  of  his  "nasty"  state  of  nature,  of  the  majority.    The  Real  Will  is  of  that  which  the 

This  was  done  by  a  pact,  or  convention,  o(  every  majority  would  have  voted  for,  had  they  knowp 


ATJTHORITT  141  AUTBOUZK) 

better.    Rousseau's  theory  contemplates  "a  people  people  and  their  ruler;  the  ruler  b  to  be  obeyed  so 
of  gods",  so  he  assures  us.    Such  «  peo];de  would  long  as  he  fulfils  certain  conditions,  known  as  '^the 
scarce  require  &af  govemm^it.    The  ideal,  sylvan  constitution".    If  he  violates  the  constitution,  he 
creatures  whom  his  imagination  brings  together  to  forfeits  his  auUioritv  and  the  people  mav  cast  nim 
form  the  Social  Contract,  if  not  all  very  intelligent,  out.    Thus  ruler  and  subject  are  two  "high  contract- 
may  be  supposed  to  be  all  Rood  listeners  to  intelligent  ing  parties  ".    The  ruler  has  no  superiority  of  status, 
teaching,    and   thus   Intelligence   will   govern   the  but  of  contract  only.    On  this  it  is  to-be  observed, 
majority,  and  the  vote  of  the  majority  will  be  an  first,  that  such  a  contract  lies  not  in  the  nature  of 
id^Uy  Real  Will.    Government  is  an  easy  matter  things,  and  therefore  is  not  to  be  taken  for  granted; 
on  such  optimistic  presuppositions.    The  eye,  how-  but  evidence  in  each  particular  case  should  he  forth- 
ever,  Ranees  back  upon  Hobbes's  ruffian  primeval,  coming  of  the  contract  having  been  made  on  those 
'^brutish   and   nasty".     Hobbes's  view   of   human  terms  as  a  fact  of  historv.     ^condl^r,  this  asserted 
nature  must  check  that  of  Rousseau.     Both  views  contract  labours  under  the  inconvenience  that  Job 
are  extreme,  and  the  truth  lies  between  them.    The  declared  of  old:  "...  in  judgment.    There  is  none 
democratic  rule  of  a  numerical  majority  is  not  of  that  may  be  able  to  reprove  both,  and  to  put  his  hand 
universal    application.     One    has    to    consider   the  between  both"  (Job,  ix,  32,  33).    The  contract  can- 
character  of  tne  people,  and  peo{des  vary.    If  in  one  not  be  enforced  at  law,  for  lack  of  a  judge;  in  case 
age  or  place  the  people  approximate  to  the  character  of  dispute,  each  party  pronounces  in  his  own  favour^ 
of  "a  people  of  gods",  or  angels,  in  another  country  and  tney  are  like  to  fight  it  out.     The  result  is  civil 
or   another  time  they   may   be  more  like  devils,  war.  as  between  Charles  I  and  his  Parliament.     But 
"Force,  devoid  of  counsel,  of  its  own  bulk  comes  to  really  ruler  and  subjects  are  not  two  "high  contract- 
a  crash ",  says  Horace  (Odes,  III,  4).    That  is  the  ing  parties",  as  two  nations  are.    The  theory  is 
danger  of  the  Greneral  Will.     Rousseau,  with  Hobbes  prejudicial  to  the  unity  of  the  State,  and  countenances 
to  ^ide  him,  starts  from  a  false  supposition,  that  the  revolution.    The  theory  v/ba  brought  up  to  meet  that 
natural  state  of  man  is  savage  solitude,  not  civil  delicate  inauiry,  "What  is  to  be  done  when  Gov- 
society;  he  proceeds  through  the  false  medium  of  the  emment    abuses    its    authority?"    On    which    see 
"Social  Contract",  false  because  society  is  not  a  "Moral  Philosophy"   (Stonyhurst  Series),  338-343. 
thinir  of  convention;  false  again,  because  out  of  all  .   Newman,  -Airatoifo.PoZirica,  (Clarendon  Press,  Oxford;  th«re 
VAAT^ncr    wifVi    th»   AvirlAnr^A   nf    hiflt^rv*    unH    tiA    ifl  "^    *    translation    also    by    Weldon)    I;    St.    Thomas,    De 
keeping   Wltn    tne   eviaence   OI    nistory,    ana    ne   is  Rcgimine  PHneipum,  I;  Leo  XIII,  EncyeiicaU:  Latin,  five 

apt  to  end  m  the  tyranny  of  a  brute  majority,  tramp-  volumeB  (Tournai);  En^h,  The  Pone  and  the  PeopU,  Select 

linK  upon  the  rights  and  consciences  of  individuals:  if^'^^.S?^^^  S^^^*^.  (New  York);  8v akkz,  Defeneio 

rw^imin  in  anarrhv    hi«*  diflrinlcM  nuttinir  too  litArAl  S}'^*  ^I^-  *•  "•  "*i  ^-  ^'  *"*^  ^'  ^-  Carlyle,  Medieval  PolttuxU 

or  agam  in  anarcny,  nis  aiscipies  puwmg  loo  llierai  rpf^         ^^  ^  ^^  (London);  Gierke.  Political  Theories  of 

a  construction  upon  the  promise  that  henceforth  no  Jhe    Middle   Age,    tr.    by    Maitland    (Cambridge);  RiCKABY, 

nian  shall  obey  any  other  than  himself.  Political  and  Moral  Eeeaye,  The  Origin  and  Extent  of  Civil 

The  d<>ctrine8  of  Rouleau  have  not  escaped. the  ^S^tfi.^L^^^^iSf^'&l^n'il  \t^'V'^Ji 

censure  of  the  Church,      Rousseau  mav  be  recognused  Government;  Green.  PHndplee  of  Political  Obligation  (London 

in    the    following    propositions,    condemned    in    the  and   New   York);  Bobanquet,   PhUoeophicai   Theory  of   the 

Syllabus  of  Pius  IX:  ^^The  State  is  the  source  and  ^^  (London  and  New  York).  

origin  of  aU  rights,  and  its  rights  are  unUmited"  Joseph  Kickaby. 

(n-  39):  "Authority  is  nothing  else  than  numbers,        .    ^, »x     t-.  «     ^  r» 

andasumofmatermlforces"(n.60):"ItisaUowable       Authority,  Ecclesiastical.     See  Church;  Pope; 

to  refuse  obedience  to  lawful  princes,  and  even  to  Hierarchy. 

rebel  a^inst  them"  (n.  63).    Leo  XIII,  not  con-       Authority,    Paternal.     See    Obedience;    Par- 

tent   with   condemning,    teaches   positive   doctrine  -^^.^ 
against    Rousseau,    to   wit:    the   Aristotelean   and 

l^iomtst  doctrine  already  stated.  Thus  the  Ency-  Authoriied  Version,  The,  name  given  to  the 
dical  "Immortale  Dei",  of  November,  1885:  "Man's  English  translation  of  the  Bible  produced  by  the 
natural  instinct  moves  him  to  live  in  civil  society;  Commission  appointed  by  James  I,  and  in  conse- 
for  he  can  not,  if  dwelling  apart,  provide  himself  quence  often  spoken  of  as  "Kin^  James's  Bible". 
with  the  necessary  requirements  of  life,  nor  procure  It  is  in  general  use  among  English-^peakin^  non- 
the  means  of  developing  his  faculties.  Hence  it  is  Catholics/  In  order  to  understand  its  origm  and 
Divinely  ordained  that  he  should  be  bom  into  the  history,  a  brief  survey  is  necessary  of  the  earher 
society  and  company  of  men,  as  well  domestic  as  English  translations  of  the  Scriptures.  From  very 
civiL  Only  civil  society  can  ensure  perfect  self-  early  times  portions  of  the  Bible  have  been  trans- 
sufficiency  of  life  [an  Anstotelean  term].  But  since  lated  into  English.  It  is  well  known  that  Venerable 
no  society  can  hold  together  unless  there  be  some  Bede  was  finishing  a  translation  of  St.  John's  Gospel 
one  over  all,  impelling  mdividuals  efficaciously  and  on  his  death-bed.  But  the  history  of  the  English 
harmoniously  to  one  common  purpose,  a  ruling  au-  Bible  as  a  whole  does  not  go  back  nearly  so  far;  it 
thority  becomes  a  necessity  for  every  civil  common-  dates  from  the  so-called  WycHf  Version,  believed 
wealth  of  men;  and  this  authoritv,  no  less  than  to  have  been  completed  about  the  year  1380.  The 
society  itself,  is  natural,  and  therelore  has  God  for  translation  was  made  from  the  Vulgate  as  it  then 
its  author.  Hence  it  follows  that  public  poww  of  existed,  that  is  before  the  Sixtine  and  Clementine 
itself  cannot  be  otherwise  than  of  Grod."  revisions,  and  was  well  and  accurately  done.  Ab- 
In  the  theory  of  Hobbes  and  Rousseau,  Authority  bot  Gasquet  contends  confidently  (The  Old  English 
is  the  outcome  of  contract,  not  between  people  and  Bible,  102  sqq.)  that  it  was  in  reality  of  Catholic 
prince,  but  of  every  man  with  every  other  man  to  origin,  and  not  due  to  Wyclif  at  all;  at  any  rate 
r^inqiiish  solitude  and  its  rights,  and  live  in  civil  it  seems  fairly  certain  that  he  had  no  share  in  any 
society.  Rousseau  is  instant  in  pronouncing  that  be-  part  of  it  except  the  Gospels,  even  if  he  had  in  these; 
tween  people  and  prince  there  can  be  no  contract,  and  there  is  evidence  that  copies  of  the  whole  were 
but  the  pnnce  is  a  tenant  at  will,  who  may  be  turned  in  the  hands  of  good  CathohcS|  and  were  read  by 
out  of  ooors,  with  or  without  reason,  any  day  that  them.  The  version,  however,  undoubtedly  derived 
the  Sovereign  People  assemble  to  vote  upon  him.  its  chief  importance  from  the  use  made  of  it  by 
But  there  is  another  theory  of  contract,  centuries  Wyclif  and  tne  Lollards,  and  it  is  in  this  connexion 
older  than  Hobbes,  a  theory  greatly  cherished  by  that  it  is  chiefly  remembered.  During  the  progress 
Locke  and  the  English  'Whigs,  who  found  in  it  the  of  the  Reformation  a  number  of  English  versions 
mstification  of  the  expulsion  of  James  II  in  1688.  appeared,  translated  for  the  most  part  not  from  the 
la  this  theory,  the  contract  is  said  to  he  between  t^  Vmgate,  but  from  the  original  Hebrew  and  Gre^ 


AUTOOEPHALI  142  AX7TO0EPHALI 

Of  these  the  most  famous  were  Tyndale's  BiUe  pointed  to  be  read  in  the  Churches  *\  in  fact  it  came 

Q525);  Coverdale's  Bible  (1535);  Matthews'  Bible  mto   use   only   gradually.    For    the   Epistles    and 

(1537);  Cromwell's,  of  the  "Great  Bible"   (1539),  Gospels,  it  did  not  displace  the  Bishops'  Version 

the  second  and  subsequent  editions  of  which  were  imtu  the  revision  of  the  Liturgy  in  1661;  and  for  th» 

known  as  Cranmer's  Bible;  the  Geneva  Bible  (1557-  Psalms,  that  vereion  has  been  retained  to  the  present 

60);   and  the  Bishops'  Bible   (1568).    The  art  of  day;  for  it  was  found  that  the  people  wore  so  ac- 

printing  being  by  this  time  known,  copies  of  all  these  customed  to  singing  it  that  any  change  was  inad- 

circulated  freely  among  the  people.    That  there  was  visable,    if   not  impossible.     Considerable   changes 

much  good  and  patient  work  in  them,  none  will  deny;  were  made,  from  time  to  time,  in    the  successive 

but  they  were  marred  by  the  perversion  of  many  editions  of  the  Authorized  Version,  in  the  notes  and 

{)assages,  due  to  the  theological  bias  of  the  trans-  references,  and  some  even  in  the  text.    A  system  of 
ators;  and  they  were  used  on  all  sides  to  serve  the  chronoloffy  based  chi^y  on  the  calculations  of  Arch- 
cause  of  Protestantism.  bishop  Ussher    was  first  inserted  in  1701;  but  in 
In  order  to  counteract  the  evil  effects  of  these  many  later  editions  both  the  dates  and  many,  or 
versions,  the  Catholics  determined  to  produce  one  even  all,  of  the  references  or  verbal  notes  have  been 
of  their  owti.     Many  of  them  were  then  living  at  omitted. 

various  centres  on  the  Continent,  having  been  forced        It  is  generally  admitted  that  the  Authorized  Ver- 

*  to  leave  England  on  account  of  the  Penal  Laws,  and  sion  was  in  almost  every  re6p)ect  a  great  improve- 

the  work  was  undertaken  by  the  members  of  Allen's  ment  on  any  of  its  predecessors.     So  much  was  this 

College,  at  Douai,  in  Flanders,  which  was  for  a  time  the  case  that    when    Bishop   Challoner    made  his 

transferred  to  Reims.    The  result  was  the  Reims  revision  of  the  Douay  Bible  (1749-52),  which  is  now 

New  Testament  (1582)  and  the  Douay  Bible  (1609-  commonly  in  use  among  English-speaking  Catholics, 

10).    The  translation  was  made  from  the  Vulgate,  he  did  not  scruple  to  borrow  hirgely  from  it.     Indeed, 

and  although  accurate,  was  sadly  deficient  in  hterary  Cardinal  Newman  gives   it  as   his   opinion  (Tracts 

form,  and  so  full  of  Latinisms  as  to  be  in  places  Theol.  and   Ekscles.,   373)  that  Challoner 's  revision 

hardly  intelligible.     Indeed,  a  few  years  later.  Dr.  was  even  nearer  to  the  Authorized  Version  than  to 

William  Fulke,  a  well-known  Puritan  controversialist,  the  original  Douay,  "not  in  grammatical  structure, 

brought  out  a  book  in  which  thtj  text  of  the  Bishope  but  in  phraseology  and  diction    .     Nevertheless,  there 

Bible   and  the  Reims  Testament  were   printed  in  remained  in  the  Authorized  Version  here  and  there 

parallel  columns,  with  the  sole  purpose  of  discrediting  traces  of  controversial  prejudice,  as  for  example,  ii* 

the  latter.     In  this  he  did  not  altogether  succeed,  and  the  angel's  salutation  to  the  Blessed  Vii^n  Mary 

it  is  now  generally  conceded  that  the  Douay  Bible  the  words  "highly  favoured"  being  a  very  imperfect 

contained  much  excellent  and  scholarly  work,  its  vei^  rendering  of  the  original.     In  such  cases,  neecuess  to 

faults  being  due  to  over-anxiety  not  to  sacrifice  accu-  say,  Challoner  adhered  to  the  Douay.     Moreover, 

racy.    In  the  meantime  the  Protestants  were  becom-  while  in  the  Authorized  Version  the  names  of  persons 

ing  dissatisfied  with  their  own  versions,  and  soon  after  and  places  were  usually  given  in  an  anglicized  form 

his  accession  King  James  I  appointed  a  commission  of  already  in  use,  derived  from  the  Hebrew  spelling^ 

revision — the  only  practical  outcome  of  the  celebrated  Challoner  nearly  always  kept  the  Vulgate  names, 

Hampton   Court    Conference.    The    commissioners,  which  come  ongjnally  from  the  Septuagint.     It  is 

who  numbered  forty-seven,  were  divided  into  six  partly  due  to  this  that  the  Authorized  Version  has 

companies,  two  of  which  sat  at  Oxford,  Cambridge,  an  unfamiliar  sound   to  Catholic   ears.     The   Au- 

and  Westminster,  respectively;  each  company  under-  thorized  Version  remained  in  undisputed  possession 

took  a  definite  portion  of  the  Bible,  and  its  work  was  for  the  greater  part  of  three  centuries,  and  became 

afterwards  revised  by  a  select  committee  chosen  from  part  of  the  life  of  the  people.     In  the  latter  half  of 

the  whole  body.    The   instructions  for  their  pro-  the  nineteenth  century,  however,  it  b^an  to  be  con- 

cedure  were,  to  take  the  Bishops'  Bible,  which  was  sidered  that  the  progress  of  science  called  for  a  new 

in  use  in  the  churches,  as  their  basis,  correcting  it  by  version  which  should  embrace  the  results  of  modern 

a  comparison  with   the  Hebrew  and  Greek  texts,  research.    The  work  waa  set  on  foot  by  Convocation 

They  were  also  given  a  list  of  other  English  versions  in  1870,  and  a  Committee  was  formed,  in  which  the 

which  they  were  to  consult.    The  commissioners  set  Americans  co-operated,  resulting  in  the  issue  of  the 

to  work  in  1607,  and  completed  their  labours  in  the  Revised  Version  (1881-84).    The  Revised  Version 

short  period  of  two  years  and  nine  months,  the  result  has  never  received  any  definite  ecclesiastical  sanction, 

being  what  is  now  known  as  the  "Authorized  Ver-  nor  has  it  been  officially  introduced  into  church  use. 

sion   .     Although  at  first  somewhat  slow  in  gaining  It  has  made  its  way  sinaply  on  its  merits.     But  al- 

general    acceptance,   the    Authorized    Version    has  though  at  the  present  day  it  is  much  used  by  students, 

since  become  famous  as  a  masterpiece  of  English  for  the  general  public  (non-Catholic)  the  Authoriz^ 

literature.    The  first  edition  appeared  in  1611,  soon  Version  still  holds  its  ground,  and  shows  no  sign  of 

after  the  Douay  Bible,  and  nearly  thirty  years  after  losing  its  popularity. 

the  Reims  Testament;  and  although  this  latter  ,  8«»'v=ner,  The  Authorised  Edition  of  the  Engliih  BibU 
^•as  not  one  of  the  ver«,'onB  named  in  the  instructions  ^X'^j^lrv!?:  XS^^.  \r?r.%5"i$^.  ^rSS  VS: 
to  the  revisers,  it  is  understood  that  it  had  con-  ».  v.  F«r»ion«;  Gaimjubt.  TA^OWEna/wA  Bi6/«  (London,  1S97); 
siderable  influence  on  them  (see  Preface  to  Revised  Carlbton.  Rheima  and  the  Englieh  Bible  (Oxford.  1902). 
Version,  i,  2.  Also,  J.  G.  Caleton,  ''Rheims  and  the  Bernard  Ward. 
English  Bible").  Autocephali  (Gr.,  ai>ro<c^^oXo«,  independent). 
The  Authorized  Version  was  printed  in  the  a  designation  in  early  Christian  times  of  certain 
usual  form  of  chapters  and  verses,  and  before  each  bishops  who  were  subject  to  no  patriarch  or  metro- 
chapter  a  summary  of  its  contents  was  prefixed,  politan,  but  depended  directly  on  the  triennial  pro-- 
No  other  extraneous  matter  was  permitted,  except  vincial  synod  or  on  the  Apostolic  See.  In  case  of 
some  marginal  explanations  of  the  meaning  of  cer-  heresy,  e.  g.,  or  other  grave  off'ences,  they  could  only 
tain  Greek  or  Hebrew  words,  and  a  number  of  cross-  be  judged  by  these  tribunals.  Such  were  the  bishops 
references  to  other  parts  of  the  Scripture.  At  the  of  Cyprus  (cf .  Council  of  Ephesus,  Act.  VII ;  TruUan 
beginning  was  placed  a  dedication  to  King  James  Council,  can.  39),  the  Bishops  of  Iberia  and  Armenia 
and  a  short  ''Address  to  the  Reader  ".  Books  such  as  late  as  the  time  of  Photius,  those  of  Britain  before 
as  Ecclesiasticus,  and  Machabees,  and  Tobias,  which  the  coming  of  St.  Augustine,  and  for  a  while  those 
are  considered  by  Protestants  to  be  apocryphal,  were  of  Ravenna.  ^  The  extension  of  the  patriarchal 
of  course  omitted.  Although  it  was  stated  on  the  authority  diminished  their  number.  Quite  similar 
title-page  that   the  Authorized   Version  was  ^'ap-  were  certain  Oriental  bishops  in  the  Patriarchatee 


AUTOS                                  143  AUTBAN 

of  Constantinople,  Alexandria,  and  Antioch,  who  phemus''  was  his  best  known   auto;    Valdivielso, 

were  subject  directly  to  the  patriarch  of  the  civil  who  wrote  "The  Prodigal  Son";  and  lastly,   the 

(imperial)  diocese  to  which  they  belonged,  and  who  most  successful  of  all,  Calder6n.    Although  not  as 

owed  no  obedience  to  their  immediate  metropolitans;  prolific  as  Lope  de  Vega,  Galder6n  has  leit  about 

they  were  not  unlike  the  modem  "exempt"  bishops  seventy  autos,  the  best  known  of  which  are  "The 

immediately  subject  to  the  Apostolic  See.    The  most  Divine   Orpheus",   a  work  of   considerable   poetic 

ancient  list  of  them  is  given  in  the  ninth-centmy  merit,    "Tne   Devotion   to   the   Mass",   and    "The 

"Notitia"  of  Leo  the  Wise,  where  they  are  entitled  Captivity  of  the  Ark".     These  atUos  sacramerUales 

archbishops   and    metropolitans,    though    they  had  produced  a  great  eflfect  on  the  people.     From  time 

no  suffragans.      Occasionally    priests   were    called  immemorial,  allegory  of  every  kind  had  powerfully 

"autocephaH  ",  e.  g.  the  clergy  of  a  patriarchal  dio-  appealed  to  them,  and   these   autoa' took  a  strong 

cese.    (See  Soz.,  Hist.  EccL,  Vl,  21,  and  Eus.,  Hist,  hold  on  the  popular  favour,  coming  as  they  did 

Ecd.,  V,  23,  with  the  note  of  Valesius,  also  Bibhop,  during  religious  festivals,  with  their  music  and  their 

Exemption,  Ravbnna.)  splendour,  coupled  with  the  fact  that  they  were 

Nehbh,  in  Kircfc^OCT..  1,1733;  THOMAaam,  De  Vet.  et  nov,  given  at  the  public  expense  and  with  the  sanction 

mfuf^i^t:-!^:  Jir"'k^"W^iJ^'tS06ri2U^'-  ^^  ^%  ^}?^^-  J^  }l^\  their  public  representation 

Thomas  J.  Shahan.  ^^  forbidden  by  Charles  III,   but  the  habits  of 

centuries  could  not  be  so  easiljr  overcome,  and  for 

Autos  Bacramentales  (Sp.  atUoj  act  or  ordinance;  many  years  afterward  they  continued  to  be  presented 

sacramenUU,  sacramental,  pertaining  to  a  sacrament),  in  some  of  the  smaller  towns. 

a  form  of  dramatic  literature  which   is  peculiar  to  ,^  Fitzmaurice-Kelly,  Historia  dUt  la  Literatura  EapaHola 

Rnain    fhmicrh    in    nnmn    rnsrw^nfA   similar   in    phoran  (Madrid,    1901),    paenm;  Trench,    Essay    on    the    Life   and 

^pam,  tnougn  in  some  respects  sumiar  m  cnarac-  ^^^^^  ^  CaWmm  (London.  1880);  Schack,  Geechichte  der 

ter  to  the  old  Morahty  plays  of  England.      The  auto  dramatischen  LUeratur  und  Kunet  in  Spanien  (Berlin,  1846), 

sacramental  may  be  definexi  as  a  dramatic  represen-  m«                                                               ^ 

tation  (rf  the  mystery  of  the  Eucharist.    At  least  VENTirRA  Fuentes. 

this  is  the  definition  that  would  apply  to  the  awto  Autpert,   Ambrose,   an   early    medieval    writer 

of  the  time  of  Calder6n.     It  does  not  so  well  fit,  ^nd  abbot  of  the  Benedictine  Order,  b.  in  France, 

however,  those  of  the  oreceding  century    many  of  ^arly  in  the  eighth  century;  d.  after  an  abbacy  of 

which  were  sacramental  m  character  only  because  yttle  more  tha£  a  year  at  his  monastery  of  St.  Vin- 

JS^y  yf ere   presented  dunng   the   fea^t  of  Ck)ipus  ^j^^t  on  the  Voltumo,  near  Beneventum,  in  Southern 

Chnsti.    They  are  usuallv  allegorical^  the  characters  j^y^  773  or  779.    Autpert,  if  forgotten  to-day,  was 

raprwenbng,   for  example.   Faith,  Hope,  Air,  Sm,  ^ot  without  a  name  in  his  own  century.     Charle- 

Death,etc.     There  were  some  indeed,  in  which  not  a  ^^agne  made  use  of  his  talente;  Pope  Stephen  IV 

angle  human  character  appeared,  but  persomfica-  protected  him;  and  the  monastery  where  he  spent 

^°iSL  „-®  ^ywulfl^^u  i^:™iJ  ®!l!!f °!fiu?u^  ^^y  years,  and  of  which  he  died  abbot  was  famous 

Autpert 


and  were  presented  dunne  rehgious  festivals,  for  ^n^j  ^^q  i^f ^  a  collection  of  sermons  besides  a  spiritual 

msten^,  at  Christmas  and  Easter.     But  it  is  not  treatise.     His  chief  work  is  "Expositio  in  Apoca- 

until  the  be^nning  of  the  sixteenth  century  that  lypsim"  (P.  L.,  XXXV,  col.  2417^). 

we  have  the  first  true  atdo  sacramental  havmg  for  Francis  P    Havey 
its  theme  the  mystery  of  the  Eucharist.     It  was 

"El  Auto  de  San  Martfn",  by  Gil  Vicente.  During  Autran,  Joseph,  a  French  poet,  b.  at  Marseilles 
the  sixteenth  and  seventeenUS  centuries  these  Autos  20  June,  1813;  d.  in  the  same  city,  6  March,  1877. 
continued  to  appear,  being  gradually  improved  and  He  pursued  his  classical  studies  in  the  Jesuit  college 
elalx>rated  until  brou^t  to  their  high^t  state  of  of  Aix.  His  father,  however,  having  met  with  re- 
development by  Calder6n.  verses,  Autran,  obliged  to  earn  his  own  living,  ac- 
The  auto  sacramental  was  always  presented  in  cepted  a  position  as  teacher  in  a  religious  school, 
the  streets  in  connexion   with  the  celebration  of  the  Thus  engaged,  he  published  the  first  work  which 


along  the  route  being  decorated  in  honour  for  the  Holy  Land.  "  Le  Depart  pour 
of  the  occasion.  In  the  procession  appeared  the  was  followed  (1835)  by  a  collection  of  poems  en- 
priests  bearing  the  Host  under  a  splendid  canopy,  titled  "La  mer",  remarkable  for  descriptive  power 
followed  by  a  devout  throng,  in  which,  in  Madrid,  and  the  charms  of  its  versification.  The  favour  with 
often  appeared  the  king  and  his  court  without  which  it  was  received  led  him  to  publish  a  second 
distinction  of  rank,  and  last  of  all,  in  beautiful  cars,  series  of  the  same  subject,  **Les  Podmes  de  la  mer", 
came  the  actors  from  the  public  theatres  who  were  which  appeared  in  1852.  Meantime,  he  had  written 
to  take  part  in  the  performance.  The  procession  another  volume  of  l^ics  "Ludibria  ventis",  which 
usually  halted  before  the  house  of  some  dignitary  served  to  increase  his  popularity  as  a  singer;  also 
while  the  priests  performed  certain  religious  cere-  a  prose  work,  "Italic  et  la  Semaine  sainto  ft  Rome" 
monies,  the  multitude  kneeling  meanwhile  as  if  in  (lo41),  the  fruit  of  a  voyage  to  the  Eternal  Citv. 


great  expense,   being  limited  only  by  the  resources  shared  with   Emile  Augier's  "Gabriefle  "  the  Prix 

of  the  particular  town  in  which  they  took  place.  Monthyon  awarded  by  the  French  Academy.    This 

Of  the  better  known  writers  of  this  kind  of  dramatic  was  followed  by:  "Laboureurs  et  Soldats"  (1845), 

literature  may  be  mentioned  Juan  de  la  Enzina  and  "Vie  rurale"  (1856),  crowned  by  the  French  Acad- 

Gil  Vicente,  who  wrote  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  emy;  "Epltres  nistiques**;  "Le  po^me  des  beaux 


Vciy  few  of  these  are  now  extant.  Among  his  In  1868  Autran  was  elected  a  member  of  the  French 
best  are  "The  Harvest"  and  "The  Wolf  turned  Academy  to  succeed  Ponsard.  In  his  later  days 
^bepherd."     Then  came  Montalv^,  whose  "Poly-    he  was  stricken  with  blindness.    Autran,  though 


AUTUM  144  Aujuunxcni 

not  a  poet  of  the  fint  rank,  is  a  writer  whoee  noble       CoxmciLS  of  Auttjn. — ^Tfaa  first  council,  held  in 

sentiments,  chaste  imagination,  and  religious  feeling  663  (or  670)  orders  all  ecclesiastics  to  learn  by  hsart 

wiU  always  endear  him  to  lovers  of  pure  and  re-  the  Apostles'  Creed  and  the  Athanaman  Creed,  and 

freshing  poetry.    All  his  worics  are  remarkable  for  this  seems  to  be  the  earliest  mention  of  the  latter  in 

their  puntv  of  expression,  the  music  of  their  rhythm,  France.    Cardinal  Pitra  says  in  his  "  Histoire  de 

and  a  profound  feeling  for  the  beauties  of  nature.  St.  L<Sger"  that  this  canon  may  have  been  directed 

Anthatoote    de*   poiut  franeau  /Pfna,   law)  302;    Db  against  Bionothelitism,  then  seeking  entrance  into 

fssT^/^irsif;  'sTLSatir  pW^^i^'x^  j*^.i5¥1?^  ^^r^^^Js*  ^"s^«rr^  ^^^^^ 

oompOtet  d*Autran  (1874-81).  m  the  latter  of  these  creeds.    The  Rule  of  St.  Bene- 

Jkan  Lx  Babb.  diet  was  also  prescribed  as  the  normal  monastic  code, 

▲utun     (AuGUSTODomTM),    D109ESB    OP,    com-  ^  the  Council  of   1065,  Saint  Hu^es,  Abbot  of 

f  rises  the  entire  Department  of  Sa6ne  et  Loire  in  Climy,  accomplished  the   reconciliation  of  Robert, 

ranee.    It  was  suffragan  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Ly-  l^^e  of  Burgundy,  with  the  Bishop  of  Autun.    In 

ons  under  the  old  regime.    The  sees  of  Ch&lons-sur-  1077  Hugues,  Bishop  of  Die,  held  a  council  at  Autun, 

8a6ne  and  M&con  were  united  to  Autun  after  the  Revo-  hy  order  of  St.  Gregory  VII ;  it  deposed  Manasses, 

lution,  and  it  then  became  su£fragan  to  BesauQon  Bishop  of  Reims,  for  simony  and  usurpation  of  the 

(1802),  afterwards  to  Lyons  (1822).    Christian  teach-  see,  and  reproved  other  bishop  for  absence  from 

ing  reached  Autun  at  a  very  early  period,  as  we  know  the  council.    In  1094  Hu^es,  Archbishop  of  Lyons, 

from   the   famous   Greek    inscription   of   Pectorius  and  thirty-three  other  bishops  renewed  at  Autun 

which  dates  from  the  third  century.    It  was  found  the  excommunication  of  Henry  IV  of  Germany,  the 

in  1839  in  the  cemetery  of  St.  Peter  TEstrier  at  Antipope  Guibert,  and  their  partisans,  also  that  of 

Autun  and  bears  testimony  to  the  antiquity  and  King  Philip  of  France,  guUty  of  bigamy.    Simony, 

efficacy  of  baptism  and  the  sacramental  words  of  the  ecclesiastical  disorders,   and   monastic   usurpations 

Holy  Eucharist.    Local  recensions  of  the  "Passion"  provoked  other  decrees,  only  one  of  which  is  extant, 

of  St.  Symphorianus  of  Autun  exhibit  St.  Polycarp  forbidding  the  monks  to  induce  the  canons  to  enter 

on  the  eve  of  the  persecution  of  Septimius  Severus,  monasteries, 

assigning  to  St.  Irenaus  two  priests  and  a  deacon  «  ^^^ii'^o'f'&!^li{^^)f''^^J^i^'i^'^*'^^ 

Tol*  TnT**'  A  *»^***«»«o   v»Tv  ^s<»<»M>  cuAvt  «•  |^«^«»v^u  gupp^  II   25,  XX,  483;  GaUta  CAn#(iancr.  ed.  nova  (1728),  IV, 

(Sts.  Bemgnus,  Andochius,  and  Thyrsus),  all  three  of  ailnisT.  3^126;  Gaouabd.  HtMt.  de  Viglim  d'Autun  (Autan. 
whom  depart  for  Autun.    St.  Benignus  goes  on  to  1774);  Chbyalxbr,  TopthbiU.  (Paria,  1894-W).  ^0. 
Lan^res,  while  the  others  remain  at  Autim.    Ac-  Thomas  J.  Shahan. 
cordmg  to  thislegendaiy  cycle,  which  dates  from  about         ^          ...  11^.. 
the  first  half  of  the  sixth  century,  it  was  not  then        Auxentiui,  name  of  several  early  CSinstian  pcr- 
believed  at  Autun  that  the  city  was  an  episcopal  see  sonages. — Auxbntius   of    BIilan,  native   of    C3ap- 
m  the  tune  of  St.  Iren»us  (c.  140-c.  211).    St.  Ama-  padocia,  ordained  (343)  to  the  priesthood  by  Gregory, 
tor,  whom  Autun  tradition  designates  as  its  first  the  intruded  Bishop  of  Alexandria.    After  the  ban- 
bishop,  probably  occupied  the  see  about  250.  >  The  ishment  of  Dionysius  of  Milan  in  366,  Auxentius 
first  bishop  known  to  history  is  St.  Reticius,  an  was  made   bishop  of   that  see  through  Ariaa  in- 
ecclesiastical  writer,  and  contemporary  of  the  Em-  trigue,  though  ignorant  of  the  Latin  tongue.     Some 
peror  Constantine  (306-337).    The  Bishop  of  Autun  of  the  principal  Western  bishops  attempted,  but  in 
enjoys  the  right  of  wearing  the  pallium,  in  virtue  of  vain,  to  bring  him  to  accept   the   Nicene   Creed, 
a  privilege  accorded  to  the  see  in  599  by  St.  Gregory  He  was  publicly  accused  at  Milan,  in  364,  by  St. 
the  Great   (590-604).    In  the  Merovingian  period  Hilary  of  Poitiers,  and  convicted  of  error  in  a  dis- 
two  Bishops  of  Autun  figured  prominently  in  political  putation  held  in  that  city  by  order  of  the  Emperor 
affairs;  St.  Syagrius,  bishop  during  the  second  half  Valentinian.     His  submission  was    only    appcunent, 
of  the  sixth  century,  a  contemporary  of  St.  Germanus,  however,  and    he   remained    powerful    enouieh    to 
Bishop  of  Paris  (a  native  of^  Autun),  and  St.  Leo-  compel  the   departure   of   St.  Hilary   from  Milan, 
deganus  (Uger),  bishop  from  663  to  680,  celebrated  In  ^69  he  forced  many  bishop  of    Illyricum    to 
on  account  of  lus  conflict  with  Ebroin  and  put  to  sign   the   creed  of    Rimini.    Though   St.    Atbana- 
death  by  order  of  Thierry  III.    Charles  Maurice  de  sius  procured  his  condemnation  by  Pope  Daznasus 
Talleyrand-P^rigord,     the     future    diplomat,     was  »*  a  Roman  svnod  (369),  he  retained  nossession  of 
Bishop  of  Autun  from  1788  to  1790,  wh^n  he  re-  his  see  until  his  death  in   374,  when  he  was  suc- 
signeo.    The  last  bishop  of  this  see,  appointed  m  ceeded  by  St.  Ambrose.— Auxbntius,  Junior,  origt- 
1882  (d.  1906),  was  Cardinal  Perraud,  member  of  the  ^^Iy  Mercurinus,  a  Scythian,  and  a  disciple  of  Ulfilas. 
French  Academy.     In  670,   an  important  council  or  Wulfila,  of  whose  hfe  and  death  he  wrote  an  ao- 
was  held  at  Autun  for  the  purpose  of  regulating  the  count  that  the  Arian  bishop,  Maximinus,  in<duded 
discipline    of    the    Benedictine    monasteries.    The  (383)  in  a  work  directed  agamst  St.  Ambrose  and 
present  cathedral  of  Autun  dates  from  the  eleventh  the  Synod  of  Aquileia.  381.    This  favourite  ^  Jus- 
and  twelfth  centuries,  and  was  formerly  the  chapel  tma  was  tlw  anti-bishop  set  up  m  Milan  by  the 
of  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy;  their  palace  was  the  actual  Anans,  on  the  occasion  of  the  election  of  Ambrose. 
episcopal  residence.    In  the  Diocese  of  Autun  are  He  challenged  the  latter  in  386  to  a  public  dispute 
yet  to  be  seen  the  ruins  of  the  Benedictine  Abbey  '^  which  the  judges  were  to  be  the  court  favountee 
of  Toumus  and  the  great  Abbey  of  Quny,  to  which  of  .the  Arian  empre^;  he  also  demanded  for   the 
2,000  monasteries  were-  subject,  and  which  gave  to  Anans  the  use  of  tl»  Bwihca  Portiana.    The  refusal 
the  Church  the  great  pope,  Gregory  VII  (1073-85).  to  surrender  this  church  brought  about  a  wege  of 
Gelasius  II  (1118-19)  died  at  Cluny,  and  there  also  the  edifice,  m  which  Ambrose  and  a  multitude  of 
was  heki  the  conclave  that  elected  Calixtus  II  (1119-  his  faithful  Milanese  had  shut  thonselves  up.     The 
24).     The  devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart  orinnated  empress  eventually  abandoned    her  favourite   and 
in    the    Visitation    Convent    at    Paray-le-Monial,  made  peace  with  Ambrose.     (Baunard^  Saint   An^ 
founded  in  1644,  and  now  the  object  of  frequent  pil-  broise,  Paris,  1872,  332-348;  Hefele,  History  of  the 
giimages.    At  the  end  of  the  year  1905  the  Diocese  of  Councils,    I).— Auxbntius   op   Mopbubstia     (360)  J 
Autun  contained  618,227  inhabitants,  65  parishes,  458  Baronius  places  this  bishoo  in  the  Rc^nan  martyrology ,  ^ 
BUCCursaL  or  auxiliary,  churohes,  and  68  vicariates,  because  of  the  story  told  by  Philoetoi^pus  Qn  Suidas)] 
OaUiaChrMana,ed.  nov».(1728).  IV,  314-437  and  Doeu-  that   he  was  at  one  time  an  office  in  the  army  of 
mwOf.  3^126;  Db  roNTBMAT.ilirfun.  •«  ffumum«nte  (Autun,  Licinius.  wid  fl»ve  Up  his  commiasion  rather    " 

»  SXlV'S^tSnS?  ^d'  fSSSJ?  CHS^i  obey  the  impeSl  conii»nd  to  1^  a  bunch  of  g^pe, 

TopihInU.  (Parii^  1894-99),  269-272.  at   the   feet   of   a   statue   of   Bacchus.    Till^aionl 

GsoBOBt  QoTAU.  (Mtooires,  VI,  786-7)  is  inclined  to  believe     '     ' 


▲UZSBBS                               145  AUXZLIABt 

Anxentiiis  was  an  Arian^  hispotrcMiage  of  the  horetic  ^  the  episcopal /revenues,  prevent^  the  appointment 

Aethis  (Phflostoigius,  HjBt.  EccL,  V,  1,  2),  points  to  of  a  diocesan  bishop,    in  the  fourteenth  century, 

this  oHKshisicHL  the  great  number  of  bishops  without  occupation, 

YwABLM  in  Did,  of  ChHtL  Biogr^,  233.  and  their  invasion  of  the  rights  and  privileges  of 

iHOiiAS  J.  OHAHAN.  the  diocesans  brought  about  necessary  legislation. 

inzene,  Counciub  op.— In  585  (or  678)  a  Coun-  Qemwit  V  a,  iii  de  elect.  V,  Clem.)  prohibited  the 

dl  of  Auxerre  held  under  St.  Annacharius  formu-  election    ana    consecration    of    any   (ueric,  without 

hted  forty-five  canons,  closely  related  in  context  to  papal  license,  to  any  of  those  vacant  sees  (sine  dero 

canons  of  the  contemporary  Coimcils  of  Lyons  and  pojndoque), 

MIoon.    They  are  important  as  illustrating  life  and  The  first  mention  of  titular  bishops  occurs  in  the 

manners  amongthe  newly-oonv»1;ed  Teutonic  tribes  Lateran  decree   (sess.  9  de  Cardinalibus),  wherein 

and  the  Gallo-Romans  of  the  time.     Many  of  the  Leo  X  permits  the  creation  of  titulars  whom  the 

decrees  are  directed  a^nst  remnants  of  heathen  cardinal-bishops    may  use  as  suffragans,  or  auxil- 

barbarism  and  superstitious  customs;  others  bear  iaries,    in    their    respective    dioceses.     Afterwards, 

witness  to  the  persistence  in  the  early  Middle  Ages  the   privilege   was   extended   for   various    reasons, 

in  France  of   certain    ancient   Christian    customs,  principal  among  which  were  (a)  to  preserve  from 

Tbe  canons  of  the  council  of  696  or  697  are  concerned  oblivion  the  memory  of  those  once  venerable  and 

chiefly  with  the   Divine   Office   and   ecclesiastical  important,    but   now   desolate,  sees;  (b)    that   the 

ceremonies.  pope  might   have   at   hand    efficient   and   capable 

M^,  CoU.  Cone,,JX,  911;  XII.  107;  XIV.  786;  HEm.,  assistants  (without  care  of  dioceses)  in  the  discharge 

Xvt^S^;  ch^i^Fo"^^^  of  the  numerous  and  important  ecclesiastical  duties 

Thomas  J.  Shahan.  ^^  ^v^  Apostolic  mmistry  m  and  outside  of  the  lioman 

.                                     ^^                 J^  Curia:  (c)  that  suffragans  might  be  given  to  bishops 

AUZMTti  DiocESB  AND  SCHOOL  OP.     See  Sbns.  impeaed  by  reason  of  infirmity,  partial  or  entire,  or 

Aoziliaiy  Bishop,  a  bishop  deputed  to  a  diocesan  of  the  gi'eat  extent  of  their  dioceses,  or  le^timate 

who,  capable  of  governing  and  administering  his  and  protracted  absence  from  performing  their  epis- 

diocese,  is  unable  to  perform  the  pontifical  functions;  copal  duties.     Pius  V,  after  the  Coimcil  of  Trent, 

or  whose  diocese  is  so  extensive  that  it  requires  the  decreed  that  suffragans  were  not  to  be  given  unless 

labours  of  more  than  one;  or  whose  episcopal  see  to  cardinals,  and  to  those  bishops  to  wnom  it  was 

bas  attached  to  it  a  royal  or  imperial  office  requir-  customary  to  grant  them,  and  who  guaranteed  a 

ing  protracted  presence  at  court.    According  to  the  fixed  salarv  to  support  the  dignity^  of  the  auxiliary. 

present    ecclesiastical     discipline    no    bishop    can  He   also   decreed   that   such    auxiliary  should  not, 

oe  consecrated  without  title  to  a  certain  and  dis-  without   papal   permission,    exercise    the   pontifical 

tinct  diocese  which  he  governs  either  actually  or  functions  in  any  other  diocese,  save  in  that  of  the 

potentially.    Actual  government  requires  residence,  diocesan  to  whom  he  had  been  given.     Gradually 

potential  does  not.     Hence,  there  are  two  principal  it  was  extended  to  other  bishops  who  had  solid  rea- 

classes  of  bishops,  the  residential,  or  diocesan  or,  sons  for  assistance.    The  appomtment  of  all  titulars 

local,  or  ordinary;  and  the  non-residential,  or  titular,  belongs  exclusively  to  the  Holy  See   (Clement,  tU 

Diocesan  bishops  have  and  exercise   {de  jure)  full  suprci).     Present  usage  requires  an  auxiliary,  suffra^ 

power  of  order  and  jurisdiction,  in  and  over  the  gan,  and  temporary  coadjutor  (used  indiscriminately 

diocese  committed  to  their  exclusive  care  by  th6  to  mean  almost  the  same  office)  to  be  also  a  titular 

pope.    Titulars,  as  such,  have  not,  and  do  not  exer-  bishop^  yet  the  former  antedate  the  latter  by  many 

ciae.powerof  order  and  jurisdiction,  in  and  over  their  centuries.    They  come  down  to  us  from  ApostoUc 

titular  sees.    All  actual  jurisdiction  in  titular  sees  times;  thus  Linus  and  Cletus  were  vicars,  or  auxil- 

the  pope  reserves  to  himself,  and  exercises  throiu^  iaries,   to  St.    Peter  at   Rome;  Ammianus,   to   St. 

the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Propaganda.    The  juris-  Mark  of  Alexandria;  Alexander,  to  Narcissus  (aged 

diction  of  a  diocesan  is  ordinary.     Should  a  titular  116  years)  of  Jerusalem;  St.  Gregory,  the  theologian, 

perform  a  jurisdictional  function,  he  uses  delegated  auxiliary  in  pontificals  to  St.    Gregory,  Bishop  of 

jurisdiction.  Nazianzus;    St.   Augustine,   coadjutor    of    Valerius 

Titular  bishops  are  those  who  have  been  appointed  of  Hippo;  so  likewise  those  of  the  rural  bishops 

hjr  the  Holy  See  to  a  see  or  diocese  which,  in  former  (choreptscopi),  who  had    received    episcopal  conse- 

times,  had  been  canonically  established  and  pos-  cration  (there  were  many  in  the  Orient  from  the  third 

sessed  cathedral  church,  clergy,  and  laity,  but  at  to  the  seventh,  and,  in  the  West,  from  the  eighth 

present,  on  account  of  pagan  occupation  and  govern-  to  the  tenth,  centuries),  and  many  exiled  bishops, 

ment,  has  neither  clergy  nor  people.     It  is  essential  then  in  the  West  were  auxiliaries  to  diocesan  bishops 

that  the  titular  diocese  did  once  exist,  and  did  cease  even  up  to  the  Clementine  law. 

to  exist  throu^  death  or  defection  of  clergy  and  Though  the  terms  auxiliary,  suffragan,  and  coad- 

{aithful,  or  pagan  settlement  and  government.     No  jutor  are  used  indiscriminately,  yet  there  is  a  differ- 

vestige  of  titulars,  bs  defined,  appears  until  the  dose  ence.     Auxiliary  bishop  is  as  defined  at  the  beginning 

of  the  thirteenth  century.     Evidently  the  host  of  of  this  article.  Suffragan  bishop  is  the  name  given  to 

wandering  bishops  without  title  or  see — missionary,  the  auxiliaries  of  the  (3ardinal-6ishop  of  Ostia  and  Vel- 

regionary,  or   exiled   bishops — of   whom   historians  letri  and  the  Cardinal-Bishop  of  Sabina.    Coadjutors 

mue  mention,  cannot  be  classed  with  our  titulars,  are  given  to  diocesans  impeaed  from  performance  of 

who  did  not  come  into  existence  imtil  the  greater  their  episcopal  duties  by  old  age,  or  bodily  infirmity, 

part  of  the  East  had  passed  under  pagan  nue,  and  or  sickness,  protracted  and  incurable,  such  as  loss  of 

the  destruction  or  defection  of  the  Christian  flock  speech,  blindness,  paralysis,  and  insanity.    A  coad- 

md  the   death   of   their   shepherds   ensued.    The  jutor  to  an  insane  bishop  has  full  jurisdiction  and 

qineopal    succession  in   those    dioceses  was  main-  can  exercise  all  episcopal  duties,  with  the  sole  ex- 

taioedtas  lon^  as  a  hope  remained  of  their  rehabiHta-  ception    of    disposing    of    ecclesiastical    properties. 

tarn,  and  their  bishops  were  hospitably  received,  and  There  are  coadjutors  in  temporals,  or  in  spirituals, 

fijpqbantly  used  by  the  diocesans    as  auxiliaries  or  or  in  both  temporals  and  spirituals.    The  first  kind 

vican,  in   pontificals   in   their  respective  dioceses,  need  not  be  a  bishop;  a  cleric  suffices.     Coadjutors 

Sede^astical    authority   placed    some   of   them   in  are  also  temporary  and  perpetual;  the  first  has  no 

tempovaiy  charge  of  vacant  Western  dioceses,  on  succession,  the  latter  has,  and  is  called  coadjutor 

condition  of  their  immediate  return  to  their  own  with  right  of  succession.     Coadjutors  with  right  of 

net  when  possible.     Others  were  given  the  spiritual  succession  rarely  are  granted,  and  only  when  ureent 

cue  of  dioceses  by  civil  princes  who,  avarioioiu  of  necessity  axkd  an  evident  utility  arQ  ^up^radded  to 


AUZnJABT  146  AUXIXJAKY 

the  above  reaaons;    and  then  they  must  be  made  his  titular  church.    He  then  ceases  to  be  titular  and 
known  to,  and  approved  as  such,  by  the  pope.    It  becomes  diocesan.      He  may,  and  according  to  some 
is  notr  the  practice  to  force  a  perpetual  coadjutor  must,  be  invited  to  General  Councils,  and  once  there 
upon  an  unwilling  diocesan,  although  the  pop>e  can  he  has  decisive  vote.    A  few  were  present  at  the 
do  so.    Such  perpetual  coadjutor  cannot  mix  in  the  Council  of  Trent  and  quite  a  number  at  the  Vatican 
ecclesiastical  administration,  nor  do  aught  but  as  Council.     Although  he  has  not  the  ri^t  to  take 
he  is  told  or  permitted  by  the  diocesan.    Some  of  part  in  Provincial  Councils,  he  may  be  invited  to 
the  Fathers'  of  the  Vatican  Council  proposed  that,  do  so,  but  has  no  decisive  vote,  unless  by  unanimous 
in  the  future,  auxiliary  bishops  should  be  appointed  consent  and  permission  of  the  Provincial  Fathers, 
instead   of   perpetual    coadjutors.    A    coaajutor   is  He  can  wear  everywhere  the  prelatial  dress  and 
granted  to  aid  a  diocesan  in  order  and  jurisdiction  ring  (the  sign  of  his  spiritual  umon  with  his  titular 
as  far  as  is  needed;  the  auxiliary  is  deputed  to  aid  see),  and  use  the  pontifical  vestments,  ornaments, 
only  in  function  of  order.     He  mav  be  made  vicar-  and  insignia,  when,  by  permission  of  the  ordinary, 
general,  and  then,  by  virtue  of  that  office,  he  has  he  performs  pontifical  functions.      In  general  ooun- 
power  of  jurisdiction.     Since  auxiliarship,  or  tempo-  cils  and  every  meeting  of  bishops  where  the  local 
rary  coadjutorship,  is  neither  a  title  nor  prelature,  prelate  is  not  present,  in  Rome,  and   outside  of 
but  an  office,  it  is  temporary,  and  ceases  at  the  death,  Rome,  the  titular  auxiliary,  etc.,  takes  precedence 
or  suspension,  or  resignation,  of  the  diocesan.    The  of  all  bishops  (except  assistant  bishops  at  pontifical 
Holy  See,  for  valid  reasons,  in  the  fifteenth  century  throne)  of  later  consecration.     In  provincial  coun- 
established    permanent    auxiliarships    in    Prussia,^  cils,  however,  all  suftragans  outrank  all  titidars  with- 
Poland,  Spain,  and  Portugal.     Pius  VII  (16  July,  out  regard   to  date  of    consecration.    Titular  aux- 
1821,  Constit.   De  salute  animar.)  confirmed   such  iliaries,  as  well  as  diocesans,  are  obliged  to  receive 
offices   in   Germany,   etc.    In   these   countries   the  episcopal   consecration   within   three   months   from 
office  of  auxiliary  does  not  die  with  the  diocesan,  confirmation,  unless  this  is  morally  impossU^le;  to 
but  continues  under  his  successors.    The  auxiliary,  make  profession  of   faith  and  take  oath  of  loyalty 
sede   vacanUf    however,    cannot    perform    functions  and  fidelity  to  the  Roman  Pontiff,  and  to  go  to  his 
strictly   episcopal.     Successors   to   such    auxiliaries  titular  diocese,  if  ever  it  is  rehabilitated.    By  reason 
are  not  given  the  same,  but  an  entirely  different,  of  the  spiritual  union  with  his  see,  he  cannot  be 
titular  see.     Perpetual  coadjutorship  is  irrevocable,  elected,   out  only  postulated,  for  another  diocese, 
and  its  holder  succeeds  immediately  to  the  vacant  Only  the  Holy  Father  can  dissolve  the  spiritual 
see;  no  further  collation  or  election  is  necessary,  imion  with  the  titular  sec.    An  auxiliary  never  has 
Office  of  auxiliary,  etc.  is  revocable  at  will  of  pope  the  title  of  a  titular  archiepiscopal  see:  but  a  uerpet- 
and  diocesan;  that  of  the  perpetual  coadjutor  cannot  ual  coadjutor  often   has.    The  titular  archbishop- 
be  taken  away  imless  for  canonical  causes.    Auxil-  coadjutor  is  not  bound  to  petition  for  the  pallium 
iaries  and  temporary  coadjutors  are  appointed  by  or  the  use  of  it.    Titular  auxiUarv  is  not  bound 
the  Holy  Father  at  the  request  of  the  bishop  in  need  (a)  to  make  visit  ad  limina  Apostoiorum  (some  say 
of  assistance.    The  pope  (on  petition  of  the  Sacred  he  is):  (b)  to  residence  in  his  titular  see,  or  in  the 
Congregation  of  the  Council,  or  of  Propaganda)  as  a  cathedral  city  of  the  diocese  in  which  he  holds  the 
rule  appoints  the  clergyman  named  by  orator.    The  office  of  auxiliary  (the  place  of  his  residence  is  regu- 
election  or  nomination  for  perpetual  coadjutors  is  gov-  lated  by  the  diocesan);  (c)  to  say  Mass  for  the  people, 
emed  by  the  law  for  election  or  nomination  (sede  va-  ■     The  criminal  and  important   causes  relating    to 
carUe)  of  a  new  diocesan.  The  same  disposition  of  mind  auxiliary  bishops  are  reserved  to  the  Holy  See,  those 
and  Dody  is  required  for  auxiliary,  etc.  as  for  dio-  of  lesser  moment  to  the  Congregation  of  Bishops 
cesan  bishops.    They  must  be  thirty  years  complete,  and  Regulars.     By  virtue  of  the  office  of  auxiliary 
and   have  spent  six  months  in  Sacred  orders  prior  he  has  a  perpetual  right  to  a  pension  suitable   to 
to  elevation  to  the  episcopate,  yet  in  the  case  ot  the  maintain  the  episcopal  dignity.    This  is  to  be  paid 
auxiliaries,  the  most  worthy  has  no  rights  over  the  by  the  diocesan  from  the  diocesan  revenues.     The 
merely  worthy.     For  perpetual  coadjutorship  most  amount  of  pension  and  source  froin  which  it  is  to  be 
worthy  is  demanded.               ^  obtained    is    generally    specified    in    the    Apwstolic 
Rights  and  duties  of  auxiliaries  must  be  considered  Letters  of  appointment.    He  can  hold  any  benefice 
from  a  twofold  standpoint:  i.  e.  titulars  of  a  diocese,  he  had  before  and  acquire  a  new  one  after  his  con- 
and   auxiliaries   of  diocesan  bishops.     By  right  of  secration,  as  the  office  of  auxiliary  is  not  a  benefice, 
consecration  a   titular  auxiliary  can    validly,   but  He  enjoys  the  same  honorific  privileges  (with  a  few 
not  hcitly,  without   permission  of  the  resiaential,  exceptions,  viz.  throne,  cappa  magna,  mozzetta,  and 
perform  all  the  functions  annexed  to  the  episcopal  rochet  worn  without  mantelletta,  and  crosier),  pon- 
order  by  Divine  and  ecclesiastical  law.    The  Church  tifical  ornaments,  and  titles,  as  does  the  diocesan, 
could,  but  does  not,  require  the  diocesan's  permission.  He  can  and  must  use  the  prelatial  dress,  as  in  the 
for  the  validity  of  the  latter  functions.     Having  no  Roman  Curia,  to  wit:  rochet  over  the  purple  soutane 
actusd  jurisdiction,  he  cannot  without  express  con-  with  purple  mantelletta,  in  his  attendance  in    tlie 
sent  and  permission  of   the  ordinary  perform  pon-  catheoral,  where  he  has  precedence  over  all  other 
tifical  functions  in  the  city  or  diocese,  nor  can  he  canons  and  dignitaries,  as  to  choir  stall  and  func- 
do  so,  sede  vacaTde,  even  with  the  permission  of  the  tions.     When  he  is  celebrant  in  pontifical  functions, 
chapter.     Possessing  only  potential  jurisdiction  in  the  canons  must  assist,  but  in  the  usual  canonical 
his  titular  see,  he  cannot  (a;  hear,  or  ^nt  faculties  dress,  except  ministers  in  sacred  vestments.     Not 
to  hear,  confession  of  a  visiting  subject  from  his  all  the  canons  are  bound  to  meet  him  at  the  church 
titular  see;  (b)  confirm  or  ordain  him;  (c)  send  a  door,  as  he  enters  to  celebrate  pontifical  Mass.     Dvur- 
priest  to  preach,  or  to  perform  any  priestly  functions,  ing  the  ceremony  he  is  assisted  by  a  canon  as  as- 
m  his  titular  see;   (d)  absolve,  or  grant  faculty  to  a  sistant  priest,  and  deacon,  and  sub-deacon  in  sacred 
diocesan  priest  to  absolve,  a  member  of  his  own  vestments.     He  has  no  right  to  the  usual  two  canon- 
household;  (e)  assist  at  the  marriage  of  a  titular  assistant  deacons,  nor  to  the  seventh  candlestick^ 
subject,  a  visitor  where  the  Tridentine  holds;  (f)  nor  to  the  usual  reverences  of  the  canons  at  Kyrie, 
ordain  his   familiar  of  three  years'   standing,   nor  etc.,  nor  the  use  of  the  throne  or  crosier  unless   by 
srant  indulgences.     Should  at  any  time  clergy  or  special  permission.     He  uses  the  faldistorium.      Hfe 
laity  sufficiently  numerous  be  found  in  his  titular  can   use  the  crosier  with  the  special  permission    of 
diocese,  and  no  representative  of  the  Holy  See  have  the  diocesan,  and  when  he  officiates  at  ordinations, 
supervision  over  it,  he  can  immediately,  without  any  consecrations,  and  other  pontifical  fimctions,  durixiflr 
otner  collation  of  the  benefice,  take  possession  of  which  the  rules  of  the  Pontifical  demand  ita  via^ 


AUXnJTTS                             147  ATA 

fynanaa.  Epb.,  I,  xvii;   Deeret.  Brecbsren.  Sept.  nationibiui"  (Paris,  1665).    1'hey  are  entitled  "U- 

1601).    It  is  proper,  however,  that  he  impart  the  bellus  de  ordioationibua  a  pap&  FormoBo  ractis",  and 

rwopal  last  blessing.     He   cannot   blass   publicly  "Tractatua  qui  Infenaoret  Defensor  dicitur". 

fiople  ia  he  wends  hia  v&y  throuKb  toe  city.  A  tMrd  work  of  Auxilius,  of  Bimilar  import,  was 

it  ie  forbidden  him  to  make  visitation  of  the  cloister  found  by  Mabillon  and  published  by  him  under  the  ti~ 

of  nuns  without  express  peimission  and  command  tie;  "Libeilua  super  cauB&  et  negotioFoimosipaps", 

ot  the  local  prelate.     Canons  are  boimd  to  kiss  the  in  his"  Vetera  Analecta"  (ed.lTiH,  IV,  28-32),     Si  his 

iioiliary'a   hand  when   he  givea  them  Holj^  Com-  "Auxihua  und  Vulgarius",  quoted  below,  DOmmler 

mmiiaa  on  Holy  Thursday,  and   assist  him  in  con-  publiahed  from  a  Bamberg  manuscript  two  further 

iterating  Holy  Oils,  conferring  Holy  orders,  and   in  writing  of  Auxilius,  one  of  which  is  known  oa  "In 

ill  sacred  functions  strictly  episcopal,  which  he  per-  defenaionem  eacrte  ordinationis  papa  Formosi  libellus 

'omi!  for  his  diocesan.     If  he  be  a  canon,  he  ia  sub-  prior  et  posterior",  while  the  otiier  bears  in  the  man- 

jctl,  Ks  the  other  cathedral  canons,  to  diocesan  taw  uscript    itself    the    title:  "Libellus    in    defensionem 

ind  the  penalties  attached  to  its  violation.     If  the  Stephani      epiaoopi      et      pnefatte      ordinationis". 

dioosin   and   the    auxiliary   assist    simultaneously  (Stephen,  Bishop  of  Naples,  had  been  consecrated 

31  Mias,  the  sub-deacon  must  not  give  the  latter  the  by   Pope  Formosus.)     Still   another   treatise  of  an 

psi  before  the  canon-assistants  at  the  throne  have  unknown  author  on  behalf  of  Formosus,  published 

[mired  it   from   the  bishop  ordinary.     When   the  by  Bianchiniinhisedition of  the  "Liber Pontificalia" 

ilioceaan  asaisla  at  Mass,  or  Vespers,  the   auxiliary  (1735,  IV)  is  considered  by  HergenrQther  (Photius, 

must  leave  his   stall  and  join  the  other  canons  in  II,  370,  373,  noto  9)  to  bo  an  extract  from  the  writ- 

ruting  the  prescribed  reverences  before  the  Kyrie,  ings  of  Auxilius,  white  Dtimmler  attributes  it  {op.  cit.. 

Gtoria,  etc.     Should  the  celebrant  be  the  diocesan,  42)  to  Eugenius  Vulgarius,  an  Italian  priest  and  a 

i^lsled  by  the   chapter   in    sacred   vestments,   the  defender  of  Formosua.     Two  other  compositions  of 

lunlisry  can  wear  a  cope  and  a  linen  mitre  (with  Eugenius  Vulgarius  are  known;  "De  causfl  Formo' 

(Diu«iit  of   tlic  local),   which  latter   he   must   take  aianA",    and      Etigenius    Vulgarius    Petro    Diacono 

fS  and  put  on  by  himself.     It  is  expedient  that  be  fratri  et  amico".     All  these  writings  are  very  imp>or- 

iiih^ititute  another  in  hia  turn  for  the  Miaaa  Cantata,  tant,  not  only  as  historical  sources  but  also  from  a 

li  he  cannot  use  a  fatdiatorium  and  ponti&csl  veet-  theological  point  of  view,  because  they  take  the  p>osi- 

iTfnlH  without  conxcnt  of  his  diocesan.  tion  that  the  orders  conferred  by  sinful  and  CKCoro- 

Akm^ict.  //ttroroe*™  ,  municated  bishops  are  not  in  themselves  invalid.    In 

iiftail^iiTli'  XU   0  *  necrology  of  the  Abbey  of  Monte  Casaino  is  noted 

II;  (Tbui,  Jut  Aecrtt.'li  OH  25  January  the  death  of  an  Auxilius,  deacon  and 

n  Pait^cattba*):   Bomi,  1  monk,   author  of  a  commentary   on   Genesis   (Mai, 

im  MSmq  ■  "fiS^M   P  Spicilegiura  Romanum,  IX,  Appendix;  et.  MabiLon, 

KKunuCmtniniaria  m  krg  Ana.   Ord.   S.   Benedict!,   Ill,   325).     This  Auxilius 

a  Ki.;  Faohahus,  Conanmi  may  poaaibly  be  identical  with  the  author  of   the 

f^JLV-'t  i^™™""^,^'  I  works  described  above. 

'°^iH^"7™  E^as  •*«*':   PoTtHA.W,  Bibl.  hiU.  mtdii  avi.  2d  ed.  (Berlin.  iSgoJ. 

l«i£(B  Xai»to«(Kn.  Ill,  40CC,  IV,  217;  VI,  478;  TiDWTOJt.  ^"ris,  ihuo,  loo  sqq.                                                 u-,„™ 

I™<Vi*.ai«)k(1900)«.v.                       p  1^  J    ^acK..  KIHBCH. 

Inxilins  of  Hwlea,  the  name  (possibly  fictitioua,  Ava,  a  German  poetess,  the  first  woman  known  to 

•Motding  lo  Heft^e)  of  an  ecclesiastic  to  whom  we  ''ave  written  in  German  and  probably  identical  with 

ate  a  scries  of  remarkable  writings  (P.  L.,  CXXIX,  *  lecluse  of  that  name  who  died  in  Austria  m  the 

lOjl  son  )  thai  deal  with  the  controversies  concern-  vicinity   of   Melk,    a.  d.    1127.     Albioat    nothing   is 

inf  the  succesaiun  and  fate  of  Pope  Formosus  (891-  known  of  her  life  or  personality.     She  herself  tells 

896),  and  especially  the  vahdity  of  the  ordera  con-  us  in  a  passage  in  her  work  that  ahe  was  the  mother 

/erred  by   hun.     Auxilius   was   a   Frank,   who   was  "f  two  sons  who  helped  her  in  procuring  the  material 


»S 


humiliation,  i 


ordained  a  priest,  or  perhaps  only  a  deacon,  in  Rome  ^°'  ^^,  poems.     These  poems  are  metrical  v 

W  Formosus,  and  lived  later  in  lower  Italy,  appar-  *>*  stories, from  the  New  Testament  and  consist  of  a 

•'■'•'  at  Naples.     On  the  death  of  Pope  Formosus  "Life  of  Jesus"    "Antichrist",   "The  Gift*  of  the 

■  be^m  for  the  papacy  a  time  of  the  deepest  Holy  Ghost",  "The  Last  Judgment ",  and  "John  the 

iliation,  such  as  it  baa  never  experienced  before  Baptist ".     They  are  preserved  in  two  manuacripto, 

w  since.    After  the  successor  of  FormoBus,  Boni-  o™  at  Verona,  the  other  at  GOrlitz.    The  "John 

(ice  VI,  had   ruled  only  fifteen  days,  Stephen  VI  '•"e  Baptist     is  found  only  in  the  latter  manuscnpt. 

(properly,  VII),   one  of  the  adherents  of  the  party  A™  s  authorship  of  this  poem,  as  well  as  that  of  the 

o(  ifie  Duke  of  Spoletp,  was  raised  to  the  Papal  "I'ife  of  Jesus"^^ha8  been  questioned,  but  hardly  on 

Oair.    In  his  blind  rage,  Stephen  not  only  abused  silKcient  grounds.     The  poems  are  naive   in   tone 

the  mmiory  of  Fomiosus  but  also  treated  his  body  and  display  deeply  religious  sentiments,  but,  ex- 

nih  indignity.      Stephen  was  strangled  in  prison  in  ccpt   for  occasional  passages,  they  are  destitute  of 

ibe  Bunmer  of   897,  and  the  six  following  popes  (to  Poetic  merit.     Their  technique  is  often  crude,  asao- 

V.  9M)  owed   their  elevation  to  the  atrugglcs  of  nance  taking  the  place  of  rhyme  and  alliteration  being 

ihe  political  parties.     Chriafophorus,  the  last  ofthem,  not  infrequent.     The  chief  aource  from  which  Ava 

»«  overthrown  by  Serous  III  (May,  904-August,  <Jrew  her  material  was  the  New  Testament,  but  she 

Wl).    S«^us  had  been  a  partisan  of  Stephen  VI,  a^o  made  use  of  older  German  poems,  and  possibly 

ind  like  the  latter  regarded  the  elevation  of  Formo-  o'^er  writings  such   as  the   Apocryphal   Goapet  of 

91!  to  the  papacy  as  Ulegal  and  the  orders  conferred  "^°  Infancy  of  the  Saviour  by  the  Pseudo-Matthew. 

IwiaoBus,  andui  several  works  composed  about  908-  and  byPiPEn  in  Zriuchrift  }ar  deuucbt  Ph^oios^.\9.\^ii<i. 

91 1,  be  made  a  courageous  and  learned  defence,  both  For  [urther  intomiation  gee  Lasool'th,  Vnirrrwhunofn  «*«■ 

.1  F^^i™  ^  o!  the  validity  „(  hi.  ori™  .„d  .ho„  'S^StUTtSSS^^S-uTMSSiSi  SSS 

<A  his  adherents.     Mormus  was  the  first  to  publish  National  IMtratur. 

two  of  these  writings  in  his  "De  ecclesLasticiB  ordi-  Abthttr  F.  J.  Reut. 


▲VAiroiNI  148  AVitUOOUB 

Avancini,  Nicola,  chiefly  known  as  an  aseetical  the  danger,  commanded  him  to  build  a  boat,  and 

writer,  b.  m  the  T^rol,  1612;  d.  6  December,  1686.  finally  towed  this  boat  to  a  mountain  top.    The 

He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1677,  and  for  some  Purftnas  afterwards  declare  that  this  fish  was  an 

years  held  the  chair  of  rhetoric  and  philosophy  at  avat&r  of  Vishnu.    (2)  The  Tortoise*  Kunna.    Vishnu 

Gratz,  and  subsequently  that  of  thedogy  at  Vienna,  in  this  form  offers  his  back  as  the  pivot  on  which 

He  was  rector  of  the  CoU^^es  of  Passau,  Vienna,  and  rests  Mt.  Mandara,  while  the  gods  and  demons  chum 

Gratz,  Provincial  of  the  Austrian  Province,  Visitor  with  it  various  valuable  objects  from  the  ocean  of 

of  Bohemia,  and  at  his  death  Assistant  for  the  milk.     (3)  The  Boar,  Vardha.    Like  the  first,  this 

German  Provinces  of  the  Society.     In  the  midst  of  avat&r  is  concerned  with  the  rescue  of    the  eartii 

these  onerous  duties  he  found  time  to  publish  works  from  a  flood,  the  boar  raising  it  from  the  water  in 

on  philosophy,  theology,  and  sacred  literature,  none  which  it  ha^  been  submerged.     (4)  The  Man4ion, 

of  which,  however,  have  retained  popularity  except  Narchsinha,     Vishnu  takes  this  form  to  deliver  the 

his  **  Meditations  on  the  Life  and  Doctrines  of  Jesus  world  from  a  demon,  who  had  obtained  from  Brahnm 

Christ ''.    This  work,  originally  in  Latin,  was  trans-  the  boon,  that  he  should  be  slain  neither  bv  a  god, 

lated  into  the  principal  European  languagjes  and  went  a  man,  nor  an  animaL     (5)  The  Dwarf,  Vdmana. 

through  many  editions.     Tne  mediations  are  con-  The  world  having  fallen  under  the  possession  of 

sidered  dry  by  some,  and  the  En^bh  version  in  use  another  demon,  Vishnu,  in  the  form  of  a  dwarf, 

contains  much  additional  matter  drawn  from  the  begged  for  as  much  of  it  as  he  could  cover  in  three 

works  of  other  authors.     But  these  meditations,  in  steps.     His  request  was  granted,  but,  from  the  Rig- 

their  simple  as  well  as  their  extended  form,  have  Veda  on,  the  most  prominent  thing  in   connexion 

assisted  many  most  efficaciously  in  the  difficult  task  with  Vishnu   (originally  a  sun-god),  was   that  in 

of  daily  meditation.     Avancini  was  also  the  author  three  strides  he  traverses  the  universe.    Two  strides 

of  sermons,  or  orations,  and  a  large  number  of  dramas,  now  sufficing^  for  the  redemption  of  heaven  and  earth, 

suitable  for  presentation  by  college  students.     For  a  compassion  inspires  him  to  leave  the  nether  r^ons 

complete  list  of  his  works  see  Sommervogel,  I.    In  to  tne  demon  he  has  duped.     (6)  R&ma  with  the 

English  we  have  the  ''Meditations  on  the  Life  and  axe,   Parasu-rOma,    In  the  form  of  a  hero,  R&ma, 

Doctrines  of  Jesus  Christ.    Translated  from  the  Ger-  armed  with  an  axe,  Vishnu  destroys  the  Ksatriyas, 

man  edition  of  the  Rev.  John  E.  ZoUner,  by  T.  £.  or  watrior  caste,  in  the  interest  of  the  priestly  caste, 

Bazalgette,  with  a  preface  by  the  Rev.  G.  Porter,  the  Brahmins.      (7)  Rama,  the  great  hero  of    the 

S.J."    (London,  1875,  2  vols.).    Another  edition  was  Hindu  Odyssey,  the  R&m&  yana,  who  is  made  into 

issued  in  the  Quarteriy  series  by  the  Rev.  H.  J.  Cole-  an    avat&r    of    Vishnu.      (8)    Krsna,    the    Indian 

ridge,  S.J.,  in  1883.  Edward  P.  Spillanb.  Hercules,  as  he  is  styled  by  Megasthenes,  the  most 

A«».«4<»A  /f^^  T  «<•  y.w.«...  "  np..<w^«r ".  ***^  ^^^r^*r\  popular  hcro  of  India,  is  the  most  perfect  avat&r  of 

I.Al^n?H^!.^f^W«f^T;hJn^  vSmu.     (9)  Buddha    a  curious  re^lt  of    the    tri- 

b^Sdir^^s^  rj^'^i^^^nt^^^^^^ 

andk^p??^^  L'^c^ed^t'l^^dii^^^ 

SSTThings"^  valuIbl^oW  a^st"^'^^^^^  gO)  Kalki..    fn  this  f?rm  Vishnu  wiU  descend  ^hen 

thToonduct  ofa  rational  and^harmonious  life,  due  ^^\^'^'^  '«  "^^f^  ^^T"^'  destroy  utt^ly  the 

regard  being  paid  of  course  to  the  special  ^jcial  Yjl^^VtS^e         '^  ^^^  conditions  of    the 

condition  in  which   one  is  placed.     It  is  called  a  "^S.^   :J™^'  ««^   ^t   ♦u:„   ♦i.^..,,  «f  *«        * 

i^  ^„,t^™  in  3.T  f^f  ^mJ?i^«f  r^rSf    Same  might  be  said  of  an  attempt  to  see  in  the  Man- 
OT  pleasure  m,  ndhes,  it  «.  commonly^not^a^i^rtal    ^^^^  ^J  j^^  ^^^^^^    ^^  ^j  ^j^^  aboriginal 

religions.  The  resemblance  of  these  avatArs  to  the 
▲▼ftt&r,an  Anglicized  form  of  the  Sanskrit, avoMro,  doctrine  of  the  Incarnation  is  most  superficial,  skhd, 
"descent",  from  the  root  tr,  "pass"  (cf.  Latin  as  the  theory  of  the  avat&rs  has  a  sufficient  basis  in 
inrtrare),  and  the  preposition  ava,  "down".  The  Hindu  philosophy,  and  several  points  of  contact -with 
word  is  used,  in  a  technical  sense,  in  Uie  Hindu  the  earlier  mythology,  it  is  unnecessary  to  suppose 
religion  to  denote  the  descent  upon  earth  of  a  por-  with  Weber  (Indische  Studien,  II,  169)  that  U  is 
tion  of  the  essence  of  a  god,  which  then  assumes  some  the  result  of  an  imitation  of  this  dogma, 
coarser  material  form,  be  it  animal,  monster,  or  man.  For  bibliography  see  Hinduism. 
Such  descents  are  ascribed  in  the  mythology  of  George  Melville  Boixjno. 
Hinduism  to  various  gods,  but  those  ascribS  to  ATaugour,  Pierre  du  Bois,  Baron  d\  d.  1664, 
Vishnu  are  by  far  the  most  important.  They  are  was  sixth  Governor  General  of  Canada.  Horn  oj 
believed  to  have  taken  place  at  aififerent  ages  of  the  an  ancient  family  in  Brittany,  he  served  in  the  French 
world,  and  to  have  consisted  of  different  proportions  army  forty  years;  travelled  in  Persia,  Russiit,  Po- 
of the  essence  of  Vishnu.  Their  number  is  variously  land,  and  Sweden,  and  took  part  in  all  the  c&m- 
stated,  ranging  from  ten  to  twenty-eight,  finally  paigns  in  Germany.  This  familiarity  with  c&mt 
becominjg  ind^nitely  numerous.  Any  remarkable  life  made  his  naturally  eccentric  character  .rou^ 
man  is  liable  to  be  regarded  as  a  more  or  less  perfect  and  unsociable  as  well.  In  1661,  he  was  choeec 
avat&r  of  Vishnu,  and  the  oonseouence — one  of  the  to  succeed  d'Ai^nson  as  Governor  of  New  France 
worst  features  of  Hinduism — has  been  the  offering  of  and  arrived  in  Quebec  on  31  August  of  th^tt  year 
divine  homage  to  men,  especially  the  founders  of  Utteriy  averse  to  pomp  and  ceremony,  he  re^iBed 
relupous  secto  and  their  successors.  the  honours  which  the  people  of  Canada  wisHed  U 
The  ten  most  famous  avat&rs  are:  (1)  The  Fish,  show  him,  and  set  out  at  once  for  Montreal,  in  ordei 
matsya.  The  basis  of  this  is  the  story  told  in  the  to  familiarize  himself  with  the  stat^  of  the  country 
Satapatha  Brfthmana  of  how  Manu  was  saved  from  The  result  was  embodied  in  a  report  which  He  aen 
the  Dduge  by  a  great  fish,  which  foretold  him  of  to  Colbert  and  the  great  Cond6,  wherein  he  adviaei 


▲VS  149  AYEUmo 

the  fortification  of  Quebec  and  the  approaches  to  it  Itii^one  of  the  four  Antiphons  of  the  Blessed  Viiw 

by  outworits  at  lie  d'Orl^ns  and  at  Levis.     He  also  gin  sung  in  the  Divine  Office  in  turn  throughout 

recooimended  that  the  colony  should  be  freed  of  its  the  year,  and  is  assigned  thus  from  Compline  of 

useless  officials,  to  be  replaced  by  soldiers  who  could  2  Feranary  (even  when  the  Feaet  of  the  Punfication 

hold  the  Inxjuois  in  check,  and  prevent  the  Dutch  is  transferred)   to  Holy  Thursday  exclusively.    It 

from  supplying   them   with   arms.     He   formed   a  comprises  two  stanzas  of  four  lines  each,  followed  by 

council,  at  the  head  of  which  he  placed  the  Superior  its  own  versicle  and  response  and  prayer.     Its  date 

of  the  Jesuits.    The  sale  of  drink  to  the  Indians  was  of  composition  is  imcertain,  but  uie  conjecture  of 

forbidden  under  pain  of  death,  a  penalty  which  the  Stella  (Inst.  Lituig.,  Rome,  1895)  that  it  antedates 

governor  inflicted  on  several  who  nad  disobeyed  his  ^  the  fourth  century  seems  to  be  without  any  warrant 

ordeis.   He  became  embroiled  in  a  quarrel  with  the  of  external  or  internal  evidence.     It  is  foimd  in  the 

bishop  and  the  Jesuits,  because  they  had  bagged  St.  Alban's  Book  of  the  twelfth  centunr;  in  a  Munich 

the  release  of  a  poor  widow  whom  he  had  caused  to  MS.  thought  by  Daniel  to  be  of  the  tnirteenth;  in  a 

l«  imprisoned  for  selling  brandy.    He  dissolved  his  Sarum  Breviary  of  the  fourteenth;  and  in  York  and 

mim,  in  order  to  surround  himself  with  more  Roman  Breviaries  of  the  fifteenth.    Th.   Bernard 

iibservient  advisers,  and  removed  the  prohibition  pLe  Br^viaire  (Paris,  1887),  II,  454  saq.]  says  it  was 

i/npoeed  on  the  sale  of  liauor.    Serious  disorders  mtroduced  into  the  Divine  Office  oy  Clement  VI 

(isued;  the  priests  preached  against  misuse  of  au-  in  the  fourteenth  century.     He  gives  a  commentary, 

tlionty,  and  an  earthquake  which  shook  the  whi^e  and  thinks  he  can  perceive  in  it  ^ments  of  the 

laiWof  the  St.  Lawrence  was  looked  upon  by  the  "noble  accents  .  .  .  aspirations  of  many  Doctors, 

rieofje  as  a  Divine   chastisement.     Bishop   Laval  such  as  St.  Athanasius,  St.  Ephrem,  St.  Udephonsus  ". 

iotmd  it  necessary  to  return  to  France  to  ask  for  the  Said  duriiM^  Septuagesima,  Lent,  Passiontide,  the 

foremor's  recall.     D'Avaugour  was  relieved  of  his  time,  namew,  of  preparation  for  Easter,  it  recalls  the 

command,  and  a  royal  commissioner  was  charged  to  part  Mary  had  m  the  drama  of  the  reopening  of 

nudce  kqufries  as  to  his  conduct.     The  governor  Heaven  to  men,  and  shows  her  as  reigmng  there, 

kit  Quebec,  23  July,  1663.     On  his  arrival  in  France  Queen  of  Angels.     Its  opening  line  was  sometimes 

he  submitted  two  statements  to  the  kin^  in  regard  ouoted  as  the  finst  line  of  hynms  and  sequences  in 

to  the  measures  to  be  taken  for  the  colonization  and  tne  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  (cf .  Dreves  and 

defenee  of  Granada;  he  advised  the  concentration  of  Blume,  Analecta  Hymnica,   I,  94:  X,   103;   XXX, 

tbe  troops  at  Quebec  and  the  building  of  a  fort  at  238;  XXXII,  43;  XL VI,  136)  which,  however,  had 

tbe  head  of  the  Richelieu  liver,  also  that  the  Dutch  no  other  relation  with  the  Antiphon,  being  some- 

^Wd  be  driven  out  of  Fort  Orange  (Albany),  and  times  meditations  on  the  Ave  Maria^  sometimes  dis* 

tbt  the  French  should  take  possession  of  the  Hud-  tinct  poetical  compositions,  for  example: 

wn  River,  in  order  to  gain  an  exit  to  the  sea.    At  a  a       •«-»;«o  «.^«i«^*.,m 

to  date  one  of  his  suggestions  was  acted  on,  when  vil^L!^^^* 

^mn  soldiers  were  sent  to  Canada  wiUi  pennis-  t^i^  A!^^   a!!!  «««,« 

m  to  setUe  as   colonists.     D'Avaugour  a^  to  ^rii^^  ;^^anT^U 

t«  allowed  to  resume  active  servicerand  was  sent  n^  J^IJII^^^ 

to  .Aj^tna^here  Louis  ^^  was  aiding  the  ri^i^  ^^  Xti  ^T 

«  the  Croats.    He   died   a   soldier's   death   while  v*-«vi  wdm, 

bra^-ely  defending  the  fortress  of  Zrin  against  the  and  so  on,  throughout  the  whole  of  the  Angelical 

Turks.  S^utation  down  to  ventris  tui^  where  the  poem  ends 

P<^deC<mdS,mesF.XXy(eLttheCaBiiec4Chiuiimy)i  (MS.  of  fourteenth  century)  Qoc  cit.,  XLVI,  136). 

Ane  Icrk  Colonial  DocumenU,  IX,  13-17,  and  20.  21;  Fail-  Or    »w  a  Hiafinot  hvmn- 

^,  HiML  eoL  fran^.  au  Canada,  ill,  33-38  aqq.;  66  sqq.  ^'»  ^  *  distinct  nymn. 

J.  Edmond  Roy.  Ave,  regina  coelorum, 

4_^  mg^.       a      XT       xr  Ave,  decus  angelorum, 

AveMana.    See  Hail  Mary.  Ave)  ^audium  iinctoruin, 

A?e  Maris  SteUa  (Hail,  thou  Star  of  Ocean),  Ave,  solis  regia, 

tlie  first  verse  of  an  unrhymed,  accentual  hynm,  of  .        _ __      ,  ^,     ^,,       .,         .  '      n         -4,    ^r    no\ 

«ven  strophes  of  four  lines  each,  assigned  in  the  ^'^^^^S;  ®^  the  fifteenth  century  aoc.  cit,  XL,  98). 

Roman  Breviary  to  Vespers  in  the  Common  Office,  ,,  The  Ave  I^na  has  been  translated  by  CaswaU, 

tbeOflSce  for  SaturdaysVand  the  Little  Office  (as  "^X~,^t^^*'^     (London,  1849    1873    1884:  New 

tdl  as  for  Feasts)  of  the  Blessed  Vii^n.     It  has  been  York,  1851),  whose  version  w  used  in  ^e'*  Manual 

ambed  wrongly  to  St.  Bernard,  but  antedates  him,  of  Prayers  '    (BalUmore),  77;  "Hail.  O  (^een  of 

^  found ^  a  St.  GaU  manuscript  of  the  ninth  S^Y^^'ao^w^   '  al»a  by  Beste,  ** Church  H^ns 

wmirjr;  and,  also,  without  sufficient  authority,  to  (1849) :  "Had  thou  mighty  Queen  of  Heaven '':    The 

^Venantius  Fortunatus   (d.  609).     Its  very  fre-  y^^on    m    t^e    Marqu^    of    Butes    'Breviary' 

Wt  occurrence  in  the  Divine  Office  made  it  most  (Edinbur^,  1879,  I,  177)  begins:  ''Had,  O  Mary. 

I^P'ilar  in  the  Middle  Ages,  many  other  hymns  being  0"^  ^^^^^i^®^   •  ,  ^^^^  JJ?\®  ?^''^^®  '!"  ^^^ 

imded  upon  it  *»    »         -^  -^  -»  Liedem  (Freiburg,    1863),  I.   251]  gives  a  transla- 

MoxE.  iMeinxMche  Humnen,  etc.,  II,  216-229.  for  fiv«  tion  into  German  in  the  same  metre.    The  plain- 

J^phnaoi  with  notes;  Daniel,  The9auru9  HynmoL,  I,  204r-  song  melody  in  the  6th   tone  has  also  a  simpler 

SteL^ir^  "i^XfsG^ni  V41'  IV  i^^m^'  setSng  ["Manuale  Missae  et  Officiorum"    (Rome  and 

^X^ry^y:ilil^±^}h2^^^^  Toumai.  1903),  100,  103]. 

g  rotll.  33-34.     An   excellent  study  of  ite  rhythmic  H.  T.  HknRY. 

jJBjws  iD  connection  with  the_plain-Bong  melody  of  the  first  ^  ••        ,  «        ^  ^ 

«^viB  contributed  by  Dom  Fothier  to  the  Revtte  du  chant         ATellana   OoUeCtiO.      See  Ganons,  Ck>LLEGnONB 

i'^it*  (Greooble.  1895).  83  sqq.  (reprinted  with  additional  ^-,  a  wrnpiOT* 

i2?«m.byGiui.ioBABinhi8ftfcydi»«GWKK«-tm^  OFANCraWT.  .       ,.  ..  ^. 

3fX  15-19.    There  are  seven  translations  mto  English,  thai  ▲vellmo,     D1OCE8E    OF. — An    Itauan    dlOCese    m 

iifc*5lh^£?'^*?P**^/'*  u^^^**''^?^^'^^  the  Province  of  Naples,  suffragan  to  Benevento. 

l^S^^d'SLTiL^y  ^l^te^ofcLthSuTh^  AveUino  was  founded^by  St.  Sabfnus,  martyr,  in  the 

iSH^aei  modified.    It  is  found  in  the  Marquess  of  Bute's  beginning  of  the  second  century.    The  list  of  bish- 

lSilJK,"§*^  ^^?2J™  pL^?« '«n  JM««*^o^A*if2r  ops  dates  from  1124    The  Diocese  of  Frigento,  whose 

•^•rebyBE«xi:.Hi;wrrr,  Chambers,  agi  Mr|^Cham.E8.  ^y^  .^  ^^^  ^^  ^   ^^^^  ^^  ^^  ^^^  ^^^  ^^ 

I  XI.  X .  .  ^vellino  from  9  May,  1466,  until  27  June,  1818,  when 

j  Ave  tegina,  an  antiphon  so  called  from  its  first  it  was  suppressed.    Avellino  was  vacant  from  1782 

w  4w  retina  ea^jorum  (Hail,  Queen  of  Heaven),  to  1792.    It  has  118,649  Catholics;  41  parishes,  243 


▲VBMPAOl!  150  AVEBROES 

secular  priests,    11    regulars,    80  seimnariaos,    90       Ayendaiio,  Fernando,  priest,  b.  at  Lima,  Peru, 
churches  and  chapels.  <  either  towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth,  or  in  the  beinih 


diligent  investigators 

▲▼empace  (Ibn  Badsha,  or  Ibn  Badja,  called  by  '  '^^^  survivals  of  the  primitive  rites  and  customs  of 
the  ScholasUcs  Aven-Pacb  and  Avempace),  Arabian  the  Peruvian  Indians  and  left  valuable  notes  on  the 
philosopher,  physician,  astronomer,  mathematician,  subject,  fra^ents  of  them  bemg  pre8er\'ed  in  the 
and  poet,  b.  at  Saragossa  towards  the  end  of  the    work  of  Arnaga.     Of  great  unportance  to  Imguisti 


IC8 


according  to  Arabian  accounts,  poisoned  by  rivai  ^9^  weje  delivered  in  Quichua,  and  are  published 

physicians.     He    wrote    treatises    on    mathtoiatics,  with  their  translation  into  Spanish. 

TTiMlimno  AnH  nhilosnnhv   and  nnmmftnt#»d  on  spvprAJ  «  Mewdiburo,  Lhcewnarxo  htatdnco-bufgrdfico;  Jimenez  de  la 

meoicine,  ana  pnuosopny .  ana  corameniea  on  several  espada,  Tns  Relacionea  de  Amiauedades  pemanas;  Aubiaoa, 
of  Anstotle's  works,  notably  on  the  "Physics".  "Me-  Sxtirpaddn  de  la  IdokUrla  en  H'Peru  (1^1). 
teorologica",  "De  Generatione  et  Corruptione  ',  por-  Ad.  F.  Bandelxer. 
tions  of  "Historiffl  Animalium"  and     De  Partibus        A-^«*i««-      a     rn                t 
AnimaUum".    His  works  on   philosophy  mduded        Aventinus.    See  Turmair,  John. 
logical  treatises,  a  work  "On  the  Soul^',  "The  Her-        Averroes  (Abul  Waud  Mahommed  Ibn  Achmed, 
mit's  Guide"  (Munk  translates  the  title  "Regime  du  Ibn  Mahommed  Ibn  Roschd),  Arabian  philosopher,  a»* 
Solitaire '0,  "On  the  Union  of   the  Intellect  with  tronomer,  and  writer  on  jurisprudence:  b.  at  Cordova, 
Man",  and  a  "  Valedictory  Letter"  (cited  in  Latin  as  1126;  d.  at  Morocco,  1198.     Ibn  Roschd,  or  Averroes, 
'*EpistoladeDiscessu"and  "  Epistola  Expeditionis").  as  he  was  called  by  the  Latins,  was  educated  in  his 
Avempace's  logical  treatises  are  said  to  exist  in  MSS.  native  city,  where  his  father  and  grandfather  had 
in  the  Escorial  Library.     His  other  writings  are  either  held  the  office  of  cadi  (jud^e  in  civil  affairs^  and  bad 
lost  or  still  undiscovered.     Fortunately ,  however, .  a  played  an  inaportant  part  m  the  political  history  of 
Jewish  writer  of  the  fourteenth  century,  Moses  of  Andalusia.     He  devoted   himself   to   jurisprudence. 
Narbonno,  has  left  us  an  account  of  "The  Hermit's  medicine,  and  mathematics,  as  well  as  to  philosophy 
.Guide",  which  supplemenU  Averroes'  unsatisfactory  and  theology.     Under  the  Caliplis  Abu  Jacub  Jusuf 
allusions  to  that  work,  and  enablas  us  to  describe  and  his  son,  Jacub  Al  Mansur,  he  enjoyed  extraor- 
the  doctrines  it  contains.    The  aim  of  the  treatise  is  dinary  favour  at  court  and  was  entrusted  with  sev- 
to  show  how  man  (the  hermit)  may,  by  the  devel-  eral  important  civil  offices  at  Morocco,  Seville,  and 
opment  of  his  own  powers  of  mind,  attain  a  union  Cordova.     Later  he  fell  into  disfavour  and  was  ban- 
with  the  Active  InteUect.     (See  Arabian  School  op  ished  with  other  representatives  of  learning.     Shortly 
Philosophy.)    Avempace  distinguishes  two  kinds  of  before  his  death,  the  edict  against  philosophers  was 
action:  animal  action,  which  is  a  product  of  the  animal  recalled.     Many  of  his  works  in  logic  and  metaphya- 
soul,  and  human  action,  whch  is  a  product  of  the  hu-  ics  had,  however,  been  consigned  to  the  flames,  so 
man  soul,  that  is  of  freewill  and  reflection.    The  man  that  he  left  no  school,  and  the  end  of  the  dominion 
who  smashes  a  stone  because  it  has  hurt  him  performs  of  the  Moors  in  Spain,  which  occurred  shortly  after- 
an  animal  action;  but  he  who  smashes  the  stone  so  wards,  turned  the  current  of  Averroism  completely 
that  it  will  not  injure  others  performs  a  human  ac-  into  Hebrew  and  Latin  channels,  through  which  it 
tion.    Now,  the  first   step  in  the  moral  education  of  influenced  the  thought  of  Christian  Europe  down  to 
the  hermit  is  to  teach  himself  to  be  ruled  by  will  and  the  dawn  of  the  modem  era.      Averroes'  great  med- 
reason,  so  that  his  actions  may  all  be  human.    That,  ical  work,  "CuUiyyat"    (of  which   the   Latin   title 
however,  is  only  the  first  step.    Having  attained  it,  "Colliget"  is  a  corruption)   was  published   as  the 
the  hermit  must  strive  to  higher  perfection,  so  that  tenth  volume   in   the  Latin   edition   of  Aristotle's 
his  actions  may  become  divine.    He  must  strive  to  works,  Venice,  1527.     His  "Commentaries"  on  Aris- 
come   in  contact  with  the  spiritual   forms,   which  totle,  his  original  philosophical  works,  and  his  treat- 
ascend  in  increasing  degrees  of  incorporeity  from  ises  on  theology  have  come  down  to  us  either  in 
the  ideas  of  the  individual  soul  up  to  the  Actual  Latin  or  Hebrew  translations.     His  *' Commentaries", 
Intellect  itself,  above  which  are  only  the  forms  of  which  earned  for  him  the  title  of  the  Commentator^ 
celestial  bodies,  that  is  to  say,  spiritual  substances  were  of  three  kinds:  a  short  paraohrase  or  analysis, 
which,  while  they  have  an  important  cobmic  func-  a  brief  exposition  of  the  text,  and  a  more  extended 
tion,  have  no  relation  to  moral  exceUence  in  man.  exposition.    These  are  known  as  the  Minor,  the  Mid- 
Through   ideas,   therefore,   to   the   ideas   of  ideas,  die,  and  the  Major  Commentary,  respectively.     None 
through  these  to  abstract  ideas  of  things,  and  through  o^  them  is  of  any  value  for  the  textual  criticism  o^ 
theselast,  to  the  pure  form  of  the  Active  Intellect—  Aristotle,  since  Averroes,  being  unacquainted  ^vitll 
this,  according  to  Avempace,  is  the  way  of  perfeo-  Greek  and  Syriac,  based  his  exposition  on  a  vci 
tion.    The  mind  which  has  come  into  contact  with  imperfect  Arabic  translation  of  the  Syriac   versii 
the  Active  Intellect  becomes  itself  an  mteUect,  the  of  the  Greek  text.     They  were,  however,   of  grc. 
Acquired   Intellect    (InUUedus  Adeptus),     It  is  in  influence  in  determining  the  philosophical  and  sciei 
reference  to  this  last  point  that  the  Schoolmen,  not-  tific  interpretation  of  Aristotle.     His  onjrinal  phild 
ably  Albert  the  Great  and  St.  Thomas  Aqumas,  sophical  treatises  include:    a  work  entitled  "Tehafa 
mention   Avempace   and   his   teaching.     Their  ac-  al  Tchafot''.  or  "Destructio  Destructionis "   (a  refW 
quaintance  with  the  author  of  "The  Hermit's  Guide"  tat»on   of   Algazel's    "  Destructio    PhUosophorum" 
was  made,  probably,  through  his  disciple  and  ad-  published  m  the  Latin  edition,   Venice,    1497  ar 
mirer  Averroes,  though  certain  passages  m  the  "Ck)n-  1527;  two  treatises  on  the  union  of  the  Active  ai 
tra  Gentiles"  would  justify  the  surmise  that  St.  Passive  Intellects,  also  published   in  Latm    in     ' 


410-418;  Munk,  in  i>tctumnatrc  de«  acicni^*  pfcOoaopfci*^    physical  treatises  based  on  Aristotle *s  "  Physics  "  6 
(Pari8,  1844-52).  ^v./6n.Barf?o; St,  Thoma8,C^^  in  the  Venice  edition^:  a   treatLse   in    refiifoffr.T. 


II,  41;Ca8IRI.   Bibliotheca  Arabo-h 


StiftSrtMac^  ^^  ^®  ^«°><^  edition);  a  treatise  in  refutation 

179:  U'eberweo-Heinzk,  Oetch.  der  Phil.,  II,  9th  ed'.  249  sqq.*  Aviceima,  and  another  on  the  agreement  betw< 

tr.  I,  414;  SrdcKL,  OetcA.rfer  PAt/.  d.  A/.i4.  (Maina,  1865),  n,  philosophy   and    theology.       Of   the    last     two,    o 

^  ^^'  William  Turner.  Hebrew  and  Arabic  texts  exist. 


AVKEML  151  AVSSTA 

kymocB  professed  the  greatest  esteem  for  Aris-  the  individual  minds  which  come  in  contact  with 

toUe.    The  word  of  the  otagirite  was  for  him  the  it. 

highest  expression  of  truth  in  matters  of  science  and       The  weakness  of  this  doctrine,  as  a  psychological  ex- 

pMoeophy.    In  this  exaggerated  veneration  for  the  planation  of  the  origin  of  knowledjge,  is  its  failure  to 

jMosopher  he  went  farther  than  anv  of  the  Scho<d-  take  account  of  the  facts  of  consciousness,  which>  as 

men.    Indeed,  in  the  later  stages  of  Scholastic  phi-  the  Scholastics  were  not  ^ow  to  point  out,  indicate 

loBophy  it  was  the  Averroists  and  not  the  followers  that  not  merely  an  individual  disposition  but  an  ao- 

of  Aquinas  and  Scotus  who,  when  accused  of  sub-  tive  individual  principle  enters  into  the  action  which 

servience  to  the  authority  of  a  master,  gloried  in  oneexpressesby  the  words  "I  think".   Another  weak- 

the  title  of  "Aristotle's  monkey".    Averroes  advo-  ness  of  the  doctrine  of  monopsychism,  or  the  doc- 

cated  the  principle  of  twofold  truth,   maintaining  trine  tliat  there  is  but   one   mind,  a  weakness  at 

that  religion  has  one    sphere  and    philosophy  an-  least  in  the  eves  of  the  Scholastics,  is  that  it  leaves 

other.     Religion,    he    said,    is    for   tho  unlettered  unanswered  tne  cmeetion  of  the  immortality  of  the 

multitude;  philosophy  for  the  chosen  few.     Religion  individual  soul.    Indeed,  Averroes  openly  admitted 

teaches  hj  signs  and  symbols*  philosophy  presents  his  inability  to  hold  on  philosophic  grounds  the  doc- 

the  truth  itself.     In  the  mind,  tnerefore,  of  tne  truly  trine  of  individual  immortality,  being  content  to 

enlightened,  philosophy   supersedea    rdigion.     But,  maintain  it  as  a  religious  tenet.     Averroes'  greatest 

though  the  philosopher  sees  that  what  is  true  in  the-  influence  was  as  a  commentator.     His  doctrines  had 

ology  is  false  in  philosophy,  he  should  not  on  that  a  varying  fortune  in  the  Christian  schools;  at  first 

account    condemn    religious    instruction,    because  they  secured  a  certain  amount  of  adherence,  then, 

he  would  thereby  deprive   the    multitude    of    the  gradually,  their  incompatibility  with  Christian  teach- 

ool^  means   which    it   has   of   attaining   a    (sym-  ing  became  apparent,  and  finally,  owing  to  the  revolt 

bohcal)  knowledge  of   the  truth.    Averroes'     phi-  of  the  Renaissance  from  everything  Scholastic,  they 

lo8ophy,  like  that  of  all  the  other  Arabians,  is  Aris-  secured  once  more  a  temporary  hearing.     His  com- 

toteteanism  tinged  with  neo-Platonism.     In  it  we  mentaries,  however,  had  immediate  and  lasting  suo- 

fiDd  the  doctrine  of  the  eternity  of  matter  as  a  posi-  cess.    St.  Thomas  Aquinas  used  the  **  Grand  Com- 

tive  principle  of  being;  the  concept  of  a  multitude  mentary"of  Averroes  as  his  model,  being,  apparently, 

of  spirits  ranged  hierarchically  between  God  and  the  first  Scholastic  to  adopt  that  style  of  exposition: 

matter  and  mediating  between  them;  the  denial  of  and  though  he  refuted  the  errors  of  Averroes,  and 

Providence  in   the  commonly  accepted  sense;  the  devoted  special  trpitises  to  that  purpose,  he  always 

doctrine  that  each  of  the  heavenly  spheres  is  ani-  spoke  of  the  Arabian  commentator  as  one  who  heui, 

mated;  the  notion  of  emanation  or  extraction,  as  indeed,  pervert^  the  Peripatetic  tradition,  but  whose 

ft  substitute  for  creation;  and,  finally,  the  glorinca-  words,  nevertheless,  should  be  treated  with  respect 

tkm  of  (rational)  m3rstical  knowledge  as  the  ultimate  and  consideration.    The  same  may  be  said  of  Dante's 

aspiration  of  the  human  soul — ^in  a  word,  all  the  references  to  him.     It  was  after  the  time  of  St. 

distinctively  neo-Platonic  elements  which  the  Ana-  Thomas  and  Dante  that  Averroes  came  to  be  rep- 

bians  add^  to  pure  Aristoteleanism.  resented  as  'Hhe  arch-enemy  of  the  faith". 

What  is  peculiar  in  Averroes'  interpretation  of  Aris-  .   Averroes'    works  in  the  Venice  edition,  1497,  1527,  and. 

totle  n  t>iA  mAftninir  Vift  irivAS  frt  tViA  Ariafriti^lflan  Hn/»-  ^  P*^'  ^^  Munk's  M flanges  Ac.   (Pans,   1869);    MuNK,  in 

«Hie  IS  tne  m^mng  ne  glV^  tOtne  AnstOteieanaoc-  j^^    ^^  Bciencea  phUoaophiquea  (Paria,   1844-62),  art.    Ibn 

tnne  of  the  Active  and  Passive  Intellect.     His  prede-  Rotchd:   Renan.    Averroia  H   I'Averrouim    r Paris,  9th  ed., 

WSBOr,   Avicenna,     taught     that,    while    the    Active  l^SJy:  Mandonnbt,  Siger  de    BraharU  et   VAverroiwu   latwi 

Intep^t  «  universal  and  sepamte  the  Pa«iye  Intel-  ZMI/..  tm^^"^^^'^Sll^^^S^r^r^n. 

ted  IS  individual  and  mherent  in  the  soul.    Averroes  Hiat.  of  PhU.  (Boston,  1903),  313  sqq.;  drdcKL.  Oeach,  der 

holds  that  both  the  Active  and  the  Passive  Intellect  Pf^-  dea  MittekUtera  (Mainz.  1866).  II.  ^^ 

are  separate  from  the  individual  soul  and  are  universal,  Wiluam  Turner. 


pbrastus)  were  wrong  in  describing  it  as  an  individual  "V  V*"  Vr^   '^•.   ^iVf      i^      ♦I.    «^"™J^  ™^"'' 

KnS  endowed  with  a  disposftion;  he  maintains  ^!l?°W^AtX\'^Uv  nf  t^^^^^^                             tl 

fJwf  ;♦  ;-    ^4^u^^   o  Ai«,^<.w„^X  ;«  ,,«   k„*  k^i^^^;^^.  nuns  of  Atella,  a  city  of  the  Uscians,  famous  for 

to  ai  fnflSil^f  'nnfl^r^»      Th*   V^^.^^3^  their  piquant  i^iUeiy,  which  furnished  the  basis  for 

10  an  mtellect    outside   us.      Ine    terms    rasstve,  .i  ^    «««„♦:«„«     i^4^iJu-,a^     «„ii<wI     At^n^^^      tu^ 

PoMiWe,   Material  are  successively  used   by  Avep^  *•*?    ficentious    inter  udw     called  ^«o«a.     The 

lA%&Te'  s'fjksf  iHhe  iTve  tto  neighbourhood  of  Arpino.     On  th«e  ruins  the  Nor- 

kfijf     t1  Z!^^  J^^Jr^fuL    -«^«  ;«*liilr.*  «S»;«K  roan  Duke,  Robert  Guiscard,   built  a  fortification 

Itself.    In  other  words,  tne    same  mtellect  wnicn,  „,t«  i,  •     4.:^^  Vww»o,««.  »   »uJr  ^»ii«^    a.^^^o      to.^ 

S&s\*tn^*  l??ff  U'S^'Se'Sbtf  s-?i^eXl^r  bTmii^t^all.r'Se  ^^ 

SeriallSlr'tTis^aSd'u^T'p^tuS:  -^^  «"PP?'«°§   ^'^  in.  his°*struffile  with  the^£! 

Md  furnishes  that  out  of  which  id^  ^re  fabricated  K?r'fe,te  „f  ^Slf /Z-f^Slii;^  Av^,^  ^« 

Bawfcs,  Averroes  speaks  of  the  Acquired  InteUect  *?f  Bishopno  of  Atella  transferred  to  Aversa.    TTie 

f™«JjS.  .  „_Tv2.•#.,t^^^^.\  V™.  ™4r:^^^^  city  has  many  fine  monuments  in  the  Norman  style. 

^^^A,^r^TL^^^}^JZtl^titl\^^'^  It  contains  54  parishes;  177  churches,  chapels,  and 

ueinoiviaual  mmd  in  communication  with  the  Ac-  ^««*^«:««.  o'ta  io.^,.i».  Li^,.^^    o«^  «   tx^«„i«*:^«  *v* 

tire  InteUect.     Thus,  while  the  Active  Intellect  is  JSJ^J^'  ^^^  ^^"^""^  ''^''^'  "^^  ""  population  of 

wimOTcally  one,  there  are  as  many  acquired  intel-  ventd^i,  Staria  deUa  aru  Itdiana  (Milan.  1903),  602-622; 

tecta  as  there    are   mdmdual  souls  with  which  the  Uohelli.  Italia  Sacra  (Venice,  1722),  I,  485;  Cappbllbtti. 

Active  Intdlect  has  come  in  contact.     (The  Scholas-  ^.  <^^^  ^'^^^  .(Venice.  1866),  XXI,  ^3;  Gams^  Seriea 

ti«sp«i  of   covlinuatio  of  the  univer^l  with  the  ^^^^  f.^l^^'X^^S^'^^SkH^^^o)^' ^^'"- 

™vidual  mmd,  translating  literally  the  Arabic  word  Ernbsto  Buonaiuti. 
*bich  here  means  contijguitjr  rather  than  union.) 

'^  Sim.  for  instance,  while  it  is  and  remains  one  Avesta,  The,  the  sacred  books  of  the  Parsees, 

*>Qree  of  light,  may  be  said  to  be  multiplied  and  to  or  Zoroastrians,  and  the  main  source  of  our  knowl- 

tieeome  many  sources  of  light,  in  so  far  as  it  il-  edge  concerning  the  religious  and  spiritual  life  of 

lonunates  many    bodies  from   which    its    light    is  the  ancient  Persians.    This  collection  of  writings 

feributed;  so   it  is  with  the  universal  mind  and  occupies  the  same  place  in  the  literature  of  Ir&n 


▲VKSTA  152  AVUTA 

^ancient  Persia)  that  the  Vedas  do  in  India.    The  place    in    Sassanian    times,  under    Shahpnhar  II 

designation  Zend-Avesta,  which  is  often  employed  (309-379).     Our  present  Avesta  is  essentially  the 

to  denote  the  sacred  code,  is  not  strictly  correct,  work  of  this  redaction,  although  important  sections 

It  owes  its  origin  to  a  mistaken  inversion  of  the  of  the  text  have  been  lost  since  then,  espeeially 

Pahlavi  designation  Avistdk  u  Zand^  a  term  which  after  the  Arabs  conquered  Persia.    Tms  conquest 

probabhr  means  ''Text  and  Commentary";  for  the  (637-651)   was  fatal   to  the  Iranian  relicion,  and 

word  Zand  (in  the  Avesta  itself,  Zainti)  signifies  caused   Zoroastrianism/  to   be  supplanted  by  Mo- 

''explanation",  and  even  in  the  Avesta  is  applied  hammedanism  and  the  Avesta  by  the  Koran.   As 

to  the  exegetical  matter  in  the  text.     It  is  similarly  alreadjr  mentioned,  great  |x>rtions  of  the  scriptures 

used  by  the  Parsee  priests  to  denote  the  Pahlavi  ver-  have  since  disappeared  entirely;  out  of  the  original 

sion  and  commentaiy,  but  not  the  original  scriptures,  twenty-one  nasks,  the  ninete^ith  alone  (the  Ven- 

Whether  the  term  AvistSikf  which  is  the  Pahlavi  form  did&d;  has  survived.     Portions  of  other  nasks  are 

of  the  word  Avesta^  has    the  meaning  of  "text",  preserved,  interspersed  here  and  there  among  the 

"  law  ",  is  not  absolutely  certain.     Some  scholars  in-  lasna  and  Vispertdy  or  have  come  down  t6  us  as 

terpret  it  as  "wisdom",  "knowledge".  scattered    fraspnents    in    Pahlavi    works,    or   have 

Little  was  known  concerning  the  religion  and  been  rendered  into  Pahlavi,  like  the  BUndahkhi 
customs  of  ancient  Persia  before  the  Avesta  was  (Book  of  Creation)  and  the  Sh&yctst-la-Sh&yad 
brought  to  Europe  in  the  eighteenth  century.  From  CI'i'^a^i^  on  the  Lawful  and  Unlawful).  In  this 
the  allusions  in  Greek  and  Roman  writers,  like  way  we  are  able  to  make  good  some  of  our  losses 
Herodotus,  Plutarch,  Pliny,  and  others,  it  had  lonx  of  the  old  scriptures;  enough  has  been  said,  how- 
been  surmised  that  such  a  body  of  scriptures  existecC  ever,  to  explain  the  lack  ol  coherence  noticeable  in 
Scattered  allusions  in  Arabic  and  oyriac  writers  certain  parts  of  the  Avestan  code, 
strengthened  this  conviction.  But  the  information  The  Avesta,  as  we  now  have  it,  is  usually  di- 
to  be  extracted  from  these  references  was  vague  vided  into  five  sections,  relating  to  the  ritual,  hymns 
and  meaigre.  The  first  schc^ar  to  make  the  language  of  praise,  the  liturgy,  and  the  law.  These  sections 
and  the  contents  of  the  sacred  books  of  the  Parsees  are:  (1)  the  Yasna^  including  the  GOthHSf  or  hymns; 
known  to  Europe  was  a  young  Frenchman,  Anquetil  (2)  VUpered;  (3)  Yashts;  (4)  minor  texts,  such  as 
du  Perron,  who  in  1754  went  to  India  for  this  very  the  NyAishe$  (favourite  prayers  in  dailv  use  among 
purpose.  His  enthusiasm  and  perseverance  over-  the  Parsees)*  and  (5)  VendidQd.  Besides  this  there 
came  the  many  obstacles  he  encountered  on  his  are  some  mdependent  fragments  preserved  in 
journey  to  Hindustan  and  the  difficulties  he  met  Pahlavi  books  (HodhOkt  Nask,  etc).  The  main 
during  his  stav  in  Surat.  Success  at  last  crowned  divisions,  when  taken  together,  again  fall  into  two 
his  efforts,  and  on  his  return  in  1771  he  was  able  to  noups,  the  one  lituiigical,  comprising  Vendid&d, 
flive  to  the  world  the  first  translation  of  the  Avesta.  Ylspered  and  Yasna.  or  the  Avesta  proper,  the 
From  the  moment  of  its  publication  a  bitter  con-  other  general,  called  Khorda  Avesta  (Abridged 
troversy  arose  concerning  the  authenticity  of  the  Avesta)  and  comprising  the  minor  texts  and  the 
work.  Some  scholars,  like  Sir  William  Jones,  de-  Yashts.  A  brief  characterization  of  the  five  di-' 
clared  that  it  was  a  clumsy  foi^gery  of  modem  Parsee  visions  will  now  be  given, 
priests,  and  the  question  was  disputed  for  half  a  (1)  The  Yasna  (Skt.  yajna),  "sacrifice",  "wor- 
centur^  until*  the  advance  made  in  the  study  of  ship",  the  chief  liturgical  portions  of  the  sacred 
Sanskrit  and  comparative  philology  decided  the  canozL  It  consists  principally  of  prayers  and 
matter  and  vindicated  the  genuineness  of  the  scrip-  h3rmns  used  in  the  ritual,  ana  is  divided  mto  seventy- 
tur|s  and  the  value  of  Anquetil 's  work,  although  two  h&  or  hAilt  (chapters),  symbolized  bjr  the  sev- 
his  translation,  as  a  first  attempt,  was  necessamy  enty-two  strands  of  tne  kushtif  or  sacred  girdle  with 
imperfect  in  many  respects.  which   the  young   Zoroastrian   is   invested   on    his 

Content  and  Divisions. — Originally,  the  sacred  being  received  into  the  Church.    The  middle  third 

scriptures  of  the  Parsees  were  of  far  greater  extent  of  the  Yasna  (Ys.,  28-53),  however,  is  not  directly 

than  would  appear  from  tlie  Avesta  in  the  form  in  connected  with  the  ritual,  but  contains  the  G&this. 

which  we  now  possess  it.     Only  a  relatively  small  the  holy  psalms,  songs  which  preserved  the  metrical 

portion  of  the  original  has  in  fact  been  preserved,  sa3rin^  of  Zoroaster  nimself  as  used  in  his  sermons, 

and    that    is    collected    from    several    manuscripts.  This  is  the  oldest   portion  of   the  Avesta  and  de- 

since  no  single  codex  contains  all  the  texts  now  scends  directly  from  the  prophet  and  his  disciplea. 

known.     In  its  present  form,  therefore,  the  Avesta  Th^ie  canticles  are  metrical  m  their  structure  and 

is  a  compilation  from  various   sources,  and  its  dif-  are  composed  in  the  so-called  G&th&-dialect,  a  more 

ferent  parts  date  from  different  periods  and  vary  archaic  form  of  language  than  is  used  in  the  rest 

widely  in  character.    Tradition   tells   us   that  the  of  the  Avesta.    There  are  seventeen  of  these  hjmms, 

Zoroastrian  scriptures  consisted  originally  of  twenty-  grouped    into    five    divisions,    each    group    taking 

one  naska  (books);  but  only  one  of  these,  the  Venn  its  name  from  the  opening  words;  thus  Anttnavaiii, 

did&df   had   been   completely   preserved.    The  loss  Ushtavaitit  etc.     Inserted  m  the  midst  of  the  G&th&s 

of  the  sacred  books  is  attnbutcd  by  the  followers  is    the     Ycuna    Haptanghaiti    (the    Seven-chapter 

of  Zoroaster  to   the  invasion  of  Alexander,   "the  Yasna)  consisting  of  prayers  and  hymns  in  honour 

accursed  Iskandar",  as  they  call  him,  who  burned  of  the  Supreme  Deity,  Ahura  Mazda,  the  Angels, 

the   palace   library  at   Persepolis,   thus   destroying  Fire,  Water,  and  Earth.    This  selection  also  shows 

one  archetjrpe  copy  of  the  text,  and  threw  the  other  a  more  archaic  tjrpe  of  language,  and  stands  next 

into  the  river  near  Samarkand,  according  to  the  to  the  G&th&s  in  point  of  antiquity.    Its  structure, 

statement  of    the   Pahlavi   records    (Dlnluird,   bk.  though  handed  down  in  prose,  may  onoe  have  been 

III;  West,  "Sacred  Books  of  the  East",  XXXVII,  metncaL 

pp.  XXX,  xxxi:    and   ShatrSiha-l  AlrQn,  2-5).     For        (2)  The  Vispered  (vlspi  ratavd,  "all  the  lords") 

wellnigh  five  nundred    years  after  the  Macedonian  is  really  a  short  Utur^,  very  similar  in  style  and 

invasion  the  Parsee  scriptures  remained  in  a  scattered  form  to  the  Yasna,  which  it  supplements  in  a  briefer 

condition,  much  being  preserved  only  by  memory,  form.     It  owes  its  name  to  the  fact  that  it  contains 

until  the  great  Zoroastrian  revival  under  the  Sas-  invocations  to  "all  the  lords". 

sanian   dynasty   (a.   d.   226-651),   when   the   texts        (3)  The    Yashts    (yeshti,   "worship   by  praiae*')* 

were  again  coUected,  codified,  translated  into  Pah-  of  which  there  are  twen^-one,  are  hymns  in  h«ikQOur 

lavi,  and  interpreted.     A  beginning  in  this  direction  of   various   divinities.    These    hymns   are   for     tlie 

had  already  been  made  under  the  last  of  the  Par-  most  part  metrical  in  structure,   and  they    stio^w- 

thian   kings,   but   the  great   final   redaction   took  considerate    poetic    merit    in    certain    inntnncee. 


AVSBTA 


153 


AVB8TA 


•Ueh  is  not  common  in  the  Avesta.  They  are  ot 
mMoti  interest  historically  oa  aocotmt  of  khe 
gbmpses  they  afford  us  of  the  mat  mythological 
Hid  iegendaiy  materia  in  the  toUdore  of  ancient 
Iiiouwd  so  effectively  by  FirdausI  in  his  great  epic 
of  the  Persian  Isxngp,  the  "  Sb&h  N&mah".     Among 


Manuscrii^  op  Onb  or  tbs  OLDnrTASvra  (a.d.  1600) 
Library  of  Columbut  Unhrersity,  New  York 

the  divinities  to  whom  special  yashts  are  devoted 
we  find  Ardvi  Sar&,  the  goddess  of  waters;  Tishtrya, 
the  star  Siriiis;  Mithra,  the  divinity  of  light  and 
truth;  the  Fravasfais,  or  departed  souls  of  the  right- 
eooB,  Verethragna,  the  geniiis  of  Victory  and  the 
KaTaya  Hvarenah,  '^kinfijr  glonr",  the  mvine  light 
jQuminating  the  ancient  kings  of  Ir^. 

(4)  The  fourth  division  (minor  texts)  comprises 
brwf  prayers,  like  the  five  Nyaishes  (to  the  Sun, 
Moon,  Mithra,  Water,  and  Fire),  the  Od/w,  Sxtuzm^ 
and  A/r^drw  (blessing).  These  selections  form 
i  maniial  m  daily  devotion. 

(5)  The  fifth  division,  Vendidftd  (from  m  daJtoa 
(itta,  "law  against  the  demons'')?  is  the  religious  law 
eode  of  Zoroastrianism  and  comprises  twenty>two  far' 
garda  (chapters).  It  benns  with  an  account  of 
Creation  in  which  Ormuzd,  the  ^od,  is  thwarted  by 
Ahiiman,  the  devil;  then  it  describes  the  occurrence 
of  a  destructive  winter,  a  sort  of  Iranian  deluge. 
The  remainder  of  the  book  is  largely  devoted  to 
dafaonUe  prescriptions  with  regard  to  ceremonial 
pvifieation,  eroecially  the  cleansing  from  defile- 
laent  incurred  oy  contact  with  the  dead,  and  to  a 
Hat  of  [^secial  penances  imposed  as  a  means  of  aton- 
iqg  for  impurity.  The  Vendld&d  is  an  ecclesiastical 
ttide,  not  a  Utuigical  manual.  Its  different  parts 
vary  widely  in  chuacter  and  in  age.  Some  parts 
nay  be  comparatively  recent  in  origin,  although 
the  greater  part  is  very  old. 

TSb  Avesta  does  not  represent  the  whole  of  the 
nered  scriptures  of  the  Parsees.  It  is  supplemented 
bjr  an  extensive  Pahlavi  literature,  consisting  in 
put  of  tranidatioBS  from  the  sacred  canon  and  in 
pirt  €i  original  matter.  The  most  notable  Pahlavi 
^'ods  bdonging  here  are  the  Dinkard  (Acts  of  Re- 
jJDoo),  dating  from  the  ninth  century  of  the  Christian 
m;  BUndahishn,  "Original  Creation",  finished  in  the 
dmith  or  twdf th  century  of  the  Christian  Era,  but 
CBiteiiUDg  material  as  old  as  the  Avesta  itself, 
heing  m  part  a  version  of  one  of  the  original  nasks; 
tht  M<andg^Kkiirad   (Bpitit  of   Wisdom),   a   re- 


ligious conference  on  questions  of  faith,  and  the 
Arda  Vlr&f  NOmak^  a  sort  of  Zoroastrian  "Divina 
0>mmedia  ',  which  is  especially  important  because 
of  its  account  of  the  Persian  ideas  concerning  •tthe 
future  life.  There  is  also  some  later  Zoroastrian 
literature  in  modem  Persian,  comprising  works 
like  the  Zartvshtndmah  (Book  of  Zoroaster),  the 
Sadrdar  (Hundred  Doors,  or  Chapters),  the  Rir 
vdyats    (traditional  treatises). 

Language. — ^The  language  of  the  Avesta  is  best 
designated  simply  as  Avestan,  not  as  Zend,  for  the 
reasons  given  in  the  beginning  of  this  article.  Nor 
is  Old  &Lctrian  a  desirable  term,  since  it  is  by  no 
means  proved  that  the  language  of  the  Avesta  was 
spoken  in  ancient  Bactria.  The  Avestan  language 
is  an  Indo-Germanic  tongue  and  belongs  more 
specifically  to  the  Iranian  group,  the  other  mem- 
bers being  the  Old  Persian  of  the  cuneiform  in- 
scriptions, the  Pahlavi,  and  Pazend  (or  Middle 
Iranian),  and  the  later  dialects,  New  Persian,  Kur- 
didi,  Afghan,  etc.  The  Avestan  speech  is  very 
dosely  related  to  Sanskrit;  in  fact,  we  are  able  to 
'foanspose  any  word  from  one  language  into  the 
other  by  the  application  of  specif  phonetic  laws. 
'The  script  employed  in  the  Avestan  texts,  as  we 
have  them,  is  not  so  old  as  the  language  itself,  but 
dates  from  the  Sassanian  period.  It  is  read  from 
right  to  left  and  can  be  traced  ultimately  to  a  Semi- 
tic source.  It  is  not  known  in  what  script  the  original 
Avesta  was  recorded. 

Zoroaster. — It  can  no  lon^r  be  doubted  that 
Zoroaster  was  a  real  historical  personage.  The 
attempts  of  some  scholars  to  represent  mm  as  a 
mythical  being  have  failed,  even  tBough  much 
that  is  related  about  his  life  b  legendary,  as  in 
the  case  of  Buddha.  The  man  Zoroaster  iti  the 
original  texts  appears  as  Zarathushtra,  from  which 
ZoroaateTf  our  present  form  of  the  prophet's 
name,  is  derived  through  the  Greek  and  Latin. 
The  Avesta  always  writes  Zarathushtra;  the  Pahlavi 
has  Zartusht;  the  modem  Persian,  Zardusht.  What 
the  meaning  of  the  name  is,  cannot  be  stated  posi- 
tively. All  that  we  know  is  that  the  name  is  a 
compound,  and  that  the  second  element,  ushira, 
means  ''camel";  the  first  part  has  been  variously 
rendered  as  "old",  "lively",  "golden",  "plough- 
"ing",  etc.  There  nas  been  much  discussion  as  to 
the  date  when  the  prophet  lived.  The  traditional 
date  in  the  Pahlavi  books  places  his  era  between 
the  earlier  half  of  the  seventh  and  the  sixth  cen- 
tury B.  c,  or,  more  specifically,  660-583  b.  c;  but 
many  sclK)lars  assign  him  to  a  century,  or  even 
several  centuries,  earlier.  There  is  also  much  un- 
certainty regarding  his  birthplace  and  the  details 
of  his  hfe.  He  was  imdoubtedly  bom  in  Western 
Ir&n,  but  much  of  his  ministry  was  in  Eastern  Ir&n. 
From  Western  Iran,  more  specifically  Azerbaijan  (the 
ancient  Atropatene),  he  seems  to  have  gone  to  Ragha 
(Rai)  in  Mema,  and  when  his  mission  did  not  meet 
with  success  in  that  region  he  turned  to  the  East,  to 
Bactoia.  There  a  certain  king  named  Visht&spa 
became  converted  to  his  creed,  and  through  tne 
mierous  patronage  of  this  powerful  defender  of 
the  faith  tne  new  rehj^on  soon  gained  a  firm  footing. 
Presumably,  the  faith  was  carried  from  Bactna 
to  Media^  whence  it  spread  into  Persia  and  was 
accepted  m  all  probability  by  the  great  Acluemenian 
kings.  In  the  case  of  Cyrus  there  is  some  doubt 
whether  he  was  an  adherent  of  Zoroastrian  law, 
but  Darius  was  a  pronounced  Mazda-worshipper 
and  presumably,  therefore,  a  true  Zoroastrian, 
as  we  know  that  the  last  kings  of  the  Achsemenian 
(hmaslnr  were  genuine  followers  of  the  religion. 
If  tradition  can  be  beheved,  Zoroaster  began  his 
ministry  at  the  age  of  thirty,  made  a  convert,  when 
he  was  forty-two,  of  King  Vishtftspa,  and  was 
slain  at  the  age  of  seventy-seven,  when  the  Tunk 


▲VniTA  154  AVESTA 

tuans  stormed  Balkh.    This  account  of  the  prophet's  Ahura  Mazda  is  the  Creator  of  all  good  creatures.    Hui 

death  is  given,  at  least,  by  FirdaiuA.  at  once  indicates  the  specific  and  characteristic  feature 

Under  the  kin^    of    the  Achsmenian  line  the  of  the  Avestic  theology  generally  known  as  "dual« 

religion  founded  by  Zoroaster  became  one  of  the  ism".      The  great  problem  of  the  ori^  of  evil, 

great  religions  of  the  ancient  East.     But  it  shared  which  has  ever  been  the  main  stumbhng-block  of 

the  fate  of  the  Persian  monarchy;  it  was  shattered,  religious  systems,  waa  solved  in  the  Zoroastrian  Re- 

though  not  overthrown,  by  the  conquest  of  Alex-  form  by  the  trenchant,  if  illogical,  device  of  two 

ander  and  fell  consequently  into  neglect  under  the  separate  creators  and  creations:   one  ffood,  the  other 

Seleucid    and    Parthian    dynasties.     With    the   ac-  eviL    Opposed  to  Ahura  Mazda,  or  Ormuzd,  is  His 

cession  of  the  Saasanian  dynasty  it  met  with  a  great  rival,  Anro  Mainyus  Oater,NAAarman,  Ahriman),  the 

revival.    The  kings  of  the  house  of  Sassan  were  Evil  Spirit.     He  is  conceived  as  existing  quite  inde- 

zealous  believers  and  did  everything  in  theh  power  pendently  of  Ahura  Mazda,  apparently  from  etemit}r, 

to  spread  the  faith  as  a  national  creed,  so  that  its  but  destined  to  destruction  at  the  end  of  time.    Evil 

prosperity    rose    again    to    the    zenith.     Sectarian  by  nature  and  in  every  detail  the  exact  opposite  of 

movements,    to    be   sure,   were   not   lacking.    The  AJiura  Mazda,  he  is  the  creator  of  all  evil,  both  moral 

heresy   of   Mazdak   for   a   moment   imperilled   the  and  physical.     2ioroafiter  in  the  Gfithas  says  (Ys.,  xlv, 

union  of  the  Zoroastrian  Church  and   State,  and  2,  Jaclcson's  translation): — 

Manichseism,  that  menace  of  early  Christian  ortho-  Nowshalllpreachof  the  World's  itw>primaZ5pirite, 
doxy,  also  threatened  the  ascendancy  of  the  Iranian  The  Holier  one  of  which  did  thus  address  the  Evil: 
national  faith,  which  was  really  its  parent.  These  Neither  do  our  minds,  our  teachings,  nor  our  con- 
dangers,   however,   were    only    temjJorary   and   of  cepts, 

minor  importance  as  compared  with  the  Arab  Nor  our  beliefs,  nor  words,  nor  do  our  deeds  in  sooth, 
conquest,  which  followed  in  the  seventh  century  Nor  yet  our  consciences,  nor  souls  agree  in  aught. 
(651;  and  dealt  the  fatal  blow  from  which  Zoroas-  It  is  here  to  be  remarked  that  the  specific  name  of 
trianism  never  recovered.  The  victorious  followers  Ahura  Mazda  in  opposition  to  the  Evil  Spirit  is 
of  Mohammed  carried  on  their  proselytizing  cam-  Spento  Mainyus^  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  Ahura  Mazda 
paign  with  relentless  vigour.  The  few  Zoroastrians  and  Spento  Mainyus  are  used  as  synonyms  throughout 
who  stood  firmly  by  their  faith  were  oppressed  and  the  Avesta.  The  obviously  illogical  doctrine  of  two 
persecuted.  Some  remained,  and  were  scattered  separate  and  supreme  creators  eventually  led  to  cer- 
throughout  their  native  land;  but  the  majority  tarn  philosophical  attempts  to  reduce  the  double 
took  refuge  in  India,  where  their  descendants,  the  system  to  uniformity.  One  of  these  consisted  in 
Parsees,  are  found  even  at  the  present  day.  About  throwing  back  the  Divine  Unity  to  an  anterior  stage 
10,000  are  here  and  there  throughout  Persia,  chiefly  in  which  Zrvdna  Akarana,  "illimitable  time",  be- 
at Yazd  and  Kirman,  but  the  bulk  of  the  Zoroas-  comes  the  single,  indifferent,  primordial  source  from 
trians,  upwards  of  90,000  souls,  constitute  a  pros-  which  both  spirits  proceed.  Another  solution  was 
perous  community  in  India,  chiefly  at  Bombay.  sought  in  attributing  two  spirits  (faculties  or  func- 

The  standard  edition  of  the  Aveeta  texU  is  that  of  Gkldner  tions)  to  Ahura  Mazda  himself,  his  Spento  Mainyus, 

SS^^'thi^f^^;  ASr&'ui^Slit  XSr  189^^^x55:  and  his  Mro  Mainyus  or  his  creative  and  destructive 

XXII,  XXIV.  and  an  English  tr.  by  Darm esteter  and  Mills  spirit — an    idea    probably    borrowed    from    Indian 

*^or*SJ?*^r  ^^T^T  "^ir^f^l  ®4u^^?  MOller  (Oxford,  philosophy.    This  seems  the  favourite  doctrine  of  the 

1883-87),  IV,  XXIII,  XXXI.     Another  French  tr.  was  made  !L,^j«,««  T>„«,«.n^  «r  "Dr*«*Ko,r    »o  ««««  u«  ««^^  :«  \r.. 

by  de  H^rlez  (2  ed.;  Paris,  I88l).-The  PahUvi  texts  have  "J^^^ern  Parsee«  of  Bombay,  as  may  be  seen  m  Mr. 

been  translated  by  West,  in  The  Sacred  Booka  of  the  Boat,  V.  Navrojl  Maneckjl  Kanga  S  article  in  the     Babyloman 

XVIII.  XXXVII.  XLVlL—A  good  grammar  for  a  study  of  and  Oriental  Record"  for  May,  1900  (VIII,  224-28), 

t'^^^i  "^^^S^r^  ^t^  S  k;^^J^'^:^^a:.^  anditisclaimedtobestrictlvfc^^^ 

Wmerhuch  (Strasbiirg,  1904).— For  information  on  all  topics  of  the  Gathas;  but,  although  such  a  development  of 

relating  to  the  hin|tua|fe  and  literature  of  Iran  the  artidee  in  thought  was  inevitable  in  the  necessary  attempt  to 

'^,^::^if^l^^r^I^'^^^\^'t^xiX\'^^.  5^,?*^^?  ^i  -nonothewm  with  the  Zoroastmn 

the  article  of  Geldner,    Windischmann,  Zaroaatriache  Studien  di^alism,  these  theories  cannot  really  be  called  Avestic 

(od.  Spiegel,  Berlin,  1863);  Jackson,  Zoroaater,  the  Prophet  at  all,  except  in  SO  far  as  Zrv&na  Akarana  is  an 

of  Ancient  Iran  (New  York.  1899).  »    p  j  p  Avestic  term.     They  are  "patristic"  or  "scholastic". 

.     .  J.  itEMY.  ip^^  result  of  the  dualistic  conception  of  the  uni- 

▲vesta,  The,   Theological  Aspects   of. —  verse  is  that  of  a  continuous  great  warfare  that  has 

I.  God. — ^The  name  of  the  Supreme  God  of  the  been  going  on  even  from  the  beginning  between  two 
Avestic  system  is  Ahura  Mazda  (in  the  Achaemenid  hostile  worlds  or  camps.  All  creatures  belong  to  one 
royal  inscriptions,  Auramazda)^  which  probably  sig-  or  another  of  these  camps,  not  only  sentient  and  in- 
nines  the  All-Wise  Lord.  This  divine  name  was  teUigent  beings,  like  the  spirits  and  man,  but  also  the 
later  modified  into  the  Pahlavi  form  Auharmazd,  the  animal  and  even  the  vegetable  worlds.  All  danger^ 
modem  Persian  Ormuzd  (Greek  'Opo^ui^;;).  Hence  ous,  noxious,  poisonous  animals  and  plants  are  evil 
the  name  of  Mazdeism  commonly  applied  to  the  by  their  very  creation  and  nature.  [We  see  here  the 
Avestic  religion.  Ahura  Mazda  is  a  pure  spirit:  His  primal  germ  of  Manichseism.  M&ni  was  a  heretic  of 
chief  attributes  are  eternity,  wisdom,  truth,  gooaness,  the  Mazdean  faith  (a.  d.  258).  This  "heresy"  is 
majesty,  power.     He. is  the  Creator  (d&tar)  of  all  often   reprobated   in   the   Pahlavi   religious    books, 

food  creatures — ^not,  however,  of  Evil,  or  evil  beings,  together  with  Judaism  and  Christianity.]     Hence — 

le  is  the  supreme  Lawgiver,  the  Rewarder  of  moral  in  sharp  contract  to  the  Hindu  oMmaaf  a  characteris- 

good,  and  the  Punisher  of  moral  evil.     He  dwells  in  tic  tenet  of  Buddhism,  which  prohibita  the  killing  of 

Eternal  Light;  in  the  later  literature  light  is  spoken  of  any  creature,  even  the  smallest  and  most  noxious 

as  the  clothing  of  Ahura  Mazda  or  even  His  "body",  insect — to  kill  as  many  aa  possible  of  the  Khrafstras, 

i.  e,  a  kind  of  manifestation  of  His  presence,  like  or  noxious  creatures  of   the  Evil  Spirit    (such  as 

the  Old  Testament  rt^^SE^.    In  this  same  patristic  wolves,  serpents,  snakes,  locusts,  intestinal  worms, 

(Pahlavi)  literature  we  find  frequent  enumerations  ants),  is  one  of  the  most  meritorious  of   irdigious 

of  the  attributes  of  Ahura  Mazda;  thus  these  are  said  actions.    This   great    warfare,    both    spiritual    and 

to  be  "omniscience,  omnipotence,  all-sovereignty,  all-  material,  will  go  on  to  the  end  of  time.     It  is  to  end 

goodness".    Again  He  is  styled  "Supreme  Sovereign,  in  a  final  triumph  of  the  Good  and  the  annihilation 

Wise  Oeator,  Supporter,  Protector,  Giver  of  good  (apparently)  of  Evil,  including  AAro  Mainyus  hinis^. 

thines.  Virtuous  in  act,  Merciful,  Pure  Lawgiver,  Sucn  at  least  is  the  teaching  m  the  later  "patristic" 

Lora  of  the  good  Creations".  Uterature. 

II.  Dualism. — It  has  been  remarked  above  that        III.  Anqsloloqy. — Dualism  in  its  widest  senae 


▲VESTA                                155  AVSSTA 

%eiD8  to  be  an  inherent  and  ineradicable  tendency  enigmatical  FravashiB,  the  orif^n  and  nature  of  whom 
9f  the  Iranian  mind.  Almost  everything  is  conceived  is  still  uncertain.  Some  writers  [especially  SOder- 
io  pairs  or  doubles.  Hence  the  constant  reference  to  blom,  ''Les  Fravashis"  (Paris,  1899);  "La  vie 
the  "Two  Worlds",  the  spiritual  and  the  material,  future"  (Paris,  1901)]  have  seen  in  them  the  spirits 
The  doctrine  of  the  Spirit  World,  whether  belonging  of  the  departed,  like  the  dii  manes,  or  the  Hindu 
to  the  good  or  the  evil  creation,  is  highly  developed  pHria,  But,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  their  primal  con- 
in  the  Avesta  and  subsequent  literature.  Around  (Option  seems  to  approach  nearest  to  the  pre-existent 
Abura  Mazda  is  a  whole  hierarchy  of  spirits,  corre-  ^lohu  of  Plato.  Every  living  creature  nas  its  own 
sponding  very  closely  with  our  "angels  .  There  is,  Fravashi,  existing  before  its  creation;  nay  in  some 
however,  this  to  be  noted,  that  in  the  Zoroastrian  places  inanimate  beincs,  and,  stranger  sUU,  Ahura 
system  many  of  these  creature-spirits  are  demon-  Mazda  Himself,  have  tneir  Fravashis.  They  play  an 
strablv  old  Aryan  nature-deities  who  have  been  important  r61e  in  both  the  psychology  and  the  ntual 
skilfully  transformed  into  angels,  and  so  fitted  into  cult  of  MazdeisiA. 

a  monotheistic   framework,   frequently  enough,  in  Face  to  face  with  the  hierarchy  of  celestial  spirits  is 

hymns  and  other  passages,  by  the  simple  interpola-  a  diabolical  one,  that  of  the  daevcis  (demons,  rahlavi 

tioo  of  the  epithet  Mazdaddia  (created  by  Mazda)  and  Mod.  Persian  dlv,  or  dev)  and  drufa  of  the  Evil 

before  their  names.     Of  the  good  spirits  who  sur-  Spirit.    They  fill  exactly  the  places  of  the  devils  in 

round  Abura,  the  most  important  are  the  Amesha  Christian  and  Jewish  theology.    Chief  of  them  is  Aka 

5penftM  ("Holy  Immortals    or  "Immortal  Saints '^  Manah  (Pahlavi  Akdman,  ''Evil  Mind ")» the  direct 

Cerall]^  reckoned   as  six    (though  Ahura  Mazda  opponent  of  Vohu  Manah.     Perhaps  the  most  fre- 

iself  is  freauently  included  among  them,  and  they  quently  mentioned  of  all  is  ASshmay  the  Demon  of 

&re  then  callea  seven).    These  are  the  characteristic  Wrath  or  Violence,  whose  name  has  come  down  to  us 

genii  of  the  G&thfls,  and  their  very  names  show  that  in  the  Asmodeus  (ASshmo  daiva)  of  the  Book  of  Tobias 

they  are  merely  personified  attributes  of  the  Creator  (iii,  8).    The  PairikOa  are  female  spirits  of  seductive 

Himself.    They    are:    Vohu   Manah    (Good   Mind),  but  malignant  nature,  who  are  familiar  to  us  imder 

A^  Vahishta   (Bc^t  Holiness),  Khshatkra  Vairya  the  form  of  the  Peris  of  later  Persian  poetry  and 

(Desirable    Sovereignty),    Spenia    Armaiti     (Holy  legend. 

Piety,  a  female   spirit),   Haurvatdl    (Health),   and  IV.  Man. — In  the  midst  of  the  secular  warfare  that 

Amerdm   (Immortality).     In   the  Younger  Avesta  has  gone  on  from  the  beginning  between  the  two 

and  later  traditional  literature  these  evident  per-  hosts  of  Good  and  Evil  stands  Man.    Man  is  the  crea- 

eonifications,  whose  very  names  are  but  abstract  ture  of  the  Good  Spirit,  but  endowed  with  a  free  will 

Douns,  become  more  and  more  concrete  personages  and  power  of  choice,  able  to  place  himself  on  the  side 

or  genii,  with  varying  functions;  most  of  all  Vohu  of  Ahura  Mazda  or  on  that  of  Aflro  Mainyus.    The 

Manah  (Vohuman)   rises  to  a    position  of    unique  former  has  given  him,  through  His  propnet  Zara- 

importance.     Dr.  L.  H.  Gray,  however,  argues,  in  a  thushtra  (Zoroaster)  His  Divine  revelation  and  law 

T?ry  striking  article,  that  even  these  are  evolutions  (da^na).    According  as  man  obeys  or  disobeys  this 

of  original  naturalistic  deities  [Archiv  fllr  Religions-  Divine  law  his  future  lot  will  be  decided;  by  it  he  will 

visBenschaft    (Leipzig,    1904),    VII,    345-372].    In  be  judged  at  his  death.    The  whole  ethical  system 

bter  patristic  literature  Vohu  Manah  is  conceived  as  is  built  upon  this  great  principle,  as  in  the  Christian 

the '^Son  of  the  Creator"  and  identified  with  the  theology.     Moral  good,  righteousness,  sanctity  (os^) 

Alexandrine  AAyot.      (See  Casartelli,  Philosophy  of  is  according  to  the  Divine  will  and  decrees;  Man  by 

the  3fazdayasnian    Religion,    42-90.)     Asha,    also  his  free  will  conforms  to,  or  transgresses,  these.    The 

^tbe  equivalent  of  the  Sanskrit  Rta^Dharma),  is  Evil  Spirit  and  his  innumerable  hosts  tempt  Man  to 

the  Divine  Law,  Right,  Sanctity  (cf.  Ps.  cxviii),  and  deny  or  transgress  the  Divine  law,  as  he  tempted 

occupies  a  most   conspicuous  position  throughout  Zoroaster   himself,   promising   him   as   reward   the 

the  Avesta.  sovereignty  of  the  wnole  world. — "Nol"  replied  the 

But  besides  the  Amesha  Spentas,  there  are  a  few  Prophet,  "I  will  not  renounce  it,  even  if  body  and 

other  archangels  whose  rank  is  scarcely  less,  if  it  soul  and  life  should  be  severed!"  fVendldftd,  xix, 

does  not  sometimes  exceed  theirs.     Such  is  Sraosha  25,  26).    It  is  well  to  emphasize  this  oasis  of  Avestic 

("Obedience" — ^i.  e.  to  the  Divine  Law).    With  him  moral  theology,  because  it  at  once  marks  off  the 

are  associated,  in  a  trio,  Rashnu  (Right,  Justice)  and  Avesta  system  from  the  fatalistic  systems  of  India 

Mithra.    This  last  is  perhaps  the  most  characteristic,  with    their    karma    and    innate    pessimism.    [See 

as  he  is  the  most  enigmatical,  figure  of  the  Iranian  Casartelli,  "Id^  du  p4ch6  chez  les  Indo-Eraniens" 

wigelology*     Undoubtedly  in  ori^n  (like  the  Vedic  (Fribourg,  1898).]    A  characteristic  note  of  Iranian 

Mitra)  a  Sun-deity  of  tne  primitive  Aryan  nature-  religious  philosophy  is  its  essential  optimism;  if  there 

^^rehip,  he  has  been  taken  over  into  the  Avesta  is  human  sin,  there  is  also  repentance  and  expiation. 

^■ystwn  as  the  Spirit  of  Light  and  Truth — the  fa-  In  the  later  Pahlavi   religious  literature  there  is  a 

vourite  and  typical  virtue  of  the  Iranian  race,  as  proper  confession  of  sin   (patet)  and  a  developed 

testified  even  bv  the  Greek  historians.    So  important  casuistry.    Asceticism,    however,    finds    no    place 

i«  his  position  that  he  is  constantly  linked  with  Ahura  therein. 

Mazda  himself,  apparently  almost  as  an  equal,  in  a  Divine  worship,  with  elaborate  ritual,  is  an  essen- 

roanner  recalling  some  of  the  divine  couples  of  the  tial  duty  of  man  towards  his  Creator.    There  is  indeed 

Vedas.    It  is  well  known  how  in  later  times  the  no  animal  sacrifice;  the  leading  rites  are  the  offering 

Miihia  cult  became  a  regular  religion  and  spread  of 'the  quasi-divine  haoma  (the  fermented  juice  of  the 

from  Persia    all    over    the    Roman    Empire,    even  sacred   plant,    a  species  of   Asclepias),   the   exact 

iato  Britain.     [See,  especially,  Cumont's  great  work,  counterpart  of  the  Vedic  s5ma-eacrifice;  the  care  of 

Moooments    relatifs  au  culte  de  Mithra"  (Paris,  the  Sacred  Fire;  the  chanting  of  the  ritual  h3rmns  and 

l>fi3).]    Nor  must  mention  be  omitted  of  Atars,  the  prayers,  and  passages  of  the  Sacred  Books  (Avesta). 

Oenius  of  Fire,  on  account  of  the  particular  impor-  The  moral  teaching  is  closely  akin  to  our  own. 

taace  and  sanctity  attached  to  fire  as  a  symbol  of  Stress  is  constantly  laid  on  the  necessity  of  goodness 

tbe  divinity   and   its  conspicuous  use  in  the  cult  in  thonght,  wordftLnd  deed  (humata,hiikhta,hvar8}Ua) 

^wiiidi  has  mven  rise  to  the  entirely  erroneous  con-  as  opposed  to  evil  thought,  word,  and  deed  {dush- 

wption  of   Zoroastrianism  as  "Fire-worship",  and  nuUa,  duzhukhta,  dmhvarshta).    Note  the  emphatic 

of  the  Parsees  as  "Fire-worshippers").    Water,  Sun,  recognition  of  sin  in  thought.    Virtues  and  vices  are 

Moon,  Stars,  the  sacred  Haoma  plant  (Skt.  Sdma),  enumerated  and  estimated  much  as  in  Christian 

aai  other  natural  elements  all  nave  their  special  ethics.     Special  value  is  attributed  to  the  virtues  of 

spints.    But  narticular  mention  must  be  made  of  the  religion,  truthfulness,  purity,  and  generosity  to  tba 


ATIOISBOR  156 

poor.    Heresy,  imtruthfulnees,  perjury,  texual  suh,  mid  Dftrius   and  the  other  Achsmenid  Kings  of 

violence,    tyranny    are    speoiitlly    reprobated.     Zo-  Persia    (549-336   b.   c).     From   Iho   cuneiform  in- 

roaster's   roform   being  social  sa   well   as   religioua,  scriptions  of   these  sovereigns   (in   the  Old  Persian 

aEriciilture  and  farming  are  raised  to  the  rank   of  language,  a  sister   dialect  of  the  Avcstic  Zeml)  we 

reo^ous  duties  and  regarded  as  spiritually  ineri-  know  pretty  yfcll  wlist  their  religion  was.    They 

tonous.     The  same  will  account  for  the  exaggerated  proclaim  themselves  Mo^de^ns  (Auramazdiya,  Dsriui, 

importance,  almost  sanctity,  attached  to  ^  dog.  Behistun  Column,  IV,  56);  thdr  Supreme  God  it 

On   the  other  hand,   the  one   repulsive   feature  ^  Auromacda,  greatest  of   gods  [Malliishla  bag/inSm)\ 

Avestic  morality  is  the  glorification,  as  a  religious  He  is  Creator  of  all  things — heaven,  earth,  and  man; 

meritorious   act,    of   the   Khvaitva-datha,    which   is  — all  thines  happen  by  His  will  (utuAnd);  He  sees  and 

nothing  else  than  intermarriage  between  the  nearest  knows    all   thu^,    man    must   obey    His    precepU 

of  kin,  even  brothers  and  sisters.     In  later -tiroes  this  (JramOna),    and    follow    the    "good   way"    (paihin 

practice  was  tempered  down  to  i^rriage  between  rSiUim);  man  must  invoke  and  prais^Him;  He  tmUs 

cousins,    and    now    ia   entirely    lepudiabsd    t^    the  sin,  especially  falsehood,  which  is  denounced  as  the 

modern  Parsees.  chief  of  sins,   ab<o   insubordination   and   deEpotism. 

V.  EscHATOLOOT. — AfleT  death  the  disembodied  Inferiorspirits  are  associated  with  Him,  "clan^odG", 
eoul  hovers  around  the  corpse  for  three  days.     Then  and  particularly  Mithra  and  Anahita.     Yet,  with  all 

it  sets  off  across  the  Cinvat  bridge  to  meet  its  judg-    these  close  similarities,  we  must  hesitate  to  consider     ' 
mcnt  and'finat  doom  in  the  world  beyond  the  grave,     the  two  religious  systems  as  identical.     For  in  the 
The  three  judges  of  souls  are  Mithra,  Sraosha,  and     AchiKnenid  inscriptions  there  is  absoluteljr  no  trace     ' 
of   the  dualism  which  is  the  cliaEaetcristic  and  all- 
prevailing   feature  of  the  Avesta,   and  no  alluuoD 
whatever  to  the  great  prophet  Zoroaster,  or  to  the     i 
revelation  of  which  he  was  tlie  mouthpiece.    The 
exact   relation   between    the   two   systems   remains 
enigmatical. 

Summary. — "The  highest  religious  result  to  which     ; 
human  reason  unaided  by  revelation,  can  attain",     , 
is  the  deliberate  verdict  of  a  learned  Jesuit  thcologiaa     ' 
(Father  Ernest  Hull,  8. J.,  in  "Bombay  Examiner", 
28  March,    1903).     This  estimate   does  not  appear    ' 
exaggerated.     The  Aveeta  system  may  be  best  de-    | 
finea   as   monotheism   modified   by   a   physical   and    i 
moral  duahsm,  with   an   ethical  system  based  on  a    : 
Divinely  revealed  moral  wmIo  and  human  free  will.    ' 
As  it  is  now  followed  by  the  living  descendanle  of  its 
fitst  votaries,  tlie  Parsees  of  India,  it  is  virtually  the 
same  aa  it  appears  in  the  .^vesta  itself,  except  that 
its  monotheism  is  more  rigid  and  determined,  and 
that  it  has  slied  such  objectionable  practices  as  the 
TowBB  or  8U.EHCE,  BoiiBAT  Khvet&k-daa   (Khvailva-dalha)  and  seeks  to  explain 

_     ,           _,           1    I  •!.     ■     .  f  .  .1.       them  away.     A  great  revival  in  the  knowledge  of  tlie 

RMhnu.  The  soul  of  the  just  passes  safely  over  th«  ^y  gacr^  languages  (Zend  and  Pahlavi),  wKich  had 
bndm  into  a  happy  etermty^nto  heaven  (Afi^  ^e^^^  almost  foTgot ten,  has  taken  place  during  the 
lS^t!^l±7.'"^A'hf^s''^i,^}'^:;^,tei^^  past.half^^ntury  under  the  stimulus. of.  Eu-^pcan 
_„ ^_..^ JieU  {Duih  oiiA">.     Of 

the  Later  Pahlavi  "  VUion  of  Ardl  Vlraf '  ,  whose  viat  characteristicaUy  national  virtues  of  truth  and  open- 
to  the  Inferno  with  the  realistic  descnptioo  of  its  landed  geneTOsJty  flourish  exceedingly  in  the  siSall, 
torments,  vividly  recalls  that  of  Dante.  The  state  ^ut  hieiav  intelliitent  community 
called /fom*«(a*>5n,  or  Middle  State,  does  not  appear  Wnjiiiw  Jacm.bS'n  bie  vanurhtRdigum  in  CmiulHu 
in  the  Avesta  itself,  but  is  a  devekipment  of  the  later  dtr  ir.  PhTloloau  (Straiburg,  1806-1904).  11:  de  I1aiii.ei, 
patristic  theoloRy.  It  is  not,  however,  conceived  ti'T^'^'J?"  '',.1'<'«^/' ';'''5f!°  '■^'^'"-  }^y-  CA«».K-ni.u. 
S^^actly  as  our  Purgatory,  but  rather  as  an  indifferent  fitX"  T^STTa/^aSSSmT/^^^A^/^^ 
state  for  those  whose  ^ood  and  evil  deeds  are  found  Kir.  of  ttiewoeworkby  Finc>Ej<uAE>pji<BDmbBy.  isss).  <riib 

at   death   to    be   in   perfect  equilibrium.     They   are  ""l"  Y^'"=)'  wmetimea  contmvprt  fiwi  ihe  Punwe  Hide  the 

therefoip  neither  in  suffering  nor  ui  happiness.     At  S^^'VilriT' l8M^,'^^U«i   tk,viii, 'z^iA.i*!^ ""S 

the  end  of  time,  the  approach  of  which  is  described  ZaraAvMrimatm  in  At  Amia  {Ltipiig,   isofl)  Eiving  the 

in  the  Pahlavi  Uterature  in  terms  strikingly  Uke  those  "nodeni  Faraw  view,                            t    n  n 

of  our  Apocalypse,  will  come  the  last  great  Prophet,  ^-  ^-  I'Asartei-li. 

Baoshyant    (Saviour)   under   whom   will   occur   the  Avlcsbnm,  Salomo  Ben  Jbhtida  ben  Gbbikoi.  (or 

Resurrection  of  the  Dead  iFnahokereti),  the  General  Gabirol),  whom  the  Scholastics,  taking  him  for  an 

Judgment,  the  (lvaiiaT^«Tafftt  or  renewal  of  the  whole  Arabian,  called   Aviccbrol     (this  form  occurs  in  the 

worW  by  the  great  conflagration  of   the  earth  and  oldest  MSS.;  the  later  MSS.  have  Avencebron,  Avi- 

consequent  flood  of  burning  matter.     According  to  cembron,  Aviccbron,  etc.);    a  Jewish   religious    poet. 

the  Pahlavi  sources,  this  terrible  flood  will  purity  moralist,  and  philosopher,  b.  at  Malaga  m   102O   or 

all  creatures;  even  the  wicked  wilt  be  purilied  from  1021;  d.  at  Sarago»ia.   1070.     He  was  educated    at 

all  stains,  and  «ven  hell  will  be 'cleansed  and  added  Saragossa,  where  lie  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life. 

to  the  "new  heavens  and  new  earth".     Meanwhile  devoting  himself  to  moral  and  intellectual  philosophy, 

a  mighty  combat  takes  place  between  Saoshyant  and  and  writing  religious  poetry.     His  principal    x>n)lo- 

his  followers  and  the  demon  hosts  of  the  Evil  Spirit,  sophical  work,  written  in  .Arabic,  was  translateil  into 

who  are  utterly  routed  and  destroyed  forever.     (See  Hebrew  in  the  thirteenth  century  by  Falaquera,  ami 

Yasht,  xix  and  xiii.)  entitled  "Mekor  Chajim"  [this  was  discovered    and 

VI.  MAznEisu  AND  The  Persian  Kinos. — It  is  edited  with  French  translation  by  Munk,  "Mdlan- 
frequently  asserted  or  assumed  that  the  Avesta  ges"  etc,  (Paris,  1857)]. and  into  Latin  in  Uiet^relfth 
religion  as  above  sketched  was  the  religion  of  Cyrus  century  by  Johannes  Hispanus  and  Dominlcus  Gun- 


AVIOSMITA  157  AYIOSmiA 

dissalinus  (edited  by  B&iimker,  Milnster,  1895)  under  sixteen  he  began  the  study  and  practice  of  inediciBe; 
the  title  "  Fons  Vitae^'.    His  poems  were  published  and  before  he  had  completed  his  twenty-first  year  he 
by  Munk  ("  Melanges  *\  etc.,  raris,  1857),  ^<1  &  He-  wrote  his  famous  "Canon"  of  medical  science,  which 
brew  translation  of  his  ethical  writings  (Riva,  1562,  for  several  centuries,  after  his  time,  remair^  the 
and  Lim^ville,  1 840).    Avicebron's  philosophy  united  principal  authority  in  medical  schiX)ls  both  in  Europe 
the  traditional  neo-Flatonic  doctrines  with  the  reli-  and  in  Asia.     He  served  successively  several  Persian 
gious  teaching  of  the  Old  Testament.    From  the  potentates  as  physician  and  adviser,  travelling  with 
neo-Flatonists,  whom  he  knew  chiefly  through  such  them  from  place  to  |Aaoe,  and  despite  the  habits  of 
apocryphal  writings  as  the  "Theologia  Aristotelis"  convivisiity  for  whidi  he  was  well  known,  devoted 
and  the  "  Liber  de  Causis  "  (see  Arabian  School  of  much  time  to  literanr  labours,  as  is  testified  by  the 
Prilosofht),  he  derived  the  doctrine  of  emanation,  hundred  volumes  which  he  wrote.     Our  authoritv 
namely:  that  there  emanated  from  God,  in  the  first  for  the  foragomg  facts  is  the  ''Life  of  Avicenna. 
place,  the  Universal  Intelligence,  that  from  the  Univer-  based  on  hia  autobiography,  written  by  hb  disciiple 
d  Intelligence  there  emanated  the  World-Soul,  and  Jorjani  (Sorsanus),  %nd  puUished  in  the  early  Ltftia 
that  from  the  World-Soul  there  emanated  Nature,  editions  of  lus  works.     Besides  the  medical ''Canon," 
which  is  the  immediate  principle  of  productivity  of  he  wrote  voluminous  commentaries  on  Aristotle's 
rMtenal  things.     From  the  same  neo-Platonic  sources  w6rks  and  two  great  encyclopedias    entitled    "Al 
he  derived  the  doctrine  that  matter   is   of   itself  Schefa",  or  "Al  Chifa"    (L   e.  healing)   and   "Al 
wholly  inert  and  merely  the  occasion  which  is  made  Nadja"  (i.  e.  deliverance).    The  "Canon"  and  per- 
use of  by  the  Infinite  .\gent  to  produce  natural  tions   of    the   encyclopedias   were    translated   mto 
effects  (Occasionsdism).    On  the  other  hand,  he  drew  Jjatin  as  early  as  the  twelfth  centmry,  by  Gerard  of, 
from  BibUcal  sources  the  doctrine  that  the  Supreme  Cremona,  Dominicus  Gundissalinus,  and  John  Aven- 
PHodple  in  the  production  of  the  Universe  was  not  death;   mey  were   published  at   Venice,    149^95. 
the  Thought  of  God,  but  the  Divine  Will,  which,  in  The  complete  An^bic  texts  are  said  to  be  in  MS.  in 


the  notion   of   emanation,   he   introduced  into  his  cessors    amonff    the    Arabians,    is    Aristoteleanism 

philoBophy   elements    which    are    logically  incom-  mingled  with  Neo-PIatonism,  an  exposition  of  Aris- 

patible.  totle's  teaching  in  the  light  of  the  Commentaries 

His  most  celebrated  doctrine,  however,  the  one  by  of  Themistius,  Simplicius,  and  other  aeo-Platonists. 


taught,  ^  ^     .                                                        .           « 

compcMed  of  matter  and  form.     God  alone  is  pure  to  the  six  treatises  composing  the  "Oiganon";  the 

sctuklity.     Everything  else,  even  the  highest  among  eighth  and  ninth  parts  consist  re^)ectiv€^y  of  treatises 

the  angels,  is  made  up  of  matter  (not  merely  potency,  on  riietoric  and  poetry.    Avicenna  devoted  special 

bat  matter  like  that  of  terrestrial  bodies)  and  form,  attention  to  definition,  the  logic  of   representation, 

;ust  as  man  is  composed  of  body  and  soul.    The  as  he  styles  it,  and  also  to  the  c&sification  of  sciences. 

matter,  however,  of  angetic  bodies,  while  it  is  like  Philosophy,  he  says,  which  is  the  general  name  for 

terrestrial  matter,  is  of  a  purer  kind  and  is  called  scientific  knowledge,  includes  specumtive  and  practi- 

s^piritual  matter.     In  other  words,  there  are  no  ere-  cal  {^lilosophy.     Speculative  philosophy  is  (fivided 

i<ed  "sejoarate  subst^mces '',  as  the  Schoolmen  called  into  the  inferior  science  (physics)  ^  and  middle  science 

tliem.    Between  the  pure  spirituality  of  God  and  (mathematics),    and    the    superior   science    (meta- 

tbe  emde  materiality  of  terrestrial  bodies  there  me-  physics  including  theologv).      Practical  philosophy 

diste  substances  composed  of  matter  and  form,  which  is  divided  into  ethics    (which  considers  man  as  an 

faoge  in  ascending  scale  of  spiritual-materiali^  from  individual):    economics  (which  consideni  man  as  a 

the  soul  of  man  to  the  highest  angehc  nature.    This  member  of  domestic  society);   and  politics  (which 

doctrine  is  mentioned  by  almost  all  the  great  scho-  considers  man  as  a  member  of  civil  society).    These 

lastics,  and  referred  by  them  to  the  "Fons  Vit«"  divisions  are  important  on  account  of  their  influence 

kff  instance,  by  Albert  tjie    Great  (Summa  Totius  on  the  arrangement  of  sciences  in  the  schools  where 

TheoL,  I,  q.  xlii,  art.  22),bySt.Thomas(QuflBst.  Disp.,  the  philosophy  of  Avicenna  preceded  t^  introduc- 

De  Aniind,  art.  6;  ppusculumDe  Subst.  Separatis,  tion  of  Aristotle's  works.     A  favourite  principle  of 


I  with  Alexander  of  Hales  and  others  of  the  Francis-  of  the  activity  of  the  mind  itself.    The  principle^  how- 

I  cm  School,  adopted  his  doctrine  as  part  of  their  ever^  is  to  be  imderstood  in  the  realistic,  not  m  the 

I  tbeoiy  of  the  angelic  nature.  DommaliBtic    sense.    Avicenna's    meaning    is    that, 

I    BiDifKKR.  Aven^brolia  Fana  Vi<ap(M0n8ter.  1896);  Munk,  while  there  are  differences  and  resemblances  among 

.fiS!^'^^Op\^^-S'-Bl^n':^.f^:^''SJ:  thm«  independentl^r  of  the^mind,  the  fonnal  c»n- 


*o««,  1886),    III,   221  'sqq.:  Guttmann,  Zhc  PhUoe.  det  stitution  of  thincs  in  the  cat^ory  of  individuality, 

'^^,^^^y?^^'*^'^^}'t}J^^.'.}^^^'*  ^^h  ^^w^  generic   imivepsality,   specific   umversality,   and  so 

Sgt  fTs  ^.  4^SJIS.  ilf  •<,f^A»^n3j.  '^^.  forth,  is  the  work  of  the  mind    Avioejma's  physical 

William  Turner.  doctnnes  show  mm  in  the  light  of  a  faithful  follower 

of  Aristotle,  who  has  nothixM[  of  his  own  to  add  to 

A?ie«ima   (Abn  Ali  Al  Hosain  Ibn  Abdallah  the  teaching  of  his  master.     Smilariy,  in  psychology, 

hm  &NA,  called  by  the  Latins  Avicenna),  Arabian  he  reproduces  AristoUe's  doctrines^  borrowing  occa- 

ligrndan  and   philosopher,  b.  at  Kharmaithen,  in  sionallT  an  explanation,   or  an   illustration,   from 

Ae  novince  of^  Bokhara,  980;  d.  at  Hamadan,  in  AlfarabL    On  one  point,  however,  he   is  at  pains 

fatbem  Persia,  1037.     From  an  autobiographical  to  set  the  true  meaning,  as  he  understands  it,  of 

Ast^  which  has  conie  down  to  us  we  learn  that  Aristotle,  above  all  the  exposition  and  elaboration  of 

k  vas  a  very  precocious  youth;  at  the  age  of  ten  the  Goramentators.  That  point  is  the  question  of  the 

rk  knew  the  Koran  by  heart;  before  he  was  sixteen  Active  and  Passive  Intellect.    (See  Arabian  School 

k  had  mastered  what  was  to  be  learned  of  physics,  of  Philosophy.^    He  teaches  that  the  latter  is  the 

Astbeouitics,  logic,  and  metaphysics;  at  the  age  of  individual  mind  m  the  state  of  potency  with  regard  to 


AVIONON  158  AVIONOir 

knowledge   and  that  the  former  is  the.. imper»oaal  ^^-^^^^^-hI^^ p'^tiBiJ^i^c^X^^l^ 

mind  in  the  state  of  actual  and  perennial  thought.  **~  ^^'*  William  Turner. 

In  order  Vhat  the  mind  acquire  ideas,  the  Passive 

Intellect  must  come  into  contact  with  the  Active        Avignon.— City.— Avignon,  ^ntten  in  the  form 
Intellect.    Avioenna,  however,  insists  most  emphati-  of  Avennw  in  the  ancient  texts  and  inscriptions, 
cally  that  a  contact  of  that  kind  does  not  interfere  takes  its  name  from  the  House,  or  Clan,  Avennius 
with  the  independent  substantiality  of  the  Passive  [d'Arbois  de  Jubainville,  "Recherches  but  rorigine 
Intellect,  and  does  not  imply  that  it  is  mersed  with  de  la  propri^t^  fonci^re  et  des  noms  des  lieux  habil6s 
the  Active  Intellect.     He  explicitly  maintcuns  that  en  France"  (Paris,  1890),  618],     Founded  by  the 
the  individual  mind  retains  its  individuality  and  that.  Cavari^^  who  were  of  Celtic  origin,  it  became  the 
because  it  is  spiritual  and  immaterial,  it  is  endowed  centre  of  an  important  Phoc»an  colony  from  Mar- 
with  personal  immortality.     At  the  same  time,  he  seilles.     Under  the  Roman  occupation,  it  was  ope 
is  enough  of  a  mystic  to  maintain  that  certain  choice  of  the  most  flourishing  cities  of  Gallia  Narbonensis; 
souls  are  capable  of  arriving  at  a  very  special  kind  later,  and  during  the  inroads  of  the  barbarians,  it 
of  union  with  the  Universal,  Active,  Intellect,  and  of  belonged  in  turn  to  the  Goths,  the  Burgundians,  the 
attaining  thereby  the  ^t  of  prophecy.    Metaphysics  Ostrogoths,  and  to  the  Frankish  kings  of  Austrasia. 
he  defines  as  the  science  of  supernatural   (lutra-  In  736  it  tell  into  the  hands  of  the  Saracens,  who 
physical)  being  and  of  (jrod.     It  is,  as  Aristotle  says,  were  driven  out  by  Charles  Martel.     Boso  having 
the  theologi(»r  science.    It  treats  of  the  existence  of  been  proclaimed  King  of  Provence,  or  of  Aries,  by  the 
Goa,  whion  is  proved  from  the  necessity  of  a  First  Synod  of  Mantaille,  at  the  death  of  Louis  the  Stam- 
Gause;  it  treats  of  the  Providence  of  God,  which,  as  merer  (879),  Avignon  ceased  to  belong  to  the  Fiank- 
all  the  Arabians  taught,  is  restricted  to  the  universal  ish  kings.     In  1033,  when  Conrad  II  fell  heir  to  the 
laws  of  nature,  the  Divme  Agency  being  too  exalted  Kingdom  of  Aries,  Avignon  passed  to  the  empire, 
to  deal  with  singular  and  contingent  events;  it  treats  The  German  rulers,  however,  being  at  a  distance^) 
of  the  hierarchy  of  mediators  between  God  and  Avignon  took  advantage  of  their  absence  to  set  up 
material  things,  all  of  which  emanated  from  God,  the  as  a  republic  with  a  consular  form  of  government, 
Source  of  all  sources,  and  Principle  of  all  principles,  between  1135  and  1146.     In  addition  to  the  em- 
The  first  emanation  from  God  is  the  worla  of  ideas*  peror,   the  Counts  of   Forcalquier,  Toulouse,  and 
This  is  made  up  of  pure  forms,  free  from  change,  Provence  exercised  a  purely  nominal  sway  over  the 
composition,  or  imperfection:  it  is  akin  to  the  In-  city;  on  two  occasions,  in  1125,  and  in  1251,  the 
telligible  world  of  Plato,  ana  is.  in  fact,  a  Platonic  two  latter  divided  their  rights  in  regard  to  it,  while 
concept.    Next  to  the  world  ot  ideas  is  the  world  the  Count  of  Forcalquier  resigned  any  that  he  pos- 
of  souls,  made  up  of  forms  which  are,  indeed,  ior  sessed  to  the  bishops  and  consuls  in  1135.     During 
telligible,  but  not  entirely  separated  from  matter,  the  crusade  against  the  Albigenscs  the  citizens  re- 
It  is  these  souls  that  animate '  and  eneigize  the  fused  to  open  the  gates  of  Avignon  to  Ix>uis  VIII 
heavenly  spheres.    Next  to  the  world  of  souls  is  tihe  and  the  legate,  but  capitulated  after  a  three  months' 
world  of  physical  forces,  which  are  more  or  less  com-  siege    (10    June — 13    September,    1226)    and    were 

Eletely  embedded  in  terrestrial  matter  and  obey  its  forced  to  pull  down  the  ramparts  and  fill  up  the  moat 

kws;  they  are,  however,  to  some  extent  amenable  to  of  their  city.     Philip  the  Fair,  who  had  inherited 

the  power  of  intelligence  in  so  far  as  they  may  be  from  his  father  all  the  rights  of  Alphonse  de  Poitiers, 

influenced  by  magic  art.     Lastly  comes  the  world  of  last  Count  of  Toulouse,  made  them  over  to  Charles  II, 

corporeal  matter*  this,  according  to  the  Neo-Platonic  King  of  Naples  and  Count  of  Provence  (1290);  it  was 

conception  which  dominates  Avicenna's  thought  in  on  tne  strength  of  this  donation  that  Queen  Joan 

this  theory  of  emanation,  is  of  itself  wholly  inert,  not  sold  the  city  to  Clement  VI  for  80,000  florins  (9  June, 

i^pable  of  acting  but  merely  of  being  acted  upon  1348). 

(Occasionalism^.  In  this  hierarchical  arrangement  Avignon,  which  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth 
of  beings,  the  Active  Intellect,  which,  as  was  pointed  century  was  a  town  of  no  great  importance,  under- 
out  above,  plays  a  necessary  r5le  in  the  genesis  of  went  a  wonderful  development  during  the  residence 
human  knowledge,  belongs  to  the  world  of  Ideas,  there  of  nine  popes,  Clement  V — Benedict  XIII,  in- 
%nd  is  of  the  same  nature  as  the  spirits  which  animate  clusively.  To  the  north  and  south  of  the  rock  of 
the  heavenly  spheres.  From  all  this  it  is  apparent  the  Doms,  partly  on  the  site  of  the  Bishop's  Palace, 
that  Avicenna  is  no  exception  to  the  general  de-  which  had  been  enlarged  hy  John  XXII,  rose  the 
scriptionof  the  Arabian  Anstoteleans  as  neo-Platonio  Palace  of  the  Popes,  in  the  form  of  an  imposing 
interpreters  of  Aristotle,  There  remain  two  other  fortress  made  up  of  towers,  linked  one  to  another, 
doctrines  of  a  general  metaphysical  nature  which  and  named  as  follows:  De  la  Cam  pane,  de  Trouilfas, 
exhibit  him  in  the  character  of  an  ori^nal,  or  rather  de  la  Glaci^re,  de  Saint-Jean,  des  Saints-Anges 
an  Arabian,  and  not  a  neo-Platonic,  interpreter.  (Benedict  XII),  de  la  G&che,  de  la  Garde-Robe 
The  first  is  his  division  of  being  into  three  msses:  (Clement  VI),  de  Saint-Laurent  (Innocent  VI).  The 
(a)  what  is  merely  possible,  including  all  sublunary  Palace  of  the  Popes  belongs,  by  its  severe  architecture, 
things;  (b)  what  is  itself  merely  possible  but  oidowed  to  the  Gothic  art  of  the  South  of  France;  other  noble 
by  the  First  Cause  with  necessity:  such  are  the  ideas  examples  are  to  be  seen  in  the  churches  of  St.  Didier, 
that  rule  the  heavenly  spheres;  (c)  what  is  of  its  own  St.  Peter,  and  St.  Agricola,  in  the  Clock  Tower,  and 
nature  necessary,  namely,  tne  First  Cause.  This  in  the  fortifications  built  between  1349  and  136S 
classification  is  mentioned  and  refuted  by  Averroes.  for  a  distance  of  some  three  miles,  and  flanked  b^ 
The  second  doctrine,  to  which  also  Averroes  alludes,  thirty-nine  towers,  all  of  which  were  erected  or  re- 
is  a  fairly  outspoken  systetn  of  pantheism,  which  stored  by  popes,  cardinals,  and  great  dignitaries  of 
Avicenna  is  said  to  have  elaborated  in  a  work:  now  the  court.  On  the  other  hand,  the  execution  of  the 
lost,  entitled ''PhilosophiaOrientalis".  TheScnolas-  frescoes  which  adorn  the  interiors  of  the  papal 
tics,  apparently,  Imow  nothing  of  the  special  work  palace  and  of  the  churches  of  Avignon  was  en- 
dn  pantheism;  they  were,  however,  aware  of  the  trusted  almost  exclusively  to  artists  from  Sienna 
pantheistic  tendencies  of  Avioenna's  other  works  on  The  popes  were  followed  to  Avipion  by  agents 
philosophy,  and  were,  accordingly,  reluctant  to  (f adores)  of  the  great  Italian  bankmg-hoiisee,  whc 
trust  to  his  exposition  of  Aristotle.  settled  in  the  city.  They  acted  as  money-changers 
Avicenna  Peripaietiei  ,  .  .  O^era  (Venice,  1495);  Mitnk  as  intermediaries  between  the  Apostolic  Chamber  anc 
in  Diet,  dea  teienccM  pW/.   (Pans,   1844-52),  art.    ibn^ina;  its  debtors,  living  in  the  most  prosperous   quarters 

g:a*<£;  Jj^5!'9tl1n¥ei^"ir9<iT?}:  Sf'SJ'^^'SIJS  of  th|  cjty.  which  was  known  as  the  Exchar»ge      A 

(New  York,  1890),  412.  413;  Stockl,  lSiH.  dtr  Qtiek.  <Ur  crowd  of  tradere  of  all  kinds  brought  to  market  Um 


AVIOHON  159  AVIOHOH 

Qiodacts  neeessary  to  the  maintenance  of  a  numerous  Pope  renomices,  purel^r^  and  simply,  all  the  rights  to 

oourt  and  of   the   visitors  who  flocked  to  it'  grain  which  he  might  lay  claim  over  the  city  and  territory 

M»d  wine  from  Provence,  from  the  south  of  France,  of  Avignon,  and  the  Comtat  Venaissin  and  its  de(|end- 

the  Roussillon,  and  the  country  round  Lyons.     Fish  encies,  and  transfers  and  makes  over  the  said  rights 

vBsbroi^ht  from  places  as  distant  as  Brittany;  cloths,  to  the  French  Republic."    Consalvi  made  an  ineneo- 

rich  stuns,  and  tapestries  came  from  Bruges  and  tual  protest  at  the  Treaty  of  Viennai  in  1815;  Avignon 

Toumai.    We  need  only  glance  at  the  account^books  was  not  restored  to  the  Holy  See. 

of  the  Apostolic  Chamber,  still  kept  in  the  Vatican  ^  Duhambl,  Le%  oriinn€$  du  palaU  dea  papes  (Tours,  1882); 


apcnires,  m    oraer  to  judge  OI   tne  trade  Ol   wnicn  ^^  ^j^„,^^  irenaiatin  h  la  France  (Parw.   1886);  HiHoire  de 

Axmion  became  the  centre.     The  Ul^iversity  founded  la  RivoluHon  dans  Avimon  et  U  Comtat  VenaUnn  et  ^  lew 

by  Boniface  VIII  in  1303,  had  a  good  many  students  Klhi^i^  difinUive  h  la  France  (Paria,  1892);  Ehrle.  /Astoria 

onHpr  th#>  FV«*n€»Vi  nnriAR  Hrawn  thither  hvtViP  irpnAr.  Bibhothecm  Romanorum  PorUificum   (Rome,    1890);   Fantoni 

onaer  ine  i*Tencn  popes,  arawn  tnitner  oy  tne  gener-  castrucci.  latoria  della  Citth  <pAvianone  e  del  contado  Veneaino 

awarded  them  n/enice.   1678);  Moij.at,  Jean  XXII,  fut  U  un  a 


offlty  of  the    sovereign  pontiffs,  who  rewarded  them  (Venice.  1678);  Moij.at,  Jean  XXII,  fut  U  un  avaref,  in 

with  books  or   with  oenefices.  Revue  d'Hiatoxre  EecUaiaaHque  (July,  1904,  and  Jan.,  1905); 

After  the  restoration  of  the  Holy  S^  in  Rome,  the  ^?^l;*;^^pt^n5&)i'^^'te'S^rz/i^  ^ 

spmtual  and  temporal  government  of  Avignon  was  arte  dana  la  viUed' Avignon  pendant  U  XlVeaiUe,  in  BuUetin 

eDtnisted  to  a  legate,  the  cardinal-nephew,  who  was  Archiologique  de  la  Commiaaum  dea  travattx  hiatoriquea  (1887). 

repbiced,  in  his  absence  by  a  vice-legate.    When,  ^'  mollat. 
however,  Innocent  XII  abolished  nepotism,  he  did  Archdiocese  op  Avignon  exercises  jurisdiction 
away  with  the  office  of  l^^te,  and  handed  over  the  over  the  territory  embraced  by  the  department  of 
government  of  the  Pontifical  States  to  the  Congre-  Vaucluse.     Before  the  Revolution  it  had  as  suffragan 
gation  of  Avignon  (1692),  which  resided  at  Rome,  sees,  Carpentras,  Vaison,  and  Cavaillon.     By   the 
irith  the  Cardinal  Secretary  of  State  as  prefect,  and  Concordat  of  1801  these  three  dioceses  were  united 
exercised   ite   jurisdiction   through  the  vice-legate,  to  Avignon,  together  with    the    Diocese    of    Apt, 
Thb  congregation,  to  which  appalls  were  made  from  a  suffragan  of  Aix.    At  the  same  time,  however. 
the  decisions  of  the  vice-legate,  was  united  to  the  Avignon  was  reduced  to  the  rank  of  a  bishopric  ana 
(3oagre^tion   of   Loretto;    in   1774   the  vice-legate  was  made  a  suffragan  see  of  Aix.    The  Archdiocese 
was  made  president,  thus  depriving  it  of  almost  all  of  Avignon  was  re-established  in  1822,  and  received 
authoritv.     It  was  done  away  with  under  Pius  VI.  as  suffra^n  sees  the  Diocese  of  Viviers  (restored  in 
The  FuWic  Council,  composed  of  48  councillors  1822):  Valence  (formerly  under  Lyon);    Nlmes  (re- 
chosen  by  the  people,  four  members  of  the  clergy,  storea  in  1822);  and  Montpellier  (formerly  under  Tou- 
and  four  doctors  of  the  university,  met  under  the  louse).    There  is  no  evidence  that  St.  Rufus,  disciple 
presidency    of    the    viguier,  or    chief    magistrate,  of  St.  Paul  (according  to  certain  traditions  the  son 
Dominated,  for  a  year,  by  the  legate  or  vice-legate,  of  Simon  the  Cyrenean)  and  St.  Justus,  likewise  held 
Thar  duty  was  to  watch  over  the  material  and  finan-  in  high  honour  throughout  the  territory  of  Avignon, 
ckl  interests  of  the  city;  their  resolutions,  however,  were  venerated  in  antiquitv  as  bishops  of  that  see. 
wae  to  be  submitted  to  the  vice-legate  for  approval  The  first  bishop  known  to  historv  is  Nectarius.  who 
b^(»e  being  put    in  force.    Three  consuls,  chosen  took  part  in  several  councils  about  the  middle  of 
annually  bjr  tne  CJouncil,  had  chaiige  of  the  admin-  the  fifth    century.     St.  Agricol  (Agricolus).  bishop 
ictration  of  the  streets.  between  650  and  700,  is  the  patron  saint  of  Avignon. 
From  the  fifteenth  century  onward  it  became  the  In  1475  Sixtus  IV  raised  the  Diocese  of  Avignon  to 
pQ&y  of   the  Kings  of  France  to  unite  Avignon  to  the  rank  of  an  archbishopric,  in  favour  of  his  nephew 
kingdom,     fii  1476,  Louis    XI,  annoyed  that  Giuliano  della  Rovere,  who  later  became  Pope  Juhus 
nooella  Rovere  should  have  been  made  legate,  II.   The  memory  of  St.  Eucherius  still  clings  to  three 

•  than  Charles  of  Bourbon,  caused  the  city  to  vast  caves  near  the  vilh^e  of  Beaumont,  whither, 

le  occupied,  and  did  nof  withdraw  his  troops  until  it  is  said,  the  people  of  Lyons  had  to  go  in  search 

"^      hffl  favourite  had  been  made  a  cardinal.    In  of  him  when  they  sought  him  to  make  him  their  arch- 

Francis  I  invaded  the  papal  territory,  in  order  bishop.     As  Bishop  of  Cavaillon,  Cardinal  Philippe 

1i  drive  out   Charles  V,  who  held  Provence.    In  de  Cabassoles,  Seigneur  of  Vaucluse,  was  the  great 
torn  for  the  reception  accorded  him  by  the  people  protector  of  Petrarch.     (For  Avignon  and  its  re- 
Avignon,  Francis  granted  them  the  same  privileges  ligious  architecture  see  Avignon,  City  op.)     At  tiie 
"  fie  enioyed  by  the  French,  that,  especially,  of  close   of    1905    the    Archdiocese   of    Avirnon   had 
eligible  to  offices  of  state.     Hennr  III  made  a  236,949  inhabitants,  29  cures,  or  parishes  oi  the  first 
attempt   to   exchange   the   Marquisate  of  class;  144  parishes  of  the  second  class,  and  47  vicari- 
_   for   Avignon,  but  Gr^ory  XIII  would  not  ates. 

to   it    (1583).      In  1663,  Louis  XIV,  in  conse-  0<ilHa  Christiana^  Nova  (1716).  I.  7S8-870.  1329:   Inatrun 

.  of  an  attack,  led  by  the  Corsican  Guard,  on  -^;  i^ygSeJ^^SS^rB^r.^Jr^                           i'^?^ 

attendants  of  the  Due  de  Gr6qui,  his  ambassador  (Avignon,  1862).                                Georosm  Goyah 

R<Hne,   seized  Avignon,  which  was  declared  an  viisiunujuo  viuxau. 

ral  part  of  the  Kingdom  of  France  by  the  Parlia-  Councils  op  Avignon. — Nothing  is  known  of  the 

of  Provence.     Nor  was  the  sequestration  raised  council  held  here  in  1060.     In  1()80  a  council  was 

aft«r    Cardinal  Chigi  had  made  an  apolo^  held  under  the  presidency  of  Hugues  de  Di6,  papal 

J).      Another  attempt  at  occupation  made  m  legate,  in  which  Achard,  usurper  of  the  See  of  Aries, 

J,  without  success,  was  followed  by  a  long  period  was  deposed,  and  Gibelin  put  in  his  place.    Three 

fpe&ce,  lasting  till  1768.  bishops  elect  (Lautelin  of  Embrun,  Hugues  of  Gre- 

Lo^^'xV,    dissatisfied  at  Clement  XIII's  action  noble,  and    Didier  of  Cavaillon)  accompanied   the 

M-d.  to   the  Duke  of  Parma,  caused  the  Papal  legate    to   Rome   and   were   consecratea   there   by 

to    be  occupied  from  1768  to  1774,  and  sub-  Pope  Gregory  VII.    In  the  year  1209  the  inhabitants 

d     French    institutions    for    those    in    force,  of  Toulouse   were  excommunicated   by  a  Council 
xn^et  with  the  approval 
a  French  party  mrew  up 
r  massacres  of  La  Glaci^re, 

iziduced  the  Constituent  Assembly  to  decree  Toulouse  was  forbidden,  under  threat  of  excommimi- 

*     I    of  Avignon  and   the  Comtat    (district)  cation,  to  impose  exorbitant  burdens  on  his  subjects 

^with  France  (14  September,  1791).     Arti-  and,  as  he  persisted,  was  finallv  excommunicated. 

the  Treaty  of  Tolentino  (19  Feb.,  1797)  defin-  In  the  Council  of  1270,  presided  over  by  Bertrand 

[ictioned  the  annexation;  it  stated  that  *'The  de  Malferrat,  Archbishop  of  Aries,  the  usurpers  of 


AVILA.  It 

ecdeoastical  property  were  uvraely  thraatened; 
unclaimed  legacies  were  allotted  to  pious  uses;  the 
biahope  were  urged  tji  mutual  support;  the  individual 
cburches  were  ta:[ed  for  the  support  of  the  papal 
legate;  and  ecclesiastica  were  forbidden  to  convoke 
the  civil  courts  against  their  bishops.  The  Council 
of  1279  was  concerned  with  the  protection  of  the 
rights,  privile(!es,  and  immunities  of  the  clergy. 
Provision  was  made  abo  for  the  protection  of  those 
who  bad  promised  to  join  the  Crusade  ordered  by 
Gregory  X,  but  had  failed  to  go.  It  was  also  decreed 
that  to  hear  confessioiis,  besides  the  permission  of 
bis  ordinary  or  bisliop,  &  monk  must  also  have  that 
of  his  superior.  In  the  Council  of  1282  ten  canons 
were  published,  among  them  one  urging  the  people 
to  fretjuent  more  regularly  the  parochial  churclies, 
and  to  be  present  in  their  own  parish  churches  at 
least  on  Sundays  and  fea£t  days.  Tlie  temporalities 
of  tbe  Church  and  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  occupied 
the  attention  of  the  Council  of  1327.  The  seventy- 
nine  canons  of  the  Council  of  1337  are  renewed  from 
eajdier  councils,  and  emphasize  the  duty  of  Easter 
Communion  in  one's  own  parish  cliureh,  and  of 
abstmence  on  Saturday  for  beneficed  persons  and 
ecclesiastics,  in  honour  of  tlie  Blessed  Virgin,  a 
practice  begun  three  centuries  earlier  on  the  occasion 
of  the  Truce  of  God,  but  no  longer  universal.  The 
Council  of  1457  was  held  by  Cardinal  da  Foix,  Arch- 
Usbop  of  Aries  and  legate  of  Avignon,  a  Franciscan. 
Hisprindpol  purpose  was  to  promote  the  doctrine  of 
the  Immaculate  Conception,  in  the  sense  of  the  decla- 
ration of  the  Council  of  Basle.  It  was  forbidden  to 
preach  the  contrary  doctrine.  Sixty-four  disciplimwy 
decrees  were  also  published,  in  keeping  with  the  legia- 
.  lation  of  other  councils.  A  similar  number  of  decrees 
were  published  in  1497  by  a  council  presided  over  by 
Arehbishop  Francesco  Tarpugi  (afterwards  Cardiiud). 
The  sponsora  of  the  newly  confirmed,  it  was  decreed, 
were  not  obliged  to  make  presents  to  them  or  to  their 
parents.  Before  the  relics  of  tlie  saints  two  candles 
were  to  be  kept  lighted  at  all  times.  Disciplinary 
measures  occupied  tlie  attention  of  the  Council  of 
1509,  The  Council  of  1596  was  called  for  the  punwse 
of  furthering  the  observance  of  the  decrees  of  the 
Council  of  Trent  (1&45-63),  and  for  a  similar  purpose 
the  Council  of  1609.  The  Councils  of  1G64  and  1725 
formulated  disciplinary  decrees;  the  latter  proclaimed 
tbe  duty  of  adhering  to  the  Bull  of  Clement  XI  against 
the  " Reflexions  morales"  of  Quesnel.  The  Council 
of  1849  published,  in  ten  chapters,  a  number  of 
decrees  concerning  faith  and  disciphne.. 

U:tNHi.  CoU.  Cone..  XIX,  S2a;  XX,  ^3,  uid  pouim;  CoO. 
Ldoniu  Cone.,  I.  467:  IV,  315;  Gii*«jET,  HiiL  iu  diocite 
d'Avigrutn  (Avignon,  1^2). 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

UmvEBsrrr  op  Aviqnon  (1303-1792),  devel- 
oped from  the  already  existing  schools  of  the  city, 
was  formally  constituted  in  1303,  by  a  Bull  of 
Boniface  VIII.  With  Boniface,  King  Chorlee  II  of 
Naples  should  be  considered  as  one  of  its  first  great 

Erotectors  and  benefactoia.     The  faculty  of  law, 
Dth  civil  and  ecclesiastical,  existed  for  some  lime 


O  AYXLA 

Bpuitual  bead  and,  After  134%  temporal  ruler  of 
Avignon,  exercised  in  this  double  capacity  peat 
ioAuenoe  over  tbe  affairs  of  the  university.  Joha 
XXIII  panted  it  (1413)  extensive  privileges,  such 
as  special  univendty  jurisdiction  and  exemptioa 
from  taxes.  Political,  geographical,  and  educatioiud 
circiunstaooes  forced  the  university,  during  the  later 
period  of  ite  existence,  to  look  to  Paris  rather  tbm 
to  Rome  for  favour  and  protection.  It  disappau«d 
gradually  during  the  French  Revolution,  and  ceased 
to  exist  m  1792. 

RAumALi..  Th4  Unicrrtitiet  <f  EiBvpi  in  At  MiMIt  Aga 
(Oiford.  1806),  II,  170-170:  FocunEM,  La  itaM.  n 
prtmUga  dt  Biifc.  frmfaitu  (P»™,   18«M>4).  II.  301-W: 


1.  1884). 


N.  A.  Wbbbb. 


AtUi  (Asula),  Diocksk  of,  a  euffragan  of  Val- 
ladolid  in  Spain.  Ite  episcopal  aucceesioa  dates  at 
least  from  the  fourtb  century  and  claims  an  Apostolic 
origin.  Suppressed  in  the  conree  of  the  mnth,  it 
was  re-eatablished  early  in  the  twelfth,  century, after 


John  XXIII  erected  (1413)  a  faculty  of  theoUtgy, 
the  students  of  wliich  were  for  a  long  time  only  few 
in  number.  The  faculty  of  arts  never  acquired 
great  importance;  that  of  medicine  develops  es- 
pecially only  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  cen- 
turies. The  Bishop,  since  1475  Archbishop,  of 
Avignon  was  chancellor  of  the  university.  The 
vice-legate,  generally  a  bishop,  represented  the 
civil  power  (in  this  case  the  pope)  and  was  chiefly 
ajudicial  officer,  ranking  higher  tnan  the  Primicerius 
(Rector).  The  latter  was  elected  by  the  Doctors  of 
Law,  to  whom,  in  1503,  were  added  four  tbeologjau 
and,  in  1784,  two  Doctore  of  Medioiiie.     Tbe  pope. 


The  Catholic  population  is  189,926.  Tfaerv 
360  prieeti,  339  parishes,  and  about  500  chur 
and  chapiJe.  Avila  is  historically  one  of  the  i 
important  cities  in  the  medieval  and  modem  hid 
of  Spain.  Inthefourth  century  the  arch-heretic  ! 
cillian  was  Bishop  of  Avila,  and  in  later  times  n 
saints  hadAvilaas  their  home,  among  them  St.  T4 
and  John  of  Avila,  the  "Anoetle  of  Andalusiii". 
was  once  one  of  the  moet  flourishing  cities  of  S 
but  il«  population  has  dwindled  to  7,000.  Ita  S 
bh  castle  and  ancient  deventh-century  cathedrs 
monumental  relics  of  the  past. 

BiiTjiBDira,  >n«.  Pom,  Cjh.  (P»ru,  19(W»:  210: 
TOSTI.  Tnuticwnei  de  Arila  (UadHd,  1S80);  ClAim,  Ki 
oat^idiU  SpaHimt,  1,  ISO  km.:  Fl6b».  JIniBila  Sa 
XIV,  1-38;  UaSot,  BM.  Hit.  StpoAa  (1858)  42-^ 

Thomas  J.  Sbas 


AVILA                                   161  AVEZ 

UNiVEBanT  OP  A-viLA   (1650-1807).-*-Under  the  times  for  the  Catholic  Faith  and  Roman  culture  in 

pstronace  ot    Queen  Isabella,  the  Dominicans  es-'  Southern  Gaul,  Avitus  exercised  a  favourable  in- 

tablished   (1504)    chairs  of   pnilosophy  and   theol-  fluence.     He  pursued  with  earhestness  and  success 

ogy  in  their  College  of  St.  Thomas  at  Avila,  Spain,  the  extinction  of  the  Arian  heresy  in  the  barbarian 

About  1550,  the  Papal  Nuncio,  Juan  Poggio^  raised  Kingdom  of  Burgundy  (443-532),  won  the  confidence 

the  college  to   university  rank.     Gregory  XIII,  at  of  King  Gundobad,  and  converted  his  son,  King  Sig- 

the  request  of  Philip  II ,  ratified  the  nimcio's  action  ismund  (516-523).     He  was  also  a  zealous  opponent 

by  the  Bull  "In  Apostolatus  culmine",  4  April,  1576.  of  Semi|)elagianism,  and  of  the  Acacian  Scnism  at 

ImiGceDt  X,  in  1645,  approved  the  statutes  6f  the  Constantinople.     Like  his   contemporary,  Ennodius 

university  and  empowered  it  to   grant  degrees  in  of  Pavia,  he  was  strenuous  in  his  assertion  of  the 

arts,  theology,  me<ucine,  and  law.    Its  work,  how-  authority  of  the  Apostolic  See  as  the  chief  bulwark 

ever,  was  mainly  theological.    Though   it  enioyed  of  religious  imity  and  the  incipient  Christian  civiliza- 

the  ifavour  of  the  Spanisn  sovereigns,  especiaUy  of  tion.     "If  the  pope",  he  says,  "is  rejected,  it  follows 

Chsiles  n,  it  never  attracted  a  large  number  of  stu-  that   not   one   bishop,    but    the    whole   episcopate 

dents.    It  had  no  endowment,  but  depended  upon  threatens  to  fall''  (^S>i  papa  urbis  vocaiur  in  dubvum, 

tuition  fees.     As  a  result,  it  bq^an  to  decline  during  epiacopahis  vid^yitur,  rum  ej^copus,  vaciUare. — Ep. 

the  eighteenth  century,  and  it  was  suppressed,  along  xxxiv;  ed.   Peiper).    The   hterary  fame  of  Avitus 

with  several  other  mmor  imiversities,  m  1807.  rests  on  a  poem  of  2,552  hexameters,  in  five  books, 

D«  Zabatx,  De  lalnatrw^dn  pObliea  en  Etpaiia  (Madrid,  dealing  witn  the  Scriptural  narrative  of  Original  Sin, 

(Borne,  1733),  V.  of  the  Red  Sea.    The  first  three  books  offer  a  certam 

E.  A.  Pacb.  dramatic  imity;  in  them  are  told  the  preliminaries  of 

AjQtk,  Francisco    de,    curate    or    vicar  in  the  ^^^  great  disaster,  the  catastrophe  itself,  and  the 

Sovince  of   Huarochiri  of   Peru,    later   curate   at  consequences.    The    fourth    and    fifth    books    deal 

uinaco,  finally  Canon  of  the  Church  of  La  Plata  with  tlie  Deluge  and  tlie  Crossing  of  the  Red  Sea 

(now  Sucre),  in  Bolivia.     Bom  in  Peru  as  a  found-  as  symbols  of  baptism.     Avitus   deals  freely  and 

ling    (quorum    parentes    ignarantur    he    says  him-  familiarly  with  the  Scriptural  events,  Mid   exhibits 

am);   date  of  demise  unknown.    He  was  one  of  the  well  their  beauty,  sequence,  and  significance.    He 

most  active  mveetigators  of  Indian  rites  and  cus-  is  one  of  the  last  masters  of  the  art  of  rhetoric  as 

toms  of  his  time.     In  1608  he  wrote  a  treatise  of  the  taught  in  the  schools  of  Gaul  in  the  fourth  and  fifth 

"Errors,  False  Gods,  and  Other  Superstitions  of  the  centuries.     Ebert   says   that  none   of   the    ancient 

Indians  of  the  Province  of  Huarochu-i,  Mama,  and  Christian  poets  treated  more  successfulljr  the  poetic 

Cbaclla ",  of  which  unfortunately  only  the  first  six  elements  of  the  Bible.    His  poetic  diction,  though 

chapters  are  known  to  exist  and  have  been  trans-  abounding  in  archaisms  and  rhythmic  redundancy, 

Uted  into  English.    It  is,  even  m  its  incomplete  '^  P^ire  and  select,  and  the  laws  of  metre  are  well 

form,  an  mvaluable  contribution  to  the  knowledge  observed.     It  is  said  that  Milton  made  use  of  his 

rf  the  Peruvian  Indians  and  their  primitive  lore,  paraphase  of  Scripture  in  the  preparation  of  "  Para- 

ia  1811  Avila  wrote  an  equally  important  report  on  dise  Lost".     He  wrote  also  666  hexameters  "De 

tebdiahs  of  Hudnaco  in  eastern  Peru,  of  which  virgmitate"  or  "De  consolatoriA   casta tatis  laude" 

OBimblished    MS.    is    extant.     Such    writings  ^^r  the  comfort  of  his  sister  Fuscma,  a  nun.     His 

'*^  mil^te  the  charges  which  the  destruction  prose  works  include  "Contra  Eutychianam  Haeresim 

'    i  and  other  objects  of  primitive  worship  li^ri  II",  written  m  512  or  513,  and  also  about 

[iaDs  have  called  forth  against  the  Church,  eighty-seven  letters  that  are  of  considerable  impor- 

JA,  Pablo  Jos£.)  tance  for  the  ecclesiastical  and  political  history  of 

RtUa  of  the  Ineaa   (Hakiuyt  Society,  1872J;  the  years   499-518.    Among   them   is   the   famous 

t6*  Diecumario  hittdnco  hiogr&Aco  del  PerU  (1874);  letter    tO    Clovis   on    the    occasion    of    his    baptism. 

£lr^SS^i:T%I1ilu^  There  was  once  extant  a  collection  of  his  hoinilies, 

'    1879),  lotroduotioD.  but  they  have  pensbed  with  the  exception  of  two 

Ao.  F.  Bambelieb.  and  some  fraemente  and  excerpts.    In  recent  times 

Sakcho  db,  b.  at  Avila  of  the  Kings,  in  ^J^en  HavetTias  demonstrated  (Questions  m^povin- 

bL^T'H^  w^  TVrt^lGished  f  the  Catholic^Faith  against  the  Ari^,'p«rportmg 

T^^  ^  r.^  M.Zi^M.r^*  f/^^  Kia  ooJiffKTioM  to  reprcseut  thc  famous  Colloquy  of  Lyons  m  449, 

Wl^  ^d  STsucc^^^^^  ^d  W    published    by   d'A^hlry    (1^61)   in    his 

^  e^i^cal  stu^^  "Spicilegium"  (V,  110-116).     It  is  a  for^ry  of  the 

^thTS^U^veiStv^^ad^             hI  Oratorian,  Jerome  Siguier,  who  also  forgeS  t&e  letter 

'*  *^'cS^m?^'SS^o?^^^           <fif!  o^  Pope  Symmachus  (13  Oct,  501.)  to  Avitus.    The 

^S^ir^  O^  ar^  K?5%S  ^.t^h^'  ^^^^^^  ^-  -  Ir'relTenf  S^io^ns:';ne^^^^ 

STnL^nS^'h^re^^^^^  ^  ^-I-y?  1-  ^Tk^^t^  A^^S^^lT'  "^^ 

BThaa  been  a  confessor  of  St.    Theresa.    The  fol-  ^^Jf'  1^)'  *^«  ^^^^^  ^^  ^'  Chevaher  (Lyons, 

bjmg  works  of  hw  in  Spanish  are  worthy  of  note:  ^"^XetiisS..  1  February;  AviU.  ^vie,»eB  cmvree  (Paris.  1870}; 

The  Veneration  Due  to  the  Bodies  and  Kehcs  of  Denkinobr,  St.  Avite  et  la  destruction  de  VArian'Ume  en  Oauls 


htAonte  at  the  great  University 
was  afterwards 


fiogr.,  . 
P'iUrologie  (Freiburg,  1901),  538.  539. 

William  Devun.  Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

AtHus     (Alcimus  Ecdicius),   Saint,   a  distin-  Avis,  Order  of,  a  military  body  of  Portuguese 

giBsfaed  Bishop  of  "Vierme,  in  Gaul,  from  490  to  knights. — The   Kingdom   of   Portugal,   founded   in 

tbovt  518,  thou^  his  death  is  placed  by  some  as  1128,    was    not    omy    contemporaneous    with    the 

kte  9B  525  or  526.    He  was  bom  of  a  prominent  Crusades  but  conducted  one  of  its  own  against  the 

GaflD-Roman  family  closely  related  to  the  Emperor  Moors.    Some  crusaders  were  bound  only  by  tem- 

Avitos  and  other  illustrious  persons,  and  in  which  porary  vows,  and  when  these  expired  they  would 

spifloopal    honours    were    hereditary.    In    difficult  sometimes  return  to  their  country  although  the  war 

n.— 11 


ATR&IT0HX8  ll 

WM  .lot  erded.  Thia  accounU  for  the  favour  with 
whirl)  military  ordere  were  r^rded  beyond  the 
I'yreneea,  Id  Portugal  as  well  as  itt  Spain;  for  in  them 
the  vow  of  Qghtin^  agaiust  the  infideU  waa  perpetual, 
like  other  monastic  vow«.  Knights  Templars  were 
found  in  Portugal  as  early  as  1128,  and  received  a 
grant  from  Queen  Teresa  in  the  year  oC  the  Council 


1146.     AfTonao,  the  first  king,  gave  to  it  the  t«wn 
of  Evora,  captured  from  the  Moora  in  1211,  and  the 
Knights  were  first  called  "Brothers  of  Santa  Haria 
of  Evora".     Pedro   Hcnrfquex,  an  illegitimate  son 
of  the  king's  father,  was  the  first  gnind  master.     After 
the  conquest  of  Aviz  the  military  castle  erected  there 
became  the  mother-house  of  the  order,  and  they  were 
then  called  "Knighta  of  St,  Benedict  of  Avii",    since 
they  adopted  the  Benedictine  rule  in  1 162,  aa  modilied 
by  John  Ziritu,  one  of  the  earliest  Cistercian  abbots 
of    PortiKaJ,     Like    tlie    Knights    of    Calatrava    in 
Castile,  the  Knights  of  Portugal  were  indebted  to 
the  Cistercians  for  th^r  rule  and  their  habit — a  whitA 
mantle  with    a   green   fleur-de- 
lysed   cross.      The   Kniglits     of 
Calatrava  also  surrendered  some 
of  their   places  in    Portugal    to 
them     on    condition     that    the 
Knights     of    Aviz     ahoutd     be 
a  object     to    the     visitation    of 
their  grand  master.    Hence  the 
Knighls  of  Avis  were  sometimea 
regarded   as   a   branch  of   the 
CaJatravan  Order,  although  they 
never  ceased  to  have  a  Portu- 
guese  grand  master,  dependent 
for  temporalities  on  the  Portu- 
guese   kii^.     At   the    accession 
of  King  Ferdinand  (1383)   war 
broke  out  between  Castile  and 
Portugal.     When  Joio    I,  who 
bad  been  grand  master  of  the 
Knights  of  Avis,  ascended   tho 
throne  of  Portugal,  he   forbade 
the  knights  to  submit  to  Castil- 
ian  authority,  and  consequently, 
when  Gonzalvo  de  Guzman  ca^e 
to  Avii  as  Visitor,  the  knighta, 
while  according  him  hospitulity, 
refused   to   recognize  him  as  a 
superior.       Guzman     protested, 
and  the  point  remained  a  aub- 

gt    of    contention    until     the 
unci!  of  Basle  (1431),  when 
Portugal  was  declared  to   be  in  A  Khmbt  or  St. 

the  wrong.  But  the  right  of  the 
Colatravana  was  never  exercised,  and  the  next  grand 
master  of  the  Knights  of  Avii,  Rodrigo  of  Sequirol, 
continued  to  assert  auprerae  authority  over  them. 
The  mission  of  tlie  military  orders  in  Portugal 
seemed  to  fail  after  the  overthrow  of  Moslem  domina- 
tion, but  the  Portuguese  expeditious  acroes  the  sea 
opened  up  a  new  field  for  them.  The  first  landings  of 
Europeans  in  Africa,  the  conquest  of  Ceuta  by  King 


£2  ATBIL 

the  pontifical  Bulla  were  madeavulgar  means  of  r^ 

ing  money,  and  after  the  ^rand  mastership  of  the  order 
(1551)  had  been  vested  id  the  king  in  perpetuity,  he 
availed  himself  of  its  income  to  reward  any  kind  of 
service  in  the  army  or  the  fleet.  If  the  wealth  of  the 
Knighta  of  Aviz  was  not  as  great  as  that  of  the 
Knights  of  Chriat,  it  was  still  quite  lar^,  drawn  as  it 
was  from  some  forty-three  oommandenes.  The  rdi- 
gious  spirit  of  the  knights  vanished,  and  they  with- 
drew from  their  clerical  brothers  who  continue 
alone  the  conventual  life.  They  were  dispensed  from 
their  vow  of  ceUbacy  by  Alexander  VI  (1492),  who 
tolerated  their  marriage  to  prevent  scandalous 
ooncubinage;  Julius  III  (1551)  allowed  them  to  dis- 
pose freely  of  their  personal  propOTtiee.  Nobility 
of  birth  remained  the  chief  requirement  of  as- 
pirants to  the  mantle,  a  requirement  confirmed  by  a 
decree  of  1604.  Queen  Maria  I,  supported  by 
Pope  Pius  VI  (1  Aug.,  1769),  attempted  a  last 
reformation  and  failed.  Finally,  the  military  orders 
were  auppreeaed  by  Dom  Pedro,  after  the  downfall 
of  Ihfi  Miguelist  uaurpation  {1S34). 

For  Docuhkntb:  Nobohha.  Cim- 
9tiluc6«t  df-  S.  BmtD  de  Avu  (Luibon, 
1631).  For  History;    Jos.  da  Puai- 


under  Henrique,  brother  of  King  Duarte.  Fernando 
displayed  a  no  less  heroic  forbearance  during  hia  six 
years  of  captivity  among  the  Moslems,  a  long  martyr- 
dom which  after  his  death  placed  him  among  the 
Blessed  (Acta  SS.,  5  June).  This  splendid  enthusiasm 
did  not  last.  Sooii  the  whole  nation  became  affected 
by  the  wealth  that  poured  in.  and  the  Crusade  in 
jurica  d^enerated  into  mere  mercantile  enterprise; 


,  Cotaiooa  dot 

1602);  cl.  Alueiua  m'jfi'm.  cnai! 
tcienL  Liiboa  US37):  IUlvot.  Did. 
det  <mJrurc;<(riruj(lS4T),  1. 348-350: 
Bcn.<:rER.  Ormch,  ran  Fortuoal  iColhiL 
1B34-64);  Hkbcui.aho.  T/uIdtv  <V 
Partuiai  tLiibon,  1864-731, 

Ch.  Mueller. 
AvrancbQB,  Diocese  of.   Se«v 

COVTANCBS. 

Aviuicli«B,  Council  of,— In 
1172  (Sept.,  27-28)  a  council  wM 
held  at  Avranches  in  France, 
apropos  of  the  troubles  caused 
fn  the  English  Church  by  the 
murder  of  St.  Thomas  Becket 
Benry  II,  King  of  England,  af- 
ter due  penance,  waa  absolved 
from  the  censures  incurred  by 
the    assasaination    of   the    holy 

S relate,  and  swore  fidelity  to 
lexander  III  in  the  peison  of 
his  legate.  It  waa  forbidden  to 
confer  on  children  benefices  that 
carried  with  them  the  cure  of 
souls,  or    on    the    children  of 

firiests    the   churches    of     th«r 
athen).    Each    parish  was  re- 
Behidiof  or  Avis  quired     to     have    an    assistant 

(vicarius)  and  the  Advent  fast 
was  commended  to  all  who  could  observe  it,  es- 
pecially to  ecclesiastics, 

Manbi,    Coll.    (.-one.    (177H),    XXII,     136:     BMSnt.    Cme 
Rourmae.  (1717),  84.  203-20^:  CaivAuiai,  TopiMbL  (Fuii, 

18M-Si),  386.  Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

AtiU,  Phxufpb,  Jesuit,  b,  at  Angoultoie,  FVance, 
16  September,  1654;  d.  in  a  shipwreck  in  1698.  He 
was  professor  of  philosophy  and  mathematics  at 
Paris  when  he  was  summoned  to  the  missions  of 
China.  Following  the  instructions  of  Father  Verbi- 
eet,  then  at  Pekin,  he  attempted  an  overland  jour- 
ney, and  travelled  for  six  years  through  Kurdistan. 
Armenia,  Astrakhan,  Persia,  and  other  coimtriea  of 
the  East.  Arriving  at  Moscow,  he  was  refused  per- 
mission te  pass  through  Tatary,  and  was  sent  by  the 
Govemmant  to  Poland,  from  whence  be  made  his  way 
to  Constantinople  and  from  there  went  back  to  France. 
Though  exhausted  by  btemorrhages  he  set  out  again 
on  a  vessel,  which  was  lost  at  sea.  He  has  left  inter- 
esting and  valuable  accounts  of  his  long  wandering 
SomiBvoaEi^  BMiodtiiui!  lUlac.dt  J..  I,  706;  HicaADD. 
fliWw».I«W.  -J   J    Campbku. 


AZUH  163  AXDH 

Aiun  (Auxcmb).  a  titular  metropolitan  see  of  cathedral;  the  Lrij  Kaneat,  or  iudee  in  eccIeaiasticAl 

indent  ('hriRtian  Ethiopiu.     Its  episcupal  list,  from  matters,  together  with  monka  an<rprietita  of  variouR 

ibout  (he  middle  of  the  fourth  century  to  650,  is  Kiadeu.     There   are   also    many   peraotiH   known   as 

foimd  in  Gams  (p.  462),     Modem  Axmn  is  the  capital  dtftertu,  described  as  "  lay  aBsistants  in  all  the  ser- 

ol  the  Abyssinian  province  of  Tigri,  and  nestlea  in  a  vices,   acting  as  sioKers  and   performers  in   all   the 

Uoef,  or  valley,  beneath  a  lofty  peak  of  the  Adoua  church  ceremonies;  tne  scribes,  advocates,  and  doc- 

iDDunUina,  at  7,545  feet  above  tne  level  of  the  sea.  tore  of  Abyssinia  and  the  most  instructed  and  intelli- 

Beoeath  it  is   a  vast  plain  in  nhicb  arise  several  gent  people  of  the  land"  (Bent,  op.  cit.,  161). 
steeims  tributary  to  the  Nile.     "The  features  of  the        Axum  claims  to  hold  ia  the  innermost  recesses  of 

^"1  says  a  recent  traveller,  "are  very  marked;  its  cathedral  the  original  Tables  of  the  Law  and  the 

r  one  comes  across  the  large  sacred  enclosure,  tabout,  or  Ark  of  the  Covenant  that  the  Abyssiuiana 

neany  a  mile  in  circumference,  thickly  planted  with  say  was  brought  from  Jerusalem  to  their  ancieDt 

trees  and  reeds,   in   the   centre  of  which  risen  the  fortress  of  Ava  by  Menelek,  the  son  of  Solomon,  and 

rathedial,   surrounded    by    the    monastic   building  the  Queen  of  Sheba,  and  transferred  later  to  Arum. 

ind  the  residence  of  the  Etckigeh,  or  bishop.    This  The  palace  of  that  famous  Queen  is  also  shown  at 

encloBuie  occupies  nearly  the  whole  of  the  entrance  Axum.     Until   1538  Axum  was  both  the  civil  and, 

l«  the  valley;  beyond  it  on  the  hill  slopes  are  the  religious  centre  of  Abyssinia.     In  that  year,  it  was 

houses  of  the   inhabitants,   whilst  running  up   the  captured    by    Mohammed,    Prince    of    LeQa,    nnce 

vtUey  is  the  long  hue  of  stupendous  obelisks  and  which    time    the    Negus    resides    at    Gondar.     The 

b^nd  is  the  ancient  tank  or  reservoir  from  which  cathednd  is  a  fine  edifice,  and  was  built  in  the  sis- 

the  iohabitoats  still  get  their  water  supply"  (Bent,  teeuth   century   during    the    period   of    Portuguese 

TTie  Sacred \Sty  of  the  Ethiopians),  influence  in  Abyswnia,   but  on  the  substructure  of 

The  city  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  was,  together  a  very  ancient  Christian  church.     It  has  a  flat  roof 

with  Adule  (Adoua  on  the  coast)  known  to  the  Greeks  and  battlements,  and  there  is  a  corridor  outside  where 

and  Romans  as  the  chief  centra  of  trade,  with  the  tha   priests   dance    and   siug.     Around    the    cathe- 
inlerior    of     Africa,  dral  are  many  lar^ 

[or  goU-dust,  ivory,  uhflde-trees    iJeneatn 

leather,    hides,    and  which     are   built 

troinatlcs.  The  pop-  smaller  churches  or 

nlatioD  is  of  tmxed  treasuries,    in  which 

Ethiopic     (negroid)  are  stored  valuables 

and  Arab  origin,  and  of    all     kinds.       Its 

Is   probably     de-  sacred     enclosure   ia 

scended,     in     great  not  only  the  centre 

measure,     from     on  of  ecclesiastical   life, 

Arab  colony  settled  but  ahio   one  of  the 

on   the   coast   at  a  most  honoured  sano- 

rery  remote  period.  tuaries  in  Abyssinia, 

TV  numerous  Him-  where  any  criminal 

jaritic   (Arabic)   in-  can   find   shelter  by 

Ecriptions  in  the  vi-  ringng   the    bell   in 

doity    exhibit     the  the    porch    and    de- 

inSuence  of  Arabia;  claring    three    timee 

amiiariy    the   stone  in  a  loud   voice  his 

moaumenta      with  intention    of   claim- 

their    evidences    of  ingarefuge.  Women 

nm  aikd   star   wor-  are  not  allowed  to 

dnp.     Moreover,    it  enter  it.     Indeed,  all 

is  veil   known  that  Axum  is  practically 

in  the  sixth  century  a  sacred,   inviolable 

ofour era  the  Kings  The  Old  Caibidui.,  Axuu  refuge,   for   which 

of    Abyssinia,     then  j'eason  the  people  en- 

and  long  alter  reddent  at  Axum,  extended  their  sway  joy  a  condition  of  peace  and  tranquillity  unKnowa 

over  the  Sabscan  and  Himyarite  (Homerite)  tribes  of  elsewhere  in  Abyssinia  (Bent,  163). 
Yemen  on  the   opposite   Arabian   shore.     Greek  in-         Very  interestcng  are   the  numerous  stone  pedes- 

fluences  arealsotraceable  in  the  architecture  of  Axum  tab  that  once  bore  metal  statues  of  the  pre-Christian 

and  frqm  a  very  early  date,  probably  from  the  days  of  Idngs  of  Axum,  memorials  of  victory,  and  the  stone 

the  Ptolemies  of  Egypt.     In  other  words,  tills  "sacred  monoliths  and  obelisks,  fallen  or  standing,  estimated 

dty  of  the  Ethiopians"  has  been  from  time  inune-  b^  Bent  at  about  fifty.     The  latter  form  "a  consecu- 

tttorial  an  outpost  of  ancient  dviliiation  against  the  tive  series  from  very  rude  unhewn  stones  up  to  the 

nusB  of  African  barbansm.     Axum  became  a  Chris-  highly   finished   and   decorated   obelisks,   and   it   is 

tian  dty  in  the  time  of  St.  Athanaraus  of  Alexandria,  highly  probable  that  we  have  here  the  origin  and 

who  consecrated  its  -first   bishop,   St.   Frumentius,  development  of  the  obelisk  side  by  side"  (Bent,  132). 

■til!  honoured  as  the  great  patron  of  Abyssinia;  since  The  only  standing  obelisk  of  the  decorated   kind, 

which  time  (c.  330)  the  Abyssinian  Church  has  re-  highly  carved  with  sham  doors  and  beam  ends,  in 

niained  in  close  depeialency  on  the  Church  of  Alexan-  imitation  of  a.  many-storied  edifice,  is  nine  stories 

dria,  and  yet  receives  from  Egypt  its  ciiief  ecclesias-  high,  and  ends  with  a  semi-circular  finial,  on  which 

Ileal   officer,    tl^e    Abouna.     There    ia    still    extant  is  still  to  be  seen  a  representation  of  the  solar  disk. 

LG.,  XXV,  635)  a  famous  letter  of  the  Emperor  "In  other  words,"  says  Mr.  Bent  (p.  185)  "we  have 

stantius    (337--361)   to    Aeizaues,    the    King   of  before   us  a  perfect  representation   of   the   Beth-el 

Aium,  ordeiing  him  to  send  Frumentius  to  Alexan-  or  House  of  God  terminating  in  the  firmament,  in 

dria  to  receive  the  Arian  doctrine  from  the  heretical  which  the  Sabsan  sun-god  is  supposed  to  reside." 

raccessor  intruded  in  the  place  of  Athanasiue.     The  Altars  for  animal  sacrifices  were  fittod  to  the  bases  of 

other  principal  ecclesiastics  resident  at  Ajtum  are  these  obeUska;  several  of   them  are   still   visible, 

the  above  mentioned  Elchiqek  {Etchayui),  or  principal  Mounds  and  rubbish  heaps  are  scattered  about  the 

biihop,  always  a  native;  tne  Nebrid,  a  kind  of  arch-  sacred  enclosure  at  Axum  that  doubtless  cont^n 

deaoon  or  head  of  the  priesthood  and  rector  of  the  many  objects  of  profane  and  eccledasticai  interest. 


AYAOUOHO  164  AYMA&A 


that  Abyssinian  tradition  says  were  for  the  twelve  y  Cubnca.  Orad^n  iunebre  .  ,  .  .  en  las  exeguiaa  de  veinta  y 

judges  of  Prester  John,  but  are  probably  the  bases  of  vnonUpwtOB  de  ia  ob$ervancia  d:  oa.  <pte  murvenm  d  inanotdt 

anoTf^nt    triiimnhn.!    fhrnnpa   of   fhA   Kinmi  f\i    A-nim  lo9  Indtoa  apdetatat    del    Nuevo  Mexico  {Mexico,  1681).     Thia 

ancient   mumpnai  tnrones  Ol   ine  JUngS  Ot  AXUm.  Bennon  is  manifestly  baaed  upon  the  data  furnished  by  Ayeta 

Among  the  valuable  Jj^thiopic  manuscnptS  found  in  in  a  yet  unpublished  report  on  the  priests  who  were  murdered 

Abyssinia  in  modern  times  is  the  Book  of  Axum,  or  in  1680.— Bandklijer,  Hiatoiredt  la  eolonieatum  et  df*  mii- 

Abyssinian  Chronicle,,  brought  back  bjr  the  traveller  ^^tn^irS^iJ^lfSSi  v'^Jr^^^Tsiell^XS 

Bruce.     In  1805  the  Enghsh  traveller,  Salt,  discovered  mentoa  para  la  kiatoria  de  Mexico  (third  series,  very  rare}; 

at  Axum  a  bilingual  inscription  in  Greek  and  Gheez  saidByiDKum^oaimmiary  History  of  the  Zuiii  Tribe,  m 

(the  religious  language  of  Abyssinia)  of  which  only  •'<>«"»« -Am.  Arc*.,  ivo.  i.                 At^  i?  n^i^r^vriv^ 

the    Greek    (thirty-one  Unes)    remains.      It   refers  ^                                       ^^'  ^'  ^^ndelier. 

to  the  exploits  of  King  Aeizanes,  already  mentioned.  AyUoiii  LtrcAS  VXsquez  de,  the  Spanish  discoverer 

In  1833  the  German  traveller,  RUppell,  discovered  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  the  first  of  those  daring 

two  other  Gheez  inscriptions,  referring  to  the  deeds  navigators  who  tned  to  find  a  north-west  passage 

of  a  monarch  of  Axum  in  the  sixth  century.    These  from  Europe  to  Asia,  date  of  birth  uncertain;  d. 

Gheez  inscriptions  are  valuable  for  the  liistory  of  the  18  October,  1526.     He  was  a  member  of  the  Superior 

Semitic  alpnabet.     Some  Greek  coins,  older  than  the  Council  in  San  Domingo.     He  sent  an  expedition  to 

iourth  century  have  been  found  there,  also  Ethiopic  Florida  under  Francisco  Gordillo,  who,  in  June,  1521, 

coins  of  a  somewhat  later  date,  bearing  the  title,  landed  in  lat  33^  30',  somewhere  near  Cape  Fear  in 

•*  Negush  Aksum ",  or  King  of  A3aim.  North  (Carolina.     In  quest  of  the  north-wyt  passage, 

Lequikn.  Orums  ChnsL  (1740).  II.  641-660;  Smith.  IHeL  Ayll6n  came  up  from  Hispaniola  in  1524,  and  tried 

l.t^l.'S^&B^-vJi^a'ia'&rLlSS^  the  James  River  and  Chesape^e  Bay     He  receiv«l 

Ou  NOt  (Edinbunh,  1788),  I,  476;  Salt,  TravtU  in  Abti-Ma.  irom  Charles  V  a  grant  Of  the  land  be  had  discovered. 

610:  Bkmt,  TA.  Sacnd  Cttu  of  th*  seuopian*  (Loodon,  1896X  and,  in  1526,  founded  the  settlement  of  San  Miguel 

162-197.                                    >r„_„._  f   a~.~.„  de  Guandape,  not  far  from  the  site  of  the  city  of 

1HOMA8  J.  BHAHAM.  jamestown,  built  by  the  English  fuUy  eighty  yeare 

nxvian  dio^  s^ragan  to  jama     Tte  See  at  G^  "^^Te  p^nftlm^T  of  th^z^S*^ 

Ayacucho,    It  1^ m«b CathoU^^^  ^.^.^J^^ ^t^^f^ '^''°" 

secular  priests,  212  churches  or  chapels.  j^^^.   DiscoJn,  of  America  ^Boston.    1902).   III.  821; 

Battandier.  Ann,  PonL  Caih,,  1907.  Lbb  (ed.)  History  of  N.  America  (PhiUdelphiA.  1903},  1.  33»- 

.,_-_.                                «        .  t   -r^         .  841;  WiNSOR  ieaX  NarraHve  and  Critieal  History  of  America 

Ayeta,  Frat  Francisco  de,  a  Spanish  Franciscan  (Boston,  1884),  Iv. 

of  tne  seventeenth  century,  and  (while  time  and  Edward  P.  Spiixane. 

Elace  of  his  birth  and  deatn  are  not  known  as  yet.  *   i       ^    »            *                 i^                i.     i     • 

is  memorable  deeds  having  been  overlooked  and  Aylward,  Jambs  Ambrose   Dominic,  t^lopjan 

neglected  until  now)  one  of  the  most  deserving  and  ajja  Doet,  b.  at  Leeds,  4  April,  1813;  d.  at  Hmckley 

energetic  characters  of  the  end  of  that  century  in  (Enriand),  5  October,  1872.     He  was  educated  at 

New   Spain   or   Mexico.     He    became   successively  ^^^  Dommican  priory  of  Hincklejr,  entered  the  Order 

Visitor  of  the  Province  of  the  Holy  Evangel  of  New  o(St.  Dominic,  was  ordained  priest  in  1836,  became 

Mexico,  and  its  Procurator  at  Madrid;  also  Com-  provincial  m  1850,  first  Prior  of  Woodchester  m  1854, 

missary  of  the  Inquisition  in  New  Spain.    The  de-  and  provincial  a  second  time  m  1866.    He  composed 


cline  in  useful  activity  among  the  regular  orders  in    aeveral  pious  manuals  for  the  use  of  his  (immunity 
Mexico,  which  began  about  the  middle  of  the  seven-    and  "A  Novena  for  the  Holy  Scjwon  of  Advent 


aggressive  pei 
pSiblished  bv 

whi^  w^uppo8ed''to''ha^"app^i^^^^  essays  "On  the  Mystical  Elements  m  Religion,  and 

"Defensa  de  la  provincia  del  Santo  Evangelio  de  ^^   Ancient   and   Modem   Spuitism  '•  were  edited 

Mexico  sobre  la  retenci6n  de  los  curatos  y  doctrinas";  posthumously  by  Cardinal  Manning  (London, .1874). 

and  "Ultimo  recurso  de  la  provincia  de  San  Jos^  Father  Aylward's  prmcipal  monument  is  his  trans- 

de  Yucatan  sobre  despojo  de  parroquias  ".    Ayeta  ^^^^S^,  ^^a^**?.  ^TS^l  "i^*  ^'  ^^^?.^  ¥  coi^tributed 

investigated  in  person  the  most  remote  missions,  to '*  The  Cathohc  Weekly  iMtnictor".    In  his  "Annus 

espedsSy  those  of  New  Mexico,  and  he  was  the  first  Sanctus      (London,   1884)   Orbey  Shij^ey  has   re- 

to  warn  the  Spanish  authorities  of  the  storm  then  printed  many  of  them.     He  savs  of  Father  Aylward 

preparing  among  the  Pueblo  Indians.    His  report,  ^^^  he  was  "a  cidtured  and  talented  pnest  of  vaned 

from  1678,  in  which  he  exposed  the  defenceless  con-  powers  and  gifts." 

dition  of  tke  New  Mexican  colony  as.  against  the  wUd  J-"^,^  ^fif  X"^,  ^f.'^.lt'  ''^'^'  "^''  ""^ 
Indians,  and  the  dangerous  impression  which  it  had  Thomas  J.  Shahan. 
made  upon  the  sedentary  trioes,  induced  the  au- 
thorities of  New  Spain  to  reinforce  the  earrison  at  Aymar£,  alst  Aymara  (etymology  unknown  aa 
Santa  Fe,  but  it  was  too  late.  The  Pueblos  broke  ^t),  a  numerous  tribe  of  sedentary  Indians  inhabit- 
out  on  the  tenth  of  August,  1680,  and  for  fourteen  ing  the  northern  sections  of  Bolivia,  part  of  the  east- 
years  New  Mexico  was  lost  to  Sjjain.  Ayeta  hurried  em  declivities  of  the  Andes  of  that  republic,  and  the 
to  El  Paso,  and  when  the  fugitives  from  the  North  sections  of  Pern  bordering  upon  Lake  Titicaca, 
reached  that  post,  to  the  number  of  two  thousand  except  its  northern  extremity,  which  is  held  by 
famished  and  attenuated  persons,  Ayeta  was  the  first  Quicnua-speaking  Indians.  It  is  not '  safe  as  yet 
to  tender  them  the  needed  relief  in  food  and  clothing,  to  give  their  numbers,  since  white  blood  has  been 
He  was  a  man  of  superior  mind  and  indomitable  liberally  introduced  during  three  centuries,  while 
^ergy ,  entirely  devoted  to  his  task  and  to  his  order,  on  the  eastern  slopes,  in  the  so-called  Yungas,  miztorr 


AYMEBIO 


165 


AYMEBIO 


with  negroes  has  been  frequent.  Still  there  are 
certainly  several  hundred  thousands  of  them,  count- 
ing in  such  mesttzas  (Cholos)  as  live  according  to 
Indian  customs.  The  name  "Aymar^"  rather  ap- 
nlies  to  the  Irnguage,  which  seems  allied  to  the 
Quichua,  or  prevaili^  Indian  idiom  of  the  Peruvian 
mcuntains  and  of  the  southern  part  of  the  Bolivian 
hicfalands.  The  Aymai^  are  chiefly  mountaineers, 
infiabiting  the  elevated  table  land,  or  Pima,  between 
the  eastern  Cordillera  and  the  volcanic  coast  chain, 
limited  aericulture,  the  raising  of  potatoes  and 
Jdndred  tubers,  of  quinua  (chenopodtum  qyinua), 
maize  in  the  few  ^aces  where  it  will  thrive  at  the 
seneral  altitude  of  over  12,000  feet  of  the  table 
uuuL  The  raising  of  the  llama  and  alpaca  and  of 
some  cattle  and  donkeys,  are  their  chief  occupations, 

also  service  in  the 
"^  cities  as  joumev- 
•  men,  and  on  the 
lake-shore  as 
stevedores.  They 
live  in  tribal  com- 
mimities  {egtan- 
cia8)f  autonom- 
ous, and  with 
ececutive  officers 
(hUacata  and  o^ 
ccUde)  whom  they 
choose  after  the 
indications  of 
their  chief  medi- 
cine-men. to  be 
afterwaras  con- 
firmed by  the 
civil  authorities 
of  Bolivia.  Dura- 
tion of  office  is 
mostly  one  year. 
They  pay  a  per 
capita  tax,  are 
not  subject  to 
military  duty  in 
theory,  and  are 
aeldom  required  to  perform  any.  Many  of  these 
Indians,  while  apparently  indigent,  possess  no 
little  wealth,  chiefly  in  coin.  Some  of  them  are 
also  artisans.  They  are  nominally  Catholics,  but 
preserve  a  remnant  of  ancient  idolatry,  with  its 
rituals  and  ceremonies,  carefully  hidden  from  out- 
siders. In  appearance  stolid  and  humble,  they  are 
in  fact  a  cruel,  treacherous  stock,  averse  to  every 
attempt  at  progress,  hostile  to  the  whites,  par- 
ticularly to  foreigners.  But  they  sometimes  make 
good  house  servants.  They  were  first  visited  by  the 
Spaniards  in  the  last  days  of  1533,  whom  they  re- 
ceived well,  owing  to  their  hatred  of  the  Inca  tribe 
of  Cuzco.  The  latter  had  overrun  most  of  the  Lake 
territory  in  the  coiu^e  of  the  fifteenth  century  and 
established  themselves  on  the  Islands  of  Titicaca 
and  Koati  (see  articles)  and  at  Copacavana  on  the 
mainland.  The  relations  between  the  KoUas — as  the 
Quichua  call  the  Aymard  to  this  day  feee  Kollao) — 
and  the  Incas  were  not  friendly.  The  Spaniards 
were  at  first  treated  with  hospitality,  but  as  soon  as 
they  returned  in  greater  numbers  the  western  and 
southwestern  Aymar^  rose  in  arms  and  had  to  be 
repressed  by  force.  During  the  civil  wars  (1538  to 
lS54)  the  A>Tiiard  remained  passive  and  suffered 
(like  the  rest  of  the  Peruvian  Indians)  from  the 
consequences.  Uprisings  of  Aymard  groups  against 
the  Spaniards  began  in  1629,  and  local  distui'bances 
On  many  of  which  the  Indians  were  at  fault)  con- 
itiMed.  In  1780  a  general  uprising  began  among 
the  Aymard  of  western  Bolivia,  but  there  was  no 
concerted  action,  and  although  there  were  terrible 
maasaeres,  and  the  investment  of  La  Paz  by  the 
Aymard  ulmoet  ended  in  the  capture  of  that  city, 


AimamA  Nativcs 


the  Indians  were  finalljr  subdued  in  1782.  Since 
then  th^  have  remamed  comparatively  quiet. 
While  a  necessary  and  important  element  as  land-til- 
lers and  freighters,  journeymen  and  house  servants, 
they  would  be,  on  accountof  their  numbers,  a  steady 
menace  to  Bolivia,  were  it  not  for  their  incapacity 
for  united  efforts,  their  adherence  to  primitive  cus- 
toms preventing  any  submission  to  a  conmion  leader. 
With  the  coming  introduction  of  railways  in  Bolivia, 
the  Aymard  will  have  to  submit,  and  modify  their 
habits  and  customs. 

The  earliest  and  best  description  of  the  northern  and 
central  Asrmari  is  found  in  the  Relatione  per  Sua  MaeaUi. 
written  15  July.  1534.  by  Pedro  Sakcho  in  the  name  of 
Pizarro  and  officers,  and  published  (in  Italian)  by  Ramusio 
in  ToL  }H  {1665),— ReUtci&n  del  Sitio  del  Cuzco,  1539  (Madrid, 
by  Jdcknbs  db  la  Espada);  Cibza,  Parte  primera  de  la  crdnica 
del  Peru  (Antwerp,  1555;;  Segtmda  Parte  (Madrid);  Juan 
DB  Bbtaniob,  Suma  y  Narracidn  de  loe  Incae,  1551  (recent 
publication  at  Madrid);  GABdLAseo  db  la  Vboa,  Comen- 
tarioe  realee  de  he  Incae  (Lisbon,  1609):  OnxDO^Hiatoria, 
Ifnuaral  y  natural  de  lae  indiaa  (Madna,  1850);  Herbkba, 
nietoria  general  de  loa  Hechot  de  loe  CaeUUanoa  en  las  Idae 
y  Tierra  firme  del  Mar  Ockmo  (1729.  etc.);  Anello  Oliva. 
Hietoria  dd  Peru  (Lima,  without  date)— -this  history  was 
written  in  1031 — ^Bbbnab6  Cobo,  Hietoria  del  Nuevo  Mundo, 
1653  (Seville.  1803).  Of  later  works  I  only  refer  to  Wknkr, 
Pirou  et  Bohvie  (Paris,  1880)  and  to  the  works  of  Dr.  Mid- 
dendorf. — ^The  AymarA  idiom  appears  first  in  literature 
in  1583.  Caieeiemo  en  la  Lenqua  Eepafiola  y  Aymard  del 
Perik,  Ordenadovor  autoridad  del  CondUo  Provincial  de'Lima 
(Lima,  1583);  Tereer  Catecitmo  y  Expoeiei&n  de  la  Doctrina 
CriaHana,  vhr  Semumee  (Lima,  1586);  Bebtonio,  Arte  de 
la  Lengua  Aymard  (Rome,  1603)1  Idbm^  Vocabulario  de  la 
Lengua  Aymard  (Juli,  southern  JPeni,  1612).  On  the  upri^ 
incs  of  the  Aymari  in  1780  to  17s2,  Ballivian,  Ardiivo 
boliviano  (Paris,  1872);  also  Odrxozola,  Documenioe  Kietdricoe 
del  Peru  (1863),  I.  A  yery  rare  work  on  the  AsrmarA  Inngusge 
and  seldom  oonsulted,  is  Tobbbb  Rubio,  Arte  de  la  Lengua 
Aymard  (Lima,  1616). 

Ad.  F.  Bandeuer. 

Asrmeric  of  Piacensa,  a  learned  Dominican,  b.  at 
Piacenza,  Italy;  d.  at  Bologna,  19  August,  1327. 
Soon  after  his  entrance  into  the  Lombard  province 
of  the  Dominican  Order,  he  was  sent  (1262)  to  pursue 
his  studies  at  Milan,  where  he  formed  a  close  friend- 
ship wiUi  Niccol6  Boccasini,  later  pope  under 
the  name  of  Benedict  XI  (1303-04).  After  teaching 
philosophy  and  theology  for  twenty-four  years  he 
was  elected  Provincial  of  Greece,  in  this  capacity 
he  travelled  to  the  Chapter  General  of  Toulouse  in 
May,  1304,  where  a  successor  to  Bernard  de  Jusix 
was  to  be  elected,  but  just  before  the  first  session 
renounced  his  office  and  vote,  with  the  consent  of 
the  pope.  That  this  act  of  humility  was  the  cause 
of  his  election  to  the  master  generalship  of  the  order 
is  the  unanimous  verdict  of  all  its  chroniclers.  His 
first  care  was  to  regulate  studies  in  those  provinces 
where  the  opposition  of  the  Fraticelli  to  intel- 
lectual pursuits  had  been  most  felt.  He  definitely 
determmed  the  qualifications  for  d^rees  in  the 
order.  Oriental  languages  were  no  less  encouraged 
by  him  than  natural  sciences.  In  1309  Clement  IV 
enjoined  on  Aymeric  who  was  on  his  way  to  the 
chapter  of  Saragossa  in  Spain,  to  examine  into  the 
charges  brought  against  the  Templars.  He  found 
little  to  comi^ain  of.  In  1310  he  was  summoned  to 
the  Coimcil  of  Vienne  to  take  part  in  the  process  of 
the  Templars.  In  the  meantime,  however,  he  re- 
signed his  office,  and  thus  avoided  the  displeasure  of 
Clement  IV,  whose  policy  he  never  heartily  endorsed. 
At  the  same  time,  as  he  candidly  avowed,  he  i^as 
saved  from  acting  against  the  dictates  of  his  con- 
science. He  is  the  reputed  author  of  a  treatise 
against  the  heretics  of  lus  day,  and  of  works  on  moral, 
dogmatic,  and  scholastic  questions,  none  of  which 
are  known  to  be  extant.  Montfaucon  (Diarium 
Italicum,  xxvii)  speaks  of  a  curious  present  given  by 
Aymeric  to  the  convent  of  Bologna.  It  was  the 
Pentateuch  in  Hebrew  and  learned  Jews  of  the  time 
declared  that  the  manuscript  had  been  written  by 
Esdras.  ''Although  this  smacks  of  the  fabulous  , 
cautiously  remarlS  Montfaucon,  "...  still  it  can- 
not be  denied  that  the  codex  appears  to  have  been 


166 


AZABIA.8 


old  when  given  to  Aymeric''.  As  a  man  of  letters 
Aymeric  was  in  close  touch  with  the  learned  men  of 
his  time.  Pietro  Cresoenzio  of  Bologna  completed 
his  ''De  Re  Rustic^"  at  the  repeated  solicitations  of 
Aymeric,  by  whom  it  was  corrected  before  the  author 
presented  it  to  Charles  II  of  Sicily.  The  letters  of 
A3rmeric  are  found  in  ''littersB  Encyclics  Masistro* 
rum  Generalium  Ord.  Praed."  (ed.  Keichert,  Rome, 
1900),  which  forms  the  fifth  volume  of  the  ''Monu- 
menta  Hist.  Fratr.  Pr»d."  (181-202). 

TniABOSCHi,  Sttnia  deUa  litL  Ittd,,  V.  I.  152-153;  QdAtif 
AND  EcBARD,  SS,  Ord,  Prcod,,  I,  494  aqQ.;  Mortier,  HitUoire 
det  Maitres  OHi^rauz  de  Vordre  des  Frerea  Prtcheur%  (Paris, 
1905),  n,  420-473;  Kaufmjlnn  in  Der  Kalholik,  Feb..  190a 

ThOS.  M.  ScHWERTNEa. 

Asara,  Fiuz;  de,  a  Spanish  naturalist,  b.  at  Bar- 
bunales  in  Aragon;  18  May,  1746;  d.  1811.  He  first 
embraced  the  military  career  as  an  engineer,  distin- 
guished himself  in  various  expeditions,  and  rose  to 
the  rank  of  Brigadier  General  in  the  Spanish  Anny. 
He  was  appointed  member  of  the  Spanish  commis- 
sion sent  to  South  America,  in  17S1,  to  settle  the  ques- 
tion of  limits  between  the  Portuguese  and  Spanish 
coloilies.  He  remained  in  South  America  till  1801. 
While  there  he  turned  his  attention  to  the  study  of 
mammaJs,  less  as  an  anatomist  or  physiologist  than 
as  an  observer  of  the  life  and  habits  of  quadrupeds. 
His  observations,  to  which  he  added  a  large  nmnber 
of  statements  obtained  by  hearsay,  were  not  always 
favourably  criticized,  but  to-day  the  perspicacity 
of  Azara  as  a  student  of  the  life  of  South  American 
mammsds  is  generally  acknowledged.  He  also  ex- 
tended his  investigations  to  birds.  Before  leaving 
South  America,  he  sent  his  brother  (then  Spanish 
Ambassador  at  Paris)  many  notes  and  observations 
of  a  zoological  nature,  which  Moreau  de  Saint-M^ry 
published  at  Paris  in  1801  under  the  title  of  "Essai 
sur  I'histoire  naturelle  des  quadrupMes  du  Para- 
guay". In  1802  there  appeared  at  Madrid  *'Apun- 
tamientos  para  la  Histona  natural  de  los  cuadrtl- 
pedos  del  Paraguay  y  Rio  de  la  Plata  ".  In  the  same 
year  Azara  published  "  Apuntamientos  para  la  His- 
toria  de  los  pdjaros  del  Paraguay  y  Rfo  ae  la  Plata". 
In  1809  there  appeared  at  Pans  under  his  name 
"Voyage  dans  I'Ain^rique  m^ridionale  depuis  1781 
iusqu'en  1801".  In  the  latter  work  he  criticizes  the 
Jesuit  methods  of  organizing  and  educating  the 
Indians,  showing  that  he  completely  failed  to  under- 
stand the  nature  of  the  American  aborigines.  Azara, 
while  an  efficient  soldier  and  good  engineer,  as  well 
as  shrewd  observer  of  animal  life,  was  incapable  of 
understanding  the  character  of  the  Indian,  and  of 
grasping  the  only  method  by  which  the  Indian  could 
slowly  but  surely  be  civilized. 

Geografia  fUica  y  esfSrica  de  lot  vrovinctM  del  Parofpiay  y  fwir 
tionea  Ouaraniea,  compuetla  en  elaflo  1790  (Montevideo,  1904, 
with  portrait  and  biography  by  Schullbr);  Tschtjoi,  Paru 
Reiaeskxzun  (St.  GbXU  1846);  Idem,  Fauna  peruana;  Brehm, 
Das  Thierleben  (3d  ed.);  and  the  works  of  Asara  himadf,  enu- 
merated in  article. 

Ad.  F.  Bandbueb. 

Asariai  Aribtaces,  a  Catholic  Armenian  abbot  and 
archbishop,  b.  at  Constantinople,  18  July,  1782; 
d.  at  Vienna,  6  May,  1854.  He  was  sent  at  the  age 
of  fifteen  to  the  College  of  the  Propaganda  in  Rome, 
but  his  studies  were  interrupted  (1798)  by  the  French 
invasion.  Ha\ing  taken  refuge  among  the  Mechitar- 
ists  of  Triest,  he  entered  their  order  in  1801,  and  in 
the  same  year  was  ordained  priest.  The  authorities 
of  the  ephemeral  Kingdom  of  lUyria  confiscated 
(1810)  the  property  of  his  convent,  and,  after  vain 
attempts  to  obtain  restitution,  the  monks  settled  in 
Vienna,  where  they  lived  by  the  instruction  of 
Armenian  youth  and  the  revenue  of  a  printing-press. 
Azaria  was  henceforth  active  as  a  missionary  among 
his  compatriots  and  a  servant  of  the  Holy  See.  In 
182(5  he  was  made  general  abbot  of  the  community, 
and  in  1827  was  raised  to  the  (titular)  dignity  of 


Archbishop  of  CsBsarea.  Under  him  the  Mechitarist 
conmiunity  in  Vienna  prospered,  its  library  was  in- 
creased, a  bookstore  added  to  the  printing-pr^,  and 
an  abundant  religious  literature  created,  in  Ar- 
menian and  in  German.  He  opened  houses  of  bis 
conmiunity  in  Rome,  Triest,  ana  Stamboul,  founded 
the  Armenian  journal  "Europa^'^  established  an 
academy  for  the  literary  and  political  improvement 
of  his  people,  and  obtained  from  the  Porte  (1830) 
the  creation  of  an  independent  Catholic  Armenian 
patriarchate.  He  wrote  several  (mostly  anomrmous) 
works,  among  them  ''De  Vit4  Communi  Perfect^ 
Religiosorum  Utriusque  Sexus",  in  whidi  he  criti- 
cizes the  condition  of  many  Austrian  religious  houses, 
and  "Die  Erziehunff  im  Cleiste  des  Christenthumes'' 
(Vienna,  1839).  After  a  visit  to  Rome  (1850)  in 
the  interest  of  monastic  reform,  he  returned  to 
Vienna  (1852)  where  he  died  after  the  celebration  of 
his  golden  jubilee. , 

HEBQKNBdTHKR  in  Kvrchmlex,,  I,  1768. 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Asarias,  Brother  (Patrick  Francis  Mtjllany), 
educator,  essayist,  litterateur,  and  philosopher,  b. 
near  Killenaule,  County  Tipperary,  Ireland,  29  June, 
1847.  His  education  began  at  home,  and  after  the 
removal  of  his  family  to  Deerfield,  N.  Y.,  U.  S.  A.,  was 
continued  in  the  union  school  of  that  place,  and  sub- 
sequently in  the 
Christian  Broth- 
ers' Academy  at 
Utica.  Behoving 
himself  called  to 
the  life  of  a  re- 
ligious teacher,  he 
entered  the  noviti- 
ate of  the  Brothers 
of  the  Christian 
Schools,  in  New 
York  City,  on  the 
24th  of  February 
1862.  He  tauffht 
in  Albany,  New 
York  City,  and 
Philadelphia  un- 
til 1866,  when  he 
was  called  to  the 
professorship  of 
mathematics  and 
literature  in  Rock 

HiU  CoUege,  Ellioott  CSty,  Md.  GraduaUy  his  in- 
terests were  diverted  from  mathematics  and  were 
absorbed  by  hterature  and  philosophy,  which,  with 
pedagogy,  continued  to  hold  them  until  the  end  of 
nis  career.  From  1879  to  1886  he  was  President  of 
Rock  Hill  College.  Then  followed  two  years  of 
research  in  European  libraries,  chiefly  those  of  Paris 
and  London.  On  his  return  to  the  United  States, 
he  became  professor  of  literature  in  De  La  SaUe 
Institute,  New  York  City,  and  remained  such  till 
his  death  at  the  Catholic  Summer  School,  Platts- 
bureh,  20  August,  1893.  The  funeral  services  hdd 
in  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  New  York  CJity,  gave 
ample  testimony  to  his  widespread  influence  and 
to  the  esteem  in  which  he  was  held. 

The  secret  of  his  success  is  to  be  found  in  his  deep 
reverence  for  the  apostolate  of-  teaching,  a  reverence 
which  found  expression  beyond  the  walls  of  the 
class  room.  He  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  the 
"Catholic  World",  the  "American  Catholic  Quar- 
terly Review", ana  the  "American  Ecclesiastical  Re- 
view", and  his  name  appears  in  the  files  of  the  "Ekl' 
ucational  Review"  and  of  the  "International  Jour^ 
nal  of  Ethics ' '.  His  lectiu^s  bore  the  stamp  of  culture 
and  scholarship.  The  most  notable  are  these: — 
"The  Psychological  Aspects  of  Education",  delivered 
before  the  Regents'  Convocation,  University  of  the 


Brother  Azarias 


AZE  ^XDO  167  AZOE 

State  of  New  York,  IS/  /;  "Literaiy  and  Scientific  lowing  chapters  are  o<mcemed  with  the  spiritual  aeoae 

Habits  of  Thought",  before  the  International  Ck>n-  of   tmee   great   masterpieceSi    ''The   Imitation   of 

gas  of  Education,  1884:  "Aristotle  and  the  Christian  Christ",  the   "Divina   Commedia '',  and   the   ''In 

Qiurch",  before    the    Concord    School  of  Philoso-  Memoriam  ",  each  of  which,  to  quote  his  own  words, 

phy,  1885:  "Church  and  State",  before  the  Farm-  "expresses  a  distinct  phase  of  thought,  and  is  the 

inffton  Scnool  of  Philosophy,   1890:   "Religion  in  outcome  of  a  distinct  social  and  intellectual  force '\ 

Eoocation",  before  the  New  York  State  Teachers'  This  volume  is  amonff  the  most  admired  of  his  writ- 

AfiBOciation,  1891;  "Educational  Epochs",  before  the  ings  for  thought,  stv^,  and  method. 

G&tholic  Summer  School,  1893.    At  the  time  of  his        Of  his  minor  works  the  most  charming  is  "Mary, 

death,  be  was  engaged  in  preparing  a  "History  of  Queen  of  Biay",  which  was  written  for  the  "Ave 

Education"  for  the  international  j&iucation  Series.  Maria''.     It  exhales  the  faith  and  trust  of  a  devout 

Hk  first  work  as  an  independent  author  appeared  client,  and  reveals  those  finer  qualities  of  head  and 

in  1874,  with  the  title,  "Aii  Essay  Contributing  to  heart  which  bound  Brother  Azarias  so  firmly  to  his 

a  Philosophy  of  Literature"  (seventh  edition,  1^9).  order  and  won  him  so  many  friends.    After  his  death 

It  is  an  excellent  key  both  to  his  method  of  study  many  of  his  contributions  to  reviews  were  gathered 

and  to  the  plan  of  presentation  to  which  he  con-  and  puUished  in  three  volumes,  viz.  "Essavs  Edu- 

sistently  adhered  in  subsequent  works  and  addresses,  oational",    "Essays  Philosophical",   and    "Essays 

Reoan  and  Emerson  had  attempted  to  make  litera-  Miscellaneous"  (le96).    The  first  of  these  includes 

ture  a  substitute  for  religion  in  cultured  circles;  the  lectures  delivered  at  the  Catholic  Summer  School, 

with  characteristic   insight   and   modesty,   Brother  just  before  his  death:  the  second  reprints  as  its  most 

Azarias  proves  in  this  essay  that  literature  draws  its  notable  paper  the  lecture  on  "  Aristotle  and  the* 

life  and  excellence  from  religion.    He  divides  the  Christian  Cnurch",  adding  thereto  the  "Nature  and 

book  into  three  parts:  Facts  and  Principles,  Theory,  &pithetio  Principle  of  Philosophy  ",  the  "Symbolism 

and  Practice.    In  the  first  he  discusses  the  nature,  of  the  Cosmos    ,  "Psychological  Aspects  of  Educa- 

(mgin,  and  function  of  literature,  examines  its  rda-  tion  ",  and  "Ethical  Aspects  of  the  Papal  Encyclical 

tion  to  language  and  architecture,  and  formulates  the  on  Capital  and  Labor  ".    The  best  papers  in  the  third 

law  of  litemry  epochs.     He  then  presents  the  salient  vdiiune  are  "Religion  in  Education  ",  "Our  Catholic 

features  of  the  pre-Reformation  ages,  and  ai^^ee  that  School  System  ",  and  "Church  and  State";  of  the 

the  Mizabethan  era  of  letters  was  the  fruit  of  the  remaining  numbers  two  are  literary  in  subject,  and 

seeds  of  Catholicism  that  had  been  planted  and  the  tJiird  is  also  foimd  in  "Phases  of  Thought  and 

nurtured  in  early  Britain.     After  contrasting  ancient  Criticism ''. 

and  modem  literature,  he  examines  the  principles  of  ,  Smith,  Brother  Azanaa  (New  York,  1897);  AddreaaeM  cmd 

tknMk  nhi1nanrkhi/«  avnfjtwna  fhof  hfl.vA  mrMd-  infliiAnnAH  If^ttera  read  at  the   Memorial   Meeting  xn   Honor   of  Brother 

loose  pnuoeopnic  SJ^teOM  tnat  nave  most  Uinuencea  ^«,.^    (Washinffton.    1894);    Hardt,    Educational    Review 

modem  thought.     In  the  light  of  these  results  he  (December.  1893):  7%«  Aotary  (October.  1893);  Henry.  BratA«r 

Stodies   the    Uterary    artist,    the    morality    which    is  AMoriaa^Threnody,  Am,  Cath,  <?.,  January,   1894;  Steoman- 

bindiDg  on  him,  and  the  canons  that  should  guide  Hutchinson,  Library  of  ^'^''^^^^^a^^^^^^ 
him  in  his  work.    The  book  is  of  great  value  in  15rother  Uhrysostom. 

giviDff  the  student  correct  principles  of  orientation.        Asevedo,  Ignatius,  Blessed.    See  Ignatius. 

J.      ^^J^P"^®'^^*^!^^^.^^**^'?^*^^^^*^''^^^^       Aievedo,    Luiz    de.    Ethiopic    missionary    and 

ediUon,  1903)  appeared  in  1879  as  the  first  part  of  scholar,  b.,  according  to  the  more  probable  narration 

a  projected  course  m  Enriish  Literature,  which,  how-  ^f  Franco  amogem  da  Vertude  em  o  Noviciado  de 

wer,  was  never  completed.     The  author  begins  with  Coimbra,  369-61),  at  Carrazedo  Montenegro,  in  the 

jketchmg  the  "continental  homestead  'of  the  Eng-  Diocese  of  Braga,  Portugal,  in  1573;  d.  in  Ethiopia 

iBh;  he  then  contrasts  the  Celt  and  Teuton,  ex-  jn  1534,     He  became  a  Jesuit  in  1588,  and  sailed 

amines  the   pagan   traditions   on   which   Christian  fop  the  Indies  in  1592.     In  1605  he  began  his  mis- 

UtMature  was  enmfted,  and  condudes  with  chann-  gionary  labours  in  Ethiopia,  where  he  remained  until 

ing  pen  pictures  of  Hilda,  (Jedmon,  Benedict  Biscop,  y^  death.    Azevedo  was  called  the  Apostle  of  the 

and  the  Venerable  Bede.    The  period  covered  is  the  Agaus,  and  is  justly  reckoned  among  the  most  illus- 

fiirt  thousand  years  oi  the  Chnsti^  era.  tnous  of  the  Doctore  of  the  Church  of  Ethiopia,  to 

•  Aristotle  and  the  Christian  Church      (London  ^hich  he  reclaimed  many  schismatics.     He  trans- 

J?^, -^^^  J^^^'K'  ^^^^  sets  forth  the  attitude  of  the  i^ted  into  Chaldaic  the  commentaries  of  Father  Tole- 

(ithohc  Church  towards  Anstotelean  philosophy  m  tus  on  the  Epistle  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Romans,  and 

the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  cent unes,  shows  the  those  of  Francis  Ribera  on  the  Epistle  of  St.  Paul 

difference  m  spint  between  the  Staginte  and  the  to  the  Hebrews;  the  "Canonical  Hours",  the  "Of- 

Scboolmen.  and  accounts  in  part  for  this  by  tracing  fice  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary",  and  other  works, 

themwing  influence  of  Anstotle  m  the  West  and  m  He  is  the  author  of  a  grammar  of  the  Ethiopic  lan- 

the  East  imtU  the  two  streams  of  thought  converged  guage,  and  translated  into  the  same  tongue  the  New 

to  swell  the  tide  of  Scholasticism.    This  essay  was  Testament,  a  Portuguese  catechism,  instructions  on 

commended  by  Cardinal  Manning.  ^,      ,,    ,  the  Apostles'  Crewl,  and  other  books  of  the  same 

Books  and  Reading  '  (seventh  edition.  New  York,  nature. 
1904)  was  originally  a  reprint  of  two  lectures  ddiv-       goiomtvooKL,  BiUioOi,,  VIII,  73;  Tellkz.  Hiet,  Oen.  da 

ered  before  the  Cathedral  Library  Reading  Circle  of  Ethiopia;  Aivta,  266.  615.  627;  Veyoa.  RelacuinOeral.,  46. 
New  York  Gty,  1889.    The  later  editions  ofthe  work,  Joseph  M.  Woods. 

while  more  developed  and  extended  than  the  first,        Asor,  Juan,  b.  at  Lorca,  province  of    Murcia, 

^  suffer  from  two  disadvantages,  the  omission  of  an  Southern   Spain,  in    1535;  entered   the   Society  of 

mdex  and  of  suggestive  courses  of  reading  and  study.  Jesus,  18  March,  1559;  d.  in  Rome,   19  February, 

The  book  attempts  to  make  literature  in  general,  and  1603.     He  was  professor  of  philosophy  and  later  of 

Catholic  literature  in  particular,  a  living  force  for  theology,  both  dogmatic  and  moral,  at    Piacenza, 

those  even  who  have  not  received  the  oenefits  of  Alcald,  and  Rome,  and  was  a  member  of  the  first  com- 

hichor  education.  mittee  appointed  by  the  Father  General  Acquaviva 

Phases  of  Thou^t  and  Criticism"  (1892)  is  an  to  draw  up  the  famous  "  Ratio  Studiorum  ".     Father 

interesting   study   of   the   spiritual   sense   and   its  Azor  was  a  man  of  wide  and  solid  learning,  deeply 

culture.    In  developing  his  thesis.  Brother  Azarias  versed  in  Greek,  Hebrew,  and  history,  as  well  as  in 

draws  a  striking  contrast  first  between  Newman  and  his  more  s|>ecial  branch  of  theological  science.     His 

Emereon  as  typical  thinkers,  and  then  between  the  chief  title  to  general  remembrance  rests  on  his  classi- 

" habits  of  thought  engendered  by  literary  pursuits  cal  work  on  moral  theology,  in  three  folio  volumes: 

Vid  those  begotten  of  scientific  studies. ''    The  fol-  "  Institutionum  Moralium,  in  quibus  universoi  quses- 


AZORES                                  168  AZOkXf< 

tione^  ad  oonscientiam  reote  aut  prave  factorum  not  generally  known  to  the  inhabitants  of  Europe 

pertinentes  breviter  tractantur  pare  1  "»•*',  the  firet  before  the  fifteenth  century  of  our  era,  although 

volume  of  which  appeared  at  Rome  in  1600,  the  sec-  there   is   evidence   that   Phcenician.   Scandinavian, 

ond  six  veare  later,  and  the  last  in  1611.    The  work  and  Arabian  navigators  visited  it  at  oifferent  periods, 

met  with  flattering  success  in  Rome  and  at  all  the  In  1432  the  Portuguese,  Croncalo  Velho  CatH-al,dis- 

Ck>ntinental  seats  of  learning,  and  was  honoured  by  covered  the  island  of  Ssinta  Maria,  and  by  the  year 

a  special  Brief  of  Clement  VlII.    Numerous  editions  1457  all   the  islands   had   been   visited    by  either 

were  brought  out  at  Brescia,  Venice,  Lyons,  Cologne,  Portuguese  or   Flemish  explorere,  none  of  whom 

Ingolstadt,  Paris,  Cremona,  and  Rome.    The  work  found  any  aboriginal  inhabitants,  wild  animals,  or 

continued  to  hold  its  lofty  position  during  the  sue-  reptiles.    In  1466  Affonso  V  of  Portugal  granted  to 

ceeding  centuries,    was   strongly  recommended  by  the  Duchess  Isabel  of  Burgundy,  his  aunt,  some  sort 

Bossuet  in  his  synodal  statutes,  and  was  held  in  of  feudal  privilege  in  the  A-^orcs,  in  consequence  of 

highest  regard  by.  that  master  in  ihoral  theology,  which   the   colonists   for   some    time   were    mostly 

St.    Alphonsus    Liguori.     Guiy    speaks   of    Father  Flemings,  and  the  PortugueGc  themselves  in  those 

Azor  as  ''a  moderate   Probabuionst,  in  wisdom,  in  da3nB  called  the  islands  As  lUuu  Flamengas   (the 

depth  of  learning  and  in  gravity  of  judgment  taking  Flemish   Islands).     The   firet    Portuguese   colonies 

deservedly  high  rank  amonff  theologians".    There  of  any  importance  in  the  Azores  were  those  of  Sfio 

are  extant  in  MS.  other  works  by  Father  Azor;  in  Miguel,  and  Terceira,  and  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 

Rome,  in  the  Jesuit  archives,  a  oonunentary  on  the  century  *a  certain  number  of  the  Moore,  driven  from 

Canticle  of  Canticles;  at  Wttrzburg,  an  exposition  Granada  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabdla,  took  refuge  in 

of    the  Psalms,  and  at  Alcald  several  theological  the  islands. 

treatises  on  parts  of  the  "Summa"  of  St.  Thomas.  It  was  not  until  1534  that  the  ecclesiastical  orean- 

SoMMBR^BL,  Bib.  ds  la  etmp.  de  J,;  Hubtsb,  N<men-  ixation  of  the  Azores  was  effected.    Until  then  9iey 

clatar,  l»  232.                         a„««tt«  t  ht/^  a  «.«>«▼  ^^  been  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Grand  Prior 

ARTHUR  J.  MCUAFFRAT.  ^^  ^j^^  ^^^  ^j  ^j^^^       rj^y^^  g^y  ^^  p^p^  p^^j  jjj 

Asores  (PortUjguese  i4 j^ores,  "Falcons ") I  an  archi-  dated  5  November,   1534,  immediately  after   that 

pel  ago  situated  in  that  tract  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  pontiff's  accession  to  the  Apostolic  See,  formed  a 

which  is  Imown  to  marinere  as  the  Sargasso  Sea.  diocese  with  its  metropolis  at  Angra  do  Heroismo. 

The  islands  lie,  approximately,  from  S.  E.  to  N.  W.,  in  the  island  of  Terceira,  to  include  the  whole  of  thii 

about  a  diagonal  of  the  quadrilateral  formed  by  the  archipelago.    The  See  of  Angra  was  made  suffragan 

37th  and  40th  parallels  of  north  latitude  and  the  to  that  of  Fimchal,  but  in  1M7  it  was  removed  from 

24th  and  32d  meridians  of  west  long^itude.     Their  this  jurisdiction  and  placed  under  that  of  the  then 

distribution  may  be  considered  as  forming  three  sub-  Archiepiscopal    (now    Patriarchal)    See   of    Lisbon, 

groups:  the  relatively  large  islands  of  Sfto  Miguel  and  From  1580  to  1640  the  Azores,  like  the  rest  of  the 

Santa  Maria,  to  the  extreme  south-east;  Fayal,  Pico,  Portuguese  dominions,  had  to  submit  to  the  rule  of 

S&o  Jorge ,  Terceira,  and  GrSCiosa  about  midway,  Terce-  Spain ,  and  diu-ing  that  period  the  neighbouring  watere 

ira  being  about  880  geographical  (1012  English)  miles  were  the  scene  of  many  hard  fights  between  the 

from  the  Portuguese  coast;  Flores  and  Corvo  on  the  Spanish  and  the  English  sea-rovera.    The  commercial 

extreme  north-west.    These  nine  islands,  aggregating  prosperity  of  the  islands  declined  after  the  recovery 

in  area  about  922  square  miles,  vary  greatly  in  size,  of  Portuguese  independence  and  the  accession  of  the 

from  Sao  Miguel,  with  an  area  of  288,  to  Corvo,  with  House  of  Braganza  in  1640.    The  city  of  Angra  at- 

an  area  of  not  more  than  5  square  miles.    The  For-  tained  some  slight  historical  notoriety  in  1662,  when 

migas  and  other  tiny  islets  throughout  the  archipelago  Affonso  VI,  deposed  by  his  brother  Dom  Pedro,  was 

are  of  no  importance  except  as  perils  to  navigation,  imprisoned  there.    Material  prosperity  began  to  be 

Physically,  the  Azores  are  in  general  characterized  restPored  in  the  Azores  immediateV  after  the  period 

by   the    bold   and    irregular    conformation    usually  of  the  French  invasion  of  the  Peninsula  and  the 

found  in  islands  of  volcanic  origin.    The  snow-capped  flight  of  Jo4o  IV  to  Brazil  (1807),  when  the  former 

volcano  which  is  the  predominating  feature  of  Pico  restrictions  of   commerce   were   removed.      In    the 

rises  to  a  height  of  8500  feet;  the  Vara,  in  S&o  Miguel,  Portuguese  revolution  of  1828-33,  the  Azorean  popu- 

is  more  than  5500  feet;  but  the  crater  of  the  Sete  lations  took  a  decided  stand  against  the  absolutist 

Cidades  volcano,  also  in  S&o  Miguel,  is  said  to  be  not  Dom  Miguel,  repulsed  an  attack  upon  the  island  of 

more  than  866  feet  above  the  sea  level.    The  volcanic  Terceira  oy  a  Miguelist  fleet,  and  contributed  largely 

character  of  these  islands  is  also  unmistakably  shown  to  form  the  Progressista  army  which  landed  at  Oporto 

by  the  recurrence  in  their  moim tain-formations  of  in  1833,  driving  Dom  Miguel  into  exile,  and  estabUsh- 

more  or  less  extinct  cratere  Gocally  called  caldeiras —  ing  on  the  throne  the  Queen  Donna  Maria  da  Gloria, 

"  kettles ")»  one  of  which,  the  Caldeira  of  Graciosa,  who  for  two  yeare  preceding  had  resided  at  Angra. 

forms  a  steaming  lake  of  pitch.     Almost  all  the  Present   Com>iTiONS. — ^The    Azores    are   not    a 

islands  contain  mineral  springs,  the  best  known  of  colony,  nor  a  foreign  dependency  of  Portugal,  but 

which  are  in  S&o  Miguel,  Terceira,  Graoiosa,  and  an  integral  part  of  the  kingdom.    His  Most  Faithful 

Flores.      As   might    to    expected,    the   Azores   are  Majesty  is  represented  in  tne  islands  by  a  governor 

specially  subject  to  earthquakes;  in  1522  the  city  of  residing  at  Angra,  which  is  regarded  as  the  political 

Villa  Franca,  in  S§U>  Miguel,  was  destroyed,  with,  caf>ital;  at  the  same  time  the  inhabitants  are  on  a 

it  is  said,  6000  of  its  inhaoitants,  by  an  earthquake,  legislative   and   fiscal   equality   with   those  of   the 

and  another  earthquake,  in  June,  1811,  is  memorable  Portuguese   mainland,   being   regularly  represented 

for  the  birth,  about  two  miles  off  the  coast  of  Sfto  in  the  Cortes  at  Lisbon.    The  total  population  of  the 

Miguel,  of  the  little  island  which  was  named  Sabrina  archipelago  in  the  year  1900  was  256,291  (i.  e.  277.9 

after  the  British  warehip  that  was  present  at,  and  to  the  square  mile),  mostly  of  Portuguese  origin, 

reported,   the   phenomenon.     The  climate,  though  though  of  course  with  considerable  intermixture  of 

mild  and  equable,  is  extremely  humid,  the  number  Flemish  and  Moorish  blood,  with  traces  of  immigra- 

of  rainy  days  in  the  year  averaging  about  163,  or  tion  from  the  British  Isles,  and  a  sprinkling  of  negroes, 

not  far  from  50  per  cent,  and  producing  a  rainfall  Economically,  the  people  of  the  Azores  depend 

estimated  at  very  nearly  39  inches;  snow  never  falls,  chiefly  upon  agriculture,  this  term  being  taken  as 

except  on  the  highest  moimtains;  the  recorded  mini-  including  the  production  of  wine.    Most  of  the  wine 

mum  temperature  is  about  39  F..  the  maximum  only  produced  in  tne  archipelago  comes  from  the  island 

81  F.  (very  exceptionally  as  high  as  86  F.),  and  the  of  Pico,  and,  under  the  name  of  Fayal  wine,  derived 

mean  for  all  seasons  63  F.  from  the  port  whence  it  was  shipped,  used  to  be 

History. — ^The  existence  of  this  archipelago  was  famous  in  bygone  days.    The  area  exclusively  de- 


AZOTI78  169  AZTE08 

vfs^  to  vineyards  is  about  0500  acres  (nearly  15  the  Nahuatl  lingubtic  stock  which  occupied  aboriginal 

souare  miles),  producing  nearly  1,000,000  gallons  Mexico,  in  more  or  less  contiguous  eroups,  at  the 

of  wine  annually.    Wheat  and  a  large  variety  and  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  wnen  the  Span- 

abondance  of  fruits  are  crown  in  the  valleys.    Sonie  iards  first  came  into  contact  with  them.    The  Mexica 

600Q  men  are  employed  in  the  fisheries,  and  the  proper  held  only  a  group  of  islands  about  the  centre 

valneof  their  annual  catch  amounts  to  about  $175,000.  of  Ijake  Tezcuco,  and  one  or  two  minor  settlements 

Tbe  populations  of  Terceira,  Sfto  Jorge,  and  Graoiosa,  on  the  shore.     In  1519  the  tribe  numbered   about 

Dombering  about  72,000.  manufacture  cheese,  butter,  thirty  thousand  souls  of  all  ages  and  sexes,  and  was 

9oap,  linens,  woolens,  bricks,  and  tiles;  in  Fayal,  able  to  put  into  the    field  eight  thousand  warriors. 

Pico,  Floras,  and  Oorvo  a  population  of  58,000  are  By  far  tne  greater  part  of  the  population  was  concen- 

diiedy  emg^iged  in  basket-weaving  and  the  fashioning  trated  in  the  central  settlement  called  Tenochtitlan 

of  small  ujicy  articles  from  the  pith  of  the  fie  tree,  (from  teU,  "stone  ".  nochllL  "prickly  pear  ",  and  tlaUj 

Tbe  latest  available  statistics  give  the  total  of  ship-  "place  ",  or  "site  ),  which  was  founded,  as  is  gener- 

ping  annually  clearing  and  entering  all  the  ports  of  ally  admitted,  about  the  year  a.  d.  1325.      Until 

the  Aaores  as  2,052,792  tons,  with  a  total  value  of  their  settlement  upon  the  lake,  the  history  of  the 

exports  and  imports  $1,050,000.  Mexican  tribe  is  uncertain.     Data,  in  the  shape  of 

The  people  are,  with  rare  exceptions,  Catholics,  picture-writincs^  are   fragmentary,  except   sucn  as 

Weraer  (Orbis  Torarum  Catholicus,  s.  v.)  says  that  were  executed  m  the  sixteenth  century  by  Indians, ' 

there  are^onlv  about  100  Protestants  and  30  Jews  under  the  impulse    of  the  viceroys    or  of  ecclesi- 

in  the  whole  Diocese  of  Angra.    This  diocese  contains  astics.     These  dociunents  record  constant  shift  ings 

110  parishes  and   many  subsidiary  churches   and  of  the  tribe  from  points  which  are  as  yet  undeter- 

chapels;  the  cathedral  of  Anspra,  under  the  invocation  mined,  like  Aztlan  (Place  of  the  Heron)  and  Chico- 

of  U)e  Saviour  (Sfto  Salvador)  has  its  full  staff  of  moztoo  (Seven  Caves).    These  places  are  by  most 

digDitaries  and  a  chapter  of  twelve  canons,  and  there  authorities  located  north  of  Mexico,  and  some  colour 

is  a  seminary  which  prepares  120  students  for  the  is  given  to  the  assumption  by  the  relationship  traced 

priesthood.    The  secular  dergy  niunber  353  besides  between  the  Nahuatl  langiia^  of  Mexico  and  Nica- 

which  there  are  ei^ht  religious  houses  in  Terceira  rafua  and  the  Shoshonian  idioms  of  the  North-west, 
and  fifteen,  indudmg  four  convents  of  female  re-       The  Mexicans  were  the  last  of  the  Nahuatl-speakin^ 

ligioas,  in  ^U>  Bliguel.   The  population  of  the  cathe-  Indians  to  reach  the  shore  of  the  great  Lake  en 

dral  dtj  is  about  11,000,  that  of  Punta  Delgada,  Mexico.    They  found  the  valley  occupied  by  several 

in  Sfio  Migud,  exceeding  it  by  about  6000.  tribes  of  the  same  stock,  and  were  received  by  these 

WH;ra  in  Kvekemlex,,!,  1776:  WiBNtt.  Or6.  Tegrr.CaOi^  as    intrusive    destitutes.     Thrust    back    and    forth 

Mitt.  Hut,  de  la  dioouieru  de$  OeB  FortwUe9  (Paris.  1901).  among  tnese  tnoes  lor  a  numoer  01  years,  ana  ex- 

£.  Macpherson.  posed  to  great  suffenngs,  the  feeble  remnants  of  the 

.  ,^  ,      ^  ,,   ^     .     «         -...        V     y^x  flfexicans  finally  sought  refuge  on  some  sandy  patches 

Aiotiu.   (Heb.  Ashdodh:  in  Sept    Arorroj.)     (1)  that  protruded  into  the  middle  of  the  lake,  and  here 

(toe  of  the  five  groat  cities  of  t;he  Phihstmes  (Jos.,  they  found,  if  not  absolute,  at  least  comparative, 

xm,  3J,  the  modem  Esdud,  situated  three  miles  security.     WhUe  in  the  beginning  they  had  to  sub- 

from  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  about  half-way  between  gigt  on  aquatic  food  (fish  and  insects),  they  b^an 

Gaxa  and  Jaffa.    The  temple  of  Dagon,  whither  the  to  slowly  increase  in  numbers.    There  being  little 

Ark  of  the  Covenant  was  earned  by  the  Philistines,  gpace  for  tiU^e,  they  imitated  a  device  in  use  among 

waa situated  here  (I  K.,  v^  1-5;  I  Mach^  x,  83;  xi,  4).  the  tribe  oTchalco;  the  constniction  of  rafts  which 

Aiotus,  like  other  Philistme  cities,  suffered  varymg  they  covered  with  soil,  and  thus  secured  vegetable 

fwtunes  in  the  wars  with  Isiuel,  Assyriaj  and  E^t.  diet.    Timber  being  obtainable  only  on  the  main- 

Orias  fought  agamst  it  (II  Paral.,  xxvi,  6),  Sarffon  land,  they  resorted  to  adobe  for  the  construction  of 

besieged  and  took  it  (Isaias^  xx,  1;  Schrader,  "Kei-  shelters,  and  a  settlement  was  gradually  built  up 

hnschriftliche  Bibliothck'V,  II.  66-67),  and  Sennache-  which  gave  promise  of  stability.     Soon  after  their 

rib  did   likewise    (Schrader,    op.    cit.,    II,   90-91).  establishment  in  the  lake,  the  Mexican  tribe  was 

According    to    Herodotus,    Psammetichus   besieged  composed  of  two  groups;  one  of  these  was  Tenoch- 

the  city  for  twenty  years.     In    163   b.  c.   Judas  aOan,  the  other  bore  the  name  of  TlaUelolco.     Each 

Machabeus  cleared  Azotus  of  idols  (I  Mach.,  v,  68),  of  them  having  its  own  government,  hostilities  be- 

aod  in  148  b.  c.  Jonathan  and  Simon  burnt  the  came   inevitsiJ^,  resulting    in    the    defeat   of    the 

temple  of  Dagon  (I  Mach.,  x,  83-84).    To-day  Esdud  Tlaltelolco  people.      For  some  time  after,  the  latter 

is  a  modem  village,  with  manjr  ruins  attesting  its  ^^eere  held  in  a  kind  of  ser\4tude,  until  mutual  re- 

^orious  past.     In  the  New  Testament  Azotus  is  sentment  commenced  to  wear  off.    The  overthrow 

mentioned  in  connexion    with  Philip's  return  from  of  Tlaltelolco  took  place   at   the   beginning  of  the 

Gaia  (Acts,  viii,  40).     (2)  The  mountain  to  which  fifteenth  century,  which  is  as  near  a  date  as  we  ven- 

Bacdudes  pursued  the  Jews  in  battle  (IMach.,ix,  15).  ture  to  assign,  too  close  precision  in  dates  previous 

F.  X.  E.  Albert.  to  the  conquest  not  being  advisable  as  yet. 

AiOTUS,  a  titular  see  of  Palestme,  near  the  sea-  ,  la  the  meantime,  the  other  trib^  speaking  the 

coaat,  between  Jaffa  and  Ascalon.     Its  episcopal  Nahuatl  idiom,  who  were  ^tablished  on  the  mam- 

list  (325-536)   is  given  m  Gams  (452).    It  is  the  }«?<}  (Tezcuco,  Tlacopan,  Atzcapozalco,  Xochimilco, 

Aahckxi  of  the  Book  of  Josue  (xv,  47),  was  one  of  Chalco,  etc.),  alternately  at  pea^  and  at  war  with 

the  five  principal  cities  of  the  Philistines,  and  the  ?fch  other,  ^Ijad  not  paid  much  attention  to  the 

chief  seat  of  the  worship  of  their  god  Dagon  (I  Sam.,  Me»cans.    About   the   tune  of   the   overthrow   of 

M-7).    Herodotus  mentions  it  (II,  157)  as  having  Tlal^olco,  the  Tecpanecas  of  Atzcapozalco  obtamed 

withstood    King  Psammetichus  of  Egypt  in  a  siege  decidedly  the  upper  hand  and  exacted  tribute  and 

of  twenty-nme  years,  the  longest  then  known.  servitude  of  their  neighbours.  They  finaUy  attempt 

LaouiKN.  OrUii  ChnH,  (1740),  III,  66^-662;  Robkrtbon.  to  overrun  the  Aztecs  also,  and  were  successful  for 

Bikkd  Bwmanhfft,  II,  368;  ViooirBOTTx  in  DicL  de  la  Bible,  a  short  time,  but  the  latter,  directed  by  their  war- 

■.T.  il«oc  rr„«w.o  T  C3n  n  ^r  cWef,  Moctccuzoma  Ilhuicamina,  and  his  colleague, 

1-HOMAS  J.  SHAHAN.  ^^^  Cihuacohuatl  Tlacaellel,  formed  an  alliance  with 

Aiteet,  probabhr  from  Aztatl  (heron),  and  Tlacatl  the  tribes  of  Tezcuco  and  defeated  the  Tecpanecas, 

(man),  "pec^e  of  the  heron ",  in  the  Nahuatl,  or  reducing  them  to  a  minimum  of  influence  in  the 

Hexiean,  language  of  Mexico,  a  surname  applied  valley.     Out  of  this  alliance  arose,  in  the  middle  of 

to  the  tribe  ofthe  Mexica.  or  Chidiimeca  Mexitin  the  fifteenth  century,  a  formal  league  between  the 

(whence  Mexico  and  Mcxicoiw),  a  ramification  of  Mexicans,  the  tribe  of  Tezcuco,  and  that  of  Tlacopan, 


AZTKOS 


170 


ofTensive  and  defensive,  after  the  manner  of  the 
''League  of  the  Iroquois".  The  events  preceding 
the  formation  of  this  league  are  stated  in  many  ways, 
according  as  information  has  been  obtained  from  one 
or  the  other  of  the  tribes  entering  into  it,  each  claim- 
ing, of  course,  the  leading  P&rt;  but  it  is  certain  that 
the  Mexicans  held  the  military  leadership,  and  proba- 
bly received  the  greater  part  of  the  spoils.  From  the 
formation  of  this  league  dates  that  extension  of 
Mexican  sway  which  has  led  to  the  erroneous  con- 
ception of  a  primitive  Mexican  nationality  and 
empire. 

The  first  aggressions  of  the  confederates  were  on 
the  tribes  of  Aochimilco  and  Chalco,  at  the  southern 
outlet  of  the  valley.  They  seem  to  have  been  re- 
duced to  tribute  and  the  condition  of  tributaries  and 
military  vassals.  Then,  in  the  second  half  of  the 
fifteentn  century,  raids  began  upon  Indian  groups 
dwelling  outside  of  the  lake  oasin.  These  raicu  were 
conducted  with  great  shrewdness.  East  of  the  val- 
ley, powerful  tribes  of  the  Nahuatl  linguistic  stock, 
such  as  Tlaxcala,  Huexotzinco,  Cholula,  and  Atlixco, 
grouped  about  the  great  volcano  Popoca-tepetl,  were 
carefully  avoided  at  first.  The  war  parties  of  the 
confederates  circumvented  their  ranges,  pouncing 
upon  more  distant  groups,  nearer  the  coast.  The 
same  thing  took  place  with  Indians  south  of  the 
valley,  where  the  League  extended  its  murderous 
inroacb  to  Oaxaca.  The  vanquished  were  either 
exterminated  or  dispersed,  if  they  resisted  too  wdi 
or  attempted  to  recover  their  independence;  or  dse 
were  reduced  to  the  payment  of  a  tribute,  annually 
collected  by  special  gatherers  dispatched  from  tl^e 
valley,  and  of  whom  the  tributanes  were  mortally 
afraid.  This  tribute  consisted  of  products  of  the 
land,  and  of  human  victims  for  sacrifice.  Besides, 
the  subjected  tribes  were  bound  to  service  in  war. 
The  social  condition  of  the  vanquished  was  un- 
changed; they  kept  their  self-government,  thdr 
autonomy.  The  extent  of  Mexican,  in  the  sense  of 
confederate,  sway  has  been  exaggerated;  neither 
Yucatan  nor  Guatemala  was  afifected^and  what  have 
been  represented  as  Mexican  "subjects  ",  or  "colo- 
nies *',  in  those  countries  were  tribes  of  Nahuatl  lan- 
guage established  in  the  South  at  a  very,  early  date, 
and  having  no  connexion  with  Mexico  and  its 
Indians  except  the  tie  of  common  speech.  Hence 
the  so-called  "Mexican  Empire"  was  composed  ci  a 
confederacy,  territorially  restricted  to  the  lake  basin, 
and  outlying  tribes,  autonomous  but  tributary. 
All  attempts  of  the  Aztecs  and  their  allies  to 
overrun,  in  the  manner  above  described,  the  more 
powerful  tribes  residing  even  in  their  immediate 
vicinity,  failed.  An  attack  on  the  Tarascans  of 
Michuacan  under  the  war-chief  Axayacatl,  about 
1475,  resulted  in  disastrous  defeat.  Tne  wars  with 
Tlaxcala,  Cholula,  and  Huexotzinco,  as  well  as  with 
Atlixco,  ended  usually  in  drawn  battles,  with  no 
decisive  advantage  for  either  side.  Still,  it  is  not 
unlikely  that  the  confederates  would  ultimately  have 
succeeded,  since  they  had,  through  their  raids  on  the 
coast-tribes,  cut  ofif  their  adversaries  from  the  supply 
of  salt,  and  also  surrounded  them  almost  com- 
pletely, cutting  off  their  resources  in  the  direction 
of  the  sea. 

This  was  the  condition  of  affairs  when,  in  1519. 
Cortez  landed  at  Vera  Cruz,  then  an  uninhabited 
beach.  He  recognized  the  weak  points  of  the  situa- 
tion, and  successively  brought  over  to  his  side  the 
enemies  of  the  league^  then  one  of  its  members, 
Tezcuco,  and  finally,  with  these  auxiliaries,  captured 
the  lake-stronghold  of  the  ancient  Mexicans,  or 
Aztecs,  putting  an  end  to  their  existence  as  a  tribe. 
The  aegree  of  culture  which  the  Mexicans,  or 
Aztecs,  had  reached  was  not  superior  to  that  of 
any  of  the  sedentary  tribes  of  the  Mexican  tableland, 
and  in  some  respects  it  was  below  that  of  the  Indians 


of  Yucatan,   Honduras,  or  Chiapas.    Their  social 
organization  rested  on  the  basis  of  localized  clanship., 
twenty  clans  (CaljHilli),  with  descent  in  the  male  line, 
forming  the  autonomous  units  which  the  tribe  en- 
veloped like  a  shell.    The  representatives  of  these 
clans,  one  for  each,  constituted  the  supreme  tribal 
authority,  the  council,  or  Tlatocan,  and  were  elected 
for  life  or  during  good  behaviour.    These  in  turn, 
with  the  sanction  of  the  religious  <^efs,  selected  a 
head  war-chief,  or  Tlacatecumi  (Chief  of  Men),  and 
an  administrative  head,  who  bore  the  strange  title 
of  CihuorCohtuxU  (Snake  Woman),  and  probably  had 
more  reli^ous  attributes.    It  was  the  former  whom 
the  Spaniards  understood  to  be  a  monarch,  whereas 
he  was  properly  but  a  chief  executive,  subject  to 
removal.    Moctecuzoma  (Montezuma)  was  deposed 
while  a  captive  of  Cortes,  and  there  are  indications 
that  one  of  the  earlier  chieftains  (Tizoc),  suffered  a 
similar  fate.    The  twenty  dans  were  grouped  in 
four  principal  quarters,  each  had  its  own  war-chief 
with  a  special  title.    The  four  were  subordinate  to 
the  Chief  of  Men,  ^o  was  also  ex  officio  the  com* 
mander-in-chief  of  the  joint  forces  of  tne  confederacy. 
Each  clan  administered  its  own  internal  affairs,  the 
tribal  council  only  intervening  in  case  of  dissensions 
between  clans,  and  managing  intercourse  with  the 
two  other  members  of  the  league. 

The  religious  organization  of  the  Mexicans  had 
become    very    complex.    The  numerous    Shamans 
(called  priests  by  most  authors)  weregrouped  into 
four  subdivisions,  the  medicine-men  (Tlama-cazqui,. 
probably),  the  hunters  (Otomitl),  and  the  warriors; 
above  all  of  whom  were  the  two  Teotecuhtli  as  heads 
of  worship.    This  organization  was  perpetuated,  as 
among  niamr  Indian    tribes  to-day,  by  selection  and 
training.    The  basis  of  the  creed  was  a  rude  panthe- 
ism.    Monotheism  was  unknovm.     Nor  are  there  any 
traces  of  early  Christian  teachings.    The  so-<adled 
*' cross*'  of  Palenque  is,  first,  not  a  work  of  the 
Mexicans,  but  of  Maya  tribes,  and,  second,  it  is  not 
a  cross   but  an 
imperfect   Svxi* 
stika.     In   con- 
sequence of  the 
pantheistic  idea 
of     a    spiritual 
essence  pervad- 
ing  creation, 
and   individual- 
izing at  will  in 
natural  or    hu- 
man forms,  num- 
berless fetishes, 
or    idols,    were 
manufactured, 
which    entailed 
a  very  elaborate 
cult  and  a  veiy 
sanguinary  one, 
from   the    time 
that  historical 
deities    (deified 
men)  began  to 
assume     preva- 
lence.        The 
chief  idols  of  the 
Mexicans    were 
historic  person- 
ages,   probably 
Shamans  of  very 
early  times,  sur- 
rounded   by    a 
halo  of  miraculous  deeds,  hence   credited  with  su- 
pernatural   powers    and,    finally,  supernatural    de- 
scent.   These  fetishes  (I'ezcatlipoca,  QuetzalcohuatL 
etc.)  were  sometimes  of  more  than  human  sise.  of 
stone  and  wood,  elaborately  carved  and  bedecked 


God  of  War  and  Death 


I  that  n 

uraported — should  have  been  slaughtered  annually. 
Hw  victimB  were  obt^ned  in  warfare,  and  also 
fbrmad  part  of  the  tribute  imposed  upon  conquered 
tribn.  Aside  from  these  cruel  executions,  the 
Siunans  subjected  their  own  persons  to  not  tees 
ami  tortures  and  to  severe  penance. 

A  certain  education  was  given  to  the  male  Touth 
in  >D«cial  buildings  connected  with  the  houaee  of 
vonhip  and  called  Telpuchcalli  (Houses  of  the 
Yotttb).  Hat  education  consisted  in  the  rehevHal 
of  ancient  songs  and  the  use  of  weapons.  For 
eooDting,  and  for  the  preservation  of  historic  mem- 
ories, as  also  for  tribute,  pictographs,  executed  on  a 
thin  paste  of  mafucy  nbre  spread  over  delicate 
pieree  of  tanned  hide,  were  Bometimes  used.  These 
paintiogs  could  indicate  numbers  (by  dots  and  sym* 
bds),  names  (liKuree  related  to  the  meaning  of  the 
word),  dates  ((tots  and  signs),  and  events  (one  or 
more  human  figures  in  action).  Besides,  they  had 
two  diitinct  calendars,  the  origin  of  which  aamu  vety 
inriwit.  Their  great  cycle  was  of  fifty-two  years 
mbdivided  into  (our  periods,  of  tliirteen  years  each. 
The  years  were  named  Tochiii  (Rabbit),  AcaU 
(Heed),  TecpaU  (Flint),  and  Colli  (House),  and  these 
four  names  were  repeated  thirteen  times  in  the  great 
cyde.  The  month  consisted  of  twentydays,  named 
aiid  Geured  after  the  same  method.  They  had  also 
a  ritu^  calendar,  of  twenty  periods  of  thirteen  da^ 
each,  and  for  oeremoniiU  purposes  only.  Their 
numeration  went  from  one  to  twenty,  from  twenty 
to  four  hundred,  eight  thousand  benv  the  highest 
fcuie  havine  a  symbol  (Xiquipilli,  a  bag,  or  sack). 
Ineir  knowfedce  of  heavenly  bodies  was  limited; 
Ihey  knew  the  bissestile,  and  used  a  rude  correction, 
but  bad  no  astronomical  instruments.  Neither  had 
they  any  conception   of   the  angle   as  a  means  of 


Tl  AZTHB8 

to  fuse  the  metals  by  means  of  the  blowpipe.  Theiy 
used  copper  and  an  accidental  bronze,  but  no  iron. 
Obsidian  played  an  important  part,  being  the  mate- 
rial for  edged  tools  and  mirrors.  They  had  no 
metallic  currency,  gold  and  silver  were  only  for  cere- 
monial and  personal  decoration. 

The  buildings  of  Tonochtitlan  were  of  adobe  (sun- 
diied  bricks).  The  houses  were  mostly  low,  but 
wide;  the  places  of  woiBhip  small  and  din^  cbapds, 
erected  on  the  tope  of  huge  artificial  mounOH  of  earth 
encased  in  stone  work.  These  mounds  (teo-caUi, 
houses  of  the  gods,  or  spirits)  occupied  the  centre 
of  ttiQ  settlement,  and  contained  some  sculptures 
remarkable  for  size  and  elaborateness.  Tlie  teo-ealH 
were  ^iso  citadels  to  the  otherwise  unprotected 
pueblos.  The  several  causeways  built  from  Tenoch- 
titlan  to  the  mainland,  were  very  creditable  achieve- 
ments. Tenure  of  lands  was  communal,  without  pri- 
vate ownership,  each  clan  holding  a  certain  area, 
distributed  for  use  amon^  its  members.  Agricultural 
implements  were  primitive.  Land-tilla^  was  of 
secondary  importance  to  a  tribe  essentially  lacu»- 
trine,  and  which  relied  chiefly  upon  warfare  for  its 
subsistence.  Together  with  their  confederates  of 
Taecuco  and  Tlacopan,  the  ancient  Mexicans,  or 
Aitecs,  lived  by  preying  upon  other  tribes,  either 
[dundeaing  or  levying  tribute.  They  had  no  thought 
of  founding  a  state  or  nationality.  Commerce  was 
carried  on,  even  with  tribes  that  were  hostile,  and  it 
sometimes  gave  a  welcome  pretext  for  aggression. 
Of  domestic  quadrupeds  they  had  only  a  species  of 
indigenous  dog.  Like  all  Indian  towns,  Tenochtitlan 
had  a  laigs  central  market-place  {Han^ait),  the  ex- 
tent  and  resources  of  which  have  been  considerably 
exaggerated,  as  well  as  most  other  features  of  so-c^ed 
Indian  civilization. 

Of  raora  reMnt  worics,  Robertson.  Hiitarv  uf  Amtriia, 
and  FaiBOOTT,  Hubry  af  On  Con«u«t  of  Mcriio,  am  moat 
widely  known  and  h&vB  a  targa  aumbci'  □[  editiooi.  but  Ihey 
nhould  be  con-iiilleil  criliiMlly.  An  an  accumulation  of  ref- 
ersuHH  to  original  aourcw,  Hubert  H.  K.tNcRorr,  Nativ 
Ractt  of  Ou  PiuSfii:  Slalet  (Now  Yorlt,  1876).  and  MiUorv  0/ 
fj..  P..^':..  f^jrti- i....t.        ■•■■  '-  '  '■ 


tt«  Pacife.5ioi«  aiBVMy  valuable.    Eye-i _ 

quent  like  HEaH:iHi>o  CoRTfea,  Carlat  dc  RrlariOn,  and  tbs 
■oiirCAS  in  Raiauiio  are  of  grntt  importance,  but  shguld  ba 
treatfld  with  lurcunuoection  a^  intanatad  report«rs.  lo 
porl«nl  also  are  GoKiiLO  Fkrnawdei  dk  Ovikuq  y  ViLnta. 
Hitlorio  gr^imd  u  moral  dt  lot  Indiai,  111  (18531:  FniNriBCO 
LtS^EI  Dfi  GoHAHA.  ConquiaUl  de  Mfjiea,  Seaunda  Parle  de  ia 
Crdniea  gtmrat  de  tai  Indiai  (lAfi4).  Besidw.  for  tbe  ■tatna 
of  tha  Aitecs.  or  MeEicana.  and  their  dwree  of  cultura,  tha 

lthia:  Otat6stuo  oe  JAenoistta^  Hietoria  ecletiittiea  vidiana, 
alao  ot  JcAN  DE  TonatJicuiDt.  Monarauia  Indiana  (1729). 
an  of  Rnt  rank.  CkuiLaao.  HiOoria  Or  Tlaxcaia  (Uaiico, 
18S2);  ZoRiTA  and  Vovak,  Nufva  colecHM  dt  DecMrunO* 
para  la  Hitleria  dm  Miriea  (Mexico,  18911:  and  Sabaodn, 
liitlona  etnerat  de  lot  Cota*de  Nueva  E^talia  (Ueiico,  1S3S), 
dpQTva  careful  attention.     Loally  we  refer  Io^Fath —  '^ 


,    N-u^-a    B.pafln    (Mra 


,     litiiUarkia.  _  Brlacian. 


r>   (both   in   i>^BD   KiHoeaoRouoB's  ArJijiuitiet  n/' 

also  putSlKhed  much  later,    'in  the  eighleecth  cern 

IJl   t  EcHEVimBIA  wrote  a  compendioiu  Hitoria 

anagva  lit  Miiico  (Muicu.  1836),  and  Ci,*yiouui  hia  well- 

laUooa  have  appeared,  "nie  voluminous  colleotiona  enlilled: 
CeUcei^  d«  documerUoa  tnMUot  del  Arehiro  de  IrufioM,  and 
/^AiamUn  «tM  AnrumenlDt  para  ta  httioTvi  de  Etpaila,  oonfAin 
of  gif-   ■■ ■"  "- 

■peciRcaily  elhnologica' 
but  BuHer  fiom  the  fai 


All  tl 


n(o>"of^ 


if  froi 


hould 


(nowledse  of  their  tinni 
av  of  Uie  perHmal  da- 


^     Dress  and  adornment  were  elaborate,  in 

offi^  fonctiMiB;  otherwise,  the  costume  was  simMe, 
<i(  cotton,  with  sandals  and  without  trousers,  lite 
bead  was  bar«,  except  in  the  case  of  chiefs  and  some 
oftlipSli»nnijM  Ornaments  were  of  gold,  silver,  Bfid 
W^t  stonee,  moatly  turc^uMses,  the  stones  being 
adeemed  for  colour  or  bnlliancy  only.  Gold  was 
ttoiued  aa  tribute,  also  ulver.    Th^  knew  how 


Aiymes  (Gr.  '{Vfwi,  without  leaven;  Heb.  mt^ 
folh),  unfermented  cakes  used  by  the  Jen-s  in 
thdr  various  sacrifices  and  relwious  rites  (E'x..,  xxix, 
2.  23-  Niim  .  vi.  15,  17,  19;  bev.,  il,  4;  vi,  16-17; 
'   "  by  the  Law  (Ex., 


AZTMITS8  172  AZTMITE8 

xxiii,  18;  xxxiv,  25;  Lev.,  ii,  11).    Their  use  was  also  Leo  the  Isaurian  attached  to  the  Eastern  Patriarch* 

prescribed  for  the  Feast  of  the  Passover  (Ex.,  xii,  ate.    John  was  commanded  to  have  the  letter itraofr 

8, 15;  xiii,  3,  6,  7;   Num.,  ix,  11;  Deut.,  xvi,  3,  4,  8).  lated  into  Latin  and  communicated  to  the  pope  and 

On  account  of  the  facility  with  which  they  could  be  the  Western  bishops.    This  was  done  by  the  teamed 

prepared,  they  were  also  made  in  ordinary  life  for  Benedictine,  Cardinal  Humbert,  who  happened  to  be 

unexpected,  guests  (Gen.,  xviii,  6;  Judges,  vi,  19-21,  present  in  Trani  when  the  letter  airived.    Baronius 

etc.)  and  in  times  of  necessity,  e.  g.,  at  the  time  of  has  preserved  the  Latin  version;  Cardinal  Her^- 

the  Exodus  (Ex.,  xii,  34,  39),  whence  the  name,  r6ther  was  so  fortunate  as  to  discover  the  original 

*' bread  of  affliction"  (Deut.,  xvi,  3).    In  I  Cor.,  v,  8,  Greek  text  (Cornelius  Will,  Acta  et  Scripta,  51  sqq.). 

unleavened  bread  is  the  type  of  sincerity  and  truth.  It  is  a  curious  sample  of  Greek  logic.       The  love  of 

Unleavened  cakes  were  especially  used  for  the  Feast  God  and  a  feelingof  friendliness  impelled  the  writers 

of  Azymes,  also  called  the  ''solenm  feast"  (Nimi.,  to  admonish  the  Bishopw,  clergy,  monks  and  laymen 

xxviii,   17).    This  festival  was  instituted  to  com-  of  the  Franks,  and  the  Most  Reverend  Pope  himse^, 

memorate  Israers  deliverance  from  Egyptian  bond-  concerning  their  ajsyms  and  Sabbaths,  which  were  un- 

age  (Ex.,  xii,  17;  xiii^  3-10).    Its  observance  began  becoming,  as  being  Jewish  observances  and  instituted 

on  the  fifteenth  of  Abib,  or  Nisan,  ''the  month  of  new  by  Moses.    But  our  Pasch  is  Christ.    The  Lord,  in- 

com  ",  and  continued  seven  days,  the  first  and  last  deed,  obeyed  the  law  by  first  celebrating  the  legal 

of  which  were  specially  solemn   (Ex.,  xii,   15-18;  pasch:  but,  as  we  learn  from  the  Gospel,  he  subse- 

xiii,  7;  Lev.,  xxiii,  6-8,  etc.).    No  other  but  un-  quentiy   instituted   the  new   pasch.  ...  He   took 

leavened  bread  was  allowed  auring  the  whole  feast,  bread,  etc.,  that  is,  a  thing  full  of  life  and  spirit  and 

Although  originally  distinct,  the  Feast  of  Azymes  heat.    You  call  bread  pania;  we  call  it  artos  {dpros). 

and  the  Feast  of  the  Passover  are  often  treated  as  This  from  airoel(aXpw) ,  to  raise,  signifies  a  something 

one  and  the  same  (Deut.,  xvi.  16;  Matt.,  xxvi,  17;  elevated,  lifted  up,  oeing  raised  and  warmed  by  the 

Mark,  xiv,  12*  Luke,  xxii,  1,7).  ferment  and  salt;  the  azym,  on  the  other  hand,  is 

Edkrsheiu,  the  Temple  and  tto  Seruu»»  (London,  1874J:  as  lifeless  as  a  stone  or  baked  clay,  fit  only  to  sirm- 

Green.  Thetiehrew  ^J^S^^^^<'^^^l^y*  Schtjltz.  Old  ^oU^  affliction  and  suffering.    But  our  Pasch  is  re- 

TeetamerU  Theotogy*  tr.  (Edinbuigb.  1892),  I.  wi*«v  a^vMvru  »uvt  ouuva«u|^.     *^^»v  v***  *  c*^«  »  *^ 

F.  A.  E.  Albbrt.  plete  with  joy;  it  elevates  us  from  the  earth  to  heaven 

even  as  the  leaven  raises  and  warms  the  bread  ",  etc. 

As3nnite8  (a  privative  and  i^fiif^  leaven\  a  term  of  This  etymological  manipulation  of  arto8  from  airo 
reproach  used  by  the  schismatic  Greeks  since  the  was  about  as  valuable  in  deciding  a  theological  con- 
eleventh  centuiy  against  the  Latins,  who,  together  troversy  as  Melanchthon's  discovery  that  the  Greek 
with  the  Annenians  and  the  Maronites,  celebrate  the  for  "penance''  is  metanoia.  The  Latin  divines 
Holy  Eucharist  with  unleavened  bread.  Since  re-  foimd  an  abundance  of  passages  in  Scripture  where 
viling  is  apt  to  beget  reviling,  some  few  Latin  con-  unleavened  bread  is  designated  as  artos.  Cardinal 
troversiaHsts  have  retorted  by  assailing  the  Greeks  Humbert  remembered  immediately  the  places  where 
as  "  Fermentarians"  and  "  Prozymites".  There  was,  the  unleavened  loaves  of  proposition  are  called  artoL 
however,  but  little  cause  for  bitterness  on  the  Latin  If  the  writers  of  the  letter  had  been  familiar  with  the 
side,  as  the  Western  Church  has  always  maintained  Septuagint,  they  would  have  recalled  the  arUma 
the  validity  of   consecration   with   either  leavened  cufymous  of  Ex.,  xxix,  2. 

or  unleavened  bread.    Whether   the   bread    which        To  Cserularius  the  exegetical  merit  of  the   oon- 

Our  Lord  took  and  blessed  at  the  Last  Supper  was  troversy  was  of  minor  importance.     He  had  found  an 

leavened  or  unleavened,  is  another  question.     Re-  effective  battle-cry,  well  calculated  to  infuse  into  the 

garding  the  usage  of  the  primitive  Church,  our  knowl-  breasts  of  his  unreasoning  partisans  that  hatred  and 

edge  is  so  scant,  and  the  testimonies  so  apparently  defiance  of  the  Latins  which  filled  his  own  breast. 

contradictory,    that   many    theologians    have   pro-  The  flour  and  water  wafers  of  the  "Franks"  were  not 

nounced  the  problem  incapable  of  solution.  bread:  their  sacrifices  were  invalid;  they  were  Jews, 

Certain  it  is  that  in  the  ninth  century  the  use  of  not  Cnristians.  Their  Ufeiess  bread  could  only  sym- 
unleavened  bread  had  become  universal  and  obliga-  bolize  a  soulless  Christ;  therefore,  they  had  clearly 
tory  in  the  West,  while  the  Greeks,  desirous  of  em-  fallen  into  the  heresy  of  Apollinaris.  By  arts  like 
phasizing  the  distinction  between  the  Jewish  and  the  these,  the  unfortunate  Greeks  were  seduced  from  their 
Christian  Pasch,  offered  up  leavened  bread.  Some  allegiance  to  the  centre  of  CathoUc  unity;  and  a  schism 
surprise  has  been  expressed  that  Photius,  so  alert  in  was  precipitated  which  centuries  have  not  yet  healed. 
picKing  flaws  in  the  Latin  liturgy,  made  no  use  of  a  It  is  mteresting  to  notice  that  this  (question  of  azyms, 
point  of  attack  which  occupiers  so  prominent  a  place  which  brought'  forth  a  cloud  of  virulent  pampnlets 
m  the  polemics  of  the  later  schismatics.  The  obvious  and  made  a  deeper  impression  on  the  popular  imagi- 
explanation  is  that  Photius  was  shrewd  and  learned  nation  than  the  abstruse  controversy  of  the  Filioque, 
enough  to  see  that  the  position  of  the  Latins  could  caused  Uttle  or  no  discussion  among  the  theologians 
not  successfully  be  assailed.  Two  centuries  later,  the  at  the  Councils  of  Lyons  and  Florence.  At  the 
quarrel  with  Riome  was  resumed  by  a  patriarch  who  latter  Coimcil  the  Greeks  admitted  the  Latin  con- 
was  troubled  with  no  learned  scruples.  As  a  visible  tention  that  the  consecration  of  the  elements  was 
symbol  of  CathoUc  unity,  it  had  been  the  custom  to  equally  vahd  with  leavened  and  unleavened  bread: 
maintain  Greek  churches  and  monasteries  in  Rome  it  was  decreed  that  the  priests  of  either  rite  should 
and  some  of  L^tin  Rite  in  Constantinople.  In  1053,  conform  to  the  custom  of  their  respective  Church. 
Michael  Cserularius  ordered  all  the  Latin  churches  in  Modem  Russians  have  claimed  for  their  nation  the 
the  Byzantine  capital  to  be  closed,  and  the  Latin  dubious  honour  of  having  opened  this  crusade  ag^ainst 
monks  to  be  expdled.  As  a  dogmatic  justification  of  asyms;  but  the  treatises  ascribed  to  Leontius,  Bishop 
this  violent  rupture  with  the  past,  he  advanced  the  of  Kiew,  who  Uved  a  centuiy  earUer  than  Caerularius, 
novel  tenet  tnat  the  unleavened  oblation  of  the  and  in  which  all  the  well-known  arguments  of  the 
"Franks''  was  not  a  vahd  Mass;  and  one  of  his  Greeks  are  rehearsed,  are  judged  to  nave  proceeded 
chaplains,  Constantine  by  name,  with  a  fanaticism  from  a  later  pen. 

worthy  of  a  Calvinist,  trod  the  consecrated  Ho«t  un-       Hiao«Ni«yrH.R.  PhoHw^  m,  paww  .nd  in   ic,  x,..  t, 

der   his   feet.     The   proclamation   of   war  with   the  177^80;   Hefble,  ConeaienceechtdSe,  2d  ed..  IV.  766,  772^ 

pope  and  the  West  was  drawn  up  by  his  chief  Heu-  774;  Pctzipios,  L'J&ofi^  Oivntofe;  N^ 

St.  Leo  of  Achrida.  Metn,pofitan  of  the  Bukj^  'SUcnS^^.fn  ^ITMJvJ.TfeS^'B'Sf*!'"^^ 

nans.     It  was  m  the  form  of  a  letter  addressed  to  I,  c.  23  (a  olaMio  text);  La  question  detatymet,  in  Me— aa^^ 

John,  Bishop  of  Trani,  in  ApuHa,  at  the  time  sub-  fUUUt  (1889).  486-490.  *— «^o« 

iect  to  the  Byzantine  emperor,  and   by  decree  of  Jambs  F.  Lough  l.(n. 


B 

Baader,  Frank  Xaver  von,  German  philosopher,  too,  his  eagerness  to  compikrc^iend  Christianity  more 

a  at  Munich,  1765;  d.  at  the  sakne  place,  23  M&y,  1841.  thoroughly  than  the  rationalistic  theology  succeeded 

I.  The  idealistic  stream  of    German  philosophy  in  doing — the  hope  of  finding  the  key,  as  he  says, 
which  started  with  Kant  and  culminated,  in  two  to  the  world  of  mind  by  putting  himself  in  direct 
divergent   branches,   in   Hegel   and   Schopenhauer,  oorrespondence  with  the  ideal— drew  him,  in  an  age 
encountered  on  the  one  side  an  opposing  current  of  poor  m  positive  theology,  towards  a  mystical  litera- 
empirical  realism  setting  back  from '  Herbart,  and  ture  which  had  combated,  if   not  successfully,  at 
on  the  other  a  partly  reactionary,  and  yet  partly  least  with  earnestness  and  good  intent,  both  the 
concurrent  movement  originating  m  certain  Catholic  German  and  the  French  rationahsm.     Saint-Martin's 
•  thinkers.    Prominent  amon^  the  latter  was  Baader.  "Philosophe  inconnu",  which  fell  into  his  hands 
Having  entered  the  University  of  Ingolstadt  at  six-  in  1787,  carried  him  back  to  BOhme  and  thence  to 
teen  and  taken  his  doctorate  at  nineteen,  he  conr  the  whole  theosophio  tradition  which  this  German 
tinned  his  medical  studies  two  years  longer  at  Vienna  mystic  had  given  to  the  modem  world — to  Para- 
and  then  assisted  his  father,  who  was  court  physician,  cdsus,  Meister  Eckart,  Eriugena,  the  Cabbala,  and  the 
He  soon  gave  this  up.  however,  for  mining  engineer-  earlier  Gnostics.    He  encountered  on  his  way  back 
ing  and  after  consiaerable  travel  in  Germany  he  to  the  past  a  tangiUe  theology,  notably  in  the  works 
spent  about  five  years  in  England  (1791-96),  where  of  St.  Thomas  upon  which  he  comments  in  his  Diary, 
he  became  acquainted  with  the  mysticism  of  BOhme  but  also  in  the  Fathers  and  especially  in  the  Bible, 
and  with  the  extremely  opposite  empiricism  of  Hume        Since,  however,  it  was  alien  doctrine  which  had 
and  Hartley.    The  work  of  William  Godwin,  ''En-  led  him  to  the  Catholic,  the  authority  of  the  latter 
quiry  concerning  Political  Justice",  not  onlv  cail^  remained  more  or  less  confounded  with  that  of  the 
his  attention  to  moral  and  social  questions  but  also  former.    Moreover,  his  study  of  the  English  empiri- 
led  him  to  German  philosophy,  especially  to  that  of  cists  and  of  Kant's  rationalism  save  a  critical  cast 
Kant.     Baader    had    a    temperamental    sympathy  to  his  thought  if  it  did  not  add  to  his  ideas.    In 
for  the  German  Protestant  mystic  BOhme,  but  for  placing  theogonio  speculations  at  the  basis  of  his 
Kant's  philosophy,  especially  its  ethical  autonomism,  physical  and  moral  ideas,  and  in  seeking  from  mysti- 
yiz.:  that  human  reason  alone  and  apart  from  God  cism  an  answer  to  the  riddles  of  the  universe,  he 
IS  the  primary  source  of  the  supreme  nile  of  conduct,  thou^^  to  reach  a  solution  of  the  fundamental  prob- 
he  had  nothing  but  disgust.    This  he  calls  "devil's  lems  of  his  time  and  realize  the  dream  of  his  youth — 
morality"   ana   fiercely   declares  that  were  Satan  a  religious  philosophy.    Joining  the  contemplations 
visibly  to  reappear  on  earth  it  would  be  in  the  garb  of  mjrsticism  to  tne  exactness  of  criticism  he  en- 
of  a  professor  of  moral  philosophy.     For  the  English  deavoured  to  justify  the  appeal  to  both.    Mysticism 
sceptics  he  had  both  a  natural  and  an  acquired  aver-  was  to  fructify  criticism  and  criticism  authorize  mys- 
sion.    Reared  and  educated  as  a  Catholic,  though  tidsm.     He  aimed  thus  at  opposing  the  negative  with 
holding  some  decidedly  un-CathoHc  notions,  he  oomd  a  positive  rationalism.    The  transcendental  truths 
find  no  satisfaction  in  reason  divorced  from  faith,  (metaphsrsical,  and  especially  theological  concepts  de- 
Passing  through  Hamburg  on  his  return  from  Eng-  clared  unknowable   by   Kant)   were  to   fina   their 
knd  he  met  Jacoby,  with  whom  he  long  lived  in  close  justification  and  verincation  in  the  human,  but  at 
friendship.     Schellinff  likewise   counted   him   as   a  the  same  time  Divinely  impressed,  consciousness, 
friend  and  owed  to  him  some  of  the  mystical  trend  Reason  and  feeing  separated  by  Kant  were  reunited 
of  his  svstem.    On  his  return  to  Germany  Baader  h^  Baader.    Jacoby's  appeal  to  emotion  for  the  cer- 
was  made  Superintendent  of  the  Bavarian  mines  and  titude  of  transcencfental  truth  Baader  saw  to  be,  at 
was  subsequently  raised  to  the  nobility  for  his  ser-  best,  but  a  negative,  an  irrational,  escape,  while  Fichte. 
vices.    He  was  awarded  a  prize  of  12,000  gulden  by  making  such  truth  the  creation  of  the  Ego,  faUed 
even  by  the  Austrian  Government  for  an  important  to  account  for  the  Ego  itself.    The  Hegelian  logom- 
oiscovery  relating  to  the  use  of  Glauber  salts  instead  achy  of  the  Effo  and  the  non-Ego  could  no  more 
of  potash   in  the  manufacture  of  glass.    Retiring  satisfy  Baader  than  could  Schellin^'s  assertion  of  the 
from  business  in  1820  he  soon  afterwards  published  absolute  identity  of  subject  and  object.     He  had  seen 
his  "Fragmenta  Cognitionis"  (1822-25),  and  at  the  from  the  start  the  sterility  of  Schellings  principle 
opening  of  the  University  of  Munich,  in  1826,  he  was  and  had  confuted  its  pantheism, 
appointed   professor  of  speculative  theology.    His        Baader's  aim  was  a  theistic  philosophy  which 
pmlosophico-religious  lectures  (published  as  "Spec-  would  embrace  the  worids  of  nature  and  of  spirit 
ulative  Dogmatik",  1827-36)  attracted  much  atten-  and  afford  at  once  a  metaphysical  solution  of  the 
tion.    In  1838,  however^  a  ministerial  order  prohibit-  problem  of  knowled^  (science)  and  an  understand- 
ing laymen  from  lecturmg  on  such  subjects  obliged  mg  of  the  Christian  idea  and  the  Divine  activity  as 
him  to  restrict  himself  to  anthropolo^.    Viflorous  manifested  by  revelation.    Whatever  be  thought  of 
in  body  and  in  mind  he  pursued  his  intelfectual  this  ambitious  endeavour,  and  the  Catholic  student 
work  until  his  final  illness.  must  recognize  its  variance  both  with  philosophy  and 
n.  Baader's  "Tag  und  Studien  Bikcher"  (Diary),  theologv,  Baader *s  system  surpasses  ooth  in  depth 
printed  in  the  first  volume  of  his  works,  affords  an  and*in  oreadth  all  the  other  philosophies  of  his  time, 
msight  into  the  vicissitudes  of  his  mind  and  the  He  owes  this  pre-eminence  not  only  to  a  deeper 
development  of  his  ideals.     It  was  primarily  to  his  penetration,  but  likewise  to  a  broader  survey  which 
early  r^igious   training  under  his  domestic  tutor,  embraced  and  estimated  many  of  the  facts  and  truths 
Sailer,  subsequently  Bishop  of  Landshut,  that  he  of  Christianity  and  the  science  of  the  past.     Unfor- 
owed  the  convictions  with  which  he  combated  the  tunately  the  udse  mjrsticism  derived  from  Bdhme  led 
prevailing  rationalism  by  appealing  to  innate  ex-  him  into  a  fanciful  interpretation  of  the  mysteries  of 
perience  and  the  subjective  necessity  of  faith.     Reli-  faith,  while  his  attempt  at  rationalizing  those  mys- 
ckms  reading  supplemented  by  prayer  strengthened  teries  was  often  hardly  less  bizarre.     His  system, 
his  natural    tendency   towards   mysticism.    Then,  therefore,  if  it  may  so  be  called;  had  the  misfortune, 

178 


BAADEB  174  BAADEB 

on  the  one  hand,  of  being  ignored  because  of  its  reason,  penetrated,  vivified,  and  freed  from  the  poe- 
purpose  to  svnthesize  Christian  faith  and  revive  the  sibility  of  doubt.  It  is  not  memory,  nor  a  mere  relic 
old  philosophy  and  theology;  and,  on  the  other,  of  of  the  past.  It  must  cast  off  the  temporary  but  re- 
being  rejected  because  it  disfigured  Christian  teaching  tain  the  abiding;  be  permanent  but  progressive, 
bjr  its  rationalizing  spirit.  It  consequently  may  be  Mysteries  are  not  impenetrable,  but  only  concealed 
said  to  have  exercisea  an  intensive  and  transitional,  truths:  "Deum  trinum  esse  non  creditur  sed  scitur" 
rather  than  an  extensive  and  definitive,  influence  on  and  "Deiun  esse  non  creditur  sed  scitur*'  are  twin 
the  movement  of  thought.  English  sensism  having  re-  truths.  The  whole  content  of  religion  must  be  re- 
sulted logically  in  scepticism,  and  Kant's  critical  enort  duoed  to  exact  science.  There  is  no  closed  truth 
to  save  some  certainty  by  pureljr  subjective  scrutiny  iust  as  there  is  no  closed  virtue.  Science  proceeds 
having  hopelessly  lost  the  mind  in  a  maze  of  its  o>m  from  faith,  but  faith  is  developed  and  recast  by 
spinning,  Baader  saw  that  the  only  salvation  lay  in  a  science. 

return  to  the  traditional  line  of  philosophy  which       The   hopeless   confusion    here   manifest    between 
had  been  broken  off  by  Descartes.    Unfortunately  knowledge  as  a  natural  or  purely  rational  process, 
ill  resuming  that  line  Baader  unwound  some  of  its  and  faith,  in  the  Catholic  sense  of  a  supernatural  vir- 
essential  strands  and  inwove  others  of  less  consistent  tue,  finds  a  parallel  in  Baader's  ethics.     With  him 
fibre  wherewith  the  remaining  thr^uis  woidd  not  the  true,  i.  e.  religious,  and  hence  Christian,  ethicp. 
cohere.     But  in  this  very  harking  back  to  a  saner  knows  that  God  Who  gives  the  law  also  fulfils  it  in 
>  past  Baader  was  influential  in  hastening  the  health-  us,  so  that  from  being  a  burden  it  ceases  to  be  a  law. 
ier  revival  which  was  more  definitely  enected  by  his  Fallen  man  has  not  the  power  to  restore  himself; 
countiymen  Kleutgen  and  St5ckl.     Moreover,  in  so  hereditary  sin,  the  seed  of  the  Serpent,  hinders  him 
far  as  Baader  opposed  the  prevailing  nitionalism  and  in  this.    Still  he  retains  the  ''Idea  '^  the  seed  of  the 
defended  Christian  truth,  his  influence  is  dedared  by  woman,   i.   e,   redeemableness.    This   possibility  is 
so  unpreiudiced  a  writer  as  Robert  Adamson  to  have  actualized  by  God's  becoming  man,  and  thus  realiz- 
extended  bevond  the  precincts  of  Baader's  Church,  ing  the  moral  law  in  "the  Man",  the  Saviour,  Who 
Rothe's   "Tneologische   Ethik"   is   thoroughly  im-  by  overcoming  temptation  has  destroyed  evil  at  its 
pregnated  with  his  spirit,  and  anK>ng  others,  J.  Mul-  centre  and  from  within,  and  Who  has  crushed  the 
ler's  "ChristL  Lehre  von  der  Stinde    and  Martinsen's  Serpent's  head.     But  evil,  too,  must  be  destroyed 
"Christl.  Dogmatik"  show  evident  marks  of  his  in-  from  without  by  constant  mortification  of  ^o-hood. 
fluence.  In  this  task  man  co-operating  with  his  fellows  for  the 
III.  It  is  extremeW*  difficult  to  give  any  satisfae-  attainment  of  happiness  is  neither  a  solitary  worker, 
tory  conception  of  Baader's  system  within  narrow  as  the  Kantian  would  say,  nor  completely  inactive, 
limits.     Baader  was  a  most,  fertile  writer  but  threw  as  Luther  teaches.     Like  hereditary  sin,  grace  prop- 
out  his  thoughts  in  aphorisms,  some  of  which  indeed  abates  itself  qitaai  per  infefiionem  tnttE,    Prayer  and 
he  subsequently  collected,  but  most  of  M^iich  re-  the  Eucharist  place  man  en  rapport  with   Christ, 
ceived  their  development  in  reviews  and  personal  through  Whom  man,  if  he  co-operate,  will  be  restored 
correspondence.     Even    his    two    principal    works,  to  the  spiritualized  condition  whence  he  fell  by  sin. 
"Fragmenta  Cognitionis"  and    "Speculative   Dog-  This  spiritualization  thus  becomes  the  final  subjective 
matik",  are  really  mosaics  and  one  nas  to  seek  long  end  for  the  individual  and  society, 
before  discovering  any  unifying  principles.    More-       The  religious  idea  here  appears  as  the  source  and 
over,  he  moves  in  leaps;  his  style  lacks  coherence  and  the  life  of  Baader's  sociology.    The  law  of  love  for 
order.     A  suggestive  expression,  a  Latin  or  French  God  and  neighbour  is  the  unitive  principle  of  all 

Quotation  gives  an  unlooked-for  turn  to  a  discourse,  social  existence,  liberty,  and  equality;  as  the  oppo>site 

he  reader  is  knocked  about  from  one  side  to  an-  principle  of  self-love  is  the  root  of  all  disunion, 

other.     Now  he  may  be  driven  from  locic  to  meta-  slavery,  and  despotism.     God  is  the  binding  source  of 

{)hy8ics  and  again  from  theology  to  ph3r8ical  phi-  all  law,  from  Him  is  all  social  authority.  Hence 
osophy.  The  author's  ideas  often  run  into  those  of  Baader  strongly  opposes  the  might-makes-right  doc- 
others  leaving  no  line  of  demarcation.  Add  to  this  trine  of  Hobms,  ana  the  social  contract  of  Rousseau, 
the  uncertainty  of  his  terminology,  his  equivocal  and  no  less  than  Kant's  autonomism,  which  regards  re- 
often  bizarre  use,  or  abuse,  of  words  and  the  reading  ligion  as  an  appendage  of  morality.  Now  the  re- 
of  Baader  becomes  no  easy  occupation.  A  summaiy  ligious  idea  ana  the  moral  and  juridic  law  being 
of  his  system  may  be  given  as  follows:  inseparably  conjoined,  and  neither  having  actual  exist- 

(1)  Man's  knowledge  is  a  participation  in  God's  enoe  s^ve  in  Christianity  which  is  concrete  in  the 
knowledge.  The  latter  necessarily  compenetrates  the  Catholic  Church,  civil  society  (the  State),  and  religi- 
forraer  which  is  therefore  always  con-scientia/  Our  ous  society  (the  Church),  should  co-operate.  Baader 
knowledge  is  a  gift,  something  received,  and  in  this  apparently  until  towards  the  close  of  his  life  held 
respect  is  faith  wmch  is  therefore  a  voluntary  ao-  that  the  Church  should  have  direct — ^not  simply  in- 
ceptance  of  the  known  object  from  God's  knowing  direct — authority  even  in  civil  affairs,  and  he  was 
in  us  and  hence  proceeds  from  the  will.  This,  how-  enthusiastic  for  a  reinstatement,  in  a  form  adapted 
ever,  is  precedea  by  an  involuntary  subjection,  a  to  his  times,  of  the  medieval  relation  between  the 
necessitated  desire — Nemo  vuU  nisi  videns.  We  ex-  two  orders.  But  a  change  seems  to  have  come  over 
perience  the  Indwelling  Presence  soliciting  us  to  faidi.  his  mind — occasioned  very  probably  by  some  per- 
Faith  however,  in  turn,  becomes  the  basis  of  knowledge  sonal  irritation  which  he  felt  at  the  criticism  to  which 
in  which  again  faith  reaches  its  completion.  Faim  his  th€K)logical  teachings  were  subjected — and  he 
is  thus  as  necessary  for  knowledge  as  knowledge  is  for  taught  for  a  short  time  opinions  concerning  the  con- 
faith.  Now  the  content  of  faith  is  expressed  by  tech-  stitution  of  the  Chureh  and  the  Papa<y  which  were 
nical  formulae  in  religious  tradition.  Hence  sA  phi-  utterly  irreconcilable  with  Catholic  Faith,  while  the 
losophy  is  necessarily  connected  with  the  subjective  language  in  which  these  opinions  was  conveyed  ^vas 

Srocess  of  faith,  so  is  it  likewise  with  that  of  tradition,  as  unbecoming  the  philosopher  as  it  was  his  subject. 

nly  thus  can  it  begin  and  develop.    Hence  all  science,  Before  his  death,  however,  he  retracted  this  portion 

all  philosophy,  is  religious.     Natural  theology,  nat-  of  his  teaching. 

uraf  ethics,  etc.,  strictly  speaking,  are  impossible.        While  Baaaer's  sociology  maintains  that   religion 

Philosophy  arose  only  when  religious  tradition  called  is  the  very  root  and  life  of  civil  society,  it  takes  ac- 

for  explication  and  purification.     Afterwards  it  di-  count  also  of  political  and  economic  administration, 

vorced  itself,  but  it  thus  led  to  its  own  dissolution.  Thus  it  contains  his  opinions  favouring  the  organiza- 

(2)  But  faith  is  not  simply  a  gift  {Gahe)\  it  is  also  tion  of  the  classes,  the  revival  of  the  niedieval 
a  responsibility  (Aufgabe).    It  must  be  developed  by  "corporations"  or  industrial  associations,  the  politi* 


175 

eil  representation  of  the  proletariat,  and  some  well-  mates  by  speaking  of  Baalim  in  the  plural,  and 

reasoned  objections  to  unlimited  industrial  eompe-  spedfyiag  the  singular  BcuU  either  by  the  article  or 

trtion  and  free  trade.    On  the  whole,  his  sociology  by  the  a£iition  of  another  word, 

is  the  wisest,  strongest,  sanest,  and  most  practical  What  the  orifldnal  conception  was  is  most  obscure, 

piut  of  his  wlu)le  system,  just  afi  his  technical  theology  According  to  W.  R.  Smith,  the  Baal  is  a  local  god 

IS  the  weakest,    the   most   bizarre,   unsound,   and  who,  by  fertilizing  his  own  district  through  springs 

impractieaL    The  reason  of  the  difference  may  not  and  streams,  becomes  its  lawful  owner.     Good  au- 

improhably  be  found  in  the  fact  that  in  the  former  thorities,  nevertheless,  oppose  this  view,  and,  re- 

tbe  best  elements  of  his  own  mind  and  character  were  versing  the  above  argument,  hold  that  the  Baal  is 

free  to  assert  themselves,  while  in  his  theology  they  the  genius-lord  of  the  place  and  of  all  the  elements 

seem  almost  throughout  to  be  under  the  spell  of  that  cause  its  fecundity;  it  is  he  who  gives  "bread, 

Bohme  whose  fanciful  mysticism  bore  him  away  to  a  water,  wool,  flax,  oil,  and  drink"  (Os.,  ii,  5:  in  the 

legion  as  far  removed  from  experience — present  and  Hebr.  text,  7);  he  is  the  male  principle  of  life  and 

past— as  from  the  world  of  reason  and  faith.     Apart  reproduction  in  nature,  and  as  such  is  sometimes 

ETom  theology  Baader's  teachings  have  a  permanent  honoured  by  acts  of  the  foulest  sensuality.     Whether 

value.  or  nOt  this  idea  sprang  from,  and  led  to  the  mono- 

&i*«fltt*«  Werk0  (Leipaig,  1851-CO),  XV.  eontains  biograr  theistic  conception  of  a  supreme  deity,  the  "  Lord 

phy,  XVI,  an  able  sketch  of  the  whole  system  by  Luttebbeck;  _r  xi^«,r««»»    ^t  ■nrU^««^   4^k^  ^.«»;^i.«   Ti««i«  <n.^.,M   K«> 

MoFrMA^',  VorhaUe  zur  apekuUUiven  Vehre  Bd!ada-M;  PhUom^  ^^  Heaven    ,  of  whom  the  vanous  Baals  would  be 

vkudH  SehnHen.  3  vols.:    Hamberger,  CartftnoZpunJkie  tUr  80  many  manifestations,  we  shall  leave  to  scholars 

Baadent^  Philo^phie;  LurraRBECK,  PhOoaophiache  Stand-  to  decide.    Some  deem  that  the  Bible  favours  this 

hib*.,  vol.  II:  Blanc,  Histoire de  la  philoatyphie,  vol.  Ill;  Erd-  ^lew,  for  its  language  frequently  seems  to  unply  the 

uANiv.  Hiatory  of  Pk%loaophy(tr.\  II;  Hafpnbr  in  Kirchan-  belief  m  a  Baal  par  excellence. 

kxiem,  I.  8,  T.;  ScuMWT  in  Bachbm,  StMU^xwm,  a.  v.  BaAI/-WoR8HIP  AMONG  THE  GeNTILES. — ^The  evi- 

F.  p.  Siegfried.  dence  is  hardly  of  such  weight  as  to  justify  us  in 

Baal,  Baalim  (Hebr.  BI'Xl;  plural,  Bb'alIm),  a  speaking  of  a  worship  of  Baal.    The  Baal-worship 

word  which  belongs  to  the  oldest  stock  of  the  Semitic  so  often  alluded  to  and  described  in  Holy  Writ  might, 

vocabularv  and  primarily  means  "lord",  "owner",  perhaps,  be  better  styled   Qi^-worship,  moon-wor- 

So,  in  Hebrew,  a  man  is  styled  "baal"  of  a  house  ship,  Melek  (Moloch)-worship,  or  Hadad-worship,  ac- 

(Ex.,  xxii,  7;  Judges,  xix,  22),  of  a  field  (Job,  xxxi,  oordmg  to  places  and  circumstances.     Many  of  the 

39),  of  cattle  (Ex.,xxi,  28:  Isa.,  i,  3),  of  wealth  (Ecdes.,  practices  mentioned  were  most  probably  common  to 

V,  12),  even  of  a  wife  (Ex.,  xxi,  3;  cf.  Gen.,  iii,  16.  the  worship  of  all  the  Baals;  a  few  others  are  cer- 

The  woman's  position  in  the  Oriental  home  explains  tainly  specific. 

why  she  is  never  called  Bd*dlah  of  her  husband).  A  custom  common  among  Semitic  peoples  should 

So  also  we  read  of  a  ram,  "baal"  of  two  horns  (Dan.,  be  noticed  here.     Moved,  most  likely,  by  the  desire 

viii,  6,  20),  of  a  "baal"  of  two  wings  (i.  e.  fowl:  to  secure  the  protection  of  the  local  Baal  for  their 

Eccles.,  X,  20).    Joseph  was  scornfully  termed  by  children,  the  Semites  always  showed  a  preference  for 

his  brothers  a  "baal"  of  dreams  (Gen.,  xxxvii,  19).  names  compounded  with  that  of  the  deity;  those  of 

And  so  on.     (See  IV  Kings,  i,  8;  Isa.,  xli,  15;  Gen..  Hasdrubal  ('Azrtl  Bd'dl),  Hannibal  (Hanni  Bd'dl), 

xlix,  23;   Ex.,  xxiv,   14,   etc.)     Inscriptions  afford  Baltasar,    or    Belshazzar    (Bel-sar-Ushshur),    have 

scores  of  evidences  of  the  word  being  similarly  used  became  famous  in  history.     Scores  of  such  names 

in  the  other  Semitic   languages.     In   the   Hebrew  belon^ng  to  different  nationalities  are  recorded  in 

Bible,  the  plural,  be^Qltnif  is  found  with  the  various  the  Bible,  in  ancient  writers,  and  in  inscriptions, 

meanings  of  the  singular;  whereas  in  ancient  and  The  worship  of  Baal  was  performed  in  the  sacred 

modem  translations  it  is  used  only  as  referring  to  precincts  of  the  high  places  so  numerous  throughout 

deities.     It    has    been    asserted    by    several    com-  the  country  (Num.,  xxii,  41;  xxxiii,  52;  Deut.,  xii,  2, 

mentators  that  by  baalim  the  emblems  or  images  of  etc.)  or  in  temples  like  those  of  Samaria  (III  Kings, 

Baal  {kdmrndntm,  mdcfebhdth,  etc.)  should  be  under-  xvi,  32;  IV  Kings,  x,  21-27)  and  Jerusalem   (IV 

stood.  *  This  view  is  hardly  supported  by  the  texts,  Kings,  xi,   18),  even  on  the  terraced  roofs  of  the 

which  regularlv  point  out,  sometimes  oontemptu-  houses   (IV  Kings,  xxiii,  12;  Jer.,  xxxii,  29).     The 

ously,  the  local  or  other  special  Baals.  furniture  of  these  sanctuaries  probably  varied  with 

Baal  as  a  Deity. — When  applied  to  a  deity,  the  the  Baals  honoured  there.    Near  the  altar,  which 

word  Baal  retained  its  connotation  of  ownership,  existed  everywhere  (Judges,  vi,  25;  III  Kings,  xviii, 

and  was,   therefore,   usually  qualified.    The  docu-  26;  IV  Kings,  xi,  18;  Jer.,  xi,  13,  etc.),  might  be 

mcnts  speak,  for  instance,  of  the  Baal  of  T\je,  of  found,  according  to  the  particular  place,  either  an 

Harran,  of  Tarsus,  of  Hermon,  of  Lebanon,  of  Tamar  image  of  the  deity  (Haoad  was  symbolized  by  a 

(a  river  south  of  Beirut),   of  heaven.     Moreover,  calf),  or  the  bcdylion  (i.  e.  sacred  stone,  regularly 

several  Baals  enjoyed  special  attributions:  there  was  cone-shaped  in  Ghanaan)  supposed  to   have  been 


was  also  probably  one  of  dance  (Bd'dl  Mdrqdd);  the  ^dsherah  (wrongly  interpreted  "grove"  in  our 
perhaps  one  of  medicine  (Bd'dl  Mdrphi'),  and  so  on.  Bibles;  Judges,  vi,  25;  III  Kings,  xiv,  23;  IV  Kings, 
Among  all  the  Semites,  the  word,  under  one  form  or  xvii,  10;  Jer.,  xvii,  2,  etc.),  a  sacred  pole,  some- 
another  {Bd'dl  in  the  West  and  South;  Bel  in  Assyria;  times,  possibly,  a  tree,  the  original  signification  of 
Bal,  Bol,  or  Bd  in  Palmyra)  constantly  recurs  to  which  is  far  from  clear,  together  with  votive  or 
express  the  deity's  lordship  over  the  world  or  some  commemorative  stete  (md^ebhdlhf  visually  mis- 
part  of  it.  Nor  were  all  the  Baals — of  different  translated  "images"),  more  or  less  ornamented, 
tribes,  places,  sanctuaries — necessarily  conceived  as  .  There  incense  and  perfumes  were  burned  (IV  Kings, 
identical;  each  One  might  have  his  own  nature  and  xxiii,  5;  Jer.,  vii,  9,  xi,  13,  and,  according  to  the 
his  own  name:  the  partly  fishnshaped  Baal  of  Arvad  Hebrew,  xxxii,  29),  libations  poured  (Jer.,  xix,  13), 
was  probably  Dagon;  the  Baal  of  Lebanon,  possibly  and  sacrifices  of  oxen  and  other  animals  offered  up 
C5d,  "the  bunter";  the  Baal  of  Harran,  the  moon-  to  the  Baal;  we  hear  even  (Jer.,  vii,  31;  xix,  5; 
god;  whereas,  in  several  Sabean  and  Minsean  cities,  xxxii,  35;  II  Par.,  xxviii,  3)  that  children  of  both 
and  in  many'Chanaanite,  Phoenician,  or  Palmjrrene  sexes  were  not  infrequently  burned  in  sacrifice  to 
shrines,  the  sim  was  the  Baal  worshipped,  although  Melek  (D.  V.  Moloch,  A.  V.  Molech),  and  II  Par., 
Hadad  seems  to  have  been  the  chief  Baal  among  the  xxviii,  3  (perhaps  also  IV  Kings,  xxi,  6)  tells  us  that 
Syrians.     Tliia   diversity   the   Old  Testament   inti-  young  princes  were  occasionally  chosen  as  victims 


BAAL  176 

to  this  stem  deity.  In  several  shrines  long  trains  Achab's  accession  to  the  throne  of  Israel  inaucu- 
of  priests,  distributed  into  several  classes  (III  Kings,  rated  a  new  era,  that  of  the  official  worship.  Mamed 
xviii,  19;  IV  Kings,  x,  19:  xxiii,  5;  Soph.,  i,  4,  e1^.)  to  a  Sidonian  princess,  Jezebel,  the  king  erected  to 
and  clad  in  special  attire  (IV  Kings,  x,  22)  periormed  the  Baal  of  her  native  city  (Cid,  or  MeLkiut)  a  temple 
the  sacred  functions:  they  prayed,  shouted  to  the  (III  Kings,  xvi,  31,  32)  in  wnich  a  numerous  body  of 
Baal,  led  dances  around  the  altar,  and  in  their  priests  officiated  (III  Kings,  xviii,  19).  To  what 
frenzied  excitement  "  cut  themselves  with  knives  and  a  foriom  state  the  true  faith  in  the  Northern  King- 
lancets,  till  they  were  all  covered  with  blood"  (III  dom  fell  Elias  relates  in  III  Kings,  xix,  10,  14: 
Kings,  xviii,  26-28).  In  the  meantime  the  lay  "The  children  oi^  Israel  have  forsaken  thy  covenant: 
worsnippers  also  prayed,  kneeling,  and  paid  their  they  have  thrown  down  thy  altars,  they  have  slain 
homage  by  kissing  the  ima^  or  symbols  of  the  Baal  thy  prophets  with  the  sword."  There  remained 
(III  Kings,  xix,  18;  Os.,  xiii,  2,  Hebr.),  or  even  their  but  seven  thousand  men  whose  knees  had  not  been 
own  hands.  To  this  should  be  added  the  immoral  bowed  before  Baal  (III  Kings,  xix,  18).  Ochozias, 
practices  indulged  in  at  several  shrines  (III  Kings,  son  of  Achab  and  Jezebel,  K>]lowed  in  his  parents' 
xiv,  24;  IV  Kings,  xxiii,  7;  cf.  Deut.,  xxiii,  18)  in  footsteps  (III  Kings,  xxii,  54),  and  although  Jorara, 
honour  of  the  Baal  as  male  principle  of  reproduction,  his  brother  and  successor,  took  away  the  md^^^Mdlh 
and  of  his  mate  Asherah  (D.  V.  Astarthe,  A.  V.  set  up  by  his  father,  the  Baal-worship  was  not 
Ashtaroth).  stamped  out  of  Samaria  (IV  Kings,  iii,  2,  3)  until 

Baal- Worship  among  the  IsRAELrrES. — ^Nothing  its  adherents  were  slaughtered,  and  its  temple  de- 
could  be  more  fatal  to  a  spiritual  faith  than  this  stroyed  at  the  command  of  Jehu  (IV  Kines,  x,  18-28). 
sensual  religion.  In  fact,  no  sooner  had  the  Israelites,  Violent  bb  this  repression  was,  it  hardly  survived 
coming  forth  from  the  wilderness,  been  brought  into  the  prince  who  had  imdertaken  it.  The  annals  of 
contact  with  the  Baal-worshippers  than  they  were,  the  rei^pis  of  his  successors  witness  to  the  religious 
through  the  ^ile  of  the  Madianites,  and  the  attrao-  corruption  again  prevailing*  and  the  author  of  IV 
tions  of  the  licentious  worship  offered  to  the  Moabit-  Kings  could  sum  up  this  siKl  history  in  the  following 
ish  deitv  (probably  Chamos),  easily  seduced  from  few  words:  "They  forsook  all  the  precepts  of  the 
their  allegiance  to  Yahweh  (Num.,  xxv,  1-9).  Lord  their  God:  and  made  to  themselves  two  molten 
Henceforth  the  name  of  Beelpheeor  remained  like  calves,  and  groves  [Aah^rahl  and  adored  all  the  host 
a  dark  spot  on  the  earl^r  history  of  Israel  [Os.,  ix,  10;  of  heaven:  and  they  served  Baal.  And  consecrated 
Ps.  cv  (m  the  Hebr.  cvi),  281.  The  terriole  punish-  their  sons,  and  their  daughters  through  fire:  and 
ment  inflicted  upon  the  guilty  sobered  for  a  while  they  gave  themselves  to  divinations,  and  sooth- 
the  minds  of  the  Hebrews.  How  long  the  impres-  sayings:  and  they  delivered  themselves  up  to  do  evil 
sion  lasted  we  are  hardly  able  to  tell;  but  this  we  before  the  Lord,  to  provoke  him.  And  the  Lord 
know,  that  when  they  had  settled  in  the  Promised  was  very  angry  with  Israel,  and  removed  them 
Land,  the  Israelites,  again  forsaking  the  One  True  from  his  sight,  .  .  .  and  Israel  was  carried  away 
God,  paid  their  homage  to  the  deities  of  their  Chan-  out  of  their  land  to  Assyria,  unto  this  day"  (IV 
aanite  neighbours  (Judges,  ii,  11,  13,  etc.).     Even  Kings,  xvii,  16-18,  23). 

the  best  families  could  not,  or  did  not  dare,  resist  the  Meanwhile  the  Kingdom  of  Juda  fared  no  better, 

seduction*  Gedeon's  father,  for  instance,  albeit  his  There,  also,  the  princes,  far  from  checking  the  drift 

faith  in  his  Baal  seems  to  have  been  somewhat  luke-  of  the  people  to  idolatry,  were  their  instigators  and 

warm   (Judges,  vi,  31),  had  erected  an  idolatrous  abettors.     Established   by  Joram    (IV   lun^,   viii, 

altar  in  Eplira  (Judges,  vi,  25).     *'And  the  Lord,  18),  probably  at  the  suggestion  of  Athalia  his  wife, 

being  angiy  against  Israel,  delivered  them  into  the  who  was  the  daughter  of  Achab  and  Jezebel,  the  PhoD- 

hands  of  their  enemies  that  dwelt  round  about ".  nician  worship  was  continued  by  Ochozias  (IV  Kings, 

Mesopotamians,  Madianites,  Amalecites,  Ammonites,  viii,  27).     "We  know  from  IV  Kings,  xi,  18,  that  a 

and,  above    all,  Philistines,  were    successivel^r    the  temple  had  been  dedicated  to  Baal  (very  likely  the 

providential  avengers  of  God's  disregarded  rights.  Baal  honoured  in  Samaria)  in  the  Holy  City,  either 

During  the  warlike  reigns  of  Saul  and  David,  the  by  one  of  these   princes  or  by  Athalia.     At  the 

Israelites  as  a  whole  thought  little  of  shaking  off  latter's  death,   this  temple  was  destroyed   by  the 

Yahweh's  yoke;  such  also  was,  apparently,  the  situa-  faithful  people,  and  itfl  furniture  broken  to  pieces 

tion  under  Solomon's  rule,   although  tne  example  (TV  Kings,  xi,  18;  II  Par.,  xxiii,  17).     If  this  reaction 

fiven  by  this  prince  must  have  told  deplorably  upon  aid  not  crush  utterly  the  Baal-worship  in  Juda,  it 
is  subjects.  After  the  division  of  his  empire,  the  left  very  little  of  it  artive,  since,  for  over  a  century. 
Northern  Kingdom^,  first  led  by  its  rulers  to  an  un-  no  case  of  idolatry  is  recorded  by  the  sacred  writers, 
lawful  worship  of  Yahweh,  sank  speedily  into'  the  In  the  rei^  of  Achaz,  however,  we  find  the  evil  not 
grossest  Chanaanite  superstitions.  This  was  the  only  flourishing  again,  but  countenanced  by  pubUc 
more  easy  because  certain  customs,  it  seems,  brought  authority.  But  a  change  had  taken  place  in  Jiula's 
about  confusion  in  the  clouded  minds  of  the  imedu-  idolatry;  instead  of  the  Sidonian  Baal,  Melek  (Mo- 
cated  portion  of  the  people.  Names  Uke  Esbaal  loch),  the  cruel  deity  of  the  Ammonites,  had  become 
(I  Par.,  viii,  33*  ix,  39),  Meribbaal  (I  Par.,  viii,  34;  the  people's  favourite  (II  Par.,  xxviii,  2;  IV  Kings, 
ix,  40),  Baaliada  (I  Par.,  xiv,  7),  given  by  Saul,  xvi,  3,  4).  His  barbarous  rites,  rooted  out  by  Eie- 
Jonathan,  and  David  to  their  sons,  sugg^  that  chias,  appeared  again  with  the  support  of  Manasses, 
Yahweh  was  possibly  spoken  of  as  Baal.  The  fact  by  whose  influence  the  Assyro-Babylonian  astral 
has  been  disputed*  but  the  existence  of  such  a  name  deities  were  added  to  the  Pantheon  of  the  Judean 
as  BaaUa  (i.  e.  "Yahweh  is  Baal".  I  Par.,  xii,  6)  idolaters  (IV  Kings,  xxi,  3).  The  meritorious 
and  the  affirmation  of  Osee  (ii,  16;  are  arguments  efforts  of  Josias  (IV  Kings,  xxiii,  4,  5)  produced  no 
that  cannot  be  slighted.  True,  the  word  was  used  lasting  resiilts,  and  after  his  death  the  various  super- 
later  on  only  in  reference  to  idolatrous  worship,  and  stitions  in  vogue  held  sway  until  "the  Lord  cast 
even  deemed  so  obnoxious  that  hdahHh,  "shame'',  out  from  his  face  Juda  and  Jerusalem"  (IV  Kings, 
was  frequently  substituted  for  it  in  compound  xxiii,  32,  37*  xxiv,  9,  19,  and  elsewhere), 
proper  names,  thus  giving,  for  instance,  such  inoffen-  The  Babylonian  invasions  dealt  to  the  Baal-worahip 
sive  forms  as  Elioda  (II  Kings,  v,  16),  Yenibb^h^th  in  Palestine  a  deadly  blow.  At  the  restoration 
(II  Kings,  xi,  21,  Hebr.),  Isboseth  (II  Kings,  ii,  10)  Israel  shall  be  Yahweh's  people,  and  He  their  God 
and  elsewhere,  Miphiboseth  (II  Kings,  ix,  6;  xxi,  8);  (Ezech.,  xiv,  11),  and  Baal  wul  become  altogether  a 
but  these  corrections  were  due  to  a  spirit  which  thing  of  the  past, 
did  not  prevail  until  centuries  after  the  age  with  g^^^,  jy,  ^^^  ,^  (1617)    q,^^  ^Mical  Lecture. 

which  we  shall  presently  deal.  (Baltimore,  I9OI),  V;  Id..  OuUine*  of  JewUk  HiHory  (New 


BAALBEK                                177  BABEL 

York,  1905):  P^AKB  in  BAwnsoa,  DicL  BMe,  b.  v.  Baah  missionaiy  Women,  three  native  wotaen,  and  a  villafiM 

ISSrSSiJ^'-l^^^t^  ^^"^  SSSX  i  schooirr^gh  ^ooK  and  a  dispen^jry.             .  ^ 

Contmparary  Renew  for  Sept..  1883;  W.  R.  Smith,  The  Re-  ^  <^°:  ^i**  "»««  of  Bw^bek  we  Wood  and  DAWKmB./guttw  of 

ivwn  of  the  Semitee   (Edinburgh,   1889);   Bourqubnou   it  Baalbek  (I^mdon.  1767);    MvRtiAY.Handbooky  for   Travellers 

Ddtau,  Etudee  arehSoloffHiuee  iaStudee  Religieueee  (1864-66);  (I^ndon,  1868);  Lboendrb  in  Vio..  IHct.  de  la  Bib,,  s.  v.       . 

LioBANQB.  Etudee  eur  lea  retigione  efimitiques  (Paria,  1903);  ^  ^n  the  reli^ous  aspect  of  Baalbek,  see  Lequien.  Onene 

Maspebo,  HiaUnre  ancienne  dee  veupUe  de  VOrient  daemque  f**^  (^™'AI^^'  }h  ^»  Wbrner,  Of*.  terr,caOi   (Frei- 

(Paria,  1898);  Rbvillb.  La  reHgton  det  PhSniciens  in  Revue  '>«^  "»  Br..  1890);  Mtenon^  ^^i»S?N  <^'»*«»  1^^);  ^^'^ 

iu  deux  mondee,  for  15  May,  1873;  Tiele,  La  rdurion  p*A»-  tandibb,  Ann,  pont,  Cath.  (Pans.  1907). 

cKmie.  in  Revue^de  I'hxetoire  dee  religione  (1881).  lU;  ViaotJ-  R.  BUTIN. 

MUX  in  DixL  de  la  Bible,  s.  v.  Baal;  Id.,  La  Bible  et  lee  dicovr  «%        .^           r«      •*> 

mtee  modemee  (Paris,  1889).  Ill;  Id..  Lee  pritrea  de  Baal  et  BaaiUteS.     See  PaULICIANS. 

leurt  aueeeeaeura  done  VantiiruitS  et  done  le  tempa  priaent,  in  BaKaI  ^^^,,^^  :«  ♦u^  v,,i««4.,v   ^«>i».  :«  n««     ^    a. 

firm  WNiati«  for  April.  1896^  de  Voot  6.  MiSten^HTd'SrWoJly^  ..^ *?**•*  2P*^,""  ^?  V^®.  VulRate   Only  m  Gen.,  XI,  9; 

enentale  (Pans.    1868);    Bathoen.   Beitrdge  zur  aemitiachen  the  form  Babylonia  IS  found  m  Bar.,  1,  1,4;  U,  22;  VI, 

BdiMmeoeac^^^  (Berlin,   1888);    BAUDisaxN,   8tud^   twr  1-3;  I  Mach.,  vi,  4;  II  Mach.,  viii,  20;  everywhere 

Stt^p^Trr^^u^B^^'li^J?^^  ebe  the  Vukateusi  the  form.  Babvlon     Thi  word 


in  Sooi  m  Israel  (Le'yden.  1864);  Schradbr,  Booi  tm<f  Be?,     S^,  .  t    ,^i    .  /.         j      r«i        ..        *  t^   t 

in  Theoloffiache  Studien  tmd  KriUken  ^874):  Smbnd.  Lehrbuch     Hebrew  word  00161,  tO  COnfoimd.    The  City  of  Baby- 
^altt^^men&ieehen  ReligionageacMchU  (Freiburg,  Leipzig,     Ion  had  various  names  among   its  inhabitants,  e.  g. 


Charles  L.  Souvay.  ^  word  variously  explained  by  commentators     It 

v/xi^v<vx.^       >^uyAx.  ^^  j^^ij^  ^^  ^^^  gj^  ^£  ^^^  modem  village  of  Hille. 

Baalbek,  the  Heliopolis  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  According  to  Herodotus,  a  double  or  perhaps  a  triple 

writers,  a  Syrian  town  at  the  base  of  the  western  wall,  50  cubits  in  widtn  and  200  cubits  m  height, 

doDe  of  the  Anti-Lebanon,  and  the  see  of  a  Maronite  surrounded  the  town,  forming  a  square  of  120  stadia, 

ana  of  a  Melchite  bishop.    Nothing  is  known  of  the  The  square  of  the  interior  waU  was  90  stadia  long  and 

origin  and  ancient  history  of  Baall^k,  although  con-  360  stadia  in  circumference.     Both  the  Bible  and 

jectural  attempts  have   been  made  to  identify  it  the  cimeiform  inscriptions  a^gn  a  very  great  age 

with Baalgad  (Jos., xi,  17;  xiii,  5),  Avon  (A.  V.  Amos,  i,  to  the  city,  and  the  Biblical  data  (Gen.,  xi,  1-9)  con- 

5),  etc    Among  the  monuments  of  Baalbek  were  oeming  the  material  of  the  walls  are  confirmed  by 

three  temples:  the  Great  Temple  of  Jupiter,  the  the  testimon^r  of  the  ruins.    "Let  us  make  brick,  and 

Tonple  of  the  Sun,  and  the  Circular  Temple  of  Venus;  bake  them  with  fire.    And  they  had  brick  instead  of 

all  of  them  date  from  the  second  century  a.  d.    The  stones,  and  slime  instead  of  mortar." 
so-called  Acropolis,  on  the  platform  of  which  two       The  ancient  city  possessed  marvellous  temples, 

of  the  temples  were  erected,  is  older.    Baalbek  has  splendid  palaces,  and  curious  gardens.    Among  the 

been  destroyed  almost  entirely  by  earthquakes  and  temples,  two  deserve  special  attention,  £-sagila,  the 

wars,  but  even  to-day  its  ruins  are  said  to  be  the  temple  of  Bel  Merodach,  on  the  eastern  'bank  of  the 

most  'beautiful  in  e^ustenoe.     The  boldness  of  the  Eupnrates,  and  E-zida,  the  temple  of  Nebo,  west  of 

irchitecture  and  the  <^clopean  dimensions  of  some  the  river.   The  ruins  of  these  sanctuaries  are  probably 

of  the  monoliths  of  the  Acropolis  are  among  the  identical  with  those  of  Bftbil  and  Birs  NimrQa,  though 

many  features    interesting    both    to    the   scientist  opinions  « differ   concerning   B&bil.     The   buildings 

and  the    traveller.    The  political  history  of  Baal-  were  pyramidal  in  form  and  rose  in  several,  usually 

htk  is   that  of    the    surrounding  coimtry.     (See  seven,  step-like  sections.    The  storied  tower  of  Birs 

Steia.)  NimrQd  counts  seven  of  these  quadran^ar  plat- 

The  introduction  of  Christianity  into  Baalbek  is  formp  painted  in  seven  colours,  black,  white,  yelldw, 
obscure.  In  the  Ufe  of  St.  Eudocia,  there  is  mentir  n  blue,  scarlet,  silver,  and  gold,  and  in  the  same  order 
of  one  Theodotus,  Bishop  of  Heliopolis,  in  the  reign  sacred  to  the  stellar  gods,  Adar  (Saturn),  Ishtar 
(U7-138)  of  Hadrian.  (Acta  SS.,  1  March,  8  saq.)  (Venus),  Merodach  (Jupiter),  Nebo  (Mercury), 
The  account  is  of  doubtful  historical  value  and  when  Nergal  (Mars),  Sin  (the  Moon),  Shamash  (the  Sim). 
GoDstantine  forbade  the  licentious  pagan  practices,  It  has  been  learned  in  the  excavations  at  Nippur 
there  were  no  Christians  there.  Constantme.  how-  that  the  pyramidal  tower  or  ziggtirrat  did  not  oon- 
evw,  erected  a  church  or  perhaps  simply  transformed  stitute  the  whole  of  the  Babylonian  Temple,  This 
one  of  the  temples  into  a  Christian  basilica,  which  he  latter  had  an  inner  and  an  outer  court,  both  nearly 
entrusted  to  a  bishop  with  priests  ana  deacons  square  and  nearly  of  the  same  dimensions:  the  tower 
(Eusebius,  Life  of  Const.,  Ill,  Iviii).  During  the  occupied  about  one-third  of  the  area  of  the  inner 
reign  of  Julian  (361-363)  the  Christians  were  se-  court,  and  near  to  it  stood  the  temple  proper  where 
yerely  persecuted  (Sozomen,  History,  V,  x).  Pagan-  the  sacrifices  were  offered.  We  may  infer  from  the 
ism  disappeared  from  Baalbek  only  after  Theodosius  discoveries  made  in  Nippur  and  in  Sippara  that  a 
(379-395)  had  destroyed  the  idols  and  probably  the  library  and  a  school  will  oe  found  to  have  been  con- 
Great  Temple.  Gf  the  former  bishop^  of  Baalbek  (Hel-  nected  with  the  Babylonian  temples.  In  the  li^ht 
iopolis)  only  a  few  scattered  names  have  been  pre-  of  these  discoveries  the  story  of  the  Tower  of  Babel 
served.  Baalbek  is  now  a  titular  archiepiscopal  (Gen.,  xi,  4)  assumes  a  new  importance,  whether  we 
see  in  partibus  infidelium,  with  the  Most  Rev.  Robert  identify  its  remmns  with  the  ruins  of  Birs  Nimrfld  or 
S^on,  formerly  of  Newark,  New  Jersey,  U.  S.  A.,  with  those  of  the  Bel  temple  at  Nippur,  or  again  with 
as  incumbent,  consecrated  5  July,  1903.  In  1861,  those  of  Bfibil.  ^No  doubt,  it  was  its  temples  not  less 
%uUbek  was  made  a  Maronite  bishopric,  with  atx>ut  than  its  royal  palaces  and  its  han^ng  gardens  that 
30/)OO  C!atholics.  The  Melchite  diocese  was  erected  rendered  the  city  of  Babylon  "rionous  among  king- 
in  1868,  and  numbers  some  5,000  Catholics  with  doms,  the  famous  pride  of  the  Chaldeans"  (Is.,  xiii, 
fifteen  priests,  mostly  Basilian  monks.  The  Armen-  19).  We  meet  with  the  city  at  the  earliest  dawn  of 
ians  of  the  district  are  under  the  Armenian  Arch-  history,  and  it  flourishes,  in  spite  of  its  temporary 
bishop  of  Aleppo,  and  the  Latins  under  the  vicar  reverses,  till  it  is  finally  destroyed  by  Seleucus  Nica 
Apostolic  of  tne  same  place.  (See  Aleppo.)  The  tor;  even  then  Jews  kept  on  inhabiting  some  of  the 
Orthodox  Greeks  (schismatical)  also  have  a  resident  mounds  of  Babylon  till  alx>ut  a.  d.  1000,  after  which 
bishop  at  Baalbek;  further,  the  town  ^is  a  station  of  time  the  country  was  given  up  to  the  roaming  tribes 
the  British  Syrian  Schools'  Committee  with  two  of  Arabs,  in  accordance  with  the  words  of  the  prophet: 

n.— 12 


\/c  luimi  njbii  DU|^uva,  lUiu  uau»;u^JD  auOiU  U"i:il  feuciv,       i:4UD?«4    uuu    «VJ    CMJOUUUU    bllD    Biuuy    of  law,    for    Viuui 

and  the  haiiy  onee  shall  dance  there;  and  owla  eball  his  family  had  destined  bim,  and  to  devDt«  himaeU 
answer  one  another  there,  in  the  houaea  thereof,  and  to  the  pursuit  of  science.  He  continued  at  the 
Polytechnic  School,  which  he  left  in  1812  to  enter 
the  Mihtary  School  at  Meti.  For  some  time  he  naa 
:  attached  to  the  Fifth  Regiment  of  Artillery,  but  at  the 
Reatoration  he  left  the  army  and  began  to  t«ach. 
Be  was  profeesor  of  mathematics  at  Fontenav4e- 
'Comte,  then  professor  of  phyaice  at  Poitiers,  and  later 
at  the  Lyofe  Saint-Louis.  From  1825  to  1828  he 
'  delivered  a  course  of  lectures  on  meteorology;  in 
1S38  he  succeeded  Savary  at  the  Coll^  de  France: 
uul    in  1840  he  was    elected    to  the   Academy   of 


His  scientific  fame  tnsts  on  his  work  In  optics, 
although  his  contributions  to  science  include  the  other 
bnnchea  of  physics  and  mechanics.     He  improved 

™™™™-er,  LtTDTlO,  a  Oennan  philosopher  and  *•■«  ^"1^6?  o'   ine  air-pump,  attaining  a  very  high 

theolonan;  vice-chancellor  of  the  Umvet»ty  of  SaU-  vacuum;  he  constructed  a  hygrometer  and  a  gonio- 

burg'  o.  1660  at  Teining  in  Bavaria;  d.  5  April,  meter,  and  invented  the  Babinet  compensator,  a 

1726,  at  the  Benedictine  monaatory  of  Etta].     Hav-  double  quartz  wedge  used  in  the  study  of  elliptically 

ing  completed  his  eariy  studiM  he  entered  the  novi-  polarized  Ught.     "Babinet's  theorem"  deals  vnth 

tiate  of  the  Order  of  St.  Benedict,  at  Ettal  in  1681,  ">e  diffraction  of  hght.    He  must,  however,  be  chiefly 

made  Us  relipous  profession  in  1682,  and  thereaft«r  remembered   as  a  peat  popiUanaer  of  science,   an 

devoted  the  greater  part  of  hia  life  to  teaching.     At  amuMUg  and  clever  lecturer,  a  bnUiant  and  enterUin- 

the  commencement  of  Us  studies  he  had  given  no  ""K  '?<«'■  o'  popular  scientific  articles.     He  fully 

promise  of  brilUancy,  but  by  his  untiring  application  recognized  the  hnutations  of  physical  science    while 

and  industry  he  shortly  acquired  so  vast  a  atore  of  ^"8  mncere  faith  showed  itself  especially  at  the  end, 

knowledge,  that  he  soon  came  to  be  regarded  as  one  "ten  he  passed  away  with  touching  resignation,  be- 

of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  day— i>ir  corummmata  loved  by  all  for  hia  kindly  and  charitable  nature. 
tn  omni  genere  doctrina  et  probilatit,  aa  he  is  styled  in         Babinet's  contnbuUons  to  the  "Revue  des  Deux 

DomEKer's'TdcaonliniBHierarchico-Benedictini",  Mondes"  and  to  the  "Journal  des  DAbats''  and  hia 

and  in  the  "History  of  the  University  of  Salzburg",  lectures  on  observational  science   before  the   Poly- 

Until  1690  Babenstuber  was  Director  of  the  scholas-  techmc  Association  were  collected  m  eight  volumes: 

ticate  of  his  order  at  Salzburg,  Uughfc  philosophy  "  Etudes  et  lectures  but  les  sciences  d'observation  " 

there  from  1690  to  1693,  and  then  went  to  Schlehdorf  (1855-65).    His  other  serious  works  include:  "IWBumfi 

to  toach  theology  in  the  monasterv  of   the  canons  oomplet  de  la  physique     (Pans,  1825);     Experiences 

r^ular  P°^  v&ifier  ceUes  de  M.  Trevelyan"  (Pans,  1835). 

Returning  to  Salsburg  in  1695,  he  took  up  sue-  ^^^e  following  four  monographs  are  published  in  the 

ceasively    the    professorships    of    moral    theology,  Memoirs  of  the  Sod^WPhilomathique:     Sur  la  masse 

dogmatic  theology,  and  exegesis,  in  the  celebrated  "^  •*  planfite  Mercure      (1825);     bur  U  couleur  des 

Benedictine  university  of  that  city.     He  remained  at  rfceaux"  <1829)i  ''Sur  la  dStermmation  du  magn^ 

Sabburg  for  twenty-two  years,  during  which  period  '>8me  terrestre     {1 829) ;  '  Sur  la  cause  du  retard  qu  *- 

he  held  the  office  of  vice-r«ctor  tor  three  yeara,  and  prouve  la  lumiSre  dans  les  milieux  r4tringenta  "  (1839). 

that  of  vice^bancellor  of  the  university  for  j«.    In  ^?tTj£  ^ISS.^K.S^'SSiilJj-r'™' 
1717  he  returned  to  his  monastory  at  Ettal,  where  Wii.  Fox. 

be  spent  the  remainder  of  his  days.     In  dogmatic         BftblnrtOB,    AntoHT.      Sbb    Mary    Qpbkk     of 

theology  Babenstuber  was  a  pronounced  Thomist;  0^^^^  "nium.      ™d    u.iuii     v(uuu. 

in  moral,  a  vigorous  defender  of  probabiliam.     He  ''*-"™-  .        „.  ,  ,  „  _ 

mainlined,  among  other  things,  that  a  smgle  author,        B»hylM,  Bishop  and  Martyr.— He  wm  the   suc- 

if  he  were  "  beyond  contradiction  "  (pmni  exeeptume  ceasor  of  Zebmus  as  Bishop  of  Antioch  in  the  reign  of 

major),  could,  of  bis  own  authority,  lender  an  opinion  the  Emperor  Gordianus  (238-244),  being  the  twelfth 

probable,  even  against  general  opinion.     In  matters  bishop    of    this    Oriental    metropolis.     During    the 

of  faith,  however,  he  rejected  the  principle  of  proba-  Decian  persecution   (250)   he  made  an  unwavering 

bilism  absolutely.     In  one  of  his  disquisitions  he  had  confession  of  faith  and  was  throira  into  prison  where 

also  stat«d  that  it  was  allowable  to  celebrate  Maos  he   died    from    his   suffennga.     He    was,    therefore 

privately  on  Maundy  Thursday  and  Holy  Saturday,  venerated  as  a  martyr.     St.  John  Chryaostom   and 

but  before  his  "Ethica  Supematuralis "  had  issuad  **!«  "Acts  of  the  Martyrs  '  relate  further  concerning 

from  the  press,  he  learned  that  the  Roman  tribu-  1dm,  that  Babylas  once  refused  an  emperor,  on  ac- 

nals  forbade  it,  and  so  he   promptly  corrected  that  <^<^^  '^   !™  wrongdoi:^,  permission   to  enter   the 

assertion.     Babenstuber's  published  works  include  a  church  and  had  ordered  him  to  take  his  place  among 

wide   range  of   subjecls,   mainly   philosophical   and  ^be  penitents.     Chrysostom  does  not  give  the  name 

theological     The  most  important  are;   "Philosophia  of  the  emperor;  the  Acts  inention  Numenanus.     It  is 

Thomistica"  (4vols.,Saliburg,1701);"EthicaSupei^.  more   probably   Philip   the   Arabian    (244-249)    of 

naturalia"  (Augsburg,  1718).  whom  Eusebius  (Hist,  eccl.,  VI,-xxxiv)  repol-ts  that 

EoaEn,    Idea    ordinit    Hierarchico-BmBtictmi    (ConeliuiM,  a  bishop  would  not  let  him  enter  the  gathering  of 

1715-20).  II,  sao.  B87;  Don  FF*Nroi»,  aiWioAigiH  etnA-alt  Christians  at  the  Easter  vigil.     The  burial-place  of 

SS^zi^E^^^i-M   hI^U^J^oT's^^^YI^  St.    Babylas   became   very  celebrated.      The   Cwsar 

buri.  1754),  II,'zS3;in,  444;  IV,  118,  13S,'lS2«iq.:  ftitioTM  GaliuB  built  a  new  church   in  honour  of  the   holy 

DniMT.,  Saiitb..  381:  Battleb,  KoOtcUminM.  (18BB).  24S  martyr  at  Daphne,  a  suburb  of  Antioch,  and   the 

Thouas  Okotebich.  after  this  Julian  the  Apostate  consulted  the  oracle 

of  Apollo  at  the  temple  to  this  god  which  was  neA* 

Bkblnat,  JAcgucs,  French  physicist,  b.  at  Lusi-  by,  tu  received  no  answer  because  of  the  proximilgr  <rf 

enan,  Vienne,  5  March,  1794;  d.  at  Paris.  21  October,  the  saint.     He,  therefore,  had  the  sarcophagus  of  tbr 

1872.     He  b^an  his  studies  at  the  Lyc«e  Napolten.  martyr  taken  back  to  its  original  place  of  burial 


■ABTUK  179  BABnOirU 

Id  tbe  Ifiddle  Aeee  the  bones  of  BabjlM  were  carrfad  ent  imperfect  knowledge  it  con  only  be  the  merest 

to  Oemon*.    Toe  Latin  Ch'jrch  keeps  his  feast  on  aofgeBUon.     It  raaj,  however,  well  be  observed  that 

M  Juuarf ,  tbe  Gieek  Cburoh  on  4  September.  the  astoumting  ayetem  ot  coniilB  which  existed  in  aji- 

Emnmifc  Hut,  ted.,  VI,  iiii  and  diu;  Sokmjknbb,  eient  Babvloiiia  even  from  the  remotest  liiBtorioal 

toiJ?S^"ffV^  "f"«x™'^"s"j"?N^CBB^;J?5;  t'ln™.  'l"»>Kh  ta^y  due  to  man's  oaretul  industry 

im,  Strmo  di  S.  fc^fa    in.  P.  O'.,  IV.  enj.  827-53*;    In..  Mid  patient  toil, 

LAt  H  a.  Bolskn  amtn  GmlHa.  Ibid.,  eol.  633-373;  Afta  WM  not  entirely 

L40-141;  Xfit  (1900),  B-8:  Tii,le«o«t,  Utmair^  pour  «™r  '"^  ,'™Jr,'",  "^ 

nJjB^miii.,  Ill,  400  aqq.,  867  »qq.;  H*Bmcit,  Omi*.  drr  Ipftde,  but  of  n*- 

Odir.  Litmsbir   {Leipiic.  18671.  11;    Oi«  Chnmolaoui,  I,  211  tuie    osce   lead- 

jq.;  ALL*H>.  Hwl.  <f«  jmteua™.    2d  «!..  II,   238  «,q.,  i„g  the  waters  ot 

J.  P.  KiRscH.  Eiiphrates   and 

Btbrbn,  the  curial'  title  of  a  Latin  archbishopric,  jiS"J!i,w="iIl 

aL-o  of  a  Chaldean  patriarchate  and  of  a  Syrian  ^™     ^ZJZ 

^hbirfLopric.    See  riTocAi,.  rde^'SS 

Babylonia.— In  treating  of  the  history,  charactra,  of  the  Nile. 
and  influence  of  this  ancient  empire,  it  is  difficult  not        Th«  fertility  of 

tn  speak  at  the  samo  time  of  its  aister,  or  rather  this  rich  alluvial 

daughter,   country,   Assyria.     This   Dorthem   neigh-  plain  was  in  aa- 

bour  and  colony  of   Babylon  remained  to  the  last  of  cient  tinea  pro- 

the  asme  race  and  language  and  of  atiooBt  the  same  verbial ;    it  pro- 

rdigion  and  civilisation  as  that  of  the  country  from  duceda  wealth 

which  it  emigrated.     The  political  fortunes  of  both  of  wheat,  barley, 

rountries for  more  than  a  thousand  years  wereclosdy  sesame,  dates, 

interwoven  with  one  another;  in  fact,  for  many  can-  and  otner  fruits 

turies  they  formed  one  political  unit.     The  reader  is  and     cereals. 

Ihsetorereferred  to  the  article  AssTRiA  for  the  sources  Tbe  comfiekkof 

of  Assyro-Babylonian  history;   for  the  story  of  ex-  Babylonia    were 

l^oratioa,  language,  and  writing;  for  its  value  in  Old  most^    in   the 

Tratament  ex^esis,  and  for  much  of  Babylonian  his-  souto,    where 

lory  during  the  period  of  Assyrian  supremacy.  Larsa,     Lagash, 

Geoorafht.' — The   country   lies   oiagODUly   from  Ereoh,  &nd  Cal- 

north-west  to  south-east,  between  30  and  33  N.  lat.  neh    were   the 

ind  44  and  48  E.  long.,  or  from  the  present  (aty  of  centres  of  an 

Bigdad  to   the   Persian   Gulf,   from   the   slopes   ot  opulent   agrieul<     _    ^^  of  Ro  it  Piuoh        (Noh- 

Khuiiatan  on  the  east  to  the  Arabian  Desert  on  the  tural population.       Smitic)Wh(i'rbiobkb^^oa»h 

vest,  and   is   substantially   contained    between   the  The    palm    tree 

Rivera  Eupluutes  and  Tigris,  though  to  the  west  a  was  mtivated  with  asuduous  care  and,  besides  fur- 

niTTDW  Btnp  of  cultivation  on  the  right  bank  of  the  nishing  all  sorts  of    food  and   beverage,  was  used 

Euphrates  must  be  added.     Its  total  length  is  some  for  a  tnouaaiid  domestic  needs.      Birds  and  watei^ 

300  miles,  its  greatest  width  about  125  miles;  about  fowls,  hwds  and  flocks,  and  rivers   teeming  with 

23,000  square  miles  in  all,  or  tbe  size  of  Holland  and  fisli   supplied  the  inhabitants   with   a   rural  plenty 

Bdgium  together.     Like  those  two  countries,  its  soil  which  surprises  the  modern  reader  of  the  caoastrai 

ialwgalf  formed  by  the  alluvial  deposits  of  two  great  surveys  and  tithe-accounta  of  the  ancient  temples. 

riTers.     A  most  remarkable  feature  of  Babylonian  Tbeoountry  is  completely  destitute  of  mineral  wealth, 

jofraphy  is  that  the  land  to  the  south  encroaches  on  and  possesses  no  stone  or  metal,  although  stone  was 

Iba  sea  and  that  the  Persian  Gulf  recedes  at  present  already  being  iraportod  from  the  X«banon  and  the 

tt  the  rato  of  a  mile  in  seventy  years,  while  in  the  Ammanus  as  early  as  3000  b.  c;  and  much  earlier, 

past,  though  still  in  historic  times,  it  receded  as  much  about  4500  b.  c,  Ur-Nina  King  of  Shirpuria  sent  to 

M  a  mile  in  thirty  years.     In  the  early  period  of  Magan,  i.  e.  the  Sinaitio  Paninaula,  for  hard  stone  and 

Babylonian  history  the  gulf  must  have  extended  some  hard  wood;  while  tbe  copper  mines  of  Sinai  were  Prob- 

hundred    and    twenty    miles    further    inland.     Ac-  ably  being  worked  b^  BaW'oniaos  shortlr  after  3750, 

cording  to  historical  records  both  the  towns  Ur  and  when  Snefru,  first  king  of  the  Fourth  Egyptian  dy- 

Eridu  were  once  close  to  the  gulf,  from  which  they  nasty,  drove  them  away.     It  is  remarkable  that  Bal^- 

are  now  about  a  hundred  miles  distant;  and  from  Ionia  posscBses  no  bronze  period,  but  passed  from 

ibe  [Sports  of  Sennacherib's  campaign  against  Bit  copper  to  iron;  though  inlater  ages  it  leaiiit  the  use 

Yaldn  we  gather  that  as  lato  as  &9S  b.  c,  the  four  of  DronaefTom  Assjrna. 

rivers  KerlOia,  Karun,  Euphrates,  and  Tigris  entered  The  towns  of  ancient  Babylonia  were  the  following: 
the  gulf  by  separate  mouths,  which  proves  that  the  aouthemmost,  (1)  Eridu,  Semitic  corruption  of  the 
MB  even  tnen  extended  a  considerable  distance  north  M  name  of  £n-dvgga,^  "good  city",  at  present  the 
d  where  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  now  join  to  form  mounds  of  Abu-Sharain;  and  (2^  Ur,  Abraham's 
tbe  Shat-d-arab.  Geological  omervations  show  that  birthplaee,  about  twenty-Gve  miles  north-east  of 
■mation  oi  limestone  abruptly  begins  Eridu,  at  present  Mughuir.  Both  of  these  towns 
1  from  Hit  on  the  Euphrates  to  S4-  lay  weet  ot  the  Euphrates.  East  of  uie  Euphrates, 
mini  on  tbe  Tigris,  i.  e.  some  four  hundred  miles  tbe  southernmost  ton'n  was  (3)  Larsa,  tbe  Biblical 
fiomtheirpresent  mouth;  this  must  cmce  have  fwmed  Ellasar  (Gen.,  xiv;  in  Vulg.  and  D.V.  un  fortunately 
the  coast  Une,  and  all  the  country  south  was  only  rendered  Pontus),  at  present  Senkere;  (4)  Erech, 
padoally  gained  from  the  sea  by  river  deposit.  In  the  Biblical  Arach  (Gen.,  x,  10),  fifteen  miles  north- 
bow  far  man  was  witness  of  this  gradual  formation  west  of  Larsa,  is  at  preseiit  Warka;  and  eight  miles 
fi  the  Babylonian  soil  we  cannot  determine  at  prts-  north-east  from  tbe  modem  Sbatra  was  (5)  Sfairpuria 
at;  as  far  south  as  Larsa  and  Lagash  man  had  built  otherwise  Lagash,  now  Telld.  Sbirpuiia  was  one  of 
citiM  4,000  years  before  Christ.  It  has  been  sug-  Babylon's  most  ancient  cities,  though  not  mentioned 
pried  that  tne  story  of  the  Flood  may  be  connected  in  the  Bible;  probably  "Raventown  {ihirpw-raven), 
■i^i  man's  recollection  of  the  waters  cxt«nding  far  from  the  sacT«d  emblem  of  its  goddess  and  sanctuary, 
north  of  Babylon,  or  of  some  great  natural  event  re-  Nirt-Girsu,  or  Nin-Sungir,  which  for  a  score  of  cea- 
Ui^  to  the  formation  of  the  soil;  but  with  our  prei-  turiea  was  an  impMtant  political  centre,  and  prob- 


BABnOWIA.                             180  BABTLOKU 

»My  gave  ite  name  to  Southern  Babjrlonia— Sungir,  when  they  were  the  sole  occupante  of  the  EuphratAi 

Shumer,  or,  in  Gen.,  x,  10,  Sennaar.     (8)  Giahban  Valley;  at  the  dawn  of  histoiy  we  find  both  races  in 

(read  also  G^A-uiA),  a  small  city  alittle  north  of  Shii~  possesmon  of  the  land  and  to  a  certain  extent  mixed, 

purla,atpresentthemoundi>oflBkha,iBof  importance  though  the  Semite  was  predominant  in   the  North 

only  in  the  very  earliest  history  of  Babylonia.  while  the  Sumerian  maintained  himself  for  centuries 

(7)  The  site  of  the  important  city  of  Isin  (read  also  in  the  South.     Whence  these  Sumerians  came,  can- 

Nitin)  has  not  yet  been  determined,  but  it  waa  prob-  not  be  decided,  and  probably  all  that  will  ever  be 

ably  situated  a  little  north  of  Erech.     (S)  CaLaeh,  or  known  is  that,  after  a  nomadic  existence  in  moun- 

NijTOur  (in  D.  V.,  Gen.,  x,  10,  Caiavme),  at  present  tainous  diBtricts  in  the  East,  they  found  a  plain  in 

Niiffar,  was  a  great  religious  centre,  with  ita  Bel  t«m-  the  lands  of  Sennaar  and  dwelt  m  it  (Gen.,  xi,  2). 

Sle,  unrivalled  In  antiquity  and  sanctity,  a  eort^of  Their  first  settlement  wa«  Eridu,  then  a  seaport  on 
lecca  for  the  Semitic  Babylonians.  Reoent  Ameri-  the  Persian  Gulf,  where  their  earliest  myths  repre- 
can  excavations  have  made  its  name  as  famous  as  sent  the  first  man,  Adapu,  or  Adamu  (Adam?),  spend- 
French  excavations  made  that  of  Tell6  or  Sbirpurla,  ing  his  time  in  fi^ng,  and  where  the  sea-god  taught 
(9)  In  North  Babylonia  we  have  again,  southern-  them  the  elements  of  civilization.  It  is  certain,  how- 
most,  the  city  of  Kish,  probably  the  Biblical  Cush  ever,  that  they  possessed  a  considerable  amotint  of 
(Gen.,  X,  8);  its  ruins  are  Under  the  present  mound  culture  even  before  entering  the  Babylonian  plain; 
El-Oh&nir,  eight  miles  east  of  Hilla.  (10)  A  little  for,  coeval  with  the  first  foundations  of  their  oldest 
distance  to  the  north'weet  lay  Kutha,  the  preeent  temples,  they  possessed  the  cuneiform  script,  which 
Telli  Ibrahim,  the  city  whence  the  Babylonian  coIo-  can  De  described  as  a  cursive  hand  developed  out  of 
nists  of  Samaria  were  taken  (IV  Kings,  xvii,  30),  and  picture-signs  by  centuries  of  primeval  culture.  From 
which  played  a  great  r61e  in  Northern  Babylonia  be-  whence  the  Semitic  race  invaded  Babylonia,  and  what 
tore  the  Amori^  dynasty.  (11)  The  site  of  Agade,  was  its  origin,  we  know  not,  but  it  must  be  noted 
i.  e.  Akkad  (Gen.,  x,  10),  the  name  of  whose  kings  that  the  language  they  spoke,  though  clearly  and 
was  dreaded  in  (^rus  and  in  Sinai  in  3800  b.  c,  thoroughly  Semitic,  is  yet  so  strikingly  different  from 
is  unfortunately  unknown,  but  it  must  have  been  not  all  other  Semitic  languages  that  it  stands  in  a  cate- 
far  from  (12)  Sippara;  it  has  even  been  suggested  gory  apart,  and  the  time  when  it  formed  one  speech 
that  this  was  one  of  the  quarters  of  that  city,  which  with  the  other  Semitic  tongues  lies  immeasurably  far 
was   scarcely   thirty   miles   north   of    Babylon   and  back  beyond  our  calculations. 

which,  asearly  as  1881,  was  identified,  through  British  The  earliest  records,  then,  show  us  a  state  of  things 

excavations,    with   the    present    Abu-Habba.      (13)  not  unlike  that  of  our  Saxon  heptarchy:  petty  princes. 

Lastly,  Babylon,  with  its  twin-city  Borsippa,  though  or  city-monarchies  successfully  endeavouring  to  ob- 

probably  founded   as  early  aa  3800  b.  c,  played  an  tain  lordship  over  a  neighbouring  town  or  a  group  ol 

insignificant  rtle  in  the  country's  history  until,  under  towns,  and  m  turn  being  overcome  by  others.     And, 

Hammurabi,  about  3300  b.    c,   it  entered  on  that  considering  that  most  of  these  towns  were  but  a  score 

career  of  empire  which  it  maintained  for  almost  2000  of  miles  distant  from  one  another  and  changed  rulers 

years,  so  that  its  name  now  stands  for  a  countiy  and  frequently,  the  history  is  somewhat  confusing.     The 

a  civilization  which   was  of  hoary  antiquity  before  most  ancient  ruler  at  present  known  to  us  is  Sns- 

Babylon  rose  to  power  and  even  before  a  brick  of  hagkushanna,  who  is  styled  King  of  Kengi.    Owing 

Babylon  was  laid,  to  the  broken  state  of  the  shero  on  which  the  in- 

Earlt  History.— At  the  dawn  of  history  in  the  scription  occurs,  and  which  possiblv  dates  soon  after 

middle  of  the  Afth  millennium  before  Christ  we  find  5000  a.  c,  the  name  of  his  capital  is  unknown.     It 

in  the  Euphrates  Valley  a  number  of  dty-states,  or  probably  was  Sbirpurla,  and  he  ruled  over  Southern 

rather  city-monarchiee,  in  rivalry  with  one  another  Babylonia.     He  claims  to  liave  won  a  great  victory 

and  in  such  a  condition  of  culttire  and  pn^reas,  that  over  the  City  of  Kish,  and  he  dedicated  the  Bpoil, 

this  valley  has  been  called  the  cradle  of  civilization,  including  a  statue  of  bright  silver,  to  Mullil,  the  god 

not  only  of  the  Semitic  world,  but  most  likely  also  of  Calanne  (Nippur).     It  seems  litiely  that  Kish  was 

of  Egypt.     The  people  dwelUng  in  this  valley  were  the  most  southern  city  captured  by  Semites;  of  oite 

certainly    not   all  of  its  kin^,  Manishtusu,  we  possess  a  mace-head,  aa  a 

of  one  race;   they  sign  of  his  royalty,  and  a  stele,  or  obelisk,  in  archaic 

differed    in    type  cuneiforms    and     Semitic     Babylonian.     Somewhat 

ana    language,  later  Mesilim,  the  King  of  Kish,  retrieved  the  defeat 

The  primitive  in-  of  his  predecessor  and  acted  as  suzerain  of  Sbirpurla. 

babitant«      were  Another  probable  name  of  a  King  of  KishisUrumush, 

'    "       '  "  r  Alusharahid,  though  some  make  him  King  of  Ak- 


I  golian      ancestry,    kad.     Whereas  our  information  concerning  the  dy- 
I  they    are    styled         ...■  t^-  i.  .._..,■...    f 


■niey 


.    , _.j nasty  of  Kish  is  exceedingly  fragmentary,  v. 

Sumerians,  or  in-  what  better  informed  about  the  rulers  of  Sbirpurla. 
i-^i.:..-.-  |j£  About  4500  B.  c.  we  find  Urkagina  reigning  there  and, 
somewhat  later,  Lugal  (.Ivgat,  "gret^t  man",  i.  e. 
.  .  _  ..  ...  "prince",  or  "king'')  Shuggur.  Tfien,  after  an  in- 
invented  the  cune-  terval,  we  are  acquainted  with  a  succession  of  no  fewer 
iform  script,  built  than  seven  Kings  of  Sbirpurla:  Gursar,  Gunidu,  Ui^ 
the  oldest  cities,  Ntn&,  Akur-Gal,  Eannatum  I,  Entemena  and  £lan- 
HKio  or  A  SoMEBiui  OapBA  Epocn  *'^'^  brought  the  natum  ll^which  last  king  must  have  reigned  about 
FonHD  IB  iiiAa  '  country  to  a  great  4000  b.  c.  De  Sarszec  found  at  Tell6  a  temple-wall 
height  of  peaceful  some  of  the  bricks  of  which  bore  the  clear  l^eud  of 
prosperity.  They  were  gradually  overcome,  dis-  Ur-NinA,  thus  leaving  on  record  this  king's  building 
possessecl,  and  abeorbed  by  a  new  race  that  entered  activity.  Thanks  to  the  famous  atele  of  the  vulture, 
the  plain  between  the  two  rivers,  the  Semites,  who  now  in  the  Louvre,  te  some  ciay  steles  in  the  British 
pressed  on  them  from  the  north  from  the  kingdom  of  Museum,  and  a  cone  found  at  Shirpurla,  we  have  an 
Alckad.  The  Semitic  invadere,  however,  eageriy  idea  of  the  warlike  propensities  of  Eannatum  I,  who 
adopted,  improved,  and  widely  spread  the  civilization  subdued  the  people  of  Gishban  by  a  crushing  defeat, 
of  tQe  race  they  bad  conquered.  Although  a  number  made  them  pay  an  almost  incredible  war-indemnity 
of  arguments  converge  into  an  irrefragable  proof  that  of  com,  and  appointed  over  that  city  his  own  viceroy, 
the  Sumerians  were  the  aboriginal  inliahitants  of  "who  placed  nis  yoke  on  the  land  of  Elam'',  "and 
fi&fc^lonia,  we  have  no  bistoriCM  records  of  the  time  of  Giagal",  and  wno  is  represented  as  braining  vrith 


BABTLOHIA  181  BABTLONU    - 

bis  dub  foes  whose  heads  are  protruding  out  of  the    Peninaula  and,  apparently,  Cyprus,  where  a  aeal- 
opemng  of  a  bag  in  which  they  are  bound.                     cylinder  waa  found  on  which  he  receives  homage  aa 
Th»t,  QOtwithatanding  these  Hcenes  of  bloodshed,     ft  god.     On  inacriptiouB  of  that  date  first  occurs  men- 
it  ¥«s  an  age  of  art  and  culture  can  be  evidently    tion  of  the  city  of  God's  Gate,  or  Babylon  (Bdt-tiu 
jlBira  by  such  finds  as  that  of  a  superb  ailver  vase    sometiraeB    B6b^iiani,  whence  the  Greek    Ba/SfXii*), 
of  Entemena,  Eannatum's  son  and  succeasor,  and,    then  written  ideon-aphically  Kd-Dungir. 
IS  crown-prince,  genera!  of  his  army.     After  Ean-         After  Bingam,  Narftm-Sin's  son,  Semitic  successes 
Mlum  II  the  history  of  Shirpurla  is  a  blank,  until  we    were   temporarily   eclipsed;    Egypt   occupied   Sinai, 
fod  the  name  of  Lugal  Ushumgal,  when,  however,  the    Elam  became  again  independent,  and  in  Babylonia 
cil7  has  for  a  time  lost  its  independence,  for  this  ruler    itaelf  the  Sumerian  element  reasserted  iteelf.    We  find 
iiflthe  vamal  of  Sargon  I  of  Akkad,  about  3800  B,  C,     a  dynasty  of  Ur  in  prominence.     This  city  seems  at 
two  different  periods  to  have  exercised  the  hegemony 
over  the  Euphrates  Vailey  or  part  of  it.    First  under 
Urgur  and  Dungi  I,  about  3400  b.  c.     This  Umir 
assumed  the  title  of  King  of  Sumer  and  Akkad,  tlius 
making  the  first  attempt  to  unite  North  and  South 
Babvlonia  Into  a  political  unit,  and  inaugurating  a 
nvM  style  which  was  borne  perhaps  longer  than  the 
title  of  any  other  dignity  since  the  world  was  made, 
Vr  predominates,  for  the  second  time,  about  2S0O 
B.  c,  under  Dungi  II,  Gungunu,  Bur-Sin,  Gimil-Sin, 
and  Ine  Sin,  whose  buildings  and  fortifications  are 
found  in  many  cities  of  Babylonia.    The  history  of 
Ur  is  as  yet  so  obscure  tliat  some  scholars  fThure-iu- 
Dangin,  Hilprccht,  Bczold)  accept  but  two  dynasties, 
others   (Rogers)   three,  others   (Hugo  Radau)   four. 
The  supremacy  of  Ur  is  followed,  about  2S00  b.  c, 
by  that  of  (N)  Isin,  apparently  on  unimportant  city, 
as  its  rulers  style  themselves  Shepherds,  or  Gracious 
Lords,  of  Isin,  and  place  this  title  after  that  of  King 
'^""  ^'^i'  1^^*^^™  ?""          "''           °^  Ur,  Eridu    Erech,  and  Nippur.     Six  rulers  of  Isin 
'                                                           are  known:  Ishbigarra,  Libit-Ishtar,  Bur-Sin  II,  Ur- 
Vet,iome  six  centuries  afterwards,  when  the  dynasty    Ninib,  Ishme-Dagan,  and  Enannatum.     The  last  of 
af  Akkadhadceased  to  be,  thei»eem,or  hifh-priests,    the  citjf-kingdoms  was  that  of  Larsa,  about  2300 
of  Shirpuria  were  still  men  of  renown.     A  long  in-    B.  c,  with  its  sovereigns  Siniddinam  Nur-.^dad,  Che- 
niption  on  the  back  of  a  statue  tells  us  of  the  vast    domanchundi,  Chedorlaomer,  Cbedorraabug,  and  Eri- 
luilding  achievements   of   Ur-Bau   about   the   year    Aku.     The  composition  of  these  royal  names  with 
J200;  uid  the  name  of  his  son  and  successor.  Nam-    Chedor,  the  Elamite  Kudtir,  sufficiently  shows  that 
iMghani,    About  two  centuries  later  we  find  Gudea,    they  did  not  belong  to  a  native  dynasty,  whether 
ogeof  the  most  famous  rulers  the  city  ever  possessed.     Sumerian  or  Semitic.    One  of  the  earliest  Elamite  in- 
Eicavationa  at  Tell6  have  laid  bare  the  colossal  walls    vaders  of  Babylonia  was  Rim-Amun,  who  obtained 
of  his  great  palace  and  have  shown  us  how,  both  by    such  a  foothold  on  Babvlonian  soil  that  the  year  of 
land  and  sea,  he  brought  his  materials  from  vast    his  reign  was  used  to  date  contract  tablets,  a  sure 
liistances,  while  his  architecture  and  sculpture  show    sign  that  he  was  at  least  king  de  facto.    ChcMloman- 
perfect  art  and  refinement,  and  we  incidentally  learn    chundi   invaded   Babylonia  about    the    year   22B5, 
that  he  conquered  the  district  of  Anshan  in  Elam.     reached  Erech,  plundered  its  t«mples,  and  captured 
Mter  Gudea,  we  ore  acquainted  with  the  names  of    the  city-goddess;  but  whether  he  established  a  per- 
four  more  rulers  of  Shirpuria,  but  in  these  subsequent    manent  mle,  remains  doubtful.    Somewhat  later  Che- 
rapa  the  dt^  seems  to  have  quickly  sunk  into  po-    dortaomer  (Aurfur-L(i3?iam(jr,"Servantof  Laghamar", 
li&at  insigmficance.     Another  Sumenan  dynasty  was    an  Elamite  deity),  known  to  us  from  the  Bible,  seems 
that  of  Efech,  or  Gishban.    About  4000  b.  c.  a  cer-    to  have  been  more  successful.    Not  only  does  he  ap- 
tain  Lugal  Zaggim,  son  of  the  Patesi  of  Gishban,  who    pear  as  overlord  of  Babylonia,  but  he  carried  his  con- 
became  King  of  Erect),  proudly  styled  himself  King    quest  as  far  west  as  Palestine,     Chedormabug  was 
of  the  World,  as  Enshagkiwhanna  and  Aluaharshia    originallv  Prince  of  Emutbal,  or  western  Elam,  but 
had  done,  claimed  to  rule  from  the  Persian  Gulf  to    obtained  dominion  over  Babylonia  and  rebuilt  the 
the  Mediterranean,  and  praises  the  sunreme  god  En-    temple  at  Ur.     His  son  Rim-Sin,  or  I^-.\ku,  con- 
lil   nr  Bel,  of  Nippur,  who  "granted  him  the  do-    adered  himself  so   well  e«tabli8hed  on   Babylonian 
ing  of  the  sun  to  the  setting    territory  that  he  affected  the  ancient  titles,  Kxalter 
'      ■-   ' '^      'Ur.Kin       "-     -     "■        -'  "  


r ■  —   --.  King  of  Larsa,  King  of  Sumer  and  Akkad. 

Yet  to  us  it  seems  but  a  rushlight  of  glory;  for  after  Yet  he  was  the  least  of  the  city-kings,  and  a  new 

his  Kin  Lugal-Kisalsi  the  Kingdom  ol  Erech  disap-  order  of  things  began  with  the  nse  of  Babylon. 
?t»it  in  the  night  of  the  past.    The  same  may  be       The  {'irst  Empibb. — The  dynasty  which  laid  the 

said  of  the  d3rnasty  of  Agade.    Ittibel's  son,  Sargon  1,  foundation  of  Babylon's  greatness  is  sometimes  called 

■uddenly  stands  l>efore  us  as  a  giant  figure  in  history  the  ArotiiaTi.     It  certainly  was  West-Semitic  and  al- 

ibont  3800  b.  c.    He  was  a  monarch  proud  of  his  race  most  certainly  Amorite.     The  Babylonians  called  it 

ind  language,  for  his  inscriptions  were  in  his  Semitic  the  dynasty  of  Babylon,  for,  though  foreign  in  origin, 

mother-tongue,  not  in  the  Sumerian,  like  those  of  pr&-  it  may  have  had  its  actual  home  in  that  city,  which 

™><ia  Idngs.      He  is  rightly  called  the  first  founder  it  gratefully  and  proudly  remembered.     It  lasted  for 

of  a  Semitic  empire.     Under  him  flourished  Semitic  290  years  and  saw  the  greatest  glory  of  the  old  empire 

laogoage,  literature,  and  art,  especially  architecture,  and  perhaps  the  Golden  Age  of  the  Semitic  race  in 

He  established  bis  dominion  in  Susa,  the  capital  of  the  ancient  world.    The  names  of  its  monarchs  are: 

Qam,  subdued  Syria  and  Palestine   in    three  com'  Sumu-abi  (15  years),  Sumu-lo-ilu  (36),  Zabin  (14). 

[•igDS,set  upon  image  of  himself  on  the  Svrian  coast,  Apil-Sin   (18),  Sin-muballit   (30);   Hammurabi   (3£), 

u  a  monument  of  his  triumphs,  and  welded  bis  con-  Samsu-iluna  (35),  Abisbua  (25),  Ammi-titaua  (25), 

quests  into    one  empire.    Naram-Sin,  his  son,  even  Ammisadu^   (22),   Samsu-titana   (31).     Under  the 

atended  hia  faUier's  conquests,  invading  the  Siiud  first  five  kmgs  Ballon  was  still  only  the  mightiest 


BABTLOnA                              182  BABYLONIA 

amongst  several  rival  cities,  but  the  sixth  king,  Ham-  his  to  the  Westland  previous  to  the  31st  year  of  hia 

murabi,  who  succeeded  in  beating  down  all  opposition,  reign.     Of  Hammurabi's  immediate  successors  we 

obtained  absolute  rule  of  Northern  and  oouthem  know  nothinjz  except  ]that  they  reigned  in  peacefiJ 

Babylonia  and  drove  out  the  Elamite  invaders.    Baby-  prosperity.    That  trade  prospered,  and  temples  were 

Ionia  henceforward  formed  but  one  state  and  was  built,  is  all  we  can  say. 

welded  into  one  empire.      They  were  apparentljr  The  Amorite  djmasty  was  succeeded  by  a  series  of 

stormy  days  before  the  final  trimnph  of  Hammurabi,  eleven  kings  which  may  well  be  designated  as  the 

The  second  ruler  strenjgthened  his  capital  with  large  Unknown  Dynasty ,  which  has  received  a  number  of 

fortifications;  the  thira  ruler  was  apparently  in  dan-  names:  Ura-Azag,  Uru-ku,  Shish-ku.     Whether  it 

ger  of  a  native  pretender  or  forei^  rival  called  Im-  was  Semite  or  not  is  not  certain;  the  years  of  rei^ 

mem;  only  the  fourth  ruler  was  definitely  styled  are  given  in  the  "King-List",  but  they  are  surpns- 

king;  while  Hammurabi  himself  in  the  beginning  of  ingly  lon^  (60-56-55-50-28,  etc.),  so  that  not  only 

his  reign  acknowledged  the  suzerainty  of  Elam.    This  great  doubt  is  cast  on  the  correctness  of  these  dates, 

Hammurabi  is  one  of  the  most  gigantic  figures  of  the  but  the  very  existence  of  this  dynasty  is  doubted 

world's  history,  to  be  named  with  Alexander,  CsBsar,  or  rejected  by  some  scholars  (as  Hommel).     It  is 

or  Napoleon,  but  best  compared  to  a  Charlemagne,  a  indeed  remarkable  that  the  kin^  should  be  eleven  in 

conqueror  and  a  lawgiver,  whose  powerful  eenius  number,  like  those  of  the  Amonte  dynasty,  and  that 

formed  a  lasting  empire  out  of  chaos,  and  whose  benef-  we  should  nowhere  find  a  distinct  evidence  of  their 

icent  influence  contmued  for  ages  throughout  an  area  existence;  yet  these  premises  hardly  suffice  to  prove 

almost  as  large  as  Europe.    Doubtless  a  dozen  cen-  that  so  eany  a  document  as  the  ''King-List"  made 

turies  later  Assyrian  kings  were  to  make  greater  the  unpardonable  mistake  of   ascribing  nearly  four 

conquests  than  he,  but  whereas  they  were  giant  de-  centuries  of  rule  to  a  dynasty  which  m  reality  was 

stroyers  he  was  a  giant  builder.    His  lar^  public  and  contemporaneous,  nay  identical,  with  the  Amorite 

private  correspondence  gives  us  an  insight  into  his  monarcns.     Their   names   are   certainly  very  puz- 

multitudinous  cares,  his  minute  attention  to  details,  ding,  but  it  has  been  suggested  that  these  were  not 

his  constitutional  methods.     (See  ''The  Letters  and  personal  names,  but  names  of  the  city-quarters  from 

Inscriptions  of  Hammurabi'*,  by  L.  W.  King'  London,  which  they  originated.    Should  this  dynasty  have  a 

1898,  3  vols.)    His  famous  code  of  civil  ana  criminal  separate  existence,  it  is  saf9  to  say  that  they  were 

law  throws  light  on  his  genius  as  legislator  and  judge,  mubive  rulers,  and  succeeded  the  Amorites  without 

The  stele  on  which  these  laws  are  inscribed  was  found  any  bresJc  of  national  and  political  life.     Owing  to 

at  Susa  by  M.  de  Morgan  and  the  Dominican  friar  the  questionable  reality  of  this  dynasty,  the  cnro- 

Scheil,  and  first  published  and  translated  by  the  nolo^  of  the  previous  one  varies  greatly;  hence  it 

latter  in  1902.    Tnis  astounding  find,  giving  us,  in  arises,  for  instance,  that  Hammurabi's  date  is  given 

3638  short  lines,  282  laws  and  regulations  Meeting  as  1772-17  in  Hastings'  "Dictionary  of  the  Bible", 

the  whole  ran^e  of  pubdic  and  private  life,  is  un-  while  the  majority  of  scholars  would  place  him  about 

equalled  even  in  the  marvellous  history  ot  Baby-  2100  b.  c,  or  a  little  earlier;  nor  are  indications 

Ionian  research.     From  no  other  document  can  a  wanting  to  show  that,  whether  the  "Unknown  Dy- 

more  swift  and  accurate  estimate  of  Babylonian  nasty"  be  fictitious  or  not,  the  latter  date  is  approx- 

civilization  be  formed  than  from  this  code.     (For  a  imately  right. 

complete  English  translation  see  T.  G.  Pinches,  op.  In  the  third  place  comes  the  Kassite  dynasty, 

cit.  mfra,  pp.  487-519.)                        •  thirty-six  kings,  tor  576  years.    The  tablet  with  this 

Whereas  the  Assyrian  kin^  loved  to  fill  the  boast-  list  is  unfortunately  mutilated,  but  almost  all  the 

ful  records  of  their  reigns  with  ghastly  descriptions  nineteen  missing  names  can  with  some  exactness  be 

of  battle  and  war,  so  that  we  possess  the  minutest  suppUed  from  other  sources,  such  as  the  Assyrian  syn- 

details  of  their  niilitary  campaigns,  the  genius  of  chronistic  history  and  the  correspondence  with  Egypt. 

Babylon,  on  the  contrary,  was  one  of  peace,  and  This  dynasty  was  a  foreign  one,  but  its  place  of 

culture,  and  progress.    I'he  building  of  temples,  the  ori^n  is  not  easy  to  ascertain.    In  their  own  official 

adorning  of  cities,  the  digging  of  canals,  the  making  designation  they  style  themselves  kings  of  Kardun- 

of  roads,  the  framing  of  laws  was  their  pride;  their  yash  and  the  King  of  Egypt  addresses  Kadashman 

records  breathe,  or  anect  to  breathe,  all  serene  tran-  Bel  as  King  of  K^dunyash.    This  Kardunyash  lias 

quillity;  warlike  exploits  are  but  mentioned  by  the  been  tentatively  identified  with  South  Elam.     In- 

way,  hence  we  have,  even  in  the  case  of  the  two  formation  about  the  Kassite  period  is  obtained  but 

greatest   Babylonian   conquerors,   Hammurabi   and  sparsely.     We  possess  an  Assyrian  copy  of  an  inscrip- 

Nabuchodonosor  II,  but  scanty  information  of  their  tion  of  Agum-Kakrime,  perhaps  the  seventh  King  oi 

deeds  of  arms.     "I  dug  the  canal  Hammurabi,  the  thisdynaaty:  he  styles  himself:  "  King  of  Kasshuand 

blessing  of  men,  which  bringeth  the  water  of  the  over-  Akkad,  King  of  the  broad  land  of  Babylon,  who 

fiow  unto  the  land  of  Sumer  and  Akkad.    Its  banks  caused  much  people  to  settle  in  the  land  of  Ashmu- 

on  both  sides  I  made  arable  land;  much  seed  I  scat-  mak,  King  of  Tadan  and  Alvan,  King  of  the  land  of 

tered  upon  it.    Lasting  water  I  provided  for  the  land  Guti,  wide  extended  peoples,  a  king  who  rules  the 

of  Sumer  and  Akkad.    The  land  of  Sumer  and  Akkad,  four  quarters  of  the  world".    The  extent  of  territory 

its  separated  peoples  I  united,  with  blessings  and  thus  under  dominion  of  the  Babylonian  monarch  is 

abundance  I  endowed  them,  in  peaceful  dwellings  wider  than  even  that  under  the  Amorite  dynasty; 

I  made  them  to  live" — such  is  the  style  of  Hammu-  but  in  the  royal  title,  which  is  alto^ther  unusual  m 

rabi.    In  what  seems  an  ode  on  the  King,  engraved  its  form,  Babylon  takes  but  the  third  place;  only  a 

on  his  statue  we  find  the  words:  "Hammurabi,  the  few  generations  later,  however,  the  old  style  and  title 

strong  warrior,  the  destroyer  of  his  foes,  he  is  the  is  resumed,  and  Babylon  again  stands  first:  the  for- 

hurricane  of  battle,  sweeping  the  land  of  his  foes,  he  'eign  conquerors  were  evidently  conquered  by  the 

brings  opposition  to  nai^ht,  he  puts  an  end  to  in-  peaceful  conquest  of  superior  Babylonian  civilisation, 

surrection,  h^  breaks  the  warrior  as  an  iniage  of  This  Agum-Kakrime  with  all  his  wide  dominicms  had 

clay. "     But  chronological  details  are  still  in  con-  yet  to  send  an  embassy  to  the  land  of  Khani  to  ob- 

fusion.    In  a  very  fragmentary  list  of  dates  the  31st  tain  the  ^ods  Marduk  and  Zarpanit,  the  most  sacred 

year  of  his  reign  is  nven  as  that  of  the  land  Emut-  national  idols,  which  had  evidently  been  captured  by 

balu,  which  is  usuaBy  taken  as  that  of  his  victory  the  enemy.     The  next  king  of  whom  we  nave  any 

over  western  Elam,  and  considered  by  many  as  that  knowledge  is  Karaindash  (1450  b.  c.)  who  settled  the 

of  his  conquest  of  Larsa  and  its  king,  Rim-Sin,  or  boundary  lines  of  his  kingdom  with  his  contemporary 

Eri-Aku.     If  the  Biblical  Amraphel  be  Hammurabi  Asshur-bel-nisheshu  of  Assyria.    From  the  Tell-el-et- 

we  have  in  Gen.,  xiv,  the  record  of  an  expedition  of  mama  tablets  we  conclude  that  in  1400  b.  c,  Babylon 


wx'  rio  linger  the  one  great  power  of  WeBt«m  Asia;  annoxed   the   McanpotamUii   provinces   of   ABSyria, 

IheKin^imiof  Assyria  and  uie  Kingdom  of  Mitanm  sud  when'Sinshariahkun,  the  last  King  of  Assyria, 

ntre  its  rivals  and  wellni^  equalB.     Yet,  in  the  let^  >  tried  to  cut  off  his  return  and  threatened  Babylon, 

lera  nliich  pa^aed  between  Kaonshman-B^  and  Ame-  Nabopolawar  called  in  the  aid  of  the  Manda,  nomadic 

DoptiilU.KinKof  Egypt,  it  is  evident  that  the  King  tribes  of  Kurdistan,  somewhat  incorrectly  identified 

of  Babylon  coiud  aosume  a  more  independent  tone  with  the  Hedes.   Though  Nabopolasetir  no  doubt  con- 

of  bir  equality  with  the  great  Pbanu)  than  the  kings  tributed  his  share  to  the  events  which  led  to  the  com- 

of  Anvna  or  Hitanni.    When  Aroenophis  aska  for  dete  dcetmction  of  Ninive  (606  b.  c.)  by  these  Manda 

Eadianman-Bel'a  sater  in  marriage,  Eadashman-Bel  barbarianis,  he  awai«ntly  did  not  in  person  co-operate 

promptly  asks  for  Amenophis'  sister  in  return;  and  in  the  taking  of  the  dty,  nor  share  the  booty,  but 

'  a  Amenophis  demuis,  Kadaah  man-Bel  promptly  used  the  of^Kirtunity  to  firmly  establish  hia  throne 


isfwets  that,  unless  some  fair  Egyptiai 


1  princdy 


L   Babylon.      Though   Semites,   the   Chaldeans   be- 


WbeaAasyriahassotight  Egyptianhdp  against  Baby-    lomana  proper,  a  „  «        - 

loo,  Kadashman-Bel  diplomatically  r^nrnds  Pharao     VsUev.    They  were  settlers  from  Arabia,  who  iiad  ii_ 
tiist  Babjlon  has  In  timee  past  given  no  assistanoe     vadea  BaliQ^ma  from  the  South.    Their  stronghold 


to  Syrian  vassal    princ 
againit    their    Egyptian 

i^l  now  to  act  in  the 
BUM  way  in  not  granting 
help  to  Aasyria.  And 
vhen  a  Babylonian  car- 
iTBD  has  been  robbed 
b;  the  people  of  Akko  in 
Ctaaan,  the  Egyptian 
Goverament  receives  a 
utonptory  letter  from 
Babylon  for  amende  haito- 
rabU  and  restitution. 
Anienophis  is  held  re^XHk- 
liUe,  "  for  Canaan  is  thy 
country,  and  thou  art  its 
King ' '.  Kadashman-Bd 
WM  succeeded  by  Bum- 
tburiaah  I,  Kurigalzu  I, 
Btunaburiash  II.  Six  let- 
ters of  the  last-named  to 
Amenhotep  IV  of  Egrpt 
suggest  a  period  of  pei?«^ 
tranquillity  and  prosper- 
ity. For  the  cause  and 
result  of  the  first  great 
ronflict  between  Assyria 
ud  Babylon  see  Assyria. 
How  the  long  Kasaite 
djnasty  came  to  an  end 
"re  koow  not,  but  it  wa« 


8  the  district  known  as 
theSealanda.  During  the 
Assyrian  supremacy  the 
combined  forces  of  Bal^- 
lon  and  Assyria  had  kept 
them  in  check,  but,  owing 
probably  to  the  fearftu 
Assyrian  atrocities  in 
Babybn,  the  citizens  had 
begun  to  look  towards 
their  former  enemies  for 
help,  and  the  Chaldean 
power  grew  apace  in  Baby- 
lon till,  in  Nabopolassar, 
it  assumed  the  reins  of 
government,  and  thus  im- 
perceptibly a  foreign  race 
supeneded  the  ancient 
inhabitants.  The  ci  ty  re- 
mained the  same,  but  its 
nationality  changed.  Na- 
bopolassar must  have 
been  a  strong,  beneficent 
ruler,  engaged  in  rebuild- 
ing temples  and  digging 
canals,  hke  hia  prea^%s- 
BorB,and  yet  mamtaining 
hia  hold  over  the  con- 
quered provinces.  The 
Egyptians,  who  had  learnt 
of  the  weakness  of  Assyria, 
had  already,  tliree  ^eara 
before  the  fall  of  Ninive, 
crossed  the  frontieia  with 
a  mighty  army  under 
NechoII,in  the  hope  of 
sharing  in  the  dismember- 
ment of  the  Assyrian  Em- 
pire. How  Josiasof  Juda, 
to  bar  his  v 
it  Meeiddo  i 
from  IV  Kings,  x 


eJeren  kings  in  132  years 
(about  1200-1064  b.  c). 
The  greatest  monarch  of 
thia  bouse  was  Nabucbo- 
doEiDBor  I  {about  1135- 
2S  B.  c);  though  twice  de- 
feated by  Astoria,  he  was 
niecesaful  against  the  Lu- 
luhi,  punished  Eliun,  and 

iiiTjlded  Syria,  and  by  his  .                   .           = 

ixilliant  achievements  stayed  the  inevitable  decline  satisfied  with  the  conquest  of  the  Syrian  provinces, 

of  Babylon,     The  next  two  dynasties  are  known  as  proceeded  no  further.     A  few  years  later,  however, 

those  of  the  Sealand,  and  of  Bazi,  of  three  kings  each  tie  marched  a  colossal  army  from  £^^t  to  the  Eu- 

ind  tiiese  were   followed  by  one  Elamite  king   (c  phratea  in  hopes  of  annexing  part  oi  Mesopotamia. 

10G4-9OO  B.  c).    Upon  these  obscure  dynasties  fol-  He  was  met  b^  the  Babylonian  axmy  at  Carchemish, 

loTitlielDng  series  of  Babylonian  kings,  who  reigned  the  ancient  Hittite  capital,  where  he  wished  to  cross 

mcstlyaa  vassals,  sometimes  quasi-Independent,  some-  the  Euphrates.     Nabopolassar,  being  prevented  by 

times  as  lebel-ldnfa  in   the   period  of  Asiryriaa  su-  ill  health  and  advancing  a^e,  had  sent  his  son  Na- 

piBuaey  (for  which  see  AasYBiA).  buchodonosor,  and  put  him  m  command.   The  Egj^)- 

Thb  Second,  or  Chaldean,  Eupirk. — With  the  tians  were  utterly  routed  in  this  great  encounter,  one 

<ie*lh,  in  626  B.  c,  of  Kandalanu  (the  Babylonian  of  the  most  important  in  history  (604  n.  c).    Nabu- 

Mme  of  Assurbanipal),  King  of  Assyria,  Alssyrian  chodonosor  pursued   the   enemy  to  the  borders  of 

power  in  Babylon  prBCtically  ceased.     Nabopolassar,  Egypt,  where  he  received  the  news  of  his  father's 

»  Qialdean  wno  had  risen  from  the  position  of  gen-  death.     He  hastened  back  to  Babylon,  was  received 

«*1  in  the  Assyrian  army,  ruled  Babylon  as  Shak-  without  opposition,  and  began,  in  604  b.  c,  the  forty- 

luoak  for  some  years  in  nominal   dependence  on  two  years  of  his  most  glonous  reign.    His  first  diffi- 

tiiinTe.    Then,  as  King  of  Babylon,  he  invaded  and  cutties  arose  in  Juda.    Against  the  sol^nn  warning 


BABYLONIA  184  BABYLONIA 

of  Jeremias  the  Prophet,  Jehoiakim  refused  tribute,  madness  (Daniel^  iv,  26-34)  no  Babjrlonian  record  has 
i.  e.  rebelled  against  Babylon.  At  first  Nabucho-  as  yet  been  found.  A  number  of  ingenious  su^es- 
donosbr  II  began  a  small  guerilla  warfare  against  tions  have  been  made  on  this  subject,  one  of  the^est 
Jerusalem;  then,  in  597  b.  c,  he  dispatched  a  con-  of  which  is  Professor  Hommel's  substitution  of  Nabu- 
siderable  army,  and  after  a  while  began  the  siege  in  na'id  for  NaburchodDnosor,  but  the  matter  had  better 
person.  Jechonias,  however,  son  of  Jehoiakim,  who  stand  over  till  we  possess  more  information  on  this 
as  a  lad  of  eighteen  had  succeeded  his  father,  sur-  pjeriod.  Of  the  prophet  Daniel  we  find  no  certain  men- 
renderedj  7000  men  capable  of  bearing  arms  and  1000  tion  ill  contemporary  documents;  the  prophet's  Baby- 
workers  m  iron  were  carried  away  and  made  to  form  Ionian  name^  Baltassar  (Balatsu-usur),  is  unfortu- 
a  colony  on  a  canal  near  Nippur  (the  River  Chobar  nately  a  very  common  one.  We  know  of  at  least 
mentioned  in  Ezechiel,  i,  1),  and  Zedekias  was  sub-  fourteen  persons  of  that  time  called  Balatu  and  seven 
stituted  for  Jechonias  as  vassal  King  of  Juda.  called  Bsiiatsu,  both  of  which  names  may  be  abbre- 
Sbme  ten  ye€u«  later  Nabuchodonosor  once  more  viations  of  Baltassar,  or  "I^tect  His  life".  Theety- 
foimd  himself  in  Palestine.  Hophra,  King  of  Egypt,  mology  of  Sidrach  and  Misach  is  unknown,  but  Abed- 
who  had  succeeded  Necho  II  in  589  b.  c,  had  by  se-.  nego  and  Arioch  (Abdnebo  and  Eriaku)  are  well 
cret  agents  tried  to  combine  all  the  Svrian  States  in  known.  Professor  J.  Oppert  found  the  base  of  a 
a  conspiracy  against  Babylon.  Edom,  Moab,  Ammon.  sreat  statue  near  a  moimd  called  Duair,  east  of 
Tyre,  and  Sidon  had  entered  into  the  coalition,  ana  Babylon,  and  this  may  have  belonged  to  the  golden 
at  last  even  Juda  had  joined,  and  Zedekias,  against  image  erected  ''in  the  plain  of  Dura  of  the  province 
the  advice  of  Jeremias,  broke  his  oath  of  allegianoe  of  Babylon"  (Dan.,  iii,  1).  In  561  b.  c,  Nabucho- 
'  to  the  Chaldeans.  A  Babylonian  army  began  to  sur-  donosor  was  succeeded  by  Evil-Merodach  (IV  Kings, 
round  Jerusalem  in  587  b.  c.  They  were  unable  to  xxv,  27),  who  released  Joachin  of  Juda  and  raised 
take  the  city  by  storm  and  intended  to  subdue  it  by  him  above  the  other  vassal  kines  at  Babylon,  but 
starvation.  But  Pharao  Hophra  entered  Palestine  his  mild  rule  evidently  displeased  the  priestly  caste, 
to  help  the  besi^red.  The  Babylonians  raised  the  and  they  accused  him  of  reigning  lawlessly  and  ex- 
siege  to  drive  the  Egyptians  back;  they  then  returned  travagantlv.  After  less  than  three  years  he  was  as- 
to  Jynisalem  and  continued  the  siege  in  grim  ear-  sassinated  by  Neriglis8ar(Nergal-6ar-usur),  his  brother- 
nest.  On  July  the  9th,  586  b.  c,  they  poured  in  in-law,  who  is  possibly  the  Nergalsharezer  present 
through  a  breach  in  the  wall  of  Ezekias  ana  took  the  at  the  taking  of  Jerusalem  (Jer.,  xxxix,  3-13).  Neri- 
citybv  storm.  They  captured  the  fiyin^Zedekias  and  flissar  was  after  four  years  succeeded  by  his  son 
broughthimbefore  Nabuchodonosor  at  Riblah,  where  Labasi-Marduk,  no  more  than  a  child,  who  reigned 
his  cnildren  were  slain  before  him  and  his  eyes  nine  months  and  was  assassinated, 
blinded.  The  city  was  destroyed,  and  the  temple  The  conspirators  elected  Nabonidus  (Nabu-na*id) 
treasures  carried  to  Babylon.  A  vast  niunber  of  the  to  the  throne.  He  was  the  last  King  of  Babryion 
poi>iilation  was  deported  to  some  districts  in  Baby-  (555-539  b.  c).  He  was  a  royal  antiouarian  rather 
Ionia,  a  miserable  remnant  only  was  allowed  to  remain  than  a  ruling  king.  From  their  foundations  he  re- 
under  a  Jewish  governor,  Godolias.  When  this  gov-  built  the  great  Shamash  temple  in  Sippar  and  the 
emor  was  slain  by  a  Jewish  faction  under  Ishmael,  a  Sin  temple  in  Harran,  and  in  his  reign  the  city  walls 
fraction  of  this  remnant,  fearing  Nabuchodonosor's  of  Bshyioa  "were  curiously  built  with  burnt  brick 
wrath,  emigrated  to  Egypt,  forcibly  taking  Jeremias  and  bitumen".  But  he  resided  in  Tema,  shunned  the 
the  Prophet  with  them.  capital,  offended  the  provincial  towns  by  transport- 
Babylon's  expedition  to  Juda  thus  ended  in  leav-  ing  their  gods  to  Shu-anna,  and  alienated  the  priest- 
ing  it  a  devastated,  depopulated,  ruined  district,  hcxxl  of  mbylon  by  what  tney  would  call  misdirected 
Nabuchodonosor  now  turned  his  arms  against  Tyre,  piety.  To  us  his  antiquarian  research  after  first 
After  Egypt  this  city  had  probably  been  the  main-  foundaiionnstones  of  the  temples  he  rebuilt  is  of  the 
spring  of  the  coalition  against  Babylon.  The  pun-  greatest  importance.  He  teUs  us  that  the  foundation- 
ishment  intended  for  Tyre  was  the  same  as  that  of  stone  of  the  Shamash  temple  laid  by  Naram  Sin  had 
Jerusalem,  but  Nabuchodonosor  did  not  succeed  as  not  been  seen  for  3200  years,  which,  roughly  speaking* 
he  did  witn  the  capital  of  Juda.  The  position  of  Tyre  eives  us  3800  b.  c,  for  Sargon  of  Alckad,  Naram  Sinrs 
was  immeasurably  superior  to  that  of  Jerusalem,  father;  upon  this  date  most  of  our  early  Babylonian 
The  Babylonians  had  no  fleet;  therefore,  as  longas  chronology  is  based.  The  actual  duties  of  govem- 
the  sea  remained  open.  Tyre  was  impregnable.  The  ment  seem  to  have  been  largely  in  the  h^ds  of 
Chaldeans  lay  before  Tyre  thirteen  years  (585-572),  the  Crown  Prince  Baltassar  (M-shar-usur),  who  re- 
but did  not  succeed  in  taking  it.  Ethobaal  11,  its  sided  in  Babylon  as  regent.  Meanwhile  Cyrus,  the 
king,  seems  to  have  come  to  terms  with  the  King  of  petty  King  of  Anshan,  had  begun  his  career  of  con- 
Babylon,  fearing,  no  doubt,  the  slow  but  sure  de-  quest.  He  overthrew  Astyages,  Kin^  of  the  Medes, 
struction  of  Tyrian  inland  trade;  at  least  we  have  evi-  for  which  victory  Nabonaid  praised  him  as  the  young 
dence,  from  a  contract-tablet  dated  in  Tyre,  that  servant  of  Merodach;  he  overthrew  Croesus  of  I^dia 
Nabuchodonosor  at  the  end  of  his  reim  was  recog-  and  his  coalition;  he  assumed  the  title  of  King  of  the 
nized  as  suzerain  of  the  city.  Notwithstanding  the  Parsu,  and  had  begun  a  new  Indo-Germanic  world 
little  success  against  Tyre,  Nabuchodonosor  attsu^ked  power  which  repla^d  the  decrepit  Semitic  civiliza- 
Egypt  in  567.  He  entered  the  very  heart  of  the  tion.  At  last  Nabonaid,  realizing  the  situation,  met 
country,  ravaged  and  pillaged  as  he  chose,  appar-  the  Persians  at  Opis.  Owin^  to  internal  strife  amongst 
ently  without  opposition,  and  returned  laden  with  the  Babylonians,  many  of  whom  were  dissatisfied 
booty  through  the  S3rrian  Provinces.  But  no  per-  with  Nabonaid,  the  Persians  had  an  easy  victory, 
manent  Egyptian  occupation  by  Babylon  was  the  taking  the  city  of  Sippar  without  fighting.  Nabonaid 
result.  fied  to  Babylon.  Cyrus's  soldiers,  imder  the  general- 
Thus  Nabuchodonosor  the  Chaldean  showed  him-  ship  of  Ugbaru  (Gobr3ras),  Governor  of  Gutium,  en- 
self  a  capable  mihtary  ruler,  yet  as  a  Babylonian  tered  the  capital  without  striking  a  blow  and  cap- 
monareh,  foUowine  the  custom  of  his  predecessors,  tured  Nabonaid.  This  happened  m  June;  in  October 
he  gloried  not  in  the  arts  of  war,  but  of  peace.  His  Cyrus  in  person  entered  tne  city,  paid  homage  at 
boast  was  the  vast  buildine  operations  which  made  E-sacila  to  Marduk.  A  week  later  the  Persians  en- 
Babylon  a  city  (for  those  &ys)  impregnable,  which  tered,  at  niffht,  that  quarter  of  the  city  where  Baltas- 
adorned  the  capital  with  palaces,  and  the  famous  sar  occupied  a  fortified  position  in  apparent  security, 
''procession  road"^  and  Gate  of  Ishtar,  and  which  where  the  sacred  vessds  of  Jehovah's  temple  w^ie 
restored  and  beautified  a  great  number  of  temples  in  profaned,  where  the  hand  appeared  on  the  wall  writ- 
different  towns  of  Bab^donia.    Of  Nabuchodonosor's  ing  Mane,  Tekel  Pharesy  and  where  Daniel  was  offered 


JBABYLONIA  185  BABYLONIA 

the  third  place  in  the  kingdom  (i-  6.  after  Nabonaid  again  see  in  Nemrod  an  intentional  corruption  of 
and  Baltassar).   That  same  nieht  Baltassar  was  slain  Amarudu,  the  Akkadian  lor  Marduk,  whom  the  Baby- 
and  the  Semitic  Empire  of  Babylon  came  to  an  end,  lonians   worshipped   as   the  great   God,   and   who, 
for  the  ex-King  Naoonaid  s(>ent  the  rest  of  his  life  perhaps,  was  the  deified  ancestor  of  their  citv.    This 
in  Oann^iia.  corruption  would  be  parallel  to  Nisroch  (I  V  Kings, 
In  one  sense  Babylonian  history  ends  here,  and  xix,  37)  for  Assuraku,  and  Nibhaz  (IV  Kings,  xvii, 
Persian  history  begins,  yet  a  few  words  are  needed  31)  for  Abahazu,  or  Abed  Nego  for  Abdneto.    The 
on  the  return  of  the  Jewish  captives  after  their  sev-  descrii^tion   of   "stout   hunter"   or   hero-entrapper 
enty  years  of  exile.    It  has  long  been  supposed  that  would  fit  in  well  with  the  r61e  ascribed  to  the  ^gkI 
Cyrus,  professing  the  Mazdean  religion,  was  a  strict  Marduk,  who  entrapped  the  monster  Tiamtu  in  nis 
iDonotheist  and  released  the  Jews  out  of  sympathy  net.     Both  Biblical  instances,  IV  Kings,  xvii,  31, 
for  their  faith.    But  this  king  was,  apparentlv,  only  and  xix,  37,  however,  are  very  doubtful,  and  Nisroch 
unconsciously  an  instrument  in  Uoa  s  hanos,  and  has  recently  found  a  more  probable  explanation, 
the  permission  for  the  Jews  to  return  was  merely        (2)  "The  beginning  of  his  kingdom  was  Babylon 
given  out  of  political  sagacity  and  a  widh  for  pojju-  and  Arach  and  Achf^  and  Calanne". — ^These  cities 
Erity  in  his  new  domains.    At  least  we  possess  in-  of  Northern  Babvlonia  are  probably  enumerated  in- 
scriptions of  him  in  which  he  is  most  profuse  in  his  versely  to  the  orcfer  of  their  antiquity;  so  that  Nippur 
homage  to  the  Babylonian  Pantheon.    As  Nabonaid  (Calanne)  is  the  most  ancient,  and  &tbylon  the  most 
had  outraged  the  religious  sentiments  of  his  subjects  modem.    Recent  excavations  have  shown  that  Nip- 
by  collectmg  aU  their  gods  in  Shu-anna,  Cjyrus  pur-  pur  dates  far  back  beyond  the  Sarsonid  age  (3800 
sued  an  opposite  policy  and  returned  all  these  gods  b.  c.)  and  Nippur  is  mentioned  on  the  fifth  tablet  of 
to  their  own  worwiippers;  and,  the  Jews  having  no  the  Babyloman  Creation-story, 
idols,  he  returned  their  sacred  vessels,  which  BaTtas-        (3)  The  next  Biblical  passage  which  requires  men- 
sar  had  profaned,  and  gave  a  grant  for  the  rebuilding  tion  is  that  dealing  with  the  Tower  of  Babel  (Gen.,  xi, 
of  their  Temple.    The  very  pm-aseology  of  the  decree  1-9).    This  narrative,  though  couched  in  the  terms 
given  in  I  Elsdras,  i,  2  sqq.,  referring  to  "the  Lord  of  Oriental  folklore,  yet  expresses  not  merely  a  moral 
God  of  Heaven"  shows  his  respectful  attitude,  if  not  lesson,  but  refers  to  some  historical  fact  in  the  dim 
inclination,  towards  monotheism,  which  was  pro-  past.    There  was  perhaps  in  the  ancient  world  no 
fessed  by  so  many  of  his  Indo-Germanic  subjects,  spot  on  all  the  eartn  where  such  a  variety  of  tongues 
Darius  Hystaspes,  who  in  521  b.  c,  after  defeating  and  dialects  was  heard  as  in  Babylonia,  where  Akka- 
Pseudo-Smerdis,  succeeded  Cambyses  (King  of  Baby-  dians,  Sumerians,  and  Amorites.  Elamites,  Kassites, 
Ion  since  530  b.  c.)  was  a  convinced  monotheist  and  Sutites,  Qutites,  and  perhaps  Hittites  met  and  left 
adorer  of  Ahuramazda;  and  if  it  was  he  who  ordered  their  mark  on  the  language;  where  Assyrian  or  Sem- 
and  aided  the  completion  of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  itic  Babylonian  itself  only  very  gradually  displaced 
after  the  interruption  caused  by  Samaritan  inter-  the  older  non-Semitic  tongue,  and  where  for  many 
vention,  it  was  no  doubt  out  of  sympathy  with  the  centuries  the  people  were  at  least  bilingual.    It  was 
Jewish  religion  (I  Esdr.,  vi,  1  sqq.).    It  is  not  quite  thespot  where  Turanian,  Semitic,  and  Indo-Germanic 
certain,  however,  that  the  Darius  referred  to  is  this  met.    Yet  there  remained  in  the  national  conscious- 
king;  it  has  been  suggested  that  Darius  Nothus  is  ness  the  memory  that  the  first  settlers  in  the  Baby- 
meant,  who  mountedthe  throne  almost  a  hundred  Ionian  plain  spoke  one  language.     "Thev  removed 
years  later.     Zerubabel  is  a  thoroughly  Babylonian  from  the  East   ,  as  the  BiWe  says  and  all  recent  re- 
nanie  and  occurs  frequently  on  documents  of  that  search  suggests.    When  we  read,  "The  earth  was  of 
time;  but  we  cannot  as  yet  trace  any  connexion  be-  one  tongue^',  we  need  not  take  this  word  in  its  widest 
tween  the  2Jerubabel  of  &ripture  and  any  name  men-  sense,  for  the  same  word  is  often  translated  "the 
tioned  in  these  documents.  land".     Philology  may  or  may  not  prove  the  imity 
Some  Special  Bible  References. — (1)  The  first  of  all  human  speech,  and  man's  descent  from  a  single 
ireferring  to  Babylonia  is  Gen.,  X,  8-10:  "Chus  set  of  parents  seems  to  postulate  original  unity  of 
femrod,  and  .the  beginning  of  his  kingdom  was  language;  but  in  any  case  the  Bible  does  not  here 
/Ion  and  Arach  and  Achad  and  Chalaime  in  the  seem  to  refer  to  this,  and  the  Bible  account  itself 
land  of  Sennaar."   The  great  historical  value  of  these  suggests  that  a  vast  variety  of  tongues  existed  pre- 
genealogies   in  Genesis  has  been  acknowledged  by  vious  to  the  foundations  of  Babylon.    We  need  but 
scholars  of  all  schools;  these  genealogies  are,  however,  refer  to  Gen.,  x,  5^  21,  31:  "In  their  kindreds  and 
not  of  persons,  but  of  tribes,  which  is  obvious  from  tongues  and  countries  and  nations";  and  Gen.,  x,  10, 
such  a  bold  metaphor  as:  "Cnanaan  begat  Sidon,  his  where  Babylon  is  represented  as  almost  coeval  with 
first  bom"  (v,  15).    But  in  many  instances  the  names  Arach,  Achad,  and  Calanne,  and  posterior  to  Gomer, 
are  those  of  actual  persons  whose  personal  names  be-  Magog,  Elam,  Arphaxad,  so  that  the  original  division 
came  designations  of  the  tribes,  just  as  in  known  of  languages  cannot  first  have  taken  place  at  Babel, 
instances  of  Scottish  and  Irish  clans  or  Arab  tribes.  \\Tiat  liistorical  fact  lies  behind  ^he  account  of  the 
Chus  begat  Nemrod.    Chus  was  not  a  Semite,  accord-  building  of  the  Tower  of  Babel  is  difficult  to  ascertain. 
ing  to  the  Biblical  account,  and  it  is  remarkable  that  Of  course  any  real  attempt  to  reach  heaven  by  a  tower 
recent  discoveries  all  seem  to  point  to  the  fact  that  is  out  of  the  question.    The  mountains  of  Elam  were 
the  original  civilization  of  Babylonia  was  non-Semitic  too  close  by,  to  tell  them  that  a  few  yards  more  or  less 
and  the  Semitic  element  only  gradually  displaced  the  were  of  no  importance  to  get  in  touch  with  the  sky. 
aborigines  and  adopted  their  culture.     It  must  be  But  the  wish  to  have  a  raflying-point  in  the  plain  is 
noteaTalfio,  that  in  v.  ^  Assur  is  described  as  a  son  only  too  natural.    It  is  a  striking  fact  that  most  Baby- 
of  Sem,  though  in  v.  11  Assur  comes  out  of  the  land  Ionian  cities  possessed  a  ziggurrat  (a  stage,  or  temple- 
of  Sennaar.     This  exactly  represents  the  fact  that  tower),  and  these  bore  very  significant  Sumerian 
Assyria  was  purely  Semitic  where  Babylonia  was  not.  names,  as,  for  instance,  at  Nippur^  Dur-ankif  "Link 
Some  see  in  Chus  a  designation  of  the  city  of  Kish,  of  heaven  and  earth" — "the  summit  of  which  reaches 
mentioned  above  amongst  the  cities  of  early  Baby-  unto  heaven,  and  the  foundation  of  which  is  laid  in 
Ionia,  and  certainly  one  of  its  most  ancient  towns,  the  bright  deep";  or,  at  Babylon,  Esagikif  "House 
Nemrod,  on  this  supposition,  would  be  none  else  than  of  the  High  Head",  the  more  ancient  desi^iation  of 
Nin-marad,  or  Lord  of  Marad,  which  was  a  daughter-  which  was  Etemenankiy  "House  of  the  Foundation  of 
city  of  Kish.     Gilgamesh,  whom  mythology  trans-  Heaven  and  Earth";  or  Ezida,  at  Borsippa,  by  its 
formed  into  a  Babylonian  Hercules,  whose  fortunes  more  ancient  designation  Ewnmi'nMinA*!,  or  "House  of 
are  described  in  the  Gilgamesh-epos,  would  then  be  the  Seven  Spheres  of  Heave.i  and  Earth".    The  i-e- 
tbe  person  designated  by  the  BibUcal  Nemrod.    Others  mains  of  Ezlda,  at  pi  esent  Birs  Nimrud,  are  tradition* 


BABYLOVIA  186  BABYLONIA 

ally  pointed  out  as  the  Tower  of  Babel;  whether  shows  the  early  intercourse  between  Babylonia  and  the 

rightly,  is  impossible  to  say;  Esa^ila,  in  Babylon  Amorite  land,  or  Palestine.     In  Chanaan  Abraham 

itself,  has  as  good,  if  not  a  better^  claim.    We  have  no  remained  within  the  sphere  of  Babylonian  language 

record  of  the  buUding  of  the  city  and  tower  being  and  influence,  or  perhaps  even  authority.     Several 

interrupted  by  any  such  catastrophe  as  a  confusion  centuries  later,  when  Palestine  was  no  longer  part  of 

of  languages;  but  that  such  an  interruption  because  the   Babylonian   Empire,   Abd-Hlba,   the   King  of 

of  diversity  of  speech  of  the  townspeople  took  place,  Jerusalem,  in  his  intercourse  wfth  his  over-loro  of 

is  not  impossible.    In  any  case  it  can  only  have  been  IWpt,  wrote  neither  his  own  lanj^age  nor  that 

an  interruption,  though  perhaps  of  many  centuries,  ofjftiarao,  but  Babylonian,  the  umversial  language 

for  Babylon  increasea  and  prospered  for  many  cen-  of  the  day.    Even  when  passing  into  Egypt,  Abraham 

turies  after  the  period  referred  to  in  Genesis.    The  remained  under  Semitic  rule,  for  the  Hyicsos  reigned 

history  of  the  city  of  Babylon  before  the  Amorite  there. 

dynasty  is  an  absolute  blame,  and  we  have  no  facts  (6)  Considering  that  the  progenitor  of  the  Hebrew 
to  fill  up  the  fifteen  centuries  of  its  existence  previous  race  was  a  Babylonian,  and  that  Babylonian  culture 
to  that  date.  The  etymology  given  for  the  name  remained  paramount  in  Western  Asia  for  more  than 
Babel  in  Gen.,  xi,  9,  is  not  thenistoric  meaning  of  the  1000  years,  the  most  astounding  feature  of  the  He- 
word,  which,  as  given  above  is  Kadungirj  Bdh-tlu,  or  brew  Scriptures  is  the  almost  complete  absence  of 
''Goa's  Gate'\  The  derivation  in  Genesis  rests  upon  Babylonian  relimous  ideas,  the  more  so  as  Babylonian 
the  similarity  of  soimd  with  a  word  formed  from  the  religion,  though  Oriental  polytheism,  possessed  a 
root  balcUy  "to  stammer '^  or  "be  confused".  refinement,  a  nobility  of  thought,  and  a  piety,  which 

(4)  Next  to  be  mentioned  is  the  account  of  the  are  often  admirable.     The  Babylonian  account  of 
battle  of  the  four  kings  against  five  near  the  Dead  creation,  though  often  compared  with  the  Biblical 
Sea  (Gen.,  xiv).     Sennaar  mentioned  in  v.  1  b  the  one,  dififers  from  it  on  main  and  essential  points  for 
Sumer  of  the  Babylonian  inscriptions,  and  Amraphel  (a)  it  contains  no  direct  statement  of  the  Creation  of 
is  identified  by  most  scholars  with  the  ^eat  Hanmm-  the  world:  Tiamtu  and  Apsu,  the  watery  waste  and 
rabi.  the  sixth  King  of  Babylon.    The  initial  gutteral  the  abyss  wedded  together,  beget  the  umverse;  Mar- 
of  the  kind's  name  being  a  soft  one,  and  the  Baby-  duk,  the  conqueror  of  chaos,  shapes  and  orders  all 
lonians  being  giv^i  to  chopping  their  H's,  the  name  things;  but  this  is  the  mytholo^cal  garb  of  evolu- 
actually  occurs  in  cimeiform  inscriptions  as  Ammu-  tion  as  opposed  to  creation,    (b)  It  does  not  make  the 
rapi.    The  absence  of  the  final  I  arises  from  the  fact  Deity  the  first  and  only  cause  of  the  existence  of  all 
that  the  si^  pi  was  misread  hil  or  perhaps  i/u,  the  things^  the  gods  themselves  are  but  the  outcome  of 
sign  of  deim^tion^  or  complement  of  the  name^  being  pre-existent,  apparently  eternal,  forces;  they  are  not 
omitted.     There  is  no  philological  difliculty  in  this  cause,  but  effect,    (c)  It  makes  the  present  world  the 
identification,  but  the  chronological  difficulty  (viz.,  of  outcome  of  a  great  war;  it  is  the  story  of  Resistance 
Hammurabi  oeing  vassal  of  uhedorlaomer)  has  led  and  Struggle,  which  is  the  exact  opposite  of  the  Bibli- 
others    to    identify    Amraphel    with    Hammurabi's  cal  account,    (d)  It  does  not  arraiige  the  things  cre- 
father  Sin-muballit,  whose  name  is  ideographically  ated  into  groups  or  classes,  which  is  one  of  the  main 
written  Amar-Pal.    Arioch,  King  of  Pontus  (Pontus  features  of  the  story  in  Genesis,     (e)  The  work  of 
is  St.  Jerome's  unfortunate  guess  to  identify  Ellazar)  creation  is  not  divided  into  a  number  of  days — the 
is  none  else  but  Rim-Sin,  lun^  of  Larsa  (Ellazar  of  principal  Uterary  characteristic  of  the  Bibhcal  ac- 
A.   v.),  whose  name  was   En-Aku,  and  who  was  count.    The  Babylonian  mythology  possesses  some- 
defeated  and  dethroned  by  the  King  of  Babylon,  thing  analogous  to  the  Biblical  Garden  of  Eden.    But 
whether  Hammurabi  or  Sin-muballit;  and  if  the  former,  though  they  apparently  possessed  the  word  Edina, 
then  this  occurred  in  the  thirty-first  year  of  his  reign,  not  only  as  meaning  "the  rlain",  but  as  a  geoeraphi- 
the  year  of  the  land  of  EmutbalU;  Eri-Aku  bearing  the  cal  name,  their  garden  of  delight  is  placed  in  JE>idu, 
title  of  King  of  Larsa  and  Father  of  Emutbalu.    The  where  "a  dark  vine  grew;  it  was  made  a  glorious  place, 
name  Chedorlahomer  has  apparently ,  though  not  quite  planted  beside  the  abyss.     In  the  glorious  house, 
certainly,  been  found  on  two  tablets  together  with  which  is  like  a  forest,  its  shadow  extends;  no  man 
the  names  Eriaku  and  Tudhula,  which  latter  Idng  is  enters  its  midst.    In  its  interior  is  the  Sim-god  Tam- 
evidently    "Thadal,    king   of   the   Nations".     The  muz.    Between  the  mouths  of  the  rivers^  which  are 
Hebrew  vford  gdyim^  "nations",  is  a  clerical  error  on  both  sides".    This  passage  bears  a  striking  analogy 
for  GuHum  or  Gutif  a  neighbouring  state  which  plays  to  Gen.,  ii,  8-17.    The  Babylonians,  however,  seem 
an  important  r61e  throughout  Babylonian  history,  to  have  possessed  no  account  of  the  Fall.    It  seems 
Of  Kudur-lahgumal,  King  of  the  Land  of  Elam,  it  is  Ukely  that  the  name  of  Ea,  or  Ya,  or  Aa,  the  oldest 
said  that  he"*  descended  on",  and  "exercised  sover-  god  of  the  Babylonian  Pantheon,  is  connected  with 
eignty  in  Babylon  the  city  of  Kar-Duniash".    We  uie  name  Jahve,  Jahu,  or  Ja,  of  the  Old  Testament, 
have   documentary   evidence   that   Eriaku 's   father  Professor  Dehtzsch  recently  claimed  to  have  found 
Kudurmabug,  King  of  Elam,  and  after  him  Hammu-  the  name  Jahve-ilu  on  a  Babylonian  tablet,  but  the 
rabi  of  Babylon',  claimed  authority  over  Palestine  reading  has  been  strongly  disputed  by  other  scholars, 
the  land  of  Martu.    This  BibUcal  passage,  therefore.  The  greatest  similarity  between  Hebrew  and  Baby- 
which  was  once  described  as  bristling  with  impossi-  Ionian  records  is  in  their  accounts  of  the  Flood.     Pir- 
bUities,  has  so  far  only  received  confirmation  from  napistum,  the  Babylonian  Noe,  commanded  by  Ca, 
Babylonian  documents.  builds  a  ship  and  transfers  hither  his  family,   the 

(5)  According  to  Gen.,  xi,  28  and  31,  Abraham  was  beasts  of  the  field,  and  the  sons  of  the  artificers,  and 
a  Babylonian  from  the  city  of  Ur.    It  is  remarkable  he  shuts  the  door.     Six  days  and  nights  Uie  wind 
that  the  name  Abu  ramu  (Honoured  Father)  occurs  blew,  the  flood  overwhelmed  the  land.    The  seventh 
in  the  eponym  lists  for  677  b.  c,  and  Abi  ramuy  a  day  the  storm  ceased;  quieted,  the  sea  shrank  back; 
similar  name,  on  a  contract-tablet  in  the  reign  of  all  mankind  had  turned  to  corruption.     The   ship 
Apil-Sin,  thus  showing  that  Abram  was  a  Babylonian  stopped  at  the  land  of  Nisir.    Pir-napistum  sends  out 
name  in  use  long  beiore  and  after  the  date  of  the  first  a  dove,  which  returns;  then  a  swallow,  and  it 
Patriarch.     His  father  removed  from  Ur  to  Harran,  returns;  then  a  raven,  and  it  does  not  return.      He 
from  the  old  centre  of  the  Moon-cult  to  the  new.  leaves  the  ship,  pours  out  a  Ubation^jinakes  an  offer- 
Talmudic  tradition  makes  Teiah  an  idolater,  and  his  ing  on  the  peak  of  the  mountain.    "The  gods  sm^ed 
religion  may  have  had  to  do  with  his  emigration.    No  a  savour,  the  gods  smelled  a  sweet  savour,  the  gods 
excavations  have  as  yet  taken  place  at  Harran,  and  gathered  Uke  fues  over  the  sacrificer. "    No  one  read- 
Abraham's  ancestry  remains  obscure.     Aberainu  of  mg  the  Babylonian  account  of  the  Flood  can  deny  it« 
Apil -Sin's  reign  had  a  son  Sha-Amurri,  which  fact  intimate  connexion  with  the  narrative  in  Genesis,  yet 


BASTLONU  187 

defonner  is  so  intimately  bound  up  with  Babylonian    whole  countiy  under  this  metropolis,  the  city-^od 
njtitolo^,  that  the  inspired  character  of  the  Hebrew    Marduk,  wbooe  name  doee  not  occur  on  any  inacn^ 
iccoimt  IS  the  better  appreciated  by  the  contraat.        tion  previous  to  Hamnuirabi,  le^B  to  the  foreground. 
Reucion, — The   Babylonian  Pautbeon  arose  out    The  Bab^rtonian  theologians   not  only  gave  him  a 
of  a  gradual  amalgamation  of  the  local  deitiee  of  the    ^ace  in  the  Pantheon,  but  in  the  Epos  "Enuma 
Mrij  dly  statee  of  Sumer  and  Akkad.     And  Baby^    Elish"  It  is  related  how.  as  reward  for  overcoming 
kaiaD  mytholt^y  la  mainly  the  projection  into  the    tlie  Dragon  of  Chaos,  the  great  gods,  his  fathers, 
bcavoil}-  sphere  of  the  earthly  fortunes  of  the  eariy    bestowed  upon  Uarduk  their  own  names  .and  titles. 
«Dti«  01   civilisation    in    tne    Euphrat«B    valley.     Marduk  gradually  bo  outshone  the  other  deities  that 
BibvloDiaa  religion,  therefore,  is  largely  a  Sumerian,    tbeae  were  Looked  upon  as  mere  manifestations  oi 
i.e. Mongolian  product,  no  doubt  minified  by  Semitic     Harduk,  whose  name  became  almost  a  sjrnonym  for 
fflAKDce,  yet  to  th«  Wt  bearing  the  mark  of  ila    Ood.     And  though  Babylonians  never  quite  reached 
monotheism,  their  ideas  sometimes  seem  to  come 
near    it.     Unlike    tho    AssyrianB,    the    Babylonians 
never  poasessed  a  female  deity  of  such  standing  in 
the  Pantheon  as  Ishtar  of  Ninive  or  Arbela.    In  the 
Second  Empira,  Nelx>,  the  city-god  of  Borsippa,  over 
against   Baoylon,   rises   into   prominence   and   wins 
bonoura  almost  equal  to  those  of  Marduk,  and  the 
twin  citie«  have  two  almost  inseparable  gooa.    Judg- 
ing from  the  continual  invocation  of  the  gods  in  every 
oonceivable  detail  of  life,  and  the  continual  acknowl- 
edgment of  dependence  on  them,  and  the  anxious 
humble  prayers  that  are  still  extant,  the  Babylonians 
vtre  as  a  nation  pre-eminent  in  piety. 

CrvTLizATioiJ. — It  is  impossible  in  this  article  to 
give  an  idea  of  the  astounding  culture  which  had 
developed  in  the  Euphrates  Valley,  the  cradle  of 
civilisation,  even  as  early  aa  2300  b,  c.  A  penieal  of 
the  article  Hauuurabi,  and  a  careful  reading  of  his 
code  of  laws  will  give  us  a  clear  insight  in  the  Baby- 
lonian world  of  four  thousand  years  ago.  The  ethicul 
litany  of  the  Shurpu  tablets  contains  an  examination 
ol  conscience  more  detailed  than  the  so-called 
"NogatlvB"  confessions  in  the  Egyptian  Book  of 
the  Dead  and  fills  us  with  admiration  for  the  moral 
level  of  the  Babylonian  world.  Though  polyKamials, 
the  Babylonians  raised  but  one  woman  to  the  legfd 
status  of  wife,  and  women  possessed  considerable 
rights  and  freedom  of  action.  Marriage  settlements 
prot«cted  the  married,  and  tlie  unmarried  managed 
their  own  e8tat«s.  Cm  the  other  hand,  they  pos- 
sessed an  institution  analogous  to  vestal  virgins  at 
Bud  or  KoBioAtau  KnTO  ot  Babtlon  (abod*  1«X)  E-Mno,  These  female  votaries  had  a  privileged  posi- 
B.  c.),  BmniBa  Hubiuh  tion  in  Babylonian  society;  we  know,  bowever,  of  no 

such  dire  penalty  for  their  unfaithfulness  as  the 
Noncolian  origin  in  the  very  names  of  its  gods  and  Roman  law  inflicted.  A  votary  could  even  ent«r 
ia  ine  sacred  dead  languagGs  in  which  tney  were  into  nominal  marriage,  if  she  gave  her  husband  a 
MmBed.  The  tutelary  spirit  of  a  locality  extended  maid  as  Sarah  gave  Abraham.  According  to  Law  110 
bii  power  with  the  political  power  of  his  adherents:  of  Hamnturabi,  however,  "if  a  votary  who  dwells 
»hm  the  citizens  of  one  city  entered  into  political  not  in  a  cloister  open  a  wine-house  or  enter  a  wine- 
rdalions  with  the  citiiens  of  another,  popular  imagi-  bouse  for  drink,  that  female  tiiey  shall  burn".  On 
Dation  soon  created  the  relation  of  father  and  son,  the  other  hand  (Law  127),  "if  a  man  has  caused  the 
WUmt  and  sister,  or  man  and  wife,  between  their  finger  to  be  pointed  against  a  votary  and  has  not 
nroectlve  gods.  The  Babylonian  Trinity  of  Anu,  justified  It,  they  shall  set  that  man  before  the  judgee 
Ba,  and  Ea  is  the  result  of  later  speculation,  dividing  and  mark  his  forehead".  The  dark  nide  of  Baby- 
ilw  divine  power  into  that  which  rules  in  heaven,    Ionian  society  is  seen  in  the  strange  er  "" 

that  which  rules  on  earth,  and  that  which  rules  under    the  child  of  a  courtesan  or  of  a  public  . 

llie«arth.  Ea  was  originally  the  god  of  Eridu  on  the  to  know  his  father's  house  and  despise  his  foster- 
Ptwian  Gulf  and  therefore  the  god  of  the  ocean  and  parents  and  go  to  his  father's  house,  they  shall  tear 
the  waters  below.  Bel  was  originally  the  chief  out  his  eyes'  ,  The  repeated  coupling  of  the  words 
wirit  (in  Sumeriau  En-Hi,  the  older  designation  of  "votary  w  public  woman"  and  tne  minute  and  in- 
%l,  which  ia  Semitic  for  "chief"  or  'Mord")  of  dulgent  legislation  of  which  they  are  the  objects 
Xi^ur,  one  of  the  oldest,  possibly  the  oldest,  centre  make  us  fear  that  the  virtue  of  chastity  was  not 
of  civilization  after  Eridu.  Anu's  local  cult  ia  as  yet  priced  in  Babylon.  Although  originally  only  a  pTOvi~ 
™«rlain;  Erech  has  been  suggested:  we  know  tnat  dent,  prosperous  agricuiturS  people,  the  Babylonians 
(Jndea  erected  a  temple  to  him;  he  always  remained  seem  to  have  developed  a  great  commercial  talent; 
s  ihadowy  peraonality.  Although  nominal  head  of  and  well  might  some  Assyrian  Napoleon  have  re- 
tlw  Pantfcon,  he  had  in  later  days  no  t«mple  dedi-  ferred  to  his  Southern  neigtibours  as  "that  nation  of 
f*t*d  to  him  eiccept  one,  and  that  he  shared  with  shopkeepera".  In  1893  Dr.  Hilprecht  found  730 
Hidad.  Sin,  the  moon,  was  the  god  of  Ur;  Shamash,  tablets  twenty  feet  underground  in  a  mined  building 
UK  sun,  was  the  god  of  Laraa  and  Sippar;  when  the  at  Nippur,  which  proved  to  be  the  banking  archives 
two  towns  of  Girau  and  Uruaiaga  were  united  into  of  the  firm  Nurashu  and  Sons,  signed,  s^ed,  and 
<^  me  city  of  Laeash.  the  two  respective  local  dated  about  400  b.  c.  We  also  possess  a  deed  of 
lieilies,  Nin-(iirwu  and  Bau,  became  man  and  wife,  to  purehsse  by  Manishtusu,  King  of  Kish,  some  4000 
"iwm  Gudea  brought  wedding  presents.  With  the  b.  c,  in  archaic  Babylonian,  which  in  accurnoy  and 
tiK  of  Babylon  and  the  political  unification  of  the    minuteness  of  detail  in  moneys  and  values  would 


BABTLOVU.  188  BABTLONIA 

compare  well  with  a  modem  bolBnoe  sheet  that  haa  huge   lacunx.      GQgamesh  was   KinE  of  Erech  tin 

paaeed  the  chartered  accountants.     Proofs  are  not  Widled.     When  the  Btory  begins,  ute  city  and  its 

lacking  of  the  commercial  talents  df  the  Babylonians  temples  are  in  a  ruinous  state.    Some  great  calomit; 

duri:ig  the  thirty-five  centuries  between  these  dates,  has  fallen  upon  them.     Erecb  haa  been  besieged  foi 

Literature.^ Vast   as  is  the  material  of   Baby-  three  years,  till  Bel  and  Ishtar  interest  themselves 

Ionian  inscriptions,  equally  varied  are  their  contents,  in   its   behalf.     Gilgamesh  has  yearned  for  a  com- 

The  great  majority  no  doubt  of  the  300,000  tablets  panioo,  and  the  goudess  Arum  makes  Es'-bani,  the 

hitherto  unearthed  deal  with  business  matters  rather  warrior;  "covered  with  hair  was  al!  his  body  and  he 

than  with  matters  literary;  contracts,  marriwe  set-  had  tresses  like  a  woman,  his  hair  grew  thick  as  com; 

tlements,    cadastral    Hurveys,    commercial    letters,  thoueh  a  man,  he  lives  amongst  the  beasts  of  the 

orders    for   goods    or   acknowi-  field   .     They  entice  him  into  the  city  of  Erech  by 

edgmenta  of   their  receipt,  (^-  the  charms  of  a  woman  called   Samu^at;   he  Uv«« 

cial    communications      between  there  and  becomes  a  fast  friend  of  Gilgamesh.    tifU 

magistrates   and   civil   or    mili-  gamesh  and  Ea-bani  set  out  in  quest  of  adventure. 

tary    governors,  names,    titles,  travel  through  forests,  and  arrive  at  the  palace  of 

■    '      '  -  •  -  foundation  a   great   queen.      Gilgamesh   cute   ofT   the   head   of 


"bellee4ettres".      We  must  heaven  and  revenues  herself  by  sending  a  divine  bull 

reover    constantly    keep    in  against   GQgamesh    and    £a-bant.     This   animal   is 

mind     tfiat    only     about    one-  overcome  and  slain  to  the  great  joy  of  the  city  of 

fifth  of    the    total   number    of  Erech.    Warning  dreams  arc  sent  to  Gilgamesh  anil 

tirese  tablets    have    been   pub-  his  friend  Ea-bani  dies,  and  Gilgamesh  sets  out  on  a 

lished  and  that  any  description  far  ioumey,  to  bring  his  friend  back  from  the  uiidcr- 

of  their  literature  must  as  yet  world.    After  endless  adventures  our  hero  reaches  in 

be     fragmentary     and      tenta-  a  ship  the  waters  of  death  and  -inverses  with  Pir- 


uvc.       II     IB      convenient      to  napistum,  the   Babylonian    Noe,  who  tells  him  tlic 

classify    as     follows:      (1)    the  story  of  the  flood,  which  fills  up  the  eleventh  chapter 

Epos;    (2)  the    Psalm|    (3)  the  of  some  330  lines,  referred  lo  above.      Pir-oapislimi 

Historical  Nnrrative.  gives  to  Gilgamesh  the  plant  of  rejuvenescence  but 

(1)  The     Epoa.—(B.)  The   bo-  he  loses  it  again  on  his  way  back  to  Erech.     In  the 

called    "Seven  Tablets  of  Cre-  last  chapter  Gilgamesh  succeeds  in   calling  up  the 

Omb  o»   the   Sktem    ation",    because   written    on    a  spirit  of  Ea-bani,  who  gives  a  vivid  portrayal  of  life 

Tablcib  orCBB*TioH    series  of  seven  very    mutilated  after  death  "where  the  worm  dcvourcth  those  who 

tablets    in  the  Kouyunshik  Li-  had,*inned  in  their  heart,  but  where  the  blessed  lying 

,  brarv.    Happily   the  lacuns  can   here  and  there  be  upon  a  couch,  drink  pure  water".    Though  weird  in 

fillea  u[)  by  fragments  of  duplicates  fcund  elsewhere,  the  extreme  and  to  our  eyes  a  mixture  of  the  gro- 

Borrowing  an  exprcsaionfrom  theearlyTeu(«nlitera-  tea<iue   with   the   sublime,   this    epos    contains   de- 

ture,  this  might  be  called  the  "saga  of  the  primeval  scriptive  passages   of   unmistakable   power.     A  fen' 

chaos".    Assyrian  scribes  called  it  by  its  first  words  lines  as  example:  "At  the  break  of  dawn  in  the  mom- 

"Enuma  Elish"  (When  on  high)  as  the  Jews  called  ing  there  arose  from  the  foundation  of  heaven  a  dark 

Genesis  "Bereshith"  (in  the  bwinnin^).     Although  cloud.    The  Storm  god  thundered  within  it  and  Nebo 

it  containa  an  account  of  the  world's  origin,  as  above  and  Harduk  went  before  it.     Then  went  the  heralds 

contrasted  with  the  account  given  in  the  Bible,  it  ia  over   mountain   and    plain.      Uragala   dragged   the  . 

not  ao  much  a,  cosmogony  as  the  story  of  the  heroic  anchors  loose,   the   Annunak    raised   their   torches,  | 

deeds  of  the  god  Marduk,  in  his  struggle  with  the  with  their  flashing  thw  lighted  the  earth.    The  roar 

Draeon  of  Chaos.    Tiiough  the  youngest  of  the  gods,  of  the  Storm  god  reached  to  the  heavens  and  everjf- 

Marauk  is  charged  by  them  to  nght  Tiamtu  and  the  thing  bright  turned  into  darkness. " 
gods  on  her  side.    He  wins  a  glorious  victory:  he  takes         (e)  The  Adapa-Legend,  a  sort  of  "Paradioe  Lost", 

the  tablets  of  fate  from   Kimgu.   her  husoand;   he  probably  a  standarcf  work  of  Babylonian  literature, 

splits  open  her  skull,  hews  asunder  the  channels  of  as  it  is  found  not  only  in  the  Ninive  library,  but  even 

her  blood  and  makes  the  north  wind  carry  it  away  among  the  Amama  tablets  in  EgjT>t.    It  relates  how 

to  hidden  places.    He  divides  the  corpse  of  the  great  Adapa,  the  wise  man  or  Atrachasis,  tlie  purveyor  to 

Dragon  and  with  one  half  makes  a  covering  for  the  the  sanctuary  of  Ea,  is  deceived,  through  the  envy 

heavens  and  thus  fixes  the  waters  above  the  firma-  of  Ea.    Anu,  the  Supreme  God,  invites  him  to  Para- 

ment.     He  then  sets  about  fashioning  the  universe,  disc,  offers  him  the  food  and  drink  of  immortality, 

and  the  stara,  and  the  moon;  he  forms  man.     "Let  but  Adapa,  mistakenly  thinking  it  poison,   refuaes. 

me  gather  my  blood  and  let  me  set  up  a  man,  let  me  and    loses    life    everlasting.     Anu    scornfully    says: 

make   then   men   dwelling   on   the   earth."     When  "Take  him  and  bring  him  oack  to  his  earth. 
Marduk  has  finished  his  work,  he  is  acclaimed  by  all         (d)  Ishtar's  descent  into   Hades,   here  and   there 

the  gods  with  joy  and  given  fifty  names.    The  gods  bearing  a  surprising  resemblance  to  well-known  lines 

are  apparently  eager  to  oestow  their  own  titles  upon  of  Dante's  Inferno.    The  goddess  of  Erech  goes: 

him.    The  aim  of  the  poem  clearly  is  to  explain  how  t^  ,i.    t     a     \.  .   _  .u 

Marduk,  the  local  god  Sfas  moder^  a  city  as  Babylon,  ^%'''t.'"',    "''™f  f°  °°^  T"  a^TI^'t  i,   ii 

had  displaced  the^eities  of  the  olde?  Babylonian  ^  ^,1  ^^^  ho>^ol  gloom  where  dwelleth  Irkalla 

cities,  "the  gods  his  fathers".  To  the  house  wluch  one  enters  but  nevermore  i«^veth. 
(b)  The  ^at  national  epos  of  Gilgamesh,  which         Onlhe  way  where  there  a  no  retracing  of  footeteps 

pribibiy   hid   m   BabyloniJuT  literatSTsome  such  ^^   ^tj^"^  *'""''  ""^  ^'***™'  ""^  daybght   all 
place  as  the  Odyssey  or  the  .Shield  amongst  the  ceases. 

Greeks  and  Romans.     It  consiata  of  twelve  chapters  On  an  Amarna  tablet  we  find  a  description  gbostlv 

or  cantos.    It  opens  with  the  words  Sha  rvigba  imHru  and  graphic  of  a  feast,  a  fight,  and  a  weddlitg  in  hell. 
(He  who  saw  everything).     The  number  of  extant         (e)  Likewise  fragmenta  of  legendary  stories  about 

tablets  is  considerable,  but  unfortunately  they  are  all  the  earliest  Babylonian  kings  have  come  down  to  us 

very  fragmentary  and  with  exception  of  the  eleventh  One  of  the  most  remarkable  is  that  in  which  Sttrgnn 

chapter  the  text  ia  very  imperfect  and  shows  as  yet  of  Akkad,  bom  of  a  vestal  maiden  of  high  decree, 


BAOGAVOELD  189  BA00HTI.TT8 

t  opwed  b7  his  mother  in  a  basket  of  buLnuhes  refer  to  it  in  his  moaumental  pToclamatione.     No 

ud  pitch  floating  oo  the  n'at«ra  of  the  Euphratel;  doubt  the  Babylonians  must  have  despised  AasyriaD 

be  a  found  by  a  water  carrier  and  brought  up  as  a  inscriptions   as   bloodthirsty   screeds.      Because   the 

onknei.   Thts  story  cannot  but  remind  us  of  Mosee'  mnius  of  Babylon  was  one  of  culture   and  peace; 

mb.  therefore,  thou^  a  world-centre  a  thousand  years 

(2)  The  Paolm. — This  species  of  literature,  which  before  Ninive,  it  lasted  more  than  a  thousand  y^ara 

ftnntriy  seemed  almost  limited  to  the  Hebrew  race,  after  Ninive  was  deatroyed. 
'  a  juiSrious  growth  on  Babylonian  soil.    These 

ue  one  (nod  are  indeed  often 

>T  dreary  litaniea;  and  when 
■ftarperuaal  of  a  good  number  of  them  one  turns  to 
iheBebrew  Psalter,  no  fair-minded  person  will  deny 
the  ilmoM  immeasurable  superiority  of  the  latter. 
On  the  other  hand,  naucht  but  unreasoning  prejudice 
nuld  trouble  to  den^  the  often  touching  beauty  and 
DoWity  of  thought  m  rfome  of  these  productions  of 
rbe  imrtinctive  piety  of  a  noble  race.     It  is  natural 

moreovH  that  the  tone  of  some  Babylonian  psaima  (!*«««  >«»)-  i  d  a  _  „ 
■hould  Btrongly  remind  us  of  some  sonas  of  Israel,  ••■  ^-  Abbndzen. 
wtare  every  psalmist  boated  that  he  had  as  fore-  BacCMlCBld  (Bapchild, near  Sittingboume,  Kent), 
hilifr  a  ^Sylonian:  Abraham  from  Ur  of  the  s™o„  or  (e94).  This  meeting  was  rather  a  triiena- 
LlaWees.  Some  of  these  psalms  are  wntten  m  g^,^^  „,  Parliament,  than  an  ecclesiastical  synod, 
Aimenin  mth  Semitic  Babylonian  interhnear  t^i»-  presided  over  by  Wihtred,  King  of  Kent.  There 
iitMM;  othera  m  Semitic  Babylonian  only.  They  „erB  present  at  its  deliberations  Brihtwald,  Arch- 
ft>v  aU  Borta  of  technicalities  in  versification,  parai-  bigh^p  ^f  Canterbury,  Tobias,  Bishop  of  Rochester, 
feta,  alliteration,  and  rhythm.  There  are  acrosfycs  besides  abbots,  abbesses,  priests,  deacons,  and  lay 
UKitren  double  acrostics,  the  initial  and  final  syllable  lo^ds.  The  chief  enactments  are  embodied  in  a 
olMch  line  being  the  ssine  These  psahns  contain  charter  whose  terms  secured  to  the  Church  forever 
paifie  and  supplication  of  the  great  gods,  but,  what  the  donatiins  and  privUegea  bestowed  on  it  by  the 
BDwrt  remarkable,  some  of  them  are  penitential  laity,  since  Vhat  had  once  been  given  to  God  might 
;«sJmi,  the  sinner  mourning  his  sin  and  b^gmg  never  be  renumed  to  man's  use".  Moreover,  on  the 
rwraation  to  favour.  Moreover,  there  are  a  great  jeath  of  prelate  fitting  suecessors  were  to  be  ap- 
Dumber  of  '' lamentations "  not  over  personal  but  minted  with  the  advice  and  approval  of  the  arch- 
oiwn»tionaloalaaiilies-andaBabylonian"prophet"  tighop,  without  any  royal  intervention;  such  action 
»*pt  tu'er  the  fall  of  Nippur  many  centuries  before  „(,u]J^  n^Hify  the  election;  and  lay  interference  was 
iTOnias  wrote  his  mspired  sonp  of  sorrow  over  the  expressly  disclaimed  as  being  outside  the  limits  of 
Jatniction  of  Jerus^em.  Besides  these  there  are  the  laity's  rights.  The  cathedral  churches  of  Canter- 
nnmberleas  omen  tableta  magical  recipes  for  all  bury  and  Rochester  were  granted  in  perpetuity 
OTM  of  ills,  and  rituals  of  temple  service,  but  they  immunity  from  royal  requisifions  or  tribute  other- 
Wong  to  the  history  of  religion  and  astrology  rather  ,^86  than  voluntary,  and  these  were  never  to  create 
"^.l.  "^?'  literature.  ^,  „  ..  ,  -  precedent;  all  these  privileges  being  secured  under 
(3)  The  HisUmcal  Narrative.— The  Babylonians  severe  spiritual  penalties  for  infnngement.  The 
WDsd  to  have  possessed  no  ex  profeiso  historians,  interest  and  importance  of  this  document  r^t  on 
»bo,  like  a  Herodotus,  endeavoured  to  give  a  con-  the  fact  that  Speiman  and  others  regard  it  as  the 
"tted  nairative  of  the  past.  We  have  to  gather  most  ancient  English  charter.  Its  authenticity 
il>eir  history  from  the  royal  mscnptions  on  monu-  has  been  called  in  question;  but  though  different 
MBM  and  palace  walls  and  state-cylinders,  in  which  versiona  of  it  exist,  there  can  be  little  doubt  of  the 
-Mb  wvereign  records  his  great  deeds  m  perpetwm  general  genuineness  of  the  terms  common  to  aU,  as 
n  memonatn.     Whereas  we  fortunately  possess  an  here  sununarised. 

abundance  of  historical  texts  of  the  Assyrian  kings,        Coiton.  MS.  Doimi.  A„  VIII;  ATialo-SaionCkronidt;  Spn^ 

'bnlta  to   the    diacovery   of   Assurbanipal's  library,  «*".  C«k.,  I;  Wakb,  ^loteo/lA*  CAuniA,- Wilkinb,  Conniio; 

t  MB  as  yet  not  so  fortunate  in  the  case  of  Baby-  "*'"'"'  ""=  SmBsa,  ffwJ.  "«<*•■  „  

Imin  kin^-  of  the  eariy  Babylonian  city-kings  in  "^^^  Norbert  BiHT. 
'■an  a  number  of  shorter  inscriptions  on  steles  and  Bkcehflns,  Bishop  of  Corinth,  whom  Eusebiua 
'•DuodsTT  Stones  in  true  lapidary  style  and  longer  mentions  among  the  prominent  second-century 
'wUsieai  records  in  the  great  cylinder  inscriptions  chimjimen  (H.  E.,  V,  xxii),  is  known  only  by  the 
tfGudeaof  Lagash.  Whereas  we  possess  considerable  part  he  took  in  sustaining  Pope  Victor  I  in  the  Quar- 
luBtorical  texts  of  Hammurabi,  we  possess  but  veiy  todeciman  controversy.  When  that  pope,  detennin- 
litile  of  his  many  successors  on  the  Babylonian  ing  to  have  the  Roman  paschal  computation  univets- 
'iaone  until  the  second  Babylonian  Empire,  when  al^  accepted,  wrote  to  secure  the  co-operation  of 
longhistorical  texts  tell  us  the  doings  of  Nabopolassar,  influential  churches,  many  synods  were  held  and  their 
KabuchodonoBOr,  and  Nabonidus.  They  are  all  of  a  presiding  bishops  wrote  to  Victor,  all,  with  the  ex- 
pompous  grandeur  that  palls  a  little  on  a  Western  ception  of  the  Auatics,  in  support  of  hia  desini. 
mna,  and  tneir  self-adulation  comes  strange  to  us.  AJoiOQg  them  was  Bacchylus.  According  to  a  ninth- 
ly are  in  the  style  which  popular  imagination  is  century  witness  (c.  xiii  in  Hardouin,  Acta  Ooncil.,  V, 
'cnt  to  attribute  to  the  utterances  of  His  Celestial  1495)  ne  had  held  a  provincial  synod,  about  105, 
lUjoity,  the  Emperor  of  China.  They  invariably  with  sixteen  other  bishops;  and  St.  Jerome  attests 
^1^  with  a  long  Domage  to  the  gods,  giving  lengthy  that  his  letter,  qualified  as  eltgardem  Hbnan,  was 
lins  of  deities,  protectors  of  the  sovereign  and  state,  written  in  the  name  of  the  bishops  of  Achaia  (De  vir. 
md  end  with  imprecations  'on  those  who  destroy,  ill.,  c.  xliv).  Eusebius,  however,  who  bad  perhaps 
mutilate,  or  disregard  the  inscription.  The  Baby-  seen  the  letter,  distinguishes  it  from  the  synodical 
loiiiui  royal  inscriptions,  as  far  as  at  present  known,  epistles  by  saying  that  it  was  written  in  Bacchylus's 
ire  ih^st  without  exception  peaceful  in  tone  and  own  name  O^e.  cit.,  xxiii).  It  might  be  tliat  Bac- 
"aiiCT.  Their  ever  recurring  themes  are  the  erec-  chylus  held  a  synod,  but  in  writing  gave  his  letter 
'mi,  rsstoration,  or  adornment  of  temples  and  a  personal  rather  than  a  collective  form.  No  text 
FsImes,  and  the  di^^^  of  canals.  Even  when  at  of  the  letter  is  extant,  the  sources  above  referred  to 
If,  tbe  Bat^ooiaa  king  thought  it  bad  taat«  to  containing  the  only  availaUe  data. 


BA0HIABIU8  190  BAOKX 

iiLLEMONT,  Mhnoires  fVenioe.  1782),  III.  1^107.  633;  bourg.»   In  1835  he  was  received  into  the  Socieh 

^'^A^  grSSS^A^Atl^^.'^'"''*  '"^^^  '*  '''^  2?  ^T^^7  the  General,  Father  R^thaan  who  8^. 

John  B.  Peterson.  "^^^  ^  Nivelies,  in  Belgium,  for  his  novitiate.    He 

^    ,  .    .  ,     ^, ,  .        ,      *  taught  three  years  in  the  College  of  Namur,  and  in 

Bachianus,  an  early  fifth-century  writer,  known  1345  began  in  Louvain  his  studies  for  the  priesthood, 

only  through  two  treatises  which  warrant  the  con-  At  an  early  age  his  vocation  as  a  bibliographer  b^^ 

lecture  that  he  was  a  monk,  possibly  an  abbot,  aiui  a  to  manifest  itself.    While  yet  a  student  he  made  a 

Spaniard.     The  first  of  these  wntmgs,  entitled  by  collection  of  Elzevirs  and  plimned  a  work  that  would 

Gennadius  "Liber  de  Fide*'  is  an  apologetical  lettw  ^yg  the  history  of  the  eariy  printing  presses  in 

to  the  pope  in  which  Bachiarius,  like  many  another  Euiwe.    In  order  to  acquire  the  necessary  infonna- 

monk  coming  to  Rome  from  Spain  at  the  time,  vin-  tion  for  this  compilation,  he  visited  from  1831  to 

dicates  his  faith  against  the  suspicions  of  a  hetero-  1834  the  principal  libraries  in  Belgium  and  twice  those 

doxy  akin  to  PrisciUianism  which  were  based  on  his  of  Paris,  thus  unwittingly  preparing  himself  for  his 

residence  in  heretical  lands.    He  points  out  that  he  future  labours.     While  at  Louvain  he  came  across 

left  his  country  because  of  its  errors  (whence  some  the  incomplete  "Bibliotheca  Scriptorum  Societatis 

conclude  that  he  was  exiled^  and^nmkes  a  profusion  Jesu '^pubUshed  in  1676  by  Father  Nathaniel  South- 

laborious 


^ ipagoie 

mitigate"  his  severity  towards  an  incontinent  monk  de 'j^siB"7~fhis  oofossal  work  Father  de  BaSrer, 

who  though  repentant  was  excluded  from  the  monas-  ^th  the  assistance  of  his  brother  Aloysius,  pub- 

tery.    The  letter  breathes  a  beautiful  spurit  of  pru-  lighed  in  a  series  of  seven  quarto  volumes  in  the 

dently  tempered  charity  and  like  the  first  is  replete  years  1863-61,  and  foUowed  this  up  in  1869-76  with 

with  scriptural  texts  and  allusions.    The  theonr  of  ^  new  edition  in  three  large  foUos  containing  the 

Bachiarius's  identity  with  the  Spanish  bishop  P«^  names  of  11,000  Jesuit  authors.    The  changes  and 

grinus  seems  untenable.  improvements  of  this  edition  are  so  marked  as  to 

Texts  of  letters  with  Gallard's  introduction  and  Genna-  ^JV«    :*    nrortipftllv    n    npw    wnrlr       RAoirlAA    an    in- 

DiuflB  references  in  P.   L..  XX,   1015-62;  Muratori,  Op«r«  P^®   Y*    practicallv    f-   ^ew    WOrK.      liesiQes    an   in- 

(Areaio,  1770),  XI,  248-275;  Tillbmont,  MSmoiret  (Venic©.  troductory  sketch  of  the  author,  there  are  recorded 

1732).  XVI.  473-476;  Venablks  in  DicL  Chn^,  Biog.,  I.  under    each    title    the    editions,    translations,    and 

236;  Mangenot  in  D%ci.  de  tMol.  cath   U  \  j,^^^^^^^^  critiques  as  well  as  the  works  which  were  published 

JOHN  «.  rETERSON.  ^  rrfutatiou.     Father  de  Backer  died  wliile  engaged 

Bachmann  (Amnicola),  Paul,  Catholic  theologi-  on  the  third  volume  of  the  new  edition,  but  the  work 

cal  controversialist,  b.  at  Chemnitz,  Saxony,  about  was  completed  by  his  brother.     Another  collaborator 

1466.     His    biographical    data    are    very    meagre,  in  the  second  edition   was  Charies  Sommervogel, 

Nothing  is  known  of  his  youth,  and  very  little  of  his  whose  own  magnificent  "  Bibhography  of  the  Society 

life,  before  his  appearance  as  an  opponent  of  the  of  Jesus"  in  eleven  folio  volumes  was  made  possible 

Lutheran    movement.     He    entered    the  Order    of  by  the  gigantic  labours  of  the  two  de  Backers. 

Cit^aux  at  the  convent  of    Altenaelle  on  the  Mulde.  ,   Van  Tricht.  La  Bibliothique  de%  icHvavMde  Ja  c.  de  J.H 

He  seems  to  have  been  employed  a«  professor  in  the  %^^^i^;tZl^aJ^i!SrB^}£:^ 

Cistercian  house  of  studies  newly  foimded  at  Leipzig.  York.  1892). 

Here  he  won  the  degree  of  Master  of  Arte.    He  was  Edward  P.  Spilxane. 

made  procurator  and  finally,  in  1522,  Abbot  of  Alten- 

zelle,  in  succession  to  Abbot  Martin   (1493-1522).        Bftckz,  Peter  Hubert  Evermode,  b.  10  Deeem- 

At  the  outbreak  of  Lutheranism,  Bachmann  sprang  ber.  1805,  at  Tilburg,  Holland;  d.  28  October,  1868. 

into  prominence  as  one  of  its  most  energetic  oppo-  Oroained  priest  17  March,  1832,  he  may  be  con- 

nents.     He  was  one  of  that  distinguished  group  of  sidered  the  second  founder  of  the  Norbertine  Abbev 

scholars  composed  of  Cochlsus,  Emser,  Peter  Forst,  of  Tongerloo  (Province  of  Antwerp,  Belgium),  which 

and  Augustin  von  Alveldt,  who,  under  the  direction  of  wsa  established  in  1128,  or  eight  years  after  the 

John  of  Schleinitz,  Bishop  of  Meissen,  fou^t  the  foundation  of  the  Premonstratensian  Order  by  St.  Nor- 

movement  in  Saxony.    Bachmann  gave  special  at-  bert.     It  had  to  suffer  much  from  the  Protestants  Uur- 

tention  to  the  reformation  of  monastic  Mfe  and  to  a  ing  the  second  half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  but  the 

defence  of  the  veneration  of  the  Saints.     While  he  fatal  blow  was  struck  by  the  French  Repubuc,  which, 

was  not  wholly  successful  in  preventing  defection  on  6  December,  1796,  expelled  the  religious,  confis- 

from  the  ranks  of  his  own  order,  he  at  least  hindered  cated  the  abb^,  and  sold  it  to  the  highest  bidder. 

the  secularization  of  his  own  monastery  of  Alten-  At  that  time  Tongerloo  was  at  the  heiehth  of  its 

zelle  during  his  lifetime.     His  vigorous  defence  of  prosperity.     After  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits,  the 

orthodoxy  engaged  him  in  a  war  of  pamphlets  with  abbot  and  community  of  Tongerioo  had  made  all 

the  reformers,  in  which  his  own  contributions  yieki  arrangements  for   the   continuation  of   the   "Acta 

little  in  bitterness  of  tone  and  coarseness  of  language  Sanctorum"   and   the   '^  Analecta   Belgica"   of   the 

to  those  of  his  antagonists.     In  a  contemporaneous  BoUandists,  and  four  of  its  canons  were  co-operating 

satire   entitled    "Mors   et   sepultura   doctrine  Lu-  with  two  of  the  former  BoUandists  in  this  g^igantic 

thcranse"    (Strobel,   Opuscula    qusedam    satirica  et  puMication.    The  catalogue  of  the  Abbey  of  Ton- 

ludicra   tempore   Reform,    scripta,    Fasc.    1,    1784,  gerloo,  made  in  1796,  gives  the  names  of  one  hundred 

49  sqq.)  wntten  in  the  style  of  the  "Epistolse  ob-  and  nineteen  priests  and  professed  scholastics  and  of 

scurorum    virorum",    Bachmann    is    very  severely  six  novices.    A  Istrge  number  of  these  lived  in  the 

handled.     A  letter  is  there  ascribed  to  him  over  the  abbey,  others  were  attached  to  parishes  belonging 

signature  "Humilis  frater  Paulus  Hamnioolus,  in-  to    it.     Some    were    completing    their    theological 

dignus  Abatissa  Monstri  Cellensis  in  Biisnia".    Be-  studies  in  Rome  or  at  the  Universitv  of  Louvain, 

sides  his  controversial  pamphlete  Bachmann's  writ-  one  was  President  of  St.  Norbert's  College  in  Rome, 

ingH  comprise  h3rmns  and  (fevotional  works  in  prose  another  was  president  of  the  coUege  of  the  same  name 

and  verse.  at  Louvain.     Under  the  French  Republic  and  again, 

Strebbr  in  Kirckenlexicon,  I,  1829.  after  the  battle  of  Waterioo,  during  the  reign  of 

Matthias  Leimkuhlbr.  WiUiam  I,  King  of  the  Netheriands,  the  expelled  and 

Backer,  Auqustin  de,  bibhoerapher,  b.  at  Ant-  dispersed  rdigious  were  not  allowed  to  form  a  new 

werp,  Belgium,  18  July,  1809;  a.  at  Lidge,  1  Dec.,  community,  but  better  times  came  with  the  creation 

1873.     He  was  educated  at  the  Jesuit  Colleges  of  of  Belgium  as  a  separate  kingdom,  in  1830.     Onl> 

Saint-Nicholas,  Beauregard,  Saint-Acheul,  and  Fri-  sixteen  of  the  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  reiigiouii 


BAOON  191  BAOON 

?8re  living  at  that  time  and  nearly  all  were  well  churches,  52  priests,  23  parish  schools,  and  a  Cath> 

^vanced  in  years.     The   castle  of   Halmale   near  olic  population  of  about  80,000.     In  the  summer  oi 

Antwerp  was  rented,  and   the  first  novice,   Peter  1874  he  started  for  Rome  with  Archbishop  McCloskey, 

Hubert  Backx,  received  the  white  habit  and  with  it  but  having  fallen  ill  on  ship-board  was  forced  to  re- 

tfae  name  in  religion  of  Evermode.    Three  more  main  in  the  Naval  Hospital  at  Brest  until  the  Arch- 

joung  priests  and  others  who  had  finished  their  bishop  returned,  on  his  way  home.     Bishop  Bacon    ^ 

dassical  studies   followed   his   example.     In    1839  was  carried  on  board  the  steamer  and  barely  reached 

Evermode  Backx  was  chosen  superior  of  the  revived  New  York  alive.     He  was  taken  to  a  hospital  on 

communitv.  shore,  where  he  died  a  few  hours  later.    The  bronse 

At  the  death  of  one  of  the  proprietors  one-half  of  altar  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  in  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral, 

the  dilapidated  Abbey  of  Tongerloo  was  bought  at  New  York,  was  erected  by  Archbishop  McClpskey 

a  public  auction  and  Abbot  £tckx  led,  ami£t  the  in  thanksgiving  because  the  life  of  his  old  friend  was 

rejoicings  of  the  villagers,  the  young  community  to  spared  until  he  got  back  to  his  native  land. 
Tongerloo,    1    July,    1840.    That    very    afternoon,        U.S,Cafk,Hiat,Soc.  ReoarthandStt^i^j^ewYoi^VA^^ 

Ane  Office  was  resunjed  with  the  fi«t  Ves,^  VBrS^u^''^s^rr^^nli^^  i^^ilr^lTkeiST^ 
of  the  Feast   of   Our    Lady's   Visitation.     On   the  Ca4hoHc  Churdi  <m  Long  Idand  (New  York.  1871);  Heum, 
following  day,  the  venerable  Chrsrsostom  Ra^aoakers,  giog.  Cyd,  of  ^Catk,  H*crardy  (mwaukeo   Wis..  1808); 
who  Q  ce&ated  the  last  Ma^  on  the  day  of  tEe  Shea.  //S«.  (Jai*.  C*.  m  U.  S,  <^ew  York  i C04)^ 
suppression,  6  December,  1796,  sang  a  solemn  Mass        ^  ,         ,,  ,  ihomas  r .  meehan. 
in  one  of  the  rooms  improvised  as  a  temporaiy  ^  Bacon,  John  (Johannm  Anglicus,  Johannes  de 
onitoiy,  the  abbey  church  and  other  buildings  naving  Baconthorpe),  an  Enghsh  Carmehte  and  theologian, 
been  pulled  down.  ^-  towards  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  at  the 
Evermode  Backx's  first  work  was  to  repair  what  pla<»  in  thie  oountv  of  Norfolk  whence  he  derives  his 
was  left  of  the  former  abbey  and  to  erect  new  build-  name;  d.  in  London,  1346.     He  is  not  to  be  conr 
ings  fpr  the  growing  community.    In  1849  the  second  founded    with   Francis    de    Bachone,    the    Spanish 
part  of  the  confiscated  abbey  was  bought  and  in  Carmehte,  reader  of  divinity  m  Pans  from  1362 
1852  the  first  stone  of  a  large  church  was  solemnly  I^curator  General,  1366,  doctor,  1369,  Provincial 
laid  by  the  papal  nuncio,  so  that  the  abbey  began  of  Cataloma  (d.  circa  1390),  doctor  avbhmis     John 
to  have  the  appearance  of  a  large  and  well-ordained  Bacon,  surnamedji(>ctor  resolutus,  entered  the  order 
monastery.    After  a  strenuous  government  of  twenty-  at  Smtterley,  Norfolk,  studied  at  Oxford  and  Pans, 
eight  years  Evennode  Backx  died,  regretted  by  his  ^af    bachelor    previous    to    1321,    and    master   m 
spiritual  chUdren.    The  work  wae  carried  on  with  1325.     From  1329  till   1333  he  was  Provincial  of 
equal  zeal  by  his  successors,  the  Right  Rev.  Abbot  England;  the  remamder  of  his  hfe  was  consecrated 
Chrysostom  De  Swert  (d.  1887)  who  sent  some  of  to  study.     He  possessed  a  penetrating  mind,  and 
his  religious  to  found  the  priories  of  Crowle  and  wrote  on  aU  the  subjects  belongmg  to  the  ordinary 
Spalding,  England;  the  Right  Rev.  Thomas  Heylen,  course  of  studies.     His  wntines  oompnsed  more  than 
afterwards  Kshop  of  Namur,  Belgium,  the  founder  one  hundred  and  twenty  volumes,  but  are  for  the 
of  Corpus  Christi  Priory,  Manchester,  and  of  the  greater    part    lost.    The    most    celebrated    among 
Norbertine  missions  in  the  Independent  State  of  them  were  those  on  the  Gospels,  especially  St.  Mat- 
Congo,  Africa;  and  the  Right  Rev.  Adrian  Deckers,  thew,  on  St.   Paul,  and   the  commentary  on   the 
formeriy  Prefect  Apostolic  in  the  Congo.    The  cata-  "Sentences  ',  which  was  prmted  m  1510  at  MOan, 
iogue  of  the  Abbey  of  Tongerloo  for  1907  gives  the  and  for  a  time  became  the  textbook  m  the  Car- 
names  of  78  priests,  8  professed  scholastics,  4  novices,  mehte  Order.     Bacon  foUows  Averroes  in  preference 
and  23  lay  brothers,  or  a  total  of  113  religious,  several  to  St.  Thomas  with  vfhoui^Jj^^is}^]^.  on  many 
of  whom  are  engaged  m  parish  work,  14  working  pomte.     He  adopted  BuSe,  15T«,  fcconquered^cordmg 
in  En^and,  and  16  m  the  Congo  missions.  to  which  the  i  ^mg  destined  br  tM>n.     Its  first  >)iMJfc, 
Vak  Spxlbebck.  D«  Ahdy  van  Tongerloo  in  AnnaUt  Prmm,;  the  act  of  tht.     erwards  was  att^  by  Alfonso  X,  the 
'Voticca  from  variouB  aourceB.  causally   in   the   ektema<.T>nphf    mmIajooip^  '^    ""^^ 

Martin  Geudenb.  intellect;  in  the  order  of  generation  and  perfection  the 
Bacon.  David  Wiluam,  first  Bishop  of  Portland,  first  subject  is  the  individual  substance;  although  the 
Maine,  U.  S.  A.,  b.  in  New  York  Qty,  15  Sept.,  1813:  external  object  is  in  itself  inteUigible,  the  active  mtel- 
d.  in  New  York,  6  Nov.,  1874.  He  made  his  claasicai  lect  is  reqmred  to  render  ituUxmaUly  inteUigible;  the 
studies  at  the  Sulpician  CoUege  at  Montreal  and  his  conformity  of  the  thing  thought  with  the  external 
theotegical  course  at  Mount  St.  Mary's  Seminary,  object  constitutes  truth.  The  &ial  cause  of  aU 
Emmitsbui*,  Maryland,  and  was  ordained  a  priest  Jhrngs  }s  God;  but  ^though  the  first  object  of  our 
in  Baltimore,  13  December,  1838.  Returning  to  New  knowledge  be  the  Divme  essence  Bacon  does  not 
York  he  served  on  the  mission  at  Utica  and  Ogdens-  a<inut  that  this  knowledge  comes  to  us  by  the  light 
btng,  and  then  in  New  York  Gty  and  at  Bdfoville.  of  ournatural  reason;  it  is,  m  his  opmion,  a  super- 
New  Jersey.  In  1841  he  was  sent  to  establish  the  third  natural  gift  of  grace.  ,^,^^  ^ 
pa^h  in  Wwyn,  and  for  this  bpv«ht  the  unfln-  c^S^fSaSS^^^SSTan^*^ 


completed  and  dedicated,  10  June,  1842,  under  the  ^'  -Zimmerman. 

patronage  of  the  Assumption  of  the  Bleted  Viigin.  Baq9n,  Nathanikl,  better  known  under  the  as- 

Here  he  rranained  until  1855,  when  he  was  named  sumed  name  of  Southwell,  a  Jesuit  priest  and  bib- 

fint  B^iop  of  Portland,  and  consecrated  in  St.  Pat-  liographer,  b.  in  the  county  of  Norfolk,  England,  in 

rick's  Cathedral,  New  York,  on  the  22d  of  April  of  1598;  d.  at  Rome,  2  Dec.,  1676.    He  received  hi£ 

ti^  vear.    There  were  only  six  priests  and  eicht  early  training  at  St.  Omers,  entered  the  Englisb 

cfaorcbes  in  his  diocese,  which  at  tnat  time  included  Colfege  at  Rome  in  1617,  and  after  his  ordination  to 

tbe  entire  State  of  Maine.     His  seal,  tact,  and  energy  the  priesthood  in.  1622  was  sent  to  labour  on  the 

overcame  the  many  obstacles  which  Know-Nothing  Enghsh  mission.    Two  years  later  he  entered  the 

bigotiv,  the  Civil  War,  and  the  great  fire  that  dee-  Jesuit  novitiate,  but  shortly  after  was  transferred  to 

tf^yed  most  of  the  ci^  of  Portmnd  on  the  4th  of  the  Roman  Province,  where  he  discharged  the  duties 

Ju^,  1866,  put  in  the  way  of  the  progress  of  the  of  procurator  and  minister  of  the  Enghsh  College 

Faith  in  that  section.     He  had  the  consolation,  at  Appointed  in  1647  Secretary  to  the  General  of  tm 

hb  death,  of  leavinfi;  to  his  successor  the  care  of  63  Society  of  Jesus,  Father  Vincent  Caraffa,  he  dis 


BAOOH  192  BAOOKIAN 

played  such  talent  for  business  that  he  was  retained  Until  1607,  when  James  I  had  reigned  nearly  foui 

as  Secretary  by  the  four  succeeding  Generals  of  the  years,  he  had  advanced  no  further  in  office  than  tc 

Order.    Upon  his  retirement  from  this  office  in  1668  be  given  the  reversion  of  the  post  of  Registrar  oi 

he  began  the  well-known  "Bibliotheca  Scrip torum  the  Star  Chamber.    But  in  1607.  he  became  Solicitor- 

Societatis  Jesu"  in  folio,  published  in  Rome  in  1676.  General.    Then,  tmtil  his  fall,  ne  advanced  rapidly. 

This  compilation  was  based  on  an  earlier  work  of  The  Attorney-Generalship  was  given  to  him  in  1613. 

Father    Ribadeneira,   issued  in   1602  and  brought  He  became  successively  a  memmr  of  the  Privy  Coun- 

down  to  1641  by  Father  Alegambe.     Father  South-  cil  (1616),  Lord  Keeper  of  the  Great  Seal  (1617), 

well  revised  the  original  works,  adding  copious  notes  Lord  Chaiicellor  (16183.    He  was  raised  to  the  peerage 

of  his  own.     Dr.  Oliver  praises  this  volume  as  "a  with  the  title  of  Bcut>n  Verulam  (1618)  and  made 

compilation  truly  admirable  for  research,  accuracy,  Viscount  St.  Albans  (1621).     Suddenly  he  fell.     He 

elegance  of  language,  piety,  and  charity  of  sentiment!' .  was  accused,  as  Chancellor,  of  taking  bribes.     To 

Father  Southwell  was  also  the  author  of  "A  Journal  this  charge  he  pleaded  guilty,  was  deprived,  and 

of  Meditations  for  Every  Day  in  the  Year",  pub-  declared  mcapable  of  holding  any  office,  place,  or 

lished  in  London  in  1669.    On  the  same  authority  emplo3rment  m  the  State.     He  was  excluded  from 

we  learn  that  he  was  accounted  by  his  religious  botn   Parliament   and   Court,    fined   £40,000,    and 

brethren  a  model  of  virtue  and  sanctitv.     He  died  sentenced  to  imprisonment  in  the  Tower  during  the 

in  the  professed  house  of  the  Gesu,  at  Rome.  king's  pleasure.     In  time,  aH  his  sentence  was  re- 

Olivkr,  CoUecHona  etc.  (London,  1845),  193;  Folet,  Records  mitted 
of  the  Eng.  Prov.  S.  J.,  V,  621;  VII,  26:  Soicmkryoobl,  BibUo-  u:     ^pof  h  rwv>iirrArl  fivft  vmltr  lat^r       On  h\a  wav 

tk^  etc,   VII,   1408;   Michaud,   Biographie   Univereeiu,  ^  nw  aeatnocourrea  nve  years  later,    un  ms  way 

XXXIX.  to  dine  at  Highgate,  he  alighted  from  his  carnage, 

Edward  P.  Spillane.  purchased,  killed,  and  stuffed  a  hen  with  snow  in 

T»       '       a     T^  T»  order  to  observe  the  retarding  eflfec+s  of  cold  upon 

Bacon,  Roger.    See  Roqbr  Bacon.  putrefaction.    He  caught  a  chill  which  set  up  bron- 

Baconian  System  of  Philosophy,  The.  takes  its  chitis.    A  week  later  he  died  in  the  house  of  tne  Elarl 

name  from  its  founder,  Francis  Bacon,  Lora  Verulam,  of  Arundel;  and  was  buried,  according  to  his  wish. 

Viscount  St.  Albans,  statesman  and  philosopher,  b.  at  St.  Alban's  in  the  church  of  St.  Michel. 
22  January,  1561;    d.  9  April,  1626.    He    was  the        The  philosophy  of  Lord  Bacon  is  too  fragmentary 

second  son  of  Lord  Keeper  Bacon  and  Anne,  his  to  lend  itself  to  criticism  other  than  discursive,  too 

second  wife,  daughter  of  Sir  Anthony  Cooke  and»  largely  conceived  to  be  brushed  aside  with  a  mere 

sister-in-law  of  Ix>rd  Bur^hley.     In  his  thirteenth  line  of  comment^  too  full  of  symbolic  expression  to 

year  (1573)  he  entered  Tnnity  College,  Cambridge,  be  exactly  and  brieflv  set  down.    It  is  rather  of  the 

where  he  studied  under  Whitgift.     Before  he  left  nature  of  a  method  than  a  system  and  it  is  a  method 

(1575)  he  had  already  acquired  a  considerable  repu-  that  is  incomplete.    Few  attempts  at  giving  a  new 

tat  ion  for  his  ability  and  learning.    It  was  at  Cam-  direction  to  the  pursuit  of  truth  have  been  more 

bridge,  as  he  later  confessed  to  Rawley,  that  he  first  overrated*  few  the  butt  of  such  vigorous  criticism, 

had  fallen  into  a  dislike  of  the  Aristotelean  philoso-  It  might  be  said  that  Bacon  suffered  most  in  it  from 

phy— "not  for  the  worthlessness  of  the  author,  to  falling  into  the  very  pitfalls  that  he  indicated  as 

whom  he  would  ever  ascribe  all  high  attributes^  but  dangerous  to  others.     His  confidence  in  his  own 

for  the  imfruitfulness  of  the  way;  being  a  philosophy,  powers  was  colossal.    Few  men  could  have  written 

as  his  Lordship  used  to  say.  only  strong  for  disputa-  as  he  did  in  the  "  Novum  Organum  ":  "The  die  is 

tions  and  contentions  but  barren  of  the  production  cast,  the  book  is  written,  to  be  read  either  now  or  by 

of  works  for  the  benefit  of  the  life  of  man.    In  which  posterity — I  care  not  which;  it   may  wait  a  century 

mind  he  contin\j»ik  mtil  his  dying  day. "  for  a  reader,  as  God  has  waited  6000  years  for  an 

In  J];/ominence  4e  was  admitted  to  Gray's  Inn,  observer."      His    misconstruction    and    minimizing 

^  dents.     He  was  dhe  profession  of  law;  but  shortly  of  the  work  of  the  old  philosophers — except,  perhaps, 

.  scholaracomposec^ched  to  the  French  embassy  of  Democritus — is  as  startling  as  his  ignorance  of  me 

Sir  Amya8^*iP9fWf^ His  father  died  in  1579,  leaving  contemporary  science  of  his  day,  or  as  the  applica> 

him  small   provision.     He  thereupon  returned  to  tion  he  makes  of  his  own  principles;  for  the  incipient 

England  to  continue  his  legal  studies  and  was  ad-  rules  of  induction  (their  use  already  exemplified  in 

mitted  barrister  27  June,  15S2,    Two  years  later  he  Aristotle's  "Analytica  Posteriora"),  that  find  their 

was  elected  to  Parliament  for  the  Borough  of  Mel-  more  exact  expression  in  Mill's  Canons,  should  have 

combe  Regis.     In  the  following  year  he  penned  his  preventedsome,at  least,  of  his  cruder  scientific  views. 

"Letter  of  Advice  to  Queen  Ehzabeth",  a  document  With  all  his  signalling  of  the  insidious  dangers  of 

of  considerable  interest  to  Catholics,  as  expressing  the  Idolaj  he  could  not  altogether  rid  his  understand- 

x^acon's  views  upon  their  treatment.     Mary  Stuart  ing  of  the  preoccupations  caused  by  them,  even  in 

was  yet  alive,  and  there  were  plots  and  rumours  of  the  presentation  of  his  Inductive  Method.     These 

plots  against  the  queen.     There  were    still  many  celebrated  phantoms  of  the  mind,  of  which  we  must 

adherents  of  the  old  faith;  and  conformity  might  be  at  pains  to  rid  ourselves,  are  four  in  number:  the 

be  secured  either  by  severe  measures  or  by  insidious  Ickda  Tribus  (preoccupations  common  to  mankind) ; 

ones.     The  young  member  had  Catholio**  lor  the  the  Idola  Specus  (belonging  to  the  individual);  the 

queen's  enemies.     It  was   impjossible,  he  thought,  Idola  Fori  (resulting  from  a  confusion  of  words  and 

to  satisfy  them;  dangerous  to  irritate  by  too  great  things  in  the  common  speech  of  the  market-plaoe^ ; 

seventy.    He  recommended  changes  in  the  Oath  of  the  Idola  Theairi  (consisting  of.  the  received  dogmata 

Supremacy  and  even  went  so  far  as  to  urge  iv  cir-  of  philosophers  that  take  possession  of  the  mind  by 

cumspect  toleration  of  the  sectaries  because  their  reason  of  a  presumed  authority).    Still,  the  fact  th&t 

teaching  led  to  an  i^ue  ''which  your  most  excellent  he  pointed  them  out  and  laid  stress  upon  the  danger 

Majesty  is  to  wish  and  desire"  viz.,  the  diminution  is  an  advance.    His  lists,  too,  of  facts,  his  confused 

and  weakening  of  Papists.     His  political  life  and  ad-  congeries  of  instances,  point  the  way  to  a  scientific 

vancement,   notwithstanding   his   intrigue  and   in-  examination  of  Nature.     Their  contents  are  to  be 

cessant  suit  for  office,  were  slow;  his  extraordinary  treated  by  (1)  agreement,  (2)  disagreement,  and  (3) 

ambition  doomed  for  years  to  infruition.     He  had  comparison.    Roughly  speaking,  this  would  be  tanta- 

the  misfortune  to  incur  the  (jueen's  displeasure  by  mount  to  the  use  of  the  Method  of  Agreement  and 

opposing  a  grant  of  subsidies  in  such  form  as  to  in-  Difference,  taken  together  with  that  of  Conoomitant 

fringe  upon  the  privileges  of  the  Commons.     The  Variations.     What  is   not   brought  into  sufficient 

patronage  he  found  in  Essex  led  to  a  friendship  as  prominence  is  the  extremely  useful  part  played  by 

remarkfikble  as  its  end  was  dramatic  and  disastrous,  guesswork  and  hypotheses  in  the  generalisation  and 


BA08  193  fiADAJOZ 

grouping  of  facts  and  instances;  bat  this  is  scarcely  tis  Scientianim  libros  IX",  1623.)    (2)  "De  Saplen* 
to  be  wondered  at,  since  Bacon,  though  he  does  allow  ti&  Vetehun'\  1609  (done  into  English  by  Sir  A. 
a  grudging  value  to  it,  proposed  to  inaugurate  a  Gorges,  Knight,  as  ''The  Wisdom  of  the  Ancients*', 
certain  process  bj  which  inductions  might  be  readily  1610);  (3)  ''Essays;  Religious  Meditations  (in  Latin); 
product  from  facts  by  an  almost  mechanical  or  Places  of  perswasion  and  disswasion;  of  the  Colours 
mathematical  process.  of  Good  and  Evil "  (a  fragment),  1579.    In  the  second 
Interesting  to  the  scholastic  philosopher  is  his  edition  (1598)  the  Mutations  are  in  English.    In 
treatment  of  causes — and  particularly  of  the  formal  this  first   English   edition   there   were    10   Essays; 
cause.   There  are  the  usual  four  causes,  the  formal  in  the  second    (1612)   38:  in  the  third  (1625)  58. 
and  final  belonging,  in  Bacon's  scheme,  to  meta-  (4)   "Historiar  Ventorum  '    (Part  III  of  the  "In- 
physical  investigation;    the   efficient   and   material  stauratio  Magna"),  1622:  (5)  "Historia  Vitae  et  Mor- 
to physical.    The  aim  of  the  author  of  the  "Novum  tis"  (2nd  Title  qf  Part  III,  I.  M.),  1623;   (6)  "New 
Organum"  was  to  banish  final  causes  from  the  scope  Atlantis"  (published  by  Rawley)^  1627;  (7)  "Novum 
of  physical  science.     His  limiting  of  the 'efficient  Oreanum";    "  Distributio    Opens";    "Parasceve"; 
cause  to  physical  science  throws  light  upon  his  abrupt  "  Catalogues",  1620.     (The  plan  of  the  whole  "In- 
Beparation  of  philosophy  and  theolo^  {vide  infra),  stauratio  Magna"  is  laid  down  in  the  preface.)    (8) 
With  re^rd  to  the  formal  cause  of  bemg,  our  author  "Sylva   Sylvarum"  (published    by  Rawley),  1627. 
is  peculiarly  inconsistent.     He  uses  the  term  in  a  The  chief  editions  of  Bacon's  works  were  made  by 
succession  of  different  suppositions,  so  that  his  true  Rawley  (1627-57);  Tenison  (1679);  Stephens  (1734). 
meaning  is  effectually  obscured  in  the  varying  uses  "0)mplete  editions"  by  Blackboume  (1730);  Mallet 
of  the  word.    But,  from  a  passage  in  the  '*^De  Aug-  (1740);  Birch  (1763);  Montague  (1834);  Spedding, 
mentis",  it  may  be  inferred  that  he  treated  of  what  Ellis,  and  Heath  (1857-83) 


creatures  do  consist",  are  proposed  for  investigation  phen;  Baoon  (London,  1881  f;  'Niool  m  i»AikMwpAicpi  CUwiea 

-K.t  the  "forms- of  Bubatance«     It  will  be  noted  £j g'^S^^'^n^Vte^^iW^i^S:  l^i^^ 

that  he  makes  the  essences  consist  of  these  "forms  i836);  Dohkrty  in  Manninq,  Eaaays  on  Religum  and  lAtera- 

sustained  by  matter — a  view  that,  with  sHght  modi-  ft^.  3d  Series,  FkLwtin  tha  PhUotophu  of  Bacon;  Macaulat. 

ficationa    ia  t/^    Hp    fnnnH    in    npvprftl    mopft    mod«m  ^•^ay  on  Bacon  (London,  1865-74);  Whbwell.  Phtloaophy  of 

DCTUons,  IS  to    Oe   lOUna   m   several   more   moaem  Discovery  (London,  CambridUre,  1860);  for  Bacon's  classifica. 

V^l^>  tion  of  the  sciences,  Flint.  PhUotophy  aa  Scientia  Scientiarum 

Bacon's   object    was    avowedly    a    practical    one.  ^klinburgh,  London,  1904);  Fibcher,  Franz  Baca  von  Vendam^ 

Given  th«»  inrinnfivA  ImnwlAHcrA  nf  thi  "fnrm"     wp  ^^  RealphUoaopkie  und  xhr  Zeitalter;  From  Baco  und  aetne 

ii  ine  mOUCtlve  Knowleage  Ot  tne      lorm    ,  we  Nachfolaer— The  British  Museum  catalogue  has  some  pa«es 

ought  to  be  able  to  produce  the  loncally  consequent  devoted  to  works  on  the  Bacon-Shak^jeare  controversy, 
quality  in  matter.     He  conceived  it  a  possibility  Francis  Avbling. 

to  ju^e  with  the  "forms"  in  much  the  same  sense        *»        tn       • 
as  the  alchemist  of  earlier  days  hoped  to  transmute        Bacs,  Diocese  op.    See  Kalocza, 
easences.     His  own  positive   contributions  to  the        Badajoz,    Diocese    op    (Pacbnsis). — The   Latin 

idvancement  of  science  were  meagre  in  the  extreme,  name  Pax,  or  Civiias  Pacensis,  was  given  to  this  dis- 

No  philosopher  goes  to  his  worlw  for  guidance,  no  trict  because  it  was  thought  to  be  the  Pax  Julia  or 

scientist  for  information.    Indeed,  Dr.  Whewell  says  Pax  Augusta  of  the  Romans.     But  it  is  now  certain 

that  no  scientific  discovery  has  ever  been  made  by  that  the  Pax  of  the  Roman  period  is  the  city  of  Beja, 

Bacon^s  method.    Ihe  gaps  in  his  system  were  never  in  Portugal,  not  far  from  Badajoz,  and  that  the  latter 

bridged  by  those  promised  processes  that  were  to  name  is  of  Arabic  origin.    The  bishopric  was  erected 

render  it  complete.    But  it  would  be  a  mark  of  super-  in  1225,  shortly  after  it  was  reconquered  fpona  the 

fieiaJ  consideration  and  historical  inaccuracy  to  label  Moors  by  King  Alfonso  IX  of  Leon.    Its  first  bishop 

the  method  that  he  advanced  wholly  jejime  or  uiseless.  was  Don  Pedro  Perez,  appointed  by  Alfonso  X,  the 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  he  called  attention  to  the  dan-  Wise,  and  from  that  time  it  has  had  an  uninterrupted 

gerous  neglect  of  accurate  observation  that  was  the  succession  of  bishops.    The  diocese,  which  is  suffra- 

reproach  of  the  later  scholastics;  and  he  gave  an  gan  to  Seville,  is  boimded  on  the  north  by  the  Dio- 

undoubted  incentive  to  the  prosecution  of  positive  ceses  of  Coria,  Plasencia,  and  Toledo,  on  the  east  by 

anence.    If  he  did  little  himself  to  raise  science  to  those  of  Toledo,  Ciudad  Real,  and  Cordova,  on  the 

the  position  of  dignity  it  now  occupies,  he  at  least  south  by  the  Archdiocese  of  Seville,  and  on  the  west 

indicated  the  path  upon  which  it  should  proceed,  by  Portu^l.     It  is  composed  of  136  parishes,  divided 

But  in  creating  the  method  of  induction  he  abased  into  13  vicariates,  whicn  in  ancient  times  numbered 

that  of  deduction;   and   without  a  single  general  18,  with  approximately^ half  a  milhon  souk.    The 

principle  as  a  basis,  any  philosophy,  systematic  or  cathedral  has  a  chaptet  composed  of  5  prelates, 

mathematical,  is  open  to  the  charge  of  inconsequence.  13    canons,    16   beneficed    clerics    (formerly   called 

Bacon's  ptosition  in  r^ard  to  revelation  is  well  medioracioneros),  besides  the    chaplains    and  other 

known.    Reason  can  attain  no  positive  knowledge  personnel  necessary  for  the  proper  carrying  out  of 

<rf  God.    This  must  come  by  faith  alone.    Religion  Divine  worship.     There    is    a   diocesan  seminary, 

is  above  reason,  but?  is  not  opposed  by  it.    On  the  under  good  instructors,  for  the  education  of  aspirants 

contrary  it  is  the  office  of  reason  to  meet  the  objec-  to  the  priesthood,  also  colleges  in  the  city  of  Badajoz 

tions  ana  refute  the  argiunents  that  are  urged  against  and  in  Zaf ra,  conducted  by  the  Regular  Priests  of  the 

the  truths  of  revelation.    Whether  Bacon  was  really  Heart  of  Mary,  and  several  religious  communities  in 

a  rationalist  or  a  believer  has  been  disputed.    As  a  other  cities.    The  Poor  Clares  have  an  establishment 

statesman,  he  was  an  Anglican  and  Erastian.    As  a  at  Almendrales;  the  discaloed  Franciscans,  Carme- 

philosopher,  religion  does  not  come  within  his  pur-  lites,  and  Sisters  of  St.  Anne  at  Badajoz,  and  the 

^kw.    But  there  are  passages  in  his  writinj^s  that  Augustinians,  Carmelites,  and  Poor  Clares  elsewhere, 

Bhow  a  decidedly  reverent  and  religious  spirit,  es-  making  in  all  19  communities  of  cloistered  nuns, 

pecially  in  some  of  the  "Essays".  besides  3  communities  of  Sisters  of  Charity  who  at- 

Lord  Bacon's  chief  works  are  contained  in  the  tend  the  sick  at  Bitdajoz,  Zafra,  and  Frenegal  de  la 

foliowing  Ustr    The  dates  given  are  those  of  publica-  Sierra.    There  are  schools  for  primary  and  religious 

tion.    (1)  "Advancement  of  Learning "j  1605.    (This  instruction  in  all  the  parishes, 
was  expanded  and  translated  into  I^tm  and  edited        The  diocesan  territoiy  of  Badajoz  comprises  almost 

W  Rawley  as  "Opera  F.  Baronis  de  Verulamio  ...  all  of  the  civil  province  of  the  same  name,  which  lies 

Tcmaa  pnmus  qiu  continet  de  Dignitate  et  Augmen-  between  the  meridians  4^^  36'  12''  and  7^  9'  west  of 

a— 13 


BABXK  196  BABXK 

and  the  constitutional  decrees  of  1807,  regulating  of  spiritual  authority,  recourse  to  the  civil  courts^ 
the  pK:>sition  of  the  State  with  regard  to  the  Uhurch.  instead  of  the  higher  ecclesiastical  courts,  etc.    The 
Although  the  first  of  these  decrees  guaranteed  to  pope  as  well  as  the  archbishop  entered  a  protest 
Catholics  a  continuance  of  their  diocesan  system,  the  against  the  provisions  of  this  la;w,  so  permeat^  with 
free  exercise  of  their  religion,  and  the  possession  and  the  spirit  of  a  national  church,  but  without  success. 
Use  of  church  property,  shortly  after  their  promul-  Although    the    first    archbishops,    Bemhard    BoU 
Ration  a  large  niunber  of  monasteries  and  charitable  (1827-36)  and  his  successor,  Ignaz  Dekneter  (1836- 
institutions  were  entirely  abolished,  others  confis-  42),  acceded  to  the  wishes  of  the  Government  as 
cated,  and  still  others  converted  into  secular  educa-  far  as  their  position  as  Catholic  prelates  permitted, 
tional  institutions.     In  place  of  being  organized  into  all  their  remonstrances  against  the  interference  of 
dioceses  as  formerly.  Catholics  were  placed  under  the  State  and  their  appeal  for  a  more  liberal  treat- 
two  vicariates  (Bruchsal  and  Constance).     A  special  ment  of  the  Church  were  useless.     On  the  contrary, 
board  was  appointed  for  the  administration  of  the  the  Government  openly  favoured  movements  of  a 
temporal  affairs  of  the  Church,  first  known  as  the  rationalistic  and  irreligious  nature,  even  on  the  part 
Catholic  Kirchensektion  (Church  Section),  and  later  of  professors  of  theology  in  the  University  of  Frei- 
as  the  Catholic  Oberkirchenrat  (Supreme  Ecclesiastical  burg;  it  allowed  the  just  demands  of  the  archbishop 
Council).     Despite  the  personal  good  will  of  Grand  for  adequate  disciplinary  powers  to  pass  unnoticed, 
Duke  Charles  Frederick,  the  spirit  of  these  decrees  gave  protection  to  unworthy  clerics  and  those  who 
was  unfavourable  to  the  Catholic  Church;  the  rights  had  bsen  insubordinate  to  their  ecclesiastical  supe- 
of  the  State  were  unduly  extended,  to  the  prejudice  riors,  almost  entirely  excluded  the  co-operation  of 
of  the  Church.     Worse  than  the  ordinances  them-  the  Church  in  the  management  of  Catholic  schools  and 
selves  was  the  way  in  which  they  were  put  into  execu-  in  the  administration  of  Catholic  church  projperty, 
tion  by  the  Liberal  officials  of  Old  Baden,  who  viewed  permitted  insults  to  be  levelled  against  the  Qiurch 
the  Catholic  Church  with  open  hostility.    The  unjust  by  the  Radicals  in  the  Landtag,  favoured  Rongean- 
treatment  of  Catholics  in  the  new  Grand  duchy  and  ism,  etc.    In  spite  of  this  unjust  treatment,  however, 
the  indignities  put  upon  them  were  so  pronounced  when,  in  1848,  the  flames  of  the  revolution  broke  out, 
that  even  Napoleon,  as  Protector  of  tha  Confedera-  the   Archbishop,   Hermann   von   Vicari    (1842-68), 
tion  of  the  Rhine,  in  two  notes  to  the  Government  of  and  the  majority  of  the  Catholic  clergy  remained 
Baden  (February  and  March,  1810)  protested  against  loyal  to  the  rightful  sovereign  and  refused  to  take 
it.     Unfortunately    a    large    part    of    the    Catholic  the  oath  required  bjr  the  revolutionary  regime.     In 
clergy,  who  had  either  been  reared  in  the  tenets  of  consideration    of    this    attitude,    the    Government, 
Josephinism,  or  had   fallen   into   the  religious  in-  after    the    victory   over    the   revolutionary   forces, 
differentism  of  the  times,  failed  to  rally  to  tne  neces-  seemed  disposed  to  change  its  policy:  it  permitted 
sary  defence  of  the  rights  of  the  Church.     Even  the  the  Jesuits  to  hold  missions  among  tne  people  and 
highest  ecclesiastical  dignitaries  of  the  land,  as,  for  allowed  the  archbishop  greater  fr^dom  m  the  ad- 
example,  Vicar-General  Wessenberg,  favoured    the  ministration    of    church    disci]:^ne.    The    change, 
tenets  of  Febronianism  and  warmly  encouraged  the  however,  ^was  not  of  lon^  duration j  soon  the  old 
project  of  a  German  National  Church  independent  of  system  of  state  guardianship  was  again  in  force. 
Rome.    This  state  of  affairs  prolonged  for  years  the        The  four  suffragan  bishops  of  the  province  of  the 
negotiations  which  had  been  begun  with  the  Holy  Upper  Rhine  also  came  into  conflict  with  their  re- 
See  for  the  reorganization  of  the  Church  in  Baden,  spective  governments  in  securing  freedom  for  the 
Finally  the  Bull  "Provida  solersque"  (16  August,  Catholic  Church.    To  obtain  unity  of  action  Arch- 
1821)  established  the  province  of  the  Upper  Rhine  bishop  Vicari,  in  compliance  with  the  r^ulations  of 
{Oberrheinische  Kirchenprovinz)  ^  defined  the  bounda-  the  plenary  council  of  the  German  Catholic  episco- 
ries  of  the  five  dioceses  therein  comprised  (Freiburg,  pate  held  at  WUrzburg  (1848)  summoned  his  suffra- 
Fulda,    Limburg,    Mainz,    and    Rottenburg),    and  gans  to  Freiburg  in  the  sprinj?  of  1851.     In  a  memorial 
assigned  Freiburg  as  the  seat  of  the  metropolitan,  addressed  to  their  respective  sovereigns,  they  de- 
In  Baden,  by  the  order  of  the  Grand  duke,  the  candi-  manded  the  privilege  of  training  their  priests  and 
date  for  the  archiepiscopal  see  was  elected  by  free  appointing  tnem  without  outside  interference,   the 
vote  of  the  assembled  deans  (1822),  but  their  choice  free  exercise  of  ecclesiastical  discipline  among  priests 
of  Wanker,  a  professor  of  theology  in  Freiburg,  was  and  laymen,  and  the  privilege  of  conducting  Catholic 
condemned  by  the  pop>e  as  canonicallv  invalid.     It  schools,  of  establishing  reUgious  societies  and  asao- 
was  only  after  lengthy  negotiations  that  an  agree-  ciations,    and    of    administering    church    property 
ment  was  reached;  and  on  11  April,  1827,  Leo  XII  without  hindrance.     Having  waited  in  vam  for    a 
promulgated  the  Bull  of  erection  "Ad  Dominici  gregis  reply  from  the  Government,  the  bishops  addresscKl 
custodiam'';  on  16  October,  1827,  the  deed  of  founda-  a   reminder   to    the   authorities    (February,    1852), 
tion  was  signed;  and  on  21  October  the  first  arch-  renewing  the  demand  fqpr  the  abolition  of  the  state 
.bishop,  Bemhard  BoU,  was  consecrated  and  installed,  supremacy.     Not  imtil  5  March,  1853,  did  they  re- 
Nevertheless  a  satisfactory  adiustment  of  affairs  ceive  a  decision;  this  contained  trivial  concessions, 
had  not  vet  been  found.     The  deed  of  foundation  but  was  adverse  on  the  principal  points.    The  old 
contained  many  provisions  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  system  of  state  tutelage  was  to  remain  imcondition- 
the  papal  Bull.     In  marked  contrast  to  the  agreement  ally  in  force.    Thereupon  the  five  bishops  recon- 
macfe  with  Rome  was  the  church  law  passed  by  the  vened  (April,  1853)  in  Freiburg  and  embooied  their 
Government  30  January,  1830.     True,  it  ensures  to  demands  m  a  second  memorial  dated  18  June,  setting 
Catholics  the  free  profession  of  faith  and  public  exer-  forth   the   inadequacy  of   the  concessions  ^ranteS 
cise  of  religion,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  to  the  State  5  March,  and  reserving  to  themselves  the  n^ht   of 
is  given  an  undue  amount  of  power  over  the  Church;  taking  further  measures.    While  four  of  the  bishops 
all  orders  and  enactments  of  any  importance  proceed-  received  from  their  respective  authorities  more    or 
ing  from  spiritual  authorities  must,  according  to  this  less  far-reaching  concessions,  a  bitter  struggle  'vc^a 
law,  be  submitted  to  the  approval  of  the  civil  powers;  precipitated  in  Baden. 

it  requires  that  even  decrees  and  dispensations  of  a        Meanwhile,  an  occurrence  in  Baden  had  increased 

general  nature  issued  by  the  Church,  although  con-  the  estrangement  to  an  open  rupture  between   the 

ceming  matters  purely  spiritual,  must  be  first  in-  civil  authorities  and  the  archbishop.    After  the  dearth 

greeted  by  the  public  authorities.     It  subjects  papal  of  Grand  Duke  Leopold  (24  April,  1852),  the  Govern- 

ulls.  Bnefs,  and  dispensations  to  the  placet  of  the  ment,  i.  e.  the  Oberkirchenrat,  which  in  1845   had 

auvereign,  does  away  with  the  canonical  court  of  taken  the  place  of  the  Kirchensektion,  ordered    the 

wppeal,  grants  to  clergy  and  laity,  by  a  usurpation  archbishop  to  have  services  held  for  the  deceased 


BADEN  197  BADEN 

• 

sovereign.     In  conformity  with   the  laws  of    the    of  the  Church  and  accorded  practically  all  the  de- 

CSiurch,  the  archbishop  prohibited  the  celebration  of    mands  of  the  archbishop,  in  particular  the  right  of 

requiem  Masses  for  Protestant  princes  and  ordered    appointment  to  parishes,  the  supervision  of  religious 

other  appropriate  services  instead.    The  authorities,    instruction,    participation    in    tne    management   of 

however,  persisted  in  their  demand,  declared  the    church  property,  the  right  of  decision  in  questions 

services  oitiered  by  the  archbishop  inadequate,  and    concemmg  marriage,  ete.    Thereupon  the  Liberals 

attempted  to  induce  pastors  to  celebrate  requiem    and  Democrats  rose  in  opposition  to  the  Concordat; 

Masses  in  defiance  of  the  archiepiscopal  mandate,     eveiywhere  meeting  of  protest  were  held,  resulting 

Only  about  sixty  out  of  the  800  priests  complied,     in  1861  in  the  dismissal  of  the  Conservative  and  the 

whereupon  the  archbishop  decreed  that  the  cler^    formation   of  a   Liberal   mmistry.    The  latter,  on 

who  had  disregarded  his  command  should,  in  expia-    29  October,  without  consulting  wie  Holy  See,  arbi- 

tion,  attend  certain  exercises  of  five  days  conducted    trarily  declared  the    Concordat  null  and  void  and 

bv  the  Jesuit  Father  Roh,  at  the  theological  seminary    substituted   a  law   quite   inimical   to   the  Church, 

of  St.  Peter.    Although  the  civil  authorities  promised    which   received   the   approbation   of   the   Landtag. 

their  protection  to  those  priests  who  should  resist    On  20  November,  1861,  the  Government  and  the 

this  sentence,  the  clergy  to  a  man  obeyed  the  order    archbishop  came  to  an  agreement  concerning  the 

of  the  archbishop,  ensuring  him  a  victory  so  complete    filling  of  benefices  and  the  administration  of  church 

as  to  give  him  the  power  of  resistance  in  further    property. 

conflicts.  After  a  short  respite,  new  conflicts  arose  between 

In  response  to   the  second   memorial  from   the  the  two  authorities  with  reference  to   the   school 

bishops  if  the  province  of  the  Upper  Rhine,  the  system  (1864).    The  Government,  now  entirelv  imder 

representatives  of  the  State  of   Baden  refused  to  the  control  of  the  Liberals,  proposed  a  bill '  for  a 

make  a  single  concession  to  the  Catholic  Church,  school  law  which  almost  entirely  nullified  the  in- 

The  archbishop  then  informed  the  Government  that  fluence  of  the  Church  on  education,  conceding  to 

he  would  take  steps  to  secure  the  rights  that  were  his,  the  Church  only  the  supervision  of  religious  instruc- 

but  were  unjustly  withheld  by  the  civil  authorities,  tion.    Although  Cathohc  clergy  exertedf  every  effort 

He  held  competitive  examinations  for  parish  appoints-  to  bring  about  the  failure  of  this  scheme,  and  the 

ments    and    for    admittance    into    the    theological  archbishop  in  h  pastoiul  letter  opposed  it,  the  bill 

seminary,  without   the   presence   of  a  government  in  a  somewhat  aggravated  form  became  a  law,  and 

commissioner;  he  filled  parishes  to  which  the  Govern-  the  opposition  of  the  Catholic  population  expressed 

roent  could  not  establish  a  canonical  right  of  patron-  in   numerous  mass-meetings   and   addresses  to  the 

age»  demanded  from  the  Oberkirchenrat  an  admini»-  duke   was   completely   disregarded.     The   Liberals. 

tration  of  church  property  strictly  in  accordance  with  who  were  in  the  majority  in  the  Landtag,  and  had 

canon  law,  threatening  excommunication  in  case  of  control  of  the  Government,  hesitated  at  nothing  to 

disobedience.     Thereupon    the    Government    placed  make  still  more  practically  effective  their  principles 

the  official  actions  of  the  archbishop  under  police  of  hostility  to  the  Church.     In  1867  the  Government 

surveillance,   banished   the   Jesuits   from    Freiburg,  instituted   state   examinations   for   theological   stu- 

and  threatened  the  clergy  who  submitted  to  the  dents,  to  be  held  before  a  civil  commissioner  on  the 

Chureh  with  the  loss  of  tneir  incomes,  and  with  civil  completion   of   the   university   course.     The   Curia 

punishment.    Two  priests  of  Karlsruhe  and  Freiburg,  protested,  and  forbade  the  theological  students  to 

who  had  proclaimed  the  sentence  of  excommunica-  submit  to  this  examination.     As  a  result  the  clergy  . 

tion  pronounced  upon  the  Oberkirchenrat  by  the  in  the  parishes  subject  to  the  appointment  of  the 

archbishop,  were  actually  placed  under  arrest.     On  Grand  duke  received,  instead  of  tneir  stipends  and 

still  more  unwarrantable  interference  by  the  Govemn  appointments  as  pastors,   only  those  of  parish  ad- 

ment,  the  archbishop  issued  a  circular  letter  to  be  ministrators.      After  the    death    of   the   archbishop 

read  from  the  pulpits,  ordering  an  independent  ad-  (15  April,   1868),  the  Government,  by  refusing  to 

ministration  of  ecclesiastical  institutions  without  re-  consider  seven  out  of  eight  candidates,  made  the 

dfor  civil  mandates,  and  prohibiting  the  clergy  choice  of  an  archbishop  practically  impossible,  and  the 

i   having   any   connexion    with    state   ofBciaG.  see  remained  vacant  for  eigliteen  years.    In  1869  civil 

The  Government,  seeing  in  this  enactment  an  in-  marriage  was  made  obligatory.    In  1870  all  Catholic 

stigation    a^inst   civil   authority,   forbade   its  pro-  institutions  not  purely  ecclesiastical,  but  devoted  to 

mmgation  m  the  churches  and  attempted  to  seize  education  or  to  charity,  were  secularized,  withdrawn 

all  copies  of  the  letter,  in  some  cases  succeeding  by  from  the  control  of  the  Church,  and  large  endowments 

force.     A  judicial  inquiry  was  instituted  against  the  left  for  Catholic  purposes  were  thus  alienated  from 

archbishop  (18  May,  1854),  charging  him  with  dis-  their  appointed  use.     In  1872  the  members  of  re- 

turbing    and    endangering    the    public    peace.     On  li^ious  orders  and  congre^tions  were  forbidden  to 

22  May  he  was  placea  under  arrest,  and  confined  to  give  elementary  instruction,  to  assist  in  the  work  of 

hia  room  under  a  guard  of  gendarmes  until  31  May.  the  ministry,  or  to  conduct  missions.     In  1873  the 

At  the  command  of  the  archbishop  the  diocesan  Old  CathoUcs  were  placed  on  an  ec^ual  footing  with 

court  continued  to  transact  all  business,  and  sent  a  the  Catholic  Church;  several  Cathohc  churches  were 

dispatch  to  Rome  asking  the  pope  to  make  provisions  turned  over  to  them,  and  their  Bishop  Reinkens  was 

for  the  admimstration  of  the  diocese.     All  churches  recognized  by  the  Government  as  a  Catholic  national 

were  to  be  draped  in  mourning,  church  bells  were  hiBhop  {Lanaeabischof),    In  1874  admission  to  any  ec- 

silent,  altars  were  stripped  of  their  adornments,  and  clesiastical  ofl^ce  was  made  to  depend  on  proof  of  a 


his  protection.     The  Crovemment  then  proposed  to  and  boarding  schools  for  boys  were  closed.     In  1875 

enter  into  negotiations  with  the  Holy  See,  and  a  undenominational  schools  were  introduced  and  made 

peaceful  arrangement  was  made,  which  created  a  obligatory,   the  Catholic  corporation  schools  were 

tolerable  modus  Vivendi.    The  proceedings  against  made  unsectarian,  and  several  monastic  educational 

the  archbishop  and  clergjr  were  stopped,  and  gradu-  institutions  were  suppressed.     Not  until  after  the 

ally. the  way  was  opened  for  amicable  relations  be-  retirement  of  the  Liberal  minister,  JoUy,  the  soul  of 

tireen  the  civil  authorities  and  the  archbishop.  the  anti-Catholic  legislation,  i.  e.  since  1876,  were 

The  lengthy  negotiations  with  Rome  were  brought  measures  taken  for  the  re-establishment  of  peace 

to  a  doeeby  the  signing  of  the  Concordat  of  8  June,  with  the  Catholic  Church.     In  1880  state  examina- 

1899,  which  went  far  towards  meeting  the  just  claims  tions  for  theological  students  were  dispensed  with; 


BADEN  198  BADXK 

/ 
in  1882  the  archiepiscopal  see  waa  filled  by  the  ap-  Church  Property. — The  property  of  the  archiepb- 
pointment  of  Johann  Baptist  Orbin,  who  ruled  until  copal  board,  the'  cathedral  chapter,  the  metropoUtan 
1886;  his  successors  were  Johann  Christian  Roos,  church,  and  the  seminary,  as  well  as  the  funds  under 
until  1896;  George  I^az  Komp,  who  died  as  arch-  the  immediate  control  of  the  archbishop  or  the  chap- 
bishop  elect  on  the  journey  to  his  see  (1896),  and  ter,  are  managed  by  the  archbishop  and  the  chapter 
Thomas  N6rber  from  1896.  In  1888  the  boardine  without  interference;  that  under  rural  chapters  by 
schools  for  boys  and  the  seminaries  were  reopened,  the  chapters  themselves  under  the  supervision  of 
and  members  of  religious  orders  were  once  more  al-  the  ordinary;  local  property,  i.  e.  the  definite  pioperty 
lowed  to  preach.  of  a  separate  parish,  is  administered  by  a  parish 

Meanwhile   the   political    development  of   Baden  council  under  the  presidency  of  the  clergy,  the  mem- 
had  been  undisturbed.     In  1866,  it  is  true,  the  Grand  bers  being  chosen  for  a  period  of  six  years  from  the 
duke  had  been  forced  against  his  will  to  fijght  on  the  Catholics  of  the  parish.     The  property  of  the  ecclesi- 
side  of  Austria  and  the  German  Confederation  against  astical  institutions  of  a  district  is  managed  by  a 
Prussia;  but  as  early  as  28  July  he  arranged  a  truce  commission,  half  the  members  beine  chosen  by  the 
and  proclaimed  his  withdrawal  from  the  German  Government,  and  half  by  the  archbishop  from  the 
Confederation.     On  17  August  he  concluded  peace.  Catholics  of  the  district.     The  intercalary  fund  (that 
and  an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance  with  Prussia,  is  to  say,  the  fiscal  department  for  the  collection, 
The  military  forces  of   Baden   were  organized  on  management,  and  lawful  expenditure  of  the  incomes 
Prussian  lines,  and  when,  in  1870,  Baden  openly  took  of  vacant  benefices  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden)  is 
sides  with  Prussia,  they  fought  with  distinction  in  administered  by  a  council  known  as  the  Catholic 
many  battles.     On  25  November  Baden  entered  the  Oberstiftungsraty  consisting  of  a  president^  and  six 
North  German  Confederdtion,  which  was  strengthened  members,  under  the  joint  supervision  of  the  arch- 
by  the  accession  of  the  other  South  German  States  bishop   and    the    Government.    The    members  are 
to  the  new  German  Empire   (1871).     The  internal  Catholics,  half  being  appointed  by  the  Government, 
administration   was   now   conducted   along   Liberal  and  half  by  the  archbishop.     All  must  meet  the 
lines.    The  Liberal  majority  of  the  Chamber  was  approval  of  both.     The  president  must  also  be  se- 
not  disturbed  until  1893.     In  1904  a  more  impartial  lected  and  named  with  the  consent  of  both.    The 
election    law    was    introduced.     The    Government,  Oberstiftungsrat  also  supervises  the  administration 
however,  still  holds  to  its  Liberal  tendencies,  and  of  the  local  and  diocesan  institutions  and  of  all 
refuses  the  just  demands  of  Catholics  for  the  ad-  benefices,  occupied  or  vacant, 
mission  of  religious  orders  of  men.     Unfriendliness        Local  associations  of  the  members  belonging  to 
towards  the  Catholic  Church  seems  again  to  be  gaining  the  churches  recc^nized  in  Baden  have,  as  parisnes, 
ground,  as  is  shown  by  ordinances  requiring  an  inves-  the  rights  of  pubfic  corporations.     For  the  defrayal 
ligation  among  the  whole  body  of  the  Catholic  clergy  of  expenses  incident  to  public  worship,  as,  for  example, 
on  account  of  alleged  abuses  of  electoral  influence  and  the  maintenance  and  repair  of  parish  churches  and 
other  charges.  rectories,  the  purchase  and  care  of  the  necessary 

III.  State  and  Church  in  Baden. — ^The  relations  church  furniture,  and  the  salaries  of  the  under  em- 
between  the  Catholic  Church  and  the  Government  ploy^s  of  the  church,  the  parish  can  assess  certain 
are  not  entirely  satisfactory,  as  is  evident  from  the  taxes  on  its  members.  There  is,  in  addition,  a 
historical  account,  the  State  often  exercising  an  general  church  assessment  for  the  common  needs 
excessive  control.  According  to  the  legislation  now  of  the  Catholic  Church  of  Baden,  e.  ^.  the  expenses 
in  force,  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  Baden  of  the  highest  ecclesiastical  authorities,  the  estab- 
possesses  the  right  of  a  public  corporation,  with  the  Ushment  of  new  church  offices,  etc.  The  execution 
privilege  of  public  worship  and  the  formation  of  of  parochial  rights  and  duties  is  vested  in  the  parish 
religious  societies.  The  Church  conducts  its  affairs  meeting;  in  those  parishes  numbering  eighty  or  more 
freely  and  independently.  The  clergy  are  not  re-  members,  the  parish  is  represented  by  an  elective 
stricted  in  their  communication  with  ecclesiastical  council.  The  resolution  or  the  'parish  meeting  or 
superiors.  The  highest  spiritual  authority  of  Catho-  parochial  council  determining  the  church  assessment 
lie  Baden  is  the  Archbishop  of  Freiburg,  who  is  also  is  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  State.  To  become 
Metropolitan  of  the  province  of  the  Upper  Rhine;  legally  effective,  any  change  in  the  formation  of  a 
he  is  a  member  of  the  First  Chamber  of  Baden,  parish,  by  reorganization,  dissolution,  partition,  or 
ranks  immediately  after  the  ministers  of  state,  ana  reunion,  needs  the  sanction  of  the  dvil  authorities, 
enjoys  the  title  of  Excellency.  Ecclesiastical  offices  The  administration  of  ecclesiastical  foundations 
are  filled  by  the  church  authorities,  but  are  granted  (Stiftungen)  is  also  entirely  subject  to  state  super- 
only  to  those  who  are  citizens  of  Baden  and  can  vision.  All  gifts  and  bequests  in  favour  of  existing 
give  proof  of  having  had  a  general  scientific  training,  foundations,  likewise  the  establishment  of  new  and 
No  exemption  from  a  regular  three  years'  course  at  a  independent  ones,  require  the  approbation  of  the 
German  university  is  granted  to  anyone  who  has  State.  Churches,  chapels,  hospitab,  and  other 
completed  the  same  course  at  a  Jesuit  institution,  public  foundations  devoted  to  the  care  of  the  poor 
Every  priest  on  entering  the  work  of  the  ministry  and  orphans,  and  to  similar  charitable  purposes, 
in  Baden  must  take  the  constitutional  oath.  The  are  exempt  from  the  house  tax.  Homes  for  the  care 
public  exercise  of  church  fimctions  is  permitted  to  of  the  sick  and  the  support  of  the  poor,  as  well  as 
priests  coming  from  outside  of  Baden  only  under  public  educational  institutions,  are  exempt  from  the 
certain  conditions.  Without  government  authoriza-  income  tax  on  the  capital  invested.  The  taxable 
tion  no  religious  order  may  be  brought  into  Baden,  values  of  rectories  are  exempt  from  any  parish 
nor  may  a  new  foundation  be  made  by  an  order  assessment. 

already   established.     Moreover,  this    authorization        Church  and  School. — ^The  public  educational  system 

is  subject  to  revocation.    The  holding  of  missions  is  under  the  direction  of  the  State,  the  highest  au- 

and  the  work  of  the  ministry  by  members  of  religious  thority  being  the  Oberschulrat  (Supreme  Educational 

orders  are  in  general    forbidclen,   unless  in  case  of  Council),  which  is  directly  subject  to  the  Minister  of 

extreme  necessity.     By  legislation  of  the  German  the   Interior.    The   highest  ecclesiastical    superiors 

Empire,  the  obligation  of  a  civil  marriage  ceremony  may  designate  a  representative  to  attend  the  d^bera- 

was  introduced,  the  duty  of  military  service  on  the  tions  of  the  Oberschulrat  whenever  there  is  question 

part  of  Catholic  theological  students  abolished,  and  of  religious  instruction  and  its  place  in  the  plan  of 

the  Society  of  Jesus  and  what  the  laws  call  "  cog-  studies.    In  the  public  schools  instruction  is  given 

nate  "  orders  and  congregations  excluded  from  the  simultaneously  to  all  children  of  school  age,  r^ird- 

German  Empire.  less  of  creed,  with  the  exception  of  religioiis  instruc- 


BADDT  199  BADDT 

tion.   The  local  supervision  over  the  public  schools,  lowing  teaching  orders  are  represented:  the  Sisteis 

as  well  as  the  supervision  of  all  local  school  funds,  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  in  Baden-Baden,  the  Domini- 

induding  those  of  each  religious  confession,  is  en-  can  Sisters  in  Constance,  Cistercian  Sisters  in  Lich- 

trusted  to  the  town  council;  at  the  same  time  each  tenthal  near  Baden-Baden,  in  Offenburg  the  Choir 

6t  the  creeds  represented  in  the  community  is  repre-  Sisters  of  St.  Augustine  from  the  couj^regation  of 

sented  by  its  pastor.    In  the  appointment  of  teachers  Notre  Dame   (wim  a  branch  in  Rhemburg),  the 

to  public  schools  all  possible  respect  is  had  for  the  Ursulines  in  Villingen  (with  a  branch  in  Breisach); 

religious  belief  of  the  children;  in  schools  attended  there  are  in  all  5  orders  for  the  education  of  girls. 

bv  children  of  only  one  creed  the  teachers  are  to  be  The  following  congregations  for  the  care  of  the  sids 

of  that  creed.    Religious  instruction  is  provided  and  are  represented  in  Bsuien:  the  Sisters  of  St.  Vincent 

supervised  by  the  respective  churches  and  congre-  de  Paul,  with  mother-house  at  Freiburg,  the  Sisters 

rations.    They  may  be  assisted  in  this  by  teachers,  of  St.  Francis,  with  mother-house  at  Gen^nbach,  the 

The  general  (Han  of  religious  instruction  is  laid  out  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross  from  Ingenbohl  in  Switzer^ 

by  the  hieher  spiritual  authorities  and  supervised  land,  with  mother-house  at  Hegne,  near  Constance. 

br  their  deputies.  ^  The  establishment  of  private  In  addition  there  are  in  Baden  the  Vincentian  Sisters 

educational  institutions  is  permitted,  but  only  under  from  the  mother-house  at  Strasburg,  Sisters  of  the 

certain  conditions;  these  establishments  are  under  Most  Holy  Saviour  (the  so-called  Niederbronn  Si»7 

state  supervision;   from  time   to   time  the  school  ters),  from  the  mother-house  at  Oberbronn,  Alsace, 

authorities  visit  them  and  hold  examinations.    Eccle-  Franciscan  Sisters  from  the  mother-house  at  MaUers- 

siastiral  corporations  and  institutions  may  foimd  dorf,    Bavaria,    Josephite    Sisters    from    St.    Marx 

educational  establishments  only  on  the  passage  of  a  (Alsace),  also  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross  from  the 

special  law.    Members  of  religious  orders  or  of  religious  mother-house  at  Strasburg. 

coogi^ffations  that  resemble  orders  are  forbidden  ^   Education, — ^As  explained  above,  the  school  system 
to  teadm  in  any  educational  institution  in  the  Grand  is  entirely  \mder  the  direction  of  the  State;  conse- 
Duchy  of   Baden.    The    Government    may   grant  cjuently  there  are  but  few  purely  Catholic  educational 
exemption  to  individusds,   but  such  exemption  is  institutions.     For  the  training  of  the  Catholic  clergy 
revocable  at  will.     Churches  are  authorized  to  main-  there    are    the    archiepiscopal    seminary    (PrieHer* 
tain  institutions  for  the  theological  and  practical  seminar)  at  St.  Peter,  the  home  (Konvih)  for  theo- 
training  of  young  men  for  the  priesthood,  and  to  logical  students  at  Freiburg,  and  4  gymnasial  board- 
conduct  boarding   houses    (K(nivikte)   for  students  ing  schools  at  Constance,  Freiburg,  Rastatt,  and 
who  frequent  the  gymnasia  or  the  imiversity  with  Tauberbischofsheim.    At  the  state  university  (Frei- 
the  intention  of  preparing  themselves  for  the  ecclesi-  burg)  there  is  a  faculty  of  Catholic  theology  number- 
astical  state.  ing  11  professors;  the  number  of  theological  students 
IV.  Statistics. — Baden,   with   the   Hohenzollem  during  the  summer  semester  of  1907  was  226.    The 
territories  belonging  to  Prussia,  forms  the  Archdiocese  62  Government  intermediate  schools  of  Baden  (17 
of  Freiburg.    The   strong    intermixture   of    creeds  classical  gymnasia,  3  ''  real ",  4  preparatory,  7  higher 
throughout  Baden  is  a  result  of  the  earlier  territorial  gymnasia:   23   Realachidenj  8  high  schools)  recoraed 
dismemberment  described  above.    According  to  the  an  attendance  in  1905  of  5,157  Catholic  students, 
census  of  1905,  in  34  of  the  53  judicial  distncts,  the  In  17  of  the  Government  intermediate  schools  reU- 
Oathohcs  are  in  the  majority.    They  are  especially  gious  instruction  is  given  by  26  specially  appointed 
strong  in  the  north-east   (the  Tauber  valley),  the  priests  (Religumslehrer);  in  the  others  reli^ous  in- 
farther  Odenwald,  and  the  southern  half  of  Baden,  struction  is  cared  for  by  the  local  clergy.    &  the  11 
Even  here,  however,  predominantly  Protestant  di»-  private  intermediate  schools  for  boys,  the  Institute 
tricts  are  to  be  found,  e.  g.   Kem,  Lahr,  Emmen-  and  School  of  Monsignor  Lender  in  Sasbach  (Progym- 
dhu^,  the  Margravate  of  Sulzburg  as  far  as  Basle,  ncisium  and  ReoLscntdeS    is  Catholic  in    character; 
and  the  vall^  of  the  Wiese  as  far  up  as  Ldrrach;  in  in  1905  it  had  483  CatnoUc  students,  and  8  priests 
addition  to  the  districts  just  mentioned,  the  country  as  religious  instructors.      The   7  government  high 
on  both  sides  of  the  Neckar  and  the  Lower  Rhine  are  schools  for  girls  had  in  1905  an  attendance  of  964 
overwhelmingly  Protestant.    Ecclesiastically,  Baden  Catholic  students.    Of  the  33  private  intermediate 
is  divided  into  3  city  chapters  and  36  rural  chap-  schools  for  girls,  attended  by  1,437  Catholic  girls,  5 
t^B,  with  about  814  ptuishes  and  curacies,  114  chap-  are  distinctly  Catholic  in  character,  and  have  an 
laincies,  and  259  assistants.    The  cathedral  parish  attendance  of  1,132.    The  Catholic  periodicals  now 
of  Freiburg  and  the  parish  of  St.  Peter  are  exempted  published  in  Baden  number  25. 
from  the  aoove-mentioned  chapter  system.     Besides        Charitable  Institutions, — In  Baden  there  are  254 
this,  there  are  3  military  and  3  mstitutional  chaplain-  institutions  for  the  care  of  the  sick,'with  13,800  beds; 
cies.    At  the  beginning  of   1907  Baden  had  1,260  about  100  of  these    hospitals,  infirmaries,  etc.  are 
Oatholic  priests,  i.  e.  pastors,  assistants,  and  chap-  directed,  or  are  actually  served,  by  Catholic  orders 
lains.    Of  the  1187  ecclesiastical  benefices  of  Baden,  and  congregations.    The  Diocese  of  Freiburg  con- 
295  are  in  the  gift  of  the  Grand  duke  as  patron;  264  tains  3  orphanages  (Riegel,  Gurtweil,  and  WalldQm); 
are  left  to  the  free  collation  of  the  archbishop:  145  in  the  village  of  Herthen  there  is  a  large  institution 
are  filled  through  presentations  by  noblemen,  land-  for  the  care  of  imbeciles,  with  about  400  inmates, 
owners,  and  others;  168  are  disposed  of  by  the  so-  under  the  direction  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross; 
called  tema,  i.  e.  the  archbishop  proposes  to  the  Grand  in  Heitersheim  there  is  a  large  institution  for  the 
duke  three  candidates  for  a  benence,  and  the  latter  reclamation  of  giris,  directed  by  a  Catholic  sisteiiiood. 
■elects  one  for  canonical  institution.    In  the  case  of  9  The  Baden  non-sectarian  Red  Cross  Society,  to  which 
benefices,  the  right  of  presentation  is  alternate;  in  47  many  Catholics  belong,  has  34  relief-centres  for  men, 
cases  it  is  disputed  or  unknown.    The  salary  of  pas-  with  about  5,500  members,  and  333  unions  for  wo- 
tora  and  beneni^ed  clergy  is  derived  from  the  temporal-  men,  with  57,600  members;  the  association  main- 
ities  of  the  living;  the  income  of  pooriy  equipped  tains  75  stations  with  about  470  employ^.    There 
parishes  is  siipplemented  by  an  annual  state  appro-  are  in  Baden  13  Catholic  homes  for  servant  ^rls. 
priation  which  sometimes  amounts  to  $50,000.  Catholic  Societies. — Concerning  these  societies  there 
Orders  and  Congreaations. — Male  orders  and  con-  are  no  adequate  statistics.     We  may  mention,  how- 
gregations  are  prohibited  from  making  any  founda-  ever,  the  People's  Union  (Volksverein)  for  Catholic 
tions  in  the  Grand  Duchy  o!  Baden.     In  proportion  Germany,  with  27,100  members,  Catholic  working* 
to  the  population,  tiie  number  of  orders  and  congre-  men's  unions  (150),  Catholic  journeymen's  unions 
gatkms  of  women  is  small,  and  new  foundations  are  (53),  apprentices'  unions  and  clubs  for  youn^  men 
vip^rously  opposed  by  the  Government.     The  fol-  (35),  and  St.  Joseph's  unions  (2).    Freibui^  is  the 


BADIA                                 200  BADIR 

centre  of  the  associated  charities  (CharUasverhand)  JX.  M4;  pimucs,  Oatparo  CorUanni  (Bratmsberi;.  1885):  L. 

of  Catholic  Germany.    The  chief  reUpouB  societies  ^^^^S^^^  Sr^iT^^^^it^  ''""'"""•' '"  ^"^ 

and  confraternities  are:   the  Archoonfratermtv  of  Thos.  M.  Schwebtker. 
the  Most  Holy  Sacrament  of  the  Altan  the  Most' 

Pure  Heart  of  Marv,  and  of  Christian  Mothers,  the  Badin,   Stephen  Theodore,   the   first   Catholic 

League  of  Prayer  for  Germany,  the  Association  of  priest  ordained  within  the  limits  of  the  origintd 

the  Holy  Family,  the  Association  of  the  Holy  Child-  thirteen  States  of  the  Union,  pioneer  missionary  of 

hood  of  Jesus,  the  Boniface  Society,  the  Ludwig  Kentucky,  b.  at  Orleans,  France,  17  July,  1768;  d.  at 

Mission  Society,  St.  Michaers  Society,  the  Societies  Cincinnati,    Ohio,    21    April,    1853.     Educated    at 

of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  for  men  and  women,  and  Montoigu  College,  Paris,  he  entered  the  Sulpician 

others.  Seminary  of  his  ^  native  city  in  1789.     He  was  sub- 

The  most  important  Catholic  churcb  edifices  are  deacon  when  the  seminary  was  closed  by  the  revolu- 

the    cathedrals    of    Freibui^    and    Constance,    the  tionary  government,  in  1791,  and  sailed  from  Bor- 

churches  of  Ueberlingen  and  Breisach,  and  those  of  deaux  for  the  American  mission  in  November  of  the 

Baden-Baden,  Salem,  St.  Blasien,  Reichenau,  Gen-  same  year,  with  the  Revs.  B.  J.  Flaget  and  J.  B.  David, 

gcnbach,  Bronnbach,  Schwarzach,  Ladenburg,  Neu-  both   destined   in   God's   providence   to   wear   the 

stadt,  Karlsruhe.  mitre  in  Kentucky.    They  arrived  in  Philadelphia 

Acompletebibliomphy  wtobefoimdinKiia^  on  the  26th  of  March,  1792,  and  were  welcomed  at 

rri  ^^f^^^e^^^'^Z^'S^  TJil^  Baltimore  by  Bishop  Carroll  on  the  28th,    Stephen  T. 

tical    hiatory,    are:    ScHdPFLiN,    Historia    Zaringo-Badenna  Badm    pursued    his    theological    etudies    With    the 

(7  vols..   Karlsruhe,    1763-66);   DOmoe,   RegeHa  Baderuia  Sulpicians  and  was  ordained  a  priest  by   Bishop 

i!S!2±ll.  f^<Jk."lSiSn.gr?SS5r?i'i'S.c^.'SSS  CarroU  25  ^y  1793.    ffis  was  tfe  fi«t  ordination 

Getduaue  (Karlsruhe.  1842);  Mone.  Dte  katholitchen  Zusutnde  m  the  Umted  States.    After  a  few  months  spent  at 

m  Badm  (Ratisbon,  1841  and  1843);  Bader,  IHeAw^  Georgetown  to  perfect  himself  in  English,   Father 

OffizieUe    AktenstQcke    Uber  die   Kirchen    und  Schutfrage   m  He  left  for  that  SOene  of  his  apostohc  labours  With 

Baden^  (7  numbers.  Frwburg.  1864-75);  ViraoRDT,  BadMta  Father  Barri^res,  3  September,  1793,  travelled  on 

^^I^  5rAS&»?*K^ttSi«lTM'Sr;  }i§i}i  fa«t  "  f« .»  Kt^burgf.  and  by  flat  Ut  down  the 

Spohn,  Badiache9  Staat9kirchenrecfu  (Karlsruhe.  1868);  Frieeh  Ohio,  landmg  at  Lamestone  (Maysville),  Ky.,  where 

BERo,  Der  Siaatund  die  katholUduf  Kirchsim  QroaahenogtMn  they  found  twenty  Catholic  families.    They  walked 

^^Sie^^i^^^'*^<^'lEki^^':^i^ ^  '^f^7^^'"'r^^^^y^^''X?^^  ??  *^%fi«,^  Sunday 

Oro$8hcrzo(ftum  Badm  (Karlsruhe.   1885);   Baumhtark,  Die  of  Advent,  1793,  Father  Badm  said  his  first  Mass  m 

kirehenpoltHmJten  Oesetze  tmrf  Verorditunoen  fitr  die  rdmiedir-  Kentucky  at  the  hpuse  of  Denis  McCarthy. 

kaiholi9che  Kxrche  tm  OroaeherMOotum  Btuien  {KBT]BTVLhe,lS8S);  xj^    aafi\t^     of     WYiifA     j^iilnhnr      RAnff     f!niinfv 

Wbech/  Badieche    OeechichU    (Karlsruhe,    1890);    Heiner,  ._Y®    ^^.V^.  *^  ,       -^  DUlpnur,    ba)tt    U)Unty, 

Getetxe  die  katholiache  Kirche  (in  Baden)  betrefend  (Freiburg.  Sixteen  miles  from  Lexmgton,  and  for  about  eighteen 

1890);  Uaab,  Gee^idtu  der  katfu>li8<Jien  Kir^  months    attended    this    church    and    neighbouring 

aoglum   Baden    (Freiburg.    1891);    Hkiner,    Dxe    ktrchhchen  rniaaifyna      Tn      Ar^rll       1704      hia     nntnnonirkn       wK^ 

EHaem,  Verordnungen  und  Bekanntmachungen  der  Erzdi6zeee  nuSCTOnS.     J^     Apnl,     17»4,     hlS     companion.     Who 

Freibxirg  (2d  ed.,  Freiburg,  1898);  MOller,  Badieche  Land-  resided  ID  Bardstown,  left  for  New  Orleans,   and 

tooegeech.  (Bwjin,  1899-1902).  I-IV;  Fester  and  WrrrB,  Father  Badin  was  now  alone  in  the  Kentucky  mission. 

^ZSctii^^t^ZZ  T^a^HJlr'^'^''^  For  fourteen  yeam   he   att«nd<Kl   to   the   spiritual 

Groaeherxogtume  Baden  (2d  ed.,  2  vols..  Heidelbei^,  1903-05);  Wants  of  the  vanous  Cathohc  settlements,  scattered 

GftNNER  AND  Smter,  Dae  KvcHenpatromUerecht  tm  Groeeha^  over  an  extent  of  more  than  120  miles,  forming  new 

^Hj^Y^^^i^S^^^-^^^i^X'^^^^^  congregations,  building  churches,  never  missing  an 

(Freiburg,  1886-92.  Karisnihe.  1893-1904.  Heidelberg.  1902,  appomtment.     To   Visit   his   missions   regularly    he 

»qq^),  I-XXII.       .,,...,       ....            /,  ..  r  .,.  had  to  live  in  the  saddle,  and  it  is  estimated  that  he 

The  most  unportant  historical  periodicals  are:  Zetteehrift  wvfi«  mnrw  fhan    100  000  milAa  Hnrinir  hin   mim'ati^ 

tprGe$chichtedeeOberrheine  (Karlsruhe  since  1850):  FreOmrger  J^>9g^  ^^^.  ^"^^  1UU,UUU  miles  aurmg  his  ministry 

Didteaanarchiv  (Frbiburg.  since  1865);  Alebiannia  (Bonn.  1873  in  Kentucky.     For  many  years  he  was  unaided  and 

»qq.;  since  1900  in  Frwburg).  alone;  it  was  only  in  July,  1806,  that  he  received 

Joseph  Linb.      ,  .permanent  help,  when  the  Rev.  Charles  Nerinckx 

Badia,  ToMMASo,  Cardinal,  author,  papal  legate,  ^l}?,^^  TL??'i?^^lthir*!f  ^^'^wkL"*^ 

b.  at  Modena,  1483;  d.  at  Rome,  6  Sept^nTber,  1547  ^  shoulders.    They  hved  together  at  St  Stephen's, 

He  entered  the  Dominipan  Order  in  fes  native  city  <"»  ^<*""'8*'?u  ^^^^'  T^^^^f^  f "  th«r   hcad- 

joon  excelled  all  his  brethren  in  laming,  and  wfi  ^^laTher^Xtd'siS^t^  ^s^Sd^O^^ 

the  prinLofltaly,  Badia  .as  chosen  to  fill,.tempo-  \^l^^  ^L'tltr''^^^^ ^ZTIt^''^  ''"' 


list  of  abuses  to  be  reformed  m  the  Ijouncil  of  lYent.  ♦'     *  J^kC'-k^^  r«„~iT     t*  «»r        *      **rj      ri^  ''^ 

He  took  part  in  the  Diet  of  Worms  (1540),  not  only  if*,^*ii**'fJ?°L^,'^iH:  J^^'S  Ts,f  "'!^  J^!i!^ 

as  disputimt,  but  also  as  theologian  of  Caixiinal  Con-  rI^'^^^S^^ku  '^:^„,^PD''j*.?*^'  "*i  ^'^*'^' 

tarinl    On  iis  return  to  Italy  l»aul  III  created  him  ^^  w!T!^„^^n^^?t51ff i^i^  '^^  ***^?m 

cardinal,  and  though  selected  as  one  of  the  legates  to  S^^  ^„''r^*P  t    if^?  PfJ^^i^l™*^'  w^' 

preside  It  Trent  he  was  retained  at  Rome  to  Examine  ifl?-,,  JJ*?  ?|^i  i:„?-^r£^«fc?P*'"***1 

Sie  doctrinal  and  disciplinary  memoranda  drawn  up  jef'j^^'^  ^^ill^*"*  ?^'5^**°S-"'^"!f^»t*  f*^* 

in  the  sessions  of  the  council.    It  was  on  his  favour-  ^J^Lt^^'Zl^u^^^L  B^'  ,>^«^    *^*  >« 

able  recommendation  and  approval  of  its  constitutions  !t!S^L°"  ^^i /"*  5^^?^,.^^^"*,^*^  "^"J 

that  Paul  III  confirmed  t^e  Society  of  Jesus.    At  tfe'^uP'T^^rt^iol    wf^*^l*''**''°i*^u^ 

his  own  desire  he  was  buried  in  the  Minerva  beside  "^^  ^f  ,^?5  *''-?ul°™^5Il 't^*  ^°\  ^'??«*  "S  *^« 

Cardinal  Cajetan.   He  is  the  author  of  several  philo-  ^P'Sl*  U1,\#^kT'^"'*'^''  **^-  ^J^^  ^"^ 

Bophical  treatises,  as  weU  as  works  on  Divine  ftovi-  T.^P^"'?L°^,^'^*  ?^i  *°^  unjust  suspiciMLS 

dence.  the  immirtality  of  the    soul    and  several  Sl^"L^,^^P*^l'r,/  it'^^^^^^'^.S'^ 

treatises  against  Luthw,  none  of  which  have  been  ^.^  ^  J?"^  abroad.    In  1820  he  accMted  the 

published  parish  of  Millaney  and  Marreilly-en-Qault,  about 

Qctrir  AND  EcHARD,  SS.  O.  p..  II.  132:  Tooton,  Bomma  forty  miles  from  Orleans.    He  continued,  however, 

9lu*t.,  IV,  iie-121:  BsrixB-HEBGENBdTBEB,c<mcai«tweMA.,  to  take  the  greatest  interest  m  the  Kwtuckgr  mis- 


fiADIUB                                  201  BAE&T 

am,  insisted  on  his  loyalty  to  Bishop  Flaget,  and  knowledge  of  the  literature  and  writers  of  Florence 

helped- constantly  and  generously  to  secure  gifts  in  (Bib.  Volante,  Scanzia  VI,  88;  IV,  87;  XII,  106). 

money  and  valuable  church-furniture  for  the  mis-  in  1681,  he  was  Dean  of  the  University  of  Florence, 

gkmaries.    In  1822  he  published  in  Paris  a  "State-  QuirnF-EcHAaD.  Scriptores  Ord.  Frad.  (Paria.  1721).  II. 

ment  of  the  Missions  in  Kentucky",  with  the  same  '    •                                                     John  R.  Vol« 

porpofle  in  view.  john  xu  voi^. 

Father  Badin  returned  to  America  in  1828.    After  ^**^fi^^  J^hn  Jacob,  inissionary  and  ethnqjra- 

a  yew  on  the  Michigan  mission,  he  went  back  to  P^^^i  ^'  ^*  Schlettstadt  m  Alsace,  23  December,  1717; 

KentucW  in  1829.    The  next  year  he  offered  his  d.  at  Neustadt-on-the-Haardt  in  the  Rhenish  Palat- 

lervices  to  Bishop  Fenwick  of  Oncinnati,  and  took  "late,  29  September  (or  December),  1777.    Baegert 

charge  of  the  Pottawottomie  Indians  at  St.  Joseph's  belonged  to  an  Alsatian  family  from  which  had  come 

River.    Miss  Campau  of  Detroit,  an  expert  Indian  several  members  of  rebgious  orders.     He  studied 

linguist,  acted    as   interpreter   and    teacher,    untU  philosophy  two  years,  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus 

Father  Badin  left  the  place  in  1836.    Having  r^  ft  Aschaffenburg,  27  September,  1736,  taught  the 

turned  to  Cincinnati  in  that  year,  he  wrote  for  the  humanities  at  Mannheim  in  1740,  studied  theolo^r 

"CatiioUc    Telegraph"    a    series    of    controversial  at  Molsheun,  and  after  ordination,  14  February^  1749, 

*•  Letters   to    an    Episcopalian    Friend".    In    1837  went  to  America  as  a  missionary.    Lower  California 

he  went  to  Bardstown,  fey.,  was  appomted  vicar-  was  given  to  him  as  his  field  of  labour.     Here  he 

reral,  and  contmued  to  visit  the  various  missions,  founded  the  mission  of  San  Ignacio  and  worked  for 
1841  he  removed  to  Louisville  with  the  bishop's  seventeen  years  until  the  expulsion  of  the  Society 
household.    In  that  year  he  conveyed  a  great  deal  >^  1767.     He  embarked  at  Loretto  on  the  return 
of  church  pmperty  (notably  that  of  Portland,  near  journey,  3  February,  1768,  and  after  a  short  stay  in 
Louisville)  to  the  bishop,  and  a  farm  to  the  Very  ^  Spanish  monastery  of  the  Mmontes  retu-ed  to  the 
Rev.  E.  Serin  of  Notre  Dame,  Indiana.  J^^suit  college  at  Neustadt-on-the-Haardt,  where  he 
On  the  25th  of  May,  1843,  Father  Badin  celebrated  ended  his  (^ys.    In  1773  Baegert  published  anonjr- 
the  golden  jubilee  of  his  priesthood,  at  Lexington,  mously  at  Mannheim     Nachnchten  von  der  amen- 
where  he  had  offered  up  the  Holy  Sacrifice  of  the  kanischen  Halbinsel    Califomien   .   .   .   mit    einem 
Mass  for  the  first  thne  in  KentucW.     In  September,  zweif achen  Anhang  falscher  Nachrichten  ".    The  pub- 
im,  he  accepted  from  Bishop  Quarter  of  Chicago  hcation  ^  distinguished  by  truthfulness  of  statement 
the  pastorship  of  the  French  settlement  at  Bour-  and    corrects    the    over-favourable    description    of 
bonnais    Grove,     Kankakee    County,     Illinois.     In  conditions  m  California  which  had  been  eiven  by 
the  winter  of  1848  he  was  again  in  Kentucky,  and  Father  Venegas  in  his  account  issued  at  Madrid  in 
Bishop-Coadjutor  Spalding  welcomed   him   to   the  1751.    Father  Baegert  describes  the  physical  charac- 
epiacopal  household.     About  two  years  later  he  be-  ter  of  Lower  California,  the  customs  and  language  of 
came  the  guest  of  Archbishop  Purcell  at  Cincinnati,  *^e  natives  and  narrates  the  history  of  the  mission, 
and  eventually  died  at  the  archbishop's  residence.  Owing  to  the  numerous  ethnographical  observations 
His  body  lay  undisturbed  in  the  cathedral  crypt  for  *^e  work  was  of  value  up  to  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
over  fifty  years.     In   1904  Archbishop  Elder  per-  teenth  century  and  an  edited  translation  was  issued 
mitted  ite  removal  to  the  University  of  Notre  Dame,  ^7  ^^^  Smithsonian  Institution  in  1863-64;  Vivien  de 
Indiana  Saint-Martin  also  WTOte  a  detailed  account  of  the 
Father  Badin's  writings  are:  "Etat  des  missions  work.    The  contemporaries  of  Baegert  spoke  highly  of 
du  Kentucky"  (Paris,  1822),  tr.  in  the  "U.  S.  Cath.  his  talent  for  poetrvand  of  his  fine  personal  qualities. 
Miscellany  "  for  December,  1824,  and  in  the  "  Catholic  ggf^^  (f  864)  iys'^^TM  186^4"/^^ 
World",   September,    1875;   ''Carmen  Sacrum",   a  L'Ann&VeogropAw.F/isee  (Paris,  1867^,  233-^39;  BACKEa-* 
Latin  poem   composed  on   the   arrival   of   Bishop  Sommervoqel,  BtbliothSque  (1890),  I,  760.  sgq..  and  (1898), 

Flaget  in   Kentucky    June,    1811,   translated   into  IJi^V^niJ^t^^TtJST^riS^l^.'^ii 

liiDghsh  by  Colonel  Theodore  O'Hara  of  Frankfort,  to  vol.  LXXIV  (Freiburg  im  Br..  1899).  106;  Gent  cd.,  W»- 

Ky.,  author  of  the  "Bivouac  of  the  Dead";  "Epice-  t^*  ^^?^;:^l^\  "i«?**./j?^t?^ ^^  i^^^^^r/^  SchUu- 

dium",  Latin  ooem  composed  on  the  occasion  of  the  '^^  tt^SSk'Xb'l^'^'SS'a.''''^'  "'  "'"  "'"• 

death  of  CoL  Joe  Davis  at  the  Battle  of  Tippecanoe,  Otto  Hartzg 

Laudes  et^lnvocatio"   O^^sviUe,   1843),  abo  the  f::fiJi^thV<^;,Vt^nf  1^:^!?^^  M^h.t^^^^ 

original  text  and  tr.  in  Webb's  "The  Centenary  of  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  Mechbn  28  September, 

GiOcity  in  Kentucky"  (LouisviUe,  1844);  "Letters  if?^„r^*fIPr.L^fi^f  JiS'iu^^  "^^1*^^^^^^ 

to  m  EpiicopaUan  Friend  "-three  controversial  arti-  |S^L»L  .fi  tfej^  anH  £^Z^h^  «?H  ^« 

ties  on  the  (Jhurch  and  the  Eucharist  (published  in  St  "^hI^^^^Jw l?^,S?f  'rhp^fe^^  ^H? 

the  "Catholic  Telegraph"  of  Cincinnati,  1836).  finally  ordained  pnest  in  1680.    The  following  year, 

bAL^m^SMdi,,  ^  Early  Catholic  Mukon,  of  Kentucky  ^V  ^^^  was  tnade  assistant  to  Father  Daniel  Pape- 

(LooimUe,  1844);  loru.  Life  of  Biihop  Fiagtt  (Louisville,  broch,  the  last  suTvivor  of  the  first  generation  of 

18S2);  z^«  of  B«'.CAo».Afmncfcr  (Cincinnati,  1880);  Webb,  BoUandists.    The  name  of  Baertius  is  on  the  title- 

Cauemmv  of  Caiholtcitv  ti.  X«ntuc*w  (LomrviUe  1884)  „f  ^j^^  volumes  of  the  Acta  Sanctorum;  the  last 

OAM1LLU8  f.  MAES.  f^^^  ^f  jj^y  ^^j  ^f  jj^^  f^^  g^^  ^f  j             j^^j,  j^  j^j^ 

Btdina  Aacensiaa.    See  Phintino,  Art  of.  ^ro™  *•>«  articles  published  in  these  volumes  his  c3- 

Bwliiu.  Raphael,  a  Florentine  Dominican  of  the  ^^^^^°a-  K^^  ^l  "^"^  ^  '^^f  'V'^^  v^"^ 

-JT-Tr^  liT         A^     xiuxc**i/Mic  A^«.*x..^^i*  v*  vw  would  mdicate.    There  are  no  articles  beanng  his  sig- 

Kvwteenth    centuiy.    He    was    deeply   versed   m  ^^    -^^^^  i„  the  volumes  for  May  nor  in  the  fiftl. 

T^n  and  Florentine  antiquities  and  his  r^arches  ,         j     j           ^he  other  four  volumes  for  June 

Sed^uable  assistaSL  to  thV^eSiit'^ lathers,  ^fVhf  P^J^Tthl  rf^^  n?  f  'w     T^  f^  1^ 

Henschen   and    Papebroch,  in   their  labours  on  the  ®^''  *•»*  ^JTi^'  ?/  **}?  "^^^^  ?^  ^  ."^Ti,   ^    i^^-° 

i<r^a      »uu    A<>|/cuiu^u,  lu   Micu  •auvTY"' "Y  J  company  with  Father  CJonradJarminck,  he  made  a  tnp 

'Acta  Sanctorum",  as  they  themselves  acknowledge  .    Austria  and  Huncarv  in  search  of  liu>rftrv  materi  J- 

(T.  n  Junii.  ad  diem  X,  de  Joanne  Dominici,  p.  395,  I?  A"^'"*  *V   *  j^  K      ^i!^     \  lu^^     ^^^Zi 

a.  e" '  JuCJhronicler  of  the  Convent  of  Santk^Maria  !^!,J°"wJe  ^be7of  d^c^^nte 

'•'J^!-*^**'*^**'  ^  ^^  also  known  to  the  historian  coper.  &aium  R.  P.  Frand^i  Baerki  haguvraiAi  in  Adm 

tnd  bibtiographer  Cinellus,  who  makes  frequent  and  ss.,  July,  II. 

pateful  mention  of  the  learned  Dominican's  helpful  Ch.  Ds  Skisb/c. 


BiEUMEB  202  BAODAD 

Bnumer,  Sttttbert,  historian  of  the  Breviary  and  still  remains  the  most  important  city  of  Asiatic 
one  of  the  most  scholarly  patrologists  of  the  nine-  Turkey,  after  Damascus  and  Smyrna,  and  a  great 
teenth  century,  b.  28  Marcn,  1845  at  Leuchtenbeiig  emporium  of  international  trade.  It  exports  tex- 
near  Kaiserswerth  (Rhine);  d.  at  Freiburg  12  Au-  tile  fabrics,  gold  and  silverware,  horses,  dates,  etc. 
gust,  1894.  He  made  his  universitv  studies  at  Bonn  There  are  many  beautiful  mosques  in  the  city,  and 
and  Tilbingen;  in  1865  he  entered  the  Benedictine  the  ruins  of  its  ancient  walls  are  still  visible.  The 
Abbey  of  Seuron,  then  newly  founded,  and  was  or-  climate  is  hot;  fevers  are  frequent,  and  the  plague 
dained  priest  in  1869.  The  years  1875-90  were  sometimes  appears.  Its  population,  taken  as  in- 
spent  -at  Maredsous  Abbey  in  Belgium  and  at  £r-  eluding  the  neighbouring  villages,  is  said  to  be  about 
cUngton  in  England;  in  the  latter  vear  he  returned  145.000;  of  these  86,000  are  Mussulmans,  mostly 
to  Beuron.  Dom  Bseumer  was  long  the  critical  Arao  Sunnites  and  Persian  Shiites;  52,000  are  Jews, 
adviser  of  the  printing  house  of  Desclfe,  LefebVre  and  7,000  Christians.  Turkish  statistics,  however, 
and  associates  at  Toumai,  for  their  editions  of  the  are  usually  very  imcertain.  The  Christians  are 
Missal,  Breviary,  Ritual,  Pontifical,  and  other  li-  divided  as  follows:  3,300  Armenians  (including  about 
turgical  works.  He  contributed  to  leading  reviews  1,000  Catholics  and  100  Protestants),  100  Greeks 
a  number  of  valuable  essays,  e.  g.  on  the  Stowe  (50  Catholics);  1,600  (3,000?)  Chaldeans;  1,200 
Missal    (the   oldest   litureical   record   of   the   Irish  Syrians;  and  500  Latins. 

CJhurch)    in   thie   "Zeitscnrift   f.    kath.    Theologie"        In  1638,  after  the  Turkish  conquest,  owing  to  the 

(1892),  on  the  author  of  the  "Micrologus"  (an  im-  previous  kindness  of  Abbas  the  Great,  Urban  VIII 

portant    medieval    liturgical    treatise)    in    "Neues  created,  at  the  expense  of  a  pious   French  lady,  a 

Archiv"    (1893),  on   the   "  Sacramentarium   Gelas-  Latin  bishopric  for  the  Catholics  in  Persia,  under 

ianum"    in    the    "Historisches   Jahrbuch"    (1893).  the  title  of  Babylon,  the  old  city  being  then  (though 

He  also  wrote  a  life  of  Mabillon  (1892)  and  a  treatise  erroneouslv)   identified  with   Bagdad.     For  a  long 

on  the  history  and  content  of  the  Apostles'  Creed  time  the  bishops  of  this  title,  when  they  came  to 

(1893).     His  most  important  work  is  the  classical  the  East,  resided  at  HamadAn,  in  Persia,  and  for 

nistory  of  the   Roman   Breviary  "Geschichte   des  various  reasons  there  were  often  no  bishops,  but  only 

Breviers"    (Freiburg,   1895;   French  tr.,  R.   Biron,  vicars  Apostblic.     It  was  only  in  1742  that  P^ 

Paris,  1905).    In  this  work  he  condensed  the  labours  Joseph-Marie  de  Jdsus,  a  Carmelite,  was  allowed  to 

of  several  generations  of  erudite  students  of  the  enter  this  Mussulman  town.    In  1848  the  see  became 

Breviary  and  the  best  critical  results  of  the  modem  an  archbishopric,  with  Ispahan  as  a  suffraean  see, 

school  of  historical  litu^sts.  till  1874;  the  archbishop,  Monsignor  Trioche,  was 

aiUj,  deuudi€  Biographie.XLVl,  267,  and  the  biographical  appointed  Apostolic  Delegate  for  the  Catholics  of 

hSuJSVth^WiLa^.       """"^  ^^  Oriental  rites.     He  resigned  this  office  in  1850,  and 

Thomas  J.  Shahan.  until  his  death,  in  1887,  there  were  special  delegates. 

the  last  of  whom,  Monsij^or  Altmayer,  succeeded 

Bagamoyo,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of,  in  German  him  and  reunited  both  titles,  as  did  his  successor. 
East  Africa,  separated  by  a  pontifical  Decree  of  Monsignor  Jean  Drure.  We  must  here,  moreover, 
11  May,  1906,  from  the  Vic£iriate  Apostolic  of  North-  notice  that  the  Latin  Archbishop  of  fiagdad,  accord- 
em  Zanzibar.  The  Catholics  number  14,728  (in  all  ing  to  the  decree  of  Urban  VIII,  must  always  be  of 
German  East  Africa  there  are  about  6,700,000  na-  French  nationality. 

tives,  most  of  whom  belong  to  mixed  tribes  of  the        The  limits  of  the  ecclesiastical  province  extend  as 

Bantu  race).    The  mission  is  cared  for  by  the  Congre-  far  as  Assyria,  Mesopotamia,  and  the  territories  of 

gation  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  the  Immaculate  Heart  Bassorah  and  Amida,  with  about  2,000  Latin  faith- 

of  Mary  (62)  and  by  the  Trappists  (8),  aided  by  two  ful,  mostly  foreigners.     It  includes  three  Apostolic 

congregations  of  women:  Filles  de  Marie  (7),  and  prefectures:  Bagdad,  Mardin,  and  Mossul.    The  Pre- 

Sisters  of  the  Precious  Blood,  formerly  Trappistines  lecture  of  Bagcmd  is  governed  by  French  DiscalceNd 

(28).     The  first  vicar  Apostolic,  Rt.   Rev.   Franz  Carmelites,  who  have  at  Bagdad  a  larpe  and  beauti- 

Xaver  Vogt,  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  ful  college,  an  elementary  s3iool,  a  dispensary,  and 

was  elected  25  July,  1906.    There  are  15  churches  stations  at  Bassorah,  Ajnarah,  and  Bushire,   with 

and  chapels,  15  stations  with  medical  service,  15  primary  schools  and   some   ten  churches  or    litUe 

orphanages,  6  industrial,  or  trade^  and  a^icultural,  chapels.     French  Sisters  of  the  Presentation  of  Tours 

scnooLs,  71  schools  with  7,574  native  pupils,  2  leper  conduct  at  Bagdad  an  important  school  for  girls  and 

stations,  and  2  hospitals.     The  vicar  Apostolic  re-  an  orphans'  institute.     For  the  Prefectures  of  Mardin 

sides  at  Ba^amo^ro,  a  small  seaport  town  near  the  (French  Capuchins)  and  Mossul  (French  I)ominlcans), 

mouth  of  Kingani,  opposite  the  Island  of  Zanzibar,  see  articles  under  those  titles. 

and  the  centre  of  the  telegraph  and  cable  systems  of        The  Apostolic  Delegation  of  Bagdad,  for  Mesopo- 

the  colony.    (See  Africa.)  tamia^  Kurdistan,  ana  Armenia  Minor,  is,  as  appears 

MxMtanet  CatholvMB  (Propa^nda,  Rome,  1907),  427;  States-  from  its  official  appellation,  more  extensive  than  the 

X^^^^^'^XU'^9^xf^:fiif^??'''  ""^  Latin  archbishopnC    It  embra^  6  Wnian 

Thomas  J.  Shahan.  ceses,  with  40  pnests  and  about  12,000  faithful; 

6  Svrian  dioceses,  with  80  priests  and  about  12,000 

Bagdad. — ^This  city  was  founded  on  the  Tigris  by  faithful;  9  Chaldean  dioceses,  with  160  priests  and 

the  second  Abbaside  Cahph  Abou  Giafar  al  Mansur  about   40,000   faithfuL 

(762  or  764)  and  named  by  him  Medinet  es-Selam,        Since  the  foundation  of  the  Chaldean  patriaj*chate 

or  City  of  Salvation;     Bagdad  is  a  popular  name  by  Innocent  XI  in  1681,  after  the  conversion  of  a 

said  to  mean  "Garden  of  Dat",  a  Mussulman  dervish,  great  many  Nestorians,  the  Chaldean  patriarch  bears 

During  five  centuries  it  was  the  rich  and  brilliant  the  title  of  Babvlon,  i.  e.  Bagdad.     His  residence 

capital  of  the  famous  Arabian  Empire.     Houlagou,  was  first  at  Diarbekir,  then  at  Bagdad  (since  about 

a  grandson  of  Genghis  Khan,  entered  it  in  1262;  it  1838),  and  is  now  at  M.ossul.    A  Syrian  archbishopric 

afterwards  became  a  possession  of  the  Kara  Koyouli  was  also  erected  in  1862,  with  the  same  title  of  fiaby- 

Turks,  was  taken  by  Tamerlane,  and,  in  1517.  fell  Ion,  or  Bagdad;  and  the  titular  resides,  or  is  author- 

into  the  hands  of  the  Persians  who,  except  for  a  ized  to  reside,  at  Bagdad. 

short  interval  in  the  sixteenth  century,  ruled  over  it        According  to  Bar-Hebrseus   ("Chronicon    EocL", 

until  1638,  when  Sultan  Murad  made  it  definitively  ed.  Lam3r,  II,  236),  Elias,  the  Greek  Patriarch  of 

a  city  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.     It  is  now  the  chief  Antioch,  in  010  re-established  at  Bagdad  the  ancient 

town  of  a  vilayet,  or  district,  of  the  same  name,  and  residence  of  the  Orthodox  Catholicos  which  ha<l  been 

has  lost  much  of  its  former  importance,  though  it  unoccupied  since  the  Nestorian  Schism  (432).     The 


BA0BZ8  203  BAOaRAW 

Greek  name  for  Bagdad  was  Eirenopolis,  the  equiva-  the  jrear  600  the  Deacon  John  was  appointed  bishop 

Jent  of  Medinet  es^lam.    Eirenopolis  is  now  con-  of  this  see.    Upto  the  timeof  Urban  Y^Montefiascone' 

adered  among  the  Greeks  a  metropolitan  title,  and  was  part  df  the  Diocese  of  Bagnorea,  but  was  made 

is  held  by  a  prelate  who  assists  the  Patriarch  of  Anti-  by  tnb  pontiff  the  seat  of  a  new  diocese.    Ugheili, 

och  as  his  vicar.  without,  however,  adducing  any  documentary  proof, 

CciNCT,  La  Tunpgie  d'ilw.  III.  3-212;  PJolct,  L«  mi»»Mm«  says  that  the  Diocese  of  Bagnorea  was  joined  to  the 

SSHS^'cteS^dTltoiSriStf?!)"  '•  ^''''  ""'^  p^cese  of  Viterbo   4  February,  m9    but  neglecte 

S.  FifTRiDka,  "?  mention  when  they  were  re-estabnshed  as  separate 

_       -  ^.^  ,  *  T    J.     .  '  A  •     **•  dioceses.    Among  the  sacred  edifices  worthy  of  note 

Bageis,  a  titular  see  of  Lydia  m  Asia  Minor,  are:  the  ancient  Gothic  cathedral  and  the  new  cathe- 

This  name  is  found  on  corns,  but  becomes  Bagia  m  dral  built  by  Bishop  Ulderico  Nardi  (1698),  and  re- 

the  Synecdemos   of   Hierocles   and   Bage   m   later  stored  in  1764  by  Bishop  Giuseppe  Aliuffi.    Here  is 

"Notitue     graecffi     episoopatuum  '.     Bageis     takes  preserved  an  arm  of  St.  Bonaventure,  a  citizen  of 

the  epithet  Casar^   and  names  the  River  Hermos  bagnorea,  as  well  as  some  of  his  writings.    Among 

on  Its  corns.    It  has  been  placed  by  Keppels  m-  the  most  celebrated  bishops,  besides  those  already 

scnptions    near    Sirghe    on    the    Hermos    (Guediz-  mentioned,  are  St.  AldualduS  (861),  Corrado  Manili 

tchai);  but  the  site  of  the  city  is  said  to  be  on  the  (1521),  a  celebrated  professor  of  law  in  the  Universi- 

north  bank,  whUe  Sirghe  is  on  the  south  side  of  the  ties  of  Padua  and  Pavia,  Tommaso  Sperandio  (1574), 

nvCT.     Hamack     (Mission     und    Ausbreitung    des  pietro  Paolo  Febei  (1635),  who  founded  the  seminary, 

Chrwtentums  m  den  ersten  drei  Jahrhunderten.  486)  Martino  CordeUa,  banished  to  France  in  1789  because 

maintainfl   that  its   bishop  was  present  at  Nicaea,  he  would  not  take  the  oath  of  aUegiance  to  the  French 

but  this  IS  an  error  caused  by  a  confusion  with  Bans,  Republic.    During  the  barbarian  invasions,  between 

another  Lvdian  city;  the  lists  edited  by  H.  (ieber  the  sbcth  and  ninth  centuries,  the  city  was  taken  sev- 

and  C.    H.  Turner   are   silent   about   Ba^eis.    We  eral  times  by  the  Goths  and  the  Lombards.    In  822 

know  really  only  three   bishops  of  Bageis:  Chry-  the  Emperor  Louis  I  added  it  to  the  Papal  States. 

wphius,  or  Chrysanthus,  at  Ephesus  (431),  placed        The  Diocese  of  Bagnorea  contains  6  rural  deaneries, 


we  byclian  Disnops  to  ine  ii^mperor  jxio  i   ^405;;  regular,  38  lay  brothers,  63  members  of  female  re- 

BasiUus,  at  the  council  under  Photius  (879).    The  ngous  orders,  2  schools  for  girls,  and  a  population  of 

city  still  figures  in  a  list  about  1 170-79.    The  Lydian  26  380.                                   b      >            t^t- 

Bageis,  Baiis,or  Bage,  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  ^appellbtti.  Le  chiem  d'ludia  (Venice,  1844),  V,  606;  An- 

fiags  in  Numidia.  nuario  eceL  (Rome.  1906). 

LsQiriKN,  OrieM  ChritL,  I.  889;  Baiisat,  HuL  Qtogr.  of  U.  Benigni. 

*"           •       '                                     g  PirrRiDls  Bagot,  Jean,  theologian,  b.  at  Rennes,  in  France, 

9  July.  1591,  d.  at  Paris,  23  August,  1664.  He  en- 
BagHoni,  Giovanni,  Cavaliere,  known  as  the  tered  the  Society  of  Jesus  1  July,  1611,  taught  belles- 
"  Deaf  Man  of  the  Barozzo ",  a  painter  of  dis-  lettres  for  manv  years  in  various  colleges  of  France, 
Unction,  b.  in  Rome,  1571;  d.  there  1644.  His  philosophy  for  five  jrears,  theology  for  thirteen  years, 
artistic  work  is,  however,  overshadowed  by  his  and  became  theologian  to  the  general  of  the  society, 
biographies  of  his  contemporaries.  The  literaiy  In  1647  he  published  the  firet  part  of  his  work 
woric  which  furnishes  his  chief  claim  to  fame  is  his  "Apologeticus  Fidei"  entitled  ''InstitutioTheologica 
"Lives  of  the  Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Architects"  de  ver&Religione",  In  1645  the  second  part, "Item- 
living  in  Rome,  from  1573  to  1642 — from  the  pontifi-  onstratio  dogmatum  Christianorum",  appeared,  and 
cate  of  Gregory  XIII  to  that  of  Urban  VIII.  He  in  1646  "  Dissertationes  theologicse"  on  the  Sacra- 
VBS  a  pupil  of  Francesco  Morelli  and  during  ment  of  Penance.  In  his  "Avis  aux  Catholiques", 
his  life  dia  a  number  of  works  of  importance  at  Ba^t  attacked  the  new  doctrine  on  grace,  directing 
Rome  under  Popes  Sixtus  V,  Clement  VIII,  and  against  it  also  his  "Lettre  sur  la  conformity  de  S. 
Paul  V,  notably  in  the  Vatican,  in  Saint  Peter's,  Augustin".  In  1653  his  "Libertatis  et  gratiffi  defen- 
and  in  Saint  Jolin  Lateran.     Pope  Paul  V  created  him  sio  '  was  published. 

a  Kni^t  of  the  Order  of  Christ  for  his  painting  of  In  1655  Rousse,  Cur6  of  Saint  Roch  (or  Masiu^, 
gaint  Peter  raising  Tabitha  from  the  dead.  This  the  Cur6  of  St.  Paul's),  published  a  Uttle  work  en- 
was  in  St.  Peter's  but  is  not  now  extant.  For  titled  "De  I'obligation  des  fiddles  de  se  confesser  h 
the  church  of  Santa  Maria  dell'  Orto  he  painted  leur  cur6,  suivant  le  chapitre  21  du  concile  general  de 
in  the  chapel  of  Our  Lady  with  the  Zucchen  scenes  Latran".  Pdre  Bagot  answered  this  in  his  "Defense 
from  the  fife  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  Among  other  du  droit  Episcopal  et  de  la  liberty  des  fiddles",  which 
vorks  which  he  executed  for  this  church  is  a  "  Saint  he  afterwards  translated  into  Latin.  A  controversy 
Sebastian".  An  excellent  example  of  Baglioni's  arose,  in  which  various  ecclesiastics,  including  Mgr.  de 
work  is  *^The  Last  Supper"  at  San  Nicol6  in  Carcere.  Marca,  Archbishop  of  Toulouse,  took  sides  against 
From  his  brush  also  there  is  a  "Saint  Stephen"  Bagot.  The  work  was  referred  to  the  faculty  of 
in  the  Cathedral  at  Perugia,  and  in  that  of  Loretto  theology  at  Paris,  which  censured  some  of  the  propo- 
a  ''Saint  Catherine".  sitions.  Bagot.  however,  defended  his  doctrine  be- 
Bu.rKn.Z>i^onary  of  PairUera  and  Engravert  (London,  and  fore  this  assembly  with  the  result  that  the  censure 

New  York.  1903-06).                 a,,^««^ «  ir.*,  n was  removed.     He  answered  his  opponents  in  the 

Augustus  Van  Cleef.  "R^ponse  du  P.  Bag:ot".    On  his  retlmi  from  Rome 

Ba^^orea  (ancikitly  Novempagi,  Balneum  Re-  he  devoted  the  remaining  years  of  his  life  to  the  con- 

gium).  Diocese  op,  is  situated  in  the  district  of  gregatipn  of  the  Blessed  virgin,  and  died  superior  of 

Viterbo,  Italy,  and  immediately  subject  to  the  Holy  the  professed  house  at  Paris. 

See.     The  Diocese  of  Bagnorea  has  a  population  of  ,  Uvrtkr  Nomeru^lator,  11,67;  DkBac^ 

about  20,000;  the  city^ntains  about  4,500  inhabi-  ^c^^^^^iBommkby^^ 

tants.    Accoraing  to  tradition,  St.  Ansanus  preached  ...                                G.  E.  Kelly. 
the  Gospel  here  m  the  third  centijry,  and  the  church 

of  Santa  Maria  delle  Career!  outside  the  Alban  Gate  Bagshaw,  Christopher,  convert,  priest,  prisoner 
was  said  to  have  been  built  above  the  prison  in  which  for  the  Faith,  and  a  prominent  figure  in  tne  con- 
he  wms  confined.  There  are  no  records  as  to  the  date  troversies  between  Catholic  priests  in  the  reign  of 
of  the  erection  of  this  diocese;  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  Elizabeth.  He  came  of  a  Deroyshire  family,  but  the 
however,  is  authority  for  the  statement  that  about  year  of  his  birth  is  unknown.    He  died  in  Paris 


•ometime  after  1626.  Bagshaw  was  at  St.  John's 
CJoUege,  Cambridge,  in  1566,  was  graduated  B.  A. 
at  Balliol,  Oxford,  1572,  and  probalily  became  a 
Fellow  of  that  college  in  the  same  year.  As  a  Fellow 
he  was  a  party  to  the  expulsion  from  the  college  of 
the  afterwards   famous  Jesuit,  father  Parsons. 

At  proceeding  M.  A.  in  1575,  liagshaw  waa  still  a 
lealous  Protestant.  His  administration  aa  Principal 
of  Gloucester  Hall  (1579)  was  unpopular  and  brief. 
In  1582,  in  France,  he  became  a  Catholic  and  waa 
ordained  a  priest.     Going  to  Rome  with  the  penois- 


nat  Boncompagni  for  his  quBirelsomc  temper  and 
unpopularity.  Foley's  list  of  students  of  the  English 
College  does  not  contain  his  name.  Later,  at  Paris 
he  proceeded  doctor  of  divinity  and  doctor  of  the 
Sorbonne,  though  atl^rwanls  he  was  dubbed  by  his 
.Tesuit  opponents  doctor  erraCicui,  doctor  per  sai/um. 
On  his  return  Ui  England  he  was  imprisoned  (1587) 
in  the  Tower  of  London,  under  the  statute  of  27th 
of  Elizabeth,  an  act  againnt  Jesuits  and  Seminansts. 
(The  text  of  this  law  is  in  Hanly  and  Gee.)  With  a 
number  of  other  priests  out  of  the  more  than  400 
labouring  in  England,  he  was  imprisoned  in  Wisbeaeh 
Castle,  1593. 

There  now  came  to  a  head  a  factional  division 
among  the  lat>ourcra  on  the  English  mission.  There 
were  two  original  sources  of  difference.'  the  existence 
of  a  Spanish  faction,  headed  by  the  Jesuits,  and  the 
Jesuits'  control  of  the  English  Oillegc  at  Rome 
(Cf.  Dodd  and  Tiemey;  Lingard).  The  partisan  feel- 
ings aroused  (ounij  vent  in  two  controversies  in  which 
Bngshaw  was  prominent,  if  not  first,  on  the  eide 
opposed  to  the  Jesuits  and  tlieir  friends.  The  eariier 
dispute,  arbitrated  after  nine  months,  arose  from 
the  vigorous  opposition  of  Baguhaw  and  the  elder 
clergy  to  the  introduction  of  a  religious  rule  among 
the  thirty- three  priests  in  WisbeacTi  C^tlc.  Later, 
when,  partly  for  the  purpose  of  consolidating  English 
Catholic  sentiment  in  favour  of  a  Catholic  successor 
to  Elizabeth,  Cardinal  Cajetan  placed  at  the  head  of 
the  English  Mission,  as  archpricst,  Father  George 
Blackwell,  with  instructions  to  consult  the  Jesuit 
provincial  on  matters  of  importance  (Lingard  VIH, 
vii),  Bagsbaw  headed  a  party  of  protest,  whirh,  on 
being  disciplined,  appealed,  with  the  secret  aid  of 
Elisabeth's  government,  to  Rome.  Their  appeal  was 
in  part  successful,  though  the  appointment  was  con- 
firmed. 

Bagshaw,  after  his  liberation,  resided  abroad, 
and  is  described  in  I3anie!  Featley's  "Transubstantia- 
tion  Exploded"  os  having  been  Rector  of  Ave  Maria 
College.  This  work  was  published  in  1638,  and  con- 
tained notes  of  a  public  disputation  with  Bagshaw. 
His  death  and  burial,  at  Paris,  occurred  alter  1825. 
He  may  have  written  in  part  "A  true  Relation  of 
the  Faction  begun  at  Wisbich  by  Father  Edmonds, 
alias  Weston,  a  Jesuit,  1595,  and  continued  since  by 
Father  Walley,  alias  Garnet,  the  ProWncial  of  the 
Jesuits  in  England,  and  by  Father  Parsons  in  Rome  " 
(1601);  "  Relatio  Compendiosa  Turbarum  quas 
JesuitiB  Angli  und  cum  D.  Georgio  Blackwello, 
Arehipresbytero,  Sacerdotibus  Scminariorum,  Popu- 
loque  Catholico  concivere",  etc.  (Rouen,  1601). 

Bdlleh  in  Z>>cl.  ot  Nat.  Biot..  II.  400;  Cii.uin'.  Bibl.  Dirt. 
Bnff.  Colli.,  1,  100;  LiNomu,  Huloru  of  Enaland:  Foley, 
Recordt  of  the  EmliA  Prvsina  of  Uu  Sontlual  Jtta.  I,  4!i, 
481;  II.  239,  244;  VI  724.  726;  Dodd,  ocl.Tiomici',  Church 
Huiory  of  Enolaiii,  III.  40  ftnd  appendix. 

J.  V,  Crowne. 
Bkliuna  Islands,  Tub,  or  Lucayos,  the  most 
northerly  group  of  the  West  Indies,  are  a  chain  of 
coral  island  lying  between  21"  42' and  27°  34'  N.  lat., 
and  72°  40"  and  79°  5'  W.  long,,  composed  of  twenty- 
five  permanently  inhabited  islands  and  an  immense 
number  of  cays  and  rocks.  The  group  lies  to  the 
Mat  of  Southern  Florida,  and  is  separated  from  it 


by  the  Qulf  Stream;  and  to  the  north  of  Oibsr  'lom 
wtiich  it  is  separated  by  the  Old  Bahama  ChanneL 
As  to  the  name,  nothing  definite  seems  to  be  known 
of  the  origin  of  Baiiama.  It  is  undoubtably  of 
aboripnal  origin,  while  Lucayos  is  evidently  the 
Spanish  Los  Cayos,  the  Cays.  The  following  are  the 
principal  islands  and  their  area,  and  their  population 
according  to  the  census  of  1901; — 


Name 

Area: 
Sq.  Miles 

Pop. 

Census  1901 

Abaco  and  Cays 

776 

3.3M 

Andros 

1,600 

5,347 

Berry  Islands 

4 

215 

Bimmi 

8 

566 

Cat  Island 

160 

4,658 

Elcuthera 

164 

8;733 

Exuma  and  Cays 

110 

3,086 

Grand  Bahama 

430 

1,780 

Inagua 

530 

1,453 

Long  Cay,           1 
Ackfins,  and       J 

^  204 

1,565 

Crooked  Island  S 

I-oug  Island 

130 

3,562 

Mayaguana 
New  Providence 

96 
85 

335 
12,634 

Rum  Cay 
Ragged  Island 
\VatTing8  Island 

29 

529 

5 

348 

60 

667 

Total 

4,600 

55,000 

s  abolished,  1 
„  .,  1834;  the  number  of  slaves 
the  owners  received  compensation  at  the  rale  of 
£12.14.4  per  head.  New  Providence,  on  which 
Nassau,  the  capital,  is  situated,  the  Unly  island 
having  a  safe  harbour,  with  eighteen  feet  ot  water, 
is  the  principal  island.  Owing  to  ill  salubrious 
climate,  Nassau  is  a  favourite  winter  resort  for  Amer- 
ican tourist*.  The  averam  temperature  for  the 
four  winter  montha  is  71°  P. 


le  Ba-    I 


GOVERHI 

Political  Status  and  Alports.— Politically  the  1 
hamaa  are  a  British  Colony,  being  governed  bj  _ 
Governor  and  an  Executive  Council  of  eight  mernbers, 
a  Legislative  Council  of  nine  members  appointed 
by  the  Crown,  and  an  elective  legislative  asseiubly 
of  twenty-nine  members.  The  islands  are  of  corui 
formation,  thus  differing  completely  in  their  geo- 
logical structure  from  the  other  West  India  iHlatids 
as  well  OS  from  the  adjacent  mainland  of  Florida. 
Soil  and  vegetation  are  sparse.  The  chief  exports 
are  sponge,  tortoise  shell,  ambergris,  pink  pearis, 
and  sheila  gathered  in  the  shallow  waters  of  the 
Bahama    Banks.      Sisal    fibre,    pine-apples,    grape- 


1  otber  tropical    fruits,  ' 


205  BAHAMA 

u  vd  as  precious  woods,  form  the  chief  land  prod-  first  years  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  Methodiste, 

ucU  of  export.     The  larKe  bulk  of  the  trade,  both  Baptists,   and   Presbyterians   made   foundations   in 

iimnrt  and  export,  is  witn  the  United  Slates.  Nassau.    In  1861  the  Bahamas  were  made  a  bishopric 

aiitorjl,— Historically  the  islands  are  of  interest,  of  the  Church  of  England.     The  inhabitants  of  the 

btcsuse  one  of  them,  San  Salvador  (see  San  Sal-  Bahamas   are   all   nominally   Christians,   and   claim 

vMnof,  THE  Landfall  op  Columbus),  was  the  first  allegiance  to  some  one  of  the  denominations  named, 

luu)  of  the  New  World   discovered   by  ColumbUs,  The  Baptists,  served  almost  exclusively  by  native 

12  Oclober,  149J,     The  Spanish  never  made  a  per-  coloured   preachers,  are  numerically   the  strongert. 

maneDt  settlement   in   the   Bahamas,  but  shortly  There  «re  no  reliable  religious  statistics, 

itler  the  discovery  they  carried  off  many  aborigines  Cathatic   Church  in  the    Bahamas. — Though  there 

lolhe  mines  of  San  Domingo,  and  ere  long  the  whole  existed    a   tradition  of   mios   of   "religious     build- 

Z Illation,  never  perhaps  very  large,  seems  to  have  ings    being   still    visible    in    ]S03  on    Cat    Island 

ppeared.    The  statement  made  in  some  of  the  {probably  dating  from  the  temporary  Spanish  oc- 

rtrant  guide  hooka,  that  40,000  souls  were  supposed  cupation  of  1781-83),   there  ia  no  evidence  of  any 

lo  have  been  carried  to  the  mines  of  Hispaniola  by  Catholic  priest  ever  having  visited  the  Bahamas 

(be  Spaniards,   is   evidently  overdrawn.      Had   the  until  )845,  when  a  Father  Duqucsney,  on  a  voyage 

Babsmas   ever    been    so    thickly    populated,    there  from  Jamaica  to  Charleston,  S.  C\,U.  8.  A.  made  a  stay 

WMild  remain  the  evidence  of  ruins  of  Duildiiips  or  of  of  six  weeks  at  Nassau,  and  held  services  in  a  private 

»il  cultivation.     There  are  few  if  any  fruit  trees  house  with  periiaps  a  few  Catholic  Cubans  or  Haitians 

rhose  introduction  cannot  be  traced,  imd  there  are  present.    In  1863  Rov.  J.  W.  Cunimings  of  New  York, 

no  Food-aniniials  on  the  islands.     Whatever  popula-  and  in  1865  a  Rev.  T.  Byrne  spent  each  a  few  weeks 

lion  Ibere  was,  must,  therefore,  have  subsisted  on  in  Nassau,  and  conducted  services.      Beginning  with 


yams,  and  on  a  very  few  small  wild  fruits.     1866,   the   Jicv,    Dr.    Nelligan   of   Charleston   made 

-''"-' rant  the  supposition  that  the    several   visits,    and   the    Bahamas   were   recogniir-" 

than  a  very  sparse  aboriginal    in  the  public  prints  as  belonging  eccloaiasticaily 


population.     So  little  is  known  of  the  orieinuT  in-  Charieston,  3.  0.     In  1883  Bishop  H.  P.  Northrop 

nabitanta  that  they  cannot  be  definitely  classified,  of  that  diocese  paid  a  short  visit.     At  his  request 

They  may  have  been  of  Carib  stock  or  of  the  race  the  Propaganda,  in   a  letter  dated  28  July,   1885, 

that  inhabited   the  adjoining  mainland  of  Florida,  requested  the  Archbishop  of  New  York  to  look  after 

The  brief  description  which  Oilumbus  gives  of  them,  the  spiritual   interests   of   the   Bahamas,   and   since 

and  the  formation  of  the  few  skulls  discovered,  seem  that  date  they  have  been  under  the  jurisdiction  of 

to  favour  the  theon^  that  they  were  either  one  with  the  Archbishop  of  New  York. 
the  aborinnes  of  Florida,  or  a  mixture  of  the  latter        In  February,  1885,  the  Rev.  C.  G.  O'Keefle  of 

■nth  the  Caribs  of   the  West  Indies.    The  fact  that  New  York,  while  visiting  Nassau,  organized  the  few 

tbeywere  very  mild-mannered,  and  not  cannibalistic.  Catholics,  with  the  result  that  on  26  August,  1885, 

fii-ours  the  oninion  that  they  were  kin  to  the  Semi-  the  cornerstone  of  the  first  Catholic  Church  in  the 

Doles  of  Florida.    Excepting  a  few  skulls,  stone  idols,  Bahamas     was 

and  implements,  a  few'  of  which  are  to  be  seen  in  laid    by    Georg- 

the  public  library  at  Nassau,  there  are  no  aboriginal  ina      Ayde-Cur- 

femaius,  and  there  are  no  niins  of  any  description,  ran,    wife    of 

a  fact  which  points  to  a  North  American,  rather  than  Sur^on     Major 

tOB  West  Indian,  or  Central  American,  origin.  Ayde-Curran  of 

In    1578    Queen    Elizabeth    conferred    upon    Sir  the       British 

Gilbert  Humphrey  all  lands  not  already  occupied  by  Army.      On    13 

«Jme  Christian    power,   and   finding   the   Bahamas  February,  1887. 

Mgierted,  he  annexed  them:  but  no  settlement  was  it  was  dedicated 

oiablished.     The  enmity  existing  between  England  under   the   pat- 

»iid  Spain  afforded  adventurers,  chiefly  English  and  ronage     of     St. 

Frtncn,  an  excuse  to  make  them  a  vantage  ground  Francis   Xavier, 

baa  which  to  make  depredations  on  Spanish  ship-  by     Archbishop  Hocat  m  Uhanthtowm 

ping  to  and  from  the  New  World,  and  the  natural  M.   A.   Corrigan 

mmition  of  the   Bahamas  furnished  them  an  ex-  of  New   York.     Father  CKeetfe,  to  whom   belongs 

edbnt  hiding  place.     During  the  seventeenth  ceo-  the  honour  of  establishing  the  first  Catholic  Churcn 

Uay  the  islands  were  the  rendezvous  of  the  famous  in  the   Bahamas,  remained   in  charge   till  1889.    In 

1 When,  at  the  treaty  of  Risftick,  in  1697,  October,   1889,  Rev.   D.   P.   O'Flynn  came  to  Naa- 

peace  was  restored  among  the  European  sau    with  four    Sisters  of  Charity    from  Mount   St. 

■WKDS,   England    withdrew   her   protection   of   the  Vincent,   New   York,  who   at   once   opened   a  free 

bwewKTs,    and    some   returned   to   more   peaceful  school   for  coloured   children,  and   a  select  school. 

»Toc»tions  {thus  Morgan,  a  chief  among  them,  re-  In  June.  1890,  Rev.  D.  P.  O'Flynn  was  succeeded 

tired  lo  Jamaica,  and  subsequently  was  appointed  by  Rev.  B.  J.  Reilly.    In  February,  1891,  the  Rev. 

iroveraor  of  that  island),  while  many  others  raised  Cnrysostom  Schreiner,  O.  S.  B.,  of  St,  John's  Abbey, 

tbe  black  flag  of  piracy  against  all  nations,  and  made  Minnesota,   took   charge  of  the  mission,   and  since 

ibe  Bahamas  a  by-word  for  lawlessness  and  crime.  1894,    two    other    Benedictine    Fathers    have    been 

In  I71S,  England  Dcgan  the  extermination  of  piracy,  associated  with  him  in  the  work.     In  1893  a  new 

s-nd  soon   establish^  law   and   order.      Since  then  mission  was  opened  at  Salvador  Point,  Andros  Island, 

£ii^and  has  been  in  almost  undisturbed  possession,  and  in  1897,  the  Sacred  Heart  mission  was  opened  in 

Un  2  March,  1776,  Captain   Hopkins,  in  command  the  eastern  jxirtion  of  the  city  of  Nassau.    There  are, 

pftbefirst  American  Navy,  took  possession  of  Nassau,  therefore,  at  present  St.   Francis  Xavier's  Church, 

in  quest  of  ammunition,  and  on  17  March  departed,  and  Sacred  Heart  Chapel  in  Nassau,  with  each  of 

tairying  with  him  Governor  Brown.     Ia   1781  the  which   is   connected   a   tree  school,   taught   by   the 

Spaniards  took  possession  and  or«inizod  a  govern-  Sisters  of  Charity,  and  an  Academy  itv  the  same 

iDeot.    At  tbe  treaty  of  Paris,  in  1783,  the  Bahamas  sisters.     At  St.   Saviour's   Mission,   Andros  Island, 

reverted   to    England.      During   the   early   Spanish  there  is  a  free  school  taught  by  a  lay  teacher.    The 

poawsion   and  depopulation  nothing  was  done  for  statistics  of   the   misgion   for   1906   are   as   follows: 

rdigion,  and   tlic   periods  of   buccaneer  and   pirate  1  church  and  2  chapels;  3  Benedictine  Fathers,  the 

nile  preduded  religious  activity.    With  English  rule  superior  of  the  mission   bearing  the  title  of  Vicar 

nme  gtadua%  tbe  Church  of  England,  and  in  the  Fontne  of  tbe  Bahamas;  0  Sisters  of  Charity;  1 


BAHIA  206  BAILLST 

academy;  3  free  schools  with  an  attendance  of  470  ^Cooper  in  Diet  Nat.  Bioa.,  Ill,  e.  v.  Bayly;  GthiovBiU. 

pupils    total  Catholic  oopulation  860.  ^o^"Si/£S!*6.S?: Vfe  fl'rlS'e;'^! J^l^.  & 

Turks  and  Caicos  Islands,  situated  to  the  north  Fiaher  (1890),  preface. 
of  Haiti,  belonging  geographically  to  the  Bahama  Edwin  Burton. 

group,  were  separated  from  the  other  Bahamas  in 

1848,  and  made  a  political  dependency  of  Jamaica.        BaiUarjffeon,    Charles-Francis,    a    French-Ca- 

There  is  no  Catholic  population.    Grand  Turk,  whose  jadian  bishop    b.  26  Apnl,  1798,  at  Ile-aux-Gnies, 

one  industry  is  salt-raking,  is  the  seat  of  the  com-  P-  Q;  d.  13  October,   1870.     He  studied  theology 

missioner.    It  is  occasionally  visited  by  priests  from  at  the  Seminary  of  Quebec,  where  he  taught  rhetonc. 

Jamaica.  Ordained  in  1822,  he.  was  successively  chaplain  at 

Colonial  Office  List;  Memoirs  of  Peter  H,  Bruce  (London.  St.    Roch,    pastor  of   St.    Francois,    Isle   of   Orleans, 

1782);  CATEflBY.  Natwral  History  of  Carolina,  Florida,  and  of  the  joint  parishes  of  L'Ange-Gardien  and  Chat- 

tiSfl^J^^^-lV^^^f^f^Ts^^i^J^.^.  «f»-Ri<=V    ^.While    rector    of    Notre    Dame   de 

tk>nn..  1880);  Powlks,  The  Land  of  the  Pink  Pearl  (London.  Quebec,  he  displayed    apostolic    zeal    and   chanty 

1888);  Stark,  History  and  Guide  to  the  Bahamas  (Boiiton,  during     three     visitations    of    cholera     (1832,    1834, 

V!?e'L''Sren'Seit'??S,2'plfra'SSr^b^l?ri:SrM  1849)    and  the  horrors  of  typhuB   (1847).  assisting 

Sunny  Isles  (1897).  many  Insh  orphans.     He  was  made  Bishop  of  Tloa 

Chrysostom  Schreiner.  and  coadjutor  to  Archbishop  Turgeon  of  Quebec, 

Bahia  de  TodoB  os  SaJitoa.     See  San  Salvador  23  Februaiy,  1851    being  the  first  Canadian  bishop 

deRabia  m««"wvo.     i^fcc  k^^^  ^.cw^  -rxx/v/xv  ^^^^^   ^^^   conqucst    appointed   without   the   intei^ 

,'      .      .       CI     T»  vention    of    the    British    Crown.     He    became   ad- 

B&nrem  Islands.     See  Persia.  ministrator  in   1855  and  succeeded  as  Archbishop 

Baianism.    See  Baius,  Michel.  of    Quebec,   26    August,    1867.     He    attended    the 

Bailey,  Thomas,  controversialist,   died  c.    1657.  Vatican  Council.     He  published  a  French  translar 

He  was  son  of  Bishop  Bailey  of  Bangor  and  was  <^»op»  .with    commentary,    of    the    New    Testament 

educated    as    an    Anglican    at    MagdSen    College,  (2d  ed.,  1865),  lauded  by  Pius  IX, /'Recueil  dOr- 

Cambridge,    where    he    graduated    B.A.,  in    1627,  donnances       (1859),   and    over    thirty    important 


Doctor    of    Divmity.     He    was    a    stanch    royalist  de  Quibec  (ibid.,  1889). 

and  after  the  battle  of  Naseby  was  for  a  time  in  the  Lionel  Lindsay. 
king's    retinue    at    Raglan     Castle.     Subsequently 

through  the  help  of   the  Marquess  of  Worcester,  Baillet,  Adrien,  French  author,  b.  1649  at  Neuville 

who  was  a  Catholic,  he  travelled  abroad  and  thus  en  Hez,  near  Beauvais,  France;  d.  at  Paris,  1706. 

became   acquainted   with   Catholic   life,   which   led  His  parents  were  poor,  but  the  Cordeliers  of  La  Garde, 

to  his  conversion.     On  his  return  he  published  a  struck  by  the  boy's  piety  and  alertness  of  mind,  took 

work   of   strong  royalist   tendencies   to   prove   the  him  into  their  monastery  and  then  had  him  admitted 

divine  right  of  Episcopacy;  this  book  gave  offence  to  the  College  of  Beauvais,  where,  at  the  close  of  his 

to  Cromwell's  government  and  resulted  in  his  arrest  studies,  he  became  teacher  of  humaiiities.    Ordained 

and  imprisonment  in  Newgate.     While  a  prisoner  priest  in  1676,  he  serv-ed  for  a  time  as  curate  of 

he   wrote   another   book   called    "Herba   parietis"  Lardieu  and  was  then  made  canon  of    Beaumont, 

(The  Wall-flower),  in  allusion  to  his  captive  state,  but  neither  pastoral  nor  canonical  functions  satisfied 

After  his  release  he  retired  to  Italy,  where  he  ob-  him.    At  the  end  of  four  years  his  love  of  learning 

tained  employment  in  the   household  of  Cardinal  took  him  to  Paris,  where  he  secured  the  place  of 

Ottoboni  at  Ferrara.     He  died  shortly  before  the  librarian  to  the  celebrated  de  Lamoignon.     An  in- 

Restoration,    probably    in    the    cardinal's    employ,  satiable  reader  and  a  rigid  ascetic,  he  spent  his  life  in 

although  Anthony  k  Wood  repeats  a  rumour  that  the  seclusion  of  study  and  austerity.     In  a   com- 

he  died  at  Bologna  as  a  common  soldier.     Among  paratively  short  time  he  had  made  an  analytical 

the  works  published  in  his  name  is  a  life  of  Blessed  catalogue,    in    thirty-two    folios,    of    Lamoigncn's 

John  Fisher,  which  has  given  rise  to  some  difficulty,  hbrary.    The  great  mass  of  erudition  thus  accjuired 

for  it  was  written  by  Dr.  Richard  Hall  in  1559,  soon  passed  into  innumerable  books.     His  wntingp 

nearly  a  century  before.     Bailey  published  it  with  may  be  divided  into  three  groups:   (1)  Erudition, 

additions    which    the    martyr's    latest    biographer,  (2)  History,  (3)  Religion.    To  the  first  group  belong: 

Rev.  T.  Bridgett,  describes  as  "nothing  but  verbiage  "  Jugements  des  savants  sur  les  principaux  ouvrages 

and  blunders '.     He  adds  that  some  of  the  additions  des     auteurs"    (1685);     "Des     auteurs     d^guisfe" 

"are    palpably   false    and    have    brought    discredit  (1690);  "Des  enfants  c^ldbres"   (1688).     With   the 

upon    Hall".     It    was    suggested    by    Dodd    that  exception  of  the   last,   which  still  attracts    by   its 

Bailey's  name  was  added  without  nis  knowledge  curiousness,  these  books  are  now  almost  forgotten, 

by  the  bookseller,  but  if  the  preface  signed  T.  B.  both  because  they  are  incomplete  and  because  they 

be  genuine  he  certainly  claimed  authorsnip,  a  fact  have  been  more  than  replaced  by  the  works  of  such 

which  does  not  enhance  his   reputation.     His  au-  writers  as  Brunet,  Qu^rard,  Barbier,  etc.     Baillet 's 

then  tic  works  are:   "Certamen  Rcligiosum"   (Lon-  criticisms  were  not  accepted  by  all.     Manage,  who 

don,  1649),  an  account  of  the  conference  concerning  thought  himself  ill-treated,  wrote  the  "Anti-Baillet" 

religion   between   Charles  I   and   the   Marquess   of  to  which  Baillet  replied  by  "Des satires personnelles" 

Worcester;    answered    by    L'Estrange,   Cartwright,  (1682).     La  Monnoie  published  a  revisied  edition  of 

and   Heylyn;    "The   Royal   Charter   granted    unto  all  the  foregoing  books,  to  which  he  joined  by  w ay  of 

Kings  by  God  Himself"  (London,  1649,  1656,  1680);  introduction  an  "Abr^g^  de  la  vie  de  M.  Baillet" 

"Herba   parietis"    (Ix>ndon,    1650):    "The   End   to  (Paris,    1722;   Amsterdam,    1725). 

Controversie"   (Douai,   1654);   "Golden  Apothegms  To  the  second  group  belong:  "Histoire  de   Hol- 

of  Charles  I  and  Henry,  Marquess  of  Worcester"  lande"  (1690);  "Vie  de  Descartes"  (1692);  "Vie  de 

(London,   1660).     Bailey  also  completed  and  pub-  Godefroy    Hermant";    "Vie    de    Richer"     (1693); 

lished    Bishop    Lindsell's    edition    of    Theophylact.  "Histoire  des  d6m^lds  du  Pape  Boniface  VIII  avec 

The  book  mentioned  in  Walton's  "Life  of  Bishop  Philippe  le  Bel"  (1718),  etc.    The  author  shows  too 

Sanderson"  as  "Dr.   Bailey's  Challenge"  may  be  much  sympathy  for  the  Jansenist  Hermant  and  the 

a  separate  work  but  more  probably  is  merely  a  Galilean  Richer.     His  life  of  Descartes  is  replete  wth 

reference  to  one  of  the  above.  interesting  but  rather  garbled  information.     Lelons 


BAILLOQXTET  207  BAINE8 

thought  80  well  of  the  "  History  of  the  Conflict  be-        ^^^f  Thomas,  a  Catholic  clergyinan,  b.  in  York- 

tween  Boniface  VIII  and  Phihppe  le  Bel"  that  he  shire,  England;  d.  at  Douai,  France,  7  October,  1591. 

edited  it  (Paris,  1718).  He  was  a  student  at  Clare  HaU,  Cambridge,  where  he 

To  the  third  and  by  far  the  most  important  group  obtained  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts  in  1546. 

belong:  "  Devotion  k  la  Vierge  et  le  culte  qui  lui  est  Soon  after  he  became  a  Fellow  of  that  house,  recei v- 

dA"  (Pons,  1694;  Toiunai,  1712).    The  avowed  pur-  ing  the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts  in  1549.    In  1554  he 

pose  of  this  book  is  to  clear  Mariology  from  indiscreet  was  appointed  Proctor  and  in  the  following  year  he 

devotions,  but  Baillet  clearly  overreaches  himself  by  subscribed  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Articles.     About 

bluntly  denying  the  Immaculate  Conception  and  the  November,  1557,  he  was  appointed  Master  of  Clare 

Afflumption  of  Mary,  and  by  attacking  devotions  Hall  and  was  given  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Divinity 

sanctioned  by  the  Church.    The  book  was  put  on  in  1558.    In  the  same  year  Queen  EUzabeth  ascended 

the  "Index  Expurgatorius ''  donee  corrigatur  m  1694  the  throne  and  efforts  were  made  by  the  Protestant 

and  1701.    The  erudition  displayed  in   "Les  vies  party  to  gain  recruits  to  its  ranks,  but  Baily  refused 

dee  saints,  compos^es  sur  ce  qui  nous  est  rest^  de  to  conform  to  the  new  religion.    As  a  consequence 

plus  authentique  et  de  plus  assure  dans  leur  his-  he  was  deprived  of  his  Mastership.     He  next  visited 

toire"  (Paris  1701  and  1794)  is   prodigious,  yet  the  Louvain,  where  he  remained  until  30  January,  1576, 

greater  part  of  it  (from  January  to  August)  was  put  during  the  interval  receiving  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 

onthe  Index  in  1707  and  1711.    The  cause  of  that  con-  Divinity.     From  Louvain  he  went  to  Douai  at  the 

demnation  is  the  hypercritical  ^rit  evinced  through-  invitation   of   Doctor  Allen    (afterwards  Cardinal), 

out  in  the  "Vie  des  Saints".     While  aiming  at  doing  during  whose  absence  he  usually  filled  the  position  of 

away  with  imauthenticated  miracles,  Baillet  comes  President  of  the  English  College  both  at  Douai  and 

veiy  near  casting  doubt  on  all  miraculous  manifesta-  Reims.     He  finally  left  Reims,  27  January,   1589, 

tions.    Benedict  XIV  (De  festis,  II,  xvi,  8)  calls  him  returning  to  Douai,  where  he  remained  until  his 

a  man  with  an  intemperate  mind  and  an  ever-ready  death.     He  was  associated  with  Cardinal  Allen  in 

disposition  to  impeach  even  the  best  attested  facts,  the  management  of  the  College,  the  distribution  of 

The  Bollandist   Stilting    (Acta   SS.,    V,    458,  488)  the  laboiu-  being  that  Cardinal  Allen  had  charge  of 

says  of  him,  apropos   of    Bl.  Louis  Allemand:  "I  the  discipline,  Dr.  Baily  the  temporal  affairs,  and 

deem  it  unnecessary  to  refute  a  man  who,  I  find,  Dr.  Bristow,  another  of  Cardinal  Alien's  co-labourers, 

stumbles  at  nearly  every  step".     Other  BoUandists  the  studies.     He  was  bxmed  in  the  Chapel  of  St. 


excess  of  credulity.     Eusebius  is  almost  the  only  an-  i»«;,»k»4^«.^    rv^*«r.,»nn«n     A«..kVv:..u         t   v    i 

dent  historian  who  finds  favour  with  BaiUet.    All  the  ,„?'^^*f ?'  h^  mZ^  ^P^/^Ante  t  W^' 

not  yield  good  resufta.     "Some  French  critics  in  ^''JZ^^ft^.^^^•J!^^,^^^^^l,i^^^^ 

tin/,*..,.^  ♦!>„•,  ^„.ir.  ^Atu  .  t^i^  ....A  .^I^;»i»..<.  *  liberal  benefactor  to  his  college.    He  held  a  num- 

Unctured  their  works  with  a  false  and  pem  cio^  ^^      j  benefices,  mcluding  the  treasurership  of  the 

t^A^'^-'  "^^"JjZn^  lnR«ir^  ™™  t^  Diocese  of  Londin,  on  HeSry  VII's  presentation,  ,^d 

ffi     w:',  I^i^r^^r,-^  £?i  nnt  m?«tfw^  ^  Master  of  the  Rolb,  a  post  he  held  till  his  elevation 

^tk!^„ri2n  «?^?h^rSf^^^„rt^v?n     Th«  Ri-h„^  *"  the  See  of  DurhamVwhich  took  place  in  1507, 

oIg^d  &rdeXrsSte^  i^DrowLin?^^^  nominated  thereto  by  the  king,  who  restored  the 

?n  uI^Ul!^  ^t«.  '^w  Vi^r^n  »  ^«f  m^^^  temporalities  of  the  see  to  him.     He  was  consecrated 

^ol^ardli-iscSne^vSrthe^ntirn^  S^ifcsTa^J  J^L^rtllL^'::^  'v^elr^  t"! ^^^ 

^t^nl^^of'^ansenism  b^ut  also  of  the  so^Ued  re-  fe^S'^J^'s^^mW^m    T'lS^  he'"^^ 

La  MoN^ioiB.  AbrSgi  de  la  vie  de  M.  BatOet  (Amaterdam,  sent  by  Heniy  VIII  aa  his  ambassador  to  IU)me. 

1726):   HuRTBR,    Nomenclator   (Innsbruck,    1892);    Mione,  Julius  II  created  him  a  cardmal  on  10  March,  1511, 

Diction,  de  biographie  chritienne  (Paris,  1851).  giving  him  the  title  of  St.  Praxedis,  in  reward  for 

J.  F.  SoLLiER.  negotiating  Henry's  adherence  to  the  pope  as  against 

Bailloqaet,   Pierre,   missionary  among   the  In-  France,  for  which  countrv  he  felt  a  strong  antipathy 

dians  of  Canada,  b.  in  1612,  at  Saintes,  France;  d.  in  all  his  life.     As  cardinal  he  was  commissioned  by 

the  Ottawa  missions,  7  June,  1692.    He  entered  the  Julius  to  lead  a  military  expedition  against  Ferrara, 

Society  of  Jesus  at  Bordeaux,  20  November,  1631,  which  he  successfully  besieged.     He  endeavoured  to 

and  after  ordination  was  sent  as  a  missionary  to  secure  from  Pope  Leo  X  the  bestowal  on  Heniy  of 

Canada.    He  arrived  at  Quebec  in  the  sunmier  of  the  title  of  "Most  Christism  King"  which  Louis  of 

1647,  and  for  forty-five  years  laboured  and  suffered  France  had  forfeited  by  waging  war  a^nst  thb 

among  the  savage  tribes  that  roamed  the  vast  terri-  pope;   but   the   peace   of    1514   made   this   project 

tory  extending  ut>m  Acadia  in  the  east  to  the  lands  abortive.     Bainbridge  was  poisoned  by  an  Italian 

of  the  lUinoiB  in  the  far  west.    The  hardships  and  priest  named  Rinaldo  de  Modena,  who  acted  as  his 

privations  he  endured  are  well  nigh  incredible.    Ac-  steward  or  bursar,  in  revenge  for  a  blow  which  the 

cording  to  the  "Relations"  he  frequently  had  "the  cardinal,  a  man  of  violent  temper,  had  given  him. 

earth  for  bed  and  mattress,  and  strips  of  bark  for  It  was  liinted  that  the  crime  was  perpetrated  at  the 

a  palace,  which  was  filled  less  with  air  than  with  instigation  of  Svlvester  de  Giglis,  Bishop  of  Wor- 

snoke";  and  owing  to  his  zeal  he  was  often  in  danger  cester,  the  resicfent  English  ambassador  at  Rome, 

of  being  toms^awked  or  burned  at  the  stake  by  the  but  de  Giglis  exonerated  himself.     Bainbridge  was 

savages.     When  almost  eighty  years  of  age  and  buried  in  the  English  Hospice,  now  known  as  the 

stricken  with  grievous  infirmity,  he  dragged  himself  English  College,  Rome.     He  was  a  stout  upholder 

across  the  snow  for  leagues  to  go  to  the  huts  of  those  of  Henry's  interests  at  the  Curia, 

who  were  unable  to  come  to  Tiim.     He  died  in  his  ^  Gairdnbr  in   Diet.  Nat.  Bioor.;   Wood,  AAerue  Oxon.; 

^tieth  year,  having  been  sixty^ne  years  in  the  SSJ^W-Bf^i^riSiiirif/SS^*''  S™bb..  £p«c  5««e». 

migious  life.  Henry  N.  Birt. 

.  DzQvtLBKBMY,  M^nologe de  lac,  de  J.,  Assistance deFrance^  -,   .           _.             .                        ^-^   i       -r*.  i           i.  «.* 

1 711;  Thwattes,  JenS/ReUxHont,  LXXII,  70.  Bames,  Peter  Augustine,  titular  Bishop  of  S^», 

£.  P.  Spillane.  one  of  the  most  striking  figures  among  English  Cam- 


BAINS8  208  BAIME8 

olics  at  the  period  of  Emancipation,  was  bom  at  Bishop  Baines's  side,  eauity  demanded  that  the  riditi 
Kirkby,  in  Lancashire,  25  January,  1787;  d.  6  July,  of  the  Benedictines  snould  be  maintained,  ana  a 
1843.  For  his  early  education  he  was  sent  to  the  sanatio  was  issued  bjr  papal  authority,  making  good 
English  monastery  at  Lampspring,  in  Hanover,  where  any  possible  defects  in  the  past.  Leave  was  given, 
he  arrived  in  1798.  Four  years  later  the  monastery  however,  for  four  of  the  Ampleforth  monks,  includW 
was  suppressed  by  the  Prussian  Government,  and  the  the  prior,  to  be  secularized.  They  left,  together  wim 
monks  and  their  pupils  returned  to  England.  Some  thirty  of  the  boys,  to  join  Bishop  Baines,  who  had 
of  them,  Baines  among  the  number,  took  refuge  at  himself  been  secularized,  in  founding  a  new  college, 
the  recently  founded  monastery  at  Ampleforth,  in  The  site  chosen  was  Prior  Park,  a  large  mansion  out- 
Yorkshire.  It  was  not  lon^  before  his  talents  and  side  Bath,  which  Bishop  Baines  bought,  and  he  set 
force  of  character  brought  him  into  prominence  in  to  work  to  build  two  colleges  at  either  end  of  the 
the  small  community  there.  He  joined  the  Benedic-  "mansion  house",  which  he  dedicated  to  St.  Peter 
tine  Order,  and  /held  in  succession  -every  post  of  and  St.  Paul  respectively,  the  former  being  intended 
authority  in  the  monastery,  the  priorship  alone  ex-  as  a  lay  college^  the  latter  as  a  seminary.  ^  He  seems 
cepted.  to  have  had  visiomi  of  a  Catholic   University  as  a 

In  1817  Baines  left  Ampleforth  and  was  appointed  sequel  to  Emancipation,  and  Prior  Park  was  intended 

to  Bath,  oile  of  the  most  important  Benedictme  mis-  t6  be  its  centre. 

sions  in  the  country.  There  he  became  a  well-known  The  new  college  thus  opened  under  most  favouraWe 
figure,  his  sermons  attracting  great  attention  not  only  auspices;  but  it  never  became  really  prosperous.  The 
among  Catholics ^  but  also  among  Protestants.  His  buildings  were  on  too  vast  a  scale  for  tne  number  of 
print^  letters  in  answer  to  Archdeacon  Moysey  studente,  and  the  older  clergy  viewed  askance  an  un- 
created quite  a  stir,  being  commonly  known  as  dertaking  which  they  feared  would  absorb  all  the 
"Baines's  Defence".  Hie  reputation  continuing  to  resources  of  the  diocese.  To  add  to  the  difficulties, 
increase.  Bishop  CoUin^idge,  O.  S.  F.,  Vicar  Apos-  in  the  year  1836  a  destructive  fire  almost  completely 
tolic  of  the  Western  District,  chose  him  for  his  co-  consumed  the  interior  of  the  mansion,  involving  fresn 
adjutor.  He  received  episcopal  consecration  as  titu-  outlay  in  making  good  the  damage.  In  1840  the 
lar  Bishop  of  Siga  at  the  nands  of  Archbishop  Murray,  number  of  vicariates  in  England  was  raised  from 
at  Dublin,  1  May,  1823.  four  to  eight,  Wales  being  separated  off  into  a  district 

Bishop  Baines  soon  began  to  formulate  schemes  for  of  its  own.     Bishop  Baines  continued  over  the  West- 

the  future  of  the  district,  on  that  large  scale  so  con-  em  District  for  three  years  more,  when  his  sudden 

genial  to  his  mind.     Realizing  that,  afone  among  the  death  took  place.     On  the  4th  of  July,  1843,  he  dis- 

four,  it  was  without  a  regular  seminary  for  the  edu-  tributed  the  prizes  at  Prior  Park;  the  following  day 

cation  of  its  clerro'^,  he  set  himself  to  work  to  supply  he  preached  at  the  opening  of  the  new  church  of  St. 

the  want.    The  Western  District  differed  from  the  Mary  on  the  Quay,  Bristol,  returning  to  Prior  Park 

other  three  in  that  the  bishop  had  always  been  chosen  in  tne  evening,  apparently  in  his  usual  health;  but 

from   among   the    regular    clergy — Benedictines   or  the  following  morning  he  was  found  dead  in  his  bed. 

Franciscans — and  a  large  proportion  of  the  missions  His  funer^  at  Prior  Park  was  conducted  with  the 

were  in  their  hands.     Dr.   Baines  thought  that  Jie  solemnity  due  to  his  position  and  his  personality*  but 

saw  the  solution  of  his  difficulty  in  utilizing  the  new  when,  some  years  later,  the  college  was  sold,  his  body 

school  which  had  been  recently  opened  at  Downside,  was  removed  to  Downside,  where  it  rests  to-day. 
near  Bath.    The  fact  that  it  was  under  Benedictine        Many  of  Bishop  Baines 's  sermons,  pastorals,  etc., 

management  appeared  to  him  no  disadvantage,  and  were  published,  and  some  ran  to  several  editions, 

he  has  assured  us  that  he  meant  his  whole  scheme  to  An  oil  painting  of  him,  formerly  at  Prior  Park,  is  now 

benefit  his  order.     But  he  considered  that  a  bishop  at  the  Bishop's  House  (St.  Ambrose),  Clifton.     There 

^ould  be  supreme  in  his  own  seminary,  and  boldly  is  an  engraving  in  the  Catholic  Directory  for  1844. 

proposed  that  the  whole  community  of  monks  at  ^  Gillow.  BiH.  Diet,  Eng,  Caih.;  Kent  in  Di^L  Nat.  Biog^ 

bownside  should  be  transferred  from  the  Anglo-Bene-  LTf o^'fSS?  i'^''DSi^)l;:.^o^^!'mL  ^'Si;^ 

dictme  Congregation,  and  placed  under  the  Bishop  iorth;  Memoir  in  Cath,  Directory,  1844. 
of  the  Western  District.    The  idea  was  not  favourably  Bernard  Ward, 

received  at  Downside,  so  the  bishop  put  forward  the 

alternative  proposition  that  they  snould  exchange        Baines,  Ralph,  Bishop  of  Lichfield  and  Coventry, 

their  property  for  that  at  Ampleforth,  hoping  that  the  England,  b.  at  Knowstnorp,  Yorks,  date  of   birth 

members  of  his  own  monastery  might  take  more  uncertain:   d.    18   November,    1559.    Educated    at 

kindly  to  his  scheme.    This  proposal,  however,  was  St.    John  s    College,  Cambridge,  he    was   ordained 

also  refused,  and  there  matters  rested  for  some  years,  priest  at  Ely,  1519.    Rector  of  Hardwicke  in  Cam- 

In  1826  Bishop  Baines 's  health  gave  way\  and  he  oridgeshire  until  1544  when  he  went  to  Paris  ^vrheie 

was  ordered  a  long  tour  on  the  Continent.     He  spent  he  became  Professor  of  Hebrew.     In  1553  he  returned 

the  greater  part  of  the  time  in  Rome,  and  Wiseman  to  England  and  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Lichfield 

tells  us  (Last  Four  Popes,  p.  323)  that  Leo  XII,  and  Coventry,  18  November,  1554.     He  vigorously 

wishing  to  create  a  Benedictine  Cardinal,  fixed  upon  opposed  the  Reformers  and  was  one  of  the    eight 

Bishop  Baines  for  that  dignity,  and  was  only  pre-  defenders  of  Catholic  doctrine  at  the  Westminster 

vented  by  death  from  carrying  out  his  intention.  Conference  1558-59.     On  the  accession  of  Elizabeth 

Bishop  CJollingridge  died  3  March,  1829,  the  same  he  was  deprived  of  his  bishopric  (21  Jime,    1559) 

year  in  which  Catholic  Emancipation  was  passed,  and  and  committed  to  the  care  of  Grindal,  Ptotestant 

Bishop  Baines  returned  to  England,  in  restored  health,  Bishop  of  London,  thus  becoming  one  of  the  elev^ 

to  succeed  as  vicar  Apostolic.     He  at  once  revived  imprisoned  bishops.    The  recent  researches  of  the 

his  scheme  for  the  seminary  at  Downside,  and,  having  Rev.  G.  Philips  (op.  cit.,  inf.),  who  has  exhaustively 

failed  to  secure  the  consent  of  the  monks,  he  put  for-  treated  the  question  of  t^he  imprisonment  of  these 

ward  the  contention  that  the  monasteries  at  Down-  bishops,  prove  that,  though  nominally  a  guest,   he 

side  and  Ampleforth  had  never  been  canonically  was  in  fact  a  strict  prisoner.     His  captivity  lasted 

erected,  for,  owing  to  the  unsettled  condition  of  the  until    18   November,  1559,  when,  as  Pitts    ^writes, 

English  mission,  tne  formality  of  obtaining  the  writ-  he    "died  an  illustrious    Confessor  of   the  Lord"! 

ten  consent  of  the  ordinary  had  been  overlooked.     He  He  wrote  "Prima  Rudimenta   in  linguam  Hebrai- 

drew  the  drastic  conclusion  that  all  the  monastic  vows  cam"    (Paris,    1550);    "Compendium   Michol,     hoc 

had  been  invalid,  and  that  the  property  belonged  to  est  absolutissimte    grammatices    Davidis    Chmihi" 

the  bishops.    The  case  was  argued  out  in  Rome,  but  (Paris,    1554);  "In    Proverbia  Salomonis"    C^ims, 

it  was  considered  that,  even  if  the  strict  law  was  on  1555). 


BAm                       209  BAnni 

J'53?'  SSCr*i*'^iSl*"^^'*7*fc^*?{  ^95&\  %?^  *o  dwtinguiflh  him  from  eight  other  saints  of  C-» 

^^J^i,^^:i\i:tt^''cJ^?^r-^^  ^^  SSe-the  affix  ^uTmeaning  "the  Great". 

CaniatrigimteM,  1, 202;  Qtllow.BM.  Diet.  Eng.  CoiA.  Ux>ndon,  He  WTote  a  life  of  his  master,  and  some  Insh  poems, 

W  ^"J^JT",^^  ^^®^_»- 5**- f?^ '*5*^^-.  S^*'^''  which  are  now  lost,  but  which  were  seen  by  St. 

(ffl  iwi:  ^^°''^'  Bj^nchon  cf  the  Ancunu  Hterarchy  Adamnan.     He  only  ruled  lona  three  years,  is  his 

Edwin  Buhton.  death  took  place  in  the  year  600,  thoudh  the  "An- 

Baini,  Abbatb  Giuseppe,  b.  in  Rome,  21  Octo-  ^  ^^  Ulster"  give  the  ^te  as  698.    Perhaps  the 

her,  1775;  d.  there  21  May,  1844.    Baini  made  his  ^^  7^  may  be  599.     His  feast  is  celebrated  on 

fiist  musical  studies  under  the  direction  of  his  uncle  October  6th.    Some  writ^  a^rt  that  St.  Baithen 

Lorcnao  Baini,  a  distinguished  disciple  of  the  Roman  f  *<>?*  »» Ji^®.  P^^*?'*  ^}  Ennisboyiie,  Cpuntjr  Wick- 

School,  who  introduced   him  into   the  spuit  and  i?7»  ^^^  4^.^  »?  ^^mg  to  a  confusion  ^nth  St.  Baoi- 

tnditions  of  the  Palestrina  style.    Later  Bami  be-  **^'  ^^,^^^J^^  Findech    whose  feast  is  com- 

came  the  pupil  and  friend  of  Jannaconi,  chomnaster  memorated  on  22  May.     Another  St.  Baoithin,  son 

of  the  Vatican  BasiUca,  through  whom  he  was  ad-  SJ^^^^i  whose  feast  is  on  19  Februaiy,  is  patron  of 

mitted  into  the  choir  of  the  Sistine  Chfepel  as  a  bass  Albohm,  m  Elphin.                                r         »     •  • 

r^.»«.     T«  1010  Tt^:..:  «,«<,  ...»<...:w.^..c,i5r  ^i^»f»^  Ai  ^  Coloan,    Acta    Sanctorum:    Sherbcan     Loca    Patncxana; 

anger.     In  1818  Bami  was  unanimously  elected  dl-  O'Hanlon,    Lives  of   the   lAsh   Sainte;    Reeves,   Adamnan 

rector  of  the  famous  choir,  a  position  which  he  held  (Dublin,  1867);  Fowler,    Vita  8.  Columbce  (Oxford,  1894); 

till  his  death.  Annals  of  Ul^  (Rolls  Series);  Hbalt,  Inevia  Sanctorum  et 

While  Baini  has  left  a  considerable  number  of  o?^Bnt^n  ii9GS)\^Aai  ^^^^i^ru^^ihJ^  ^^iZ 

compositions  (notably  a  ten-voiced "  Miserere     which  Salamanticenei    (Edinburgh     and    London,    1888);     Stokei*, 

is  still  performed,  alternately  with  those  of  AUegri  f*^*  }j^^  <  ^  ^V^^^""^^^  1S^>:  ^^^^*  Library  Hie- 

«d  BaTduTing  Holy  Week   by  the  Sistine  Chapel  '^ "  '"^^  (^■"^"-  »«»>•  w.  H.  Grattan  Flood.  • 

cooir),  all  of  which  are  wntton  m  the  style  of  the  •»  .      ,           -r*     v  ^#            .t      .     .          j      .» 

great  period  of  classic  polyphony,   his  great  life-  Baiixs  (or  db  Bay),  Michel,  theologian  and  author 

work  was  his  "Memorie  storibo-critiche  della  vita  e  ?^  ^  ^stem  known  as  Baianism,  was  b    at  Melun 

delle  opere  di   Giovanni   Pierluigi   dd  Palestrina"  f^o?^"4iu*^'    u'        u^'  *^  ^^^^vam  16  September, 

(1828).    Through  the  translation  into  German  of  this  }^^'    Though  ix>or,  he  succeeded  m  procuring,  m 

work  by  Francis  de  Sales  Handler  (Vienna,  1834),  **^®  canons  colfeges  of  the  Louvam  University,  a 

the  life  and  labours  of  Palestrina's  school  and  period  complete  course  of  studies,   including  huma^uties, 

became  more  accessible  and  were  a  powerful  in-  philosophy,  and  theology      His  first  appomtment, 

fluence  in  the  revival  and  restoration  of  Uturgical  ^"^^'^^^y  ,^^^^!f  ordination,  was  as  pnncipal 

mosic  Uhich  was  about  to  take  its  beginning.    The  of  the  Standoi^  College,  1541.     Three  years  later 

publication  of  Palestrina's  complete  woScs  was  one  of  f «.  ^5*,^/?^,^*^®  ?*^**/u  ^/  Philosophy  which  he  re- 

ihe  results  of  Baini's  biography  of  the  master.    Baini  *?^  >'^  ^^/    In  that  year  he  took  the  degjee 

lived  so  completely  in  the  great  musical  past  that  he  of  .J^octor  of  Theologv.  was  made  President  of  the 

had  but  scant  sympathy  ^th,  or  understanding  for,  College  Adnen  and  also  substitute  to  the  prof ^r 

modem    developm^ts    of    the    art.    Besides    the  of  Holy  Scnpture,  then  absent  at  the  Council  of 

biography  of  Pilestrina  he  has  left  a  study  on  the  ^f^^'  t^«  ^i^   professorship   following  two  years 

theory  o!  rfiythm  of  the  ancients  under  the  title:  i^^'"  5*  ^^e  titular's  death      Bams  had  very  early 

-Saggio  sopra  Tidentit^  di  ritmi  musicaU  e  poetic!  ";  jormed  a  close  friendship  with  John  Hessels.    While 

an  unfinished  history  of  the  Sistine  Chapel  choir;  ^^f,  *^  headers  of  the  univereity:  Tapper   Chan- 

and  other  essays  of  a  critical  or  theoretic  character.  «®}}or;  Ravestein,  Pn^essor  of  Theology;  and  Has- 

Ambbob.  Oeechxchte  der  Mutik  (Leipaig,  1881);  Riemann.  sfbus,  Professor  of    Holy  Scripture,  were    at    the 

Mutik  Lex.  (Leipcig,  1006).  Council  of  Trent,  Baius  and  Hessels  profited  by  their 

Joseph  Ottbn.  absence  to  give  vent  to  long  cherished  ideas  and 
Baithen,  Saint,  of  lona,  an  Irish  monk,  specially  introduce  new  methods  and  new  doctrines.    On  his 
selected  by  St.  Columba  as  one  of  the  band  of  mi»-  return  from  Trent,  in  1552,  Chancellor  Tapper  found 
sonaries  who  set  sail  for  Britain  in  563.     Bom  in  that  evil  influences  had  been  at  work  and  asked 
536,  the  son  of  Brenaron,  he  was  an  ardent  disciple  Cardinal  de  Granvelle,  Archbishop  of  Mechlin,  to 
of  St.  Columba,  and  was  appointed  Abbot  of  Tiree  interfere.     Granvelle  succeeded  in  quieting  the  in- 
Hand,  a  monastery  founaed   by   St.   Comgall  of  novators  for  awhile,  but  Tapper's  death,  in  1559, 
Baniror.    St.  Adamnan,  in  recording  the  death  of  became  the  signal  of  fresh  disturbances.    At  the  re- 
st. Columba,  teUs  us  that  the  dying  words  of  the  quest  of  the  Franciscans,  the  Sorbonne  of  Paris  had 
Apostle  of  lona,  as  he  was  transcnoing  the  fifty-  censured  eighteen  propositions  embodying  the  main 
tlurd  Psahn,  were:  "I  must  stop  here,  let  Baithen  innovations  of  Baius  and  Hessels.     Baius  answered 
write  what  follows*'.     Baithen  had  been  looked  on  the  censure  in  a  memoir  now  lost,  and  the  contro- 
ls the  most  likely  successor  to  St.  Columba,  and  so  versy  only  increased  in  acridity.     Pope  Pius  IV, 
it  happened  that  on  the  death  of  that  great  apos-  through  Cardinal  Granvelle,  imposed  silence  upon 
tie,  m  596,  the  monks  unanimously  confirmed  the  both  Baius  and  the  Franciscans,  without,  however, 
choice  of  their  foimder.    St.  Baithen  was  in  high  rendering  any  doctrinal  decision.    When  the  sessions 
esteem  as  a  wise  counsellor,  and  his  advice  was  of  the  Council  of  Trent  were  resumed,  in  1561,  Baius 
HHight  by  many  Irish  saints,  including  St.  Fintan  and  Hessels  were  selected  to  represent  the  university 
Munnu  of  Taghimon.  at  Trent.    The  papal  legate,  (x)mmendone,  objected 
St,    Adamnan    (Eunan),    the    biographer   of   St.  to  the  choice  of  the  university,  but  Cardinal  de  Gran- 
Columba,  tells  manv  interesting  incidents  in   the  velle  thought  that  the  two  innovators'  presence  at 
life  of  St.  Baithen,  but  Uie  mere  fact  of  being  the  Trent  would  be  good  both  for  them  and  for  the  uni- 
immediate  successor  of  St.  Columba,  by  the  express  versity.    In  1563  ne  sent  them  to  Trent,  not,  however, 
wish  of  that  apostle,  is  almost  sufficient  to  attest  as  delegates  of  the  university,  but  as  theologians  of 
his  worth.    The  "Martyrologyof  Donegal"  records  the  King  of  Spain.     Just  before  leaving  for  Trent 
the  two  following  anecdotes.     VVhen  St.  Baithen  par-  Baius  had  published  his  first  tracts.    Unfortunately, 
took  of  food,  before  each  morsel  he  invariably  re-  the  contents  of  those  tracts  were  not  within  the  pro- 
cited  "Deus  in  adjutorium  meum  intende".    Also,  gramme  of  the  last  three  sessions  of  the  (^uncil  of 
"when  he   worked  in  the  fields,  gathering  in  the  Trent,   and  no  public  discussion   of   the   disputed 
com  along  with  the  monks,  he  used  to  hold  up  points  took  place.    It  is  known,  however,  that  Baius' 
one  hand  towards  Heaven,  beseeching  God,  while  and  Hessels   views  were  distasteful  to  the  Fathers, 
with  the  other  hand  he  gathered  the  com".     St.  and  that  the  Catholic  king's   prestige  alone  savecl 
Baithen  of  lona  is  generally  known  as  Baithen  Mor,  them  from  formal  condemnation. 


BAXtm  210  BAIDS 

Baius  returned  to  Lou  vain  in  1564  and  the  same        Certain  inconsiderate  views  of  the  master  rega^ng 


Hessels  collaborated  with  Bains  in  these  "  Opiiscula  **.  clare  void  all  that  had  been  done  by  his  predeceasor, 

Their  defence  rested  now  on  Baius  alone,  and  it  wfti  bade   fair   to   reopen   the   whole   Question.     Pope 

no  small  task*    Ravestein,  who  had  succeeded  Tap-  Gregory  XIII  would  not  permit  this.     The  Bull, 

Eer  as  chancellor,  thought  it  was  hi^h  time  to  call  a  "Provisionis   nostrae"    (1579),    confirmed   the  pre- 

alt,  and  informed  Rome,  requestmg  decisive  ao-  ceding  papal  acts  and  the  Jesuit  Toletus  was  com- 

found 

without  mention  of  Baius'  name.    According 

usage  of  the  Roman  Chancery,  the  papal  document  propositions  is  just  and  lawful.    I  confess  that  veiy 

was   without   punctuation,   divisions,   or   numbers,  many  (plurimaa)  of  these  propositions  are  in  mv 

Again,  as  had  been  done  before  in  several  instances^  books,  and  in  the  sense  in  which  they  are  condemned. 
the   objectionable   propositions   were   no 
severally,    but   to   the   whole    series   we 
various  "notes",  from   "heretical"  do>« 

fensive".  Moreover,  not  only  was  Baius'  name  not  to  occasionally  crop  up  in  rash  tenets.  Up  to  the 
mentioned,  but  for  obvious  reasons  of  prudence  last  few  years  of  his  life  sad  contests  were  raised  by, 
in  those  days,  so  near  the  Reformation,  the  text  or  around,  him,  and  nothing  short  of  the  official  ad- 
itself  was  not  to  be  made  public.  These  facts  ^ave  mission  bv  the  university  of  a  compact  body  of  doc- 
occasion  to  many  quibbles  on  the  part  of  the  Baian*  trine  could  quell  those  contests.  BaiOs  died  in  the 
ists:  What  was  the  exact  number  of  propositions? —  Church,  to  which  his  studiousness,  attainments,  and 
76,  79,  or  80? — Were  they,  or  were  tney  not,  Baius'  piety  did  honour,  but  whose  doctrinal  unity  his 
propositions? — Why  had  not  a  copy  of  the  Bull  been  rasmiess  came  near  to  infringing.  The  evil  seed  he 
given  to  those  on  whose  honour  it  was  supposed  to  had  sown  bore  fruits  of  bitterness  later  on  in  the 
reflect?    In  the  famous  sentence,  "quas  quidem  sen-  errors  of  Jansenism. 

tentias    stricto    coram    nobis    examine    ponderatas  His  System. — Baius'  system   has   been   conven- 

Cfuamquam  nonnullie  aliquo  pacto  sustineri  possent  iently  called  Baianism,  as  a  more  objective  name  for 

in  rigore  et  proprio  verborum  sensu  ab  assertoribus  it  would  be  difficult  to  find.     It  is  contained  in  a 

intento   hsereticas,  erroneas  .  .  .  damnamus",  was  series  of  opuscuLa^  or  pamphlets:  "On  Free  Will"; 

the  comma  Planum  to  be  placed  after  iniento  or  after  "Justice    and    Justification";    "Sacrifice";    "Meri- 

posserUf  the  meaning  being  reversed  according  as  torious  Works'*:  "Man's  Original  Integrity  and  the 

the  comma  came  after  the  one  or  the  other  word?  Merits  of  the  Wicked":  "The  Sacraments";  "The 

Nevertheless  Baius  did  not  stoop  to  these  evasions  Form   of   Baptism";    "Original    Sin";    "Charitjr"; 

at  first,  but  when  the  papal  Bull  (1567)  was  brought  "Indulgences";   "Prayers   for   the   Dead".     Baius 

to  the  university  and  read  to  the  faculty,  he  sub-  himself  collected  all  those  pamphlets  in  **M.  Bail 

scribed  with  the  other  professors.     Meanwhile,  the  opuscula  theologica"  (Louvain,  1666J.    The  Maurist 

text  of  the  Bull  having  been  divulged  by  some  in-  Cferberon  gave  a  more  complete  edition:  "M.  Baii 

discreet  person,  Baius  began  to  find  fault  with  it  opera  cum  oullis  pontificum  et  aliis  ad  ipsius  causam 

and  wrote  to,  or  for,  the  pope  two  lenethy  apologies,  in  spectantibus"    (Ck)logne,   1696).     This  edition   was 

vindication,  he  said,  not  so  much  ofmmself  as  of  St.  put  on  the  Index  in  1697  on  account  of  its  second 

Augustine.    The  tone  of  the  apologies  was  respect-  part,  or  "Baiana",  in  which  the  editor  gives  useful 

ful  in  appearance  rather  than  in  reality.    By  a  Brief,  information  about,  but  shows  too  much  sympathy 

dated  1569,  Pius  V  answered  that  the  case  had  been  for,  Baius.     The  gist  of  Baianism  is  also  found  in 

maturely  examined  and  finally  adjudged,  and  de-  the  79  propositions  censured  by  Pius  V  (Denzinger, 

manded    submission.      After    much    tergiversation,  Enchiriaion,  881-959).     All  cavil   apart,   the   first 

wherein  he  stooped  to  the  ridiculous  evasion  of  the  60  are  easily  identified   in   Baius'   printed   works, 

comma  Planum  and  the  practical  stultification  of  a  knd  the  remaining  19 — "tales  quae  vulgo  circum- 

papal  act,  Baius  abjured  to  Morillon,  de  Granvelle's  ferrentur".  says  an  old  manuscript  copy  of  the  Bull 

vicar-general,  all  the  errors  condenmed  in  the  Bidl,  "Ex  onrnibus" — represent  the  oral  teaching  of  the 

but  was  not  then  and  there  required  to  sign  his  re-  Baianist  wing.     In  the  preface  to  "Man's  Original 

cantation.    The  absence  of  that  formality  contributed  Integrity"  Baius  says:  "What  was  in  the  beginning 

later  to  revive  the  discusions.      In  1570,  at  Rave-  the  mt^rity  natural  to  man?    Without  that  ques- 

stein's  death,  Baius  became  dean  of  the  faculty.    Then  tion  one  can  understand  neither  the  first  corruption 

rumors^  went  abroad  that  the  new  dean  was  by  no  of  nature  (by  original  sin)  nor  its  reparation  by  the 

means  in  accord  with  orthodox  teaching.    Followers  grace  of  Christ."    Those  words  give  us  the  sequent^  of 

and  adversaries  suggested  a  clear  pronouncement.  Baianism:  (1)  the  state  of  innocent  nature;  (2)  the 

It  came  under  the  title  of  the  "Explicatio  articu-  state  of   fallen  nature;    (3)  the  state  of    redeemed 

lorum",  in  which  Baius  averred  that,  of  the  many  nature. 

condemned  propositions,  some  were  false  and  justly  (1)  State  of  Innocent  Nature, — From  the  fact,  so 

censured,  some  onlv  ill  expressed,  while  still  others,  strongly  asserted  by  the  Fathers,  of  the  actual  con- 

if  at  variance  with  the  terminology  of  the  Scho-  junction  of  nature  and  grace  in  the  first  nnan,  Baius 

lastics,  were  yet  the  genuine  sayings  of  the  Fathers;  infers  their  necessary  connexion  or  even   practical 

at  any  rate,  with  more  than  forty  of  the  seventy-  identity.    In  his  view,  primitive  innocence  was  not 

nine  articles  he  claimed  to  have  nothing  whatever  supernatural,  at  least  in  the  ordinary  acceptation  of 

to  do.     Baius,  after  two  recantations,  was  simply  that  word,  but  due  to,  and  demanded  by,  the  normal 

reverting  to  his  original  position.    The  Bull  was  then  condition   of  humanity  (which  cannot,  without  it, 

solemnly  published  at  Louvain,  and  subscribed  by  remain  in  the  state  of  salvation).    And  that  primitive 

the  whole  faculty.     Baius  accepted  it  again.     His  state,  natural  to  man,  included  among  its  necessary 

apparent   magnanimity   even   won    him    sympathy  requirements  destination  to  heaven,  immunity  from 

and  preferments;  he  was  in  qliick  succession  made  ignorance,  suffering,  and  death,  and  the   inherent 

Chancellor  of  Louvain,  Dean  of  St.  Peter's  Collegiate  power  of  meriting.     None  of  these  was,  nor  could 

Church,  and  "conservator"  of  the  university's  privi-  rightly  be  called,  a  gratuitous  gift  of  grace, 

leges.    Thus  was  peace  restored,  but  only  for  a  while.  (2)  State  of  Fallen  N<Uure.-^he  dowi^I  of  maD 


BAIUB  211  BAUm 

is  not,  and  cannot  be,  according  to  Baius,  the  mere  identical  with  grace  and  the  indwelling  of  the  Holy 
forfeiting  of  gratuitous  or  supernatural  gifts,  but  Ghost.    Others,  again,  think  it  is  optimism  in  ap- 
nme  positive  evil  reaching  deep  into  our  very  nature,  praising  man's  native  condition,  or  pessimism  m 
That  evil  is  original  sin.    By  onf^inal  sin  Baius  under^  gauging  his  condition  after  sin,  the  result  being  the 
stands,  instead  of  a  simple  pnvation  of  grace,  har-  same   with   regard  to   the   value   of   Redemption, 
bitual  coDCupiscenoe   itself,    transmitted   according  Takinj;  the  question  from  an  historical  standpoint,  we 
to  the  laws  of  heredity  ana  developed  according  to  find  that  Baius  was  from  the  beginning  a  humanist 
the  laws  of  physical  and  psychical  growth.    It  is  a  with  a  perfect  enthusiasm  for  Christian  antiquity  in 
sin  or  moral  evil   by  itself,  even  m  irresponsible  general,  St.  Paul  and  St.  Augustine  in  particular, 
children,  and  that  outside  of  all  relation  to  a  will,  and  a  dislike  almost  amounting  to  abhorrence  for 
be  it  oridnal  or  personal.     What,  then,  becomes  of  the  thoughts  and  methods  of  medieval  schoolmen, 
human  uberty  as  a  source  of  moral  responsibility?  The  self-assumed  task  of  interpreting  the  Apostle 
Baius  does  not  think  it  necessary  thAt,  m  order  to  of  the  Gentiles  and  the  great  African  Doctor  apart 
be  moral  agents,  we  should  be  free  from  internal  de-  from  the  traditional  current  of  Scholastic  thought 
terminism,    but    only    from    external    compulsion,  was  perhaps  an  impossibility  in  itself,  but  certainly 
From  80  tainted  a  sc^urce,  Redemption  apart,  only  one  for   Baius'  limited  erudition  and   paradoxical 
tainted  actions   can   flow.     They  may  sometimes  mind.    To  this  all-absorbing  mania,  much  more  than 
appear  virtuous,  but  it  is  onlv  an  appearance  {vitia  to  a  lack  of  sincere  loyaltv  to  the  Church,  must  we 
nrtides  imitantia).     In   truth   all   human   actions,  trace  Baius'  blindness  to  tne  already  defined  dogmas 
not  purified  by  Redemption,   are  vices  pure  ana  and  his  half-revolts  against  the  living  magisteriitm. 
simple  and  damning  vices  at  that  {vitia  sunt  et  damn  A  partial  explanation  of,  if  not  excuse  for,  that 
mid\  monomania  is,  however,  found  in  the  fact  that  at 
(3)  State  of  Redeemed  Nature. — ^The  gifts  of  primi-  the  very  outset  of  his  theological  career  Baius  came 
tive  innocence,  forfeited  by  original  sin,  are  restored  under  the  influence  of  men  wno,  like  the  Dominican 
by  Jesus  Christ.    Then  and  then  only  do  they  be-  Peter  de  Soto,  believed  the  Catholic  reaction  aeainst 
come  graces,  not,  indeed,  on  account  of  their  super-  the  Reformers  had  gone  somewhat  too  far,  and  sug- 
natur^    character,    but    because    of    fallen    man's  gested  that  more  stress  be  laid  on  Scripture  and  Pa- 
positive  unworthiness.     Aided    b^r   grace,   the   re-  trology  and  less  on  Thomism.    That,  in  his  intention 
deemed  can  perform  virtuous  actions  and  acquire  at  least,  Baius  only  wanted  to  take  the  most  advan- 
meritfl  for  heaven.    Does  that  entail  a  higher  status,  ta^eous  position  in  order  the  better  to  defend  the 
an  inner  renovation  or  sanctifying  grace? — Baius  Faith  against  heretics,  we  know  from  a  letter  he  wrote 
does  not  consider  it  necessary.    Moral  action,  whether  (1569)  to  Cardinal  Simonetta:  ''After  reading  Peter 
called  justice,  or  charitv,  or  obedience  to  the  law.  the  Lombard  and  some  other   Scholastic   Doctor, 
is  the  sole  instrument  of  justification  and  virtue  ana  I  endeavoured  to  bring  theologv  back  to  Holy  Scrip- 
merit.   The  r6le  of  grace  consists  exclusively  in  keep-  ture  and  the  writings  of  the  Fathers,  those  at  least 
ing concupiscence  under  control,  and  in  thus  enabling  who  still  enjoy  some  credit  with  the  heretics:  Qsrp- 
us  to  perform  moral  actions  and  fulfil^e  law.    True,  rian,  Ambrose.    Jerome,    Augustine,    Leo,  Prosper, 
Baius  speaks  of  the  remission  of  sin  as  necessary  Gregory,  and  the  like.^'    Such  are  the  various  causes 
for  justification,  but    this*  is    only    a   fictio   iwris\  which  may  in  a  measure  account  for  the  position 
m  fact,  a  catechumen  before   baptism,  or  a  peni-  taken  by  Baius.     The  chronology  of  his  writings 
tent  before  absolution  may,  by  simply  keeping  the  teaches  us  little  more.    It  fails  to  give  us  a  true  in- 
preoepts,  have  more  chanty  than  certain  so-called  sight  into  the  logical  development  of  his  thought, 
just  men.    If  the  catechumen  and  penitent  are  not  It  ma^  be,  after  aU,  that  each  of  the  above-mentioned 
styled  just,  it  is  only  in  deference  to  Holy  Scripture,  genetic  principles  held  priority  in  his  mind  at  dif- 
which  requires  for  complete  justice  both  newness  ferent  times  and  in  different  needs, 
of  life  (i.  e.  moral  action)  and  pardon  of  sin  (i.  e.  of        Doctrine  of  the  Church. — ^The  Catholic  teach- 
tbe  reatus,  or  liability  to  punishment).     To  grant  ing,  already  outlined  against  the  Pelagians  by  various 
that  kind  of  pardon  is  the  onlv  object  and  efficacy  councils  and  popes  from  the  fifth  century,  is  fully 
of  the  sacraments  of  the  dead,  baptism  and  penanc^\  presented  a^inst  the  Reformers  by  the  Council  of 
With  regard  to  the  sacraments  of  the  living,  the  Trent,  especially  Session  V,  Decree  on  Original  Sin, 
Eucharist — the  only  one  on  which  Baius  expressed  andSession  VI,  Decree  on  Justification.    In  those  two 
his  views — has  no  other  sacrificial  value  than  that  sessions,  both  anterior  to  Baius'  writings,  we  find 
of  being  a  good  moral  action  drawing  us  close  to  three  stiatements  which  are  obviously  irreconcilable 
God.                                         .  with  Baius'  three  main  pnositions  described  above: 
A  mere  glance  at  the  above  sketch  cannot  fail  (1)  Man's  original  justice  is  represented  as  a  super- 
to  reveal  a  strange  mixture  of  Pela^ianism,  Calvin-  natural  gift;  (2)  Original  Sin  is  described  not  as  a 
ism,  and  even  Socinianism.     Baius  is  a  Pelagian  in  deep  deterioration  of  our  nature,  but  as  the  forfeiture 
his  concept  of  the  primitive  state  of  man.    He  is  a  of  purely  gratuitous   privileges;  (3)  Justification  is 
Calvinist  in  his  presentation  of  the  downfall.     He  depicted  as  an  interior  renovation  of  the  soul  by 
is  more  than  a  Lutheran  and  little  short  of  the  Socin-  inherent  ^ace.    The  condemnation  by  Pius  V  of  the 
ian  in  his  theory  of  Redemption.    Critics  know  that  79  Baianist  tenets  is  an  act  of  the  supreme  magis- 
all  these  errors  were  in  a  manner  harmonized  in  terium  of  the  Church,  an  ex  cathedrd  pronouncement. 
Baius'  mind,  but  they  are  not  agreed  as  to  what  may  To  say,  with  the  Baianists,  that  the  papal  act  con- 
have  been  the  genetic  principle  of  that  theological  demns  not  the  real  and  concrete  tenets  of  the  Louvain 
formation.     Some  find  it  in  the  38th  proposition:  professor,  but  only  certain  hypothetical  or  imaginary 
"Omnis  amor  creaturae   rationalis   aut   vitiosa  est  propositions;  to  pretend  that  the  censure  is  aimed 
cupiditas,  qu&  mundus  diligitur,  quae  a  Joanne  pro-  not  at  the  underlying  teaching,  but  only  at  the 
hibetur,  aut  laudabilis  ilia  charitas,  qu&  per  spiritum  vehemence  or  harshness  of  the  outward  expressions, 
sanctum  in  corde  diffusa  Deus  amatur"   (The  ra-  is  to  practically  stultify  the  pontifical    document, 
tional  creature's  love  is  either  vicious  desire,  with  its  From  the  tenor  of  the  Bull,  "Ex  Omnibus",  we  know 
attachment  to  the  world,  which  St.  John  forbids,  or  that  to  each  of  the  79  propositions  one  or  several  or 
that  praiseworthy  charity  which  is  poured  forth  in  all  of  the  following  censures  will  apply:  hfsreticay 
our  hearts  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  through  which  erronea^  suspectaj  temerariaf  scandalosa,  in  jnas  aures 
God  is  loved).     Others  see  it  in  a  wrong  analysis  of  offendena.    For  a  more  precise  determination  of  thu 
man,  the  higher  faculties,  appertaining  to  the  moral  Catholic  doctrine,  we  have  to  consult,  besides  the 
and  religious  life,  being  violently  torn  apart  from  Council  of  Trent,  the  consensus  Catholicorum  th^ 
tbo  lower  powers,  and  so  magmfied  as  to  become  ohgarum.     That  consensus  was  voiced  with  no  un- 


212 


certainty  by  such  universities  as  Pkuis,  Salamanca, 
Alcald,  and  Louvain  itself,  and  by  such  theologiains 
as  Cunerus  Petri  (d.  1680— "De  GratiA",  Ck>logne, 
1583);  Suarez  (d.  1617— "De  gratiA  Dei"  in  Op. 
Omn.,  VII,  Paris,  1857);  Bellarmine  (d.  1623— "De 
gratiA  et  iibero  aroitrio",  in  Gontroversiae,  IV,  Milan, 
1621);  Ripalda  (d.  164&— "Adversus  Baium  et 
Baianos",  Paris,  1872);  Stayaert  (d.  1701— '*In 
propositiones  damnatas  assertiones",  Louvain,  1753); 
Toumely  (d.  1729— "De  GratiA  Christi",  Paris, 
1726):  Casipi  (d.  1755— "Quid  est  homo?"  ed. 
Scheeoen,  Mainz,  1862).  It  should  not,  however,  be 
omitted  here  that,  even  apart  from  Jansenism,  which 
is  a  direct  offshoot  of  Baianism,  some  traces  of  Baius' 
confused  ideas  about  the  natural  and  the  super* 
natural  are  to  be  found  here  and  there  in  the  history 
of  theologv.  The  Augustinian  School,  represented 
by  such  able  men  as  Noris,  Bellelli,  and  Berti,  adopted, 
though  with  qualifications,  the  idea  of  man's  natural 
aspiration  to  the  possession  of  God  and  beatific  vision 
in  Heaven.  The  standard  work  of  that  school, 
"Vindiciffi  Augustinian® ",  was  even  once  denounced 
to  the  Holy  fee,  but  no  censure  ensued.  More  re- 
cently Stattler,  Hermes,  Gunther,  Hirscher,  and 
Kuhn  evolved  a  notion  of  the  supernatural  which  is 
akin  to  that  of  Baius.  While  admitting  relatively 
supernatural  gifts,  they  denied  that  the  partaking  of 
Divine  nature  and  the  adoption  to  eternal  life  differ 
essentially  from  our  natural  moral  life.  That  theory 
was  successfully  opposed  by  Kleutgen  and  seems 
now  to  have  died  out.  The  new  French  theory  of 
"immanence",  according  to  which  man  postulates 
the  supernatural,  may  also  have  some  kinBhip  with 
Baianism,  but  it  can  only  be  mentioned  here  as  it  is 
yet  the  centre  of  rather  fervid  discussions.  Matule« 
wicz,  "Doctrina  Russorum  de  Statu  iustitise  origi- 
nalis"  (Cracow.  1903),  says  that  modem  Russian 
theology  embodies  in  great  measure  the  condenmed 

views  of  Baius. 

Besides  works  mentioned  in  article,  Duchesne,  HUtaire 
duBaianiams  (Doiiai,  1731^;  Db  la  Chaubrb,  Traiti  hUtonque 
€t  dogmatique  tw  la  doctrine  de  Baitu  (s.  1.,  1739);  LiauoRi, 
Trionfo  deUa  chieta  (Naples,  1772);  Linbbnman,  Muriel  Baiua 
(TUblnfen,  1867);  Scheeben  in  Kirchenlex.,  s.  v.,  and  in  Der 
KathoWc  (Mains,  1868);  Schwane-Deoert,  HUtoire  de$ 
dogmes  (Paris.  1904),  VI;  Le  Bachelet  in  Diet,  de  thiol,  cath., 
8.  v.;  WiLHELM  AND  ScANNELL,  Moniuil  of  Cotholic  Tkeology 
(New  York,  1906);  Kroll.  The  Causes  of  the  JanseHist  Heresy 
in  Am.  Cath,  QuaH,  (1886),  677. 

J.  F.  SOLLIER. 

Baker,  Charles,  Venerable  (recti,  according  to 
his  own  entry  in  the  English  College  Diary,  David 
Henry  Lewis),  an  English  Jesuit  martyr,  b.  in 
Monmouthshire  in  1616;  d.  at  Usk,  27  August,  1679. 
His  father,  Morgan  Lewis,  was  a  lax  Catholic,  after- 
wards converted;  his  mother,  Margaret  Pritchard, 
was  a  very  devout  Catholic.  David  was  brought 
up  as  a  Protestant,  and  educated  at  the  Royal 
Grammar  School  at  Abergavenny,  of  which  his 
father  was  the  head  master.  In  his  sixteenth  year, 
he  spent  three  months  in  Paris  as  companion  to 
a  son  of  Earl  Rivers,  and  there  was  receiveii  into  the 
Church  by  a  Father  Talbot,  S.  J.  On  returning  to 
England,  he  remained  with  his  parents  till  their 
death  and  then,  having  a  desire  for  the  priesthood, 
went  to  Rome,  where  he  was  admitted  as  an  cUumnu^ 
to  the  English  College,  3  November,  1638.  He  was 
ordained  priest  in  1642,  and  entered  the  novitiate 
of  the  Society  at  Sant'  Andrea,  16  April,  1644. 
In  1647  he  was  sent  to  the  English  Amission,  but  was 
quickly  recalled  and  made  Spiritual  Father  at  the 
Roman  College.  In  1648  he  returned  to  England 
finally,  and  was  assigned  to  the  South  Wales  District, 
where  he  laboured  /.ealously  for  twenty-eight  years. 
It  is  told  of  him  that  to  avoid  the  persecutors^  he 
used  to  take  long  and  dangerous  ioumeys  at  meht 
that  he  might  te  able  to  visit  the  faithful  under 
cover  of  darkness,  and  that  his  devotedness  gained 
for  him  the  title  of  Father  of  the  Poor. 


In  the  smnmer  of  1678,  Titus  Oates  came  forward 
with  his  pretended  revelations,  and  Parliament  in  a 
frenzy  of  bigotry  offered  fresh  rewards  for  the  dis- 
coverv  and  arrest  of  priests  and  Jesuits.    Father 
David  was  one  of  the  victims.    A  bigoted  Calvinist 
magistrate  named  Arnold,  who  had  hitherto  professed 
friendship  for  him,  caused  him  to  be  arrested  at 
Llantamam  in  Monmouthshire,  17  November,  1678. 
He  was  carried  in  a  sort  of  triumphal  procession  to 
Abergavenny,  where,  in  allusion  to  one   article  of 
Oates's  fabrications,  he  was  shown  to  the  people  as 
''the  pretended  Bisnop  of  Llandaff".    He  was  then 
committed    for   trial,    and    meanwhile    imprisoned, 
first  at  Monmouth  and  then  at  Udc.    The  trial  came 
off  at  Monmouth  28  March,  1679.     It  was  impossible 
to  connect  Father  David  with  the  pretended  Popish 
Plot,  so  he  was  charged  under  the  Statute  of  27 
Elizabeth,  which  made  it  high  treason  to  take  orders 
abroad  in  the  Church  of  Rome  and  afterwards  to 
return  to  England  and  say  Mass.    The  trial  was  not 
too  fairly  conducted,  and  the  witnesses  were  of  a 
worthless  class.     Still  the  breach  .of  the  law  was 
undeniable,  and  he  was  condemned  to  imdergo  the 
barbarous  penalties  which  the  law  prescribed.    For 
the  moment,  indeed,  he  was  reprieved,  and  was  taken 
up  to  London  to  be  confronted  with  Oates  and  his 
associates.    It  was  hoped  that  he  might  be  induced 
to  save  his  life  either  by  apostasy  or  oy  inculpating 
some  others  in  the  Plot.     But  this  hope  proving  vain^ 
he  was  sent  back  to  Monmouthshire,  ana  his  sentence 
was  carried  out  at  Usk.    The  cause  of  his  beatifica- 
tion was  introduced,  under  the  name  of   "David 
Lewis  alias  Charles  Baker"  by  the  Decree  of  4  De- 
cember, 1886. 

CoBBETT.  State  Trials,  VII ;  Florus  AngU>-Bavartcus  (1685); 
Challoner,  Memoirs  of  Missionary  Priests:  Foley,  Records 
of  the  Enylish  Province,  SJ.;  Gillow,  Bibl.  Diet,  Eng.  Cath.,^ 

B.  V. 

Sydney  F.  Smith. 

Baker,  David  Augustine,  a  well-known  Bene- 
dictine m3rstic  and  an  ascetic  writer,  b.  at  Aberga- 
venny, England,  9  December,  1675;  d.  of  theplague 
in  London,  9  August,  1641.  His  father  was  William 
Baker,  steward  to  Lord  Ab^^venny,  his  mother, 
a  daughter  of 
Lewis  ap  John 
(ali<i8  Wallis), 
Vicar  of  Aber- 
gavenny. He 
was  educated  at 
Christ's  Hospital 
and  at  Broad- 
«ite's  Hall,  now 
Pembroke  Col- 
lege Oxford,  after- 
wards becoming 
a  member  of  Clii- 
ford's  Inn,  and 
later  of  the  Middle 
Temple.  At  Ox- 
ford he  lost  his 
faith  in  the  exist- 
ence of  God,  but 
after  some  years, 
being  in  extreme 
peril  of  death,  he 
escaped  by  what 
appeared  to  him  a  miracle.  Following  up  the  light 
thus  given  him,  he  was  led  to  the  threshold  of  the 
Catholic  Church,  and  was  received  into  its  fold. 
In  1605  he  joined  the  Benedictine  Order  at  Padua, 
but  Ul-health  obliged  him  to  postpone  his  r^igious 
profession,  and  he  returned  home  to  find  his  father 
on  the  point  of  death.  Having  reconciled  him  to  the 
Church  and  assisted  him  in  his  last  moments,  Father 
Baker  hastened  to  settle  his  own  worldly  affairs 
and  to  return  to  the  cloister.    He  was  professed  by 


David    Attqxtbtinb 
Baker,  O.SJB. 


213 

ItaGtm  Fathens  in  England  as  a  member  of  the  sion  of  faith.    Attracted  to  the  religious  state,  he  en* 
Cassinese  Congr^ation,  but  subsequently  aggregated  tered  the  Redemptorist  Order,  was  ordained  priest  ic 
to  the  En^ish  Congregation.    At  the  desire  of  his  the  Cathedral  of  Baltimore,  21  September,  1856,  and 
superiors  he  now  devoted  his  time  and  the  ample  began  forthwith  a  laborious  but  most  fruitful  career 
means  which  he  had  inherited,  to  investigating  and  as  a  missionary.    The  Redemptorists  h^  inaugurated 
refuting  the  recently  started  error  that  tne  ancient  in  1861  the  work  of  giving  missions  to  the  English- 
Benedictine  congregation  in  England  was  dependent  speaking  Catholics  of  the  United  States,  and  the  flood 
on  that  of  Cluny,  founded  in  910.    He  was  immensely  ol  imnugration,then  at  its  height,  made  the  work 
helped  in  his  studies  and  researches  for  this  purpose  exhausting  and  continuous.     The  missionary  band 
.  by  the  Cottonian  Library  which  contained  so  many  included    Fathers   Hecker,    Walworth,    Hewit,    and 
of  the  spoils  of  the  old  Benedictine  monasteries  in  Deshon,  all  converts  and  all  Americans,  an  unusually 
Eki^and,  and  which  its  generous   founder  placed  strong  and  varied  combination,  and  to  them  Father 
entirely  at  his  disposal.    In  collaboration  with  Father  Baker  proved  a  welcome  acquisition.     He  brought 
Jones  and  Father  Clement  Reyner  he  embodied  the  to  his  work  the  zeal  of  an  apostle,  a  matured  and 
fruit  of  these   researches   in ,  the   volume   entitled  persuasive  eloquence,  and  the  attraction  of  a  char- 
"Apostolatus  Benedictinorum  in  Anglid".     At  Sir  acter  at  once  magnetic  and  saintly.     Nor  are  these 
Rooert  Cotton's  Father  Baker  came  in  contact  "with  the  words  of  mere  eulogy.    The  recollections  of  the 
the  antiquaiy,  William    Camden,  and    with   other  generation  which  listened  to  him,  the  judgment  of 
learned  men  of  his  day.    In  1624  he  was  sent  to  the  competent  critics,  the  numerous  conversions,  the  abid- 
newly  established  convent  of  Benedictine  nuns  at  in^  impressions  he  effected,  the  evidence  which  his 
Cambrai,  not  as  chaplain,  but  to  aid  in  forming  the  printed  sermons  display  of  oratorical  gifts — all  en- 
spiritual  character  of  the  religious.     Here  he  re-  title  Father  Baker  to  a  high  place  among  Catholic 
mained  for  about  nine  years,  during  which  time  he  preachers. 

wrote  niany  of  his  ascetical  treatises,  an  abstract  of  In  his  sermons  we  find  a  blending  of  argumenta- 
which  is  contained  in  the  valuable  work  ^'Sancta  tion  with  appeal,  a  diction  at  once  forceful  and 
Sophia'*  compiled  by  Father  Serenus  Cressy.  In  finished,  ana  an  apt  and  abundant  use  of  Holy 
1633  he  removed  to  Douai,  where  he  wrote  his  long  Scripture,  which,  combining  with  his  earnest  and 
treatise  on  the  English  mission,  but  he  was  neariy  dignified  delivery,  gave  to  his  message  a  powerful 
worn  out  with  his  austerities  before  the  order  came  effect.  Leaving  the  Redemptorists  with  Fathers 
for  him  to  proceed  to  the  battle-field.  During  his  Hecker,  Walworth,  Hewitt,  and  Deshon,  for  the 
short  sojourn  in  London,  Father  Baker  was  forced  purpose  of  organizing  a  special  missionarv  com- 
frequently  to  change  his  abode  in  order  to  avoid  the  munity  for  English  parishes,  he  shared  with  them 
pursuivants  who  were  on  his  track.  It  was  not,  how-  the  labour  of  founding  the  Paulist  Institute.  It  was 
ever,  as  a  martyr  that  he  was  to  end  his  days,  but  as  a  he  who  ^ve  the  impulse  and  established  the  tradition 
victim  of  the  plague  to  which  he  succumbed  in  the  of  rubrical  exactitude  and  ceremonial  splendour 
sixty-sixth  year  of  his  a^.  Of  upwards  of  thirty  which  have  continued  to  be  a  characteristic  of  that 
treatises  chiefly  on  spiritual  matters  written  by  community.  He  died  of  typhoid  pneumonia  con- 
Father  Baker,  many  are  to  be  found  in  manuscript  tracted  in  ministering  to  the  sick, 
at  Downside,  Ampleforth,  Stanbrook,  and  other  HEWi;r,  Menunr  of  the  Ldfe  of  the  Rev,  Francu  A.  Baker 
Benedictine  monasteries  in  England.      An  adequate  (New  York.  1866):  Semumeof  the  Rev,  Francis  A,  Baker  (New 

biop^phy  of  this  master  of  the  ascetic  life  is  still  a  (^ll'^^^'i^^''^''^^'  ^^  ^"^"^  Movement  m  the  V,  3. 

d^deratum          _...„.     ^.     '         *                     Michael  Paul  Smith. 


lu,  7:  CofiSn.MSr/MiiM«  Cm  iii'/f.  12;;  EvAiisT Por&^a^^^  Baker  Olty,  DiocESB  OP,  comprises  Wasco,  Kla- 

-12^:  Dublin  Review,  New  Scries.  XXVII,  337;  The  Ram.  math,  Lake,  Sherman,  Gilliam,  Wheeler,  Morrow; 

oUr.Uarch,  \^l,  p.  214;  CoxK,  Cat.  Codd,  MSS.CoUegttJetu,  p-„»,*      TTnlon      rSw^lr     TTTno+illo      IVaU/nxra      RoIta/ 

OimL,  25-«):  Wbl*don,  Chronolomcal  Notee;  Catalogue  of  Raw  ^rant.    Union,   Urook,    UmatiUa,    W allowa,   Baker, 

ttiM»  JIfiSS.;  Cooper  in  Diet,  of  Nat.  Biog,  Hamey,  and  Malheur  counties  m  the  State  of  Oregon, 

J.  M.  Stone.  U.  S.  A.,  an  area  of  65,683  square  miles.    It  was  es- 

^^ ^             ^                  .         .    ,     ry  tablished  in  1903.     The  Rev.  Charies  J.  O'Reilly, 

«»r,  Francis  Asburt,  pnest  of  the  CongreM^  rector  of  the  Church  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of 

faflit  al  St.  Paul  the  Apostle,  b.  Baltimore,  Md.,  Mary,  Portland,  Oregon,  and  editor  of  the  "Catholic 

U.ft  A.,  30  March,  1820;  d.  4  Apnl,  1865.     Father  Sentinel"  was  named  its  first  bishop  and  consecrated 

MIrv&s  a  son  of  Dr.  Samuel  Baker,  a  physician  of  25  August  of  that  year.    The  diocese  has  a  Catholic 

MgHttBaltimore.     He  was  graduated  from  Pnnce-  population  estimated  at  about  4,000,  whose  spiritual 

tnmjffiiffe  in  1839.     His  parents,  whom  he  lost  early  needs  are  cared  foi-  by  ten  diocesan  and  seven  Fran- 

mn^  had  been  Methodists,   but  their  surviving  ciscan  and  Jesuit  priests.    The  Sisters  of  St.  Francis, 

•  joined    the    Episcopal    Church.     He   took  gt.  Dominic,  and  the  Most  Holy  Name  of  Jesus  and 

in  that   commimion,    and   was  ordained   a  Mary  conduct  five  schools  and  academies.     At  the 

ter  in  September,  1846.     His  career  promised  Umatilla  Indian  reservation  there  are  more  than 

^Wt^  o^Y  successful  but  bnlhant.     Po^essed  of  500  Catholic  Indians  attended  by  the  Jesuit  fathers 

^mental  gifte,  he  had,  moreover,  refinement,  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Mission,  two  Brothers  of 

^^Land  an  engaging  personaHty;  he  was  deeply  Christian  Instruction,  and  eight  Sisters  of  St.  Francis. 

TOfclaoPoughlv  consecrated  to  his  chosen  work.  There  are  13  churches  and  36  mission  stations  in  the 

ne  was  assigned  at  first  as  an  assistant  at  St.  Paul's  diocese 

Epwopal  Church  Baltimore,  and  six  years  later  was  Bishop  O'Reilly  was  bom  4  January,  1862,  at  St 

named  rector  of  St.  Luke's  Church  in  the  same  city.  John,  New  Brunswick,  Canada,  and  educated  at  the 

Hetook  rank  at  once  as  an  eloouent  preacher.  Christian  Brothers'  school  of  St.  John  and  at  St. 

The  Oxford  Movement  coincided  with  the  years  Joseph's  College,  Memramcook.    He  made  his  theo- 

of  bis  preparation  and  eariy  ministry,  and  its  in-  logical  studies  at  the  Grand  Seminary,  Montreal,  and 

mwwe  m  the  Umted  States  resulted  in  the  conversion  ^as  ordaine^i  priest  at  Portland  29  June,  1890.    He 

of  many  distinguished  men.     It  was  not  possible  that  ^as  then  appointed  to  the  mission  of  Oswego- and 

an  mtelhgent  and  sincere  man  like  Baker  could  re-  Tegardville,  and  m  February,  1894  was  made  rector 

mam  unmoved  amid  the  awakemng  and  the  return  of  the  Church  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary, 

to  Catholic  principles  which  the  study  of  primitive  Portland. 

and  patristic    history   and    theology   caused.    The  Ca<fco/ic's«>ft'nrI  (Portland,  August,  1903)  files;  TAeCaf^fu 

severance  of  intimate  ties  cost  him  much,  but  he  Directory  (Milwaukee,  1907). 

obeyed  the  call  and  in  April,  1853,  made  his  profes-  Thomas  F.  Meehan. 


BAKOOZ                                   214  BAUULttl 

Bakdcs,  Thomas  » Cardinal  and  statesman ,  b.  about  for  Hungary  but  also  for  the  neighbouring  countries^ 
1442.  in  the  village  of  Erdoed,  county  Szatm^,  and  granted  to  him  most  ample  faculties.  After 
Nortneastern  Hungary;  d.  15  June,  1521.  His  family  his  rettma  to  Hungary  in  1514  Bak6cz  made  prepara- 
belonged  to  the  lower  class,  but  was  raised  to  the  tions  at  once  for  the  expedition,  and  soon  an  army 
rank  of  nobility  by  his  older  brother  Valentine,  of  about  100,000  soldiers  was  gathered  imder  the 
Through  the  generosity  of  this  same  brother  he  was  leadership  of  George  D6zsa.  Unfortunately  the 
enabled  to  pursue  a  thorough  course  of  studies  first  nobles  were  opposed  to  the  enterprise,  and  the 
in  the  town  of  Szatmdr-N^meti,  then  in  Cracow,  whole  matter  ended  in  a  civil  war  between  them  and 
Poland,  and  finally  in  the  Italian  cities  of  Ferrara  and  the  Crusaders,  in  which  the  nobility  remained 
Padua.  He  returned  to  his  native  country  about  victorious.  After  the  death  of  King  Ladislaus  II 
the  year  1470,  with  the  doctor's  degree,  and  soon  after  in  1516  the  influence  of  Bak6cz  ceased  almost  corn- 
made  the  acquaintance  of  a  distinguished  ecclesiastic  pletely;  the  last  years  of  his  life  were  spent  more  in 
from  Italy,  Gabriel  Rangoni,  who  enjoyed  the  con-  retirement.  He  was  a  man  of  the^world^  very  am- 
fidence  of  King  Matthias  (145^-90)  and  held  high  bitious,  and  not  always  tender  in  the  choice  of  the 
positions  in  Hungary.  By  this  prdate  Bak6cz  was  means  to  an  end.  (^ut  of  his  large  fortune,  and 
mtroduced  to  the  king  about  tne  year  1474;  and  through  his  influential  position,  he  provided  in  a 
through  a  fortunate  incident  he  attracted  the  at-  princely  manner  for  the  members  of  his  family, 
tention  of  "his  sovereign.  He  was  retained  at  court.  Owing  to  the  great  power  so  long  wielded  by  him, 
employed  in  the  chancery,  and  soon  became  secretary  he  made  many  enemies  amon^  his  own  countiymen, 
to  the  king  and  substitute  of  the  royal  chancellor,  whose  opposition  triumphed  m  the  end.  With  all 
In  1480  he  received  a  provostship  in  the  town  of  that  his  personal  conduct  was  blameless;  not  even  a 
Titel,  Southern  Hungary;  and  in  1486  he  was  pro-  shadow  of  suspicion  was  cast  upon  his  character 
moted  to  the  Bishopric  of  Raab.  After  the  death  by  his  enemies.  He  was  deeply  religious,  and  had 
of  King  Matthias  in  1490  Bak6cz  took  an  active  part  a  special  devotion  to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  in  whose 
in  the  selection  of  a  new  ruler;  and*  when  his  candi-  honour  he  fitted  out  a  chapel  in  the  Cathedral  of 
date,  Ladislaus  II  (1490-1516),  a  Polish  prince  and  Erlau,  and  built  one  near  that  of  Gran.  In  the  latter. 
King  of  Bohemia,  was  chosen.  Bak6cz  was  made  a  magnificent  structmre  of  the  Renaissance,  his  re- 
chancellor  of  the  realm.  As  sucn  he  became  the  real  mains  found  their  last  resting  place, 
ruler  of  his  country,  whose  destinies  he  directed  with  .  Frakn6i,  ErdadiBMcz  Tamda  (Budapest,  1889):  Dank6, 
firmness  and  skiU.  He  concluded  advanta^us  ^  ^^rchenlex  b.  v.  BakdcM  (Freiburg.  18^6)  1 
treaties  'with  other  powers,  and  made  the  alliance  Francis  J.  Schaefer. 
with  Venice  the  pivot  of  his  foreign  policy.     On  «  ,_    .     ,, 

that  account  he  kept  Hungary  out  of  the  League  of  Bakunin,  Michael.    See  Socialism. 

Cambrai  formed  in   1508  between  Pope  Juhus  II  Balaam. — ^The  derivation  of  the  name  is  imcertain. 

(1603-13),  France,  Spain,  and  the  Emperor  Maxi-  Dr.  Neubauer  would  connect  it  with  the  god  Ammo 

milian    (1493-1619)    against    Venice.     No    wonder  or  Ammi,  as  though  Balaam  belonged  to  a  people 

that  the  authorities  of  Venice  vied  with  King  Ladis-  whose  god  or  lord  was  Ammo   or  Ammi.     It    is 

laus  in  secimng  honours  and  riches  for  the  powerful  certainly  remarkable  that  Balaam  is  said   (Niun., 

and  ambitious  prelate.  xxii,  5)  to  come  from  "the  land  of  the  children  of 

When  the  Bishopric  of  Erlau  became  vacant  in  Ammo"  (D.  V.  reads  "Ammon"). 
1491 ,  Bak6cz  was  appointed  to  it  by  the  king.    Pope  The  Narrative. — ^The  story  of  Balaam  is  con- 
Alexander  VI  (1492-1503)  at  first  opposed,  but  later  tained  in  Numbers,  chapters  xxii-xxiv;  X3cxi,  8-16; 
ratified,  the  appointment  in  1497;  and  shortly  after-  Deut.,   xxiii,   4;   Josue,   xiii,    22;   and   xxiv,    9-10. 
wards,  in  December  of  the  same  year,  transferred  There  are  also  references  to  him  in  Nehemias,  xiii, 
Bak6cz  to  the  primatial  See  of  Gran.    In  addition  to  2;    Micheas,  vi,  5;  II  Peter,  ii,  15;   Jude,  11;  ana 
this  Bak6cz  was  created  cardinal  in  1500.  and  made  Apoc.,  ii,   14.    Balac,   King  of  Moab,  alarmed   at 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  1507.    Tne  republic  Israel's   victories   over   the   Amorrhites,  sent  me»^ 
of  Venice  gladly  assigned  to  him  the  revenues  which  sengers  with  presents  to  Balaam,  son  of  Beor,  who 
were  found  within  its  own  territory  and  attached  dwelt  in  Pethor  (the  Pitru  of  the  cuneiform  texts) 
to  the  patriarchal  title.     Not  satisfied  with  all  this  to  induce  him  to  come  and  curse  Israel.     For  in 
Bak6cz  aspired  to  the  papal  throne,  and  received  those  early  times,  men  attached  great  importance  to 
assurances  of  support  from  the  Emperor  Maximilian  a  curse,  as,  for  instance,  that  of  a  father  on  his  child; 
and  from   Venice;   however,  adverse  circumstances  and.  Balaam  had  a  special  reputation  in  this  matter, 
prevented  the  realization  of  these  hopes.    A  man  of  "I  know",  said  Balac   to   him  through  his  mes- 
such   prominence  had  necessarily  his  part  in  the  sengers,  'Hhat  he  w^hom  thou  shalt  bless  is  blessed, 
ecclesiastical  events  of  a  general  character.     When  and  he  whom  thou  shalt  curse  is  cursed."     When 
in    1510    several    cardinals    rebelled    against    Pope  the  messengers  had  delivered  their  message,  Balaam 
Julius  II,  both  sides  tried  to  win  him  for  their  plans,  consulted  the  Lord  as  to  whether  he  should  go  or 
Bakocz   maintained   a  waiting  attitude,   until   the  stay,  and  being  refused  permission  to  go,  in  the 
pope,  in  1511,  condemned   the   schismatic   Council  morning  he  gave  a  negative  answer  to  the  ambas- 
of  Pisa  and  announced  that  a  general  synod  would  sadors.     Nothing  daunted,  Balac  sent  another  em- 
be  held  in  the  Lateran  in  1512.    Bak6cz  was  invited  bassy,  composed  of  men  of  higher  rank,  princes, 
to  this  council,  and  without  further  hesitation  he  with  directions  to  offer  Balaam  anything  he  liked, 
sailed  on  a  Venetian  ship  to  Ancona,  and  arrived  provided   only   he  would   come   and   curse    Israel, 
in  Rome  in  January,  1512,  where  he  was  received  Again   Balaam   consulted   the   Lord   and  obtained 
by  the  pope  with  much  pomp  and  splendour.     In  permission  to  go,  on  condition  that  he  undertook 
the  council,  which  opened  the  following  May,  Bak6cz  to  do  what  God   commanded.     In  view  of  what 
took  an  active  part*  he  was  on  the  committee  for  follows,  some  commentators  think  that  this  leave 
the  reform  of  tne  Church  and  the  Roman  Curia,  was   extorted   by   importunity,    and   that    Balaam 
After  the  death  of  Pope  Julius  II,  early  in  1513,  and  was  actuated  in  making  his  request  by  mercenary 
during  the  conclave,  it  became  evident  that  he  had  motives,  and  had  fully  made  up  his  mind  to  curse 
little  prospect  of. winning  the  ptmal  tiara;  in  fact  Israel. 

on  the  10th  of  March  Cardinal  Medici  was  chosen  The  next  morning  Balaam  saddled  his  ass  and  set 

as  Leo  X  (1513-21).  out  with  the  princes  of  Moab.    On  the  way,  the  ass 

The  new  pope  secured  at  once  the  service  of  the  manifested  every  sign  of  alarm;  it  swerved  suddenlv 

influential  Bak6cz  for  a  crusade  against  the  Turks,  from  the  path,  crushed  Balaam's  1^  against  a  waU 

He  appointed  the  primate  a  legate  a  latere  not  only  and  finally  sank  to  the  ground  \mi&T  him,  so  that 


BALANJBA                               215  BALANJBA 

Balaam  cruelly  beat  it  and  even  threatened  it  with  The  future  is  toretold  by  Balaam;  but  so  it  is  by  the 
death.    Then  the  ass  was  endowed  by  God  with  the  great  prophets  of  Israel.     A  question  is  discussed 
power  of   speech,   and  upbraided  its  master  with  as  to  what  Balaam  was.    Was  he  a  prophet  in  the 
his  cruelty  towards  it.    At  the  same  time  Balaam's  true  sense  of  the  word,  or  a  soothsayer?    It  does 
eyes  were  opened  and  he  saw  the  cause  of  the  ass's  not  seem  possible  to  say  that  he  was  a  prophet  in 
strange  oonauct,  viz.  an  angel  of  the  Lord  standing  the  same  sense  as  Isaias  or  any  of  the  great  prophets 
in  the  way  with  drawn  sword  to  bar  his  passage,  of  Israel.    On  the  other  hand,  in  Numbers,  xxiv, 
The  angel  upbraided  Balaam  with  his  cruel  con-  2,  he  is  said  to  have  spoken  imder  the  influence  of 
duct  towards  the  ass  and  told  him  that  it  was  the  "the  spirit  of  God".    Indeed,  throughout  his  con- 
action  of  the  ass  which  had  saved  his  life.    Finally,  nexion  with  Balac,  he  seems  to  have  acted  under 
he  permitted  Balaam  to  continue  his  journey,  but  the  influence  of  God's  spirit.    But  when  his  state 
only  on  condition  that  he  would  speak  nothing  but  of  life  is  looked  at  as  such,  he  cannot  be  regarded 
what  he  commanded.     Balac  met  Balaam  on  the  as  having  belonged  to  the  order  of  the  prophets, 
borders  of  Amon, and  they  went  together  to  Kiriath-  St.  Thomas  calls  him  "a  prophet  of  the  devil", 
huzoth,    where   sacrifices   were   duly  offered.    The  Scripture  does  not  call  him  a  prophet,  but  a  diviner, 
following  day,  Balac  took  Balaam  to  Bamoth-Baal,  and  Balac  approached  him  with  the  price  of  div- 
whence  ne  could  see  the  outskirts  of  the  host  of  ination.      Moreover,  the    way  in  which  he  joined 
Israel.     Seven    bullocks    and    seven    rams    having  Balac  in  idolatrous  worship   seems  to  preclude  the 
been  sacrificed,  and  Balaam  having  gone  apart  to  idea  of  his  being  a  genume  servant  of  Jehovah, 
consult  the  Lord,  the  prophet  returned  to  Balac  Prophecy  is  a  gift  given  for  the  good  of  others, 
and  refused  to  curse  Israel.    On  the  contrary,  he  Balaam  was  used  for  the  good  of  Israel, 
eulogized  them:  "Who",  he  said,  "can  coimt  the  Critical  View. — Modem  critics  take  a  different 
dust  of  Jacob  or  number  the  fourth  part  of  Israel?  view  of  the  episode,  in  conformity  with  their  general 
Let  me  die  the  death  of  the  righteous,  and  my  last  conclusions  as  to  the  Hexateuch.     For  them  the 
end  be  like  his. "                                                   .  narrative  of  Numbers,  chapters  xxii,  xxiii,  and  xxiv, 
Then  Balac  took  Balaam  to  the  top  of  Mount  is  part  of  the  prophetical  history.    That  is,  in  these 
Phasga,  to  see  if  from  there  he  would  not  curse  chapters  there  is  no  trace  of  the  priestly  writer  P, 
Israel.     But,  after  the  ^&me  rites  and  formalities  though  to  him  is  assigned  the  passage  xxv,  6-18, 
had  been  gone  through,  Balaam  again  pronounced  which  contains  an  account  of  the  crime  and  punish- 
a  blessing  on  the  Israelites,  more  emphatic  than  ment  of    Zambri  and   Cozbi.    Though    critics    are 
the  fonoer:  "Behold,  I  have  received  commandment  unanimous  that  chapters  xxii,  xxiii,  and  xxiv  are 
to  bless.    And  he  hath  blessed,  and  I  cannot  reverse  the  work  of  the  two  writers  called  the  Jahvist  and 
it."  the  Elohist,  they  do  not  find  it  easy  to  apportion 
"Neither    bless    nor    curse",    exclaimed    Balac.  that  part  of  Numbers  between  the  two  authors. 
But  he  resolved  to  try  the  prophet  once  more,  and  Indeed,  the  only  point  on  which  they  are  agreed  is 
accordingly  took  him  to  the  top  of  Mount  Phogor  that  chapter  xxii  belongs  to  the  Elohist,  with  the 
which  looks  towards  the  wilderness.     Here  sacrifices  excejjtion  of  verses  22-35,  which  they  assign  to  the 
were  offered,  but  without  further  formality,  Balaam,  Jahvist.    This  section  contains  the  episode  of  the 
under  the  influence  of  "  the  spirit  of  God ",  broke  ass,  and  critics  say  that  it  destroys  the  sequence  of 
forth   into    the   beautiful   eulogy   of   Israel   which  the  narrative.    Thus  in  verse  20  Balaam  gets  leave 
begins  with  the  words:    "How    beautiful  are  thy  from  God  to  go  with  the  princes  of  Moab;  butMn 
tabernacles,  O  Jacob,  and  thy  tents,  O  Israel  I"  verse  22  God  is  angry  with  him,  apparently  because 
Filled  with  anger,  Balac  dismissed  Balaam  to  his  of  his  going.    Though  this  apparent  inconsistency 
home.     But    before    departing,    the    prophet    de-  has  been  variously  explained  oy  conservative  com- 
livered   his  fourth  pronouncement  on  the  glorious  mentators,  critics  argue  from  it  and  other  similar 
future  of  Israel  and  the  fate  of  its  enemies.    His  instances,  that  the  episode  of  the  ass  (verses  22-35) 
vision,  too,  piercing  beyond  the  earthly  Kingdom  has  been  skilfully  fitted  into  the  rest  of  the  chapter, 
of  Israel,  seems  to  have  dimly  seen  the  Messianic  but  is  really  the  work  of  another  writer;  and  that 
reign  to  come.     "I  see  him"^  he  said,   "but  not  the  original  narrative  which  is  broken  off  at  verse  21 
now;  I  behold  him,  but  not  mgh:  there  shall  come  continues  at  verse  36.     Further  proofs  of  dual  au- 
forth  a  star  out  of  Jacob,  and  a  sceptre  shall  rise  thorship  are  often  far  from  clear.    Thus,  there  is 
out  of  Israel",  etc.     Balac  and  Balaam  separated,  said  to  be  a  duplication  in  xxii,  3:  "And  the  Moabites 
but  before  returning  to  his  own  country.  Balaam  were  in  great  fear  of  him,  and  were  not  able  to  sus- 
sojoumed   with   the   Madianites.    There   he   seems  tain  his  assault".     Surely  this  is  weak  in  the  extreme, 
to  have  instigated  his  hosts  to  send  Madianite  and  Does  not  the  natural  tendency  of  the  Jewish  writer 
Moabite   women   among   the    IsraeKtes    to    seduce  to  parallelisms  sufficiently  explain  it? 
them  from  their  allegiance  to  Jehovah  (Num.,  xxxi,  The  reference   to  historical  events  in  Balaam's 
16).    This  was  while  the  children  of  Israel  were  fourth  prophecy  leads  most  critical  writers  to  fix 
dwelling  at  Settim,  and  no  doubt  is  closely  con-  the  date  of  its  composition  not  earlier  than  David's 
nected  with  the  troubles  and  disorder  over  Beel-  reign.     David's  Moabitic  war  is  said  to  be  the  war 
phegor,  told  of  in  the  twenty-fifth  chapter  of  Num-  referred  to  in  Num.,  xxiv,  17.     But,  putting  aside 
Ders.     The   pimishment   inflicted    by   God   on   the  the  gift  of  prophecy,  we  know  that  writings  of  this 
Israelites  was  signal.     A   plague   fell   upon   them,  kind,  like  tne  Psalms,  are  often  retouched  in  ages 
and  carried  off  24,000  (xxv,  9).     Nor  did  Balaam  later  than  that  of  their  ori^nal  composition.     At 
escape.     He  was  slain,  together  with  the  five  kings  most,  therefore,  it  seems  legitimate  to  conclude  that 
of  Madian,  in  the  war  waged  by  Israel  against  that  this  passage  shows  signs  of  having  been  expanded 
nation  related  in  the  thirty-first  chapter  of  Numbers,  and  re-edited  at  that  period. 


lb   IS    2U1    iiiaMincai  iiarruuvc    lu  bue   uruuitirjr  b^iiw;.  tixsUnte  au  peuple  a  larai 

The  supernatural  plays  an  important  part  in  it,  de  la  Bible  (Paris,  1893).  t   a   w 

but  it  is  contended  that  the  creaibility  of  the  narra-  *[•  ^'  Howlett. 

tive  requires  only  a  belief  in  the  miraculous,  and        Balaaaa,  a   titular  see  of  Svria.     The  city  of 

that  the  acceptance  of  many  of  the  most  important  this  name,  a  colony  of  Aradus  (Strabo,  XVI,  753), 

parts   of    the   Bible   requires   such   a   belief.    The  is    placed  by  Stephanus    Byzantius   in  Phoenicia, 

episode  of  the  speaking  ass  is  strange;  but  no  stranger  though  it  belongs  rather  to  Syria.     Its  first  known 

toaa  the  story  of  the  speaking  serpent  in  Paradise,  bishop  was  present  at  the  Council  of  Nicsea  in  325 


BALBQIA                               216  ^      BALBOA 

(Lequien,  Oriens  Christ.,  II,  923).  From  that  time  "Miscellany  of  Bohemian  history"  (6  vols..  Pra^e, 
to  the  sixth  century  the  names  of  three  others  are  1679-87)  in  which  he  described  the  chief  histoncal 
known.  At  the  latter  date  it  was  a  suffragan  of  Apa-  events  of  his  native  land,  its  natural  history,  the 
mea,  the  metropolis  of  Syria  SecuiSa.  When  fl;enealogies  of  its  nobles,  lives  of  prominent  Bo- 
Justinian  established  a  new  civil  province,  Theodorias,  hemians,  etc.  He  wrote  also  in  Latin  an  "Apoloey 
with  Laodicea  as  metropolis,  Balansea  was  incorpo-  for  the  Slavic  and  especially  the  Bohemian  tongue  . 
rated  with  it,  but  continued  to  depend  ecclesias-  Balbinus  was  the  first  to  edit  the  ancient  vemacular 
tically  on  Apamea,  till  it  obtained  the  status  of  an  chronicle  known  as  the  ''Life  of  St.  Ludmilla  and 
exempt  bishopric  This  was  its  condition  in  the  Martyrdom  of  St.  Wenceslas'',  a  new  edition  of  which 
tenth  century,  when  it  was  directly  subject  to  the  was  published  in  1902  by  Dr.  Pek^  and  is  by  him 
Patriarch  of  Antioch.  The  Crusaders  created  there  held  to  be  a  text  of  the  tenth  centurjr,  and  therefore 
a  Latin  see,  of  which  a  bishop  is  known  about  1200  "the  oldest  historical  work  written  m  Bohemia  and 
(Lequien,  III,  1189);  the  river  near  by  it  served  as  a  by  a  Bohemian''.  Balbinus  wrote  also  "De  archi- 
boundary  between  the  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem  and  episcopis  Bohemise''  (Prague,  1682)  and  "Bohemia 
the  principality  of  Antioch.  The  Franks  called  Sancta,  sive  de  Sanctis  Bohemise,  Moravi^e,  Silesixe, 
it  Valania  according  to  the  Greek  pronunciation,  Lusatise''  (ibid.,  1682). 
the  Mussulmans  BiUUnvoas,  Owing  to  the  unsafe  SomMSRvoafih,Bibl.desMv,delae,d^ 
conditions  of  the  country  the  Latin  bishop  Uved  ^^  Ht^tonans  of  Bohemta  (Ix>ndon^M^)^  ^  ^^^^ 
at  Margat,  a  neighbouring  castle  of  the  Hospitallers. 

Balanaea,  to-day  called   Banias,  is  a  little  village  Balboa,    Vasco    Nu5Jbz    db,    discoverer   of    the 

at  the  foot  of  the  hill  of  Qalcat  el-Maraab,  between  Pacific  Ocean  from  the  west  coast  of  Central  America, 

Tartous   (Tortosa)   and   Latakia   (Laodicea)  j    it  is  b.  in  Spain.  1475,  either  at  Badajoz  or  at  Jerez  de  los 

the  residence  of  the  kalmakam  of  the  district.    It  Caballeros;  d.  at  Darien,  1517.     He  went  to  Central 

numbers  about  1,650  inhabitants,  1,200  Maronites,  America  in   1500   with   Rodrigo   de   Bastidas   and 

and    230    non-Catholic    Christians;    they    cultivate  thence,  in  secret,  with  Martin  Femdndez  de  Enciso 

chiefly  onions,  olive-trees,  and  very  good  tobacco,  to  Cartagena.    The  story  that  he  got  aboard  either  in 

The  roadstead  is  excellent,  but  is  visited  only  by  an  empty  barrel  or  wrapped  up  in  a  sail  may  be  true, 

small  boats.  He  soon  assumed  an  impK>rtant  r61e  among  the  p.ir- 

S.  Vailhe.  ticipants  of  the  expedition,  and  settled  Darien  in 

-,  „  .        o             xr         '1    ^r      d*    T>«iu: „«^  1500.     Then  he  proclaimed  himself  governor,  and 

Balbina,SAiOT.— Memorials  of  a  St.  Balbma  are  ^^^  ^^^j^  ^^^^  ^^^  mcuesB.  away.     From  Danen 

to  be  found  at  Rome  m  three  different  spots  which  ^^  undertook,  with  a  few  foUowere,  the  hazardous 

are  connected  with  the  ear  y  Christian  antiquities  of  journey  acros^  the  Isthmus  that  led  to  the  discovery 

that  citjr.     In  the  purely  legendary  account  of  the  J,^  the  Pacific  Ocean,  25  September,  1513,  and  eetat 

^yrdom  of  St.  Alexander   (Acta  SS.,  Man,  I,  jj^j^^  ^^  ^^^  ^y  ^^^^^^  ^^^  continental  nature  of 

367  sqq.)  mention  IS  made  of  a  tnbime  America.     The  appointment  in  1514  of  P^drarias 

died  a  martyr  and  was  buned  m  the  catacomb  of  j^^^j^   (^^  AriaS  de  Avila)  as  governor  df  the 

Pr^textatus  on  the  Via  Appia.     His  gravewas  re-  ^^^^  discovered  and  partly  occupied  by  Balboa, 

^rded  with  great  veneration  and  m  referred  to  m  ^^  y^^  appearance  on  the  coast  of  Darien  with  a 

the  old  itmera^  femdes  for  pilg^^^  large  armaiWt,  at  once  gave  rise  to  trouble.     Arias 

^tacombs.    Tradition  said  tliat  his  daughter  Bal-  ^ai  an  aged  min  of  mecBocre  attainments,  jealous, 

bma,  who  had  been  baptized  by  St.  ^xa^^^^  deceitful?  and    vindictive.     Balboa    was    g^erous, 

had  passed  her  life  unmarried,  was  buned  after  ^  careless,  and  oveiMJonfident  in   the  merite  of  his 

near  her  father  J\^l^?«»5?^^f J«jJ<>^|>V  „3^^^  achievements,  and  was  no  match  for  the  intrigues 

St.  Balbina  is  celebrated  31  March.     Usuardus  speaks  ^^^  forthwith  began  against  him.    To  mask  his 

of  her  m  his  martyrolo^r;  his  account  of  St.  Balbma  ^j^j^^^^  ^^j        ^^33  ^^  ^^^  ^^  ^  daughters  to 

rests  on  the  record  of  ^martyrdom  of  St  Alexan-  ^^^^  ^^  marriage.    The  latter  was  aUowed  to  con^ 

der.    There  is  another  Balbma  whose  name  was  given  ^.j^^^  j^  explorafions  while  Arias  and  the  Licentiate 

to  a  catacomb  (^°^-?alJin«)  which  lay  b^^  ^            ^^  fepinosa  were  slowly  tightening  a  net 

the  Via  Appia  and  the  Via  Ardeatma  not  far  from  the  ^^   ^^^   ^^^  ^^^^   testimony  irouoSd    hir?:  under 

little  church  called  Domine  quo  vadis.    Over  this  - -^    .  —    »  - 


mentioned  m  an  epitaph  of  the  sixth  centuiy  and  m  ^^  understood  how  to  reduce  these  titles  to  empty 

the  signatures  to  a  Roman  councd  (595)  of  the  time  ^^ours.     Quevedo,  Bishop  of  Castilla  dd  Oro.  wm 

of  Pope  Gregoiy  I-  J,^  .<^*^^«^,  7„^„^^^  ,«^  *  Balboa's  sincere  friend  an'd  assisted  him,  but  with 

argeancientliaa.    Its  titular  sam^  Quevedo's  departure  for  Spain  the  case  was  lost, 

identical  with  the  St  Balbma  who  was  buried  m  the  ^^^^  j^^  ^^  ^^j^j^     ,g       r^  ^^^  I^j^  ^^^^^  ^  j^^ 

catacomb  of  Pratextatus  and  whose  bones  together  ^^^         .^^  j^^-^  ^^  tlTparty,  the  Resided 

with  those  of  her  father  were  brought  here  at  ^  ^^  ^^-^^^^  converted  into  hnni^  proceedings, 

date.    It  IS  not  certam,  however,  that  the  two  names  ^^^j^    sentence    hastUy    pronounced,    and    Bal^ 

^^^l^J^t.^STi^STU  .  A...nn.  Hi^.  des  ^si...t.  beh«ided  for  high  treason  in  1517  at  Daricm.     One 

the  main  pretexts  for  the  sentence  was  Balboa  s 


_,_  „.  «i«.  iiwa;;  action  towards  Enciso  and  Nicuesa.     Balboa  has 

Ugonio.  ^«f'^^.«'«*^»^,^.^i^^SS  ^^ISma   iffloV  bccu  crcditod  by  most  authors  with  having  been  fiist 

Marucchi,  Lea  bant^quea  et  eglxaes  de  Rome  (Kome,  1902),  u^«-  ^f  r>^«.;       tu:-  :«  ;»^^,..^»4.       t«  k:«  t^ t/ 

173  sqq.;  6e  Roftsi.  Bud,  di  arch,  criet.  (1867).  1  sqq.  to  hear  of  Peru.    This  IS  mcorrect.     In  his  few  at- 

J.  p.  Ejrsch.  tempts  at  exploring  the  coast  of  southern  Panama 

he  heard  only  of  Indian  tribes  of  northern  or  north- 

Balbinus,    Boleslaus,    a    Jesuit    histonan     of  western  Colombia. 

Bohemia,  b.  4  December.  1621,  at  Kdniggratz,  of  an  Oviedo  t  Valdez,  Hiatoria  penend  y  natural  de  laa  Indiaa 

ancient   noble   family;   d.    29   November,    1688,   at  (Madrid.  1850):  Documentoa  inSdHoa  de  Indias  (various  leUare 

-n                 XT         *•      livi  ^„«  ^»,r»4-«^  +^  /k^ll^wifi'nn.  anA  &^^  FeDorts);  GoMARA,  Htstona  general  de  laa  Induu  (Medina 

Prague.    His  entire  life  wm  devoted  to  collecting  and  ^^^  Calnpo.  1653,  Zarkgoia,  16&):  Pascual  de  Andaoota, 

editinK  the  matenals  of  Bohemian  history,  and  nis  Relad&n  de  loe  auceeoa  de  Pedraruxa  Ddvila,  in  Natabrbtb, 


BALDACHINA 

ST.  PAUL  OUTSIDE  THE  WALLS,  ROME 

CHURCH  OF  SANTA  MARIA  IN  TRASTEVERE.  ROME 


BALBUKirA  217  BALDAOHINUM 

#*^  ^^f^?^'  ^^^'  ^^»  ^>»Sf«'*wrM>  de  HitMay  Geomfia  duke  Ferdinand  of  Austria,  who,  in  1522,  designated 

[^U^^i^^rWiSik  teS^2?"^fe  Wm  Bishop  of  Gurk,  and  ^nt  him  to  RomI  on  a 

1726-30);  PREScxyrr,  Hiatory  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru;  Robert-  conp^tulatoiy  embassy  to  the  newly  elected  pontiff, 

BOH,  HiMtory  of  America,  Adrian  VI.    It  was  a  part  of  his  mission  also  to  in- 

Ad.  h.  Bandelier.  duce  the  pope  to  proclaim  a  crusade  against  the 

Balbaana,  Bernardo  db,  a  Spanish  poet,  b.  in  Turk.    The  address  which  he  made  on  being  received 

Val  de  Pefias,  1568;  d.  in  Porto  Rico,  1627.    At  a  ^7  the  pope  in  a  public  audience,  9  February,  1523, 

N-ery  early  age  he  was  taken  by  his  parents  to  Mexico,  abounded  in  extravagant  rhetoric,  but  in  humanistic 

where  he   received  his  education.     Later  he  spent  circles  it  was  considered  a  marvel   of  eloquence. 

fcwdve   years  in  Jamaica,  and  then  passed  the  re-  Balbus  remained  in  Rome  for  some  time,  and  waa 

mainder  of  his  days  as  Bishop  of  Porto  Rico,  to  which  ^^^^  consecrated  Bishop  of  Gurk,  25  March,  1523. 

aee  he  was  appointed  in  ifeo.     He  published  "La  As  a  bishop,  he  enacted  many  wholesome  and  timely 

Grandeza  Mejicana"  in  1604,  and  in  1608,  in  Madrid,  ordinances,   and   had   the   preservation   of   church 

"Siglo  de  Oro  en  las  Selvas  de  Eriphile".  a  very  discipline  sincerely  at  heart,  but  he  was  frequently 

learned    pastoral  romance   abounding  in   beautiful  absent  froni  his  diocese.    From  on,e  of  his  letters  we 

poetic  passages.    The  book,  however,  contained  no  l^am  that  in  the  time  of  Clement  VII  he  lived  at 

description  of  the  scenery  or  manners  of  the  New  Rome  for  some  years  in  the  papal  palace  and  was 

World  and  nothing  connected  with  the  history  of  the  much  in  the  confidence  of  that  pontiff.     In  1530, 

times.      Possibly  for  vthis  reason  it  was  not  in  great  though  quite  an  old  man,  he  accompanied  Charies  V 

d^nand  among  Balbuena's  contemporaries.     But  in  ^  Bologna  to  attend  the  emperor  s  coronation.    At 

1821    it   had  the  honour  of  being  republished  by  Bologna  he  wrote  his  best  known  work,  "  De  corona- 

the  Spanish  Academy.     Another  work  *^E1  Bernardo  t»one  principum",  which,  on  account  of  the  views  it 

6  Victoria  de  Roncesvalles "  was  published  in  Madri*  contains  on  the  relation  of  Church  aiid  Stat«,  was 

in  1624  (new  edition,  1808).     It  is  an  epic  poem  on  Placed  on  the  Index,  23  July,  1611.    Balbus  was  the 

the  subject  of  Spain's  resistance  to  the  invasion  of  author  of  many  other  works.    Of  these,  the  poetical. 

Chariemafne.  oratoncal,  and  politico-moral  writings  were  edited 


Ventura  Fuentes,        ^  Joseph  von  Retzer  (Vienna,  1791-92,  2  vols.). 

His  poems,  in  part  coarse  and  indelicatrc,  are  of  no 


poe 

Balbus,     HiERONTMUs    (AccELLiNTi),    humanist,  particular  merit. 

poet,  diplomatist,  and  Bishop  of  Gu^k  in  Carinthia,  ^  Von  Rctzer.  JVaMruAten  wn  rf«»  Leben  unddenSdiriften 

ribout  1450  at  Venice;  d.  there,  probably  1635     He  i^olTS'^  ^^E^^^il^^^^                                ^aI^ 

was  a  pupil  of  PomponiUS  LaetUS,  the  founder  of  the  KircherUex.,  s.  v.:  Idem.  Gesch.  der  Papste  (1907),  IV,  730. 

Roman  Academy.    As  a  young  man,  by  his  manner  732;  AscHBACH,Geach.  der  Univ.  W'lfn  (1877),  II,  161  eqq.; 

1  v,^„^  •««.  „i;i/l    -Dnik,,-  «.«„«  *««^«f  «IT««««.  k*>  wno  H6FLER,  Papal  Adrian  VI  (Vienna,   1880),  370  aqq.;  Bauch, 

and  beapng  alike,  Balbus  gave  CTeat  offence;  he  was  ^Wc  Rezipti^  des  Humaniinnus  in  ivicn  (i 9a3),  S^q. 

of  a  quarrelsome  disposition,  and,  for  a  time,  led    a  Thomas  Oestreich. 
very  Icxiee  life.     But  in  later  years  he  was  highly 

respected  and  came  to  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  Baldachinum  of  the  Altar,  a  dome-like  canopy 
accomplished  men  of  his  day.    In  1485  he  was  pro-  in  wood,  stone,  or  metal,  erected  over  the  high  altar 
feasor  at  the  University  of  Paris.     His  overbearing  of   larger   churches,   generally   supported   on^  four 
manner  here  soon  brought  him  into  conflict  with  columns,  though  'sometimes   suspended    by   chains 
^▼arious  scholars,  and  in  consecjuence  of  the  attack  from  the  roof.    Other  forms  wiil  be  noted  in  tracing 
which    these  men  made  on  his  character,  he  was  the  cause  of  its  historv.    The  name  is  late  medievaL 
o4)lige<l  to  leave  Paris  in  1491.     A  few  years  later  haldacchino,  from  BMoccOy  Italian  form  of  Bagdad 
(1494),  at  the  invitation  of  Emperor  Maximilian  I,  whence  came  the  precious  cloths  of  which  in  their 
he  went  to  the  University  of  Vienna,  where  he  lee-  later  development  these  canopies  were  made.     It 
tured  on  poetry,  the  Roman  classics,  and  jurispru-  yras  called  earlier  ciborium,  from  the  Greek  Ki^tbpww 
dence.     He  was  again  in  Paris,  for  a  short  period,  in  (the  globular  seed-pod  of  the  lotus,  used  as  a  drinking- 
1495,  and  visited  London  in  1496,  but  resumed  his  cup)  oecause  of  the  similarity  of  its  dome  top  to  an 
professorship  at  Vienna  in  1497.     Here  he  becarae  inverted  cup.    The  early  history  of  the  baldachinum 
a  member  of  the  Danube  Society,  and  lived  on  terms  is   obscure,  but  it  probably  originated  in  the  de- 
of    intimate    friendship   with   its   learned   founder,  sire  to  give  to  the  primitive  altar  table  a  more  dig- 
Conrad  Celtes  the  Humanist,  at  that  time  professor  nified    and    beautiful    architectural    setting.      The 
and  librarian  at  the  University  of  Vienna.    In  little  arcosolium  altars  of  the  catacombs  perhaps  fore- 
J^»  than  a  year,  renewed  contentions  with  his  col-  shadow  this  tendency.     With  the  construction  or 
leagues  forced  him  to  quit  Vienna.     Balbus  next  adaptation  of  the  larger  church  edifices  of  the  fourth 
went    to  Prague  (1498),  where  he  accepted  a  pro-  century,  the   baldachinum   became   their  architec- 
feESorship  which  had  been  obtained  for  him  by  his  tural   centre,   emphasizing   the   importance  of   the 
Viennese  friends.    But  his  irregular  conduct,  scandal-  sacrificial  table  as  the  centre  of  Christian  worship, 
OU9    ^writings,  and  disputatious  temper  soon  drove  Thus,  while  the  altar  retained  its  primitive  simplicitjr 
him  from  tne  city.    On  leaving  Prague  he  withdrew  of  form  and  proportions,  the  baldachinum  gave  it 
to  nwag^ry  (Fftnfkirchen),  and  remained  in  retire-  the  architectural  importance  which  its  surroundings 
ment  for  a  period  of  fifteen  years,  during  which  time  demanded.    By  its  dais-like  effect,  it  designated  the 
be  elianged  his  manner  of  hfe  completely,  and  even  altar  as  a  throne  of  honour.    It  served  also  the  prag- 
tooic    orders.     His  subsequent  career  as  an   eccle-  tical  purpose  of  supporting,  between  its  columns, 
mnstie    vraa    one   of   considerable   distinction.      He  the  altar-curtains,  while  from  its  roof  were  sus- 
bccstme  provost  of  the  Cathedral  Chapter  at  Waizen,  pended   lamps,   vases,   richly   ornamented   crowns, 
1513    later  also  of  that  at  Pressburg,  and,  for  some  and  other  altar  decorations.    The  siunmit  was  sur- 
years,   held   an  important  position  at  the  Court  of  mounted  by  the  altar-cross.     The  eaiiiest  reference 
Hungry,  where  he  was  tutor  of  the  royal  princes,  to  the  baldachinimi  is  found  in  the  "Liber  Pon- 
lo^dprivate  secretary  to  the  king,  Ladislaus  VI.  tificalis"  (ed.  Duchesne,  I,  172,  191,  233,  235)  which 
jjj  1521  Balbus  appeared  at  the  Diet  of  Worms  as  described  the  Fastidium  ar^erUeum  given  by  CJon- 
thc  ambassador  of  Louis  II  of  Hungary,  and  at-  stantine  to  the  Lateran  basilica  during  the  pontifi- 
tracted   considerable  attention  by  an  eloquent  dis-  cate  of  Sylvester  I  (314-336)  and  replaced,  after  the 
^^^       in  which  he  protested  against  the  innovations  ravages  of  Alaric's  (Gothic  hordes,  by  another  erected 
^^Trj^her   and  urged  upon  the  assembled  princes  the  during  the  pontificate  of  Sixtus  III  (432-440).    The 
nLvMfttv  of  a  joint  undertaking  against  the  Turks,  oldest  representation  in  art  is  the  early  sixtn-century 
^nrSv  afterwards  he  was  in  the  service  of  Arch-  mosaic  in  the  church  of  St.  George  in  Thessalo- 


BALOK  218  BALDIBIO 

nio;  while  the  oldest  actual  apecimen  is  that  in  the    was  in  1654,  sent  to  Neubuig  on  the  Danube,  where 

church  of  St.  Apollioare   in  Claeae  at  Ravenna  (c.     he  became  the  intimate  friend  and  adviser  of  the 

810).    The  use  of  the  baldachinum  was  general  up    Count   Palatine   Phihpp  Wilhelm.    Here  he  died. 

to  the  twelfth  century,  when  it  yielded  to  the  growing    The  poetical  works  of  Balde  are  marked  by  a  bril- 

importance  of  the  reliquary  as  an  adjunct  to  the     liant  imagination,  noble  thoughU,  wit  and  numour, 

altar,  sometimes  disappearing  altogether,  sometimes     strength  and  tenderness  of  feeling,  great  learning, 

love  of  nature,  and  knowledge  of  the  human  heart. 

His  mastery  of  classical  I>atin  was  such   that  1m 

wielded  it  with  astonishing  power  and  originality, 

and  he  used  the  ancient  metres  and  poetical  fomu 

with    consummate    ease    and    skill.     His    poetical 

themes  are  the  world  and  relUion,  friendship  and 

fatherland,  art  and  lettere.     His  patriotic  acceuU. 

says  Herder,  have  made  him  a  Germanpoet  for  all 

time.     He  witnessed  the  horrors  of  the  Thirty  Yean 

War,  and  the  devastation  and  disruption  of  hia 

■  country,  and  while  lar--"--  '^'--  '-'-  -'  "^ 

Bought  to  re-awaken  ii 
old  national  spirit. 

Balde  was  above  all  a  lyr.,         ., ^ 

to  the  Virgin  Mother  of  God   bein^  of  surpaeslns 
beauty,  but  he  has  also  written  epic  and  pastoral 
poems,  satiree,  elegies,  and  dramas.     During  his  life- 
time he  was  acclaimed  "the  German  Horace",  but 
soon  after  his  death  he  fell  into  neglect,  until  Herder, 
towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  by  hit 
translation  of  many  of  Balde's  lyrics,  published  in 
the   periodical    "Terpsichore",   revived   the   poet's 
memory  and  the  fame  of  his  genius  among  scholan.     i 
Balde,  nowevest  could  never  nave  become  a  popular     i 
poet  in  the  wider  sense  of  the  word,  as  nearly  all  his 
works  were  written  in  Latin,  which  was  in  his  time 
the  international  language  of  the  cultured   claasee, 
whereas  German  was  too  unwieldy  and  crude  a  ve- 
hicle of  poetical  expression.     Balde's  poetry  is  not 
faultless;  he  occasionally  offends  against  good  taste, 
burdens  his  veisee  with  mythological  lore,  and  does     i 
not  always  keep  his  luxuriant   imagination   under     i 
control.     The  only  complete   edition   of   his   works 
Bau>achihuu  in  St.  Peteh's,  Roua  was  published  in  eight  volumes  at  Munich  in  1729.     i 

BouuEHVooEL.  BibluiOifiiue  di  la  c.  dt  J.,  g.  v.;  Westeb- 
.   ■  -        ,<       r  .  .!_         1'  I    .       UETEH.  Jacobut  Bnlde.  trin  Lrbm  uniJ  Kine  Wrrkt  (Munioh. 

taking  the  form  of  a  canopy  over  the  rehe-casket.      laesi:    Bacmoartneb,  OtidiKhle  dtr  WtUliUeratur    IV,  644-      ■ 

With  the  placiuK  of  the  altar  against  the  wall,  the  650;  Mubt-Sohuehvoqei.,  Jaegu«£iiUs,na(i:rar(b^ui^;iAH    ' 

baldachinum  took  the  form  of  a  projecting  dais  can-  (Sira«burg,  Haui,  leoi). 

opy  {v.  AUar-Caiuipy  imder  Am-Au:  In  Lituhqy)  or  "■  "''ldner.         i 

became  the  ciborium-like  superstructure  of  the  taber^       BaldBTic  (Baudrt),  a  monk  of  Li^,  a  writer  and 

nacle  or  central  tower  of  the  altar.    Italy  was  less  teacher  of  the  twelfth  century,  b.  date  unknown,    I 

affected  by  this  evolution  than  were  the  centres  of  at  Florennes  in  Belgium-  d.  about   1157.     He  was     I 

Gothic  art,  aHd  the  use  of  the  older  form  is  common  proctor  at  the  court  of  Pope  Eugene  III,  and  ac-    I 

there  to-day.     The  most  magnificent  baldachinum  in  companied  him  to  France  when  the  machinations  of    1 

the  world  is  that  in  St.  Peter's  in  Rome  designed  by  Arnold   of    Brescia   compelled   tlie  pontiff   to   leave    ' 

Bernini  for  Pope  Urban  VIII.  Rome.      At  a  synod  held  in  Paris  in  1147,  Baideric    j 

n..„„=    </.■ f  ,*-  ry^..i.,   '"-r^jDc^ng^,  190^);  became  acquainted  with  Albero,  the  Archbishop  of    , 

a  (Londoal  1900).  Trier,   who    induced    him    to   become   head   of  the 

riy  baiiiiicliins.  see  cathedral  school  ID  Trier.     As  long  as  Albero  lived, 

Baideric  remained  his  friend  and  adviser,  and,  after    ' 

o, mi. /....-«.,  ..u,.-.-.  ^  ...I.  «.,„.=. .~.,,  his  death,  wrote  his  biography,  which  is  remarkable 

John  B.  Peterson,  for  its  classical  Latin.    It  is   published   in    Mon. 
Germ;  Script.,  VlII,  243  sqq.,  and  in  P.  L.,  CLIV, 

Balde,  Jacob,  a  German  poet,  b.  4  January,  1604,  1307  sqq.  1 

in  the  Imperial  free  town  of  Ensisheim  m  Upper       WAiTENBAcn,  DntttMitadt  Oadiitiiitautaen  (Berlin,  igM). 

Alsace;  d.  at  Neuburg.  9  August,  1668.  He  studied  \h  3;  Hacch,  Kirchmaachichu  DeuuM-^i,  CLeip««.  IBOS). 
tlie  classics  and  rhetoric  in  the  Jesuit  colWe  of  his         '       "  Micrabl  Ott. 

native  town,  pliiloaophy  and  law  at  the  University 

of  Ingolstadt,  where  on  1  July,  1624,  he  was  admitted  Baldaric.  or  Bavdry,  Bishop  of  Dol,  In  Fraoce, 
into  the  Society  of  Jesus.  Havine  undergone  the  chronicler,  b.  about  1050;  d.  7  January,  1130.  After 
usual  aacetical  and  literary  training  ne  taught  classics  a  brilliant  course  of  studies  at  the  fantous  school  at 
and  rhetoric  in  the  colleges  of  Munich  and  Innsbruck,  Angers,  he  entered  the  Abbey  of  Bouraueil  in  AqJou, 
and  in  his  leisure  hours  composed  the  Latin  mock-  where  he  became  abbot  in  1079.  In  1107  he  re- 
heroic  poem  "Batrachomyomachia"  (The  Battle  of  ceived  from  Pascal  II  the  pallium  of  Bishop  ot  Dol. 
tiie  Fn^  and  the  Mice).  After  completing  his  the-  He  assisted  at  all  the  councils  held  in  his  clay,  went 
ological  studies  at  Ingolstadl,  where  he  was  ordained  several  times  to  Rome,  and  left  an  account  of  a 
priest  in  1633,  he  was  appointed  professor  ot  elo-  journey  to  England.  He  exercised  considerable 
quence  in  the  university.  Called  to  Munich  a  few  activity  in  reforming  monastic  discipline.  The  last 
years  later  to  educate  the  sons  of  Duke  Albert,  he  years  ot  his  lite  were  spent  in  retirement.  He  is 
soon  after  received  the  office  of  court  preacher  to  remembered  as  the  author  of  important  or  interests 
(he  elector  Maximilian.    Owing  to  tailing  health  he  ing  contributions  to  history,  poetiT,  and  hafdo^vphT 


ium,   Tibirium.      Seo    nlao   bitlingraplyj    I 


BALDI  219  BALDOVINITTI 

Balderic's  most  valuable  work  is  his  "Historia  various  parts  of  the  country  to  the  place  where 
flieroeolymitanffi  libri  IV,  an  account  of  the  First  the  missipn  was  being  given.  Many  of  the  people 
Crusade,  based  in  part  on  the  testimony  of  eye-  wore  crowns  of  thorns  and  scourged  themselves  as 
witnesses,  and  submitted  for  correction  to  the  they  went  along.  When  Baldinucci  preached  he  fre- 
Abbot  Peter  of  Maillesais,  who  had  accompanied  quently  carried  a  cross,  and  was  loaded  down  with 
the  Ousaders.  Among  his  other  works  are  poems  heavy  chains.  He  often  walked  up  and  down  among 
on  the  conquest  of  England  and  on  the  reign  of  the  people  scourging  himself  to  blood.  The  exercises 
Philip  I;  lives,  in  Latin,  of  his  friend  Robertus  dfe  Ar-  were  usually  btougnt  to  a  close  by  the  burning  in 
brissello  (published  by  the  Bollandists  under  25  Feb.),  the  public  square  of  cards,  dice,  musical  instruments, 
of  St.  Valerian  (published  bv  Bouquet,  Hist.  Eccl.  etc.  He  always  carried  witn  him  a  miraculous 
de  France),  and  of  St.  Hugn  of  Rouen  (published  picture  of  the  Madonna  which  was  borne  before  him 
by  Du  Monstier,  "Neustria  Pia")j  finally  a  letter  as  he  proceeded  from  place  to  place.  The  propaga- 
te the  monks  of  Fecamp  which  contains  some  valua-  tion  of  devotion  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  was  one  of 
ble  material  relating  to  Breton  manners,  and  to  Eng-  his  special  aims.  To  keep  order  among  the  vast 
lish  and  Norman  monasteries  (Duchesne  and  Bou-  throngs  who  flocked  to  hear  him,  he  always  emploved 
quet,  Historiens  de  France).  a  number  of  laymen  whom  he  called  deputoH.  They 
Hitioin  iMriir^de  la  France,  \llh  400;  MohmiER,  Sovree§  were  not  unfrequently  men  of  very  bad  lives  whom 

it  rkxti.  d€  France,  o«^,,^^  he  chose  purposely  in  order  to  conciliate  and  con- 

J.  V.  Crownb.  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^j^  ^^^^^  ^^  ^.^^gy  ^^  ^^^^ 

Baldi,  Bernardino,  an  Italian  poet  and  savant,  by  great  prudence  and  success.    Though  his  preach- 

b.  at  Urbmo,  5  June,  1553:  d.  at  the  same  place,  ing  was  incessant,  he  found  time  to  write  two  courses 

10  October,  1617.     After  being  initiated  into  higher  o^  Lenten  Sermons,  to  gather  materials  for  many 

mathematics  by  his  fellow-townsman  Commandino,  more,  compose  hundreds  of  discourses,  and  carry 

he  went  to  Padua  (1573)  and  Rome  (1576),  where  he  on  an  immense  correspondence.     The  effect  of  his 

managed   to    acquire   a   wide   erudition,   scientific,  apostolic  work  on  the  excitable  people  among  whom 

dassical,  and  Oriental;  Chaldaic,  Arabic,  and  Persian  ^e  laboured  was  stupendous.     At  times,  when  ap- 

were  among  the  languages  he  learned.     Having  sub-  proaching  a  city,  he  found  crowds  covering  the  walLs 

sequently  taken    orders,   he   was   made   Abbot   of  awaiting  his  arrival.     His  peculiar  methods  are  ex- 

Guastalla  (ilantua)  by  Prince  Ferrante  Gonzaga.     In  plaina.ble  as  those  best  adapted  to  his  surroundings 

spite  of  many  wanderings,  entailing  long-protracted  a^d  times.     After  twenty  years  of  labour  he  died 

abeences,  he  retained  the  abbacy  until  1600,  when  his  at  the  age  of  fifty-two.     He  was  abeady  canonized 

native  city  claimed  hhn   for  the  rest  of  his  life.  ^  public  estimation,  but,  although  the  official  eccle- 

Oaniinal  Cinzio  Aldobrandini,  the  nephew  of  Qem-  siastical  process  was  begun  in  1753,  the  decree  of  his 

ent  Vni,  and  Francesco  Maria  della  Rovere,  Duke  beatification  was  issued  only  on  23  April,  1893. 

'^^'^^^^"^  Pr^  ^^  ^if  ^"^^,^«^>  .  The  latter  v^^^c^V^^cJ^B^l^^in^t?^^^ 

entrusted  him  with  an  embassy  to  Venice  m  1612.  Ltf«   of  Baldinucci   (Rome,    1720);    Bodriom,    Summanum 

Baldi's  poetic  laurels  were  mainly  earned  by  "La.  (Florence);    Bartholomew  Pace,  S.J.   (Baldinucci 'a  com- 

Nautica",   a   didactic   poem   closely   following   the  P*™""),  Svidmee,  Sermon,  p.  116.  t  n  .  »„ 

"Geoigics"  in  finely  polished  blank  verse  (1576).    To  ^-  "*•  ^■^'*b»I'^- 

this  were  added  nineteen  "Egloghe  misto"  (1683),        ».ij i_.4.ii       a   *  ui       t?i        »■ 

"L-invenzionedelbo8Bolo  denaWare",miscellaneoi^        ?f*o^?**'A,   Alesso     a    notable     Florentine 

Aort  poems  (1590),  and  the  "Epigralmmi"  (1614).  §?>?*«■•  ^  ,'?«F*°'5'?'=f ' i*  October,  1427;  d.  there, 

.411  attempt  at  introducing  fourtein  and  eighteen  29  August,  1499.     His  father  was  a  wealthy  merchant. 

^We  Unes  in  "  Lauro '^(1600)  and  "II  iSluvio  but  leaving  the  paternal  business  he  registered  him- 

Univeraale"  (1604),  met  with  utter  failure.    In  addi-  »f"' **  **»«  «f  .  "}  t^enty^ne,  as  a  member  of  the 

tion  to  his  Latin  Vms  and  several  polyglot  com-  Ac^«ny  of  Saint  Luke.    He  called  hunself  a  pupil 

Dilations,  we  haveFcento  ApologW^lsIs),  some  «^  l^\^^}^'  ''^^i^^^ot^^  to  Vasan,  was  tlie 

Siogue^,  a  weU-known   "D^cmione   del  palazzo  master  of  the  famous  Ohirlandajo.    He  experimented 

ducafe  d-^rbino"  (1587),  the  biographies   olF   Fed-  much  with  colours  m  fresco  and  oil  but  his  remaining 

«ico,  second  Duke,  and  fcuidoballo  t,  of  Urbino,  a  ^°^^.  *^,>«"7,  Preserved.  ,  He  had  the  reputation 

turiow  biographiciil  work  on  Italian  and  forei^  **^^^?«  the  ablest  worker  m  mosaic  of  his  day. 
mathematimnli  (Urbino,  1707),  two  Latin  treatises        Baldovinetti  assisted  Andrea  del  Castagno  and 

on  Vitnivius,  numerous  letters  and  translations  from  IJcmemco  Vene«ano  in  the  fr^coes,  smce  destroy^!, 

the  Targum  Onkelos,  the  Arabic  Psalms,  Aratus,  «*   ^*».  ?**"*   ^upva  m   Horenoe.  .Among   his 

MusBusTHero  of  Alexandria,  Aristotle,  ete.    The  works  which  remain  is  a  large  fresco  of  "The  Adora- 

m«»nst^ed  elegance  of  his  diction  gives  him  a  V""*  **'  -^^^  Shepherds     m  the  cloisters  of  Santa 

foremost  rank  asT  prose-writer.    A  stanVd  edition  APPJi"?*^  t?"  "•"  ff^^iFv  ^"^   **!?  ^^"^*' 

of  his  best  writing^  is  that  of  Ugolini  and  PoUdori  2,1  ^i"**  ^^  Domemco  del  Michehno  in  the  duomo. 

(norence,  1859).  B"  JST  ^  ??'"te  °^    7^  ^t  ^""'^^ 

P.  lBn.ii>  Arp6.  Vila  di  Benuudino  BaUx  (Parma.  1788);  Adored  by  Saints  Gualberto  and  Benedetto   ,  now 

ZiccAONiMi,  La  Vila  »  le  open  ediie  ed  inediie  di  Bernardino  m  the  Academy  at  Florence,  was  executed  for  the 

W*  (Parma,  1903).    As.  to  the  spurcee  of  io  ATou/mo.  «»  chureh  of  Santa  TrinitA  m  that  city.     He  painted 

W.KTO.'^^'5S.^^r?r4l2S:U^:  on  the  walls  of  the  choir  of  that  edifece  scenes.,  not 

Edoardo  San  Giovanni.  ^low  extant,  from   the   Old  Testament^  containing 

numerous  portraits  of  his  contemporaries.     In  the 

Baldi,  BxBNAROO.   See  Bernard  of  Payia.  chapel  of  San   Miniato,   Florence,   are  frescoes  of 

Baldinucci,  Anthony,  Blessed,  b.  19  June,  1665,  apgels,  prophets,  and  evanjjelists.    The  same  edifice 

at  Florence;  d.  6  November,  1717.    He  entered  the  al«>,«>^tam8  an  "Annunciation  '.     In  the  ^Uenes 

Society  of  Jesus  21  April,  1681,  and  was  ordained  ^^  *^e  Uffizi  are  an  "Enthroned  Vu^n  and  Child 

priest  28  October,  1695.     After  his  third  year  of  with  Saints",  and  a  most  decorative  and  quaintly 

probation  he  b^n  his  missionary  career  at  Monte  J^race^ul  "Annunciation  '.     His  portrait  by  himself 

Santo.    The  field  of  his  labours  were  the  towns  of  is  m  the  gaUery  at  Bergamo  and  Ghu-landajo  pamted 

Frascati  and  Viterbo,  in  which,  with  the  exception  ^^  near  his  own  in  his  frescoes  in  Santa  Mana  Novella, 

of  some  more  distant  places,  he  laboured  for  the  Florence.  ,.  ,.  ,    „  .,    .      , ,,         ,„^„,  .„ 

rp«t  ftf  hi«  lifA       Hift  mAf ViaHr  nf  nrPA^liinir  xirM^  nf         PiBRom,  R%cord%  d%  A.  Baldovtnettt  (Lucca,  1868};  Bryan, 

rwi  ot  nis  Ule.      wis  metnoas  Ot  preacnmg  were  Ot  Dictionary  of  Paintera  and  Engravers  (London  and  New  York! 

the  most  unusual  and  startling  character.    Splendid  1903-05). 
proeesBions  were  organized  which  proceeded  from  Augustus  Van  Glbbp. 


BALDBSD  220  BALDWIN 

Baldred,  Saint,  (I)  &  Celtic  Bishop  of  Strathdyde,  ings  are  chiefly  in  public  galleries  at  Berlin,  ViennA, 

b.  about  643;  d.  at  Aldhame,  Haddingtonshire,  about  Munich,  Stuttgart,  Prague,  Darmstadt,  Basle,  Karls- 

607.     He  is  said  to  have  been  the  immediate  sue-  ruhe,  Aschaffenbui^s:,  and  Frankfort.     In  the  Berlin 

cessor  of  the  great  St.  Kentigem,  or  Mungo,  the  Museum  are  ''Christ  on  the  Cross"  (two  pictures), 

founder  of  the  See  of  Glasgow,  Scotland.    Like  St.  a  triptych  "Adoration  of  the  Kings",  with  saintaon 

Kentigem,  he  was  of  Irish  ancestry,  but  is  reckoned  the  mterior  and  exterior  of  the  wings,  and  "The 

as  a  British  saint,  inasmuch  as  Strathdyde  was  part  Stoning  of  Saint  Stephen";  in  the  Munich  Pinako- 

of  Britain.    The  chronology  of  the  period  when  he  thek,  the  portrait  of  his  friend  ^  Margrave  PhiUipp 

floiuished  is  somewhat  obsciure,  but  the  best  au-  Christoph  of  Baden;  at  Vienna  m  the  Museum,  tne 

thorities  on  Scottish  history  agree  that  St.  Baldred  ''Portrait  of  a  Young  Man",  and  a  portrait  of  him- 

was  bom  towards  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century,  self  in  green;  in  the  Academy,  a  '^oly  Family"; 

Previous  to  his  consecration,  St.  Baldred  had  laboured  in  the  Liechtenstein  Gallery,  ''The  Ages  of  Man  in 

for  many  years  in  Strathdyde,  and  had  founded  Six  Female  Figures",  and  a  "Madonna";    in  the 

numerous  houses  for  monks  as  also  for  holy  virgins  SchOnbom  Gallery,  "Adam  and  Eve", 

in  addition  to  the  churches  of  Aldhame,  Tyinguham  .  Champlin  and  Pertos,  Cyctopedio  of  PainttrB  and  Paints 

and  Preston  Kirk.    Owing  to  the  disturbed  state  of  *£SjiS^.''&l^t^^^''¥^f^:S^!^.  '^  "^'"^  "" 
the  kingdom,  he  was  forced  after  a  short  rule  to  re-  Augustus  Van  Cleef 

B^toral'Zt;Se^^rhir;.^^J^f*''?lt       ?^«^V°-    SeeCoNsr^KT^oP... 
feast  is  observed  on  6  March.     (2)   Baldred,  or        Baldwin  I-v.    See  Jerusalem,  Kingdom  op. 
Balthbrus,  a  holy  hermit-priest  of  the  eighth  cen-        Baldwin,  Archbishop   of   Trier    and   Elector  of 

tury,  who  has  been  confounded  with  the  preceding  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  b.  1285;  d.  1354;  he  belonged 

Scottish  saint.     According  to  Simeon  of  Durham  and  to  the  noble  family  of  the  Counts  of   Luxemburg, 

Hovendeus  the  date  of  nis  death  is  given  as  756.  or  Liltzelburg,  and  was   a  brother  of  the  Emperor 

Turgot  of  Durham  is  more  explicit,  and  he  tells  us  Henry    VIL    When    he    was    only    three    veare 

that  Baldred,  or  Baltherus,  the  priest,  died  "in  the  of  age,   his   father.  Count  Henry  III,  was  kOled 

seventeenthyearof  the  episcopate  of  C^ulf",  that  is  in   battle.    The    cnarge  of    Baldwin's    education, 

756,  or  on  tne  6  March,  757.    This  Baldred  is  asso-  therefore,  devolved  on  his  mother,  Beatrix  of  Aves- 

ciated  with  the  See  of  Lindisfame,  and  was  an  Eng-  nes,  and  his  brother,  the  future  emperor.     Being 

lishman.    Numerous  miracles  are  ascribed  to  him,  exceptionally  talented,  ho  was  sent  at  the  early 

and  his  feast  is  given  as  6  March.  age  of  thirteen*"  to  the  University  of  Paris,  where, 

To  add  to  the  confusion,  some  writers  have  im-  under  the  direction  of  two  private  tutors,  he  re- 
agined  that  this  Baldred  is  identical  with  Bilfritt,  ceived  a  thorough  education.  In  1305,  when  the 
or  Bilfrid,  a  hermit  eoldsmith,  whose  exquisite  work  Archbishop  of  Mainz  died,  Henry  wished  to  pro- 
may  yet  be  seen  in  the  British  Museum  on  the  cover  cure  this  archiepiscopid  see  and  electorate  for  his 
of  a  Book  of  Gospels,  generally  known  as  the  Gospels  brother,  and  sent  his  former  physician,  Peter  Aich- 
of  St.  Cuthbert.  This  cover  was  made  during  the  spalter,  then  Bishop  of  Basle,  to  Pope  Clement  V, 
rule  of  Bishops  Eadfrid  and  Ethelwold  of  Lmdis-  at  Avignon,  with  instructions  to  use  his  influence 
fame,  698  to  740.  The  relics  of  St.  Bilfrid  were  in  behSf  of  Baldwin.  The  pope,  however,  refused 
discovered  by  Aelfrid,  and  were  placed,  with  those  to  entrust  the  most  important  archiepiscopal  see 
of  St.  Baldred,  in  St.  Cuthbert's  shrine  at  Durham,  of  Germany  to  a  youth  who  was  then  onlv  mneteen 
but  were  subsequently  transferred  to  the  shrine  of  years  old.  When  Aichspalter,  shortly  after,  cured 
St.  Bedein  1104.  the  pope  of  a  severe  sickness,  he  was  himself  made 

CoMERARius,  quoted  hi  Forbe.  Kalendar  of  ScoUuh  SainU;  Archoishop   of    Mainz,  with    the   understanding,   it 

fr^T^titMar^i&J^'r^"doSTBi:^'^Z1^"<i  ^^^  *^?*  ^'^^.T- '"'"  1"  '''T'^  the  aged  Arch- 

the  Sainta  (March  6).  bishop  Diethcr  of  Trier.     Atxjordmgly,  when  Diethcr 

Acta   SS.    (March   6),  I;    Baring   Gould,  Livet   of   the  (Jied    in     1307,    Baldwin    became    Archbishop    and 

2^%iiiu^(U^)  "m  "^  ^^'*~''*^'  O'"^'^*''  -"^  *»/  <*•  Elector  of  Trier.    He  was  consecrated,  1 1  March,  1308, 

*  W.  H.  G RATTAN  Flood.  ^^  Poitiers  by  tlie  pope  himself  and  took  possession 

of  his  archbishopric  on  the  2d  of  June,  in  the  same 

Baldong,  Hans,  known  as  Grien  or  GrOn,  from  year, 
his  fondness  for  brilliant  green,  both  in  his  own        Though    only    twenty-two    years    old,    Baldwin 

costume  and  in  his  pictures,  a  vigorous  and  dis-  had  many  equalities  which  fitted  him  for  the  triple 

tinguished  painter,  engraver,  and  draughtsman  on  office    of    bishop,    prince,    and    elector.     Without 

wood,   b.   at  Gmtind,  Swabia,  about   1476;    d.   at  levying  special  taxes  he  paid  off  within  a   short 

Strasburg,  1545.     Baldung  was  a  lifelong  friend  of  time  the  many  debts  incurred  by  his  predecessor, 

Dtirer  and  received  a  lock  of  the  latter's  hair  when  and  he  fearlessly  asserted  his  rights  of  sovereignty 

he  died.     Durer  influenced  Baldung's,  work,  as  did  over  the  refractory  municipal  authorities  of  Trier. 

MatthsBus  Griinewald  and  Martin  Schongauer.     His  Shortly    after    the    new    archbishop's    consecration 

portraits,  when  unsigned,  have  at  times  passed  as  the  the  Emperor  Albert  was  murdered.  (May,    1308), 

work  of  that  greater  master,  DUrer.     An  exceptional  and  Baldwin,  acting  with  Archbishop  Aichspalter 

draughtsman  and  a  ^ood  colourist,  Baldung's  work  of   Mainz,    prevailed;    upon    the   other   electors    to 

is  marked  by  an  original  and  fertile  imagination,  award  the  imperial  crown  to  Henry  of  Luxemburg. 

He  is  thought  to  have  worked  with  Dikrer  at  Nurem-  During  the  snort   reign  of   Henry  VII   (1309-13) 

berg  for  two  years,  assisting  him  and  painting  under  Baldwin  was  his  brother's  most  influential  adviser 

his  eye  the  copies  of  "Adam  and  Evo"  now  in  the  and  accompanied  him  in  his  expeditions  through 

Pitti  Gallery  at  Florence.     He  became  a  citizen  of  the  empire   and   to   Rome.    After   Henry's    death 

Strasburg  in  1509,  and  was  made  senator  the  year  he  desired  as  emperor  his  nephew.  King  John  of 

of  his  death.  Bohemia,  then  only  eighteen  years  old.     However, 

Baldung  spent  seven  years  at  Freibui^  in  the  Breis-  seeing  the  futihty  of  his  efforts  to  win  the  other 


on  the  inside  the  Apostles  and  on  the  outside  four  of  Bavaria.     But  all  his  attempts  to  gain  over  the 

scenes  from  the  life  of  Our  Lady.    Two  altar  pieces  opposing  electors  were  unsuccessful,  and  a  double 

in  the  Convent  of  Lichenthal,  near  Baden-Baden,  are  election   resulted.     During   the  civil   war  of    eight 

assumed  to  be  his  earliest  works.    Baldung 's  paint-  years  which  ensued  he  fought  on  the  side  of  Louis 


the  Bavarian,  and  contHbuted  largely  to  his  final  Charies  V  (1519-56)  at  Brussels.  He  subsequently 
success.  In  the  conflict  between  Louis  and  Pope  travelled  extensively,  appearing  at  Paris  and  Q^eva 
John  XXII,  which  was  equally  disastrous  to  Church  several  times  and  teacnin^  successively  at  Bourges 
and  Empire,  Baldwin  also  sided  with  Louis,  and  (1549-56),  Strasburg,  Heidelberg,  Douai.  Paris,  and 
for  this  reason  did  not  receive  the  papal  approba-  Anjgers.  The  assertion  of  his  sevenfold  change  of 
tion  when  the  Cathedral  Chapter  of  Mainz  postu-  rehgion  from  Catholicism  to  Calvinism  and  from 
l&ted  him  as  successor  to  Aichspalter  (who  d.  5  June,  Calvinism  to  Catholicism  cannot  be  substantiated. 
1320).  Upon  the  death,  in  1328,  of  MatthicLs,  But  it  is  certain  that,  in  the  earlier  part  of  his  life, 
whom  the  pope  had  appointed  Archbishop  of  Main2,  he  exhibited  toward  the  Calvinistic  system  a  friend- 
to  succeed  Aichspalter,  Baldwin  was  again  postu-  liness  incompatible  "with  sound  OEitholic  convictions. 
lat€d  as  archbishop  by  the  Cathedral  Chapter  of  This  attitude  for  some  time  recommended  him  to 
Mainz,  took  possession  of  the  archdiocese,  and  princes  for  the  settlement  of  rehgious  questions  in- 
administered  it  nearly  nine  vears  (1328^-37).  teresting  both  Catholics  and  Protestants.  His  at- 
d^pite  the  protests  of  the  pope,  who  had  appointeo  tachment  to  the  Faith  gradually  grew  stronger,  how- 
Heniy  Virneburg  to  the  position.  On  the  16th  of  ever,  and  beginning  with  the  year  1560,  he  made  a 
July,  1338,  he  took  an  important  part  in  the  meet>-  se:*iou8  study  of  ecclesiastical  questions,  successfully 
ing  of  the  imperial  electors  at  Reuse,  near  Coblenz,  defending  the  Catholic  relieion  against  Calvin.  He 
where  they  protested  against  all  papal  interference  died  a  devout  Catholic  in  the  arms  of  the  celebrated 
in  the  election  of  the  emperors  and  decided  that  Spanish  Jesuit,  Maldonatus. 

the  emperor  elected   by   them   could   exercise  his  Baldwin  was  a  very  prolific  writer  on  juridical  and 

imperial    authority    without    the    approbation    of  ecclesiastical  topics.     Among  his  works  are:  ^'Con- 

thp    ivknA       Whon     rHAmpnt.     VT     n»nAW<^     the    ex-  stftntinun  MAimiia"    ^Rjuile.    l/)Kf)!   St.rfliihiir<r.    181 2^t 


pope.     When    Clement    VI    renewed    the   ex-    stantinus  Majgnus"  (Basle.  1556:  Strasburg,  1612); 
nunication  of  Louis  the  Bavarian,  and  there    '^Minucii  Felicis  Octavius''  (Heidelberg,  1560).     He 


the 
communication 


electors  to  declare  hovas  deposed  and  elect  Charles  IV  „  NicAeon.  Hommu  lUutr.  (Paris.  1734).  XXVIII.  265-277; 

•mrwMi^*      Tlolrlii/in    M-nxxm^    fho    n*»w    AmnAfv^r    nf  RAsB,  Convertiten  (Freiburg.  1866),  II.  176-187;  Schaumkell, 

?°ff"^^\.«   r   r^*?o-^^^^                          emperor    at  Der  RechUoeUhrU  F.  BaMuinua  {\S94), 

Awhen,  26  July,  1349.  N.  A.  Weber. 

Within    his    own    diocese    Baldwm    successfully  ««ij,^«  ^#  n«^4.-.,v«,^  *u-  *      •  *u  a    uu-  u 

fought  against   the    many   robber-barons   who   at  ^^J?'  OanUrbunr..thirty-nmth  Archbishop, 

tSi  timi    mfested    Europe.     He    destroyed    their  anativeof  Exeter^date  of  birth  unknown;  d.  1^9  Nov. 

rtnmgholds  and   forced   the   barons  to  submit  to  l^%    ^e  was  ordained  pnest  and  made  archdeacon 

the  ^ws  or  leave  his  domain.     He  promoted  com-  ^V  Bartholomew,   Bishop    of    Exeter      He  subse- 

meree  by  erecting  the  bridge  which  still  spans  the  9,^*^?  ^<^^®  a  Cistercian  monk  at  the  Abbey  of 

River    ftoselle    at    Cobles.     Numerous    lurches  Foixi    in  l>evonshire,  and  w^^^ 

in  various  parts  of  the  diocese  were  buUt  by  him,  ^bbot  of  Ford     In  1180  he  was  promoted  to  the 

and  many  wholesome  decrees  were  passed  at  the  Bishopnc  of  Worcester  and  m  the  same  year  was 

synods    which    he    convoked.     But  SWwin,    the  elected  to  the  pnmatial  see  by  the  bishop  of  the 

bi8hop,  dwindles   beside   Baldwin,  the  soldier  and  prown(«.    The  election  was  disput^  by  the  mon^^ 

statesman.     During    the    forty-six    yeara    of    his  of  Canterbui^.  who  chose  first  the  Ab^^^ 

leign    (1308-54)     the    destini^    of    the    German  ^^   Theobald,    Cardiml-Bishop    of   Ostia.     King 

Empire  were  largely,  guided  by  the  powerful  hands  ^enry  II  interfered.    Baldwin,  who,  accordmg  to 

of  tCs  prelate-pnn^ce     He  was  a  shrewd  diplomat  Gervase,  refused  to  accept  the  arehbishopnc  unless 

and  a  brove  soldier,  but  above  all  he  was  a  member  ^^  ^^s  elected  by  the  monks,  was  installed,  and  an 

of  the  house  of  Luxemburg,  and  its  aggrandizement  arrangement  was  entered   mto   by  which,   m   the 

was  the  mainspring  of  his  political  activities.    The  future,  the  bishops'  elections  were  t^)  be  disal  owed. 

Avignonese  popes,  John  :?^II  and   Qement   VI,  He  was  several  tunes  engaged  m  disputes  with  the 

mayhave  s^^jp  unjust  claims  in  regard  to  the  Canterbury  monks,  necessitating  the  further  mter- 

imperial   office,    but    there    is   no   justification   for  ference  of  Kmg  Richard  and  of  the  Holy  See.    The 

Biidwin's   sidiig   with    Louis    the    Bavarian   even  P^^^j  ^orreys,  whom  he  had  nominated,  was  de- 

after  that  emperor  was  deservedly  excommunicated.  P^^/J^j^  ^  ^^^  ^  appomt  the  pnors  was  ac- 

There  may  luive  been  palliating  circumstances  as  ^nowlea^.                    ^    •    xir  i        l       i.    l  u 

to  his  adnoinistration  ofthe  Arehdiocese  of  Mainz  .  Baldwm  act^  as  legate  in  Wales,  where  he  held  a 

in  opposition  to  the  pope's  command,  but,  as  a  visitation  m  1187,  and  in  1188  preached  the  Crusade, 

•abject  of   the   pope,  lie  should   have  submitted,  after  having  himself  taken  the  cross  on  hearmg  the 

Heiras  the  author  of  the  so-caUed  "Balduineum",  news  of  the  loss  of  Jerusalem.     Irrll90  he  ^t  out 


in  the  Cathedral  of  Trier.  Giraldus  Cambrenais  describes  him  as  gentle,  kindly 

DAMBERGiai,  SiTichronutuKhe  Oe^ehichte  der  Kircke  und  dkr  disposed,  learned,  and  religious.     He  died  during  the 

WtU  im  Mtudalter  (RegeDaburK.  I860),  XII-XIV,  iwflsim.  siege  of  Acre,   leaving  all  he  possessed  for  the  relief 

l^?^^''^'^\^^4^j^'^'^^'R'it^  of  the  Holy  Land  and  naming  Bishop   Hubert  as 

Kmf  (tflbingen.  tm.  IsSS);  D«  LoHwa  in  KirehenUx.,  hw  executor.     His  works  (to  be  found  m  the  "Bib- 

«.  T.;  Browkr-Mabbn.  Antiq,  et  AvmaL  Trev.  (Li^e.  1670).  II;  liotheca  Patrum  Cistereiensium  ",  V)  are  "De  Com- 

!^Sj  .^r?St^'!^ifi2iNf''ife^  mendatione    Fidei  ";    "De    Sacramento     Altaris". 

1SIA-I8t8  (GOttincen,    1894);    Voor,   Reichtpolttik  de%  Erz-  rpi  i  j*  j  •*      *•  i 

bi»Aof9  Ba!kvrin  wdei  Jahren  1398-1334  mt^,  1901).  There   are  also  some  discourses  and   a  pemtential 

Michael  Ott.  in  MS.  preserved  in  the  Lambeth  Library. 


junst, 

German 

inw  sent  in  his  early  youth  to  Louvain,  where  he 

•todied  jurisprudence  with  ereat  success.     At  the        Balearic  Isles,  a  group  in  the  western  part  of 

cod  of  his  studies  he  came  to  the  court  of  the  Emperor    the  Mediterranean  belonging  to  Spain  and  conflict* 


BALS8                               222  ftAlX 

ing  of  four  larger  islands,  Majorca,  Minorca,  Ivica,  Gothic  stvle,  begun  during  the  reign  of  James  I  and 
and  Formentera,  and  eleven  smaller  islands  of  rocky  not  completed  until  1601;  in  1905  the  cathedral  was 
formation.  Politically  they  form  the  Balearic  prov-  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  minor  basilica.  The  most 
ince,  and  on  31  December,  1000,  had  an  area  of  1936  frequented  places  of  pilgrimage  are  the  shrines  of 
square  miles  and  a  pooulation  of  311,649,  almost  San  Salvador,  Nostra  Sefiora  de  Lluch,  and  the 
exclusively  Catholic.  The  capital  is  Palmia.  The  Santuario  del  Tuig  de  PoUenza. 
original  inhabitants  of  these  islands  were  of  Iberian  The  Diocese  of  Iviza  nominally  united  with  Ma- 
stock,  and  were  famous  in  antiquity  as  slingers.  In  jorca,  but  in  reality  ruled  by  its  own  vicar-capitular, 
the  seventh  century  b.  g.  they  were  subiugated  by  contains  26,000  Catholics,  22  parishes,  26  churches 
the  Carthaginians;  in  206  b.  c,  the  city  of  Mahon  was  and  chapels,  about  50  priests,  and  1  seminarv. 
built  by  Hannibars  brother  Mago  and  called  after  his  The  Dioeese  of  Minorca  embraces  the  island  of  that 
name.  In  123-122  B.  c,  the  Koman  consul  Quintus  name  and  contains  40,000  CathoUcs.  23  parishes,  80 
CaBcilius  Metellus  conquered  the  islands  and  founded  churches  and  chapels,  about  102  secular  and  6  regular 
the  cities  of  Palma  and  Pollen tia.  The  Romans  were  priests,  an  episcopal  seminary,  at  Ciudadela,  an  Insi- 
Bucceeded  in  the  sovereignty  of  the  islands  by  the  tuto  de  segunda  ensefianza  at  Mahon,  35  primary 
Vandals  (426)  under  Gensenc  as  leader;  during  the  schools,  3  benevolent  institutions  conducted  by  the  Sis- 
reign  of  Justinian  they  were  subject  to  Byzantine  au-  ters  of  Mercy,  viz:  a  hospital  and  a  foundling  asylum 
thority.  Charlemagne  incorporated  them  for  a  while  at  Midion,  and  a  foimdling  asylum  at  Ciudadela.  The 
with  the  Prankish  empire,  but  in  798  they  fell  into  cathedral  was  built  in  1287  on  the  site  of  a  mosque, 
the  hands  of  the  Arabs.  About  1230  James  I  (Jaime)  and  having  been  partially  destroyed  in  1628,  was 
of  Aragon  gained  possession  of  the  islands  and  con-  restored  in  1719.  In  1795  it  was  raised  to  the  rank 
f erred  the  sovereignty  on  his  third  son,  who  trans-  of  a  cathedral. 

mitted  it  to  his  descendants:    from  1276  to  1343  they  ^  Browmx,  The  Balearic  Idandt  (London,  1876);  Cartailhac, 

formed   the   independent    kingdom   of   Majorca,   a  ^<>»»«n~^,jprt7g»/«rf««<fe«Bai4?^ 

J            ..          ^V  A                  X  *!.     I   i!    ^^i^^y^t,   «  L€«Ue«ouMt^«(Pans,  18d3):  Salvator,  IH^BaZearen  (2  vols., 

secundo  geniture  of  Aragon,  at  the  latter  date  bemp  WonbuM  and  iKsipsi^.   i^):   Feawsi:,  Skizten  von  den 

reunited  to  the  Crown.      In  the  war  of  the  Spanish  BaUaritcKen  Inaeln  (Leipiig.  1898);  Recensio  Ecdesia  Maiori- 

Suction  Minorca  was  occupied  by  the^di  ^JS^Tn^i^^n^S;  ^^dsSi):t^1r;i.^'^ 

(1708)  and  remamed,  with  the  exception  of  a  brief  BiUioiaoa  maUor«uirta  (Palma,  18&.) 

interval  (1756-63),  in  their  possession  imtil  by  the  Joseph  Lins. 

Christianity  reached  the  Balearic  Idee  almost  as  X"*^?"j^'''=vf"'*A'^  martyr  b.  at  Coniscliffe  n^ 

soon   as  the   Spanish  mainland.    As  early  as  the  ^'^'"JfJ?°'  ^""^  V^^^  ^""^"^  1^"^.  ^^i 

fourth  century  mention  is  made  of  Bishops  of  Minorca  executed  4  March    1590      He  entered  the  Enghsh 

and  in  the  fifth  century  of  Bishops  of  W"*  and  p°"?f  »*  R°°J«'  ^ ?<"?,'^r'  ^^'  r"*  ^      I  ^  ^ 

Iviza.    During  the  periid  of  Arabian  rule  these  sees  ^ealtE  was  sent  to  the  Coll^  at  Reims,  wBere  he 

were  suppresSd,  an^  the  islands  were  placed  under  J^  *''^«*,  ^?„  *?""*»'   ^^^-  ^,"^  *°  Sf "^"^ 

the  Bishop  of  Barcelona.    After  the  exp^ilsion  of  the  ^  November  1588  he  was  soon  arrested  racked;  and 

Moors  a  J^  was  re^tablished  on  the  Island  of  Bla-  tortured  by  topcliffe  and  hung  up  by  the  hands  for 

jorca  (1237),  in  direct  dependence  on  the  Holy  See,  twenty-fout  hours  at  a  time;  ^e  bore  aU  most  pa- 

ind  in  1238  Raymund  Se  Torella  was  made  first  *J?'{*'y-    A*  l«"8th  he  was  tried  and  condenmed  for 

hi«l,on     Th«  Hio^  which  hM  h«>n  n.Ipd  hv  fiftv.  ?"«h  treason,  on  the  charge  of  having  been  ordam_ed 


Iviza,  and  in  1795  Minorca  were  erected  into  separate  fir"''?''i  '^P"™^  "'  "'«  '?"f''^'  ""."^  f        k„ 

sees.    In  1851  Iviza  was  reunited  with  Majorea"  The  The  judge  said  no   but  ^t  the  act  had  smce  h^ 

Balearic  Isles  are  at  present  divided  mio  two  dio-  ^  ^^^J"  }?.  ^^-    ««  suffered  4  March,  1590, 

ceses  subject  to  the  eccfesiastical  province  of  Valencia:  l^^*'  Rafter  ',  m  Fleet  Street  ^I>owte  Fetter  Lane^ 

Majorca  and  Iviza  (DuBcesu  MaioricentU  el  Ibuser^  ?»  t^e  gibbet  was  seta  ^lacartf:  "For  treason  and 

««),  with  Pahna  as  the  see,  and  Minorca  (DixcetU  JavounnK  foreign  invasion  '.    He  spoke  to  the  peojrfe 

Milioricensie),  with  Ciudadelk  as  the  see.  f«"»  J^       •**^/,:!^'""J\*Hu  ^^''^  ^  T^^  V^'^u 

The  Dioc^  of  Majorca,  exclusive  of  Iviza,  em-  S"u  ^  ^e«th«^-     2S  *:^^J^^^t,^/t^^'^^^ 

braces  the  islands  of   Ma:jorca,  Cabrera,  anj  Co-  Nicholas  -Horner  suffered  m  Smithfield  for  haying 

lubnma;  in  1906  it  contained  a  pipuUtion  of  262,000,  P'^e  ^alw  a  lerkin  and  Venerable  Alexander  Blake 

divided  into  8  archipresbyterat^,  39  parishes  anJ  m  Gray's  Inn  W  for  lodging  him  in  ^  house, 

(at  the  beginmng  of   1907)   47  mission  churches;  (Trier.  168»):  Challoher.  Uemoirt:  Pou,bn,  Ac*  of  Bn^th 

704  priests,  including  60  who  are  not  residing  in  the  iianyn  (Loodon,  liny.  Northern  Calholie  CaUndarf  Knox, 

dioc^;  318.church«,  and  oratories     The  cathe<tad  SX'a^JSS;  te^."  i^??v51.°/t!'I>«S^!^.^^^ 

chapter  consists  of  6  prebendaries,  4  officials,  and  7  jxary  (London.  1880).  RwnR  Cx^ru 

canons.    The  training  of  jroung  men  for  the  priest-  dedsv^amoi, 

hood  is  provided  for  in  the  seminario  concitiar  in        Ball,  Mother  Frances  Mary  Tsresa,  b.  in  Dublin 

Palma  which  has  12  professors  and  145  students.  9  January,  1794;  d.  19  May,  1861;  foimdress  of  the 

In  1907  the  diocese  contained  33  houses  of  religious  Irish  Branch  of  the  Institute  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 

orders  conducted  by  13  religious  congregations  of  Mary  (see  Institute  of  Mary,  Irish).    She  was  a 

men:  Jesuits  1;  Capuchins  1;  Hermits  of  St.  Augustine  daughter  of  John  Ball  and  Mabel  Clare  Bennet.     At 

1 ;  Mercedarians  1  •  Tertiaries  regular  of  St.  Francis  3;  the  age  of  nine  years,  Frances  was  sent  to  the  convent 

Mission  Priests  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  1 ;  Oratorians  of  school  at  the  Bar,  York,  England,  conducted  by  the 

St.  Philip  Neri  2;  Brothers  of  the  Chrbtian  Schools  4:  English  Ladies  of  the  Institute  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 

Redemptorists  5:  Missionaries  of  the  Most  Sacred  Mary.     She  remained  here  until  the  death  of  her 

Hearts  4;  Carmelites  2-  Hermits  of  Sts.  Paul  and  An-  father,  in  1808,  and  then  spent  some  time  with  her 

thony  4;  Brothers  of  Mercy  4;  and  149  foundations  mother  at  home.    In  1814,  under  the  direction  of  Dr. 

conducted  by  twenty-five  orders  and  congregations  Daniel  Murray,  Archbishop  of  Dublin,  Frances  re- 

of  women:  Poor  Clares.  Dominicans,  Hieronymites,  turned  to  York  and  entered  the  novitiate   of  the 

Carmelites,    *  "'  --        '    ^'       "    ^ '-''  --— -' -^-  «' ^  ^r.^:^  xm.^,     r^u^^  ^u^  ^ 

Sisters 

the  churches  the  most  important ,  r      • 

Palma  called  La  Leo,  an  enormous  edifice  built  in  Teresa.     Recalled  by  Archbishop  Murray,  she 


BALLAS4T  223  BiLI.ISRTNI 

tamed  to  Dublin  with  two  novices,  in  1821,  to  es-  tralada.    He  was  succeeded  by  the  Right  Rev.  Joseph 

tablkh  the  Irish  Branch  of  the  Institute  of  the  Blessed  Higgins,  who  was  translated  from  the  See  of  Rock- 

Yirffu  Mary  for  the  instruction  of  children.    In  1822  hampton  on   the  3rd   of  March,   1905.     He  made 

sk  opened  the  first  institution  of  the  order  in  Ireland,  mission-  and  school-extension  the  chief  work  of  his 

in  Rathfarnam   House,   foiw   miles   from   Dublin,  episcopate.    The  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Cluny  were 

Mother  Frances  was  a  woman  of  great  piety  and  ad*  introduced;  convents,  primary  and  high  schools,  and 

minifltrative  ability.     Her  energies  were  devoted  to  churches  (over  twenty  in  two  years  to  March,  1907) 

the  establishment  of  schools  and  to  the  development  erected-  and  many  new  missions  organized.    Much  of 

of  the  sisterhood  which  mow  has  members  in  many  the  work  summanzed  here  has  been  carried  out  in  the 

countries.  once  drought-scourged,  but  now  prosperous,  Mallee 

CoLiRiDOE,  The  Life  of  Mother  France  Mary  Tereea  Ball  country:   and    remote   Mildura,   the    Ultima   Thule 

(loDdoD,  1881).  T?^,»^-^.  "n^TrD-o-  of  the  diocese,  has  now  a  resident  priest,  a  convent 

Ballarat,  Diocese  of,  one  of  the  three  suffragan  daily  attendance  of  130  pupils, 
dioceses  of  the  ecclesiastical  province  of  Melbourne,        Religious  Statistics. — In  March,  1907,  there  were: 

Aus^lia.     It  comprises  that  part  of  the  State  of  parochial  districts,  29;  churches,  145;  secular  priests, 

Victoria  which  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  144th  62;  regular  priests,  10;  religious  brothers,  17:  nuns.  230; 

meridian  £.  longitude,  thence  by  the  Loddon  to  the  convents,  18;  college  (boys),  1;  superior  day  scnools 

River  Murray;  on  the  north  by  the  River  Murray;  (boys)  2;  boarding  schools  (girls),  10;  superior  day 

on  the  west  by  South  Australia;  and  on  the  south  schools  (girls),  9;  primary  schools,  57:  home  for  aged    . 

l^  the  Southern  Ocean.  pooi*,  I*  orphanage,  1;  children  in  CJatholic  schools. 

History. — ^Victoria  (known  till  1851  as  the  Port  4,900;  (Jatholic  population,  59,488. 

Phillip  District  of  New  South  Wales)  was  first  per-         Moran.  Hiatory  of  the  Catholic  Chweh  in  Au«frato«a  (Syd- 

mrJiUv  colonized  in  1835.    The  rich  pastures  of  T^t;J-^JlZ\"S^M''^^i.W[!'?i^)l'^'^ 

the  Ballarat  distnct  were  occupied  m   1838.      i^or  «ume«Ca<^2u;cB  (Propaganda,  Home.  1907)  688. 
thirteen  years  thereafter  the  site  of  Ballarat  was  a  Henry  W.  Cleary. 

picturesque  pastoral  scene.    In  1851  the  Port  Phillip 

District  was  formed  into  a  separate  colony  under        Ballerinii    Girolamo    and     Pietro,    celebrated 

the  name  of  Victoria.    It  was  a  period  of  severe  com»  theologians  and  canonists,  the  sons  of  a  distinguished 

matdal  depression,  and  many  of  the  colonists  pre-  surgeon  of  Verona.     A  rare  intellectual  sympathy 

pared  to  set  out  for  the  newly  discovered  goldfields  bound   these   brothers   together  and   led   them   to 

of  Ophir,  in  New  South  Wales.    On  29  June,  1851,  the  assist  each  other  in  the  preparation  and  composition 

first  profitable  goldfield  in  Victoria  was  discovered  at  of  their  many  works.     Girolamo  was  born  at  Verona 

dunes  by  James  W.  Esmond,  an  Irish  Catholic  miner,  29  January,  1702,  and  died  23  April,  1781.     After 

who  had  been  on  the  Sacramento  in  '49.    The  hopes  finishing  his  course  in  the  Jesuit  college  of  his  native 

of  the  colonists  rose;  ebbed  again  as  Clunes  proved  city  he  entered  the  seminary  and  was  ordained  a 

a  passing  disappointment;  then  came  in  with  a  rush  secular  priest.    In  the  pursuit  of  his  favourite  his- 

wieUf  in  August,  rich  gold  was  struck  at  Ballarat.  torical  studies  he  soon  came  to  appreciate  the  valua- 

Many  of  theuttle  eieht-feet-equare  claims  were  mar-  ble  labours  of  the  learned  Cardinal  Noris,  also  of 

vdloualy  rich,   lined    with   "jewelers'  shops"  and  Verona,    and    brought    out    (1729-33)    a    complete 

"pockets"  of  cold.    Ballarat  became  at  a  boimd  the  edition  of  his  works.    The  scholarship  of  the  editors 

richest  goldfidd  in  the  world,  and  forty  thousand  is  best  seen  in  the  fourth  volume,  especially  in  their 

people  were  soon  encamped  upon  it.    Rich  fields  were  dissertations  against  Gamerius,  and  in  their  study 

discovered  in  quick  succession  at  Mount  Alexander,  of  the  early  davs  of  the  Patriarchate  of  Aquileia. 

Bendigo,  and  other   places.     Victoria   became   the  They  also  published  (1733)  an  edition  of  the  writings 

modem  Transylvania;  there  ensued  a  great  rush  of  of  Matteo  Giberti  Bishop  of  Verona,  and  in  1739  a 

population  to  her  shores;  and  she  became,  and  long  critical  edition  of  the  sermons  of  St.  Zeno  of  Verona. 

ronained,  the  most  populous  of  the  Australian  col-        Pietro,  b.  7  September,  1698;  d.  28  March,  1769, 

ooies.    At  Ballarat,  through  the  lost  battle  of  the  after  completing  nis  studies  both  at  college  and  the 

Eui^ca  Stockade  the  insurgent  miners  of  1854  ulti-  seminary  was  chosen  principal  of  a  classical  school 

matdy  won  a  victory  over  the  exasperating  old  system  in  Verona.      Here  he  began  his  long  and  notable 

of  mining  licences  and  "  digger  himts ".  literary  career  in  1724,  when  he  prepared  for  his 

Bishop  Goold  of  Melbourne  made  strenuous  efforts  pupils  a  treatise  on  the  method  of  study  taught  and 

to  cope  with  the  conditions  created  by  the  sudden  followed  by  St.  Augustine.     Some  passages  in  this 

expansion  of  population.    The  first  priest  appointed  work  save  serious  offence  to  the  school  of  absolute 

to  Ballarat  was  the  Rev.  Patrick  Dunne,  most  of  Probabilists,   and  for  some  years   Pietro  was  en- 

vbose  flock  in  Coburg  had  stampeded  to  the  gold-  ga^ed  in  a  lively  dispute  with  them,  defending  his 

fields.    Father  Dunne  lived  in  a  calico  hut,  slept  on  a  prmciples    of    rrobaoiliorism    in    three    volumes. 

dab  of  gumtree  bark,  and  had  for  his  first  church  a  Shortly  afterwards  he  turned  his  attention  to  the 

canvas  tent.    For  some  years  cdtterwards  a  few  priests  much  debated  question  of   usury,  and   threw  his 

attended  to  the  spiritual  wants  of  what  now  com-  influence  against  the  claims  of  the  Laxists.     To 

prises  the  Diocese  of  Ballarat.     It  was  formed  in  sustain  his  argument  in  this  controversy  he  pre- 

1874  out  of  the  See  of  Melbourne.    Its  first  bishop  pared  (1740)  an  edition  of  the  "Summa"  of  St.  An- 

was  the  Right  Rev.  Michael  O'Connor,  a  Dublin  toninus  which  he  sent  to  Pope  Benedict  XIV,  and 

priest.    He  was  consecrated  in  Rome  on  the  7th  May,  also  (1774)  one  of  the  "  Summa  "  of  St.  Raymond  of 

1874,  and  was  enthroned  in  his  cathedral  at  Ballarat  Pennafort.     During   this  same  year  he   published 

on  the  20th  December  of  the  same  year.    He  intro-  "La  Dottrina  della  Chiesa  Cattolica  circa  Tusura", 

duoed  the  Christian  Brothers,  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  in  which  he  condemned  all  forms  of  usury.     This 

and  the  Loreto  nuns,  and  after  a  fruitful  episcopate  exceptional  literary  activity  made  the  name  of  the 

<lied  on  the  14th  February,  1883.     His  successor  was  Ballerini  brothers  famous  throughout  Italy,  and  in 

the  Right  Rev.  James  Moore,  consecrated  27  April,  1748  Peter  was  choserf  by  the  senate  of  Venice  to 

1884.    Dr.  Moore  opened  the  successful  boys'  college  serve  as  its  canonist  in  Rome  in  a  dispute  over  the 

at  Ballarat,  and  introduced  the  Redemptorist  Fathers  Patriarchate  of  Aquileia.     His  conspicuous  talent 

tnd  the  Sisters  of  Nazareth,  of  St.  Joseph,  and  of  on  this  mission  attracted  the  attention  of  Pope  Bene- 

3t.  Brigid.     He  was  skilled  in  finance,  was  a  builder  diet  XIV,  who  commissioned  him  to  prepare  an 

with  iMg  ideas,  and  at  his  death,  26th  June,  1904,  left  edition  of  St.  Leo's  works  in  refutation  of  the  de- 

BaUarat  one  of  the  best  equipped  dioceses  in  Aus-  fective  one  published  by  Quesnel. 


(V, 


,    Vita  Itaiorutll  doelnna  ercdJenlium 


After  almost  a'me  years  oF  labour  in  which  he  en- 
joyed free  access  to  all  the  libraries  of  Rome,  Pietro 
brought  out  his  monumental  work  in  threo  volumes 
(Rome,  1753-57)  reproducing  the  entire  edition  of 
Queenel  together  with  elalxirate  refutations  and 
additions  (Migne,  P.  L.,  LIV-LVI).  The  third  vol- 
ume is  a  profound  study  of  the  sources  of  canon 
Uw.  Quesnel  had  publisned  a  collection  of  canons 
from  a  codex  which  he  believed  to  have  been  in  use 
under  Popes  Innocent  I,  Zozimus,  and  Leo  the  Great, 
Besides  disproving  this,  Retro  brought  out  in  an 
improved  form  earlier  Latin  editions  of  the  canons, 
together  with  some  very  old  unknown  versions  of 
Greek  canons.  He  also  published  two  valuable 
works  (against  Febroniua)  on  papal  power,  "De 
vi  ac  ratione  Primatus  Romanorum  Pontificum" 
(Verona,  1766),  and  "De  pol«atate  eccleaiaslica 
n  Pontificum  et  Conciliorum  generalium" 
766). 

- ■■     (Br«ci.,  17 ■■ 

part    1,    1/B:    riBROKl.     VUa:    I -" — ' 

tPi»,  in8-l806),  XVIII,  109, 

Lbo  F.  O'Neil, 

Ballliw,  DiocEBB  OP.    See  Killai^a, 

BftUlol,  John.    See  Oxford, 

Ballim,  LouiBE  Blancbe,  See  Sisters  of  Provi- 
dence AND  Reform  ED  Bernard  in  bs. 

Balme  (Balua),  Hehrt  (also  called  Hugh)  a 
Franciscan  theologian,  bom  at  Geneva,  date  uncer- 
tain: d.  23  February,  1439.  He  entered  the  Order 
of  Friars  Minor  in  the  province  of  Hurgundy.  He 
was  a  man  of  exceptional  worth  according  to  the 
testimony  of  St.  Colette,  whose  confesBOr  he  was. 
Possessing  an  intimate  knowledge  of  hia  penitent's 
life,  he  wrote  a  brief  account  of  her  marvellous  gifts. 
Tho  saint,  however,  on  hearing  of  its  existence, 
caused  it  to  be  destroyed.  Among  hia  other  writ- 
Ides  is  one  on  "Tlieologia  Myatica"  which  was  at- 
tnbuted  to  St.  Bonaventure  and  is  to  be  found  in 
many  editions  of  tlie  latter's  worka,  but  the  editors 
of  the  latest  edition  (Quaracchi,  1898,  Vol.  VIII,  p. 
cxi),  following  Sbaralea,  have  restored  it  to  its 
rightful  owner. 

Andrew'  Eoan. 


stood  for  the  dignity  of  Magitlral  of  Vich,  eca^ 
testins  for  the  position  with  his  former  te&chcr, 
Dr.  Soler.  Returning  to  Cervera  after  his  ordinalitm 
to  the  priesthood  he  held  a  position  as  an  sasiatULt 

E'ofessor  and  pursued  the  study  of  civil  and  canon 
w.  He  shortly  afterwards  received  the  doclcrate 
in  pompa.  In  1834  he  went  back  to  hia  oalive 
place  where  he  devoted  himself  witJi  his  wonted 
ardour  to  physics  and  mathematics,  and  acceptini  a 

C'tion  as  professor  in  the  latter  branch,  varied 
onerous  duties  of  this  position  by  cultivatiiw 
the  classics  and  writing  poems.  The  latter,  though 
not  of  a  very  high  order  of  merit,  served  to  extend 
his  reputation  to  the  capitaL  He  wrote  for  the 
"Madrileno  CatAlioo"  a  prize  essay  on  "Clerical 
Celibacy"  which  was  so  favourably  received  by  the 

C'  ilic  that  he  was  encouraged  to  send  forth  a  snuQ 
k,  entitled  "Observacionessocialcs,  poll  ticas.yeco- 
ndraicas  sobre  los  bicnea  del clero"  (1S40),  which  iron 
for  him  national  distinction,  the  essay  arousing 
special  interest  in  the  Cortes.  Soon  afterwards  m 
wrote  "Conaideraciones  sobre  la  situaciun  en  Es- 
pafla'',  directed  mainly  against  Espartero,  then  at 
the  zenith  of  his  power.  It  was  a  bold  deed  and 
mi^it  easily  have  been  fatal  to  Bolmes. 

This  was  followed  by  a  translation,  with  Spanish 
introduction,  of  the  maxims  of  St.  Francis  de  Bales 
(1840).     He  wad  now  far  advanced  in  his  "PrDl# 


the  Academy  of  Barcelona  (1S41),  he  ' 
inaugural  dissertation  on  "Originahty'', 
whichexemiJlifies  thepre'""  ' — ' '  -"  -'  ' 
mind.     Having  complete 


Ljiliiies  the  predominant  trait  of  its  author^ 

ving  completed  hia  reply  to  Guiiot's  "Ov- 

ilisation  in  Europe   ,  he  publislied  it  at  Barcelona 


cist,  b.  at  Vich,  Spain,  28  Aiiguat,  1810;  d.  there, 
9  July,  1848.  His  parents  enriched  him  with  no 
material  wealth,  but  he  owed  to  them  a  firm,  well- 
'  orough  education,  and, 
probably  to  hia  father, 
A  marvellous  memory. 
If  to  these  endow- 
menla  we  add  a  pen- 
etrating  intellect,    "~ 


BOrbing     pass 

flinching  though  noble 
ambition,  an  indom- 
itable determination, 
a  pure  life — wherein 
no  unruly  scnsuous- 
nesa  seenia  to  have 
ever  beclouded  the 
spirit — and  abundant 
opportunitiea  for  men- 
tal development,  we 
1  what  looks  BO  much 


B  LuciAHO  BAuna 


may  tie  prepared  to  acceptL  __     __ 

like  an  extravagance  on  the  part  of  hia  biographers, 
that  with  his  sixteenth  year,  having  passed  through 
the  schools  of  Vich,  be  had  completed  (he  seminary 
course,  including  philosophy  and  elementary  theology. 
The  next  stage  of  hia  education  was  completed  at 
the  I'niverKity  of  Cervera,  where  after  acvcn  years 
be  received  his  liceotiate  in    1833.     Later  on,  be 


(1S44)  under  the  title  "El  Protest&ntismo  cont- 
parado  con  el  Catolicismo  en  bus  relaciones  con  la 
civilizaciAn  Europea'',  The  work  was  at  once  trans- 
lated into  French  and  subsequently  into  Italian, 
German,  and  English,  and  extended  tlie  fame  of 
Batmes  throughout  the  world.  This  work,  which  for 
its  wealth  of  fact  and  critical  insight  would  alone 
have  taxed  the  resources  of  a  longer  life  than  that 
which  was  allotted  to  Batmes,  left  to  its  author 
time  and  energy  adequate  to  accomplish  tasks  of 
hardly  less  magnitude  and  significance.  During  t^e 
bomtiardment  of  Barcelona  oy  Espartero,  Barnes, 
going  away  unwillingly  with  his  friends,  look 
refuge  in  a  country  house  with  no  other  bool^  than 
his  breviary,  "The  Imitation",  and  the  Bible,  and 
while  the  cannon  roared  In  his  ears  the  philosophy', 
repeating  the  experience  of  Archimedes  at  the  sieRe 
of  Syracuse,  composed  the  "El  Critorio"  (The 
Criterion,  New  York,  187S:  The  Art  of  Thinking, 
Dublin,  1882),  a  thorougnly  practical  guide  on 
method  in  the  pursuit  of  Knowledge,  It  seems  in- 
credible that  the  work  could  have  been  produced 
as  it  was  within  a  month.  Shortly  after  Balmes  be- 
came associated  with  two  friends,  Roca  y  Comet 
and  Ferrer  y  Subirtma,  in  editing  La  QvilizaciAu", 
a  widely  influential  review  wherein  appeared  one  of 
his  most  powerful,  because  sympathetic,  papers — 
that  on  O'Connell.  In  1843  Balmes  withdrew  from 
the  editorship  to  found  in  Barcelona  a  review  of 
hia  own,  "La  Sociedad".  It  contained  a  mass  of 
important  papers  meeting  the  social,  political,  and 
rehgiouB  exigencies  of  the  time.  "La  Sociedad"  was 
reprinted  at  Barcelona  in  1851.  It  was  through  its 
pages  that  the  greater  part  of  a  notable  work,  mib- 
sequently  completed  by  the  author,  was  issued — 
"Cartas  it  un  esSptico  (Letters  to  a  Sceptic,  Dub- 
lin, 1875). 
About  the  date  of  the  appearance  of  "Si  Frotw 


BALME8  225  BALMES 

laotisino''  (1844)  Balmes  was  called  to  Madrid  where  easily  dictate  to  two  secretaries  on  any  subject  he 

be  established  a  newspaper  "El  Pensamiento  de  la  might  take  in  hand.     Exact  and  methodical  in  his 

l{aci6n"  in  the  interests  of  politics  and  religion,  relations  to  God,  he  was  no  less  conscientious  in  his 

It8  special  purpose  was  the  advocacy  of  the  marriage  duties    towards    his    neighbour.     Unostentatiously 

of  Isabella  II  with  the  eldest  son  of  Don  Carlos,  a  charitable  to    the   poor,  he  was   unaffectedly  kind 

union  which  appeared  to  Balmes  to  offer  the  most  and    affable,    though    somewhat    reserved,    in    all 

effectual  solution  of  the  existing  political  problems  social  converse.     A  strong  soul  in  a  sensitive  orean- 

of  Spain.    He  even  accepted  a  mission  to  Don  Car-  ism,  his  intellectual  life  aL^rbed  and  spiritualizecf  the 

bs  and  succeeded  in  persuading  the  latter  to  re-  physical. 

nounce  his  title  of  king  in  favour  of  the  Count  of        Balmes  has  a  universally  admitted  place  of  honour 

Montemolin.     Unfortunately,  the  plan  which  might  amongst  the  i^atest  philosophers  of  modern  times. 

have  spu^  his  country  many  misfortunes  feJled  He  knew  the  reflective  thought  of  his  day  and  of 

through   French    interference.     Balmes.   seeing   his  the  past.    The  systems  of  Germany,  from  Kant  to 

eherisoed  design   come    to    naught   when   Isabella  H^el,  he  studied  carefully  and  criticized  judiciously. 

married  her  cousin  Don  Francisco  de  Assisi,  sus-  The  scholastics,  especially  St.  Thomas,  were  familiar 

pended  the  publication  of  ''El  Pensamiento'^  not-  to  him.     He  meditated  on   them  profoundly  and 

withstanding  the  remonstrance  of  friend  and  foe.  adopted  most  of  their  teaching,  but  passed  it  through 

for  tbe  journal  had,  through  the  impress  of  his  mind  his  own  mental  processes  and  turned  it  out  cast  m 

and  character  and  literary  power,  come  to  mark  an  the  mould  of  his  own  ^nius.     Descartes,  Leibnitz, 

epoch  in  the  history  of  the  Spanish  press.     Balmes  and  especially  the  Scottish  school,  notably  Jouffroy, 

now  retired  from  tne  political  arena  to  devote  the  had  considerable  influence  on  the  method  and  matter 

closing  years  of  a  life  ail  too  short  to  the  publication  of  his  thought,  which  is  characterized  consequently 

of  his  philosophical  writings.    In  May,  1845,  he  visited  by  a  just  ecfecticism.     He  deemed  it  a  danger  to  take 

France,  Belgium,  and  England,  a  journey  of  which  lightly  the  opinions  of  any  great  mind,  smce,  as  he 

thae  are  tew  details  recorded  save  tliat  he  was  said,  even  if  tney  did  not  reflect  complete  reality,  they 

feted  in  Paris,  where  he  also  met  Chateaubriand,  and  rarely  were  devoid  of  strone  grounds  and  at  least 

in  Brussels,  and  Mechlin.     Returning  to  Madrid,  he  some  measure  of  truth.     Balmes  was,  therefore,  one 

repaired  thence  to  Barcelona  where  he  issued  in  of  the  most  influential   causes  in  reviving  sound 

1^  his  "Filosoffa  fundamental"  (this  was  trans-  philosophy  in  Spain  and  indeed  throughout  Europe 

lated  into  English  by  Henrv  F.  Brownson,  with  an  generally  during  the  second  quarter  of  die  nineteenth 

introduction  by  his  father  Dr.  Orestes  A.  Brownson  century — an  influence  that  continues  still  through  his 

^ew  York,    1864).    It   is   an    exposition   of   the  permanent  works.    Certain  indeed  of  his  theories  are 

philosophy  of  St.  Thomas  in  view  of  the  intellectual  open  to  criticism.     He  perhaps  accords  too  much 

conditions  of  the  nineteenth  century.    His  biographer,  to  an  intellectual  instinct,  a  theory  of  the  Scottish 

Dr.  Soler,  speaks  of  this  work  as  otie  ''which,  from  school,  and  too  little  to  objective  evidence  in  the 

the  stupeiMK>us  variety  of  knowledge  which  it  mani-  perception  of  truth.     In  psychology  he  rejects  the 

fests  and  the  richness  of  its  mental  treasures,  appears  xnteUedus  agens  (the  abstractive  intellect)  and  the 

a  collection  of  libraries,  a  mine  of  science,  for  there  is  species  inteuigibilis  (intermediary  presentations),  and 

no  faculty  foreign  to  the  vast  comprehension  of  its  he  holds  the  principle  of  life  in  brutes  to  be  naturally 

author".    Allowing  for  some  extravagance  in  this  imperishable. 

fervid  eulogy,  no  reader  competent  to  judge  can  fail  These,  however,  are  but  accidental  and  relatively 
to  recognize  the  breadth ,  depth,  and  practical  unimportant  divergencies  from  the  permanent  body 
timeliness  of  the  "  Fundamental  Philosophy  '.  of  the  traditional  philosophy — the  system  which  re- 
From  Barcelona  he  returned  to  his  native  place,  ceives  in  his  "Filosoffa  fundamental"  a  fresh  inter- 
where  he  composed  his  "Filosoffa  elemental*'  (Mad-  pretation  and  a  further  development  in  answer  to 
rid,  1847),  a  compendium  that  became  widely  used  in  the  intellectual  conditions  of  his  day;  for  it  was  an 
the  schools  ana  which  was  also  translated  into  habitual  conviction  with  Balmes  that  the  philoso- 
fjiglish.  In  1847  he  wrote  his  pamphlet  "Pio  Nono"  pher's  business  is  not  merely  to  rethink  and  restate 
whmin  he  defends  the  liberal  policy  of  Pius  IX,  at  out  to  reshape  and  develop.  While  the  book  just 
the  opening  of  his  pontiflcate,  when  that  pope  gave  mentioned  reflects  the  speculative  aspect  of  its 
a  universal  amnesty  and  adopted  constitutional  gov-  author's  mind,  the  work  that  most  fully  manifests 
emment.  Though  perhaps  the  best  written  of  all  his  personality,  his  mental,  moral,  and  religious 
Balmee's  works,  it  was  unfavourably  received,  was  character,  and  his  social  and  political  ideals,  to- 
bitteriy  attacked  by  his  enemies,  and  regretted  by  aether  with  the  range  and  accuracy  of  his  learning — 
most  of  his  friends.  The  pain  inflict^  on  his  uie  work,  therefore,  that  is  likeliest  to  endure — ^is 
s^iaitive  spirit  by  the  unjust  aspersions  and  in-  "ElProtestantismocomparado".  Though  conceived 
sidious  iimuendoes  of  his  opponents  preyed  upon  originally  as  a  reply  to  Guizot's  "History  of  Civiliza- 
his  constitution  which,  never  robust,  had  been  tion",  it  is  much  more  than  a  critique  or  a  polemic, 
severely  taxed  by  incessant  labours.  He  retired  once  It  is  really  a  philosophy  of  history — or  rather  of 
more  to  Barcelona  dividing  there  his  time  between  Quistianity — combining  profound  insight  and  criti- 
linguistic  studies,  his  inaugural  discourse  for  the  cal  analvsis  with  wide  erudition.  It  searches  for 
Royal  Spanish  Academy,  to  which  he  had  been  the  basal  principles  of  Catholicism  and  of  Protestant^ 
Emitted,  and  the  Latin  translation  of  his  "Ele-  ism,  and  summons  the  evidence  of  history  con- 
mentary  Philosophy",  undertaken  at  the  request  of  oeming  the  comparative  influence  exercised  by  the 
.Archbishop  Affre  of  Paris.  He  returned  to  his  former  and  the  latter  in  the  various  spheres  of 
native  Vich,  May,  1848,  where  his  health  steadily  human  life — intellectual,  moral,  social,  and  political, 
dedined  tiU  the  end  came  on  the  9th  of  July  fol-  The  side  on  which  the  author's  sympathies  lie  is 
lowing.  Balmes  is  described  as  of  more  than  medium  frankly  indicated  by  him,  while  he  appeals  to  the 
stature,  slight  of  frame  though  well-developed;  his  historical  data  in  justiflcation.  It  should  be  read  in 
face  was  pale  but  delicately  tinged;  his  eye  pene-  the  Spanish  to  be  fully  estimated;  for  the  English 
trating;  Im  aspect  agreeable  and  naturally  majestic,  tran^tion,  done  through  a  French  medium,  though 
His  temperament  combing  the  better  elements  of  accurate  and  scholarly,  can  hardly  be  expected  to 
the  traditional  four.  He  was  moderate  in  all  lines  reflect  all  the  light  of  the  original, 
of  conduct,  except  probably  in  study  and  intellectual  For  the  rest,  the  generm  position  of  Balmes 
work,  which  he  seems  to  nave  earned  at  times  to  a  among  his  countrymen  may  be  summed  up  in  the 
i>aaBionate  excess.  His  thoughts  and  expression  were  words  of  one  of  the  leading  Spanish  journals,  "El 
90  copious  and  so  close  to  his  call  that  he  could  Heraldo'',  at  the  time  of  his  death.    "Balmes  ap- 


BALSAM  226  BALTA&AB 

peared,  like  Chateaubriand,  on  the  last  day  of  the       In  the  earlv  ages  the  pope,  without  using  any  fonn, 

revolution  of  his  country  to  demand  from  it  an  as  appears  from  the  Roman  OrdineSf  poured  tfao 

account  of  its  excesses,  and  to  claim  for  ancient  balsam  into  the  oil,  while  still  in  the  sacristy  before 

institutions  their  forgotten  rights.     Both  mounted  on  Mass  (Ordo  Romanus,  X,  n.  3;  P.  L.,  LXXVIII 

the  win^  of  genius  to  a  height  so  elevated  above  1010),  but  the  blessine  took  place  after  the  Com- 

the  passions  of  party  that  ml  entertained  respect  munion  of  the  pope,  ana  before  that  of  the  clergy  and 

and    veneration    for    them:    One    and    the    other  the  faithful  (Duchesne,  Christian  Worship,  2a  Eng. 

brought  such  glory  to  their  country  that^  though  ed.,  306,  306,  467).    According  to  the  Gregorian 

they  combated  generally  prevailing    opimons  and  Sacramentary  (Muratori,  ed.,  P.  Xi.,  LXXVIII,  330), 

prejudices,  aU  g^xl  citizens  wove  for  them  well-  however,  the  pope  mixes  the  balsam  and  oil  during 

earned  crowns  and  loved  them  with  enthusiasm."  the  Mass.    In  the  Church  of  Soissons  in  France,  at 

Besides  the  works  mentioned  above,  a  collection  of  one  time,  the  "  Veni  Creator  **  was  sung  before  the 

fragments  and  unpublished  pieces  were  issued  after  mingling  of  the  balsam  and  oil. 
his  death  imder  the  title  "Escritos  p68tumos"  (Bar-       Mohlbr  in  KwchenUx.  Andrbw  B.  Meehan. 

celona,  1850):  also  "Poesfas  p68tim[ias*'  (ib.),  and        _  .  ^  .        ,    .      ^     t 

"EscritospoUticos"  fib.).  BalSMnon,  Thbodorb,  a  canonist  of  the  Greek 

SoLBR,  Bwff-afia  del  D,  J,  Balmsa  (Barodona,  1860);  QaacU  Church,  b.  in  the  second  half  of  the  twelfth  century 

DB  LOB  Santos,  Vida  de  Balmet  (Madrid.  1848);  Raffin.  /.  at    Constantinople;    d.    there,    after    1195   (Petit). 

BalnU8,9avie  et  ses  ouvraget  (Paris,  1849;  Ger.  tr.  Ratisbon,  xr^  ^^^  „  d«juvvn    nnmnnhvlAY    or    fnicLrHi<Ln    of  th#» 

1852);  AH  of  Thinkino  (SabKn,  18^2,  Biog.  Introd.);  ProU*-  ™  ^^    jT^  4t^o^  P??25^'      j  ^"Sf^*^  .  .      u 

tantigm  and  Catholicism  Compared  (Baltimope,    1860,   Biog.  LawS,  and  fpom  1178  tO  1183,  under  the    Patnarcb 

Introd.);  Gonzalez  Hbrrbro,  E$tudio  hietdrioo  criHco  §obre  Theodosius,    he    had    charge    of    all    ecclesiastical 

iK.^rS^^^'^.^'i^Sr'iMr)  m*ffi:  ^^t  «««     in  n^  he%ecame.G«ek  Patna^^ 

VIII,  iii;  Babanera.  Balmes  (Vich,  1905).  of  Antioch.    Balsamon's  best  work  IS  his  "Scholia  , 

F.  P.  SiBOFRiSD.  or  commentary  on  the  '^Nomocanon"  of  Photius, 

Balaam,  an  oily,  resinous,  and  odorous  substance,  PJl^^^^  ^^  ^  ^j^  **  ^^^rS^^^h^f^.^^^^ 

which  flows  spontaneously  or  by  incision  from  cep-  (1^2);  m  Greek  aiid  Latm  at  Pans  (1615).  and 

tain  plants,  and  which  the  Church  mixes  with  olive  S^?*^^»?l®  (1620).    ItisalsofoundmBevendges 
oil  for  use  as  chrism.    Balsams  are  very  widely  dis-      -Pandecta  Canonum",  Oxford,  1672  rP.  G.,  cxxxvii- 

tributed  throughout  the  plant  kingdom,  being  par-  vui).    From  1852  to  1860,  RhaUi  and  Potii  pubhshed 

ticularly  abundant  in  the  pine  family,  but  the  name  **  Athens  a  collection  of  the  sources  of  Greek  canon 

is  generally  r&tricted  in  the  present  day  to  resins  }f  J^  7^^}^^,  contains  Balsanaon's  commentary.     In  his 

which  in  addition  to  a  volatile  oil  contain  benzoic  and  "Schoha"   Balsamon  insists  on  existmg   aws,  and 

cinnamic  acid.    Among  the  true  balsams  are  the  dweUs  on  the  relation  between  canons  and  laws— eo- 

Bahn  of  Gilead,  or  Mecca,  which  is  cultivated  in  clesias^cal  and  civil  constitution8---givmg  precedence 

Arabia,  Egypt,  Syria,  etc.,  and  is  extremely  costly:  *?  the  former.    Balsamon  also  oompUed  a  collection 

the  copaiva  balsam,  and  those  of  Peru  and  Tolu—^  ?^  eoelesiastical  constitutions  and  wrote  other  works, 

three  found  chiefly  in  South  America.    The  term  ^  »U  oi  whidh  is  apparent  his  ammosity  towards 

balaam,  however,  is  also  applied  to  many  pharma-  ^le  Roman  Church.    Two  of  his  letters  were  pub- 

ceutical  preparations  and  resinous  substances  which  hshed:  one  treating  of  fastmg,  the  other  on  the 

possess  a  balsamic  odour.  admission  of  novices  into  monasteries. 

^The  practice  of  the  Church  of  using  balsam,  as  men-  piSX?:.^  ^  G^,"!!^Yi  V<^  l^n^^^^,  ^  SL 

tioned  above,  IS  verf  ancient,  gomg  back  possibly  to  droU  byMaruin  (Paria,   1846),  III,  1432-45;  KRuiiBACHEa, 

Apostolic  times.    (See  Chrism.)    The  scarcity  and  Oetch,  de%  byaanL  liu.  (Munioh,  1807). 
high  price  of  other  perfumes  has  obliged  the  Latin  Andrew  B.  Meehan. 

Chureii  to  be  content  with  balm  alone  m  the  mixture        Baltasar,  or  as  found  in  the  Septuagint  BaXra^p, 

of  holy  chrism;  but  in  the  East,  where  the  climate  is  is  the  Greek  and  Latin  name  for  Belshazzar,  "ivxk63« 

more  favourable  than  ours  to  the  growth  of  these  which  is  the  Hebrew  equivalent  for  Bet-wrra-usuff 

plants,   the   Church   uses   no   less   than   thirty-six  1.  e.  "May  Bel  protect  the  king".    Bel  was  the  chief 

species  of  precious  perfumes,  according  to  the  Eu-  and  titular  god  of  Babylon.    In  Daniel,  v,  Baltasar  is 

cnologion,  m  the  oil,  which  makes  it  an  ointment  of  described  as  the  son  of  Nabuchodonosor   (A.   V., 

exquisite  fragrance.    The  Latin  Churoh  does  not  in-  Nebuchadnezzar)  and  the  last   King  of  Babylon. 

sist  on  the  quantity  or  the  quality  of  the  balsam  to  It  is  there  narrated  how  the  town  was  invaded— by 

be  used;  any  substance  commonly  known  as  a  balsam  the  Medes  imder  Darius,  as  would  seem  from  Dan.,  v, 

may  be  utilized,  and  such  a  quantity  as  will  give  its  28,  29 — whilst  the  king  was  giving  a  sumptuous 

odour  to  the  oil  is  sufficient.    This  mingling  of  the  feast  to  his  nobles.    The Idng  himself  was  slain.    The 

balsam  with  the  oil  is  intended  to  convey,  oy  outward  narrator  further  informs  us  that  the  sacred  vesseb 

sign,  the  good  odour  of  Christ,  of  whom  it  is  written  which  Nabuchodonosor  had  carried  with  him  from 

((Sntic,  i,  3):  "  We  will  run  after  thee  to  the  odour  of  Jerusalem  were  defiled  on  that  occasion.    By  order 

thy  ointments."    It  typifies  also  the  odour  of  good  of  King  Baltasar  they  were  used  during  the  banquet, 

worksj  the  thought  which  ought  to  inspire  those  who  and  his  wives  and  concubines  drank  out  of  tlieir.. 

worthily  receive  the  sacraments;  and  it  symbolizes  In  the  midst  of  the  revelry  a  hand  is  seen  writing 

an  innocent  life  and  the  gifts  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  on  the  wall  the  mysterious  words  Mane,    ThcceTj 

The  balsam  is  blessed  oy  the  bishop  at  the  Mass  Pharea   (A.   V.,   Mene,   Tekd,   Peres).     The    king's 

which  he  solemnly  celebrates  on  Holy  Thursday  and  counseUors  and  magicians  are  summoned  to  explain 

is  poured  into  the  oil  after  he  has  administered  Hol^  the  writing,  but  they  fail  to  do  so.    The  Queen  then 

Communion  to  the  faithful.    The  cruet  of  balsam  ib  enters  the  banquet  hall  and  suggests  that   Daniel 

brought  by  a  subdeacon  to  the  assistant  priest,  who  should  be  called  for.     Daniel  reads  and  explains 

in  turn  places  it  on  a  table  in  the  sanctuaiy  before  the  words:  the  days  of  the  kingdom  had  been  num- 

the  bishop.    The  latter  blesses  the  balsam,  reciting  bered;  the  king  had  been  weighed  in  the  balance 

over  it  the  three  prayers  foimd  in  the  Roman  Pontif-  and  had  been  foimd  wanting;  his  kingdom   would 

ical:  he  calls  it  tne  fragrant  tear  of  dry  bark — the  be  given  to  the  Medes  and  the  Persians, 
oozing  of  a  favoured  branch  that  gives  us  the  priestly        In  the  account  given  by  Herodotus  of  the  capture 

unction.     Later  he  mixes  the  balsam  with  a  httle  oil  of  Babylon  by  the  Persians  under  Cyrus,  Labynitus  II, 

on  a  paten  and  pours  it  into  the  chrism  with  a  suitar  son  of  Labynitus  I  and  Nicotris,  is  named  as  the 

ble  invocation:  "May  this  mixture  of  liquors  be  to  last  King  of  Babylon.    Labynitus  is  commonly  held 

those  who  shall  be  anointed  with  it,  a  propitiation  to  be  a  corruption  of  Nabonidus.    Herodotus  further 

and  a  salutaiy  protection  for  ever  and  ever.    Amen.**  mentioDB  that  Cyrus,  after  laying  siege  to  t>>»  town. 


>   BALTHAZAR  227  BALTHAZAR 

Altered  it  by  the  bed  of  the  Euphrates,  having        On   comparing  the   inscriptions  with   the   othei 

drained  off  its  waters,  and  that  the  capture  took  accounts  we  find  that  tlicy  substantially  agree  with 

piaoe  whilst  the  Babylonians  were  feasting  (Herod.,  the  statement  bjr  Berosus,  but  that  they  considerably 

1,  188-191).     Xenophon  also  mentions  the  siege,  differ  from  what  is  recorded  by  Herodotus,  Xenophon, 

the  draining  of  the  Euphrates,  and  the  feast.     Be  and  in  the  Book  of  Daniel.    (1)  The  inscriptions  do 

does  not  state  the  name  of  the  king,  but  fastens  not  mention  the  sie^  of  Babylon  recorded  by  He- 

on  him  the  epithet  "impious",  di^toi.     According  rodotus  and  Xenophon.      Cyrus  says  Gobiyas  his 

to  him,  the  long  made  a  brave  stand,  defending  general  took  the  town  "  without  fighting ".     (2)  Na- 

feimself  with  his  sword,  but  was  overpowered  ana  bonidus  (556-538  B.  c),  and  not  Baltasar,  as  is  stated 

skin  bv  GobryaQ  and  Qadatas,  the  two  generals  of  in  Daniel,  was  the  last  King  of  Babylon.    Baltasar, 

Qmis  (Qrrop.,  vii,  5).    The  Chaldean  priest  Berosus  or  Bel-sarra-usur,  was  the  son  of  Nabonidus.    Nor 

names  Nabonidus  as  the  last  King  of  Babylon  and  was  Nabonidus  or  Baltasar  a  son  or  descendant  of 

sAjs  that  the  city  was  taken  in  the  seventeenth  year  Nabuchodonosor.     Nabonidus  wa^  the  son  of  Nebo- 

of  his  reign.    "We  are  further  informed  by  him  that  baladhsu-ik-bi,  and  was  a  usurper  of  the  throne.   The 

Nabonidus  went  forth  at  the  head  of  an  army  to  family  of  Nabuchodonosor  had  come  to  an  end  in 

oppose  Cyrus,  that  he  gave  battle,  lost,  and  fled  to  the  person  of  Evil-Merodach,  who  had  been  mur- 

Boreippa.    In  this  town  he  was  besieged  and  forced  derea  by  Nergal-sharezer,  his  sister's  husband.    The 

to  surrender.     His  life  was  spared,  and  an  abode  controversy  occasioned  by  these  differences  between 

assigMd  to  him  in  Karmania.     (Prof.  C.  P,  Tiele,  the  conservative  and  modem  schools  of  thought  hafi 

Babylomsch-Assyrische  Gesch.,  479:  Euseb.,  Prsep.  not  yet  reached  a  conclusion.    Scholars  of  the  former 

Ev.,  ix,  41;  Idem,  Chron.,  i,  10, 3.)    Josephus  follows  school  still  maintain  the  historical  accuracy  of  the 

the  Biblical  account.     He  remarks  that  Baltasar  Book  of  Daniel,  and  explain  the  alleged  discrepancies 

was  called  by  the  Babylonians  Naboandelus,  evi-  with  great  ingenuity.     They  assume  that  Baltasar 

dently  a  corruption  of  Nabonidus,  and  calls  the  queen,  had  been  associated  with  his  father  in  the  government, 

grandmother  ft  jwWi?)  of  the  king.     He  adheres  to  and  that  as  prince-regent,  or  co-regent,  ne  could  be 

the  Septuag^nt  rendering  in  making  the  reward  held  described  in  authority  and  rank  as  king.     For  this 

out  to  Daniel  to  have  been  a  third  portion  of  the  conjecture   they  seek   support   in   the   promise   of 

kingdom  instead  of  the  title,  third  ruler  in  the  king-  Baltasar  to  make  Daniel  "third  ruler"  (D.  V.,  "third 

dom.   Rabbinical  tradition  lias  preserved  nothing  of  prince")  in  the  kingdom,  from  which  they  inifer  that 

historical  value.  ne  himself  was  the  second.     Professor  R.  D.  Wilson, 

The  cuneiform  inscriptions  have  thrown  a  new  of  Princeton,  claims  that  the  bearing  of  the  title 

light  on  the  person  of  Baltasar  and  the  capture  of  "King"  by  Baltasar  was  in  harmony  with  the  usage 

febylon.    There  is  iij  the  first  place  the  inscription  of    the  time  (Princeton    Theol.  Rev.,  1904,  April, 

of  Nabonidus  containing  a  prayer  for  his  son:    "And  July;  1905.  January,  April).    The  other  discrepancy, 

as  for  Bel-sarra-usur  my  eldest  son,  the  offspring  namely,  tnat  Nabuchodonosor  is  called  the  father 

of  my  body,  the  awe  of  thy  great  divinity  fix  thou  of  Baltasar  (Dan.,  v.  2, 11,  18)  they  account  for  either 

finnly  in  his  heart  that  he  may  never  fall  into  sin"  by  taking  the  worci  "father"  in  the  wider  sense  of 

(Kecords  of  the  Past,  V,  148).   It  is  commonly  ad-  predecessor,  or  by  the  conjecture  that  Baltasar  was 

mitted  that  Bel-sarra-usur  is  the  same  as  Belshazzar,  nis  descendant  on  the  mother's  side. 

or  Baltasar.      Dr.  Strassmaier  has  published  three        On  the  other  hand,  the  school  of  critics  declines  to 

inscriptions  which  mention  certain  business  transao-  accept  these  explanations.     They  argue  that  Bal- 

tions  of  Bel-sarra-usur.    They  are  the  leasing  of  a  tasar  not   less   than   Nabuchodonotor   appears   in 

house,  the  purchase  of  wool,  and  the  loan  of  a  sum  Daniel  as  sole  and  supreme  ruler  of  the  State.    While 

of  money.    They  are  dated  respectively  the  fifth,  fully  admitting  the  possibility  that  Baltasar  acted 

eleventh,  and  twelfth  year  of  Nabonidus.    Of  greater  as  prince-re^nt,  they  can  find  no  proof  for  this  either 

importance  is  the  analytical  tablet  on  which  is  en-  in  the  classical  authors  or  in  the  inscriptions.    The 

graved  an  inscription  by  Cvtub  summarizing  the  inference  drawn  from  the  promise  of  Baltasar  to 

more  memorable  events  of  the  reign  of  Nabonidus  raise  Daniel  to  the  rank  of  a  "third  ruler"  in  the 

and  the  causes  leading  up  to  the  conquest  of  Babylon.  Idngdom  they  regard  as  doubtful  and  imcertain.    The 

The  first  portion  of  the  tablet  states  that  in  the  sixth  Hebrew  phrase  may  be  rendered   "  ruler  of  a  third 

vear  of  Nabonidus,  Astyaees  (Istuvegu)  was  defeated  part  of  the  kingdom".    Thus  the  phrase  would  be 

by  Cyrus,  and  that  from  the  seventh  till  the  eleventh  parallel  to  the  Greek  term  "  tetrarch  ",  i.  e.  ruler  of  a 

year  Nabonidus  resided  in  Tema  (a  western  suburb  foiu^h  part,  or  of  a  small  portion  of  territory.    For 

of  Babylon)  whilst  the  king's  son  was  with  the  army  this  rendering  they  have  tne  authority  of  the  Sep- 

in  Accad,  or  Northern  Babylonia.    After  this  a  lacuna  tuagint,  Josephus,  and,  as  Dr.  Adler  mforms  us,  of 

occurs,  owing  to  the  tablet  being  broken.     In  the  Jewish  commentators  of  repute  (see  Daniel  in  the 

second  portion  of  the  inscription  we  find  Nabonidus  Critics'  Den,  p.  26).    Furthermore,  they  argue  that 

biiDself  at  the  head  of  his  army  in  Accad  near  Sippar.  the   emphatic   way   in   which    Nabuchodonosor   is 

The  events  narrated  occur  m  the  seventeenth,  or  designated  as  father  of  the  king  leads  the  reader  to 

last,  year  of  the  king's  reign. — "In  the  month  of  infer  that  the  writer  meant  his  words  to  be  under- 

Tammu2  [June]  Cyrus  gave  battle  to  the  army  of  stood  in  the  literal  and  obvious  sense.  Thus  the  queen, 

Accad.    The  men  of  Accad  broke  into  revolt.    Oa  addressing  Baltasar,  thrice  repeats  the  designation 

the  14th  day  the  earrison  of  Sippar  was  taken  with-  "the  king  thy  father",  meaning  Nabuchodonosor: 

out  fighting.     Nabonidus  flies.     On  the  16th  day  "  And  in  the  cfays  of  thy  father  light,  knowledge  and 

Gobryas  the  governor  of  Gutiiun  [Kurdistan]  and  wisdom  were  found  in  him  paniel]:  for  King  Nar 

the  army  of  Cjrus  entered  Babylon  without  a  batde.  buchodonosor  thy  father  appomted  him  prince  of  the 

Afterwards  he  takes  Nabonidus  and  puts  him  into  wise  men,  enchanters,  Chaldeans,  soothsayers,  thy 

fetters  in  Babylon.    On  the  3rd  day  of  Marchesvan  father,  O  King. " 

[October]   Cyrus   entered   Babylon"  gayce.  Fresh       Sayce,  The  Hiah^  CritUntm  ami  Ae  M(mumenu  (hondo 

U^t  from   the  Ancient  Monuments;  Pinches,  Cap-  IS94);  KvsjirjiT.Tfie  Book  of  Danid  from  the  ChrieHan  standi 

nave   the    Cyrus    cyhnder   pubhshed    by    Sir    Henry  O.  T Al^ndon,  1906),  Giaor,  Special  Introduction  to  the  study 

Rawlinson  in  1880.    Cyrus  pronounces  a  eulogy  upon  of  the  O.  T.,  pt.  II,  366.  367.  869;  RooersM  History  of  Babu- 

his  military  e«,loite  and  assigns  his  triumph  to  the  ^^"^  ^Stt<^^  IMW."  ""^^'  *""'  ^""""^ 
mtervention  of  the  gods.    Nabomdus  had  mcurred  q^  yah  den  Biesbn. 

their  wrath  by  removing  their  imaces  from  the  local 

and  bringing  them  to  Babylon.  ^Balthaiar.    See  Maqi. 


BALTIMORE  228  BALTIMORE 

Baltimore,  Archdiocese   of,  senior  see  of    the  George  and  Cecilius  Calvert.  New  Yoric,  1890;  HaH 

United   States   of   America,   established   a   diocese  The  Lords  of  Baltimore,  ibid.,  1902). 
6  April,  1789;  as  an  archdiocese  8  April,  1808;  em-        (b)   The  First  Missionaries. — In  the  first  colony 

brac3s  all  that  part  of  the  State  of  Maryland  west  of  brought  over  by  the  Ark  and  the  Dove  (25  March, 

the  Chesapeake  Bay  (6,442  square  miles)  including  1634)  were  three  Jesuits,  Fathers  Andrew  White  ana 

also  the  District  of  Columbia  (64  square  miles),  mak-  John  Althan,  and  a  lay  brother,  Thomas  Gervase 

Ing  in  all  6,502  square  miles.    The  entire  population  of  (White,  Relatio  Itineris  in  Marylandiam,  Baltimore 

this  area  is  about  1,273,000.    The  Catholics,  number-  ed.,  1874:  cf.  Am.  Hist.  Review,  April,  1907,  p.  684; 

ing  255,000,  are  principally  of  English,  Irish,  and  Treacy,  (5ld  Catholic  Maryland,  Swedesboro,  N.  J., 

German  descent.    There  are  also  Polish,  Lithuanian,  1889;  Hughes,  Hist,  of  S.  J.  in  N.  America,  1907). 

Bohemian,    and    Italian    congregations,    and    six  The  following  year  another  priest  and  lay  brother 

churches  exclusively   for   coloured  people,  four  in  arrived.     Fathers  Philip  Fisher  (real  name  Thomas 

Baltimore,  two  in  Washington.     (See  Washington  Copley)  and  John  Knoues  landed  in  1637.    In  1642, 

and  District  op  CJolumbia.)  the  Roman  Congregation    of    the  Propaganda,  at 

I.  CJoLONiAi^  Period. — (a)  PoHtico-Religious  Be-  Lord  Baltimore's  request,  sent  to  Maiyland  two  secu- 
ginnings. — Catholic  Maryland,  the  first  colony  in  the  lar  priests.  Fathers  Gilmett  and  Territt.  Two  Fran- 
New  World  where  religious  toleration  was  established,  ciscans  arrived  in  1673,  one  of  whom  was  Father  Mas- 
was  planned  by  George  Calvert  (first  Lord  Baltimore),  sseus  Massey  a  Santa  Barbara,  a  tnily  apostolic  man 
a  Catholic  convert;  rounded  by  his  son  Cecilius  Cal-  There  were  not  more  than  six  Franciscans  at  any  time 
vert  (second  Lord  Baltimore),  and  named  for  a  Catho-  on  the  missions  in  Maryland.  Their  missions  ceased 
lie  queeh,  Henrietta  Maria,  wife  of  Charles  I  of  with  the  death  of  Father  Haddock  in  1720.  In  1716 
England.  Except  for  the  period  of  Ingle's  Rebellion  two  Scotch  Recollects  (Franciscans)  came  to  the 
(1645-47)  its  government  was  controlled  by  Catholics  Eastern  Shore  of  Maryland.  The  title  "Apostle  of 
from  the  lan<Sng  of  the  first  colony  under  Leonard  Maryland"  belongs  imquestionably  to  Father  An- 
Calvert  (25  March,  1634)  until  after  1649,  when  the  drew  White,  S.  J.,  whose  zeal  was  boundless.  During 
Assembly  passed  the  famous  act  of  religious  tolera-  Ingle's  Rebellion  (1645-47)  Fathers  White  and  Fisher 
tion.  Tne  first  three  Lords  Baltimore,  CJeorge.  Ce-  were  taken  in  chains  to  England  where  the  former 
cilius,  and  Charles,  were  Catholics.  The  last  tnree,  died.  Father  Fisher  return^  to  Maryland  in  1648, 
Benedict  Leonard,  Charles,  and  Frederick,  were  Prot-  dving  in  1653,  leaving  the  Rev.  Lawrence  Starkey 
estants.  Puritans  who  had  been  given  an  asylum  in  alone  on  the  mission.  Fourteen  years  after  the  first 
Mar}dand  rebelled  and  seized  the  government  (1652-  colony  landed  nearly  all  the  natives  south  of  what  is 
58)  and  Catholics  were  excluded  from  the  administra-  now  Washington  had  embraced  the  Faith,  living  in 
tion  of  the  province  and  restrained  in  the  exercise  of  peaceful  happy  intercourse  with  the  settlers.  Father 
their  faith.  When  Lord  Baltimore  again  obtained  White  said  Mass  and  baptized  the  princess  of  the 
control  (1658),  religious  liberty  was  restored  until  tribe  in  his  wigwam  on  the  Port  Tobacco  River.  A 
1692.  chapel  farther  down  the  stream  replaced  the  wigwam 

Taking  advantage  of  Protestant  disturbance  in  the  which  was  in  turn  succeeded  by  St.  Thomas's  Manor 
colony,  William  of  Orange,  King  of  England,  de-  church  built  in  1798  by  the  Rev.  Charles  Sewell,  S.  J. 
clared  the  Proprietary's  claim  forfeited,  made  Mary-  Such  was  the  glorious  result  of  the  wisdom  and  zeal 
land  a  royal  province,  and  sent  over  Copley,  the  firat  of  the  first  Jesuit  missionaries  of  Maryland  (B.  V. 
royal  governor  (1692).  The  Anglican  Church  was  Campbell,  in  U.  S.  Cath.  Hist,  Magazine,  Baltimore; 
then  made  the  established  church  of  Maryland,  every  Calvert  Papers,  Maryland  Hist.  Society,  1889-94; 
colonist  being  taxed  for  its  support.  In  1702,  re-  Treacy,  op.  cit.;  The  Catholic  Cabinet,  St.  Louis, 
Ugious  liberty  was  extended  to  all  Christians  except  1843-45;  The  Religious  Cabinet,  Baltimore,  1842). 
Catholics.  Catholics  were  forbidden  (1704)  to  in-  In  accordance  with  Lord  Baltimore's  instructions, 
struct  their  children  in  their  religion  or  to  send  them  a  church  was  built  in  the  early  days  at  St.  Mary's,  the 
out  of  the  colony  for  such  instruction  (1715).  Priests  capital  of  the  province.  William  Bretton  and  his  wife, 
were  forbidden  to  exercise  their  f^nctions  and  Catho-  Temperance,  m  1661  deeded  the  groimd  for  the  chapel 
lie  children  could  be  taken  from  a  Catholic  parent,  of  St.  Ignatiiis  and  the  cemetery  at  Newtown.  New- 
Appealed  to  by  Catholics,  Queen  Anne  intervened  town  minor  was  afterwards  pmrchased  by  the  Jesuits, 
ana  the  clergy  were  permitted  to  perform  their  duties  In  1677  a  Catholic  college  was  opened  by.  Father  Fos- 
in  the  chapels  of  private  families  (9  December,  1704).  ter,  S.J.,  and  Mr.  Thomas  Hothersall,  a  scholastic.  In 
Thus  originated  the  manor  chapels,  and  the  so-called  1697  we  find  a  brick  chapel  at  St.  Mary's;  frame  chap- 
" Priests'  Mass-Houses".  The  apostasy  of  Benedict  els  at  St.  Inigoes,  Newtown,  Port  Tobacco,  Newport, 
Leonard  Calvert  (1713)  was  a  cruel  blow  to  the  Father  Hobart's  chapel  (Franciscan)  near  Newport; 
persecuted  Catholics.  In  1716  an  oath  was  exacted  one  on  the  Boarman  estate,  and  on(e  at  Doncaster  in 
of  office-holders  renouncing  their  belief  in  Transub-  Talbot  County.  During  this  period  (1634—1700) 
stantiation.  An  act  disfranchising  Catholics  fol-  there  were  about  thirty-nve  Jesuits  in  the  missions  of 
lowed  (1718).  Charles  Carroll,  father  of  the  Signer,  Maryland,  all  of  whom  with  two  or  three  exceptions 
went  to  France  (1752)  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  were  English.  They  were  men  of  apostolic  zeal  and 
a  grant  of  land  on  the  Arkansas  River  for  his  perse-  disinterestedness.  The  mission  at  Bohemia,  in  Cc>cil 
cuted  brethren.  This  plan,  however,  failed.  To  County  was  founded  by  Father  Mansell  (1706),  the 
exterminate  Catholicity  an  attempt  was  made  to  priests  of  this  mission  carrying  the  Faith  into  Dela- 
pass  a  bill  confiscating  the  property  of  the  clergy  ware.  St.  Inigoes  house  was  established  in  1708  and 
(3  May,  1754,  Lower  House  Journal  in  MSS.,  Mary-  later  a  chapel  was  added.  Hickory  Mission,  from 
land  Archives).  The  missionaries,  having  received  which  Baltimore  was  afterwards  attended,  was  es tab- 
land  from  the  Proprietaries  upon  the  same  conditions  lished  in  1720,  and  St.  Joseph's  CJhapel,  Deer  Creek 
as  the  other  colonists,  divided  their  time  between  the  (the  Rev.  John  Digges,  Jr.),  in  1742.  We  find  the 
care  of  souls  and  the  cultivation  of  their  mission-  Kev.  Benedict  Neale  at  Priest's  Ford,  Harford  County, 
supporting  farms.  The  cutting  off  of  these  revenues,  in  1747.  St.  Ignatius's  Church,  Hickory,  was  estab- 
would  therefore  have  been  disastrous  to  the  Church,  lished  (1792)  by  the  Rev.  Sylvester  Boarman.  About 
Fortunately  this  attempt  did  not  succeed.  Such  were  1755,  900  Catholic  Acadian  refugees  settled  in  Mary- 
the  political  conditions  until  the  time  Af  the  Revolu-  land,  but  the  Catholics  were  forbidden  to  give  them 
tion  (Archives  Maryland  Hist.  Soc.  Baltimore;  John-  hospitality.  Many  of  them  lost  the  Faith,  out  some 
son.  Foundations  of  Maryland,  Baltimore,  1883;  of  tneir  descendants  still  preserve  the  Faith  for  which 
Johnston,  Religious  Liberty  in  Maryland  and  Rhode  their  fathers  suffered.  An  unfinished  house  in  Balti- 
I:;land,  Catholic  Truth  Society  Publications;  Browne,  more    (north-west  corner  of  Calvert  and    Fayett* 


BALTIIIORS  2^  BALTIMORE 

Streets)  was  used  by  them  as  a  chapel.    A  Catholic  time  (Shea,  Life  of  Archbishop  Carroll,  49).    In  fact 

school  was  established  in  Baltimore  (1757)  by  Mary  the  Chm*ch  began  to  recover  from  this  scandal  onl^ 

Ann  March,  but  was  closed  on  acooimt  of  the  violent  fort^  years  after.    Catholic  Americans  were  subject 

pCTsecution  of  Protesttmt  dergymen.    The  historic  spintually  to  English  Catholic  superiors'  (the  arch- 

Whitemarsh  mission  was  found^  in  1760  by  the  Rev.  priests),  until  6  Sptember,  1665,  when  Innocent  XI 

John  Lewis.    Frederick  CSiapel  ^t.  John's)  was  built  appointed  Dr.  John  Leybum,  Vicar- Apostolic  of  all 

by  Father  Williams,  S.J.;  the  church  was  built  in  England.    The  British  Colonies  in  America  remained 

1800  by  the  Rev.  John  Dubois,  at  that  time  the  only  miaer  the  jurisdiction  of  Dr.  Levbum  and  his  succes- 

priest  between  Baltimore  and  St.  Louis.    The  present  sors.  Bishops  Gifford,  Petre,  Cnalloner,  and  Talbot, 

church  was  consecrated  in  1837.    In  1903  the  Jesuits  imtil  the  a{>pointment  of  Dr.  Carroll.     After  the 

^ve  up  the  church  and  novitiate.    The  Jesuit  novi-  Revolution   it   was   plain   that   the   United   States 

tiatewasopened  at  Georgetown.  D.  C,  1806.    During  could  not  conveniently  remain  subject  in  spirituals 

the  War  of  1812,  it  was  at  St.  Inigoes  and  Frederick  to  a  superior  in  Endand.     A  meeting  was  called 

for  a  few  years,  then  returned  to  Georgetown,  was  at  Whitemarsh  (27  June,  1783)  by  the  Rev.  John 

removed  to  Whitemarsh  about  1820,  and  to  Frederick  Lewis,    Vicar-G^eral    of    the    Vicar    Apostolic    of 

in  1833,  whence  in  1903  it  was  finally  removed  to  St.  London.    This  meeting  was  attended  by  the  Revs. 

Andre  w8-on-the-Hudson,   near   Poughkeepsie,    New  John  Carroll,   John   Ash  ton,  Charles   Sewell,   Ber- 

York.  nard   Diderick,  Sylvester   Boarman,  and    Leonard 

In  1669,  the  CJ&tholic  population  numbered  2,000;  Neale.     It  resulted  in  a  petition   asking  for  the 

in  1708  it  was  2,979  in  a  population  of  40,000;  in  1755  appointment  of  the  Rev.  John  Lewis  as  Superior, 

about  7,000.    In  1766,  the  following  missions  were  with  quasi-episcopal   faculties.     At  this  time   the 

attended  ^  Jesuits:   St.   Inigoes,   Newtown,  Port  French  Minister  to  the  United  States  schemed  to 

Tobacco,  Whitemarsh,  Deer  Creek,  Fredericitown^  make  the  missions  of  the  United  States  subject  to 

Queenstown,  Bohemia,  and  Baltimore.    The  twenty  France.     Benjamin    Franklin,  United  States  repre- 

Jesidts  on  the   Maryland  mission  at  the  time  of  sentative  to  France,  ignorant  of  the  true  state  of 

their  order's  suppression   (1773)  remained  at  their  affairs,  at  first  supported  this  intrigue.     Congress, 

posts.  The  first  priest  bom  in  Maryland  was  the  Rev.  however,  informed  Franklin  that  the  project  was  one 

Kobert  Brooks  (1663;.    His  four  brothers  also  became  "without  the  jurisdiction  and  power  of  Congress, 

priests.    Ck>nspicuous  for  unselfish  zeal  at  this  period  who  have  no  authority  to  permit  or  refuse  it".    The 

was  Rev.  WiUiam  Hunter:  whilst  for  over  forty  years  American  priests  then  presented  a  memorial  to  Pius 

Father  Georee  Thorold  laooiu-ed  in  Maryland  (1700-  VI.    As  a  result  the  appointment  of  the  Rev.  John 

42).    The  derpr  was,  in  general,  self-supporting.  Carroll  as  Superior  of  the  missions  of  the  United 

CTreacy,  op.   cit.;   Extracts  from   Letters  of  Mis-  States,  with  power  to  administer  confirmation,  was 

aonaries,  Baltimore,   1877;   Shea,  Life  and  Times  ratified   (9  June,   1784).     He  received   the  decree 

of  Archbishop  (^rroll.  New  York,  1888.)  appointing  him  Prefect  Apostolic  26  November,  1784. 

(c)  The  Catholic  CoUmisls. — ^The  Catholic  popula-  At  this  time,  there  were,  according  to  Dr.  Carroll, 

tion,  mostly  rural,  was  generous  to  the  Church  and  15,800  Catholics  in  Maryland  (of  whom  3,000  were 

liospitable  to  the  priests.    We  find  mamy  deeds  and  negroes);  7,000  Catholics  in  Pennsylvania;  200  in 

bequests  for  ecclesiastical  purposes  in  the  early  reo-  Virginia;   1,500  in  New  York.     In  1782  the  total 

oToa.    Enduring  one  hunared  years  of  persecution  population  of  Maryland  was  254,000.     There  were 

from  the  Protestants  to  whom  they  had  offered  nineteen  priests  in  Maryland  and  five  in  Pennsylvania. 

asylum,  proscribed,  disfranchised,  offered  peace  and  Dr.  Carroll  made  his  first  visitation  in  Maryland  in 

emolument  in  exchange  for  apostasy,  the  Catholics  1785,  and  administered  confirmation.     About  this 

generally  continued  faithful,  and  it  is  inspiring  to  time  he  took  up  his  residence  in  Baltimore,  where 

t^  the  list  of  Catholic  names  that  survived  the  the  Rev.  Charles  Sewell  was  pastor.     In  1788,  the 

dark  dajrs,  and  that  are  still  in  evidence  on  the  dergy  petitioned  Pius  VI  for  the  appointment  of  a 

Catholic  roll  of  honour — Brent,  Lee,  Fenwick,  Boar-  bishop.    Their  request  was  granted.    They  were  per- 

man,  Sewell,  I^owe,  Gardiner,  Carroll,  Neale,  Jen-  mitted  to  determine  whether  the  bishop  shoula  be 

Idns,  Digges,  Bowling,  Edelin,  Matthews,  Lancaster,  merely  titular,  or  should  have  a  see  in  the  United 

Stonestreet,    Boone,    Mattin^y,    Brooks,    Hunter,  States — and  to  choose  the  place  for,  as  well  as  to  elect 

Coombes,  Spalding,  Senunes,  Dyer,  Jamison,  Queen,  the  occupant  of  the  see. 

Hill,  Gwynn,  Wheeler,  Elder,  McAtee,  Pye,  Miles,        Election  of  Bishop  Carroll, — ^Twenty-four  priests 

Abell,  Camalier,  Smith,  Plowden.  Freeman,  Maddox,  assembled  at  Whitemarsh.    Twenty-three  voted  for 

Greenwell,  Floyd,  Drury,  Mudd,  Hamilton,  Clark,  Dr.  Carroll,  who  was,  accordingly,  appointed  first 

Payne,  Brock,  Walton,  Doyne,  Damall.      During  the  Bishop  of  Baltimore,  subject  to  tlie  Roman  Congre- 

AmericanRevolution,  Catholics,  with  very  rare  excep-  gation  of  the  Propaganda.     Dr.  CarrcU  was  conse- 

tions,  sided  with  the  patriots;  Maryland's  best  Catholic  crated  in  the  chaiJel  of  Lulworth  Castle,  England, 

names  are  to  be  found  on  the  rolls  of  the  Conti-  15  August.  1790,  the  consecrator  being  the  llight 

nenUl  army,   both  as  officers  and  privates.     The  Rev.  Qiarles  Walmeslejr,  Senior  Vicar  Apostolic  ot 

most  prominent  and  influential  citizen  of  Maryland  England.      Before    leaving    England,    Dr.    Carroll 

durmg  this  epoch  was  Charles  Carroll  of  Carrollton,  arranged  with  the  Sulpician  Fathers  to  establish  an 

one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  ecclesrastical  seminary  in   Baltimore  at  their  own 

At  tins  time  only  Maryland.  Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  expense.    Accordingly,  the  superior,  the  Rev.  Francis 

and  Delaware  liad  removea  the  disabilities  against  Nagot  with  three  priests  and  five  seminarians  arrived 

Catholics.    The  National  Convention  (Philaddphia,  at  Baltimore  in  July,  1791.    The  "One  Mile  Tavern" 

1787)  granted  religious  liberty  to  all.      (McSherry,  and  four  acres  of  land  were  purchased  and  on  18  July, 

Hist  of  Maryland,  Baltimore,  1882;  Scharf,  Hist,  of  St.  Mary's  Seminary  was  opened. 
Manrland,  Baltimore,  1879.)  (a)  Progress  of  Catholicism,— The  next  year  the 

II.  Amefucan  Period.— Such  were  the  conditions  Revs.  J.   B.   David  and  B.  J.   Flaget,  afterwards 

in  Mfitf^nd  when  the  first  bishop  was  appointed.  Bishops  of  Bardstown  (Louisville),  Kentucky,  with 

Speaking  of  this  period  in  1790  Bishop  Carroll  said  Mr.  Stephen  Badin  who  was  the  first  priest  ordained 

"it  is  surprising  that  there  remained  even  so  much  in  Baltimore  (1793),  arrived.    In  1787,  the  Rev.  Jo- 

as  there  was  of  true  reli^on.    In  general  Catholics  seph  Mosley  died  leaving  about  600  communicants  on 

were  regular  and  unoffensive  in  their  conduct,  such,  I  the  Eastern  Shore,  where  he  had  laboured  twenty-two 

" — but  he  com-  years.    At  this  time  there  was  only  one  other  priest 


mean,  as  were  natives  of  the  country" — but  he  com-  years 
plains  bitterly  of  the  injury  to  the  Faith  caused  by  static 
those  Catholics  who  came  to  the  colony  about  this    Lewis 


plains  bitterly  of  the  injury  to  the  Faith  caused  by    stationed  there.     The  next  year  the  veteran  John 

ria  died,  being  the  last  of  the  Superiors  of  the  origi 


BALTIMOBIE  230  BALTIMORE 

nal  Maryland  missions.    In  1789  Georgetown  College  Life  of  Riffht  Rev.  John  N.  Neumann,  D.D.,  New 

was  founded.    A  frame  church  was  erected  at  West-  York,  1884);  and  the  Rev.  Francis  X.  Seelos  who 

minster  (1789),  succeeiled  by  Christ  Church  (1805),  died  in  1867,  the  first  steps  towards  whose  canonizar 

under  the  Rev.  Joseph  Zucchi.    In  1791  the  Diocese  tion  were  taken  in  1901  (Zinmier,  Life  of  Rev.  F.  X. 

of  Baltimore  included  all  the  territory  east  of  the  Seelos,  New ,  York,  1887).     St.  Joseph's,  Emmits- 

Mississippi,  except   Floridaj  in  this  vast  territory  burg,  was  founded,  in  1793,  by  the  Kev.  Matthew 

there  were  chiwcnes  at  Baltunore,  New  York  (1786),  Ryan.     The  Revs.  John  Dubois  and  Simon  Bnit4 

Boston  (1788),  Charleston  (1788);  in  Maryland  at  St.  were  afterwards  pastors  of  this  church.     The  first 

Inigoes,  Newtown  ^T^ewport,   Port   Tobacco,  Rock  baptismid  record  of  St.  Mary's  Church,  Bryantown, 

Creek,  Annapolis,  Whitemarsh,  Bohemia,  Tuckahoe,  was  entered  in  1793.    Father  David,  the  first  pastor, 

Deer  Creek,  Frederick,  Westminster;  in  Pennsylvania,  was  transferred  to  Georgetown  in  1804.     In  1794. 

at  Philadelphia,  Lancaster,  Conewago,  Goshenhop-  the  first  church  was  built  in  Hagerstown,  attendea 

pen;  in  Delaware,  at  Coffee  Run,  also  at  Vincennes,  by  the  Rev.  D.  Cahill.     About  1795,  a  log  church 

Kaskaskia,  Cahokia,  and  Prairie  au  Rocher.    In  1790,  (St.    Maiy's)    was    built   at   Cumberland;    a    brick 

a  Carmelite  community  was  established  at  Port  To-  church  was  substituted  in  1838.    It  was  replaced  by 

bacco  under  Mother  Frances  Dickinson.    The  nuns  the  present  church  (St.  Patrick's)  begun  in  1849  by 

remained  there  until  1831,  when  twenty-four  sisters  the  Rev.  O.  L.  Obermeyer,  and  consecrated  in  1883. 

under  Mother  Angela  Mudd  removed  to  Baltimore.  St.  Joseph's,  Taneytown,  was  built  by  Mr.  Brookes 

In  1791,  the  first  diocesan  synod  in  the  United  States  (1796).    Its  first  pastor  was  the  well-known  Russian 

was  opened  at  the  bishop's  house  in  Baltimore,  nobleman  and  convert.  Father  Demetrius  A.  Gallitzin. 
Twenty-two  priests  and  tne  bishop  were  present.        It  was  soon  seen  that  a  coadjutor  for  the  diocese 

At  this  synod  the  offertory  collections  were  inaugu-  was  desirable 'in  case  of  the  bishop's  death,  and  the 

rated.     Between  1791  and  1798  seventeen  French  Rev.  Lawrence  Grsessel,  a  German  priest  of  Phila- 

priests  arrived,  some  of  whom  became  famous  in  the  delphia,  was  appointed  to  that  office.    This  zealous 

nistory  of  the  iJnited  States — the  Revs.  John  Dubois  priest  dying  soon  after,  the  Rev»  Leonard  NoaJe,  a 

(1791),    Benedict    Flaget,   J.    B.    David,    Ambrose  native  of  Maryland,  was  selected,  and  was  consecrated 

Mar^chal  (1792),  William  DuBourg,  and  John  Moran-  7  December,  1800,  at  the  Baltimore  pro-cathedral. 

vill6    (1794),   and  John   Lefevre  Cheverus  (1796).  A  notable  event  at  this  time  was  the  marriage  of 

Until  this  time    the    burden    of    the    missions  of  Jerome   Bonaparte,  brother  of   Napoleon,  to   Miss 

Maryland  had  been  borne   by  the   Jesuits.     From  Patterson  of    Baltimore,  Bishop  Carroll  officiating 

J  700  to  1805  about  ninety  Jesuits   had   laboured  (24  December j  1803). 

on  the  mission,  of  whom  aoout  sixty  were  English,        (b)   Educational  InsHtuiions. — ^As  already  stated 
sixteen  Americans,  and  the  rest  German,  Irish,  Welsh,  Georgetown  College  was  opened  by  the  Jesuit  Fathers 
Belgian,  and  French.    They  were  apostolic  men  who  in  1791.    (Centennial  Hist,  of  Georgetown  College, 
devoted  their  lives  without  earthly  reward  to  the  Washington,  1891.)    In  1803  the  faculty  of  St.  Mary's 
service  of  others.  Seminary   instituted   an   undenominational    college 
In  1792^  Catholics  in  the  eastern  section  of  Balti*  course  which  continued  until   1852,  when  Loyola 
more,  findmg  it  inconvenient  to  attend  the  pro-cathe-  College  was  opened.    During  this  period  it  numbered 
dral,  asked  for  a  priest  and  rented  a  room  in  the  third  amonj^  its  students  many  who  afterwards  became 
story  of  a  house,  comer  of  Fleet  and  Bond  Streets,  prominent;  among  others  Robert  Walsh,  A.  B.Roman, 
where  the  first  Mass  was  said  by  Bishop  Carroll.   This  the  Latrobes,  the  Carrolls,  the  Jenkins,  the  Foleys,  S. 
congregation  numbered  about  twelve  persons.    The  Ecdeston,  J.  Chanche,  F.  E.  Chatard,  C.  I.  White,  S. 
Rev.  Antoine  Gamier,  from  St.  Mary's  Seminary,  T.  Wallis,  Robert  McLane,C.C.Biddle,Reverdy  John- 
visited  them  twice  weekly  until  17  December,  1795,  son,  Oden  Bowie,  Leo  Knott,  Christopher  Johnson, 
when  the  Rev.  John  Floyd  took  charge.    The  first  At  one  time  (1839-40)  it  had  207  students.    In  the 
church  was  erected  on  Apple  Alley  near  Wilks  Street,  meantime  an  attempt  was  made  to  separate  the  colleee 
Father  Floyd  dying  in  1797,  Father  Gamier  was  again  from  the  seminary,  and  in  1807  Fatner  Na^t  estab- 
made  pastor  tmtil  1803,  when  the  Rev.  Michael  CcSdy  lished  a  college  at  Pigeon  Hills,  Pennsylvama,  but  in 
succeeded  him.    Dying  within  the  year,  his  place  was  1808,  the'sixteen  stucSnts  were  transferred  to  a  new  in- 
taken  by  the  R|ev.  John  Moranvili^,  through  whose  stitution  be^un  at  Enunitsbiu^  by  the  Rev.  John  Du- 
zeal  the  comer-stone  of  St.  Patrick's  Church  (Broad-  bois,  a  Sulpician.     Such  was  uie  beginning  of  Mt.  St. 
way  and  Bank  Streets)  was  laid  10  July,  1804.    It  MaiVs  CoUege.     It  gave  to  the  Church  one  cardboai 
was  dedicated  29  November,  1807,  bein^  then  the  (McCloskey),'  five  archb^'shops,  twenty-one  bishops, 
most  imposing  church  in  the  diocese.    Fatner  Moran-  and  five  hundred  priests.    To  carry  out  a  desi^  long 
vill6  died  in  1824,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  Rev.  entertained  by  the  Sulpicians.  St.  C^uirles  CoU^e,  a 
Nicholas  Kearney  (d.  1840),  the  Rev.  John  Dolan  (d.  petii  wiminaire,  was  begun  ana  built  on  land  donated 
1870),  and  the  Rev.  John  T.  Gaitley  (d.  1892).    In  by  Charles  Carroll  of  CarroUton.    The  comer-etone 
1898  the  old  church  was  replaced  by  tne  present  hand-  was  laid  in  1831,  but  owin^  to  the  lack  of  funds  the 
some  Gothic  edifice.    St.  Patrick's  School,  begun  by  coUe^  was  not  opened  until  1848.     The  Rev.  O.  L. 
Father  Moranvill^,  preceded   all  public  schools  in  Jenkms  was  its  first  president,  with  one  instmctor  and 
Baltimore.    The  earliest  German  Catholic  congre^  four  students,  but  at  his  death  (1869)  there  were 
tion  was  established  17  February,  1702,  assembling  thirteen  instructors,  140  students,  and  one  hundred 
for  the  first  time  for  Divine  service  in  a  house  near  priests  among  its  alumni.     Since  1853,  St.  Mary's 
Centre  Market.    About  1800  Father  Renter,  a  priest  Seminary  has  been  exclusively  a  grand  s^inairv, 
in  charge  of  the  German  Catholics,  fomented  a  schism  with  philosophy  and  theology  courses.   The  memories 
amongst  them.    They  built  a  church  where  St.  Al-  of  the  devoted  priests  who  (hiring  more  than  a  century 
phonsus's  now  stands,  called  it  St.  John  the  Evange-  have  oomposecf  its  faculties,  men  of  ^reat  learning  and 
list's,  and  defied  the  bishop,  who  carried  the  case  to  deep  piety,  are  cherished  with  loving  reverence  by 
the  courts,  which  decided  in  his  favour  (1805),    Arch-  the  numerous  clergy  they  have  taught.    The  alumni 
bishop  Eccleston  confided  the  chm^h  to  the  Kedemp^  roll  of  St.  Mary's  contains  the  names  of  one  cardinal, 
torists  in  1840.    The  comer-stone  of  the  new  church  30  bishops,  1,400  priests  (C^itennial  Histoiy  of  St. 
was  laid  in  1841,  the  name  being  changed  to  St.  Al-  Mary's  Seminary.  Baltimore,  1891).    The  Society  of 
phonsus's.     This  church  is  distinguished   for   two  Jesus  was  re-established  in  Maryland  (1805)  with  the 
pastors  whose  repute  for  sanctity  entitles  them  to  Rev.  Robert  Molyneux  as  superior, 
special  mention,  the  Venerable  John  N.  Neumann        In  1808,  Mrs.  Elizabeth  -\nn  Seton,  a  convert  from 
^Bishop  of   Philadelphia,   1852-60),   the  process  of  Episcopalianism,  went  from  New  York  to  Baltimore 
whose  beatification  is  still  pendinj^:  in  Rome  (Bemcer.  and  lived  with  some  companions  next  to  St.  Mai^^'a 


t.  OLD  ST.  PATRICKS 


BALTIMORE 
,.  CORPUS  CHRISTI  CHURCH  (JENKINS  MEMORlrt 


1.  ST.  MAKYS  5EMINARV 


BALTIMORE  231  BALTIMORE 

S«mnary.    A  convert,  the  Rev.  Samtiel  S.  Cooper,  Elder  (1867),  Barry  (1857),  Verot  (1858),  Becker 
having  given  Mrs.  Seton  and  her  nine  companions  (1868),  Gibbons  (1868),  Thomas  Foley  (1870),  Gross 
a  lot  at  Emmitsburg,  they  fomided  there   (1810)  (1873),   Northrop    (1882),   Glorieux    (1885),   Curtis 
the  Academy  of  St.  Joseph.     In  1812.  the  com-  (1886),  Haid  (1888),  John  Foley  (1888),  Chapelle 
munity  was  established  micfer  the  rules  of  the  Sisters  (1891),  Donahue  (1894),  Allen  (1897),  Granjon  (1900), 
of  Charity  and  Mrs.  Seton  was  elected  mother  su-  Cona^   (1901).     In  the  chapel  built  by  Cardinal 
perior.    She  died  in  1821,  leaving  a  flourishing  com-  Gibbons  under  the  high  altar  repose  the  ashes  of 
muni^  of  fif^  sisters   (White.  "Life  of  Elisa  A.  CacroU,  Marshal,  Whitfield,  Eccleston,  Kenrick,  and 
Seton  ,  New  York,  1853;  Seton,  'Memoir  Letters  and  Spalding.     Besides  those  already  mentioned  many 
Journal  of  Elizabeth  Seton*'.  New  York,  1869:  De  distingmshed  clen^ymen  have  been  associated  with  the 
Barbany,  "Elizabeth  Seton'^  2  vols.,  Paris,  1881;  cathedral;  Revs.  Roger  Smith,  Charles C.  Pise,  Charles 
Sadlier,  New  York,   s.   d.).     The   community  re-  I.  White,  first  editor  of  "The  Catholic  Mirror''  Jolm 
mained  independent  until  1850,  when  the  sisters  al-  Hickey,  S.S.,  H.B.  Coskery,  Thomas  Becker,  Thomas 
lied  themselvei?  with  the  Sisters  of  Charity  of  France,  Foley,  Thomas  S.  Lee,  A.  A.  Curtis,  P.  J.  Donahue, 
adopting  the  French  costume.     Thirty-one  sisters  in  and  C.  F.  Thomas.    The  cathedral  parish  has  always 
the  Diocese  of  New  York  preferred  to  continue  under  counted  among  its  members  a  great  number  of  dis- 
the  old  rule  and  organized  a  separate  body.    During  tinguished  persons.    Among  its  pewholders  have  been 
theavil  War  (1862-63),  140  Sisters  of  Charity  ^ve  Charies  Carroll  of  Carrollton,  Chief  Justice  Taney, 
their  services  on  the  field  and  in  the  hospitals.    The  David  Williamson,  Luke  Tieman,  Thomas  Sim  Lee, 
Mowing  notable  institutions  have  been  founded  in  Thomas  C.  Jenkins,  E.  Austin  Jenkins,  Alfred  Jen- 
the  diocese  from  the  mother  house  at  Emmitsbiug:  kins,  William  George  Readj,  John  Hillen,  Patrick 
St.  Maiy's  Orphan  Asylum  (1817);  Mt.  Hope  Retreat  Bennett,  Basil  Elder,  John  Walsh,  Solomon  Hillen, 
(1840);  St.  Vmcent's  Infant  Asylum  (1856);  St.  Jo-  John  and  Richard  Caton,  Dr.  Peter  Chatard,  Abra- 
seph's  House  of  Industry  (1863);  St.  Agnes's  Hos-  ham  White,  Jerome  Bonaparte,  Courtney  Jenkins, 
pital  (1863).  Mark  Jenkins,  Basil  Spalding,  Judge  Parkin  ^tt, 
(c)  The  Baltimore  Cathedral. — The  acquisition  of  Philip  Laurenson,  M.  Benzinger,  Charles  M.  Dough- 
Louisiana  hy  the  United  States  increased  the  labours  erty.  Col.  J.  N.  Bonaparte,  Wuliam  Kennedy^  Rol^rt 
of  Bishop  CarroU.    In  1805,  the  Holy  See  made  him  Bwry,  Columbus  O'Donnell,  John  Murphy.   In  recent 
Administrator  Aix>stolic  of  Louisiana  and  the  Flori-  times  and  at  present  we  find  the  Attorney-General  of 
daa    Until  this  time  the  bishop  had  officiated  in  St.  the  United  States,  Hon.  Charles  J.  Bonaparte,  Michael 
Peter's  Churdi,  built  about  1770,  at  the  comer  of  Jenkins,  Joseph  Jenkins,  Dr.  Felix  Jenkins,  George 
Northeast  and  Forrest  Streets.    The  Rev.  Bernard  Jenkins,  the  Misses  Jenkins,  Mr.  and  the  Misses  An- 
Diderick,   a   Bdgian   priest,   attended   the   church  drews,  the  Misses  Gardner,  William  Boggs,  Daniel 
monthly  from  1775-82.    The  Rev.  Charies  Sewell  of  Foley,  Mrs.  and  the  Misses  Mactavish,  WTR.  Crom- 
8t  Mary's  County  was  the  first  resident  pastor.    Per-  well,  Mrs.  John  S.  Gittinss,  Major  N.  S.  Hill,  Richard 
soaded  by  Dr.  DuBoui^,  the  bishop  and  trustees  de-  and  Allen  MacSherry,  Charles  G. '  Nicholson,  Miss 
eided  (1806)  to  erect  the  new  catheoral  on  the  present  Emily  Harper,  C.  D.  Kenny,  A.  Leo  Knott,  J.  M. 
rite.    The  comer-stone  was  laid  7  July,  1806,  by  Littig,  the  Drs.  MilhoUand,  Robert  Rennert,  Robert 
Hshop  Carroll.    The  first  rector  of  the  cathedral  was  Jenkms^  Henry  Bogue,  the  Messrs.  Abell,  the  Misses 
the  Rev.  Francis  Beeston.    He  died  (1809)  before  the 
church  was  finished.     His  successor  was  th/e  Rev. 
Enoch  Fenwick  (d.  1827),  to  whose  untiring  zeal  was 
due  the  completion  of  the  church  in  1821.    During  Tiemiml  Jud^  Charles  Heuisler,  Drs.  Chatard,  Drs. 
the  building  of  the  church  the  congregation  had  flprown  O'Donovan,  Dr.  Charles  Grindall,  Messrs.  and   the 
80  laree  that  the  Sulpicians  opened  to  the  pubnc  the  Misses  Boone,  Edgar  Gans,  Captain  Billups,  Messrs. 
chapd  of  Sti  Mary's  Seminary,  then  newly  dedicated  Key,  F.  Dammann,  Mrs.  J.  I.  Griffiss.  and  Victor 
(1808).     For  half  a  century  it  continued  to  be  the  Baiighman.    Indeed  the  roll-call  of  tne  cathedral 
suecursal  chtirch  of  the  cathedral.    On  31  May,  1821,  pariuiioners  contains   the  names  of  the  most  dis- 
the  cathedral  was  dedicated  by  Archbishop  Marshal,  tinguished  Catholics  of  their  times.     It  is  worthy  of 
The  architect  who  had  generously  aven  nis  services  remark  that  although  the  trustee  system  has  been 
gratis,  and  faithful]^  watched  over  Uie  erection  of  the  continued  at  the  cathedral  for  over  one  hundred 
edifice  was  Benjamm  H.  Latrobe,  a  Protestant  gentle-  years,  there  has  never  been  any  serious  disagreement 
man,  and  a  devoted  friend  of  Archbishop  Carroll,  between  the  clergy  and  laity.    The  archiepiscopal 
He  was  engaged  at  the  same  time  in  building  the  residence  was  built  during  Dr.  Whitfield's  administra- 
National  Capitol.    The  high  altar  of  the  cathedral  tion,  and   the  two  wings  were  added  in  1865  by 
was  a  gift  to  Archbishop  Mar^chal  from  his  pupils  in  Captain  William  Kennedy. 

MarseiUes.    The  imposing  portico  of  the  building  was        (d)  Division  of  the  Diocese. — In  compliance  with 

added  in  1863,  under  the  direction  of  the  architect.  Bishop  Carroll's  request  for  a  division  of  his  diocese, 

Eben  Faxon.    The  cathedral  was  consecrated  25  Blay,  Pius  Vll  (8  April,  1808)  issued  the  Bulls  creating 

1876,  by  Archbishop  Bayley.    During  Cardinal  Gin-  four  new  sees,  naming  the  Rev.  Richard  L.  Concan- 

boDs's  administration  a  commodious   sacristy  was  nen,  a  Dominican  for  New  York:  the  Rev.  Michael 

erected  (1879);  the  sanctuaiy  was  extended  (1888);  Egan,  a  Franciscan  for  Philadelpnia:  the  Rev.  John 

two  altars,  ^fts  of  Mrs.  Michael  Jenkins  and  James  Cheverus  for  Boston,  and  the  Rev.  Benedict  Joseph 

Sloan,  were  added,  and  the  altar  rail  in  memory  of  Flaget,  Sulpician,  for  Bardstown.    At  the  same  time 

WilliaEn  Bo^s  donated  (1906).    There  are  few  edi-  Baltimore  was  made  the  metropolitan  see  with  Dr. 

fices  in  the  Imited  States  as  rich  in  historical  memo-  Carroll  as  the  first  archbishop.    Dr.  Concannen,  oon- 

ries  as  the  Baltimore  Cathedral.     Within  its  walls  secreted  in  Rome  (1808),  died  at  Naples  (1810)  when 

have  been  held  three  plenary  coimcils  (1852^  1866,  about  to  sail.    Dr.  Egan  and  Dr.  Cheverus  were  con- 

1884),   ten  provincial   councils,  and  nine  diocesan  secreted  at  Baltimore  in  the  pro-cathedral  (1810)  and 

BynoajBj  three  cardinals  have  been  invested.  Gibbons,  Dr.  Flaget  at  St.  Patrick's  the  same  year.    The  pal- 


j»y  Cardin^d  Gibbons  alone.    The  bishops  consecreted  and  eighty  churches.     Maryland,  Virginia,  the  Dis- 

inthe  cathedral  were:  B.  J.  Fenwick  (1825),  Dubois  trict  of  Columbia,  the  Caroliiias,  what  is  now  Ala- 

(1826),  Whitfield   (1828),  Purcell  (1833),  Eccleston  bama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  and  Florida  were  still 

C1834),  Chanche  (1841),  Whelan  (1841),  Tyler  (1844),  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Baltimore,  and  in  1811  the 


BALTIMORE                              232  BALTIMORE 

Holy  See  added  some  of  the  Danish  and  Ehitch  West  in  the  District  of  Columbia  about  7,000  in  a  popular 

Indies.     At  this  period  occurred  the  interference  of  tion  of  33,000.    There  were  fifty-two  priests  in  the 

Archbishop  Troy  and  other  Irish  bishops  in  American  diocese.     Out  of  his  private  fortune,  Archbishop 

affairs  (Shea,  Life  and  Times  of  Abp.  Carroll,  pp.  Whitfield  built  St.  James's  Church,  Baltimore  (1833) 

664-668).     Dt.  Carroll's  protest  at  Rome  was  ren-  It  was  first  used  by  En^ish-speaking  Catholics,  who, 

dered  ineffectual,  owing  to  the  representations  of  the  finding  it  too  small  for  their  increasing  numbers,  com- 

Dominican  Fathers  Harold,  who  had  hastened  the  menced  the  erection  of  St.  Vincent's  Church  (1841). 

death  of  Bishop  Egan  of  JPhiladelphia,  and  after-  About  the  same  time  the  German  congre^tion  of  St. 

wards,  in  Europe,  enlisted  against  the  Archbishop  John's  (Saratoga  Street)  begim  the  builmng  of  their 

the  support  of  tne  Irish  prelates.    Worn  out  with  the  new  church,  St.  Alphonsus;  needing  in  the  meantime 

struggle,  he  died  3  December,  1815.  a  place  for  worship,  they  were  granted  the  use  of  St. 

IIlT  Successors  of  Archbishop  Carroll. — (a)  James's,  after  the  opening  of  St.  Vincent's  (of  which 

Leonard  NecUe. — Archbishop  Carroll  was  succeeded  Father  Gildea  warf  the  first  pastor).    The  Redempto- 

hy  Leonard  Neale,  a  native  of  Maryland.    The  Poor  rists  from  St.  Alphonsus  took  charge  henceforth  of  St. 

CJares  (Mother  Mary  de  la  March^  and  two  others)  James's  and  built  there  the  first  convent  of  their  order 

had  already  opened  an  academy  in  1801  at  George-  in  the  United  States.     Several  other  churches  were 

town,  with  Miss  Alice  Lalor  as  assistant  teacher,  established  by  the  Redemptorists.     In   1845,  they 

These  nuns  returned  to  Europe  after  the  death  of  the  founded  St.  Afichael's,  a  small  church  on  the  comer 

abbess;   Miss  Lalor  continued  the  academy.    Arch-  of  Pratt  and  Regester  Streets;  the  present  church  on  the 

bishop  Neale  erected  the  community  of  teachers  into  comer  of  LomlMuxi  and  Wolfe  Streets  was  commenced 

a  house  of  the  Order  of  the  Visitation  28  December,  in  1857.    Its  congregation  is  now  one  of  the  largest  in 

1817.    Archbishop  Neale  died  1 7  June,  at  Georgetown,  the  city.   The  Redemptorists  also  founded  Holy  Cross 

and  was  buried  in  the  convent  chapel.  parish,  the  corner-stone  of  the  church  being  laid  in 

(b)  Ambrose  Mar6chal. — Archbishop  Marshal  was  1858.  Since  1869,  the  secular  clei^  have  been  in 
bom  in  France,  and  joined  the  Company  of  St.  Sul-  charge.  The  church  of  the  Fourteen  Holy  Martyrs 
pice.  He  had  already  refused  the  See  of  Philadelphia  was  begun  (1870)  by  the  Redemptorists*  in  1874,  they 
(1816),  but  finally  consented  to  become  Archbishop  transferred  it  to  the  Benedictines.  Kev.  Meinrad 
Neale's  coadjutor.  He  was  consecrated  at  St.  Peter's,  Jeggle,  O.S.B.,  was  rector  from  1878  to  1806.  The  new 
Baltimore,  14  December,  1817,  by  Bishop  Cheverus.  church  was  commenced  in  1902.  St.  Wenceslaus's, 
In  his  first  visitation  he  confirmed  2,506  jpersons.  In  dedicated  in  1872,  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  Slav 
his  diocese,  which  comprised  Maryland,  Virginia,  the  congregations'  in  Baltimore.  The  Redemptorists  took 
Carolinas,  Georgia,  and  the  territory  west  of  Georgia  cha^  of  it  in  1882.  A  new  church  and  school  were 
to  the  Mississippi,  there  were  then,  according  to  his  commenced  in  1903.  In  1873  they  began  the  Sacred 
estimate,  100,000  Catholics.     About  10,000  were  in  Heart  Church  (Canton). 

Baltimore,  having  increased  to  that  figure  from  800  The  Maryland  Province  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  was 

in  1792.   In  one  'year  there  were  10,000  conmiunions  in  formally  established  in  1833,  with  Father  William  Mc- 

the  seminary  chapel  alone.     There  were  fifty-two  Sherry,  a  Virginian,  as  first  provincial.    The  Second 

priests,  principally  French  and  American  born.    The  Provincial  Council  met  at  the  cathedral,  Baltimore, 

Diocese  of  Baltimore  at  this  time  (1819)  mourned  the  20  October,   1833.     Besides  Archbishop  Whitfield, 

'oss  of  Thomas  Sim  Lee,  twice  governor,  and  Mary-  there  were  present  Bishops  David,  England,  Rosati, 

land's  representative  in  the  Convention  which  rati-  Fenwick  (Boston),  Dubois,  Portier,  F.  P.  Kenrick, 

fied  the  (jonstitution.    In  1820,  two  schismatic  priests,  Rese,  Purcell.    Bishop  Flaget  was  absent;  the  Jesuits, 

aided  by  intriguing  Irish  prelates,  succeeded  in  naving  Sulpicians,  and  Dominicans  were   represented.     A 

Patrick  Kelly  secretly  appointea  to  the  See  of  Rich-  Roman  Ritual  adapted  to  the  wants  oi  this  country 

mond  and  John  England    to    that   of   Charieston. '  was  ordered  to  be  prepared.     Rev.  Sunuel  Eccleston 

Thus,  without  the  archbishop's  knowledge  or  consent,  elected  coadjutor,  was  consecrated  in  the  cathedral 

New  York,  Philadelphia,  Richmond,  and  Charleston  14  September,  1834,  by  Archbishop  Whitfield,  who 

were  given  for  bishops  utter  strangers,  bound  by  oath  died  tne  following  October. 

of  allegiance  to  England,  then  at  variance  with  the  (d)  Samuel  Eccleston. — ^Archbishop  Eccleston,  a 
United  States.  The  Diocese  of  Baltimore  was  thus  native  of  Maryland,  a  convert  and  a  Sulpician,  was 
divided  into  two  parts,  Maryland  and  the  District  of  thirty-three  years  old  when  he  succeeded  to  the  See 
Colimibia  on  the  Atlantic,  and  a  thousand  miles  ofif  of  Baltimore.  During  his  administration  the  anti- 
Alabama  and  Mississippi,  with  Richmond  and  Charles-  CJatholic  sentiment  began  to  lose  its  violence  and  the 
ton  between.  Archbisnop  Marshal,  while  at  Rome,  tide  of  conversions  set  in.  In  1834  there  were  within 
(1821)  obtained  for  the  provincial  bishops  the  right  the  jurisdiction  of  Baltimore  (Maryland,  Vindnia,  and 
to  recommend  candidates  for  vacant  sees.  Mississippi  District  of  Columbia)  70  churches  and  CS  priests. 
was  erected  into  a  Vicariate  Apostolic  with  Dr.  Du-  There  were  only  327  priests  in  the  whole  United 
Bourg  as  Vicar  Apostolic;  Alabama  and  Florida  were  States.  The  Visitation  Nuns  from  Georgetown  estab- 
attacned  to  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Mobile  (1825).  lished  a  house  in  Baltimore  (1837)  with  Mother  Juli- 
In  1822,  Bishop  Kelly  returned  to  Ireland,  and  Arch-  ana  Matthews  as  first  superioress.  Mother  Anastasia 
bishop  A^ar^chal  was  appointed  Administrator  of  the  Coombes  established  another  Visitation  monast^y 
Diocese  of  Richmond.  The  archbishop  died  29  Janu-  at  Frederick  in  1846.  In  1852  another  house  was 
ary,  1828.  established    (Mt.    de   Sales)    at   Catonsville,    under 

(c)  James  Whitfield. — He  was  succeeded  by  James  Mother  Cecilia  Brooks. 

Whitfield,  an  Englishman  by  birth.    His  consecration  The  Third  Provincial  Coimcil  was  held  in  the  cathe- 

by  Bishop  Flaget  took  place  25  May,  1828,  in  the  dral,  1837.    It  was  attended  by  the  archbishop,  and 

cathedral.     October  4,   1829,  the  First  Provincial  Bishops  Rosati,  Fenwick  (Boston),  F.  P.  Kenridc, 

Council  of  Baltimore  was  opened,  and  the  same  day  Purcell,   Chabrat,   Clancy,    Brut^,    Blanc.     Htshop 

the  archbishop  received  the  paUium.    The  Fathers  Dubois  declined  to  assist.    The  Fourth  Provincial 

of  this  coimcu  were  Archbishop  Whitfield,  Bishops  Council  was  opened  at  the  cathedral,  16  Mav,  1840. 

Flaget,  the  two  Fen  wicks  (Boston  and  Cincinnati),  Ten  bishops  accepted  the  invitation  of  Archbishop 

England,  Rosati,  and  Rev.  William  Matthews,  repre-  Eccleston  to  attend  the  council,  Fla^t,  Rosati,  Fen- 

senting  Philadelphia.     (See  Baltimore, The  Provin-  wick  (Boston),  Portier,  F.  P.  KenricK,  Purcell,  Blanc, 

CI  AL  Councils  OF.)  To  carry  out  the  council's  decrees,  Loras,  Miles,  De  la  Hailandi^re.     The    Sulpicians, 

a  synod,  attended  by  thirty-five  priests,  was  held  Dominicans,  and  Redemptorists  were  also  represented. 

31  Octoix»r,  1831.    There  were  at  this  time  in  Maryland  Rev.  Richard  Whelan  and  Rev.  John  Chanche  were 

about  80,000  Catholics  in  a  population  of  407,000;  recommended   by  this  council,  respectively  for  Uie 


BALTIMOBS  233  BALTIMORE 

Dioceees  of  Richmoad  and  Natchez,  thus  freeing  the        (e)  Francis  Patrick  Kenrick.— -Archbishop  Kenrick 

archbishop  from  the   administration  of    Richmond,  convoked  the  First  Plenary  Council  of  Baltiinore, 

The  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  Society  was  established  in  9  May,  1852.      (See  Baltimoee,   Plenary    Coun- 

the  diocese  (1840)  and  the  Young  Catholic  Friends'  cils  of.)    To  canry  out  the  coimcil's  decrees  a  synod 

Society  in  1848.    In  1842,  the  oorneivstone  of  Calvwt  was  called  (June,  1853) ,  attended  by  35  diocesan  and  17 

flail  was  laid  on  the  site  of  the  pro-cathedral  (Saratoga  regular  priests.     At  this  ^rnod  parochial  rights  and 

Street).     The  present  imposing  buildine  was  opened  limits  were  defined.    The  Eighth  Provincial  Council 
1891.     Rock  Hill  Academy  was  purchased  by  the^    met  in  the  Baltunore  Cathedral,  5  May,  1855.     Eight 

Qinstian  Brothers  (1867)  aiid  Rock  Hill  College  in-  sees  were  represented.    It  regulated  pew  rents  and  col- 

coroorated  1865.  lections,  and  estabUshed  a  rule  for  the  cathedraticum. 

The  Fifth  Provincial  Council  was  held  in  the  cathe-  Col.  B.  U.  Campbell,  a  Maryland  Cathohc,  who  by 

dral,  May,   1843.     It  was  attended   by  seventeen  his  contributions  laid  the  foimdation  for  the  history 

bishops.    At  this  time  there  were  90,000  Catholics,  of  the  Qimtjh  in  the  United  States,  dicNl  about  this 

.58  churches,  70  priests,  two  seminaries,  three  collies,  time  (1855).    In  1856  the  Catholics  of  the  city  of  Bal- 

'-0  academies  for  bojrs,  six  for  girls,  five  orphan  timore  niunbered  81,000,  and  had  13  churches,  while 

asylums,  and  ten  free  schools.    The  total  population  in  the  entire  diocese  (Maryland  and  the  District  of 

of  Maiyland  in  1840  was  469,232.    The  Sixth  Provin-  Columbia)  there  were  99  churches  and  chapels,  130 

rial  Council  met  at  the  cathedral,  10  May,  1846.  priests,  and  a  population  of  120,000.     The  Forty 

Twenty-three  bishops  were  ^resent  and  four  religious  Hours' Devotion  was  established  in  the  diocese  (1858). 

orders  were  represented.    "The  Blessed  Virgin  Mary  In  1858  the  Ninth  Provincial  Council  was  held  in  the 

Conceived  Without  Sin"  was  chosen  as  patroness  of  cathedral;  8  bishops  were  present  and  6  religious  or- 

the  Province.    Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  (mother-house  ders  were  represented.    At  the  Council's  request  the 

of  Eastern  Province  on  Aisquith  Street)    came  to  Holy  See  granted  to  the  Archbishop  of  Baltimore  the 

Baltimore,  5  August,  1847.     ''Notre  Dame  of  Mary-  preo^ence  in  councils  and  meeting,  held  by  the  prel- 

land"  was  established  22   September,   1873.     The  ates  of  the  United  States,  even  though  he  were  not 

Seventh  Prifvincial  Council   met   at  the  cathedral,  senior  archbishop.     Tne  petition  of  the  Fathers  of 

May,  1849.    Archbishop  Eccleston,  in  pursuance  of  this  Council  for  a  perpetual  dispensation  from  the 

the  council's  decision,  issued  a  pastoral  letter  reviving  Saturday  abstinence  was  granted.    In  1862,  the  Bal- 

the  custom  of  Peter 's-pence,  and  inviting  Pius  I  A,  timore  Province  comprised  Philadelphia,  Pittsburg, 

then  in  exile  at  Qaeta,  to  attend.    The  Archbishops  of  Charleston,  Savannah,  Richmond,  Wheeling,  Erie,  and 

Baltimore  and  St.  Louis  and  twenty-three  bisnops  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Florida.     In  the  Diocese 

were  present;  seven  religious  orders  were  represented,  of  Baltimore  there  were  124  churches  and  chapels; 

This  council  recommended  New  Orleans,  Cincinnati,  170  priests,  36  free  schools,  35  charitable  institutions; 

and  New  York  as  metropolitan  sees,  also  the  creation  Cathc^c  population  150,000. 

of  the  Sees  of  Savannah,  Wheeling,  and  St.  Paul.  A  synod  was  convened  (1863)  at  which  the  version 
The  fathers  petitioned  for  t{ie  de&mtion  of  the  Im-  of  the  Bible  revised  by  the  archbishop  was  adopted 
niaculate  Conception.  One  of  their  decrees  forbade  as  the  one  to  be  used  in  the  diocese.  Under  Arch- 
priests  offidating  at  marriages  where  a  minister  had  bishop  Kenrick,  the  following  churches  were  built  in 
officiated  or  intended  to  do  so.  The  Province  of  Balti-  Baltimore:  St.  John's  in  1853,  with  Rev.  J.  B.  Mc- 
more  now  comprised  the  Dioceses  of  Philadelphia,  Manus  as  first  pastor.  The  present  church  was  opened 
Pittsbure,  Ricmnond,  Wheeling,  Charieston,  and  in  1856.  The  chvirch  of  St.  Ignatius  Loyola  was  oon- 
SavamuJo.  secrated  15  August,  1856.  Rev.  John  Early,  S. J.,  was 
About  this  time  Rev.  John  Hickey  established  a  its  first  pastor  and  founder  of  Loyola  College  on  Holli- 
precedent  by  refusing  to  testify  in  court  concerning  day  Street  (1852);  in  1855  the  present  college  was 
stolen  property  restored  through  a  penitent.  The  opened  on  Calveii  Street  (Hist.  Sketch  of  Xoyola 
court  sustained  him.  During  Archbishop  Ekxdeston's  (Jollege,  Baltimore,  1902).  Many  distinguished  citi- 
time,  besides  those  mentioned  above,  several  other  zens  claim  it  as  their  Aima  Mater.  St.  Bridget's 
churches  were  erected.  The  comer-etone  of  St.  Jo-  Qiurch  (Canton)  was  dedicated  1854  and  was  built 
seph's  was  laid  in  1839.  In  1849,  it  was  given  to  the  by  Rev.  James  Dolan  out  of  his  private  means,  as 
Jesuits,  but  returned  to  the  diocesan  clenzy  in  1860.  were  also  St.  Mary's,  Govanstown,  and  the  Dolan 
The  new  church  was  b^un  in  1899.  St.  Peter's,  Orphans'  Home.  Kev.  John  Constance  was  first  paa- 
twm  in  1843,  was  consecrated  in  1879  under  Rev.  tor  of  St.  Bridget's.  New  chvu-ches  were  b^un  in 
Eoward  McColgan,  V.G.,  its  first  pastor.  The  Sisters  Kent  County,  Long  Green,  and  Clarkesville  dminff 
of  Mercy  came  to  St.  Peter's  from  Pittsburg  in  1855;  1855.  Archbishop  Kenrick  died  6  July,  1863,  and 
Mother  Catherine  Wynne  was  first  superioress.  They  Very  Rev.  H.  B.  Coskery,  a  native  of  Maryland,  again 
afterwards  opened  Mt.  St.  Agnes  (1867)  of  which  became  administrator.  He  had  been  appointed 
Mother  de  Chantal  Dieges  was  first  superioress;  they  Bishop  of  Portland  in  1854,  but  had  returned  the 
•lao  have  charge  of  the  City  Hospital.     St.  Angus-  Bulls. 

tine's  (Elkridge)  was  founded  1845.    Its  first  pjastor  Coloured  Catholics. — During  his  administration  St. 

was  Rev.  B.  Rot:  the  present  beautiful  church  is  the  Francis  Xavier's  Church  for  negroes  was  dedicated 

gift  of  Mr.  C.  D.  Kenny  (1902).    St.  Charles  Borromeo  (1864).    Its  first  pastor  was  Father  Michael  O'Con- 

(PikesviUe)  waa  commenced  16  July,  1848,  by  Father  nor.   It  was  put  m  charge  of  the  Josephites  (1871) 

White.  The  present  iinposing  Romanesque  edifice  was  from  Mill  Hill  College,  England,  brought  to  JBalti- 

dedicated  IJ  March,  1899.     The  Inmiaculate  Concep-  more  by  Rev.  Herbert  Vaughan.     These  mission- 

tion  pariah  was  organized  in  1850  with  Rev.  Mark  An-  aries  came  to  minister  to  the  Catholic  negroes  of 

thony,  C.  M.,  as  its  first  pastor;  the  present  church  waa  Maryland,  there  being — greatly  to  the  honour  of  their 

dedicated  m  1858,  during  the  pastorate  of  Rev.  Joseph  Catholic  masters — 16^000  of  them  in  the  State  at  the 

^^iustiniani,   CM.      Ardibishop   Eccleston   died   at  time  of  the  emancipation.   From  St.  Francis spnmg  St. 

Geoigetown.  22  April.  1851 ,  and  was  buried  in  Balti-  Monica's,  St.  Peter  Qaver's  (1889) ,  and  St.  Bamabas's 

ujore.    At  this  time  tnere  were  in  the  diocese  (Mary-  (1907),  all  churches  for  coloured  people.    As  eariy  as 

land  a&d   District   of  Columbia)   83  churches  and  1828  the  Sulpician  Father  Jacques  Joubert  founded  at 

chapels;  103  priests;  6  ecclesiastical  seminaries;  12  Baltimore  a  house  of  Coloured  Oblate  Sisters  of  Provi- 

free  adiools,  and  23  charitable  institutions;  Catholic  dence.    They  conduct  at  present  St.  Frances's  Acad- 

population  100,000.     Rev.  H.  B.  Coskery  was  ad-  emy  and  Orphanage,  and  m  Washington  St.  Cyprian's 

nnniBtrator  until   the  following  August,  when  Dr.  Parochial  School  and  Academy.    St.  Joseph's  Semi- 

Franeis  P.  Kenrick,  Coadjutor-Bishop  of  Philadel-  nary  was  opened  in   Baltimore  by  the  Josephites 

phia,  was  elevated  to  the  See  of  Baltimore.  (1888)  with  three  white  and  one  coloured  student. 


BALTIMORE  234  BALTIMORE 

Epiphany  Apostolic  College,  its  preparatorv  seminaiy ,  were  converts.  The  Eighth  Provincial  Synod  opened 
was  opened  in  1889  by  Rev.  Dominic  Manley.  In  in  Baltimore,  27  Au^st,  1875;  93  priests  and  repre- 
1881  St.  Elizabeth's  Home  for  coloured  children  was  sentatives  of  8  religious  oonmiunities  were  present, 
established  in  Baltimore  by  Mother  Winifred  and  St.  Ann's  (York  Road)  built  by  Capt.  William  Ken- 
three  English  Sisters  of  St.  Francis.  Their  convent  nedy  and  his  wife,  was  dedicated  in  1874,  Rev.  Wil- 
on  Maryland  Avenue  was  opened  in  1889,  the  house  liam  E.  Bartlett  beinff  its  first  pastor.  The  Capuchin 
being  a  gift  to  the  order  from  Mrs.  E.  Austin  Jenkins.  Fathers  established  tnemselves  in  the  diocese  (1875) 

(f)  Martin  John  Spalding^ — At  Archbishop  Ken-  in  the  Monastery  of  St.  Peter  and  Paul,  Cumberland, 
rick's  death  the  United  States  Government  attempted  In  1882,  it  was  made  the  seminary  of  the  order;  59 
to  interfere  in  the  selection  of  an  archbishop,  but  priests  have  been  ordained  there.    Previous  to  this, 
failed  (Cathedral  Records,  Baltimore,  1906,  p.  46;  the  Redemptorist,  Rev.  John  N.  Neumann,  had  built 
Shea,  Hist,  of  Cath.  Ch.  in  U.  S.,  1844-66,  New  York,  the  church  of  St.  Peter  and  Paul  on  the  site  of  Fort 
1889-92,p.  393),  and  the  Rt.  Rev.  Martin  John  Spald-  Cumberland  (1848).     In  1866,  the  Carmelites  suo- 
ing,  Bishop  of  Louisville,  was  elected  23  May,  1864.  ceeded  the  Redempterists  and  remained  until  1875, 
Archbishop  Spalding  invited  the  Sistdrs  of  the  Good  when  the  Capuchin  Fathers  took  charge.    When  the 
Shepherd  from  Louisville  (1864)  to  come  to  Baltimore,  Redempterists   left   Cumberland,    they   established 
and  established  them  in  a  home  given  b^r  Mrs.  Emily  (1867)  their  house  of  studies  at  Ilchester  (Hist,  of  the 
Mactavish.     Their  work  is  the  reformation  of  fallen  Redempterists  at  Annapolis,  Ilchest^,  1904).     St. 
women  and  the  preservation  of  youns  ^Is.   At  this  Catherine's  Normal  Institute  for  training  Catholic 
time  (1864)  the  Church  lost  one  of   its  foremost  teachers  was  estabUshed  in  Baltimore  (1875)  by  Sis- 
members,  Roger   B.   Taney,  Chief  Justice    of  the  ters  of  the  Holy  Cross.    They  have  schools  also  at- 
United  Stetes.   The  Tenth  Provincial  Coimcil  was  tached  to  the  churches  of  St.  Patrick  and  St.  Pius, 
opened  in  the  cathedral,  25  April,  1869;  14  prelates  The  latter  church  was  begun  by  Archbishop  Bajrley, 
were  present.    The  Second  Plenary  Council  of  Balti-  its  erection  being  made  possible  by  a  generous  dona- 
more  met  7  October,  1866,  in  the  cathedral.   It  reoom-  tion  of  Mr.  Columbus  O'DonnelL    It  was  dedicated 
mended  the  establishment  of  the  Apostolic  Vicariate  in  1879.  with  Rev.  L.  S.  Mallo^  first.  (Castor.    The 
of  North  Carolina.    St.  Mary's  Industrial  School  for  Right  Rev.   James  Gibbons,  Bishop  of  Richmond, 
Boys,  erected  on  land  donated  by  Mrs.  Emily  Mac-  was  made  coadjutor  with  ri^ht  of  succession  20  Biay. 
tavish,  was  opened  in  1866,  and  placed  in  charge  of  1877.    Archbishop  Bayley  died  the  following  Octobar. 
the  Xaverian  Brothers  from  Belgium.     Mt.  St.  Jo-        (h)  James  Gibbons. — Ai-chbishoj)  Gibbons  is  the 
seph's  College,  begun  (1876)  as  an  aid  to  the  Xavman  onl^  Archbishop  of  Baltimore  bom  in  that  city.    The 
Novitiate,  luw  now  40  novices  and  150  students.    St.  Third  Plenary  Council  met  in  the  cathedral  9  Novem- 
James's  Home  (Baltimore)  furthers  the  work  of  the  ber,  1884 — being  the  largest  council  held  outside  of 
Industrial  School  by  securing  positions  for,  and  board-  Rome  since  the  Council  of  Trent.    The  zuchetta  was 
ing,  older  boys.    It  has  about  70  boarders.    A  some-  conferred  upon  Cardinal  Gibbons  7  June,  1886,  and 
what  unusual  event  took  place  16  August,  1868,  when  the  following  March  he  was  invested  in  Rome  and 
Revs.  James  Gibbons  and  Thomas  Becker  were  con-  took  possession  of  his  titular  church,  Santa  Maria  in 
secrated  together  in  the  cathedral  by  Archbishop  Trastevere.    The  Ninth  Provincial  Synod  was  con- 
Spaldiru?.    Woodstock  Colle^,  the  seminary  of  the  vened  in  Baltimore  September,  1886,  115  prieste  at- 
Jesuit  Fathers,  was  opened  m  1869;  Father  Aneelo  tenciin^;  8  religious  orders  were  represented.     The 
Barasci  was  its  first  rector.    Since  then  many  stanoard  Cathohc  University  of  America  was  instituted  in 
treatises  on  theology,  philosophy,  and  science  have  1887,  and  the  Archbishop  of  Baltimore  was  named, 
been  published  by  its  professors,  the  best  known  being  ex  officio,  the  Chancellor.    (See  Cathouc  Universttt 
the  works  of  Mazzella,  De  Augustinis,  Sabetti,  Maas^  of  America.)   The  centenarv  of  the  diocese  was  oele- 
Piccirelli,  and  Sestini.     In  1865  John  T.  Stephanim  brated  November.  1889.    There  were  present  Cardi- 
and  Charles  Lonjj,  Passionist  Fathers,  were  appointed  nals  Gibbons  and  Taschereau^  Mgr.  Satolli,  repre- 
to  St.  Agnes 's  Church,  Catonsville.     The  Passionist  sentative  of  the  pope,  8  archbishops,  75  bishops,  18 
monastery  of  St.  Joseph  was  completed  in  1868;  monsignori,  and  400  priests.    Canada,  Me3dco,  Eng- 
Father  Lone  was  elected  its  first  rector.    It  was  de-  land,  and  Ireland  were  represented.    On  that  occasion 
stroyed  by  m*e  in  1883  and  a  new  monastery  was  built  leading  Catholic  laymen  took  part  in  a  Catholic  Con- 
in  1886.    The  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor  were  estab-  cress    (Hughes,   Proceedings  of  Catholic  Con^'ees, 
lished  in  Baltimore,  6  April,  1869.    Since  then  3X)82  old  Detroit,  iSO)  and  there  was  a  procession  of  30,000 
people  have  been  cared  for  by  them.    Rev.  Thomas  men  with  Mr.  James  R.  Wheeler  as  marshal.    In  1893, 
Foley,  who  had  been  at  the  cathedral  for  twenty-two  the  cardinal's  Silver  Jubilee  was  celebrated.     Neariy 
years,  was  consecrated  Administrator  of  Chicago  in  every  see  in  the  United  States  was  represented;  there 
1870.    Archbishop  Spalding  died  7  February,  1872.  were  also  present  representatives  of  tne  Holy  Father, 
During  his  administration  the  churches  built  m  Balti-  and  of  the  episcopate  of  England,  Ireland,  Canada, 
more  were:  St.  Martin's  (Fulton  Avenue)  comer-stone  and  Oceania.    Bishop  A.  A.  Curtis  was  consecrated 
laid  in  1865,  Rev.  John  Foley,  first  pastor;  St.  Mary's  in  the  cathedral  November,  1886,  and  Bishop  P.  J. 
Star  of  the  Sea  founded  in  1869,  by  Rev,  Peter  McCoy.  Domdiue  in  1894.    29  April,  1906,  the  centenary  of  the 
The  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  came  to  this  parish  in  1875.  laying  of  the  comer-stone  of  the  cathedral  was  cele- 
After  Archbishop  Spalding's  death.  Very  Rev.  John  brated.    There  were  present  the  cardinal,  the  apos- 
Dougherty  admmistered    the    diocese  until  the  in-  tolic  delegate.  Most  Kev.  Diomede  Faloonio,  9  arch- 
stallation  of  Archbishop  Bayley  (October,  1872).  iHshops,  ^  bishops,  4  abbots,  and  about  800  priests. 

(g)  James  Roosevelt  Bayley. — Archbishop  Ba^ey  Among  the  late  additions  to  the  diocese  are  the 
had  been  an  Episcopalian  minister  in  New  York,  be-  Mission  Helpers  and  the  Sisters  of  Divine  Providence. 
came  a  Catholic,  a  priest,  and  at  the  time  of  his  eleva-  The  Mission  Helpers  opened  a  house  in  Baltimore 
tion  to  Baltimore,  was  Bishop  of  Newark.  Philadel-  in  1890;  it  was  canonically  oi*Kanized,  5  November, 
phia  was  made  a  metropolitan  see  in  1875.  TheProv-  1906.  The  Sisters  of  Divine  Providence  (of  Ken- 
mce  of  Baltimore  was  thus  limited  to  the  Sees  of  tucky)  were  established  in  the  diocese  in  1892,  having 
Baltimore,  Charieston,  Richmond,  Wheeling,  Sa-  charj^  of  the  household  interests  of  the  Catholic  Uni- 
vannah,  Wilmington,  St.  Augustine  (created  1870),  versity,  St.  Mary's  Seminary,  and  the  cardinal's 
and  the  Vicariate  of  North  Carolina.  There  were  in  residence.  The  churches  built  during  Cardinal  Gib- 
the  diocese  in  1870,  160  churches  and  chapels;  230  bons's  administration,  in  addition  to  those  already 
priests;  18  charitable,  and  six  educational,  institu-  mentioned  are:  St.  Andrew's,  dedicated  6  October, 
tions.  In  one  year  the  archbishop  confirmed  two  1878;  St.  Paul's  founded  in  1899  (the  present  impoa- 
hundred  times.    Of  the  6,405  persons  confirmed,  847  ing  church  was  erected  in  1903);  St.  Gr^goiy's     by 


BALTIMOSS  235  BALTIMORE 

means  of  a  donation  of  Mr.  Patrick' McKenna  (1884);  sented  by  the  mitred  Abbot  of  St.  Mary  of  La  Trappe 
St.  Stanislaus's  polish)  ^  founded  in  1880  and  taken  and  by  the  superiors  of  the  Augustinians,  Dominicans, 
over  in  1906  by  the  Franciscans;  Corpus  Christi;  built  Benedictines,    Franciscans,  ^suits,   Redemptorists, 
through  the  munificence  of  the  sons  and  daughters  of  Vineentians,  and  Sulpicians.    The  last  solemn  session 
Mr.  Thomas  C.  Jenkins,  in  memory  of  their  parents,  was  held  on  the  20th  of  May.    The  decrees  were  as 
and  dedicated  1  January,  1891:  St.  Leo's  (Italian),  follows:  (No.  i)  The   Fathers  profess  their  allegiance 
begun  in  1880,  by  Rev.  J.  L.  AndreLs.    During  the  to  the  p<^  as  the  divinely  constituted  head  of  the 
administration  of  Cardinal  Gibbons  86  new  churches  Church,  whose  office  it  is  to  confirm  his  brethren 
have  been  erected  in  the  diocese.    At  present  there  in  the  Faith.    They  also  declare  their  belief  in  the 
are  211  priests  of  the  diocese  and  273  of  religious  entire  Catholic  Faith  as  explained  by  the  oecumenical 
orders.   There  are  128  churches  with  resident  pastors  councils  and  the  constitutions  of  the  Roman  pontiffs, 
and  136  chapeb.    In  Baltimore  there  are  44  (24  built  (No.  ii)  The  enactments  of  the  seven  provincial  coim^ 
during  the  administration  of  Cardinal  Gibbons)  and  cils  of   Baltimore  are   obligatonr  for  idl   the  dio- 
18  in  Washington   (10  built  in  the  same  period),  ceses  of  the  Um'ted  States.     (No.  iii)  The  Roman 
There  are  three  universities,  11  seminaries,  13  colleges  Ritual,  adopted  by  the  First  CouncU  of  Baltimore, 
and  academies,  95  parochial  schools  with  21,711  pu-  is  to  be  observed  in  all  dioceses,  and  all  are  forbidden 
pils,  and  7  industrial  schools.    The  Catholic  popula-  to  introduce  customs  or  rites  foreign  to  the  Roman 
tion  IB  at  present  about  255,000.   The  increase  (1006)  usage.     Sacred  ceremonies  are  not  to  be  employed 
was  10,611,  of  whom  800  were  converts.  in  me  burial  of  Catholics  whose  bodies  are  deposited 
Owinff  to  the  disinterested  spirit  of  its  archbishops,  in  sectarian  cemeteries;  or  even  in  public  cemeteries, 
the  Archdiocese  of  Baltimore,  the  Mother  Church  of  if  there  be  Catholic  cemeteries  at  hand.     (No.  iv) 
die  United  States,  has  been  subdivided  imtil,  in  extent  The  Baltimore  "  Ceremonial  'Ms  to  be  used  all  through 
of  territory,  it  is  one  of  the  smallest.    Yet  it  yields  to  the  ooimtry.     (No.  v)  Bishops  are  to  observe  the 
none  m  its  spirit  of  faith  and  in  the  generosity  of  its  canons  concerning  ecclesiastical  residence.     (No.  vi) 
people.    Whenever  called  upon  by  the  voice  of  reli-  Bishops   are   exhorted   to   choose   oonsultors  from 
rion  its  children  have  responded  in  a  manner  bevond  among  their  clergy  and  to  ask  their  advice  in  the 
tneir  proportionate  share.    In  support  of  the  Catholic  ffovemment  of  the  diocese.    A  monthly  meeting  of 
University,  it  is  surpassed  by  none  in  proportion  to  these  consultors  to  dirouss  diocesan  affairs  is  praise- 
its  population.    In  the  gatherings  of  the  prelates  of  worthy.     (No.  vii)  A  chancellor  should  be  consti- 
the  United  States  the  Catholic  homes  of  Baltimore  tuted  in  every  diocese,  for  the  easier  and  more 
have  welcomed  the  visitors  to  their  hospitality.   Prob-  orderiy  transaction  of  business.     (No.  viii)  Bishops 
ably  no  diocese  has  been  so  enriched  oy  pnvate  do-  should  appoint  censors  for  books  relating  to  religion, 
nations  for  churches  and  institutions.    The  growth  (No.  ix)  European  priests  desiring  to  be  received 
of  the  Catholic  population  is  due  first  to  natural  into  an  American  diocese  must  have  vmtten  testi- 
incre&se,  secondly  to  immigration,  and  thirdly  to  monials  from  their  former  bishops  and  the  consent  of 
conversion.  .  The  large  proportion   of  conversions  the   ordinary   here.       (No.    x)    Our   quasi-parishes 
must  be  attnbuted  in  a  great  measure  to  the  personal  should  have  well-defined  limits,  and  the  jurisdiction 
popularity  of  its  present  archbishop,  Cardinal  Gib-  and  privileges  of  pastors  should  be  indicated  by  the 
.  bona,  and  to  the  influence  of  his  convert-making  bishops.    Tne  oroinary  can  change  these  limits  and 
book,  "The  Faith  of  Our  Fathers".  it  is  his  ridit  to  appoint  the  incumbents.    (No.  xi)  Af- 
xr?^'^,£!if*V' ^r^  ^^^^^  ^^^'^^*^^?f^H.^^^  ^^^  ter  next  Easter,  matrimonial  banns  must  be  pub- 
Y^\^]lt:k&.'SttJc:Sl.'^^^  Hshed,and  bishops  should  dispense  with  this  only 
18W68  (2  volii..  New  York,  1892);  Catholic  Almanacs  and  for  grave  reafions.      (No.   xu)    Pastors   themselves 
S«^^»™»^    iSf^r^lS^i    O'GoRMAjj.    Tha   Roman   Catholic  should  teach  Christian  doctrine  to  the  young  and 
Ckmnk  tn  the  United  State*  (New  York,  1896);  Davb.  Dau-  ;--rt-.o~*       /vTr*    ^\\\\  n;ali/x«^  oi^  t^^\xr^^tJi  +r^^  Wo,,«  « 
Star  of  American  Freedom;  Scharf,  Hii.  of  M^land  (BaltU  S^?^*'     V*^\  ^")  ^ishops  &re  exhorted  tO  have  a 

more.  1879);  McSherrt.  Hietory  of  Maryland  (Baltimore,  Cathohc  school  m  every  pansh  and  the  teachers 

^??2^iS?v*^^**'^,^/^?^S^*'F  and  Coim(v(Pliiladd-  should  be  paid  from  the  parochial  funds.     (No.  xiv) 

f^)L^^!?£^'i''»M3fi^^^  An  eccle«asti«d  «emmary  should  be  erected  in  each 

TOST,  Hiatory  of  the  Church  in  Weetem  Maryland  (Bidtimore.  provmce.      (No.  XV)  The  blshops  Or  their  delates 

1900);  BioBDAN.  ed..  C^hedr^  l^««^  (Baltimore.  1906);  should  demand  every  year  an  acooimt  of  the  admin- 

ISS^  (Sgid^'«*?H^»f SU^^J.  ^^^X^'&MSS:  tatration  of  ch,^oh  funds  from  those  who  administer 

1907).  William  T.  Rubsell.  them,  whether  lasnnen  or  clones.    (No.  xvi)  Laymen 

a     r-i  *^^^  ^'^^  ^  *^®  *"^y  P*"^  ^  ^^®  administration  of 

Baltiiiiore,  Lords.    See  Calvert.  church  affairs  without  the  free  consent  of  the  bishop. 

Baltimore,  Plenary   Councils  op. — ^While   the        If  they  usurp  any  such  authority  and  divert  church 

eedesiaBticfd  province  of  Baltimore  comprised  the  goods  to  their  own  use  or  in  any  way  frustrate  the 

whole  territory  of  the  American  Republic,  the  pro-  will  of  the  donors;  or  if  they,  even  under  cover  of  the 

vindal   councils  held  in  that  city  sufficed  for  the  civil  law,  endeavour  to  wrest  &om  the  bishop's  hands 

church  government  of  the  country..  When,  however,  what  has  been  confided  to  his  care,  then  sucn  laymen 

several    ecclesiastical   provinces   had   been   formed,  by  that  very  fact  fall  under  the  censures  constituted 

plenary  councils  became  a  necessity  for  the  fostering  by  the  Council  of  Trent  against  usiurpers  of  ecclesias- 

of  common  discipline.   As  a  conseouence,  the  Fathers  tical  goods.    (No.  xvii)  Wnen  the  title  to  a  church  is 

of  the  Seventh  Provincial  Councu  of  Baltimore  re-  in  the  bishop's  name,  pastors  are  warned  not  to  ap- 

quested  the  Holy  See  to  sanction  the  holding  of  a  point  lanstees  or  permit  them  to  be  elected  without 

plenary  synod.    The  petition  was  ^ranted  and  the  the  bishop's  authority.     (No.  xviii)  Benediction  of 

pope  appointed  Archbishop  Kenrick  of  Baltimore  the  Blessed  Saciament  must  be  performed  in  all  dio- 

as  Apostolic  Delegate  to  convene  and  preside  over  oeses  in  the  manner  prescribea  by  the  Baltimore 

the  counciL  "Ceremcmiar'.     (No.  xix)  Bishops  should  use  their 

I.  Thb  First  Plenary  Council  op  Baltimore  was  influence  with  the  civil  authorities  to  prevent  anyone 
9oi«mily  opened  on  9  May,  1852.  Its  sessions  were  in  the  army  or  navy  from  bein^  obligea  to  attend  a  re- 
attended  ify  six  archbishops  and  thirty-five  suf-  ligious  service  repugnant  to  his  conscience.  (No.  xx) 
fragan  hiehope.  The  Bishop  of  Monterey,  California,  A  Society  for  the  Prop^ation  of  the  Faith,  similar  to 
was  also  present,  although  his  diocese,  lately  sep-  that  in  France,  should  be  fostered  and  extended, 
arated  fiozn  Mexico,  had  not  yet  been  incorporated  (No.  xxi)  The  faithful  are  exhorted  to  enter  into  a 
with  eaxy  American  province.  Another  prelate  in  society  of  prayer  for  the  conversion  of  non-Catholics. 
attendancse  was  the  Bishop  of  Toronto,  Canada.  (No.  xxii)  A  petition  should  be  addressed  to  the  Holy 
The  religious  orders  and  congregations  were  repre-  See  asking  for  extraordinary  faculties  concerning 


BALTIMOSS  236  BALTIMOBX 

matrimonial  (?ases  and  the  power,  also,  of  delegating  pious  invocation  and  veneration  of  the  B.  V.  Mary 
such  faculties.    (No.  xxiii)  rermission  to  use  the  short  and  the  saints,     (vii)  The  seventh  chapter  in  which 
formula  in  the  baptism  of  adults  is  to  be  requestea  of  the  present  errors  are  discusmd  treats  of  (a)    the  dis- 
the  Holy  See,  either  for  perpetuity  ortor  twenty  years,  sensions  among  the  Protestant  sects  and  of  zeal  for 
(No.  mv)  The  sixth  decree  of  the  Seventh  Provincial  their  conversion,     (b)  IndifiTerentism.    The  Fathers 
Council  of  Baltimore  is  to  be  understood  as  applying  warn  their  flock  against  the  teaching  that  one  reli^n 
to  those  who  rashly  (temere)  marry  before  a  Jnrotes-  is  as  good  as  anot^r  provided  one  be  honest  and  lust 
tant  minister.    Priests  should  give  no  benediction  to  to  his  neighbour.    They  call  this  a  plague,  spr^ding 
those  whom  they  know  to  intend  to  remarry  before  under  the  guise  of  chanty  and  benevolence,    (c)  Uni- 
a  preacher,  or  who,  having  done  so,  show  no  Bipis  of  tarianism  and   Universalism.     These  theories,  the 
penitence.     (No.  xxv)  These  decrees  are  bindmg  as  first  denying  the  divinity  of  Christ  and  the  other 
soon  as  they  are  published  by  the  Archbishop  of  eternal  punishment,  tend  to  the  rejection  of  the 
Baltimore  after  their  revision  and  approval  by  the  supernatural  in  religion,    (d)  Transcendentalism  and 
Holy  See.  Pantheism.     These  are  the  systems  of  men,  who 
In  sending  the  pope's  approval  of  these  decrees,  having  dethroned  God,  make  a  deity  of  man.    (e) 
the  prefect  of  the  Propajganda  exhorted  the  bishops  Abuse  of  magnetism.    The  faithful  are  warned  that 
to  add  the  feasts  of  the  Circumcision  of  Our  Lord  and  magnetism  is  often  employed  for  superstitious  and 
the  Immaculate  (Conception  B.  V.  M.  to  the  festivals  illicit  purposes,  namely,  to  forecast  the  future  by 
already  observed.     He  added  that  although  some  means  of  female ''mediums",    (f)  The  hallucinations 
diversity  as  to  fasts  and  feasts  is  found  in  the  Ameri-  and  dangers  of  spiritism.    There  is  little  reason  to 
can  dioceses,  still  it  is  not  desirable  to  lessen  the  doubt  tmkt  some  of  the  phenomena  of  spiritism  are 
number  in  those  places  where  they  are  in  accord  with  the  work  of  Satan.    It  is  noteworthy  that  the  leaden 
the  discipline  of  the  universal  Church,  because  fewer  of    this  system  deny  either  implicitly  or  explicitly 
feasts  are  observed  in  other  American  dioceses.    The  the  divimty  of  Chnst  and  the  supernatural  in  re- 
bishops  are  not  to  labour  for  conformity  amon^  the  ligion. 

dioceses  in  customs  that  are  foreign  to  the  discipline        Title  ii.  Concerning  the  Hierarchy  and  the  Gavemr 

of  the  universal  Church,  for  thus  tne  appearance  of  a  ment  of  the  Churchy  treats  (cap.  i)  of  the  Ron^ian  pon- 

national  Church  would  be  introduced.     The  cardinal  tiflf;  (ii)  of  the  hierarchy  teaching  and  ruling;  (iii)  of 

prefect  added  that  the  Holy  See  tolerated  relaxations  provincial  councils,  wmch  ought  to  be  held  every 

of  the  common  law  of  the  Church  for  grave  reasons,  three  years;  (iv)  of  diocesan  synods,  in  which  the 

but  such  derogations  were  not  to  be  confirmed  and  bishop  alone  is  legislator  and  judge.     This  chapter 

extended,  but  rather  every  effort  was  to  be  made  to  also  treats  of  quarterly  conferences  for  the  discussion 

bring  about  the  observance  of  the  universal  discipline,  of  theological  questions   by  the   clergy,      (v)   The 

As  to  the  method  of  adult  baptism,  the  Holy  See  officials  of  the  bishop  are  considered  in  this  chapter, 

extended  the  dispensations  to  use  the  short  formula  Besides  the  diocesan  consultors  and  the  vicar-generai, 

for  another   five  years.     A   letter   from  Cardinal-  the  bishop  should  appoint  vicars  forane  or  rural  deans 

Prefect  Franzoni,  added  to  the  acts  of  the  coimcil,  who  are  to  preside  at  clerical  conferences,  to  watch 

treats  of  the  question  of  how  the  bishops  are  to  be  over  ecclesiastical  property,  to  counsel  the  junior 

supported  by  their  dioceses.    It  likewise  insists  that  clerey  and  report  annually  to  the  bishop  on  the  state 

priests  ordained  titulo  missionis  are  not  to  enter  re-  of  their  districts.    Other  officials  mentioned  are  the 

tigious  orders  without  the  consent  of  their  ordinaries,  secretary,    chancellor,  notary,   and    procurator    for 

as  they  are  required  to  make  oath  that  they  will  temporal  affairs.    Synodal  examiners  and  judges  for 

serve  |>erpetually  in  the  diocese  for  which  they  were  the  criminal  cases  of  clerics  are  also  to  be  constituted, 

ordained.     In  the  acts  of  this  council  is  found  a  The  latter,  by  delegation  of  the  bishops,  hold  courts 

statement  of  the   Bishop  of  Monterey  concerning  of  the  first  instance  and  they  should  follow  a  judicial 

the  California  Missions.     He  informed  the  Fathers  method  closely  approximating  that  prescribed  by  the 

that  a  large  sum  of  money  had  formerly  been  placed  0)uncil  of  Trent. 

in  the  hands  of  the  Mexican  Government  to  be  used        Title  iii,  Concerning  Ecclesiastical  Persons,  is  di- 
under  the  sanction  of  Spanish  law  for  the  support  of  vided  into  seven  chapters,    (cap.  i)  Of  metropolitans, 
the  Califomian  missionaries.     For  years  they  had  (ii)  Of  bishops;  they  are  to  make  a  visitation  of  their 
received  none  of  this  money  and  the  late  revolutions  dioceses  frequently;  they  should  provide  support  for 
made  any  hope  of  reparation  unlikely.     However,  aged  and  innrm  priests;  before  death  they  should  ap- 
as  it  is  reported  that  the  civil  power  in  California  point  an  administrator  sede  vacante  for  their  dioceses. 
intends  to  demand  this  money  from  the  Mexican  If  this  has  not  been  done,  the  metropolitan  is  to  make 
treasury  for  public  purposes,  he  desired  to  know  what  the  appointment,  or  if  it  be  a  question^  of  the  metro- 
effort  the  American  bishops  thought  it  desirable  to  politan  church  itself,  then  the  senior  suffragan  bishop 
make  in  the  premises.     The  outcome  of  the  whole  constitutes  an  administrator  until  the  Holy  See  can 
discussion  was  the  sending  of  a  letter  on  the  subject  provide.   The  administrator  cannot  make  innovations 
to  the  Archbishop  of  Mexico.     We  may  add  nere  m  the  administration  of  the  diocese,     (iii)    Of  the 
that  this  money  was  later  recovered  and  employed  election  of  bishops.   A  method  for  episcopal  nomina- 
for   the   Church    in    California.     (See    California,  tions  to  American  sees  is  given,  as  also  tiae  requisite 
sub-title  History.)  qualifications  for  candidates,      (iv)   Of  priests   ex- 
II.  The  Second  Plenary  Council  was  presided  ercising  the  sacred  ministry.    When  several  priests 
over  by  Archbishop  Spalding  of  Baltimore  as  Dele-  serve  a  church,  one  only  must  be  desigpuated  as  ptafitor. 
gate  Apostolic.    It  was  openSi  on  the  7th  of  October  Priests  should  often  preach  to  their  people;    they 
and  closed  on  21  October,  1866.    The  acts  note  that,  must  not  marry  or  baptize  the  faithful  of  other  dio- 
at  the  last  solemn  session,  Andrew  Johnson,  President  ceses.     Although  our   missions   are   not   canonical 
of  the  United  States,  was  among  the  auditors.    The  parishes,  yet  it  is  the  desire  of  the  bishops  to  confonn 
decrees  of  this  council  were  signed  by  seven  arch-  as  much  as  possible  to  the  discipline  of  the  universal 
bishops,  thirty-nine  bishops  or  their  procurators,  and  church  in  tnis  matter.     In  cities  containing   more 
two  abbots.    The  decrees  are  divided  into  fourteen  than  one  church,  accurate  limits  for  their  mstricts 
titles  and  subdivided  into  chapters.  should  be  assigned.    When  in  these  decrees  the  terms 
Title  i,  Concerning  the  Orthodox  Faith  and  Present  Er-  "  parish  "  or  "  parochial  rights  *'  are  used,  the  bishops 
rorSy  declares  the  Catholic  doctrine  (cap.  i)  on  Divine  have  no  intention  of  thereby  indicating  that    the 
revelation  and  the  one  Church  of  CJhrist;  (ii)  the  na-  rector  of  a  church  is  irremovable.    No  pnest  should 
ture  and  necessity  of  faith;  (iii)    the  Holy  Scripture;  be  appointed  to  a  parish  unless  he  has  made  an 
Gv)  the  Holy  Trinity;  (v)  the  future  life;  (vi)  the  amination  before  the  bishop  and  two  priests,  and 


BALTIMOEI                             237  BALTIMOBX 

been  five  years  in  the  diocese.    This  does  not  apply  between  ten  and  fourteen  years  of  age.     (v)  Of 

to  r^ulars.     (v)  Of  preaching.     While  explaining  penance,     (vi)  Of  indulgences.     Preachers  must  be 

the  church's  doctrine,  preachers  should  also  treat  careful  not  to  recommend  doubtful  or  fictitious  in- 

fully  of  points  deniea  by  heretics  or  unbelievers,  dulgences.    Let  them  propose  such  as  the  faithful 

Thi^  style,  however,  is  not  to  be  controversial  but  can  gain  most  frequently,  easily,  and  with  greatest 

expUnatory.     In'  their,  method  they  should  follow  fruit,      (vii)  Of   extreme  unction.     Olive  ofl  is  re- 

the  Roman  Catechism  and  make  a  careful  studv  of  quired  for  this  sacrament.   The  Fathers  commend  the 

the  writings  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church.    Let  them  proposition  of  the  Bishop  of  Savannah  to  establish 

accommodate  themselves  to  the  capacity  of  thdr  a  community  of  Trappists  on  lands  near  St.  Angus- 

auditors.     In  reprehending  vices,  let  them  never  tine,  Florida,  who  would  supply  genuine  olive  oil, 

become  personal;  neither  snould  they  be  influenced  wine,  and  beeswax  candles  for  tne  use  of  the  churches. 

in  their  preaching  by  human  motives  but  declare  (viii)  Of  Holy  orders.     Clerics  cannot  be  ordained 

the  truth  fearlessly.    They  are  not  to  mingle  poUtical  without  a  canonical  title.    By  Apostolic  dispensatioil, 

and  civil  matters  with  religious  doctrines  m  their  our  priests  have  thus  far  been  ordained  it^t/io  missionis 

sermons  or  attack  public  magistrates.     While  the  for  the  most  p&rt.    The  Holy  See  is  to  be  petitioned 

custom  of  delivering  fimeral  orations  is  to  be  re-  for  a  continuation  of  this  privilege,     (ix)  Of  Matri- 

tained,  yet  care  must  be  taken  not  to  bestow  undue  mony.    Rules  are  laid  down  for  determining  doubts 

praise.    In  all  sermons  let  prolixity  be  avoided,  concerning  the  probable  death  of  soldiers  in  the  late 

(vi)  Of  clerical  life  and  manners.  Clerics  are  to  avoid  civil  war.    Mixed  marriages  are  to  be  discouraged. 

a  dress  and  personal  appearance  not  becoming  their  (x)  Of  the  sacramentals. 

station.    They  should  abstain  from  all  improper  Title  vi.  Of  Dimne  Worship. — (i)  Of  the  Sacrifice 
spectacles  and  games.     Let  them  avoid  having  re-  of  the  Mass.    Priests  are  never  to  leave  the  altar  to 
course  to  dvil  tribunals  when  possible.    They  must  collect  alms  from  the  faithful.     Our  quasi-parish- 
not  engage  in  trade  forbidden  by  the  canons.    Let  priests  are  not  obliged  to  apphr  their  Mass  for  their 
them  not  be  importimate  in  speaking  of  money  mat-  nock  on  festival  days,     (ii)  Oi  Benediction  and  the 
ters  to  their  flocks.    The  custom  of  priests  taking  Forty  Hours'  Exposition.    The  latt^  is  to  be  per- 
money  on  deposit,  for  which  interest  is  to  be  paid,  formed  aooordinff  to  the  manner  sanctioned  by  the 
is  condemned.    Let  bishops  as  weU  as  priests  observe  Holy  See  for  the  Diocese  of  Baltimore,     (iii)  Of 
the  prescriptions  of  the  Council  of  Trent  concerning  Vespers.      The  rudiments  of  the  Gregorian  chant 
their  households.     All  clerics  should  avoid  idleness  should  be  taught  in  the  parish  schools, 
as  a  pest,     (vii)  Of  ecclesiastical  seminanes.     The  Title  vii,  Of  Promoting  Uniformity  of  Discipline,— 
erection  of  preparatory  as  well  as  greater  seminaries  (i)  Of  fasts  and  feasts.    Those  now  m  use  in  each 
is  recommended.    Theology  and  philosophy,  Scrip-  province  are  to  be  retained.     The  Patronal  Feast 
tureand  Hebrew  are  to  be  taught  in  the  latter.    No  of  the  Inmiaoulate  Conception  is.  however,  to  be 
student  is  to  pass  from  one  seminaiy  to  another  celebrated  in  every  diocese  as  of  obligation,    (ii)  Of 
▼ithout  testimonial  letters.    In  those  oioceses  where  uniformity  in  other  matters.     Bishops  should  en- 
Germans  are  found  who  cannot  speak  English,  it  is  deavour  to  use  a  uniform  method  of  actmg  in  granting 
expedient  that  the  seminarians  learn  enough  German  matrimonial  dispensations.    Catholics  may  fa«  buried 
to  hear  confessions.  with  sacred  rites  in  non-Catholic  cemeteries  if  they 
Title  iv,  Of  Ecdesiastical  Property, — ^The  decrees  possess  a  lot  in  them,  provided  it  was  not  acquired 
of  the  first  seven  councils  of  Baltimore  concerning  m  contempt  of  church  law.    The  poor  must  be  buried 
the  abuses  of  lay  trustees  and  of  the  best  method  gratuitously.     Entrance  money  should  not  be  col- 
of  securing  church  property  by  civil  sanction  are  lected  at  churches.     Orphans  are  to  be  cared  for. 
lepeated  and  re-enactea.    As  to  lay  trustees,  they  Faculties  for  blessing  cemeteries  and  church  bells 
must  not  be  members  of  secret  societies  nor  men  who  m^^  be  delegated  to  priests. 

have  not  fulfilled  the  paschal  duty.    They  cannot  Title  viii.  Of  Regvlars  and  Nuns. — (i)  When  a 

exp^d  a  sum  of  money  above  three  hundred  dollars  religious  community  has  accepted  a  diocesan  work, 

▼ithout  written  consent  of  the  bishop.    The  pastor,  strictly  so  called,  it  should  not  relinquish  it  without 

not  the  trustees,  appoints  organist,  singers,  sacristan,  giving  the  bishop  notice  six  months  oeforehand.    A 

school-teachers,    and    others    employed    about    the  clear  distinction  is  to  be  made  as  to  what  property 

parfflh.    When  difference  of  opinion  exists  between  belongs  to  a  religious  community  and  what  to  the 

pastor  and  trustees,  all  must  abide  by  the  decision  diocese,     (ii)  Nuns  are  not  to  make  solemn  vows 

of  the  bishop.     All  misunderstanding  between  the  until  ten  years  after  the  taking  of  simple  vows, 

ordinary  and  r^ulaiht  concerning  temporal  affairs  Bishops  are  not  to  permit  religious  women  to  travel 

will  be  averted  n^  at  the  founding  of  a  new  house,  a  around  soliciting  alms. 

document  be  drawn  up  expressing  clearly  all  that  Title  ix,  0/  the  Education  of  Youth. — (i)  Of  parish 
relates  to  the  foimdation  itself,  to  the  rights  thence  schools.  Teachers  belonging  to  religious  congrega- 
Howing  and  to  the  duties  connected  with  it.  tions  should  be  employed  when  possible  in  our 
Title  VfOf  the  Sacraments. — (i)  The  Roman  Ritual  schools.  The  latter  should  be  erected  in  every  parish, 
and  the  Baltimore  ''Ceremonial "  are  to  be  followed.  For  children  who  attend  the  public  schools,  catechism 
Pastors  should  keep  registers  of  baptisms,  confirma-  classes  should  be  instituted  m  the  churches,  (ii)  In- 
tioDs,  marriaffes,  and  funerals.  All  of  these,  except  dustrial  schools  or  reformatories  should  be  founded, 
the  last,  should  be  written  in  Latin,  (ii)  Of  baptism,  especially  in  large  cities,  (iii)  A  desire  is  expressed 
It  must  fidways  be  conferred  in  the  church  except  in  to  have  a  Cathouc  university  in  the  United  States, 
case  of  immment  death.  Whether  for  infants  or  Title  x.  Of  Procuring  the  Salvation  of  Souls. — (i)  Of 
adults,  all  rites  omitted  at  baptism  must  be  afterwards  zeal  for  souls,  (ii)  Missions  in  parishes  are  to  be. 
supplied.  As  a  rule  converts  are  to  be  baptized;  encouraged;  missionaries  must  not,  however,  inter- 
but  care  must  be  taken  to  inquire  if  they  had  been  fere  in  the  administration  of  the  parish,  (iii)  Various 
previoody  .validly  baptized,  lest  the  sacrament  be  confraternities  and  sodalities  are  named  and  recom- 
repeated.  The  same  is  to  be  said  of  those  baptized  mended  and  regulations  are  given  for  their  institution, 
iu  du)^  of  deatii  by  laymen.  Churching  after  (iv)  Priests,  both  secular  and  regular,  are  exhorted 
child-birth,  which  has  been  generally  neglected  in  to  endeavour  to  further  the  conversion  of  the  negroes 
this  country,  is  to  be  insisteof  upon,     (iii)  Of  con-  in  our  midst. 

finnation.    Sponsors  of  the  san^  sex  as  the  recipient  Title  xi,  Of  Books  and  Newspapers. — (i)  Parents 

tfe  to  be  employed,     (iv)  Qf  the  Holy  Eucharist,  should  guard  their  children  against  bad  books.    The 

Frequent  Communion  is  to  be  encouraged.    Children  bishops  desire  that  textbooks  m  Catholic  schools  and 

•bouid  as  a  rule  be  admitted  to  First  Communion  colleges  should  be  purged  of  everything  contrary 


BALTIMORE  238  BALTIMOEI 

to  faith,  (ii)  Of  the  dissemination  of  good  books,  from  his  office  except  for  a  canonical  cause  and  a» 
(iii)  Prayer  books  should  not  be  punished  until  cording  to  the  mode  of  procedure  contained  in  the 
officially  revised,  (iv)  Newroapers  are  frequently  Instruction  ''Cum  Magnopere".  (vi)  Of  the  eon- 
injurious  to  good  morals.  When  a  Catholic  news-  cursus.  The  examination  tor  irremovaUe  rectorships 
paper  has  a  bishop's  approbation,  this  means  only  must  take  place  before  the  bishop  or  vicar-general 
that  he  judges  that  nothing  will  be  published  against  and  three  examiners.  Candidates  must  ref^y  to 
faith  or  morals  in  its  pages.  He  does  not  make  questions  in  dogmatic  and  moral  theology,  hturgy, 
himself  responsible,  however,  for  all  that  the  paper  and  canon  law.  Thejr  are  also  to  give  a  specimen 
contains.  of  catechetical  exposition  and  of  preaching.    The 

Title  xii.  Of  Secret  Societies. — The  Freemasons  qualities  of  the  candidates  are  also  to  be  wei|;hed  in 
were  long  afo  condemned  by  the  Church.  The  Odd  forming  a  jud^pient.  The  bishop  is  to  give  the 
Fellows  ana  Sons  of  Temperance  are  also  forbidden  vacant  rectorship  only  to  a  candidate  who  has  re- 
societies.  In  general,  the  faithful  ma^  not  enter  ceived  the  approving  votes  of  the  examiners.  (vii)Of 
any  societ^r  which,  having  designs  against  Church  the  diocesan  dergv.  1.  Priests  ordained  for  a  diocese 
or  State^  binds  its  members  b^  an  oath  of  secrecy,  are  bound  by  oatn  to  remain  in  it.  2.  Alien  priests 
Title  xiii,  Concerning  the  Creation  of  New  Bishoprics,  bringing  satisfactory  testimonials  from  former  bishops 
Title  xiv,  Of  the  Execution  of  the  ConcUiar  Decrees. —  may  be  incardinated  in  a  diocese  only  after  a  pro- 
A  number  of  important  instructions  and  decrees  of  bation  of  three  or  five  years,  and  formal  adscription 
the  Holy  See  are  appended  to  the  Acts  of  this  council,  by  the  ordinary.     We  may  note  that  this  council 

HI.  The  Third  Plenary  Council  was  presided  speaks  of  presumptive  incardination  also,  but  by 

over  by  the  Apostolic  Delegate,  Archbishop  Gibbons  a  later  Roman  decree  (20  July,  1898)  that  form  of 

of  Baltimore.    Its  decrees  were  signed  by  fourteen  adscription  is  abrogated.     3.  Infirm  priests  should 

archbishops,  sixty-one  bishops  or  their  representa-  be  cared  for.     4.  Unworthy  priests  nave  no  just 

tlves,  six  abbots,  and  one  genera]  of  a  religious  con-  claims  to  support,  yet  if  they  wish  to  amend,  a  house 

gregation.    The  first  solemn  session  was  held  9  No-  eovemed  by  regulars  should  be  provided  for  them, 

vember,  and  tli^  last  7  December,  1884.    Its  decrees  (viii)  Of  clericu  life  and    maimers.    Priests  should 

are  divided  into  twelve  titles.     Prdimtnary  Title,  make  a  spiritual  retreat  once  every  year,  or  at  least 

ill  the  decrees  of  the  Second  Plenary  Council  remain  every  two  years.    They  are  exhorted  to  give  them- 

in  force  except  such  as  are  abrogated  or  changed  by  selves  to  solid  reading  and  study.    They  are  to  avoid 

the  present  council.    Title  i.  Of  the  Catholic  Faith,  conduct  that  can  afiK^rd  even  the  least  suspicion  of 

Title  ii,  Of  Ecclesiastical  Persons. — (i)  Of   bishofNg.  evil.    They  are  not  to  bring  an  action  against  another 

When  a  see  becomes  vacant,  the  archbishop  will  cleric  before  a  civil  tribunal  about  temporal  matters 

call  together  the  consultors  and  irremovable  rectors  without  written  permission  of  the  bishop.     As  to 

of  the  diocese  and  they  shall  choose  three  names  ecclesiastical   afifairs,   they   are   to   remember   that 

which  are  to  be  forwarded  to  Rome  and  to  the  other  judgment  pertains  only  to  the  church  authorities, 

bishops  of  the  province.    The  latter  shall  meet  to-  (ix)  Of  regulars.     The  provisions  of  the  papal  con- 

gether  and  discuss  the  candidates.     If  they  wish,  stitution  '*  Komanos  Pontifices  "  are  extended  to  the 

thev  may  reject  all  the  names  proposed  by  the  der^  United  States.    This  constitution  treats  of  the  ex- 

and   suMtitute  others,   but  they  must  g^ve  their  emption  of  regulars  from  episcopal  jurisdiction:  of 

reasons  for  this  action  when  sending  their  recom-  what  concerns  their  ministry  in  a  diocese;  and  of 

mendation  to  Rome,      (ii)  Of  diocesan  consultors.  their   temporal   possessions.     All   controversies   on 

They  should  be  six  or  at  least  four  in  number.    If  these  subjects  are  to  be  referred  to  the  prefect  of 

this  be  impossible,  however,  two  will  suffice.    The  the  Propaganda.    Bishops  are  to  recur  to  him  also 

bishop  chooses  the  consultors,  half  at  his  own  option,  in  matters  conoeminff  institutes  of  simple  vows  that 

the  other  half  after  nomination  by  the  clergy.    The  are  not  diocesan  but  have  their  own  superior-^^eneral. 

bishop  should  ask  the  advice  of  ms  consultors  aa  to  Diocesan  Institutes,  even  having  a  rule  approved 

holding  and  promulgating  a  diocesan  synod;  dividing  by  the  Holy  See,  are  entirely  subject  to  the  juriedic- 

parishes;  committing  a  parish  to  religious;  constitu-  tion  of  the  ordinary.     Bishops  are  to  see  that  the 

ting  a  committee  for  diocesan  seminaries;  choosing  laws  of  enclosure  (aaustira)  are  observed.    Regula- 

new  consultors  or  examiners  non-synodic^ly;  con-  tions  are  laid  down  for  the  ordinary  and  extraor- 

ceming  transactions  about  church-property  where  dinary  confessors  of  nuns.    Those  who  bdone  to  re- 

the   sum   involved   exceeds  five  thousand   dollars;  ligious  brotherhoods,  whose  members  are  forlnaden  to 

exacting  new  episcopal  taxes  beyond  the  limits  desig-  aspire  to  the  priesthood,  may  not,  after  leaving  such 

nated  by  the  canons.     Consiutors  hold  office  for  congregation,  oe  ordained  for  any  diocese  without  a 

thr^  years  and  they  may  not  be  removed  except  dispensation  from  Rome. 

for  grave  reasons.  They  are  to  vote  collectively.  Title  iii,  Of  Divine  Worship. — (i)  Of  celebrating 
When  the  episcopal  see  is  vacant,  the  administrator  Mass  twice  on  the  same  day.  (ii)  Of  uniformity  in 
must  ask  their  coimsel  in  all  the  above-mentioned  feasts  and  fasts.  In  future  in  all  dioceses  of  this 
cases,  (iii)  Of  examiners  of  the  diocesan  clergy,  country  there  are  to  be  the  following  six  feasts  of 
They  are  to  be  six  in  number.  Their  duties  are  obli^tion  and  no  others:  The  Immaculate  Con- 
principally  to  examine  the  junior  clergy,  and  the  ception,  Christmas,  Circumcision  of  Our  Lord  (New 
candiaates  for  irremovable  rectorships,  nv)  Of  deans  Year's  t>ay).  Ascension,  Assumption,  and  All  Saints' 
and  vicars  forane.  The  institution  of  these  district  Day.  No  new  dispositions  are  made  as  to  fast  days. 
officials  is  recommended  to  the  bishops.  It  is  ad-  (iii)  Of  the  Lord's  Day.  The  faithful  are  to  be  ex- 
visable  to  bestow  on  them  some  faculties  beyond  horted  to  observe  it  properlv.  (iv)  Of  sacred  music, 
what  other  rectors  have  and  some  honorary  pre-  Profane  melodies  are  forbidden.  The  music  should 
eminence,  (v)  Of  irremovable  rectors.  Parishes  accord  with  the  sacredness  of  time  andplace.  Psalms 
to  have  such  rectors  must  have  a  proper  church,  are  not  to  be  curtailed  at  Vespers.  Tne  Mass  must 
a  school  for  boys  and  girls,  and  revenues  sufficienthr  not  be  intarupted  by  the  length  of  the  choir-singing, 
stable  for  the  support  ofthe  priest,  church,  and  school.  Title  iv,  Ofthe  Sacraments. — (i)  Of  the  baptism 
In  all  dioceses  every  tenth  rector  should  be  irremova-  of  converts.  The  ritual  prescribed  for  their  reception 
ble  if  the  requisite  conditions  are  obtainable.  The  into  the  Church  is  to  be  observed,  (ii)  Of  matrimony, 
candidate  for  such  rectorship  must  have  been  in  Catholics  who  marrv  before  a  sectarian  minister  are 
the  ministry  ten  years  and  shown  himself  a  satis-  excommunicated.  Mixed  marriages  are  not  to  be 
factory  administrator  in  spirituals  and  temporals,  contracted  unless  promises  are  given  that  the  Catho- 
He  must  also  make  a  prescribed  examination  {con-  lie  party  is  in  no  danger  of  perversion,  and  will  strivs 
cursus).    An  irremovable  rector  cannot  be  removed  to  convert  the  non-<^atholic  party.     Also  that  all 


BALTIMORE  239  BALTIMOBX 

the  children  born  of  the  union  are  to  be  brought  up  societies^  especially  those  of  temperance,  are  to  be 

Catholics.    No  dispensation  from  these  promises  can  encouraged. 

be  given.  Title  ix.  Of  Church  Property, —iy)  The  Church's 

Title  Vj  Of  ike  Education  of  Clerics, — (i)  Prepan^  right  to  hold  property,    (ii)  The  bishop  is  the  guardian 

toiy  seminaries  should  be  instituted.     The  pupils  and  supreme  administrator  of  cdl  diocesan  property. 

should  be  taught  Christian  Doctrine,  English,  and  (iii)  Pnests  are  diligently  to  ffuard  parochial  proper^ 

at  least  one  other  language  according  to  the  hecessi-  under  the  direction  of  the  Bishop.    If  they  do  not 

ties  of  the  diocese.    They  must  learn  to  speak  and  request  their  salary  at  the  proper  time,  they  are 

write  Latin.    Greek  is  also  to  be  tau^t.    The  usual  supposed  to  have  renounced  tneir  right  to  it.  (iv)  In 

branches  of  profane  learning,  not  omitting  the  natural  choosing  lay  trustees  only  those  members  of  the 

sciences,  as  well  as  music  and  the  Gregorian  chant  congregation  have  a  voice,  who,  being  twenty-one 

are  to  be  part  of  the  curriculum,    (ii)  Ot  the  greater  years  of  age,  have  fulfilled  the  paschal  precept,  have 

seminaries.  Judgnoient  must  be  exercised  in  admitting  paid  for  a  seat  in  the  chim^  during  tne  past  year. 

aspirants  to  the  priesthood  and  they  must  be  zealously  nave  sent  their  children  to  Catholic  schools  ana 

formed  to  virtue  and  learning.    Two  years  are  to  be  belong  to  no  prohibited  society.    The  pastor  is  ex 

devoted  to  a  philosophical  and  four  to  a  theological  officio  president  of  the  board  of  trustees,     (v)  In  all 

oouise.    The  faculty  of  theology  is  to  embrace  doff-  diurches  some  seats  must  be  set  aside  for  the  poor. 

matic  and  moral  theology,  Biblical  exegesis,  churcn  Abuses  incident  to  picnics,  excursions,  and  fairs  are 

history,  canon  law,  litur^  and  sacred  eloquence,  to  be  guards  against.    Balls  are  not  to  be  given  for 

Great  care  must  be  taken  m  the  selection  of  spiritual  religious  purposes.    It  is  a  detestable  abuse  to  refuse 

directors  and  professors  for  the  students.    Examina-  the  sacraments  to  those  who  will  not  contribute  to 

tions  are  to  be  held  semi-annually  or  annually  in  collections.     Bishops  are  to  determine  the  stipend 

the  presence  of  the  bishop  or  vicar-general  and  the  prop^  for  ecclesiastical  ministries.    Foreign  priests 

examiners  of  the  clergy.    Students  are  to  be  warned  or  religious  cannot  solicit  alms  in  a  diocese  without 

to  spend  their  vacations  in  a  manner  becoming  the  the  consent  of  the  ordinary. 

clerical    profession.      The    temporal    and    spiritual        Title  x.  Of  Ecdesiaatical  Trials, — (i)  Every  diocese 

administration  of  the  seminary  bdongs  principally  is  to  have  an  episcopal  tribunal,    (ii)  Its  officials  for 

to  the  bishop;  he  is  to  be  aided  by  two  commisnons.  disciplinary  cases  are  to  be  a  judge,  fiscal  procurator 

one  for  spirituals  and  one  for  temporals,     (iii)  Of  or  diocesan  attorney,  attorney  for  the  accused,  and  a 

the  principal  seminary  or  university.    The  Fathers  chanodlor.    To  those  may  be  added  an  audiitor,  a 

consider  tne  times  ripe  for  creating  a  Catholic  imi-  notuy,  and  apparitors.    For  matrimonial  cases  the 

versity,  and  for  this  purpose  they  appoint  a  com-  officials  are  to  be  an  auditor,  defender  of  the  marriage 

mission.    The  imiversity  is  to  be  entirely  imder  the  tie,  and  a  notary.    The  interested  parties  may  also 

management  of  the  episcopate.    The  bishops  should,  employ  advocates,      (iii)   In  crinmial   causes,   the 

however,  continue  to  send  some  of  their  subjects  bishop,  according  as  the  law  and  case  demand,  may 

to  Rome,  Louvain,  and  Innsbruck,  as  the  new  uni-  proceed  either  extra- judicially  or  ludicially.     This 

versity  is   intended    for    postgraduate   theological  chapter  describes  the  method  to  be  employed  in 

studies,    (iv)  Of  the  examinations  of  the  junior  clergy,  both  instances. 

For  five  years  after  ordination,  priests  must  laSie  Title  xi.  Of  Ecclesiastical  SepitUtire, — Cemeteries 
an  annual  examination  in  Scripture,  dogmatic  and  should  be  property  cared  for. 
moral  theology,  canon  law,  church  history,  and  lit-  Title  xii.  The  decrees  of  this  council  are  binding  as 
urgy.  (v)  Of  theological  conferences.  All  priests  soon  as  they  are  promulgated  by  the  Delegate  Apos- 
having  cure  of  souls  must  attend  ecclesiastical  meet-  tolic.  At  tne  reauest  of  the  Fathers,  the  Holy  See 
ings  for  the  discussion  of  questions  of  doctrine  and  permitted  the  celebration  in  the  United  States  of 
discipline.  These  conferences  are  to  be  held  four  the  feasts  of  St.  Philip  of  Jesus,  St.  Turibius,  and  St. 
times  a  year  in  urban  and  twice  a  year  in  rural  dis-  Francis  Solano.  It  also  granted  to  the  bishops,  under 
tricts.  certain  conditions,  the  power  of  alienating  church 
Title  vi.Of  the  Education  of  Catholic  Youth ,  treats  goods  without  previously  referring  each  case  to  Rome, 
of  (i)  Cathohc  schools,  especially  parochial,  viz.,  of  The  Fathers  of  this  coimcil  signed  the  postulation 
their  absolute  necessity  and  the  obligation  of  pastors  for  the  introduction  of  the  cause  oi  beatification  of 
to  estaUish  them.  Parents  must  send  their  cnildren  Isaac  Joffues  and  Ren6  Ck>upil,  martyrs  of  the  So- 
to such  schools  unless  jhe  bishop  should  judge  the  dety  of  Jesus,  and  of  Catherine  Te^lcwita,  an  Iro- 
reason  for  sending  them  elsewhere  to  be  sufficient,  ouois  virsin.  This  Third  Plenary  Council  exhibits 
Ways  and  means  are  also  considered  for  making  the  tne  aotuiu  canon  law  of  the  Church  in  the  United 
parochial  schools  more  efficient.  It  is  desirable  that  States. 
these  schools  be  free,    (ii)  Every  effort  must  be  made  ^^cta  et  Decreta  Cone,  PUn,  I  (Baltimpre,  1863):  ilcto  et 

to  hftVA    aiiifn.hlA    nphnnln    of    hio-hftr    pHnrAtinn    for  J>«creta  Cone,  Plen,  II  (Baltimore.   1868);  Smith,  Notes  on 

VO  nave    SUltaOie    ScnooiS    OI    nigner    eaucation    lOr  second  Plenarp  Council  (New  York.  1874);  Acta  et  Decreta 

Catholic  youth.  Cone,  Plen,  III  (Baltimore.  1886);  Nilli»,  Commentaria  in 

Title  vii.  Of  Christian  Doctrine,— (i)  Of  the  office  Cone.  Plen.  Ill  (Iimsbniok,  1^);        „  ^  ^ 
of  preaching,     (ii)  A  commission  is  appointed  to  William  H.  W.  Fanning. 

prepare  a  catechism  for  general  use.     Whwi  pub- 

lisbed  it  is  to  be  obligatory,     (iii)  Of  prayer  books.        Baltimore,    Provincial    CJouNCiua     op. — These 

(iv)  Of  books  and  newspapers.    While  objectionable  councils  have  a  unique  importance  for  the  Church  in 

WTTtings  are   to    be    condenmed.  Catholics  should  the  United  States,  inasmuch  as  the  earlier  ones  l^s- 

oppose   them  also  by   orthodox    newspapers    and  lated  for,  practically  the  whole  territory  of  the  Ke- 

books.  public,  and  furnished  moreover  a  norm  for  all  the 

Title  viii.  Of  Zeal  for  Souls, — (i)  Immigrants  should  later  provincial  councils  of  the  country.    This  article 

be  instructea    by  priests  of  their   own   lan^;uage.  touches  on  only  those  parts  of  the  legislation  which 

(ii)  A  commission  is  appointed  to  aid  the  missions  may  seem  in  any  way  to  individualize  the  discipline 

among  Indians  and  Negroes,     (iii)  Censures  a^nst  of  the  Church  in  the  United  States  or  depict  the  pe- 

aecret  societies  are  to  be  made  Imown  to  the  faithful,  culiar  needs  and  difficulties  of  its  nascent  period. 
If  Rome  has  not  condemned  a  particular  society  by        I.  The  First  Provincial  Council  was  held  m  1829  and 

namt,  it  will  belong  only  to  a  commission  consisting  was  attended  by  one  archbishop  and  four  bishops, 

of  the  archbishops  of  the  country  to  decide  whether  Its  decrees  refer  to  the  enactments  of  two  previou: 

it  falls  under  tne  laws  of  forbidden  organizations  conventions    which    may    be    summarized    briefly, 

or  not.    If  they  cannot  a^ree,  the  matter  is  to  be  Bishop  Carroll's  Diocesan  Synod  of  1791  decreed: 

referred  to  Rome.     On  the  other  hand,  Catholic  (No.  3)  The  cer^nonies  of  baptism  need  not  be 


BALTIMORE            240  BALTIMORE 

supplied  for  converted  heretics  who  had  been  pre-  Bishops  are  exhorted  to  erect  ecclesiastical  semi- 

viously  validly  baptized.     (No.  4)  As  a  rule  chiloren  naries. 

are  not  to  be  confirmed  before  the  agie  of  reason.  III.  The  Third  Council  in  1837  was  composed  of  one 

(No.  5)  The  offerings  of  the  faithful  are  to  be  di-  archbishop  and  ei^ht  bishops.     Its  decrees  enacted: 

vided  into  three  parts:  for  the  support  of  the  pastor,  (No.  4)  Ecclesiastic^  property  is  to  be  secured  by 

the  relief  of  the  poor,  and  the  sustentation  of  the  the  best  means  the  civil  law  i^ords.    (No.  6)  Eccle- 

church.    (No.  11)  The  faithful  are  to  be  warned  that  siastics  should  not  bring  ecclesiastical  cases  before 

the  absolution  of  priests  not  approved  by  the  bishop  the  civil  tribunals.     (No.  7^  Priests  are  prohibited 

is  invalid.     (No.  15)  None  are  to  be  married  until  from  soliciting  money  outside  their  own  parishes, 

they  know  the  Christian  Doctrine.     Slaves,  however,  (No.  8)  Pastors  are  warned  a^inst  permitting  un- 

need  know  onlv  the  principal  truths,  if  more  cannot  suitable  music  at  Divine  worship.     (No.  9)  The  two 

be  acQuired.     (No.  16)  In  mixed  marriages  the  non-  days  following  Easter  and  Pentecost  are  to  oe  days  of 

Catholic  must  promise  before  witnesses  to  bring  up  obligation  no  longer.     (No.  10)  Wednesdays  in  Ad- 

the  offspring  of  the  union  as  Catholics.     (No.  17)  vent  are  not  to  be  davs  of  fast  and  abstinence. 

Hymns  and  prayers  in  the  vernacular  are  to  be  en-  IV.  The  Fourth  Coimcil   in   1840  issued  decrees 

couraged  at  evening  services.     (No.  20)  CJatholios  signed  by  one  archbishop  and  twelve  bishops  as 

may  work  on  days  of  obligation  owins  to  the  circum-  follows:    (No.  1)  In  mixed  marriages  no  sacred  rites 

stances  of  place^  but  they  must  hear  Mass  if  possible,  or  vestments  are  to  be  used.     (m>.  5)  Temperance 

(No.  23)  The  rich  are  to  be  warned  that  they  sin  societies  are  recommended  to  the  faithful.     (No.  6) 

grievously  if,  through  their  parsimony,  pastors  can*  Pastors  are  to  see  that  those  frequenting  public 

not  be  sustained  and  multiplied.     (No.  24)  When  schools  do  not  use  the  Protestant  version  of  tne  BiUe 

there  is  question  of  refusing  Christian  burial,  the  or  sing  sectarian  hymns.     Thev  must  also  employ 

bishop  must  be  consulted  beK>rehand  when  possible,  their  influence  against  the  introduction  of  such  prac- 

The  second  series  of  enactments  referrea  to  are  tices  into  the  public  schools.  (No.  8)  Bishops  are 
the  articles  concerning  ecclesiastical  discipline  sane*  to  control  ecclesiastical  property  and  not  permit 
tioned  by  the  common  consent  of  the  Archbishop  priests  to  hold  it  in  their  own  name.  Among  those 
of  Baltimore  and  the  other  American  bishops  in  attending  this  council  was  the  Bishop  of  Nancy  and 
1810.  The  main  articles  are:  (No.  2)  Regulars  Toul,  France,  to  whom  the  fathers  granted  a  right 
should  not  be  withdrawn  from  pastoral  work  with-  to  a  decisive  vote.  A  letter  of  consolation  was  sent 
out  the  consent  of  the  bishops,  if  their  assistance  be  by  the  council  to  the  persecuted  bishops  of  Poland, 
deemed  a  necessity  to  the  existence  or  prosperity  and  another  of  thanks  to  the  moderators  of  the 
of  their  missions.  (No.  3)  The  Douay  version  of  Lecmold  Institute  of  Vienna,  Austria, 
the  Bible  is  to  be  used.  (No.  5)  Baptism  must  be  V.  In  1843,  the  Fifth  Council  was  attended  by  one 
conferred  in  the  church  where  possible.  (No.  6)  If  archbishop  and  sixteen  bishops.  Among  its  enact- 
no  sponsor  can  be  obtained,  private  baptism  only  is  ments  were:  (No.  2)  Laymen  may  not  deliver  ora- 
to  be  administered.  (No.  9)  The  faithful  are  to  be  tions  in  churches.  (No.  4)  It  is  not  expedient  that 
warned  against  improper  theatres,  dances,  and  novels,  the  Tridentine  decrees  concerning  clandestine  matri- 
(No.  10)  Freemasons  cannot  be  admitted  to  the  mony  be  ext^ided  to  places  where  they  have  not 
sacraments.  been  already  promulgated.    (No.  5)  Pastors  are  to  be 

Besides  ordering  the  publication  of  these  decrees  obliged  to  observe  the  law  of  residence.     (No.  6) 

along   with   their   own   synodical   enactments,   the  Priests  may  not  borrow  money  for  church  uses  with- 

fathers   of   the    First    Provincial    C!ouncil    decreed:  out  written  permission  of  the  bishop. 

(No.  1)  Priests  should  labour  in  any  mission  assigned  VI.  The  Sixth  (>ouncil  (one  archbishop  and  twenty- 

to  them  by  the  bishops.    (No.  5)  Owing  to  the  abuses  two  bishops  attending)  in  1846,  decreed^  (No.  1)  that 

'  of  lay  trustees  all  future  churches  should  be  con-  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary  conceived  without  sin  is  chosen 

signed  to  the  bishop  when  possible.    (No.  6)  Trustees  as  the  patron  of  the  United  States.     (No.  2)  Ftiests 

cannot  institute  or  dismiss  a  pastor.     No  ecclesias-  ordained  titulo  missionis  may  not  enter  a  relipous 

tical   patronage  exists  in  this  country.     (No.   10)  order  without  permission  of  tneir  ordinaries,    (m).  3) 

Infants  of  non-Catholics  may  be  baptized  if  their  The  canons  oonoeming  the  proclaiming  of  the  banns 

Earcnts  promise  to  give  them  a  Catholic  education,  of  matrimony  are  to  be  observed.    At  the  request 

ut  the  sponsor  must  be  a  Catholic.     (No.  20)  In  of  the  fathers,  the  Holy  See  sanctioned  a  formula 

administering  the  sacraments  and  in  the  burial  ser-  to  be  used  by  the  bishops  in  taking  the  oath  at  their 

vice,   Latin   and   not   English   must   be  employed,  consecration. 

(No.  31)  A  ceremonial  written  in  Enelish  is  to  be  VII.  In  1849  two  archbishops  and   twenty-three 

drawn   up.      (No.   34)   Catholic   schools  should   be  bishops  held  the  Seventh  Council.    The  main  decrees 

erected.  were:    (No.  2)  The  Holy  See  is  to  be  infojrmed  that 

At  one  of  the  sessions  of  this  council  several  lawyers  the  fathers  think  it  opportune  to  define  as  a  dogma  the 

(among  them  R.  B.  Taney,  afterwards  Chief  Justice  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary. 

of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States)  gave  fNo.  3)  A  change  m  the  election  of  bishops  is  intro- 

advice  to  the  bishops  on  points  of  American  law  con-  duced.     (No.  5)  Bishops  are  not  to  give  an  exeat  at 

ceming   property   rights   and    ecclesiastical   courts,  the  request  of  a  priest  imless  it  be  certain  that  another 

In  addition  to  their  decrees,  the  bishops  asked  and  bishop  will  receive  him.    (No.  6)  Priests  are  forbidden 

obtained  from  Rome  permission  to  use  for  adults  to  assist  at  the  marriages  of  those  who  have  already 

the  formula  of  infant  baptism;  to  consecrate  bap-  had  a  ceremony  performed  by  a  Protestant  minister, 

tismal  water  with  the  form  approved  for  the  mis-  or  who  intend  to  have  sucn  ceremony  performed, 

sionaries  of  Peru,  and  to  extend  the  time  for  ful-  (No.  7)  A  national  council  should  be  held  in  Baltimore 

filling  the  paschal  precept,  i.  e.  from  the  first  Sunday  in  1850,  by  Apostolic  Authority.    The  fatiiers  more- 

of  Lent  to  Trinity  Sunday.  over  petitioned  the  Holy  S^  to  raise  New  Orleans, 

II.  The  Second  Council,  held  in  1833,  was  attended  Cincinnati,  and  New  York  to  metropolitan  dignity 

by  one  archbishop  and  nine   bishops.     The  main  and  to  make  a  new  limitation  of  the  Provinces  ot 

decrees  were:    (No.  3)  A  delimitation  of  the  American  Baltimore  and  St.  Louis.    They  desired  Hkewise  that 

dioceses.     (No.  4)  A  method  of  selecting  bishops,  Baltimore  shoidd  be  declared  the  primatial  see  of 

which  a  later  CJouncil  (Prov.  VII)  modified.    (No.  5)  the  Republic.    The  pope  granted  the  first  part  of- 

Recommending  the  entrusting  to  the  Jesuits  of  the  the  petition,  but  deferred  acting  on  the  question  of 

Indian  missions  in  the  West,  bh  also  (No.  6)  the  the  primacy. 

missions  amone  former  American  slaves,  repatriated  VIIL  The  Eighth  Council  was  assembled  in  1855. 

Id  Ldberia.  Auica.  to  the  same  fathers.    (No.  8)  One  archbishop  and  seven  bishops  or  their  repreaeo* 


BALTU8                                241  BALUS 

mtives  attended  it.    This  council  enacted:    (No.  1)  he  was  also  rector  of  the  university.    In  1717,  he 

The  fathers  Joyfully  receive  the  doCTmtic  decision  of  was  general   censor  of   books  at  E^ome,  and   later 

the  pope  denning  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  rector  of  Ohftlon,  Dijon,  Metz,  Pont-^Moussoa,  and 

Heiea  Virgin  Mary.    (No.  2)  Priests  are  warned  that  ChMons.     He  left  several  works  of  some  value  to  the 

afterAugust,  1857,  adults  must  be  baptized  according  Christian  apologist,  notably:  (1)  ^'R^ponse  k  I'his- 

to  the  r^^ular  formula  for  that  service  in  the  Roman  toire  dee  oracles  de  M.  de  Fontenelle",  a  critical 

Ritual  and  not  according  to  that  for  infant  baptism,  treatise  on  the  oracles  of  paganism,  in  r^utation  of 

vNo.  4)  No  tax  is  to  be  demanded  for  dispensations  Van  Dale's  theory  and  in  defence  of  the  Fathers  of 

from  matrimonial  impediments.     (No.  6)  Bishops  are  the  Church  (Strasburg,  1707),  followed  in  1708  by 

exhorted  to  increase  tne  number  of  their  diocesan  con-  "9uite  de  la  r^ponse  S  Thistoire  des  oracles".     (2) 

suitors  to  ten  or  twelve.    It  will  not  be  necessary,  "Defense  des  S.  P^res  aecus^  de  platonisme"  (Paris, 

however,  to  obtain  the  opinion  of  all  of  them,  even  1711);  this  is  a  refutation  of  "Platonismed^voil^", 

on  important  matters.    For  this,  the  counsel  of  three  a  work  of   the   Protestant   minister   Souverain  of 

or  four  will  suffice.    On  the  death  of  the  bishop,  how-  Poitiers.  (3)  "  Jugement  des  8S.  Pdres  sur  la  morale  de 

ever,  all  the  consultors  shall  send  to  the  archbishop  la  pl^losophiepaTenne"  (Strasburg,  1719).       (4)  ''La 

iheir  written  opinions  as  to  an  eligible  successor  for  rehgion    chnStienne  prouv^  par   Taccomplissement 

the  vacant  see.    (No.  7)  The  various  diocesan  synods  des  proph^ties  de  VAjieiesti  et  du  Nouveau  Testament 

should  determine  on  the  best  mode  of  providing  for  suivant  la  m^thode  des  '6S.  P^res"    (Paris,   1728). 

the  proper  support  of  the  bishop.     (No.  8)  The  f5) ''I>$fense  des  prophdtiesde  la  religion  chr^tienne" 

fathers  desire  to  see  an  American  College  erected  (Paris,  1737).    To  these  may  be  aidded  a  funeral 

in  Rome.    To  the  Acts  of  this  council  is  appended  oration  on  the  Most  Rev.  Peter  Creagh.  Archbishop 

a  decree  of  the  Holy  See,  sanctioning  a  mode  of  pro-  of  Dublin  (Strasburg,  1705),  the  "Acts  of  St.  Balaam. 

cedure  in  judicial  causes  of  clerics.  Martyr",  and  the  *  Life  of  St.  Febronia,  Virgin  ana 

DC.  The  Ninth  Council  in  1858  was  attended  bv  Martyr"  (Dijon,  1720  and  1721  respectively), 
one  archbishop  and  seven  bishops.    The  main  work  Soioctovoobl  in  Du^.  de  thiol,  cath.,  s.  v.;  Id.,  BiW.  de  la 
l^i"^  consisted  in  drawing  up  ^itions  to  ^  ^  ^-^  I-  «5»-««>;  VIU.  1736.                        McNeal. 
the  Holy  See  concemmg  a  dispensation  from  absti-  ^'•^^^  ».  x.  k.^ 
nence  on  Saturdays;  the  conceding  of  certain  hon-  Balne,  Jean,  a  French  cardinal,  b.  probably  c. 
orary  privileges  to  the  Archbishop  of   Baltimore;  1421,  in  Poitou;  d.  5  October,  1491,  at  Ripatransone 
the  CTimting  to  the  bishops  the  permission  to  allow  (March  of  Ancona).     He  has  been  frequentlv,  but 
the  Blessed  Sacrament  to  be  kept  in  chapels  of  re-  erroneously,  cidled^'de  la  Balue".    He  was  graduated 
lifious  communities  not  subject  to  the  law  of  enclosure,  as  Hcentiate  in  law  about  1457,  and  at  an  eariy  date 
Afl  of  these  j>etitions  were  granted  by  the  Holy  See.  entered  tie  ecclesiastical  state.     He  became  so  inti- 
That  concerning  the  Archbisnop  of  Baltimore  granted  mate  with  Jacques  Juvenal  des  Ursins,  Bishop  of  Poi- 
to  him,  as  ruler  of  the  mother-church  of  the  United  tiers  (1449-57),  that  the  latter  named  him  executor 
States,  an   honorary    pre-eminence,   to    consist   in  of  his  will.    Tne  charge  that  in  this  capacity  he  mis- 
his  taking  precedence  of  any  other  archbishop  in  the  appropriated  funds  destined  for  the  poor  must  be 
country,  without  regard  to  promotion  or  consecration,  received    with   reserve.     After    the  -death    of   Des 
and  in  his  having  the  place  of  honour  in  all  councils  Ursins,  Balue  entered  the  service  of  John  de  Beauvau, 
and  conventions.    The  fathers  also  sent  to  Rome  an  Bishop  of  Angers  (1451-67),  who  made  him  vicar- 
inquinr  as  to  the  nature  of  the  vows  (solemn  or  sim-  general  (1461).     In  1462,  he  accompanied  his  bishop 
pie)  of  religious  women,  especially  of  Visitation  Nuns  to  Rome,  and  thenceforth  his  career  was  marked  by 
m  the  United  States,  an  answer  to  which  was  deferred  clever  and  unscrupulous  intrigue.     On  his  return, 
to  a  later  time  (1864).    The  question  was  also  dte-  he  was  introduced  by  Charles  de  Melun  to  King  Louis 
cussed  as  to  whether  Archbishop  Kenrick's  version  XI  (1461-83),  and,  owing  to  the  royal  favour,  his 
of  the  Bible  should  be  approved  for  seneral  use.    It  rise  both  in  ecclesiastical  and  civil  affairs  was  rapid. 
was  finally  decided  to  wait  for  Dr.  Jonn  Henry  New-  In  1464,  Louis  XI  made  him  his  almoner;  the  same 
loan's  expected  version,  and  then  to  determine  alcnig  year,  Balue  received  th^  Abbeys  of  F6camp  and 
with  the  oishops  of  other  English-speaking  countries  Saint-Thierri  (Reims)  and  in  1465.  that  of  Saint- 
on one  common  version.  Jean-d'Ane^ly,  two  priories,  and  the  Bishopric  of 
X.  In  1869,  the  Tenth  Council  enacted  decrees  that  Evreux.    Having  obtained   the   deposition   of  his 
were  signed  by  one  archbishop,  twelve  bishops,  and  benefactor,  Beauvau,  from  the  See  of  An^ni,,  he 
one  abbot.    Among  these  decrees  we  note:    (No.  5)  secured  the  see  for  himself  (1467).    His  intrigues  in 
Kshops  are   exhorted    to   establish    missions   and  the  affair  of  the  Pra^atic  Sanction  procured  him, 
BchooLB  for  the  negroes  of  their  dioceses.     (No.  7)  at  the  request  of  Louis  XI,  the  cardinalate,  to  which 
Pritetfi  are  to  be  appointed  to  aid  the  bishops  in  ad-  Paul  II    (1464-71)   reluctantly  raised  him   (1467). 
nMnistering  the  temporal  concerns  of  the  diocese.  Guilty  of  high  treason,  he  was  arrested  two  years 
rhey  are  also  to  supervise  the  spiritual  and  material  later  (1469)  with  his  accomplice  WilUam  d'Harau- 
affairs  of  religious  women.     At  the  request  of  the  court,  Bishop  of  Verdun  (1456-1500).     As  a  cardinal, 
fathers,  the  Holy  See  extended  for  five  years  the  he  could  not  be  judged  by  a  civil  tribunal,  but  the 
privikee  of  using  the  short  formula  in  the  baptism  negotiations  between  the  i)ope  and  the  king,  regard- 
of  adults.  ing  his  trial,  remaining  fruitless,  he  was  held  captive 
It  should  be  remarked  that  the  first  seven  provincial  by  Louis  XI  for  eleven  years  (1469-80).    The  base- 
councils  of  Baltimore  were  practically,  thou^  not  less  story  of  his  detention  in  an  iron  cage  originated 
formally,  plenary  councils  of  the  United  States.  in   Italy   in    the   sixteenth   century.     After   manv 
The  numbers  of  decrees  indicated  in  the  text  will  be  found  fruitless  attempts,  the  pope  in  1480  obtained  Balue  S 
'^^.  ^.S^^^JSJ^.'^JSX'  t^Z^'^l^So^  freedom  through  CardinarjuHan  de  la  R^v^re  later 
^rtA\iL,  5.  J.  (Freibiirg,  1875).  contains  in  vol.  ni.  the  fuU  Pope  Juhus  H   (1503-13).    Balue  went  to  Rome 

^«of  the  deereee  of  these  ten  oouncUs;  Concilia  Pnmncialia  witn  the  cardinal,  was  restored  to  all  his  rights  and 

§tea»c2^1rfiVi^c2fpif^iSt^^^  <«f"|ties  a482)  and  was  m.med  Bishop  of  Albano 

WiLUAM  H.  W.  Fanning.  ^483).    At  the  death  of  Loins  XI  (1483)  he  came, 

at  the  request  of  Charles  VIII,  as  papal  legate  to 

Bahoa,  JsAN  Francois,  theologian,  b.  at  Metz,  France  and  left  it  as  French  ambassador  to  Rome 

8  June,  1667j  d.  at  Reims,  9  March,  1743.     He  en-  (1485).     Balue   succeeded,   moreover,   in   securing, 

^fed  the  Society  of  Jesus,  21  November,  1682,  taught  besides  several  benefices,  the  nomination  as  Protector 

hmoamties  at  Dijon,  rhetoric  at  Pont-^-Mousson,  of  the  Order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  and  Guardian 

Soipture,  Hebrew,  and  theology  at  Strasburg,  where  to  Prince  Djem,  brother  of  the  Sultan  of  Turkey. 

IL— 16 


BALXm                                 242  BAHBEBQ 

But  his  end  was  near:  he  died  in  1491  and  was  buried  favourite  work.     He  wrote  it  out  of  love  for  his 

at   Rome.      He   had   attained   numerous   dignities  native  place,  "ne  in  nostrA  patrii  peregrini  atque 

and  amassed  wealth,  but  dishonoured  the  Ghim)}i.  hospites  esse  videamur''.     It  embraces  a  period  of 

x^F^J^^'i/^^.Sl^^AiE^*  r\^jA  F^^'^*'rx9^n  ^  «^<^  centurics,  from  the  founding  of  the  city  (900), 

ffioiflSW?''        ^'            '     '             '          •  to  the  episcopite  of  Daniel  de  Siint-Aulaire  (1702). 

II,  A.  Wbber.  "^^  history  of  TuUe  is  divided  into  three  books,  \hib 

first  dealing  with  the  counts,  the  second  with  the 

Bahue,  Etienne,  a  French  scholar  and  historian,  abbots,  ana  the  third  with  the  bishops, 

b.  at  Tulle,  24  December,  1630;  d.  in  Paris,  28  Juli^,  In  1670,  Baluze  was  appointed  professor  of  canon 

1718.    His  education  was  commenced  at  the  Jesuit  law  at  the  College  de  France,  of  which  he  became 

college  of  his  native  town,  where  he  distinguished  him-  director  in  1707,  with  a  pension  awarded  bv  the  king. 

self  b]^  his  intelligence,  his  constant  devotion  to  studjr,  But  he  soon  felt  tfc^  uncertainty  of  courtly  favoura. 

and  ms  prodigious  memory.    Obtaining  a  scholarship  Having  attached  himself  to  Cardinal  de  Bouillon, 

on  the  recommendation  of  his  professors,  he  com-  who  Imd  engaged  him  to  write  the  history  of  his 

Dieted  his  classical  courses  at  the  College  ^f  St.  family,  he  became  involved  in  the  cardinal's  disgrace. 

Afartial,  which  had  been  founded  at  Toulouse,  m  the  Baluze  was  accused  of  having  used  spurious  papers 

fourteenth  century,  by  Pope  Innocent  VI  for  twenty  in  his  patron's  interest.    Consequently  he  received 

Limousin  students.     Kesdived  to  devote  himself  to  a  leUre  de  ctu^iH  ordering  him  to  retire  to  Lyons, 

the  study  of  Uterature  and  history,  Baluee  set  to  Being  expelled  from  the  university  and  deprived  of 

work  with  great   zeal,   perseverance,   and  success,  his  personal  fortune,  he  wandered  from  Kouen  to 

Critical  and  painstaking  in  the  investigation  of  facts,  Blois,  from  Blois  to  Tours,  and  later  to  Orleans, 

he  imdertook  to  study  the  origins  of  the  French  where   he   lived   until    1713.    After   the   peace  of 

nation,  its  customs,  laws,  and  institutions,  using  for  Utrecht,  the  family  of  Cardinal  de  Bouillon  recovered 

this  purpose  only  genuine  documents  and  original  the  favour  of  the  idng,  and  Baluze  was  recalled,  but 

records   instead  of   fanciful    legends   and   fabulous  never  again  employed  as  a  professor  or  as  a  Director 

stories,    thus    introducing    a    scientific    spirit    into  of  the  Coll^  de  France.     He  Uved  far  from  Paris 

historical  research,  philology,  and  chronology.  and  was  engaged  in  publishing  St.  Cyprian's  works  at 

At  the  age  of  twenty-two  he  wrote  a  remarkable  the  time  of  his  death.  Baluze,  toother  with  Luc 
work  of  historical  criticism.  A  Jesuit,  Father  Frizon,  d'Aoh^ry,  Mabillon,  Sainte-Marthe,  Ducange,  Mont- 
had  just  published  a  book,  "Gallia  purpurata",  con-  fauoon,  and  others,  gathered  an  immense  quantity  of 
taining  the  lives  of  the  French  carcunaJs,  which  met  rich  materiab  which  the  historians  of  the  nineteenth 
with  great  success  until  Baluze  gave  out  (1652)  his  oentunr,  such  as  Sismondi,  Guizot,  Augustin  and 
"Anti-Frizonius"  in  which  he  pointed  out  and  oor-  Am^ee  Thierry,  Michelet,  Henri  Martin,  Fustel  de 
rected  many  errors  made  by  Father  Frizon.  In  Coulanges,  were  to  use  with  the  greatest  skill. 
1664,  Pierre  de  Marca,  Archbishop  of  Toulouse,  one  ,  Vkqjl,  BdmM  Baluae,  $a  vie,  tea  ouvragtM,  aon  exU,  «a  df- 

rtf  thA   OTAnf/kflf    Frpnph    anholAra   in   th**  oAVAntimnfh  /*'*•*  ">  BulUttn  de  la  aoctHi  de9  lettrca,  ectencee,  et  art*  de  la 

Jrt^Z^^Ji^^  1.  _     ?!^^-!?_x   _       T^!^C_  Corrhe  (Tulle.  IW^).  V,  20;   Michaud.  Bioorapkut  tmwendU, 

cataloffuieM  el  decriUe; 
ne,   XVlII;   Delislc. 


geographical  description  of  Catalonia.  This  work  ' 
made  him  known  to  Colbert,  who  appointed  him  his  Bamb«r  (aUas  Reading),  Edward,  Venerable, 
librarian,  a  position  he  held  for  thirty  years,  many  priest  and  martyr,  b.  at  the  Moor,  Poulton-le-Fylde, 
years,  that  is,  after  Colbert's  death.  The  excellent  Lmcashire;  executed  at  Lancaster  7  August,  1646. 
collection  of  manuscripts  and  books  which  was  found  Educated  at  the  En^ish  College,  ValladoUd,  he  was 
in  the  latter's  Hbraiy  was  the  fruit  of  his  care  and  ordained  and  sent  toEnfliand.  On  landing  at  Dover, 
advice.  His  own  coUection  was  also  very  important;  he  knelt  down  to  thankGod,  which  actTobeerved  by 
it  comprised  about  1100  printed  books,  957  manu-  the  Governor  of  the  Castle,  was  the  cause  of  hisap- 
scripts,  more  than  500  charters,  and  seven  cases  full  prehension  and  banishment.  He  returned  again,  and 
of  various  documents.  Baluze  is  to  be  ranked  was  soon  afterwards  apprehended  near  Standish, 
among  those  benefactors  of  Uterature  who  have  Lancashire;  he  had  probably  been  chaplain  at  Stand- 
employed  their  time  and  knowledge  in  collecting  igh  Hall.  On  his  way  to  Lancaster  Castle  he  was 
from  all  sources  ancient  manuscripts,  valuable  books,  lodged  at  the  Old-Green-Man  Inn  near  Claughton-on- 
and  state  papers.  He  annotated  them  with  valuable  Brock,  and  thence  manag^  to  escape,  his  keepers 
comments,  being  very  well  acquainted  with  profane  being  drunk.  He  was  found  wandering  in  the  fields 
and  eccl^iastical  history  as  well  as  with  canon  law,  by  one  Mr.  Sin^eton  of  Broughton  Tower  (who  had 
both  ancient  and  modem.  been  warned  in  a  dream  to  help  him),  and  was  as- 
The  number  of  works  Baluze  published  is  con-  sisted  and  sheltered  by  him.  Arre  ted  the  third  time, 
siderable:  we  shall  mention  the  most  important  he  was  committed  to  Lancaster  Castle,  where  he 
among  them:  (1)  "Marii  Mercatoris  opera"  (1684),  remained  in  ctoee  confinement  for  three  years,  once 
collated  with  manuscripts  and  enriched  with  notes  escaping^but  reoapturod.  At  his  trial  with  two  other 
illustrative  of  the  history  of  the  Middle  Ajms.  priesuTwhitaker  and  Woodcock,  two  apostates  wit- 
(2)  "Regum  Francorum  capitularia"  (1677).  This  nessed  against  him  that  he  had  administered  the 
collection  contains  several  capitularies  never  pub-  sacraments,  and  he  was  condemned  to  die.  He 
lished  before.  Baluze  corrected  them  with  great  sufiferod  with  great  constancy,  reconciling  to  the 
accuracy  and  in  his  preface  gave  an  account  of  the  Church  a  fdon  executed  with  him,  and  encouraging 
original  documents  and  of  the  authority  of  the  his  fellow-martyrs  to  die  bravely.  His  conduct  so 
several  collections  of  the  capitularies.  (3)  '^£pistol»  enraged  the  persecutors  that  tney  urged  the  ex- 
Innocentii  PapaB  III"  (1682);  not  a  complete  col-  ecutioner  to  butcher  him  in  a  m«re  than  usually  crud 
lection,  as  Baluze  was  refused  the  use  of  the  letters  and  savage  manner.  An  ode  composed  on  his  death 
preserved   in  the  Vatican.     (4)  "Conciliorum  nova  is  gtill  extant. 

coUectio  *'  (1683),  containing  such  pieces  as  are  want-  Challonm,  Meinoir$  (1700);  Watson,  Decaoordon  of  ten 

ing  in  Labbe's  collection.     (5)  "Les  vies  des  papes  CtiafliM  Qw^iont  (1602);  Qillow,  BiU.  Diet,  Bng.  Caih 

d'Avignon "  (1693),  m  which  he  gave  a  preference  (^^^on.  1885). 
to  Avignon  over  Rome  as  the  seat  of  tne  Popes. 

(6)  '^Knscellanea'' (1680),  of  which  Mansi  publisned  Bambergt    Archdiocese    of,    m    the    kingdom 

a  new  edition  in  1761.     (7)  '^Historia  Tutelensis"  of  Bavaria,  embraces  almost  the  whole  of  the  preei- 

(1717),  or  the  history  of  TuUe.    This  was  Baluae's  denpy  of   tipper    Franconia,  the  northern   jpart  of 


BAMBEEa  243  BAMBEBO 

Middle    Franconia    (in    particular    the    cities    of  Brixen  which  declared  Pope  Gregory  VII  to  be  de-> 
Nuremberg.  FQrth^  Ansbach,  and  Erlangen),  parts  posed;  on  this  account  tne  bishop  was  excommuni- 
of  Lower  Franconia,  of  the  Upper  Palatinate,  and  cated.   During  his  episcopate  Rupert  did  much  for  the 
of  the  Duchy  of  Saxe-Coburg.     According  to  the  encouragement  of  classical  learning  in  the  diocese, 
census  of  1  December.  1900,  the  archdiocese  then  St.  Otto  I  (1102-39),  the  Apostle  of  the  Prussians 
contained  379,442  Catnolics;  in  1907  the  Catholics  and  Pomeranians,  had  a  large  share  in  the  recon- 
numbered  410,000,  and  members  of  other  denomina-  oiliation  of  the  pope  and  the  emperor  by  the  Con- 
tions  720,000.    Bamberg  as  an  ecclesiastical  province  oordat  of  Worms;  he  founded  numerous  churches 
includes,  besides  the  Archdiocese  of  Bambeiig,  the  and  monasteries  and  during  a  famine  showed  large- 
suffragan    dioceses    of    WOrzburg,    Eichstfttt,    and  hearted  generosity  to  his  subjects.    Otto's  immediate 
S])mr,  all  of  Bavaria.  successors  were  men  of  less  distinction:  Egilbert  (1 139- 
AfiTORT. — ^In  the  early  centuries  the  region  after-  46),  who  had  been  Patriarch  of  Aquileia;  Eberhard  II 
wds  included  in  the  Diocese  of  Bamberg  was  in-  of  Otelingen  (1146-70)  who  with  great  pomp  cele- 
habited  for  the  most  part  by  Slavs;  the  ImowledEe  brated,  in  1147,  the  canonization  of  nenry  II.    Eber- 
of  Quistianity  was  brought  to  these  people  chiefly  hard  increased   the   territory  of  the  diocese,  but, 
by  the  monks  of  the  Benedictine  Abbey  of  Fulda,  being  a  partisan  of  Frederick  I,  he  was  for  a  time 
and  the  land  was  under  the  spiritual  authority  of  under  sentence  of  excommunication.    He  was  suo- 
the  Diocese  of  Wtlrzburg.    The  Emperor  Hwiry  II  ceeded  by  Hermann  II,  of'Aurach  (1170-77).    Otto 
and  his  pious  wife  Kunigunde  decided  to  erect  a  II,  of  Andechs  (1177-96),  rebuilt  in  1181  the  cathe- 
separate  oishopric  at  Bamberg,  which  was  a  family  dral,  which  had  been  burned.    Otto  II  understood  how 
inneritance.    The  emperor's  purpose  in  this  was  to  to  remain  loyal  both  to  the  emperor  and  the  pope, 
make  the  Diocese  of  Wiirzburg  less  unwieldy  in  size  Thiemo  (1196-1202)  obtained  in  1200  the  canoniza- 
and  to  give  Christianity  a  firmer  footing  in  the  dis-  tion   of  the  Empress   Kunigunde,  joint   foundress 
iricts  of  Franconia.    In  1008,  after  long  negotiations  with  the  emperor  Henry  II  of  the  see;  Conrad,  Duke 
with  the  Bishops  of  Wtlrzburg  and  Eichstfttt,  who  of  Silesia  (1201-03),  died  soon  after  his  election;  Eck- 
were  to  cede  portions  of  their  dioceses,  the  boundaries  bert,  Count  of  Meran  and  Andechs  (1203-37),  was  sus- 
of  Uie  new  diocese  were  defined,  and  John  XVIII  peoted  of  being  privy  to  the  murder  of  King  Philip 
granted  the  pa]ml  confirmation  in  the  same  year,  of  Germany  in  1208;  the  ban  of  the  empire  was  pro- 
The  new  catnedral  was  consecrated  6  May,  1012,  claimed  against  him,  and  he  was  removed  from  his 
and  in  1017  Henry  II  founded  on  Mount  St.  Michael,  see,  but  in  1212  he  was  restored,  and  in  1217  took 
near  Bamberg,  a  Benedictine  abbey  for  the  training  part  in  an  unsuccessful  crusade  to  Palestine.     In 
of  the  clergy.    The  emperor  and  his  wife  gave  large  spite  of  his  warlike  disposition  he  was  zealous  in 
temporal  possessions  to  the  new  diocese,  and  it  re-  promoting  the  spiritual  life  of  his  cler^.    Poppo  I, 
ceived  many  privileges  out  of  which  grew  the  secular  Count  of  Andecns  (1237-42),  soon  retired  from  his 
power  of  tne  bblu>ps  (cf.  Weber  in  "  Historisches  office;  Henry  I  of  Bilberstein   (1242-51)  received 
Jahrbudi  der  GOrresgesellschaf t "  for  1899,  326-345  from  the  emperor  the  title  of  Prince-Bishop  for  him- 
and  617-639).    Pope  Benedict  VIII  during  his  visit  self  and  his  successors,  as  well  as  numerous  rights 
to  Bamberg  (1020)  ^a^  the  diocese  in  direct  de-  of  sovereignty.    Thenceforth  the  Bishops  of  Bam- 
pendence  on  tb^  HcHy  See.     In  1248  and  1260  the  berv  had  ecclesiastical  precedence  directly  after  the 
see  obtained  large  portions  of  the  estates  of  the  archbishops. 

Counts  of   Meran,   partly   through   purchase   and        Their   power  was  encroached  on,  however,  from 

partly  through  the  appropriation  of  extinguished  two  directions;  on   the  one  side   by  the  cathedral 

fiefe.    The  old  Bishopnc  of  Bambeiig  was  composed  canons,    the    so-called     Brothers    of   St.  Georse, 

of  an  unbroken  territory  extending  from  Schlilsselfeld  who    abandoned    the    vita    communis    during    the 

in  a  north-^teriy  direction  to  the  Franoonian  Forest,  episcopate  of   Bishop  Berthold  of   Leiningen  (1257 

and  poMKessed  in  addition  estates  in  the  Duchies  of  -85)   and    developed    gradually   into   a   cathedral 

Carinthia  and  Salzburg,  in  the  Nordgau  (the  present  chapter.    In  time  the  cathedral  chapter  of  Bamberg 

Upper  Palatinate),  in  Thuringia,  and  on  the  Danube,  was  chosen,  as  in  other  German  dioceses,  exclusively 

By  the  chanses  resulting  from  the  Reformation  the  from  the  nobility;  the  chapter,  by  so-called  election 

territory  of  this  see  was  reduced  nearly  one  half  in  pacts   (WahlhapUtUaiionen)   forced   the   bishops  to 

extent;  in  1759  the  possessions  and  jurisdictions  abandon  numerous  privileges  and  many  of  the  church 

situat^  in  Austria  were  sold  to  that  State.    When  livings  under  their  control  in  favour  of  the  chapter, 

the  secularization  of  church  lands  took  place  (1802)  limited  the  bishop's  disciplinary  authority  over  the 

the  diocese  covered  1276  square  miles  and  had  a  clergy  as  well  as  his  right  to  levy  taxes,  and  abridged 

population  of  207,000  souls.  other  powers.     The  episcopal  authority  was  also 

Up  to  this  period  the  Diocese  of  Bamberg  had  been  limltedf,  as  in  other  parts  of  Germany,  by  the  growing 

nilea  l^  63  buhops.    The  first  ei^ht  were  appointed  power  of  the  towns  which  rebelled  against  the  secu- 

Ly  the  German  emperors;  after  this  they  were  chosen  far  jurisdiction  of  the  ecclesiastical  princes.    Thus 

ly  the  clergy  and  people  jointly;  still  later  they  were  the  city  of  Bamberg  revolted  (1291)  against  Arnold 

elected  by  the  cathedral  chapter.     On  several  oc-  of  Solms  (1286-96),  a  quarrel  which  was  settled  in 

eaaions,  when  the  Section  was  disputed,  the  ap-  1291  by  arbitration  in  favour  of  the  bishop.    During 

potntment  was  made  by  the  pope.    The  first  bishop,  this  episcopate  the  finances  of  the  diocese  became 

Eberhard  I  (1007-40),  chancellor  to  Henry  II,  ereatly  much  involved,  and  the  indebtedness  increased  under 

increased  the  possessions  of  the  diocese;   suidger  Leopold  I  of  GrQndlach  (1297-1303).    A  Dominican 

(1040-46)  became  pope  under  the  name  of  Clement  appointed    by    the   pope,    Wulfing   of   Stubenberg 

II;  Hartwig  (1047-53)  defended  the  rights  of  his  (1304-18),  founded  in  Bamberg  a  Dominican  monas- 

see  against  the  Bishop  of  WUrzburg  and  received  tery  and  a  convent  of  Dominican  nuns.     Several 

the  pallium  from  the  pope  in  1053;  Adalbero  (1053-  of  the  succeeding  bishops  ruled  for  brief  periods: 

57)  was  followed  by  GGnther  (1057-65)  who  held  John  of  GQttingen  (1322-23),  afterwards  Bishop  oi 

the  first  synod  of  Bambeiig  (1058).     GOnther  died  Freising:  Henry  II  of  Sternberg  (1324-28),  a  Domini^ 

at  Odenbuiv  (Sopron)  in    Hungary,  while    on    a  can;  Jonn,  Count  of  Nassau  (1328-29),  who  died 

crusade.      Hermann   (1065-75)  acquired  the  Prin-  before  consecration;  Wemtho  Schetik  of  Reicheneck 

dpality  of  Bams;  in  the  strug^e  between  the  empire  (1329-35);  Leopold  II  of  EglofFstein  (1335-43),  who 

and  the  papacy  he  took  the  side  of  the  empire.    He  maintained   ecclesiastical   discipline  in   his   diocese 

was  charged  with  obtaining  his  election  by  simony  and  shrewdly  kept  out  of  the  quarrels  between  pope 

and  deposed.     Rupert  (1075-1102),  as  partisan  of  and  emperor.    Frederick  I  of  Hohenlohe  (1344-52) 

fleniy  IV,  was  a  member  of  the  pseudo-Synod  of  did  much  to  establish  peace  between  the  imperial 


BAMBEBG  244  BAMBERG 

%nd  ecclesiastical  authorities;  in  1^8  he  had  a  regis-  Geone   I   Zobel   of  Giebelstadt  (1577'-80),  Marian 
ter  (uriarium)  drawn  up  of  all  the  estates  and  rignts  von  Eyb  (1580-83);  none  of  these  men,  however,  were 
belonging  to  the  see.      Leopold  III  of   Bebenbure  able  to  correct  abuses  and  reduce  the  debts  of  the 
(1353^63)   was  granted  the  rieht  of  coinage  and  see.     The  cathedral  chapter  was  chiefly  responsible 
re-established  the  disordered   finances  of  the  see.  for  the  troubles  under  which  the  diocese  suffered; 
Frederick  II  of  Truhendin^en  (1364-66)  was  followed  their   nepotism,    simonjr,   avoidance   of   ordination 
by  Louis,  Margrave  of  Meissen  (1366-74),  who  soon  to  the  pnesthood,  and,  m  many  cases,  their  evil  lives 
became  Elector  of  Mainz.     Lamprecht  of  Brunn  (concuoinage  was  common)  prevented  reform.  Ernst 
(1374-98),  formerly  Bishop  of  Strasburg,  imposed  von  Mengersdorf  (1583-91)  took  energetic  measures 
new  taxes  in  order  to  reauce  the  indebtedness  of  against  uie  moral  decay  of  clergy  and  people;  in 
the  see.    This  led  to  a  revolt  of  the  citizens  of  Bam-  1585  he  founded  a  seminary  in  Bambeig  for  the 
berg,  and  the  bishop  was  put  to  flight  in  1379;  in  training  of  priests;  he  also  did  much  to  improve  the 
1380  he  conquered  the  city  and   imposed  heavy  materiS  weUare  of  the  people.    NeithartvonThiingen 
penalties  upon  it.    Albert.  Count  of  Wertheim  (1399-  (1691-98)  laboured  with  great  success  in  behalf  of 
1421),  settled  a  quarrel  of  many  years'  standing  with  the  counter-Reformation;  he  provided  for  the  educa- 
the  Burgrave  of  Nuremberg  and  protected  the  Jews  tion  of  the  clergy,  enlarged  the  ecclesiastical  semi- 
living  in  the  diocese.      Frederick    III  of    Aufsess  nary,  and  re-established  the  Catholic  religion  in  his 
(1421-31),  one  of  the  m*ost  religious  princes  of  his  territory  in  accordance  with  the  then  accepted  princi- 
age,  convened  a  s3mod  in  order  to  restore  ecclesiasti-  plea  of  law.     A  less  successful  episcopate  was  that  o* 
cal  discipline  and  to  check  the  avarice  and  im-  John  Philip  von  Gebsattel  (1599-1609) ,  during  whose 
morality  of  the  clergy;  the  opposition  to  these  re-  reign  the  pest  desolated  the  diocese.     John  Giottfried 
forms,  especially  that  of  the  catnedral  canons,  forced  von  Aschhausen  (1609-22),  who,  after  1617,  was  also 
him  to  resign  the  see  (d.  1440).    Anthony  of  Rotenhan  Bishop  of  Wtirzburg,  took  energetic  measures  against 
(1432-59)  was  unable  to  improve  the  bad  condition  concubinage  among  the  clergy.     In  1612  he  called  in 
of  the  episcopal  finances  of  the  bishopric;  in  1440  the  Jesuits,  to  whom  he  gave  the  house  and  church 
the  citizens  of  Bamberg  forced  him  to  flee,  but  he  of  the  Carmelites;  he  put  the  Jesuits  in  charge  of  the 
soon  afterwards  took  the  city  by  storm  and  executed  ecclesiastical  seminary  and  made  them  the  cathe- 
a  number  of  the  citizens.    The  diocese  was  several  dral  preachers.     In  this  way  the  bishop  insured  the 
times  devastated  by  the  Hussites.     More  peaceful  reform  of  his  clergy  and  the  spiritual  renewal  of 
times  now  followed:  (Jeorge  I  of  Schaumbei^  (1459-  Catholicism.   There  is  one  stain  on  his  memory  which 
75),  an  able  ruler,  restored  ecclesiastical  discipline  also  rests  on  that  of  his  successor:  the  toleration  and 
among  the  people,  clergy,  and  monasteries,  ana  en-  encouragement  of  trials  for  witchcraft, 
couraged  the  newly  discovered  art  of  printing  (the        Many  misfortunes  befell  the  diocese  during  the 
printer  Pfister  had  a  press  at  Bamberg  as  early  as  Thirty  Years  War;   among  these  were  heavy  war 
1460).     Philip  of  Henneberg   (1475-87)   continued  imposts,  spoliation,  and  devastation.    In  1632  Bam- 
the  labours  of  his  predecessor,  redeemed  a  large  here  was  conquered  by  the  Swedes,  and  in  1633  was 
number  of  the  estates  mortgaged  by  Anthony  of  obliged  to  recognize  Bernard  of  Weimar  as  its  ruler. 
Rotenhan  to  the  Jews,  and  in  1478  drove  the  Jews  out  Bishop  John  George  II  Fuchs  von  Domheun  (1623- 
of  the  diocese.    Henry  III  Gross  of  Trockau  (1487-  33)  died  m  Carintnia  far  away  from  his  see.    Fran* 
1501)  was  an  energetic  organizer  and  issued  a  num-  von  Hatzfeld  (1633-42)  was  not  able  to  enter  his 
ber  of  laws;  in  1491  he  held  a  synod.    Veit  I  Truch-  diocese  until  1635.    Melchior  Otto  Voit  of  Salzburg 
sess  of  Pommersfelden    (1501-03)    and    George   II  (1642-63)  changed  the  gymnasium  into  a  university 
Marschalk  of  Ebnet  (1503-05)  had  very  brief  reigns,  in  1647;  his  successors.  Philip  Valentine  Voit  von 
The  period  of  the  Reformation  was  an  unfortunate  Reineck  (1655-72),  Philip  von  Dembach  (1672-83), 
one  for  the  diocese.     Luther's  doctrines  very  soon  Marquard  Sebastian  Schenk  von  Stauffenberg  (1683- 
found    entrance    into    its    territory.     The    fortieth  93),  followed  his  example  in  encouraging  the  spiritual 
bishop,  George  III  Schenk  of  Limbur^  (1502-22),  did  activity  of  the  Jesuits  and  other  orders,  in  the  im- 
much  to  encourage  art  and  the  erection  of  churches,  provement  of  schools,  and  in  reducing  the  indebted- 
but  he  showed  himself  weak  in  his  opposition  to  the  ness  of  the  diocese.    A  time  of  great  prosperity  was 
relinous  innovations  and  allowed  the  writings  of  the  period  of  the  two  Coimts  von  Schdnbom,  Lothair 
the  Reformers  to  be  printed  and  spread  in  the  diocese.  Franz  (1693-1729),  and  Frederick  Charles  (1729-46). 
Luther's    doctrines    also    found    friends   and    well-  After  1695  the  former  of  these  two  bishops,  Lothair 
wishers  in  the  cathedral  chapter.    Weigand  of  Red-  Franz,  was  also  Elector  of  Mainz;  he  built  th«  prince- 
witz  (1522-56)  desired  to  make  a  stand  against  the  bishop's  palace  (now  a  royal  residence),  a  large  college 
progress  of  the  Reformation,  but  was  prevented  by  for  the  Jesuits,  as  well  as  several  castles,  and  was  a 
political  and  social  conflicts.    In  1524  the  peasants,  great  patron  of  art  and  learning;  the  latter,  Freder- 
excited  by  the   preaching   of   evangelical   freedom  ick  Charles,  added  faculties  of  law  and  medicine  to 
by  the  adherents  of  the  new  teachings,  revolted  in  the  university  and  adorned  the  city  with  numerous 
several  places  and  refused  to  pay  tithes.    The  city  public  buildings.    On  account  of  his  pulpit  eloquence 
of  Bamoerg  also  rebelled  against  the  bishop;  the  nis  contemporaries  gave  him  the  name  of  the  German 
citizens  called  on  the  peasants  for  aid,  plundered  Fleury.    Tne  re)gns  of  the  next  bishops,  John  Philip 
the  episcopal  palace,  the  houses  of  the  canons  and  Anthony  von   ftankenstein    (1746-53)   and   Franz 
clergy,  the  monasteries,  and  a  large  number  of  es-  Conmd,  Count  von  Stadion   (1753-57),  were  also 
tates  in  the  open  country  which  belonged  to  the  peaceful.      During    the    administration    of    Adam 
nobles  and  clerpr.   George  von  Truchsess,  commander  Frederick,    Count    von    Seinsheim    (1757-79),   the 
of  the  army  ofthe  Swabian  Confederation,  restored  diocese    suffered    greatly    from    the   Seven    Years 
order;  a  number  of  the  revolutionary  leaders  were  War;  during  its  progress  the  Prussians  ravaged  and 
executed,  a  heavy  punishment  was  inflicted  on  the  plundered  the  region,  levied  contributions  on  the 
city  of  Bamberg,  and  the  nobles  who  had  suffered  inhabitants,  and  carried  off  the  church  treasures, 
loss    received    unnecessarily    large    compensation.  When    pestilence   and    famine   followed   the    other 
In  spite  of  the  bishop's  zeal  for  souls,  the  Reformation  miseries  of  war  the  bishop  showed  great  liberality  in 
spread  through  the  diocese,  and  Protestantism  gained  providing  for  his  starving  subjects.     Franis   Lud- 
a  footing,  especially  in  Nuremberg  and  in  the  Fran-  wig  von  Erthal  (1779-95),  who  was  at  the  same  time 
conian  possessions  of  the  Electors  of  Brandenburg.  Bishop  of  Wtirzburg,  was  another  prelate  who  aimed 
This  period  was  followed  by  an  era  of  calm  during  to  promote  the  welfare  of  the  diocese;  he  issued  wise 
the  episcopates  of  George  IV  Fuchs  von  Rugheim  laws,   tried   to  equalize   the   burdens   of  taxation, 
<155&-61),  Veit  II  of  WQrzburg   (1561-77),  John  founded  charitable  institutions  (the  general  ho^ital 


BAMBEEG  245  BAMBESa 

^*  Bamberg  among  them),  and  raised  the  standard  ing  107  inmates,  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Most  Holv 
of  the  clero^.    But  although  personally  religious,  in  Saviour  from  the  mother-house  at  Oberbronn,  with 
the  political  relations  of  the  Church  he  yielded  in  a    107  inmates;   12  houses,  with  32  inmates,  of  the 
measure  to  the  prevailing  tendencies  of  the  Aufkld-    Daughters  of  the  Holy  Redeemer  from  the  mother- 
rvng  (illumination)  movement  of  his  day.    Christoph  house  at  Wtirzbui^  2  convents,  with  11  inmates, 
FrsM  von  Buseck  (1745-1802)  was  the  last  Prince-  of  the  Sisters  of    Oberzell;    making  a  total  of  85 
Bishop  of  Bamberg.     In  1796  he  took  refuge  at  houses  with  640  female  religious.     For  the  training 
Praeue  from  the  French  invasion,  and  in  1799  at  of  the  clergy  there  are  an  archiepiscopal  semmary 
Saaueld.    He  had  only  just  returned,  in  1802,  when  for  priests  (50  students)  and  an  archiepiscopal  semi- 
Bavaria  seized  his  prince-bishopric;  and  in  1803  the  nary  for  boys  (75  pupils).    The  students  of  the  semi- 
delegates  of  the  empire  formally  enacted  the  seculari-  nary  (Prieaterseminar)  are  educated  at  the  Royal 
aation  of  Bamberg,  and  allotted  it  to  be  a  possession  Lyceum,  which   has   philosophical    and   theological 
of  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,    All  the  provostehips  and  faculties  and  9  clerical  professors;  the  pupils  of  the 
monasteries  were   then   suppressed,   the   uraversity  seminary  for  boys'  school   (Knabenseminar)  attend 
was  changed  into  the  still  extant  lyceum,  and  the  the  two  gymnasia  of  Bamberg  in  ea6h  of  which 
prince-bishop  was  pensioned.  an  ecclesiastic  acts  as  religious  instructor  (Religions- 
Upon  the  death  of  von   Buseck   (1805)   George  lehrer).     The  clergy  have  also  charge  of  the  von 
Charie^  von  Fechenbach.  Bishop  of  Wtirzburg,  ad-  Aufsess  seminary  and  home  for  Catnolic  students, 
ministered  the  aflfairs  of  tne  diocese  until  1808.    After  The  Franciscans  have  at  Bamberg  a  seminary  for 
this  the  see  remained   vacant  for  ten  years;  the  students  at  the  gymnasia  who  wish  to  enter  the 
ecclesiastical  ^vemment  was  carried  on  by  a  vicariate-  order  after  completing  their  studies.    Of  the  female 
general,  consisting  of  a  president  and  eight  coun-  congregations,  tne  English  Ladies  conduct  3  Acade- 
sellors    The  Concordat  agreed  upon  between  Bavaria  mies  and  boarding-schools  for  girls,  and  7  primary 
and  Rome  in  1817  brou^t  in  a  new  era.    Bamberg  girls'  schools;  the  other  congregations  conduct  com- 
y^-M  made  an  archbishopric  with  boundaries  as  given  mon  schools,  housekeeping  and  industrial  schools, 
at  the  beginning  of  this  article.    The  first  archbishop,  and  creches.    The  orders  and  congregations  in  the 
Count  Joseph  von  Stubenberg,  previously  Prince-  diocese  have  some  90  charitable  institutions  under 
Bishop  of  EichstStt,  took  possession  of  the  archiepis-  their  care,  among  these  are:  15  alms-houses  and  in- 
copal  see  of  Bamberg  in  1818  and  administered  both  firmaries;   12  hospitals;  22  cr^hes;   15  centres  for 
dioceses  until  his  death  in  1824.    Bishop  von  Stuben-  obtaining  visiting  nurses;  1  insane  asylum;  4  homes 
berg  deserves  ^reat  credit  for  the  manner  in  which  for  unemployed  servants;  5  poor-houses,  etc.    Among 
he  protected  tne  property  of  the  Catholic  Church,  the  Catholic  societies  in  the  diocese  may  be  men- 
He  was  followed  by  (1824-42)  Joseph  Maria,  Freiherr  tloned:  50  Associations  for  Workingmen  and  Mechan- 
von  Fraunberg,  wno  had  been  Bishop  of  Aui(tfburg,  ics;  14  Journeymen's  Associations  (GeseUenvereine)* 
(184^58)  Boniface  Caspar  von  Urban,   (1858-75)  7   Apprentices'   Societies;    1    Workingwomen's   ana 
Michael  von  Deinlein,  who  foimded  a  seminary  for  1  Shopgirls'  Association;  the  Ludwig-Mission  Asso- 
boys  and  encouraged  (Catholic  associations  and  mis-  ciation;  the  St.  Boniface  Association;  the  Christian 
aons  among  the  people,   (1875-90)  Frederick  von  Family  Association;  the  Society  of  Christian  Mothers; 
Schreiber,    and    (1890-1904)    Joseph    von    Schork,  the  Catholic  Men's  Society,  the  People's  Union  for 
a  noted  pulpit  orator.    Archbishop  von  Schork  pro-  Catholic  Germany,  etc. 

moted  missions  (Volksmiasianen)  among  the  people,  The  most  important  ecclesiastical  building  of  the 
as  well  as  charitable  and  social  organizations  among  diocese  is  the  cathedral.  The  edifice  erected  by  the 
dwgy  and  laity.  Frederick  Philip  von  Abert  (b.  at  Emperor  Henry  II,  the  Saint,  wsa  destroyed  by  nre  in 
Muimerstadt,  1  May,  1852)  was  appointed  Arch-  1081;  the  new  cathedral,  built  by  St.  Otto  of  Bamberg, 
bishop,  30  January,  1905.  was  consecrated  in  1 1 1 1 ,  and  in  the  thirteenth  centuiy 
EccLEsiAsncAii  Statistics. — The  Archdiocese  of  received  its  present  late-Romanesque  form.  It  is 
Bamberg  is  divided  into  the  archiepisoopal  con^  about  309  feet  long,  92  feet  broad,  85  feet  high,  and 
misBariat  of  the  city  of  Bamberg  and  20  rural  dean-  the  four  towers  are  each  about  266  feet  hish.  Among 
eries.  The  diocesan  year-book  for  1906  gives:  194  the  finest  of  its  monuments  is  that  to  the  Emperor 
parie^ies  and  dependent  stations;  35  curacies;  113  Henry  II  and  his  Empress  Kunigunde,  considerea  the 
chaplaincies;  58  benefices;  583  churches  and  chapels;  masterpiece  of  the  sculptor  Tilman  Riemenschneider. 
406  secular  clergy;  29  regular  clCTgy;  788  Catnolic  Among  other  noteworthy  churches  of  the  city  are 
parish  schools;  23  Catholic  district  school  inspectors;  the  twelfth-century  church  of  the  former  Benedic- 
^  load  school  inspectors.  The  cathedral  chapter  tine  abbey  of  St.  Michael  and  the  upper  parish  church, 
s  ciunpoeed  of  1  provost,  6  deans,  10  canons,  1  hon-  a  Gothic  building  dating  from  1387.  Among  the 
oraiy  canon,  and  six  curates.  The  secular  priests  noted  churches  of  the  diocese  are  those  of  the  Four- 
have  a  clerical  association  (Fcedua  OUonianwn)  with  teen  Martyrs,  Gdasweinstein,  and  Mariaweiher — 
320  members  and  a  home  for  invalid  priests;  the  all  places  of  pilgrimage;  the  Gothic  church  of  Our 
aaociation  has  also  a  retiring  fund  {Emeritenfonda)  Lady  at  Nuremberg,  and  the  churches  of  the  former 
of  $92,500.    There  are  7  houses  of  male  orders,  with  abbeys  of  Banz  and  Ebrach. 

90  membera,  namely:  4  Franciscan  with  17  pri^       Ludewio.  5mptores  rerun.  ept«x>pa«ia  Bam6«ven««  (Fm^^ 

and  29  brothers;  1  of  Calced  Carmebtes  with  5  pnegts,  fort  and  Leipzig.  1718);  Scmneidawind,  ^totwtMcfte  Bewhrei^ 

3  clerics,  and  7  brothers;  1  of  CJonventual  Minorites,  hung  dea  Ho^tUu  Bambera  (Bamberg,  1797);  Ussermann, 

witb  5  priesto,  5  brothew^nd  3  noviow;  1  of  Brothers  ^XCS^?±!?SSS»^&3i'''A»..  Ba^'(^^ 

01  Chanty,    with   2   pnestS,    11    brothers,  and   three  embei«,  1806);  JXck,  Geschichte  der  Provim  Bambera, -1008^ 

novices.     The  archdiocese  contains  a  large  number  iSOS  (Bamberg,  1809-10);  Idem,  Besohreibunff  der  Bmiothek 

of  KnifOMi   rtf   +ho    fomiilA   nniarti   ft.nH    nnnmvunLtinna-  ^     Bamberg     (Nuremberg,     1831-35):     Idem.     Bambergtsche 

01  nouses  Ot   tne  female  Ora^S  ana  COnOT^tlone.  jahrbOcher  von  741  bU  ISSS  (Bamberg.  1829-34^;  von  Stkauss, 

17  bouses,    m    8    locahties,    of    the    English    Ladies  t>aa   Bistum   Bamberg   in    seinen   drei     wiehtiifHen    Epochen 

{EftgHsdie  Frdulein)  with  223  inmates;    13  houses  of  (Bamberg,  1823):  Emenmann.  GeoarapkUche  Beachreibung  dea 

thft  Pnnr  Qtf«)ino1J^iaf^rft    with  19^  inmkf^ti'  ^  hniioM  ^rtbutuma    Bamberg    (Bamberg,    1833):    JAFFfi,    Monumenta 

we  roOT  Scnool-aiSterS,  Wltn  IZd  inmates,  6  nouses  Bambergensia  (Berlin,  1869);  Weber.  OeachicfUe  der  geUhrten 

Of  the  Franciscan  Sisters,  with  11  inmates,  from  the  Schiden  m  HockeHft  Bamberg  1007-180S  (Bamberg,  1 880-81); 

IDOther-hoUfle  of  Maria-Stem  at  Augsburg;  8  houses  Idem,  Der  Kvchengeeang  im  Furtibiatum  Bamberg  (Cologne, 

ct^  Twtiary.  SiBters  of  St.  Franf  from  Maflers-  {|«i  j  '?^J^„VJlT ^A^^  ISS^"  ^l^^ 

ooff,  with  35  inmates;  8  houses  of  the  Franciscan  brought  down  to  1729  (1886-1906,  vola.  I-III.  Munich,  vol*. 

Asters,  from  the  convent  of  Dillingen  with  43  inmates;  ty-VI,  Bamberg);  Leist,  Bamberg  {Bamberg.  1889);  R6aEL, 

S  hnnoLo  /%f  fitcrfoMi  nf  Pltorifv  nf  St    Vin/»Ant  Ho  Poiif  Unter  dem  Krummaiab.  S  Jahrhunderte  Bamberger  OeachichU 

ddOUses  Of  Slffters  of  Cnantjr  Ol  at.  Vincent  ae  raul  /Bamberg,  1895);  Pfwter,  Der  Dom  «*  Bamberg  (Bamberg. 

Vltb  55  mmates:  17  houses  m  10  localities  contain-  1896):   Wroakt.   Die  Bamberger  Domakulpturen  (Strasbuift 


HAWATM  246  BAMDUU 

ISS^A  Wild,  SUM  undWirtMchc^t  in  d^  as* probable   the   salvation   of   unbaptized   infante 

und   Wiirzburg  (Heidelberg,    1904);   Schematmnus  der  Qt%^  u-.    *u^    ia\ih    of    fh«ir    narpnfji       Thp    iinniihIiRhA#1 

lichkeit  des  ErzbiBtunu  Bamberg  1906  (Bamberg,  1906):  JoK-  ^y    '^"®  Z^**^"    °»    J/}?*^    parents.      ine    llimuDUsned 

reabericht  Hber  Betiand  und   VTirkm  dea  Hutontehen  VaremM  manuscnpts     of      "Opus     integrum     de     Castltate  ' 

BtmAerg  (B«mbei«.  18—  to  1905).  64  vols.  and  "Opus  de  veritate  soHus  religionis  Christiana" 

Joseph  Limb.  Ymre  left  with  the  Dominicans  at  Avignon. 

Banauui  (A.  v.  Benaiah:  Kennok,  Banaiah;  Heb.  N&mmelaior.  II.  585;  Karchand,  L'universiu  d'AvMnum  aux 

Wi3,  also  n^iX"  Jehovah  hath  built  up"— Gesenius;  XVII  ei  XVIII  nicUs  {Pbtu^  1900),  19, 
Gr.    Bavalai,   BapcUa;    Lat.     Banaias,    Banaia),   the  ».  A.  Waldron. 

name  of  several  men  mentioned  in  the  Bible.    The        Bandello,  Matteo,  b.  at  Castelnuovo  di  Scrivia 

orthography  varies,  but  the  component  elements  of  in  Piedmont,  Italy,  in  1480;  d.  Bishop  of  Agen,  France, 

the  various  forms  are  the  same.  in  1565.    He  entered  the  Order  of  St.  Dominic;  but 

The  most  famous  of  all  who  bore  the  name  was  his  life  and  writings  bear  slight  trace  of  a  relidouschar- 
"the  son  of  Joiada,  the  priest" — ^''liie  most  valiant  acter(3  Vols.  Lyons,  1554  passim;  Vol.  IV  appeared 
among  the  thirty" — "captain  of  the  third  company  in  1573).  He  is  best  known  by  his  NaveUe^  214  in 
for  the  tlurd  month"  (I  Par,,  xxvii,  5, 6).  The  mean-  number.  These  tales  show  very  considerable  literary 
in^  of  the  text  is  not  clear;  he  seems  to  have  been  a  skill.  But  they  are  of  no  credit  to  the  churchman.  In 
pnest  and  one  of  the  principal  officers  at  court,  many  cases  they  are  perverse  descriptions  of  horrors 
^'Joiada,  the  son  of  Banaias"  (I  Par.,  xxvii,  34)  may  and  wickedness.  Many  of  them  were  translated  into 
be  a  false  reading,  in  which  the  names  have  been  English  by  Painter,  and  furnished  themes  to  the 
interchanged.  Banaias  is  credited  with  three  notable  drsSnatists  of  the  Elizabethan  period.  It  is  by  thb 
exploits  tnat  required  strength  and  courage:  (a)  He  means,  most  likely,  that  Shakespeare  learned  the 
killed  two  lions,  or  perhaps  brave  warriors  of  Moab  story  of  Romeo  and  Juliet.  The  storv  of  "Parisina" 
("two  lion-Uke  champions  of  Moab" — Gesenius,  s.  v.  told  by  Bandello  was  later  taken  up  By  Byron.  The 
^KHK;  in  Gr.  and  Lat.  the  Heb.  word  is  merely  trans-  best  edition  of  the  Novelle  is  that  of  Silvestri,  Milan, 
literated,  leaving  the  meaning  doubtful);  (b)  he  1813-14,  in  nine  volumes.  Some  of  them  are  con- 
descended into  a  pit  and  there  killed  a  lion;  (c)  he  tained  in  the  second  volume  of  the  "Tesoro  dei  Novd- 
also  vanquished  and  put  to  death  an  Egyptian  nero  lieri  Italiani",  Paris,  1847.    Some  were  translated  by 

of  extraordinaiy  size  and    great_ strength   ^I  K.,  Rqsooe,  in  "Italian  Novelists",  III,  (London,  1825). 

Landale. 

Remna- 

in 


The  D.  V.  describes  him  as  "the  first  among  the        BandinelU.    See  Albxander  III. 


but  the  Gr.  and  the  Lat.  versions  cause  confusion 
by  notable  variations.    The  A 
he  was  honourable  among  the 

not  to  the  first  three:  and  David  set  him  over  his  ^„„-  x„^^  ^r  ^u^  f„w,^.,a  t»^^^;«*;««  -«k^io«  m^«» 

guard"aChron.,xi,25).    This  is  from  the  Heb.,  but  quaintance  of  the  famous  Benedictme  scho^ 

Vard"  may  b^  questioned  (Gesenius  rendere  the  faueon,  then  traveUmg  m  Italy,  m  search  of  manu- 

wSrd  by  "a  Rearing,  audience 'V    "The  first  among  ?5"P*«  J^'"  his  edition  of  the    works  of    St     John 

thethirty"(D.V.)S  far  from  beingexact(Jo8.,AnU;  Chrysostom..   Bandun  rendered   him  valuable  ser- 

V  i   12^  vices    and    m   return  was  reconunended  to   Duke 

Banaias  supported  Solomon's  title  to  the  throne  9^?^  "J.  f  *  ^il^S^'  \'f"?*^  ^T  ^^f  p*^'  ""^it^^t 

against  the  aitoious  intrigues  of  Adonias  aH  K.,  T***^*^  ^^^.^'^w*;^^  ^'"'"'^"Aiy^  ^^^'^'L  ^*  Tff 

C32-38,  44),  whom,  by  Solomon's  command,  he  ^.s^Kested  tW  the  young  Benedictme  be  sent  to 

^terwar^  put  to  dekth^aH  K.,  ii,  25).     He  also  ^»«  ^^'  *  penod  of  oreparation   and  especially  to 

executed  Joab  and  succeeded  him  L  generalissimo  ^"^^  *  sound  cntical  sense.     Aiter  a  short  sojourn 

an  K     ii    34    35V  likewise  Semei  for  havinjr  dis>  ^^  Rome.   Bandun  arrived  at  Pans  m   1702  and 

SSred  ^lomtn  5i  K  !a^)^FV^me  Ra§bi^^  ^^^^^ered  tte  Abbey  of  Saint  Germain  des  Pnfe,  as  a 

literature,  see  Jei.  Enctjc.  s,  v.  P!?^''''^^^^  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany.     He  soon 

'  ^  TntTitf  T  TrvmnTw  became  an  apt  disciple  of  the  French  Maunsts  and 

JOHN  J.  iiERNBT.  y^^^  ^  edition  of  the  anti-iconocUstic  writings  of 

Bancel,  Louis,  b.  at  Valence,  1628;  d.  at  Avignon,  Nicephorus  of  Constantinople,  of  the  writings  of  Tlieo- 

1685.    When  very  young  he  entered  the  Dominican  dore  of  Mopsuestia,  and  of  other  Greek  ecclesiastical 

Order  at  Avignon.     Even  before  his  ordination  to  authors.   Bandun  never  published  these  works,  though 

the  priesthood  he  was  appointed  lector  of  philosophy,  as  late  as  1722  he  announced,  as  near  at  hand,  their 

He  afterwards   taught   theology   at  Avignon.    He  appearance  in  four  folio  volumes.     In  the  meantime, 

was  remarkable  for  his  subtle   intellect  and  pro-  he  was  attracted  bv  the  rich  treasures  of  Byzantine 

digious  memory.     He  was  the  first  to  receive  the  manuscript  and  otner  material  in  the  Bibliotb^ue 

appointment  to  the  chair  of  theology  in  the  Uni-  Royale  and  the  Biblioth^ue  Colbert.     In  1711  he 

versity   of   Avignon    (1654).    This   chair   he   held  published  at  Paris  his  "Imperium  Orientale,  sive 

till  his  death.     He  was  elected  several  times  Dean  Antiquitates    Constantinopohtanse",  etc.,    a    docu- 

of  the  Theological  Faculty  and  always  presided  at  mentary  illustrated  work  on  the  Byxantine  Emoire, 

the  public  defence  of  the  theses  of  the  candidates  based  on  medieval  Greek  manuscripts,  some  of  wnich 

for    academical    decrees.     He    was    also    Shmodal  were  then  first  made  known.    He  also  defended 

Examiner  of  the  Diocese  of  Avignon,  and  Prefect  himself  successfully  against  Casimir  Oudin,  an  ex- 

of  the  Avignon  legation.     He  wrote:  "Moralis  D.  Premonstratensian,  i^ose  attacks  were  made  on  a 

Thomse,  Doctoris  Angelici  ex  omnibus  ipsius  operibus  second-hand  knowledge  of  Banduri's  work.     In  1718 

deprompta"   (Avignon,  1677;    Venice,  1723,  1757,  he  published,  also  at  raris,  two  iciio  volumes  on  the 

1758, 1780);  and  "Brevis  universse  theologise  cursus"  imperial  coinage  from  Trajan  to  the  last  of   the 

(Avignon,    1684-92).    As    the    author    died    while  Palsologi     (98-1453),    "Numismata    Imperatorum 

the  third  volume  was  in  press,  the  editing  of  the  Romanorum  a  Trajano  Decio  usque  ad  FalsBologofl 

work  was  finished  by  Joseph  Patin,  O.  P.     From  Augustos"    (supplement   by  Tanini,   Rome,   1791), 

the  last  tome  was  expunged  a  thesis  maintaining  Of  this  Work  Father  Eckhel,  S.J.,  prince  of  numi» 


247  BAihBZ 

matologists,  says    (Doctrina   Niimmorum   I,   cviii)  who  is  the  person  with  whom  she  has  had,  and  stiU 

that  it  contains  few  important  contributions.    At  has,    the    most    frequent    communications. '^      (See 

the  same  time  he  praises  tne  remarkable  bil^ogpraphv  ''Life  of  St.  Teresa  of  Jesus,  by  herself",  tr.  by  David 

of  the  subject  that  Banduri  prefixed  to  this  wons  Lewis,  3d  ed.,  London,  1904,  Kelation  VII,  448,  450.) 

under  the  title  of  "  Bibliotheca  munmaria  sive  auo-  Of  the  ^rst  foundation  of  the  reform,  St.  Joseph's 

tonim  qui  de  re  nummaria  scripsenmt",  reprinted  Monastery  at  Avila,  she  wrote  that  Bafiez  alone 

l^  Fabricius  (Hamburg,  1719).      In  1715  Banduri  saved  it  from  the  destruction  resolved  upon  in  an 

was  made  an  honorary  lorei^  member  of  the  Aca-  assembler  of  civil  and  relij^ous  authorities  (op.  cit., 

demy  of  Inscriptions,  and  m  1724  was  appointed  ch.  xxxvi,  336  sqq.).    He  did  not  then  know  the  saint, 

Ubrarian  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans;  he  had  m  vain  but  ''from  that  time  forth  he  was  one  of  her  most 

solicited  a  similar  office  at  Florence  on  the  death  faithful  friends,  strict  and  even  severe,  as  became  a 

of  the  famous  Magliabecchi.  wise  director  who  had  a  great  saint  for  his  penitent.'' 

FRiRET  in  Mhn,  de  Vacad,  des  trwcr.  et  beOet  leOree,  XVI,  He  testifies,  in  the  process  of  her  beatification,  that 

^'  Mattb,/^«  TbT  YTAaoiMvn  ^  was  firm  and  sharp  with  her,  while  she  herself  was 

MAURICE  m.  nA88BfiT.  ^j^^  ^^^^  desirous  of  his  counsel  the  more  he  humbled 

Banes  (originally  and  more  properly  VAf^EZ  and  her,  and  the  less  he  seemed  to  esteem  her  (op.  cit.,  p. 

sometimes,  but   erroneously,  IbaS^ie),  DoinNao,  a  xxxvi).    He  looked  for  the  proof  of  her  love  of  God 

Spanish    Dominican    theologian,    b.    29    February,  in  her  truthfulness,   obedience,   mortification,   pa- 

1528,  at  Medina  del  Oampo,  Old  Castile;  d.  thdre  ti^ice,  and  charity  towards  her  persecutors,  while 

22  October,  1604.    The  qualifying  MondmgonensiSf  he  avowed  that  -no  one  was  more  incredulous  thjvn 

attached  to  his  name,  seems  to  be  a  patronynaic  after  himself  as  to  her  visions  and  revelations.    In  this  his 

his  father,  John  B^ez  of  Mondragon,  (iuipuscoa.  mastery  of  the  spiritual  life  was  shown  to  be  as  scien- 

At  fifteen  he  began  to  study  philosophy  at  tne  Uni-  tific  as  it  was  wholesome  and  practical.     ''It  was 

verBity  of  Salamanca.    Three  years  later  he  took  the  easy  enough  to  praise  the  writings  of  St.  Teresa  and 

Dominican   habit   at   St.    Stephen's  Convent,   and  to  admit  ner  sanctity  after  her  death.     Fra  Bafiez 

made  his  profession  3  May,  1547.    During  a  year's  had  no  external  help  in  the  applause  of  the  many, 

review  of  the  liberal  arts  and  later,  he  had  the  af-  and  he  had  to  judge  ner  book  as  a  theologian  and  the 

terwards   distinguished    Bartolom^    Medina    as    a  saint  as  one  of  his  ordinary  penitents.     When  he 

fellow  student.    Under  such  professors  as  Melchior  wrote,  he  wrote  like  a  man  whose  whole  life  was 

Oano  (154^51),  Diego  de  Chaves  (1551),  and  Pedro  spent,  as  he  himself  tells  us,  in  lecturing  and  disput- 

Sotomayor   (1550-51)   he  studied  theology,  laying  ing"  (ibid.). 

the  foundations  of  the  erudition  and  acquiring  the        As   the   schoolman,  the   lecturer,  and   academic 

acumen  which  later  made  him  eminent  as  a  theo-  disputant,  Bafies  stands  forth  as  a  figure  of  unprece- 

logian  and  an  exponent  and  defender  of  Thomistio  dented  distinction  in  scholastic  Spam.    In  his  time 

dMrtrine.    He  next  began  teaching,  and  under  Domin-  discussion    was    rife,    and    disquieting    tendencies 

go  Soto,  a^  prior  and  regent,  he  held  various  profe»-  counter  to  the  beaten  paths  of  Augustine  and  Thomas 

sorships  for  ten  years.    He  was  made  master  of  stu-  manifested    themselves.      The    great    controversy, 

dents,  explaining   the   ''Summa*'   to   the  ^oimffer  with  whose  beginnings  his  name  is  prominently  asso- 

brethren  for  five  years,  and  incidentally  taxing  me  oiated,  goes  b^k  to  a  public  disputation  held  early 

l^icCf  with  marked  success,  of  professors  who  were  in  1582.    Francisco  Zumel,  of  the  Order  of  Mer(^,  was 

sick,  or  who  for  other  reasons  were  absent  from  their  moderator.     Prudentius  Montemayor,  a  Jesmt,  ar- 

chairs  at  the  university.     In  the  customary,  some-  gued   that  Christ   did  not  che  freely,  and  conse- 

times  competitive,  examinations  befOTe  advancement,  quently  suffered  death  without  merit,  if  the  Father 

he  is  said  easily  to  have  carried  off  all  honours.    He  had  given  him  a  command  to  die.    Bafiez  asked  what 

taught  at  the  Dominican  University  of  Avila  from  the  consequences  would  have  been  if  the  Father  had 

1561  to  1566.    About  1567  he  was  assigned  to  a  chair  given  command  not  only  as  to  the  substance  of  the 

of  theology  at  Alcald,  the  ancient  dJoinplutimi.    It  act  of  death,  but  alno  as  to  its  circtunstances.    Pru- 

appears  that  he  was  at  Salamanca  again  m  1572  and  dentius  responded  that  in  that  case  there  remained 

1573,  but  during  the  four  scholastic  jears  1573-77  neither  Ubeorty  nor  merit.    Louis  de  Leon,  an  Augus- 

he  was  rj^nt  of  St.  Gre^ry's  Domimcan  College  at  tinian,   sided   with   Prudentius  and   presently   ihe 

Valladolid,  a  house  of  higher  studies  where  the  best  discussion  was  taken  up  by  the  masters  in  attendance 

students  of  the  Castilian  province  wereprepared  for  a  and  carried  to  the  kindred  subjects  of  predestination 

scholastic  career.     Elected  Prior  of  Toro,  he  went  and  justification.    Other  formal  disputations  ensued, 

instead  to  Salamanca  to  compete  for  the  chair  of  and  strong  feeling  was  manifested.  Juan  de  Santa 

Durandus,  left  vacant  l^  Medina's  promotion  to  the  Crux,  a  nieronvmitej  felt  constrained  to  refer  the 

chief  professorship.    He  occupied  this  position  from  matter  to  the  Inquisition  (5  February),  and  to  his 

1577  to  1580.    After  Medina^s  death  (30  December,  deposition  he  appended  sixteen  propositions  covering 

1580)  he  appeared  a^jgain  as  competitor  for  the  first  the  doctrines  in  controversy.    Leon  declared  that  he 

chair  of  the  university.    The  outcome  was  an  aca^  had  only  defended  the  theses  for  the  sake  of  argu- 

demic  triumph  for  Bafiez.  and  he  was  duly  installed  ment.    His  chief  thought  was  to  prevent  them  from 

in  his  new  position  amid  the  acclamations  of  prcH  being  qualified  as  heretical.    Noti^ithstanding  these 

feasors  and  students.    There  he  laboured  for  nearly  and  further  admissions,  he  was  forbidden  to  teach, 

twenty  years.     His  name  acquired  extraordinary  publicly  or  privately,  the  sixteen  propositions  as 

authority,  and  the  leading  schools  of  orthodox  Spain  reviewed  and  proscribed. 

referred  to  him  as  the  prcedarissimum  jvbar — ^^the        In  1588,  Luis  Molina,  a  Jesuit,  brought  out,  at 

brightest  light"— of  their  country.  '  Lisbon,  his  celebrated  "Concordia  liberi  arbitrii  cum 

Id  another  way,  Bailes  in  his  prime  was  rendering  gratise  donis",  bearing  the  oensurOf  or  sanction,  of  a 

inanoraUe  service  to  the  (I)hurch  as  director  and  con*  Dominican^  Bartolomeu  Ferreiro,  and  dedicated  to 

fesBor  of  St.  Teresa  (1515-82).    Her  own  words  mark  the  Inquisitor  General  of  Portugal,  Cardinal  Albert 

him  as  the  spiritual  adviser  who  was  most  rehed  upon  of  Austria;  but  a  sentiment  against  its  appearance  in 

u  a  guide  and  helper,  both  in  her  interior  life  and  in  Spain  was  aroused  on  the  ground  of  its  favouring 

her  heroic  work  of  tne  Carmelite  reform.    "To  liie  some  of  the  interdicted  propositions.    The  cardinal, 

Father  Master  Fra  Dominic  BafLes,  who  is  now  in  advised  of  this,  stopped  its  sale,  and  requested  Bafiez 

ValladoKd  aS  Rector  of  the  College  of  St.  Gregor^r,  I  and  probably  some  others  to  examine  it.     Three 

confessed  for  six  yesrs,  and,  whenever  I  had  occasion  montns  later,  Bafiez  gave  his  opinion  that  six  of  the 

to  do  80,  communicatea  with  him  by  letter.  ...    All  forbidden  propositions  appeared  in  the  "  Concordia '^ 

^t  is  written  and  told,  she  communicated  to  him,  Molina  was  asked  to  defend  himself,  and  his  answers 


n 


BANEZ  248  BAHIZ 

to  the  objections  and  to  some  other  observations  were  ularly  if  it  claimed  the  sanction  of  St.  Thoraas's 
added  as  an  appendix,  with  which,  sanctioned  anew  name.    In  the  voiuminoiffi  literature  on  the  De  Aux- 
(25  and  30  August,  1589),  the  work  was  permitted  iliis  a^d  related  controversies,  the  cardinal  tenets  o{ 
t6  circulate.     It  was  regarded  as  an  epocn-making  Tfaomism  are  ascribed  by  its  opponents  to  a  varied 
study,  and  many  Fathers  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  origin.     The  Rev.  G.  Schneeman,  S.  J.,  (Controver- 
rallied  to  its  defencd.     From  Valiadolid,  where  the  siarum  de  divins  gratise  liberique  arbitrii  Concordia 
Jesuit  and  Dominican  schools  in  1594  held  alternate  imtia et  progressus,  Freiburg  iin  Br.,  1881),  the  Rev. 
public  disputations  for  and  against  its  teaching  on  Father  DeRegnon,  S.J.  (Bailez  et  Molina,  raris,  1883) 
grace,  the  contention  spread  over  all  Spain.    The  in-  and  the  Rev.  Father  Baudier,  S.  J.  (in  the  Revue  des 
tervention  of  the  Inquisition  was  again  sought,  and  by  Sciences  Ecd^siastiques,  Amiens,  1887,  p.  153)   are 
the  authority  of  this  high  tribunal  the  liti^nts  were  probably  the  foremost  modem  writers  wno  designate 
required  to  present  their  respective  positions  and  the  Thomists  as  Banuesians.    But  against  them  ap- 
claims,  and  a  number  of  universities,  prelates,  and  pears  a  formidable  list  of  Jesuits  of  repute  who  were 
theologians  were  consulted  as  to  the  merits  of  the  either  Thomists  themselves  or  authonties  for  other 
strife.    The  matter  was  referred  however,  by  the  opinions.     Suarez,  for  instance  (Op.  omn.,  XI,  ed. 
papal  nuncio  to  Rome,  15  August,  1594,  and  all  di&-  Yives,  Paris,  1886;  Opusc,  I,  Lib.  Ill,  De  Auxiliis, 
pute  was  to  cease  until  a  decision  w*as  rendered.     In  vii),  credits  Medina  with  the  first  intimations  of 
the  meantime,  to  offset  his  Dominican  and  other  crit-  phyBical  premotion  and  elsewhere  (Op.  omn.,  XI,  50; 
ics,  Molina  brought  counter  accusations  against  Bafiez  Opusc.  I,  Lib.  I,  De  Cone.  Dei,  xi,  n**  6)  admits  that 
and  Zumel.    The  latter  submitted  his  defence  in  three  St.  Thomas  himself  once  taught  it.    Toletus  (Com- 
parts, all  fully  endorsed  by  Bafiez,  7  July,  1595.    The  ment.  in  8  Lib.  Aristotelis,  Venice,  1573,  Lib.  II, 
Dominican  position  was  set  forth  about  the  same  time  c.  iii,  q.  8)  and  Pererius  (Pref .  to  Disqulsit.  Magicarum, 
by  Bafiez  and  seven  of  his  brethren,  each  of  whom  Lib.  VI,  I  Ed.)  considered  as  Thomistic  the  Cate- 
presented  a  separate  answer  to  the  charges.    But  the  chinn  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  which  was  the  work 
presiding   officer  of   the   Inquisition   desired   these  (1566)  of  three  Dominican  theologians.    [For  Delrio 
eight  b5)ks  to  be  reduced  to  one,  and  Bafiez,  to-  see  Goudin,  Philosophia  (Civita  Vecchia,  1860),  IV, 
pether  with  Pedro  Herrera  and  Didacus  Alvarez,  was  pt.  IV,  392,  Disp.  2,  q.  3,  §  2.]   The  Rev.  Victor  Frins, 
instructed  to  do  the  work.    About  four  months  later,  S.  J.,  gives  it  as  his  opinion  (S.  Thomae  Aq.,  O.  P.  doc- 
AJvarez  presented  their  joint  product  under  the  title:  trina  de  Cooperatione  Dei  cum  omni  natur&  create 
"Apologia  fratrum  prsedicatorum  in  provinciA  His-  prsesertim  liberft;  Responsio  ad  R.  P.  Dummermuth, 
panise  sacrse  theologise  professorum,  adversus  novas  O.  P.,  Paris,  1893)  that  whilst  Medina  and  Pedro  Soto 
quasdam    assertiones    cuiusdam    doctoris    Ludovici  (1551)  taught  physical  predetermination,  the  origi- 
Molinse  nuncupati",  published  at  Madrid,  20    No-  nator  of  the  theory  was  Francis  Victoria,  O.  P.  {d, 
vember,  1595.    It  is  noteworthy  that  this  worit  was  1546).    The  Dominicans  Ferrariensis  (1576),  Cajetan 
signed  and  ratified  by  twenty-two  masters  and  pro-  (1507),  and  Giovanni  Capreolus  (d.  1436)  are  also  ae- 
fessors  of  theology.    To  it  was  added  a  tract  on  the  credited  Thomists  in  the  estimation  of  such  authori- 
intrinsic  efl&cacy  of  Divine  grace.    Nearly  two  years  ties  as  the  Jesuits  Becanus  [Sunmm  Theol.  Schol. 
later,  28  October,  1597,  Bafiez  resumed  the  case  in  a  (Mainz,  1612),  De  Deo,  xviii,  no  141  and  Azorius 
new  smnmary  and  petitioned  the  pope  to  jpermit  the  [Institut.  Moral.  (Rome,  1600-11),  Lib.  I,  xxi,  §  71, 
Dominican  schools  to  take  up  their  teaching  again  and  the  theologians  of  Coimbra   (Comment,    in  8 
on  the  disputed  questions.    This  was  the  "LibSlus  libros  Phys.,  Lib.  II,  q.  13,  a.  1).    Molina,  strangely 
supplex  Clemen ti  VIII  oblatus  pro  impetrandd  im-  enough,  cites  the  doctrine  of  a  "certain  disciple  of 
munitate  a  l^e  silentii  utrique  litigantium  parii  im-  St.  Thomas" — supposedly  Bafiez — as  differing  only 
posits ",  published  at  Salamanca.    An  answer  to  the  in  words  from  the  teaching  of  Scotus,  instead  of 
"Libellus"   was  conveyed  in  a  letter  of  Cardinal  agreeing  with  that  of  Aqumas  [Concordia    (Paris, 
Madruzzi,  25  February,  1598,  written  in  the  name  1876),  q,  14,  a.  13,  Disp.  50].    These  striking  dive - 
of  the  pope,  to  the  nuncio  in  Spain:    "Inform  the  gences  of  opinion  of  which  only  a  few  have  been  cited 
Fathers  of  tne  Order  of  Preachers  that  His  Holiness,  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  attempt  to  father 
moderating  the  prohibition  that  was  made,  grants  the  Thomistic  system  on   Bafiez  has  failed.     [Of. 
them  the  mculty  freely  to  teach  and  discuss,  as  they  Defensio  Doctrine  S.  Thom»,  A.  M.  Diunmermuth, 
did  in  the  past,  the  subject-matter  de  auxUiU  div^  O.P.,  Louvain  and  Paris,  1895,  also  Caxd.  Zigliara, 
iwB  graUce  et  eorum  effiaicid.  conformably  to  the  doc-  Smnma  Phil.  (Paris,  1898),  II,  525.] 
trine  of  St.  Thomas;  and  likewise  the  Fathers  of  the        The  development  of  Thomistic  terminology  in  the 
Society,  that  they  also  may  teach  and  discuss  the  Dominican  scnool  was  mainly  due  to  the  exigencies 
same  subject-matter,  always  holding,  however,  to  not  only  of  the  stand  taken  against  Molina  and  the 
sound  Catholic  doctrine".      (Serry,  Hist.  Con^.  de  forbidden  propositions  already  mentioned,    but   of 
Aux.,  I,  XXVI.)   This  pronoimcement  practically  the  more  miportant  defence  against  the  attacks  and 
ended  whatever  personal  participation  Bafiez  had  in  abeirations  of  the  Reformers.    The  ''predetermina- 
the  famous  controversy.  tion"  and  "predefinition*'  of  Bafiez  and  his  contem- 
It  has  been  contended  that  Bafiez  was  at  least  poraries,  who  included  others  besides  Dominicans, 
virtually  the  founder  of  present-day  Thomism,  es-  em^^asized,  on  the  part  of  Ood's  knowledge  and 
pecialljr  in  so  far  as  it  includes  the  theories  of  physical  providence,  a    priority    to,  and    independence    oi , 
premotion,  the  intrinsic  efficacy  of  grace,  ana  pre-  future  free  acts,  which,  in  the  Cathaimo-Molinistic 
destination  irrespective  of  foreseen  merit.    To  any  theories,  seemed  to  th^  less  clearly  to  fall  under 
r^uler  of  Bafiez  it  is  evident  that  he  would  have  met  God's  causal  action.    These  terms,  however^  are  used 
such  a  declaration  with  a  strenuous  denial.    Fidelity  by  St.  Thomas  himself.    (Comment,  de  divinis  no- 
to  St.  Thomas  was  his  strongest  characteristic.    "By  minibus,  Lect.  iii.)    The  words  "physical  premotion" 
not  so  much  as  a  finger-nail^  breadth,  even  in  lesser  were  meant  to  exclude,  first  a  merely  moral  impulse 
things",  he  was  wont  to  say,  "have  I  ever  departed  and,  secondly,  a  concurrence  of  the  Divine  causality 
from  the  teaching  of  St.  Tnomas".    He  singles  out  and  free  will,  without  the  latter's  subordination  to 
for  special  animadversion  the  views  in  which  his  pro-  the  First  Clause.    That  such  terms,  far  from  doing 
fessors  and  associates  dissent  even  lightly  from  the  violence  to  the  teachings  of  their  great  leader,  are 
opinions  of  the  Angelic  Doctor.    "In  and  throughout  their  true  expression,  has,  of  course,  be^i  an  unvaried 
all  things,  I  determined  to  follow  St.  Thomas,  as  he  tenet  of  the  Thomistic  school.    One  of  the  presiding 
followed  the  Fathers",  was  another  of  his  favourite  officers  of  the  Congr^ation  De  Auxiliis,  CardinflJ 
assurances.     His  zeal  for  the  integrity  of  Thomistic  Madnizzi,  speaking  of  Safiez  in  this  oonnexion,  said: 
teaching  could  brook  no  doctrinal  novelty,  partio*  "Hia  teachmg  seems  to  be  daduced  from  the  prind- 


BANGALORE  249  BAKGOR 

Djes  of  St.  Thomas  and  to  flow  wholly  from  St.  thence  to  Bobbio.   not,  however,  in    the    time  of 
Thomas's  doctrine,  although  he  differs  somewhat  in  St.  Columbanus.    There  is  in  the  codex  a  hymn  en- 
hismodc  of  speaking"  (Serry,  Hist.  Cong,  de  Aux.,  titled  **ymnum  sandi  Congilli  abbaiis  noatri",  and 
appendix,  col.  89).    It  seems  but  fair  to  tne  memory  he  is  referred  to  in  it  as  "nostn  patroni  ComgiUi 
oiBafiez  that  this  opinion  should  ultimately  prevail,  sandi**.    Again  there  is  a  list  of  fifteen  abbots,  be- 
As  a  writer,  Bafiez  is  clear,  direct  and  vigorous,  ginning    with   Comgal  and  ending  with  Gronanus 
Occasionally  prolix,  he  is  never  dull  or  inane.     He  who  died  in  691;  the  date  of  the  compilation,  there- 
treats  a  subject  lengthily  only  when  it  is  highly  im-  fore,  may  be  referred  to  680-691.     Mura tori,  however, 
portant  or  manifestly  useful.     His  thought  is  gen-  is  careful  to  state  in  Iiis  preface  that  the  codex, 
erally  lucidity  itself  in  his  pithiest  scholastic  con-  though  very  old.  and  in  part  mutilated,  may  have 
densations,  nor  is  it  less  perspicuous  when  he  adopts  been  a  copy  made  at  Bobbio,  by  some  of  the  local 
a  freer  and  more  elegant  style  in  behalf  of  a  wider  moiJcs  there,  from  the  original  service  book.    It  is 
range  of  readers.    Of  copious  erudition,  he  was  also  written,  as  r^rds  the  orthography,  the  form  of  the 
keen  in  logic  and  profoundly  versed  in  metaphysics,  letters,  and  tne  dotted  ornamentation  of  the  capital 
surpassing,  in  this  respect,  the  able^  of  his  con-  letters,  in  "  the  Scottic  style ",  but  this,  of  course, 
temporaries.      He  evidenced   a   broad-minded  and  may  have  been  done  by  Gaelic  monks  at  Bobbio. 
progressive  spirit  in  placing,  at  no  little  expense,  a  The  actual  bearer  of  the  codex  from  Bangor  is  gen- 
fully  equipped  printing  establishment  in  the  convent  erally  supposed  and  stated  to  have  been  St.  Dungal, 
of  St.  Stephen,  and  in  employing  for  its  successful  who  left  Ireland  early  in  the  ninth  century,  acquired 
operation  the  best  craftsmen  that  were  then  to  be  great  celebrity  on  the  Continent,  and  probably  retired 
bod.   The  list  of  his  works  is  completed  as  follows:  to  Bobbio  towards  the  close  of  his  life.     He  be- 
(I)  "Scholastica  conimentaria  in    !■"»   partem   an-  G[ueathed  his  books  to  "the  blessed  Columbanus  ", 
geJici  doctoris  D.  Thoma3  usque  ad  64  qu. ",  fol.  SaJa-  i.  e.,  to  his  monastery  at  Bobbio.    The  antiphonarv, 
manca,  1584;  Venice,  1585,  1602;  Douai,  1614;  (2)  however,  cannot  be  identified  with  any  of  the  boots 
"Scholastica  commcntaria  super  csDteras  I"*  partis  named  in  the  catalogue  of  the  books  bequeathed  by 
quastiones",  fol.  Salamanca,  1688;  (3)  "Scholastica  Dungal,  as  given  by  Mui:atori  (Antiquitatis  Italics 
commentaria   in   II»™   II",  quibus  c(U8B   ad   fidem,  Medu  ^Evi,  Milan,  1740,  III,  817-824).     Here  only  a 
spem  et  charitatem  spectant,  clarissime  explicantur  summary  can  be  given  of  the  contents  of  the  coaex 
usque  ad  quaest.  XLVI",  fol.  Salamanca,  1684;  Ven-  to  which  the  name  of  "Antiphonary  "  will  be  found 
ice,  1586;     (4)  "Scholastica   commentaria  in   II»™  to  be  not  very  applicable:  (1)  six  canticles;  (2)  twelve 
II'*  a  quaest.  LVII  ad  LXXVII  de  jure  et  justitia  metrical  hymns;  (3)  sixty-nine  collects  for  use  at  the 
decisiones",  fol.  Salamanca,  1594;  1604,  Venice,  1595;  canonical  hours;   (4)  special  collects;    (5)    seventy 
Cologne  and  Douai,  1615;  (5)  "Relectio  de  merito  et  anthems,  or  versides;  (p)  the  Creed;  (7)  the  Pater  , 
augmento  charitatis  anno  MDLXXXIX  Salamanticse  Noster.    The  most  famous  item  in  the  contents  is  the 
in  vigilia  pentecostes  solemniter  pronunciata ",  Sala-  venerable  Eucharistic  hymn  "  Sancti  venite  Christi 
manca,  1590, 1627;  (6)  "Commentaria  in  qusestiones  corpus  sumite  ",  which  is  not  found  in  any  other 
Aristotelis  de  eeneratione  et  corruptione*',  fol.  Sala-  ancient  text.     It  was  sung  at  the  Communion  of  the 
manca,  1585;  Venice^  1596;  Coloene,  1614;  (7)  "In-  clergy  and  is  headed,  "  Ymnum  quando  comonicarent 
stitutiones  minoris  dialectics  andf  In  Aristotelis  dia-  sacerdotes  *\    A  text  of  the  hymn  from  the  old  MS. 

line  and  Constitution  of  the 

166)  by  Cardinal  Moran,  who 

contra  una  relaci6n  compuesta  por  los  padres'  de  la  refero  to  it  as  that  "golden  fragment  of  our  ancient 

eompafiiade  Jesus  deValladolid',  Medina  del  Campo,  Irish  Liturgy  ".      The  Creed  in  this  codex  differs  in 

1602,  MS.,  Dominican  Library,  Avila.  its  wordingfrom  all  other  forms  known  to  exist.    It 

Ba^ez.  aut^jiograpfw  in  preface  to  Comment,  in  /««  P..  jg  jq  substance  the  original  Creed  of  Nicaea.     It  does 

m^)':ird,t^o^^'SZl  ^ZZ^S'i^J.  V^?;  not  contain  the  ««  Poire  Filioque  ^ccedU.  but  merely 

ie  s.  Dominuju-.  (Paris,  1743^  IV,  750;  Mandonnet  in  Diet.  States  the  homoauna  of  the  three  Persons  of  the  Holy 

^  thiol,  cath.  (Paris,  1003),  Fasc.  X,  col.   140;   Moroott  in  TnnitV. 

^S*^**-  ^y  **^-  J""**^'.  ^^2),  I,  8.  v.,^2/if;  Smey  WARisN.  The  Antiphonary  of  Banacr:  an  Early  Irieh  MS, 

r^S^^^^^r^^  aimfiw  (Venice,  1 740Y  Meykr.  HvU.  (^  complete  facsimile  m  coUotype.  witfi  a  transcription.  London, 

nS2S.^^;i:^   t  Tte*"^    ?■  n^  J'^^iKf    ^\?"?'  z»F^^'  1§93);  Idem,  Liturgy  and  Ritual  of  the  KeUic  Church  (Oxford, 

fp.S*^S2T^"  n  Vr?f^T?  Dottrvna  Prmnotumu  Physxcm  igg, )  1 87-194 rMT^RATORt.  Anecdota  AmbronanaAn  Opera 

\^:  «??5I^  Oatraud.  Th^xmne  et  MohnunM  (Toulouse,  Omnia  (Areao.  1770),  II,  part  iii.  217;  P.  L.,  LXkll.  679: 

1889);  Berthier  m  Revue  ThomieU  for  1893.  87;  Rbgnon,  Rrpvrr   TJUt  Joum.  Arckti^   I   lfi8 

B^me^nvnne  et  Molinieme  (Paris,  1890);  Gayraud,  Ripliqui  ^=^«»»  ^«-  •'*»*^  Archcol.,  1,  16»- 

tuR.P,  Th.de  Regnan  (Toiilouse,  1890).  ARTHUR  U  A  ULERIGH. 

John  R,.  Volz.  Bangror    (Banqorium,   Bangoriensis),   Diocese 

^  «     »,  0'»  anciently  known  as  Bangor  Vawr,  situated  in 

Banfiralore.  See  Mysore.  Carnarvonshire  on  the  Menai  Straits,  must  be  dis- 

BangoT,  Antiphonary  of,  an  ancient  Latin  manu*  tinguished  from  Bangor  Iscoed  also  in  Wales,  and 

script,  siinposed  to  have  been  originally  written  at  the  celebrated  Irish  monastery  of  Bangor  in  County 

Bangor  (Ireland).  Down.     The  foundation  of  the  see  is  traditionally 

The  codex,  found  by  Muratori  in  the  Ambrosian  ascribed  to  St.   Daniel  or  Deiniol    (d.   584?)   who 

Library  at  Milan,  and  named  bjr  him  the  "  Antipho-  is  stated  to  have  been  consecrated  by  St.  Dubri- 

naiy  of  Bangor"  ("Antiphonarium  Benchorense"),  cius,   or,   according  to   others,   St.    David.     Some 

^»w  brought  to  Milan  from  Bobbio  with  many  other  writers  place  his  oeath  in  544,  others  in  564,  while 

hooks  by  Cardinal    Federigo    Borromeo    when   he  the   tenth   century   "Annales  Cambrise"   assign  it 

foimded  the  Ambrosian  Library  in  1609.     Bobbio,  to  584.     Yet  even  this  date  is  regarded  by  recent 

which  is  situated    in    a    gorge    of    the    Apennines  research  as  too  early.     We  may,   perhaps,  safely 

thirty-aeven  miles  north-east  of  Genoa,  was  founded  ascribe  the  foundation  of  the  see  to  the  close  of 

hv  St.  Columbanus,  a  disciple  of  St.  Comgal,  founder  the  sixth  century.     The  history  of  the  diocese  be- 

<»  the  great    monastery  at  Bangor  on  the  south  fore  the  Norman  Con<][uest  is  so  obscure  that  Godwin 

side  of  Belfast  Lough  in  the  county  of  Down.     St.  (De  prsBSulibus  Anglise,  1743)  does  not  allow  that 

Cdumbanus  died  at  Bobbio  and  was  buried  there  in  there  were  any  bishops  at  all  before  the  coming  of 

61S.    This  establishes  at  once  a  connexion  between  the  Normans. 

Bobbio  and  Bangor,  and  an  examination  of  the  con-        In  1092  Hervey,  a  cleric  in  the  court  of  William 

tente  of  the  codex  placed  it  beyond  all  doubt  that  Rufus,  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Bangor  and  in 

H  W88  originally  compiled  in  Bangor  and  brought  the  same  year  was  preKcnt  in  that  capacity  at  thB 


council  held  hy  St.  Anselm  at  Westminster,  beiiiK    hutormn  of  the  Welsh  cathedrals.    Bulkeley  died 
the  first  Welsh  bisiiop  to  attend  &n  F.ngliiili  eouociT    in    1553,    Bud    was    succeeded    bf    William   Glynn 
His  rule  was  not  successful,  for  difficulties  arose    (1553-58)  the  last  Catholic  bishop. 
nvinstohispeoplereflenting  the  coming  of  a  stranger        Since   the   Refonnation   the   cathedral   has  coo. 

±  -t  .L—  1 — . — J  -1 .._      tinued   to   serve    the   Anglican   biahops   in    its  old 

capacity,  while  also  doiog  duty  as  the  parish  church 
of  the  town.  It  is  the  unaUest  and  humblest  ol 
all  the  cathedrals  in  England  or  Wales,  beioi  an 
nnbattled  cruciform  structure  resembling  a  good- 
sised  parish  church.  The  diocese  consisted  of  the 
whole  of  Angleeca  and  Carnarvonshire,  with  tbe 
greater  part  of  Merionethshire  and  some  parishes 
in  the  counties  Denbigh  and  Montgomery.  There 
were  three  archdeaconries,  Bangor.  Anelesea,  and 
Merioneth,  The  arms  of  tbe  see  were  gules,  a  bend, 
or  Kutty  de  poii  between  two  mullets,  argent. 

Walcott,  Slmoriali  d/  Banear  (1S60I;  Willih,  Siutes  d 
BanBor  [iKl);  Godwin,  lit  pmtultbia  Anglvr  (1743);  Wihkli. 
CaAtdrat  CAurcAu  at  Snoland  and  Waita  (London,  18001,  III, 
1G8:  DieL  NaL  Biog.,  a.  r.  Xtonwl,  Htnry,  Damt.  Sktvl»3<m. 
BuOtUti. 

Edwin  Bchtom, 


Baaitor,  HERum  or.    See  Couoall,  St. 
BMigor  Abbey.— ^The  name  of  two  famous  n 
astic  establishments  in  Ireland  and  Wales. 


in  the  assertion  of  his  rights,  with  the  result  tkat         (t)  The  Irish  Abbey  of  Bangor  was  situated  in 

bloodshed  ensued,  and  he  finally  had  to  take  refuge  the  County  Down,  on  the  southern  shore  of  Belfast 

in   England,   where   he   was   translated   to   the   See  Lough.     Sometiraefl  the  name  was  written  "  Beanit- 

of  Ely  in  1108.    The  cathedral  had  been  destroyed  chor  ,  from  the  Irish  word  beann,  a  horn.    Ac- 

by  the  Normans  in  1071,  but  was  BubBBquently  re-  cording   to   Keating,   a  king  of   Leinster  once  had 

built,  though  no  trace  of  Norman  work  remains  in  cattle  killed  there,  the  horns  being  scattered  round, 

the  present  structure.    Anlan  b367-1305),  who,  as  hence  the  name.    The  place  was  also  called  the 

Bishop   of   Bangor,   baptized   Edward   il   took   the  Vale  of  Angels,  because,  says  Jocclin,  St.    Patrick 

chief  part  in  rebuilding  the  cathedral.    He  also  drew  once  rested  there  and  saw  the  valley  filled  with 

up  the   "Missale  in   usum   Ecclesite   Banchoreoais"  angels.     The  founder  of  the  abbey  was  St.  Comgall, 

and  the  "Pontifical"  which  represent  the  liturclcal  bom  in  Antrim  in  517,  and  educated  at  Clooneena^ 

books  of  "the  use  of  Bangor".    It  again  suffered  so-  and  Clonmacnoise.    The  spirit  of  monasticism  was 

verelv  in  the  wars  between  the  English  and  Welsh  dur-  then  strong  in  Ireland.     Manv  sought   solitude  the 

ing  tne  reign  of  Henry  III.  and  in  1402  was  entirely  better  lo  serve  God,  and  witn  this  object  Cornell 

burnt    down    by    Owen    Glendower.     There    could  retired  to  a  lonely  island.     The  perHUaaions  of  nis 

hardly  have  been  a  vigorous  diocesan  life,  for  the  friends   drew   him   from   his    retreat)     later   on   he 

cathedral  and  episcopu  residence  lay  in  ruins  for  foimded  the  monasteT^^of  Bangor,  in  559.     Under 

nearly  a  century.     At  length  in   1496,   a  vigorous  his  rule,  which  was  rigid,  prayer  and  fasting  were 

administrator  b^ame  bishop  in  the  penon  of  Hemy  inoeaeaut.     But    these    austerities    attracted    rather 

Deane,  prior  of  the  Austin  canons  at  Llanthony  near  th«i  repelled'  crowds  came  to  share  his  ]>enanoes     i 

Gloucester.     He  immediatelv  beEau  to  rebuild  the  and   his   vigils;    they   also    came   for    learning,    for     i 

ruined    choir    and    his    wort    atfll    exists.     Besides  Bangor  soon  became  the   greateat  monastic   school 

restoring  his  cathedral,  he  was  active  in  regaining  in    Ulster.     Within    the    extensive    rampart    which 

the  possessions  of  the  see  which  had  been  annexed  encircled    it«    monastic    buildings,    the    Scriptures 

Ini  the  more  powerful  men  in  the  neighbourhood,  were   expounded,   theology   and   lo^c   taught,    and 

t  nfortunately   for    Bangor   after  four  years'  rule  geometry,  and  arithmetic,  and  music;  the  beauties 

he  was  in   1500  translatod  first  to   Salisbury,  and  of  the  pagan  classics  were  appreciated,  and  two  at 

aftem'ards  to  Canterbury.     He  is  said  to  have  left  least  of  its  students  wrote  good  Latin  verse.      Such 

his  croGter  and  mitre,  both  of  great  value,  to  his  was  its  rapid  rise  that  its  pupils  soon  went  forth 

successor,  on  condition  that  he  should  proceed  with  to  found  new  monasteries,  and  when,  in  601 ,  St. 

the  rebuilding.  Comgall  died,  3,000  monks  looked  up  for  light  and 

But  neither  of  the  next  two  bishops,  Thomas  guiduice  to  the  Abbot  of  Bangor. 
Pigot,  Abbot  of  Chertaey  (1500-03),  and  John  Penny         With  the  Danes  came  a  disastrous  change.      Easily 

(1504-08),   did  anvthing  for  the  fabric.    On  the  ocoeHsible   from    tbe   sea,    Bangor   invited    attack, 

translation   of    Bisoop    Penny   to    Carlisle,    Bangor  and  in  824  these  pirates  plundered  it,  killed  900  of 

was    entrusted    to    Thomas    Skevin^ton,    or    Pace  its  monks,  treated  with  indigniCy  the  relics  of  St.  Com- 

(1509-33),  who  of  all  its  bishops  did  most  for  it.  gall,  and  then  carried  away  bis  shrine.    A  succession 

He    was    Abbot    of    Beaulieu    in    Hampshire,    and  of  abbots  continued,  but  they  were  abbots  only  in 

though  he  did  not  reside  in  his  see,  he  showed  prao-  name.     The  lands  passed  into  the  hands  of  layxiien, 

tical  mtereet  in  his  diocese  by  completing  the  catbe-  the   buildings   crumbled,   and   when   St.   Malachy, 

dral.     He   rebuilt  the  entire  nave  and  tower,  and  in   the   twelfth   century,   became  Abbot  of    Bangor 

presented  four  bells  which  were  afterwards  eoid  by  he  had  to  build  ever^Jiing  anew.    The  impress  of 

the  first  "reforming"  bishop.     He  also  rebuilt  the  his  seal  might  have  had  lasting  results  had  he  oon- 

episcopal  residence.     He  died  in  l!i33,  and  after  the  tinued  in  tnis  position.     But  Be  was  promoted  to 

short    episcopates    of   John    Capon    (1534-39)    and  the  Sec  of  Down,  and  Bangor  again  decayed.      By 

John    Bird     (1639-41),    was    followed    by    Arthur  the   Statute   of   Kilkcnnjr   Uie    "mere   Irish"    ■were 

Bulkeley,   who  resided  in   the  diocese   indeed,   but  excluded  from  it,  though  it  did  not  prosper  thereby. 

who  is  accused  of  having  Deflected  it  in  his  own  In  1469,  tbe  Franciscans  had  possession  of   it,   aitd 

interests.    According    to    tbe    Anglican    historian,  a  century  later  the  Augustinians,  after  which,   at 

Godwin,   he  was  struck   blind   while   watching   the  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries  in  that   part  of 

rathedral  bells,  which  he  had  sold,  being  shipp^  off.  Ireland,  it  was  given  by  James  I  to  James  Hanulton 

but  this  story  is  questioned  bv  Brown  ^ViUis.  the  created  Viscount   Claodeboye.    An    inemil&r     sue 


( 

t 

BANIAS  251  BANIM 

ceaaon  of  Catholic   abbots   was   still   kept   up,    the     IJM7);  AnnaU  of  the  Four  Madura  (Dublin,  1864);  Healy 

Ust  b«Bg  Abtot  MacCorma.;k,  who  lived  in^ce,  i^S:;:^^^S:::!  f^^  ^""'^'STllllZ^] 

bat,  returmng  to  Ireland  during  the  Reign  of  Terror,    lae?);  Rem,  Lttw  of  thi  Cambro-BritUh  Saints  (Uandovery, 
found  a  refuge  af  Maynooth  College  and  died  there     1S58):  Linoard,  Anglo-Saxon  Church  (London,  1845):  Bede. 

in  the  eariy  yeara  of  the  nineteenth  century.  E^'^^*V^*'x^^¥^'*'^ S^')^^'^^^^  Wiiliam  of  Malmes- 

m  wic  '^«*j  •'^  VTu  X       *  -D  ^^^^        ^       '^\  t  ^^'H/  (»n  Bohn'8  sories):  Qiraldua  Cambrenats  (in  Bohn's  senes). 

Among  the  Abbots  of  Banjjor  few  acquired  fame,  Montalbmbbrt.  Monka  of  the  Wcat  (New  od.  London,  1808). 
but  many  of  the  students  did.    Findchua  has  his  E.  A.  B'AltOn. 

life  written  in  the  Book  of  Lismore:  Luanus  founded 

100  monasteries  and  St.  Carthage  founded  the  great        BaniM.    See  CiBBARBA  Prauppi. 
S^ool  of  Lismore.     From  Bangor  Columbanus  and        Banim,  John  and  Michael. — John,  poet,  dramatist, 

Gall  crossed  the  sea,  the  former  to  found  Luxeuil  novelist,   b.  3  April.  1798,  at  Kilkenny,  Ireland;  d. 

and  Bobbio,  the  latter  to  evangdize  Switzerland.  31  August,  1842.     His  father,  following  the  double  oo- 

In  the  ninth  century  a  Bangor  student,  Dungal,  cupation  of  farmer  and  storekeeper,  was  in  easy  cir- 

defended  orthodoxy  aeainst  the  Western  iconoclasts,  cumstanoes.    John's  literary  efforts  began  very  early; 

The  present  town  of  Bangor  is  a  thriving  little  place,  at  ten  he  wrote  some  verses  and  a  tale  of  oonsiderable 

popular  as  a  seaside  resort.     Local  tradition  nas  it  length.  After  a  preparatory  training  in  private  schools 

that  some  ruined  walls  near  the  Protestant  church  he  entered  Kilkenny  College  in  1810.    Having  n  taste 

mark  the  site  of  the  ancient  abbey;  nothing  else  is  for  painting  and  drawing  he  went  to  Dublin  in  1813 

left  of  the  place  hallowed  by  the  prayers  and  penances  to  study  art.    In  two  years  he  was  back  in  Kilkennv, 

of  St.  Malachv  and  St.  Comcall.  became  a  drawing  teacher,    and    fell    desperately 

(2)  The  Welsh  Abbey  of  Bangor  was  situated  in  love  with  one  of  his  pupAls,  a  girl  two  years  his 

in  Flintshire,  not  far  from  Chester,  and  in  the  Middle  junior.    The  girl's  father  refused  nis  consent,  with 

Ages  was  often  confounded  with  Bangor  in  Camar-  the  result  that  in  two  months  she  died  of  a  broken 

^"onshire,  which  was  an  episcopal  see.    The  date  of  heart.    Her  lover  almost  followed  her  example.    An 

its  foundation  and  its  founder's  name  are  equally  entire  disregard  of  self  at  the  time  of  the  funeral 

uncertain.    With  great  confidence  and  evident  con-  caused  paralysis  and  left  him  a  victim  of  spinal  disease, 

viction,  Montalembert    declares    that    its    founder  which  afflicted  him  almost  incessantly  and  finally 

was  St.  Iltud,  or  Iltvde.     But  some  allowance  must  caused  his  death.    At  the  end  of  a  year  he  set  out  for 

be  made  for  French  partiality,  for  Btud  was  an  Dublin  with  a  literary  career  in  view.    It  was  not 

Annoric  Gaul.     His  life  and  acts  are  narrated  in  long  before  he  made  his  reputation.    In  1821,  when 

the  "Uves  of    the  Cambro-British    Saints";    they  only  twenty-three  years  old,  he  wrote  the  tragedy 

have  been  carefully  edited  by  Mr.  Rees;  and  though  "Damon  and  Pythias",  which  was  played  at  Co  vent 

it  is  stated  that  he  was  an  Armorican,  and  had  been  Garden  with  Macready  and  Charles  Kemble  in  the 

a  soldier,  and  married,  before  he  became  a  monk,  principal  parts.     After  his  marriage,   which  took 

it  is  not  said  that  he  was  connected  with  Bancor.  place  during  a  visit  to  his  parents,  he  planned  with 

It  is  more  probable  that  the  abbey  was  foimdecT by  his  brother  Michael,   "The  Tales  of  the   O'Hara 

Dunawd,  a  Welshman,  whence  it  was  often  called  Family".    These  were  to  be  written  in  collaboration, 

Bangor  Dunawd.     And  if  St.  Deiniol  was  the  son  each  brother  to  submit  his  work  to  the  other  for  revi- 

of  Danawd,  as  it  is  said,  this  would  fix  the  foundation  sion.     As  a  restdt.  it  is  Impossible  to  distinjzuish 

of  the  Flintshire  abbey  at  about  the  beginning  of  the  from    internal  eviaenoe  the  work  of  each.      Their 

sixth  century,  for  Eiangor  in  Carnarvonshire  was  ambition  was  to   do  for  Ireland  what  Scott,    by 

foonded  by  St.  Deiniol  in  514.    It  would  also  dispo^  his  Waverley  Novels,  had  done  for  Scotland — to  make 

of  the  assertion  that  Pelagius,  the  heretic,  was  at  their  countnnnen  known  with  their  national  traits 

one  time  its  abbot,  for  he  di^  long  before.    It  is  and  national  customs  and  to  give  a  true  picture  of 

certain   that    Bangor    was    the    greatest    monastic  the  Irish  character  with  its  bright  lights  and  deep 

establishment  in  Wales,  having  at  one  time  2,000  shadows.    To  London,  a  wider  fidd  for  literary  work, 

monks.    The  Angles  ana  Saxons  had  then  conquered  Banim  went  in  1822  "without  friends  and  with  little 

Britain   and  had  treated  the  Britons  with  great  money  to  seek  his  fortune".    The  next  ten  years 

sev^ty.    A  renmant  of  these  latter  found  refuge  in  were  a  fruitful  season,  during  which  he  contributed 

Wales,  where  they  brooded  over  their  wrongs,  and,  frequently  to  various  perio<£cal8,  and  produced  a 

being  Christians  themselves,  refused  to  preach  the  considerable   number   of   operatic    pieces,    dramas, 

Goiqpel  to  their  conquerors.    When  St.  Augustine  essays,  and  novels,  but  always  at  the  expense  of 

eame  to  England,  in  the  last  years  of  the  sixth  "wringing,  agonizing,  burning  pain".     Writing  of 

century,  he  visited  the  Britons  in  Wales.    Their  this  periiMi  to  his  brother,  he  says:  "Of  more  tnan 

mcffal  condition  was  then  bad;  they  clung  to  the  old  twenty  known  volumes  I  have  written,  and  treble 

mode  of    celebrating  Easter,  and  some  errors  of  their  quantity  in  periodicals,  no  three  P^es  have 

doctrine  had  also  crept  into  their  creed.     He  had  a  been  penned  free  from  bodily  pain".     The  little 

conference  with  delegates  from  Bangor,  but  they  crumbs  of  comiort  he  received  he  generously  shared 

refused  to  co-operate  with  him  in  the  work  of  con-  with  his  countryman,  Gerald  Grifl&n,  who  wrote  of  his 

yerting   the    still    unconverted    English.    In   pun-  early  struggles  in  London:  "What  would  I  have  done 

ishment,  he  prediet«i  that,  as  they  refused  to  preach  if  I  nad  not  found  Banim?"   In  1829  John  Banim  was 

the  way  of  life  to  the  English,  they  would  at  the  ordered  to  France  in  the  hope  that  he  might  repair 

haads  of  these  same  En^ish  suffer  death.    And  his  shattered  health,  but  the  journey  was  of  no  avail, 

this  came  to  pass  iU  603  when  Ethelfrid  of  Nortlb-  In  a  few  years  a  stroke  of  paralysis  "deprived  him 

ombria  defeated  the  Britons  near  Chester.    Hearing  of  the  use  of  his  limbs  and  brains".    In  1835  he  re- 

that  the  monks  of  Bangor  were  praying  for  his  turned  to  Kilkenny  by  slow  stages.    Dublin  and  hib 

enemies,  he  turned  aside  from  the  battle  and  put  native  city  showecl  him  signal  honour  by  demonstra- 

1,200  of  them  to  death.     Extensive  ruins  of  this  tions  that  moved  him  deeply.    A  pubhc  appeal  for 

ftbbey  still  remained  in  the  twelfth  century,  but  in  assistance  met  with  such  generous  response  that  h\9 

Ussher's  time,  in   the   seventeenth   century,   these  financial  troubles  were  ended.    The  Government,  in 

niins  had  all  but  disappeared.     On  the  site  of  the  recognition  of  his  Hterary  work,  granted  him  a  pen 

tbbey  now  stands  the  small  town  of  Bangor-on-the-  sion  of  £150,  and  an  additional  sum  of  £40  a  year 

1^  for  the  education  of  his  daughter.    His  last  work  was 

Wawikh^  ed..  The  AnHphonary  of  Bangor  (London.  1803);  the  revision  of  a  story  which  he  had  inspired  and  en- 

Sroiw,  Uvea  of  Oie  Sainta  from  ^^Book  of  Ltemare  (Oxford,  couraged  his  brother  to  write,  "Father  Connell", 

JWO):  ARCBDAI.L.    Monaatieon   Hibermeum   (Dublin,    1893);  ^u^  nWiiw>  nf  hin  HpIovpH  nArinh  nnAfit  nf  Killcpnnv 

O'Hamuw,  lAfe  of  Si.  Malachy  (Dublin.  1859);  Lanigan,  J?^  ^]^^^  ^\  ^^  Deioveo  pansn  pnest  Ol  JUlKennv. 

^ftiattieal  History  CDublin.  1822);  Ussheb,  Worka  (Dublin.  He  died  m  his  OWn  Wmdgap  Cottage,  JUSt  outside 


BAHJALUKA  252  BANKRUPTCY 

Kilkenny,  at  the  early  age  of  forty-foui'.    His  prin-  kovi<5, 0.  S.  F.,  was  consecrated  4  May,  1884,  but  OiJy 

cipal  works  are:  the  poems, ''Soegarth  Aroon*', ''Ail-  as  Apostolic  administrator.     His  first  cathedral  was 

leen''  ''The  Celt's  raradise":  ine  dramas.  "Damon  a  half-ruined  shed,  but  he  afterwards  acquired  a  little 

and  Pythias"  and  "The  ProdiMJ";  and  tne  novels,  church  near  his  residence  ,    At  present  (1907)  most 

"John  Doe*',  "The  Fetches",  "Feter  of  the  Castle",  of  the  parishes  are  held  by  Franciscans.     In  the  year 

"The  Mayor  of  Windgap  ",  and  "The  Boyne  Water  ",  1869  was  founded  at  Mariastem  an  abbey  of  Trappists 

the  last  a  political  noveL  which  has  already  sent  out  two  monastic  colonies,  to 

Michael,  novelist,  and  co-worker  with  his  brother  Josephsbui^  and  to  Marienbiug  in  Bosnia,  and  an- 

John,    b.    at    Kilkenny,  Ireland,  5  August,   1796;  other  to  Zara  in  Dalmatia.    There  are  hospitals  and 

d.  30  August,  1874.    At  sixteen  he  began  tne  study  of  schools  conducted  by  Sisters  of  Chanty  and  Sisters 

law,  but  soon  abandoned  it  because  of  business  re-  of  the  Precious  Blood.     In  1900  Banjaluka  and  Bi- 

verses  which  befell  his  father.    He  took  ubon  himself  hatch  also  became  a  diocese  for  the  so-called  Ortho- 

his  father's  burden  and  re-established  nis  parents  dox  population,  the  Metropolitan  residing  at  Banja- 

in  comfortable  circumstances.    The. little  leisure  his  luka. 

business  cares  allowed  him  he  made  the  most  of  by  ^^LewMXWA<*»  (Rome,  1882},  288-31 2;  Af^ 

gathering  material  for  "The  Tales  of  the  CHara  i£jS%«W^^io9  '  ^"«^>^  Catholica^  (Propaganda, 

Family  .    At  the  urgent  request  of  John,  he  Gontrib-  '         '      '  L.  Pktit. 

uted  several  of  the  stories,  his  first,  "Cronoore  of  the 

Billhook",  being  perhaps  the  most  popular  of  alL  Baakraptcy,  Ctvil  Aspect  of. — ^Bankruptcy  {La 
But  Michael  generously  kept  himself  m  the  back-  banqueroute;  earlier  English  terms,  hankruptship^bank- 
gi-ound  in  order  to  let  his  younger -brother  have  all  ruviure)  in  civil  jurisprudence  as  well  as  in  popular  sig- 
the  honour  of  their  joint  ])roduction.  Out  of  twenty-  nincation  is  the  fact  of  becoming,  or  the  state  of  bein^« 
four  volumes  he  ^^Tote  thirteen.  Unlike  John,  how-  a  bankrupt.  In  the  statute  of  1705, 4  Anne,  c.  XVII, 
ever,  he  was  a  man  of  action,  and  threw  himself  as  printed  in  the  Cambridge  edition  of  the  English 
earnestly  into  various  movements  for  the  uplifting  Statutes,  the  word  is  spdled  bankrupcy,  but  the 
of  his  countrjrmen,  educationally  and  economically,  statute  of  1711,  10  Anne,  c.  XV,  as  printed  in  the 
After  serving  for  many  years  as  postmaster  of  Kil-  same  edition,  and  in  the  London  edition,  adopts 
kenny,  he  died  at  the  age  of  seventy-eight  at  Booters-  the  present  spelling.  Being  derived  from  bankrujif 
town,  not  far  from  DiiDlin.  The  principal  works  of  as  insolvency  is  derived  Irom  insolvent,  the  re- 
Michael  Banim  are:  "Crohoore  of  the  Billhook",  taining  of  the  letter  t  has  been  suggested  to  be  an 
"The  Ghost  Hunter",  "Father  Connell",  and  "The  instance  of  erroneous  spelling  (Murray,  Diet.,  s.  v. 
Croppy",  a  tale  of  1798.  "Bankruptcy").    Etymologically,  feonJrupi  has  been 

Tiie  Banims  may  be  justly  called  the  first  national  said  to  oe  made  up  of  the   Latin  words  bancus, 

novelists  of  Ireland.    They  knew  their  countrymen  "table",  and  rupluSf  "broken",  denoting  "the  wreck 

not  as  the  Strang,  grotesque  caricatures  too  often  or  breakup  of  a  trader's  business"  ^Murray,  Diet.,  loc. 

portrayed  in  fiction,  but  as  members  of  the  great  dt.),  "whose  shop  or  place  of  trade  is  broken  up  or 

numan  family  with  noble  impulses  and  generous  gone"  (Wharton,  Law  Lexicon,  s.  v.  "Bankrupt '0. 
traits.     Their  work,  however,  is  notably  free  from        Statutory  mention  of  the  word  bankrupt  seema 

Patriotic  bias.     Their  Irishmen  have  their  faults,  to  be  earlier  than  that  of  the  word  bankrupcy,  and  is 

hou^h  naturally  sjrmpathetic,  tender-hearted,  and  first  to  be  found  in  the  title  of  the  Enghsh  statute 

forgiving,  these  typical  Celts  could  become  stem.  (^1542,  "against  such  persons  as  do  make  bankrupt'*, 

bitter,   and   revengeful.     Ignorance,   poverty,   ana  a  ^translation,   perhaps,   of  the   French    **qui  font 

cruelty  are  shown  to  exist  among  the  peasantnr.    But  banque  route",     fBlackstone,  Conrnientarics^  Bk.  II, 

the  reader  cannot  fail  to  see  the  cause  of  all  this —  c.  xxxi,  p.  472,  Note  e).    This  statute  recites  that 

the  natural  working  out  of  religious  persecution  and  some  "persons  craftily  obtaining  into  their  hands 

political  oppression.     Criticism  has  been   directed  great  substance  of  other  men's  goods"  either  flee 

against  some  of  their  writing  as  "harrowing",  and  to  parts  unknown  or  keep  their  houses,  not  paying 

"impure".     The  latter  criticism  is  unfortunately  "their    debts    and    duties",    but    consuming    "the 

justified;  John  admitted  and  regretted  it,  and  Michael  substance  obtained  b^  credit  of  other  men  for  thdr 

acted  on  it  by  preventing  one  of  the  stories,  "The  own  pleasure  and  delicate  living".     For  distributioa 

Nowlans",  from  being  reprinted.    As  to  the  "harrow*  rateaoly  of  such  persons'  assets  among  their  creditors 

ing"  elements,  which  are  certainly  conspicuous,  the  this  statute  provides  a  summary  method   which, 

brothers  answered:  "We  paint  from  a  people  of  a  to  quote  Blackstone,  is  "extra  judicial'*,  "allowed 

land  among  whom,  for  the  last  six  centuries,  national  merely  for  the  benefit  of  commerce"  (II  CJommenta- 

provocations  have  never  ceased  to  keep  alive  the  ries,  477).     We  learn,  however j  from   the   recitab 


trate  from  the  effects  of  the  Penal  Laws,  they  were  fore  a  new  definition  is  made  of  a  debtor  who  "shall 

undoubtedly  influenced  by  the  Romantic  movement,  be  reputed,  deemed  and  taken  for  a  bankrupt", 

then  at  its  neigh t.    A  recent  edition  of  the  works  of  and    subjected    to    an    "extra-judicial"    metnod. 

the  Banims,  in  ten  volumei^  which  gives  a  life  of  John  8uch  a  debtor j  it  is  enacted,  must  be  a  native-bom 

Banim,  appeared  in  New  York,  1896.  subject  or  demzen  who,  being  a  "merchant  or  other 

Murray,  Li/e  of  John  Banim  (I^ndon.  1967);  Read,  CoW-  person  using  or  exercising  the  trade  of  merdiandise", 

nH  of  Iruh  IMerature  (London,  1891);  The  Nation  and  The  ?<__   o^^u:^!!  u:„   ^^   »>**»   ♦-orl^   ^«  i:,r;««»   K«.    K^.^'ntr 

Freeiluin'8  Journal ADuhlinim^;  KmUss,  Irish  Ufe  and  Irish  ^^  aeekmg  his  or  her  trade  or  h\^ng  by  buying 

Fiction  (New  Yoric.  1903);  DicL  of  Nat,  Btogr.  and    sellmg  ',   shall    have    been   guilty   of   certain 

M.  J.  Flaherty.  specified    fraud    and    concealment,    ^he   assets  of 

such  a  debtor  may,  pursuant  to  this  statute,  be 
Banjaluka,  Diocese  of,  in  Western  Bosnia,  in-  divided  rateably  among  those  of  the  creditors  who 
eludes  some  of  the  most  beautiful  portions  of  the  are  native-bom  subjects.  Thus  the  limitation  of 
province.  Banjaluka  is  the  ancient  Roman  Ad  meaning  suggested  by  the  explanation  citi^  of  its 
Ladios,  By  the  Bull  "Ex  hAc  au^ustd  ",  5  July,  1881,  Latin  etymology  was  placed  upon  the  word  bankrupt, 
restoring  the  Catholic  hierarchy  m  Bosnia,  Leo  XIII  and  thereafter  a  trader  only  could  be  adjudged  a 
created  one  archiepiscopal  and  three  episcopal  sees,  bankrupt  in  England.  Debtors  who  were  not 
Banjaluka  being  tne  first  in  precedence  among  the  traders,  and  whose  means  were  inadequate  to  pay- 
latter.  It  includes  4  deaneries,  32  parishes,  and  more  ment  of  their  debts  in  ordinary  course  of  business 
»iian  80,000  faithful.     Its  first  bishop,  Marian  Mar-  were    known    as    insolvents.     But    statutory'    defl- 


BAKKRUPTOT            253  BANKBUPTOT 

nitioDs  of  persons  *o  be  deemed  occupied   in  trade  At  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  the  United  Statec 
beea^  very  comprehensive.     Yet  with  special  re-  Constitution  a  suggestion  was  rejected  that  the  power 
pid,  apparently,   for    "noblemen,   gentlemen   and  of  Congress  concerning  bankruptcy  should  be  con- 
persons  of  quality"  investing  in  the  "East  India  fined  to  merchants  and  traders.     Yet  by  the  Act 
Company  or  Guiney  Company"  and  certain  other  of  1800  only  a  merchant  or  other  person  resident 
enterprises,  the  imputation  of  bein^  merchants  or  in  the  United  States  .and  "actually  using  the  trade 
traders  within    any   "statutes   for  bankrupts"   is,  of  merchandise  by  b\iying  and  selling  in  gross,  or  by 
by  a  statute  of  1662,  expressly  spared  to  i>ersons  retail,  or  dealing  m  exchange  or  as  a  banker,  broker, 
putting  in   money   in   these   stocks.    The   circum-  factor,  underwriter,  or  marine   insurer"   could   be 
stance  of  occupation  is,  under  the  present  English  adjudged    a    bankrupt.     Voluntary    bankruptcy    is 
Bankruptcy  Act,  immaterial.     Aliens  and  denizens  not  mentioned  in  the  Act  of  1800,  but  by  the  Act  of 
had  been  brought  within  the  law  by  a  statute  of  1841  "all  persons"  residing  in  any  State,  District, 
the  year  1623.                            .  or  Territory  of  the  United  States  owing  debts  not 
^  the  law  of  Scotland  bankruptcy  is  not  limited  incurred  through  defalcation '  as  a  pubhc  officer  or 
to  any  particular  occupation.     But   according  to  in   a   fiduciary   capacity   might   apply   to    become 
Scotch  law   insolvency,   that   is,   inability   to   pay  voluntary  bankrupts.     Involuntary  bemkruptcy  was 
debts  or  fulfil  obligations,  does  not  become  bajik-  still  restricted  to  merchants  and  certain  other  classes 
niptcy  until,  in  manner  determined  by  statute,  this  of  business  men.    The  Act  of  1867  provided  for  both 
inabibty  is   publicly   acknowledged,    and    is    thus,  voluntary    and    involuntary    bankruptcy    without 
aa  expressed  in  the  statute,  "notour",     xhe  pur-  regard  to  the  debtor's  occupation.     By  the  Act  of 
pose  of  the  English  Statute  of  1542  and  1570  did  1888,  the  several  Dstrict  Oourts  ot  the  United  States, 
not  extend  beyond  distribution  of  the  bankrupt's  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  the 
property  among  his  creditors.     Right  of  recourse  DiBtrict  Courtw  of  the  several  Territories,  and  the 
against  the  debtor  by  ordinary  process  of  law  for  United  States  Courts  in  the  Indian  Territory  and 
any  remaining  indebtedness  these  statutes  expressly  the  District  of  Alaska  are  made  courts  of  bankruptcy, 
preswved.     But  by  the  statute  of  1705  a  bankrupt,  A  person  is  within  this  Act  insolvent  whose  prop- 
duly  surrendering  all  his  effects  and  conforming  to  erty    (exclusive  of  property  wrongfully   conveyed, 
the  law,  might  obtain  his  discharge  from  liability  tranirferred,  concealed,  or   removed)    is   at    a    fair 
for  debts  theretofore  contracted.     And  more  modem  valuation  insufficient  to  pay  his  debts.     Any  natural 
statutes  permit  a  debtor  himself  to  institute  pro-  person  or  unincorporated  company  or  business  cor- 
ceedings    in    bankruptcy.    The    Scotch    law    now  poration  as  definend  in  the  Act,  and  owing  at  least 
permits  a  "notour  bankrupt"  to  apply  for  what  one  thousand  dollars  (except  certain  natural  persons 
IS  termed  a  decree  of  cessio  bonaruniy  by  which  he  specified)',  may  be  adjudged  an  involuntary  bank- 
may  be  discharged  from  his  debts.  nipt.     Proceedings  in  involuntary  bankruptcy  are 
The  Constitution  of  the  United  States   (Art.  I,  to  be  instituted  by  petition  filed  within  four  months 
§8)   confers   upon   Congress   power   to    "establish  after  an  act  of  bstnkniptcy.     Such  an  act  consists 
uniform  laws  on  the  subject  of  bankruptcies  through-  in  conveying,  transferring,  concealing,  or  removing, 
out  the  United  States".     Under  this  provision  Con-  or  permitting  to  be  concealed  or  removed,  any  of 
gress  may  disregard  any  distinction  between  bank-  the  debtpr's  property  with  intent  to  hinder,  delay, 
ruptcy  and  insolvency  laws,  of  which  laws  Chief  or  defraud  his  ci^ditors  or  any  of  them;  or  in  trans- 
Justice  Marshall  remarks  (Wheaton's  Reports,  IV,  f erring  while  insolvent  any  property   with  intent 
194)  that  the  line   of   partition   between  them  is  to  prefer  a  creditor  or  creoitors;  or  in  suffering  or 
Mi  80  distinctly  marked  as  to  enable  any  person  permitting,  while  insolvent,  any  creditor  to  obtain 
to  say  with  positive  precision   what    belongs  ex-  a  preference  through  legal  proceedings  or  in  not  hav- 
dusively  to  the  one  and  not   to   the  other  class  ing  such  preference  vacated  or  dScharged.     So  a 
d  laws.    Originally,  however,  insolvency  laws  and  general  assignment  for  benefit  of  creditors  and  cer- 
bankruptcy  laws  were  prompted  by  opposite* mo-  tain  proceecungs  imder  Insolvent  Laws,  or  application 
tAxes  and  were  clearly  distin^ishable.    The  motive  by  an  insolvent  for  a  receiver  or  trustee  are  acts  of 
of  insolvency  laws  was  the  relief  of  insolvent  debtors,  bankruptcy.     On  the  other  hand,  "any  qualified  per- 
by  affording  them  a  remedy  against  imprisonment  son",  namely,  any  person  who  owes  debts  provable 
and,  in   ancient   Rome,   other   penalties.     On   the  in  bankruptcy  (except  a  corporation)  "may  file  a 
contrary,  the  motive  of  bankruptcy  laws  was,  as  petition  to  be  adjudged  a  voluntary  bankrupt  \    The 
already  seen,   the  relief  of  creditors  by  affording  assets  of  the  bankrupt  are  to  be  divided  among  his 
a  remedy   against    dishonest    debtors    who    might  creditors,  and  the  court  of  bankruptcy  is  empowered 
posibiy  not  be  insolvent,  but  whose  conduct  while  to  grant  him  a  discharge,  that  is,  a  "release  .  .  . 
indebted  was  deemed  to  be  such  as  to  entitle  their  from  all  of  his  debts  wnich  are  provable  in  bank- 
rreditors    to    the    summary   relief   which    the   law  ruptcy,  except  such  as  are  excep tea  by  this  Act ". 
"made   agiunst  ^bankrupts"    afforded.     English   as  The  power  conferred  on  Congress  by  the  Consti- 
wefl  as  ]^man  insolvency  laws  contemplated  the  tution  does  not  wholly  preclude  the  several  States 
cases  of  debtors   whom   ordinary   process  of  law  of  the  Union  from   passing   bankruptcy  laws.    A 
could  reach,  but  the  operation  of  the  English  statute  State  may  enact  sucn  laws  conclusive  as  to  the 
of  1542  is  Umited  to  debtors  who  "make  bankrupt"  rights  of  its  own  citizens,  provided  such  laws  do  not 
aiid  against   whom   such   process   was   ineffectual,  impair  the  obligation  of  contracts  within  the  mean- 
and  the  statute  of  1570  is  further  limited  to  traders,  in^  of  the  Constitution,  nor  conflict  with  any  ex- 
The  court  afterwards  established,  in  the  reign  of  isting  Act  of  Congress  establishing  a  uniform  system 
George  III,  for  cases  of  insolvency  was  "  the  Court  of  bankruptcy. 

for  rdief  of  insolvent  debtors";  but  bankrupt  laws.  So  far  we  have  considered  our  subject  from  a 
remarks  Sir  Edward  Coke,  are  to  be  construea  leml  point  of  view.  From  the  point  of  view  of  the 
"for  the  aid,  help,  and  relief  of  the  creditors".  And  political  economist,  bankruptcy  and  insolvency 
under  coiain  cnrcumstances  a  solvent  debtor  may  laws  are  of  great  importance.  For  cost  of  rmxluc- 
by  the  United  States  law  be  pronounced  a  bankrupt,  tion  of  goods  includes  risk  of  bad  debts,  and  there- 
Congress  has  passed  four  bankruptcy  laws;  the  fore  laws  lessening  this  risk  decrease  the  cost  of 
Act  passed  4  April,  1800,  which  was  repealed  by  production.  John  Stuart  Mill  concludes  that  most 
Act  of  19  December,  1808;  the  Act  passed  19  August,  individual  insolvencies  are  the  result  of  misconduct, 
^^l,  repealed  by  Act  of  3  March,  1843;  the  Act  But  the  occurrence  of  many  business  failures  in  a 
puKd  2  March,  1867,  and  repealed  7  June,  1878,  community  at  any  period  is  a  warning  or  svmptom 
ndthe  Act  of  1  July,  1898,  yet  (1907)  in  force.  of   "the  politico-economical  disease"  which  ecoD- 


BAXKKUTTGT  264  BAKKKIJ^TGY 

DQiists  denominate  a  ca.nmerdal  crisis,  and  for  this  ralitjr  prescHbea  that  debis  rnuHt  be  paid.  But  * 
deeper  cauaea  are  sought  than  mere  individual  man  who  becomei)  bankrupt  proclaima  \m  inn- 
misconduct.  By  fortuitous  cfMises  which  could  not  bility  to  pav  his  debts  ia  full  as  they  become  due. 
have  been  foroseen  tlie  most  skiUul  calculations  Such  an  acKnowledgment  doM  not  now  entail  tlu 
.nay  fail;  demand  for  particular  kinda  of  goods  penalty  of  slavery  or  of  imprisonment  as  □(  cdd; 
may  la*  behind  a  supplv  which  has  become  ex-  the  law  takes  possession  of  his  property  and  di- 
ces^ve  Because  of  nustaJces  of  the  "capttuns  of  vides  it  among  his  creditors.  If^  it  suffices  tSKr 
industry"  as  to  extent  of  future  demand.  And  all  to  pay  his  ciedltore  in  full,  there  is  an  end  of  the 
there  results  a  disarrangement  of  the  relation  \»-  matter,  justice  and  conscience  are  satisfied.  II, 
tween  production  and  consumption,  a  disturbance  however,  as  is  usually  the  case,  the  creditors  only 
of  equilibrium,  bo  that  commercial  settlements  receive  a  portion  of  what  is  due  to  them,  they  have 
become  impossible  and  a  crisis  ensuee.  Notable  suffered  loss  through  the  action  of  the  bankrupl, 
ciisea  of  modem  times  were:  the  crisis  of  Hamburg  and  if  he  ia  the  voluntary  cause  of  that  loss,  he  ia 
in  1799,  when  82  fulures  occurred;  the  English  morally  to  Uame  as  the  cause  of  injustice  to  hii 
crisis  of  1814,  when  240  bonks  suspended;  in  the  nei^bour.  There  is  no  moral  blame  attributable 
United  States,  the  "wild-cat"  crisis  of  1837,  when  to  a  man  who  through  misfortime  and  bv  no  f»ult 
all  the  tianks  closed,  the  crins  of  1857,  when  there  of  his  own  has  become  bankrupt  and  unable  to  pay 
occurred  7,200  failures,  and  the  crisis  of  IS73.  his  debts.  But  if  bankruptcy  has  been  brou^t 
To  economists,  conditions  of  this  kind,  resulting  about  by  the  debtor's  own  fault,  he  must  be  coa- 
from  the  causes  just  mentioned,  have  seemed  to  demned  in  the  court  of  morals,  even  if  he  escape 
denote  the  necessity  for  the  establishment  of  a  new  without  punishment  in  a.  court  of  law.  Bankruptcy  , 
equilibrium.  And  it  baa  been  susgested  that  the  may  be  the  result  of  one's  own  fault  in  a  great 
Jewish  jubilee  was  a  means  to  that  end,  and  an  variety  of  ways.  Living  beyond  one's  means, 
ordinance  somewhat  in  the  oharact«r  of  an  insol-  negligence  or  imprudence  in  toe  conduct  of  buai- 
vency  or  bankruptcy  law,  ness,   spending  in  betting    and    gambling    money 

A  political  community  may  fail,  as  may  an  in<  which  is  due  to  creditors  are  frequent  causes  m 
dii'idual,  in  meeting  financial  engagements.  There  debtors  appearing  in  the  bankruptcy  court.  All 
may  thus  occur  what  has  been  termed  stat«,  or  such  causes  are  accompanied  with  more  or  less  of 
public,  bankruptcy.  Of  this  an  ancient  instance  moral  guilt,  in  proportion  to  the  bankrupt's  ad- 
was  the  action  of  the  Roman  Senate  in  reducing  vertence  to  their  probable  consequences,  and  the 
the  weight  of  the  As  after  the  first  Punic  War.     And    voluntarinesa  of  his  action. 

wmilar  instances  of  governmental  dishonesty  oo-        Breaches  of  the  moral  law  are  also  committed  in 
curred    during    the    Middle    Ages.     In   later    times    a   great   variety   of    ways    in   connexion   with   the 
State    bankruptcy    has    often    token    the    form    of    bankruptcy   itself.     The   benefit  of   the   law  is  ei- 
enforced   conversion,  involving  partial   repudiation,     tended    to    the    bankrupt    debtor    if    he    faithfully 
of  tiie   State   debt.     At   the   close  of   the   reign   of    complies   with    all    its   just    requirements.     To   do 
Louis  XIV  of   Prance,   the  State   was   bankrupt,    this  then  is  a  matter  of  conscience.    He  is  bound 
and   to   the   celebrated   John   Law   was   vainly  en-    to  make  a  full  disclosure  of  all  hia  property,  and  to    '. 
trusted   its   financial   reacue.     The  govenunent   set    surrender  it  all  for  the  benefit  of  lua  creditors.     He 
up  by  the  French  Revolution  became  not  only  bank-    may  indeed  retain  what  the  law  allows  him  to  re- 
rupt  itself,   but  by  its  contest  with  Austria  drove    tain,   but  nothing  else,   unless   the   law   makes  no 
the    latter   empire   into    the    bankruptcy   of    1811.     provision  at  all  for  him,  and  the  result  of  surrender- 
And  the  bankriiptcy  of  Austria  has  even  been  said     mg   everything   would    be    to    reduce    himself   and 
to   have   became   permanent.     Turkey,   Spain,   and     those   dependent   on   him   to   destitution.     Such  a 
some    Spaniah-American    republics    may    be    men-    result,  however,  must  not  be  readily  presumed  in    , 
tioned   aa   States   becoming   bankrupt   through   re*    the  case  of  modem  bankruptcy  law  ^.-hicn  is  humane    | 
pudiation.    The  same  remark  tasy^  be  made  con-    in  its  treatment  of    the  unfortunate  debtor  and    | 
ceminK  some  of  the  States  of  the  United  Slates.  makes  what  provision  is  necessary  for  him.     It  is    ' 

obvious  that  it  is  against  the  rights  of  crediton 
and  against  iustice  for  an  insolvent  debtor  to  trans- 
fer some  of  his  property  to  hiE  wife  or  to  a  friend, 
who  will  keep  it  for  him  till  the  atorm  blows  over, 
so  that  the  creditors  cannot  ^t  at  it.  In  the  same 
way  a  debtor  is  guilty  of  dishonesty  and  fraud  if 
he  hide  or  remove  some  of  his  property,  or  if  he 
allow  a  fictitious  debt  to  be  proved  against  t)K 
estate. 

Loss  is  caused  the  creditors  and  injustice  is  com- 
mitted by  an  insolvent  debtor. who  continues  to 
trade  after  the  time  when  he  full^  recognises  that 
he  is  insolvent,  and  that  there  is  no  reaaonable 
hope  of  recovering  himself.  He  may  continue 
to  pay  what  debts  he  can  as  they  become  due  if 
payment  is  demanded  by  his  creditors,  and  he  may 
make   current   payment*   for   value   received.     ""' 

jf    jj^     ._  .. ._.-._      .r    L       ....... 

a  preference  over  the  others,  he  becomes  guilty  ol 
t.,~o.  u,  i  ».«-.."  .a.u,..,,..,,  ,.,=.■  .u.-, .™..,.  —.  .,  u,  .u,  a  fraudulent  preference.  BankruptCT  law  indeed 
'^"".?.''),^*V**5-„^"f.p'"""*°'i!!°»i,'?''?'™"<''?^X"^'    prescribes  that  certain  privileged  debta  should  be 

1878),  Bk.  IV.  I,  1315;  MnLii*LL,  The DMwnary  of  SUztittu*  !,.:j  :„  f,,|i    h„t  it  In™  Hnwi,  thnt  thn  T»t  m.t«f  )v 

(London,  18M),  a.  v.  Bankrupirv;  Gibbish,   /mtu^T,  m  Bfv-  P^'?  '"  '""',  '*"''  "  lays  Oown  tnat  ine  rest  must  He 

land  (2d  8d„  New  York.  1808)11269-260;  Chabb,  CncluA  paid  raleably  among  the  creditors  Without   favour 

Sunont/mt  (Nbw  York,  187B).  ».  V. /njoiiimcu.  ale.  to    any.     If   a    bankrupt    through    favour    pays   a 

Chablbb  W.  Sloamb.  creditor  in  full,  while  the  otheni  have  in  conaequencf 

Bankraptcy,    Moral    Aspect    op. — Bankruptcy  to  be  satisfied  with  less  tiion  their  just  share,  he  i' 

must  be   considered   not   only   from   the   legal   but  guilty  of  fraud.     This  is  not  only  the  case  if  such 

also  from  the  moral  point  of  view;  for  eoimd  mo-  payment  is  made  after  the  petition  in  bonkn^it^ 


BANN8  255  BANMb 

has  been  presented,  but  also  if  it  is  done  within  a       Luooj  i>cJu«^^<  Jure  (Pari».  1869),  diap.xx;  Lehmkdhl, 

i*Hj»in  nprinH    fi"rf»rl  hv  low    h*»fnr*>  th*»  nrMAnfuftnn  Th4ologta  Moralu  (Freiburf,  1898),  I,  nn.  1026,  1035:  Crollt, 

ceriam  V^noa,  nxea  oy  law,  ^lore  tne  presentation  ^  yu»«a»d  et  Jure  (Dublin,   1870-77).  Ill,  n.  1232 ;  Am, 

of  the  petition.     In   Great   Britain   this   penod   is  Bed,  Review  (Philadelphia)  xxxi,  348. 
three  months,  in  the  United  States  it  is  four  months  T.  Slater. 

pre\'iou8   to    the    adjudication.     Laws    forbidding 

such  preferential    payments    are    just,    and    thev       Bamut  of  Marriage  (Lat.  hannum,  pi.  hann-a^-i 
should  be  observed.     If  they  have  been  violatedi,  from  an  Old  English  verb,  banmin,  to  summon),  in 
and  the  fact  becomes  known,  the  payments  may  general  the  ecclesiastical  announcement  of  the  names 
be  recovered  by  the  trustee  in  banKruptcy  or  the  of  persons  contemplating  marriage.    Its  object  is  to 
official    receiver.     However,     although    fraudulent  discover  any  impediments  to  a  proposed  marriage: 
preferences  are  contrary  to  positive  law,  it  is  not  incid^itally,  it  makes  known  to  all  duly  interested 
clear  that  they  arc  against  natural  iustice  so  as  to  in  the  latter  the  fact  of  its  near  celebration.    The 
impose  on  the  guilty  parties  an  obligation  in  oon-  subject  will  be  treated  under  the  following  heads: 
science  apart  from  any  order  of  the  court  to  make  I.  History;  II.  Tridentine  Le^slation;  III.  Mode  of 
rertitution.    The  question  is  disputed  among  theo-  Publication;    IV.    Denunciation    of    Impediments; 
k)gians,  and  some  maintain  that  no  obligation  to  V.  Sanctions;  VI.  Dispensation  from  Banns;  VII. 
make  restitution   can   be   imposed,   apart   from   a  Non-Catholic  Usaee;  VlII.  Civil  Law. 
podtive  order  of  the  court,  inasmuch  as  after  all        I.  History. — From    the    beginning   of   Christian 
the  preferred  creditor  has  only  got  what  belonged  society  the  marriage  of  its  members  was  looked  on 
to  him.  as  a  public  religious  act,  subject  to  ecclesiastical  con- 
If  the  conduct  of  the  bankrupt  with  reference  to  trol  fTertull.,  *  De  monog.",  c.  xi;  "De  pudicitia*', 
his  bankruptcy  has  been  such  as  the  law  requires,  c.  iv).   The  obligation  of  making  known  to  the  bishop 
the  court  grants  him  a  discharge;  otherwise  he  will  all  proposed  marriages  dates  as  far  back  as  the  be- 
be  subject  to  certain  disabilities  as  an  imdischarged  ginning  of  the  second  century  (Iniat.   ad  Polyc, 
bankrupt.    Some  special  debts  and  obligations  are  c.  v),  and  ceased  only  when,  in  the  fifth  and  succeed- 
not  affected  by  the  discharge,  and  even  with  regard  ing  centuries,   owing  to   the   development   of   the 
to  those  which  it  does  affect,  the  question  arises  parochial  system,  it  oecame  the  duty  of  the  parish 
whether  an    absolute    discharge    extinguishes    the  priest  to  prevent  invalid  or  illicit  marriages,  in  which 
debt,  or  merely  releases  the  bankrupt  from  legal  duty  he  could  and  did  avail  himself  of  the  aid  of 
liability.    The  effect  of  such  a  judicial  act  depends  reputable  parishioners  (Capitula  Caroli  imp.,  ad  an. 
on  the  law  of  the  ooimtry.    If  that  law  expressly  8(fe,  ed.  Boretius  in  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Leges,  1,98). 
proWdes  that   a   bankrupt  who   has  obtained   his  The  publication  in  the  church  of  the  names  of  per- 
discharge  is   not    thereby   freed   from   his   former  sons  intending  marriage  seems  to  have  originated  in 
obligations,    but    merely    protected    against    legal  France  about  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century;  it  was 
pnxxedings  for  debt,  there  is  an  end  of  the  question,  already  a  custom  of  the  Galilean  Church  in  1215,  when 
On  the  other  hand,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  Innocent  III  mentions  it  in  a  letter  to  the  Bishop  of 
law  of  a  country  may  release  an  honest  and  un-  Beauvais  (c.  27,  x,  iv,  1).     In  the  same  year  the 
fortunate  debtor   from   his   load   of   indebtedness.  Fourth  Lateran  Council  made  it  a  general  eccle- 
and  make  him  free   to  start  business  afresh.     In  siastical  law  (c.  3,  x,  De  clandest.  desponsat..  iv,  3). 
commercial  societies  especially  such  an  enactment  The  Coimcil  of  Trent  confirmed  this  law,  ana  speci- 
might  conduce  to  the  public  good,  since  it  is  not  fied  to  a  certain  extent  the  manner  of  its  execution. 
granted  to   fraudulent   debtors  but  only  to  such  It  must  be  noted  that  by  the  council's  own  special 
as  are  honest  and  fulfil  the  rigorous  requirements  act  its  marriage   decree  ''Tametsi'',  with  its  pro* 
of  the  law.     It  is  merely  a  question  of  fact  as  to  vision  for  the  banns  (see  Clandbstinity),  is  binding 
what  is  the  effect  of  the  law  of  any  particular  ooun-  only  in  those  parishes  in  which  it  has  been  severally 
tgr.    Lawyers  and  theologians  are  agreed  that  in  promulgated;  hence,  when  such  fonnal  promul«ition 
most  countries  the  effect  of  a  discharge  is  merely  is  lacking  the  obligation  of   proclaiming  the  banns 
to  bar  le^l  proceeding  for  debt  against  the  bank-  rests  not  on  the  Tridentine  law,  but  on  the  earlier 
nipt.    His  moral  obligation  to  pay  all  his  debts  Lateran  canon,  also  on  local  or  particular  eccle- 
in  full  when  he  is  able  still  remains;  he  may  put  off  siastical    legislation    and    custom,  (see    Marriage.) 

Syment  till  such  time  as  he  can  conveniently  In  England  the  First  Council  of  Westminster  pro- 
fit his  obligations,  and  in  the  meanwhile  he  is  vided  (xxii.  2)  that  the  law  of  publishing  in  the 
guaranteed  freedom  from  molestation.  This  seems  church  the  banns  of  marriage  must  be  observed,  but 
to  be  the  effect  of  the  National  Bankruptcy  Law  of  made  no  provision  for  the  manner  and  time  of  intro- 
the  United  States.  ''Since  the  discharge  is  personal  ducin^  the  practice  CTaimton).  In  the  United  States 
to  the  bankrupt,  he  may  waive  it,  and  since  it  does  the  ^xth  Provincial  Council  of  Baltimore  recom- 
Qot  destroy  the  debt  but  merely  releases  him  from  mended  the  bishops  of  the  province  to  introduce  the 
liabih'ty,  that  is,  removes  the  legal  obligation  to  pay  law  of  the  banns  as  laid  down  by  the  Councils  of 
the  debt,  leaving  the  moral  obli^tion  unaffected,  Lateran  and  Trent  {juxta  mentem  concUii  Lateranensis 
«ach  moral  obligation  is  a  sufficient  consideration  et  Tridentini).  The  First  Plenary  Council  of  Balti- 
to  support  a  new  promise "  (Brandenburg,  The  Law  more  (1852)  decreed  (no.  88)  that  after  Easter  of 
of  Bankruptcy,  391).  1853  the  banns  should  everywhere  be  published,  and 
On  the  contrary,  an  absolute  discharge,  when  dispensation  given  only  for  very  grave  reasons, 
granted  to  the  honest  bankrupt  according  to  English  The  Second  flenaiy  Council  (1866)  confirmed  the 
law,  frees  the  bankrupt  from  his  debts,  with  certain  above  (nos.  331-333)  and  declared  the  law  a  very 
nea)tion8,  and  makes  him  a  clear  man  again.  This  useful  one  and  already  received  by  custom  (aaluber- 
ia  admitted  by  English  lawyers  and  by  theologians  rima  disciplina  jam  usu  recepta).  According  to  Zitelli 
^  treat  of  the  ^ect  of  the  English  law  of  bank-  (Apparatus  juris  eccl.,  403),  at  least  one  publica- 
niptcy.  When,  therefore,  an  honest  bankrupt  has  tion  should  be  made  in  those  regions  and  parishes  in 
obtabed  his  absolute  discharge  in  an  English  court,  which  the  marriage  decree  of  the  Council  or  Trent  has 
be  is  under  no  strict  obligation,  legal  or  moral,  to  pay  not  been  published;  Von  Scherer  remarks  (p.  146, 
bis  past  debts  in  full,  though  if  he  choose  to  do  so,  n.  14)  that  the  pre-Tridentine  or  Lateran  law  de- 
bia  scrupulous  rectitude  will  be  much  appreciated,  manded  no  more  than  one  publication.  It  is  of  some 
What  has  been  said  about  bankruptcy  applies  also  interest  to  note  that  by  a  decree  of  the  Sacred  Con- 
*o  eompositions  or  schemes  of  arrangement  with  gregation  of  the  Inquisition  (14  June,  1703)  the 
ooe'a  creditors  when  they  have  received  the  sanction  French  miosionaries  in  Canada  were  obliged  to  pub- 
^  the  court.  Ush  the  banns  for  their  savage  converts. 


BANNS                                 256  BANNS 

II.  Tkidbntine  Legislation. — In  order  to  check  regularly  at  the  parish  or  principal  Mass,  though  the 
the  increase  of  clandestine  marriages,  the  CJouncil  of  publication  may  occur  at  any  other  Mass  on  the 
Trent  decreed  (Sess.  XXIV,  De  ref,  matr.,  c.  i)  that  prescribed  days,  nor  is  it  required  that  such  pub- 
before  the  celebration  of  any  marriage  the  names  of  lication  be  repeated  at  more  than  one  Mass  on  the 
the  contracting  parties  should  be  announced  publicly  aforesaid  days.    By  a  rescript  of  the  Congregation  ol 
three  times  in  the  church  during  the  solemnization  Propaganda  the  Vicars  Apostolic  of  India  were  per- 
of  Mass,  by  their  own  parish  priest  on  three  con-  mitted  to  publish  the  banns  on  weekdays.    In  some 
secutive  Holy  Days  (Waterworth,  The  Canons  and  places  it  is  provided  that  the  banns  shall  not  be  pub- 
Decrees  of  tne  Sacred  and  (Ecumenical  Council  of  lished  on  two  immediately  consecutive  feast  days; 
Trent,  London,  1848,  196  sqq.).    Such  publication,  similarly  that  the  marriage  shall  not  take  place  on 
of  course,  caii  be  made  only  at  the  request  of  the  the  day  of  the  last  publicatioa  (particularly  if  it 
parties  themselves,  and  aft^r  the  parish  priest  is  be  the  only  one).    It  may  be  noted  that  the  general 
aware  of  their  mutiial  free  consent.     Moreover,  the  ecclesiastical  law  does  not  forbid  the  marriage  on 
parish  priest  cannot  refuse  to  publish  the  banns  the  day  of  the  third  publication.    The  periwi  for 
except  for  reasons  stated  in  the  canon  law.    If  the  which  the  publication  of  the  banns  is  valid  depends 
contracting  parties  refuse  to  consent  to  the  publica-  on  local  ecclesiastical  authority  and  custdm.    The 
tion  of  the  banns,  the  parish  priest  cannot  assist  at  Roman  Ritual  (Tit.  vii,  c.  i,  n.  11)  fixes  a  limit  of 
their  marriage^  and  where  the  Tridentine  legislation  two  months,  but  leaves  the  bishop  free  to  act  as 
does  not  obtain  he  is  bound  to  warn  them^  not  to  prudence  dictates.    The  Second  Provincial  Council  of 
attempt  marriage  elsewhere.     In  course  of  time  this  Quebec  (1863)  established  a  period  of  two  months. 
Tridentine  decree  has  given  occasion  to  more  specific  In  practice  the  period  varies  from  six  weeks  to  six 
interpretation,   regularly  and    primarily  appl'uble  months.     It  may  be  added  that  the  marriages  of 
where  the  decree  has  been  promulgated      Among  members  of  royal   houses   {malrimonia  prindpum) 
the   more  important    authentic    dec":-ons  are   the  are  tnrcustomexemptedfrompublication  of  the  banns, 
following:  The  proper  (own)  parish  priest  of  per-  III.  Mode  of  Publication.—  The  parish  priest  or 
sons  intending  marriage  is  he  in  whose  parish  both  his  representative  (vicar,  curatt)  announces  in  an 
(or  one  oO  the  contracting  parties  have  a  true  domi-  audible  voice,  usually  before  or  after  the  sermon,  for 
cile  or  quasi-domicile,  i.  e.  a  fixed  residence  or  one  each  of  the  contracting  parties  the  baptismal  and 
that  can  be  legally  construed  as  such.    When  both  family  name,  names  of  parents,  place  of  birth  or 
parties  permanently  reside  in  the  same  parish  no  residence,  age,  condition  (single  or  previously  mar- 
difficulty  can  arise  as  to  the  parish  priest  wnose  right  ried,  and  according  to  the  Roman  Ritual,  loc.  cit., 
and  duty  it  is  to  publish  tne  banns.     But  it  may  n.  13,  the  name  of  the  woman's  former  husband), 
happen  that  one  party  resides  in  another  parish,  or  It  should  also  be  stated  whether  the  actual  proclama- 
that  both  parties  nave  each  more  than  one  domicile  tion  is  the  first,  second,  or  third,  and  whether  there 
or  auasi-domicile,  in  which  case  the  publication  of  will   be  a  dispensation   from  further  publications, 
the  Danns  should  occur,  regularly  spealdng,  in  every  The  priest  adds  that  a  serious  obligation  rests  on 
parish  where  at  the  time  of  the  marriage  the  parties  every  one  to  reveal  to  him  any  known  impediment 
retain  such  domicile  or  quasi-domicile.     (See  Domi-  to  the  proposed  marriage.    The  parish  prie/t  is  ex- 
ciLB,  Parish  Priest,  Marriage.)    It  may  be  noted  pected  to  keep  a  record  or  register  of  all  pubh nations 
here  that  while  in  general  a  quasi-domicile  is  ac-  of  basins  made  by  him,  also  the  certificates  Oi  pub- 
quired  by  actual  residence  in  a  place  with  the  inten-  lications  made  at  his  request  in  other  parishes,  the 
tion  of  remaining  there  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  fact  and  consequences  of  which  he  is  entitled  to  know, 
in  England  and  m  the  United  States  the  law  pre-  IV.  Denunciation  of  Impediments. — ^Whoever  is 
sumes  a  quasi-domicile  from  one  month's  residence  of  morally  certain  either  by  his  own   knowledge  or 
either  party  in  the  place  of  the  marriage.     (S.  Congr.  througn  reliable  persons,  of  an  impediment   (e.  g. 
Inq.   to  the  bishops  of  England  and  the  United  consanguinity,  affinity,  previous  marriage)  to  an  in- 
states, 7  June,  1867;  see  also  its  decree  of  6  May,  tended  marriage,  is  in  conscience  bound  to  reveal  it 
1886).    A  decree  of  the  same  congregation  (9  Novem-  to  the  parish  priest  of  the  contracting  parties;  it  then 
ber,  1898)  provides  that  anywhere  a  mere  residence  becomes  the  auty  of  such  parish  priest  to  investigate 
of  six  months  shall  constitute  a  quasi-domicile.    In  the  statement  made  to  him  (usually  under  oath)  and 
the  case  of  unsettled  persons  possessed  of  no  domi-  decide  as  to  the  character  of  the  evidence;  if  a  grave 
cile  (vaai)  the  banns  are  published  (with  episcopal  suspicion  be  aroused  in  him,  he  must  refer  the  case 
permission)  where  the  marriage  takes  place,  and  in  to  the  bishop,  who  decides  as  to  whether  a  dispensa- 
the  place  or  places  of  their  oirth.     The  banns  of  tion  can  or  cannot  be  granted.    Confessors,  lawyers, 
minors  must  also  be  published  in  the  place  of  resi-  physicians,  midwives,  are  not  bound  to  reveal  im- 
dence  of  their  parents  or  guardians.     The  law  of  peaiments  known  to  them  through  the  discharge  of 
quasi-domicile  is  also  frequently  applicable  to  serv-  their  official  or  professional  duties,  nor  does  an  omiga- 
ants,  apprentices,  soldiers,  and  students  in  institu-  tion  rest  on  those  who  fear  that  to  make  known  an 
tions  of  learning.    In  the  case  of  mixed  marriages,  impediment  would  cause  grave  detriment  to  them- 
publication  of  the  banns  is  forbidden  (Greg.  XVl  to  selves  or  their  families,  or  who  are  aware  that  no 
the  bbhops  of  Bavaria,  12  September,  18^),  but  is  good  can  result  from  their  action,  or  know  that  the 
tolerated  in  the  United  States  by  a  decree  of  the  contracting  parties  have  already  made  known  the 
Congregation  of  Propaganda   (3  July,  1847),  pro-  impediment.     Once  aware  of  tne  impediment,  the 
vided  tnere  be  no  mention  of  the  religious  persuasion  parish  priest  must  defer  the  marriage,  refer  the  mat- 
(confessio  acatholica)  of  the  non-Catholic  party  (see  ter  to  tne  bishop,  and,  where  the  Tridentine  marriage 
also  S.  Congr.  Inq.,  4  July,  1874,  in  0>llectanea  S.  decree  is  not  valid  he  ought  to  warn  the  parties  not 
Congr.  de  Prop.  Fide,  Rome,  1893,  no.  1223).     In  to  attempt  marriage  elsewhere.    For  furtner  details 
Germany  and  Austria  this  is  also  customary  in  some  as  to  the  obligation  of  revealing  known  impediments, 
places  (Heiner).    The  three  consecutive  Holy  Days  see  the  moral  theologians  generally,  especially  the 
(dies  lestivi)  may  be  Sundays  or  other  feasts  of  third  book  of  Sanchez,  "De  Matrimonio",  and  the 
obligation.     Custom  has  in  many  places  exempted  sixth    volume    of     Ballerini-Palmieri,     "Theologia 
Christmas,  Easter,  and  Pentecost.     It  is  also  cus-  Moralis"     (Prato,     1894),    also    the    "Bibliotheca 
tomary  in  some  places  to  proclaim  the  banns  on  Prompta"  of  Ferraris,  s.  v. 

suppressed  feast  days,  also  at  Vespers,  provided  V.    Sanctions. — Omission     of   the    banns,    eN'en 

there  be  on  such  occasions  a  consideraole  attendance  partial,  makes  a  marriage  illicit,  but  not  invalid, 

of  people  in  the  church  (S.  Congr.  Inq.,  25  October.  The  bishop  may  inflict  on  the  contracting  parties 

1586;   29  April,   1823).     The  banns  are  published  such  ecclesiastical  penance  as  he  sees  fit  to  impoete, 


267  BAnre 

and  lie  may  also  punish  similarly  the  witnesses  to  the  bishop;  at  Constantinople  and  in  other  arcl__, 

maniaee.  Should  later  on  an  impediment  be  dis-  copal  churches  this  permission  is  granted  through 
eoverea  that  renders  the  marriage  null  and  void,  the  Chartophylax.  As  the  presence  of  the  priest 
tbef  cazmot  hope,  by  the  strict  letter  of  the  law,  to  is  essentia  to  the  validity  of  a  Gredc  marriajze, 
obtain  a  dispensation,  nor  can  they  hope  to  have  their  clandestine  imions  are  practically  impossible.  (For 
marriage  considered  a  putative  or  ai>parent  one,  the  Uniat  Greeks  in  Italy  the  Tridentine  decree  is 
entailioj^  the  legitimation  of  their  children.  The  obligatory,  having  been  published  in  GrecJc  in  all 
bishop  IS  empowered  by  the  law  to  inflict  on  the  their  parishes  by  order  of  Clement  VHI  and^^ain  by 
d&mng  parish  priest,  besides  other  punishment,  order  of  Benedict  XIV;  see  Vering,  873).  The  Ger- 
three  years'  susp^ion  from  his  office;  it  is  worth  man  Lutheran  churches  provide  for  publication  of  the 
Qoting  that  a  similar  sanction  was  enjoined  by  the  banns  in  a  manner  quite  similar  to  the  Catholic 
fifte^th  century  canon  law  of  England  (Lindwood's  discipline  (ibid.,  874).  In  the  Church  of  En^^and 
Provinciale,  Oxford  ed.,  1679,  p.  ^71).  the  publication  of  the  banns  is  a  normal  prelimmary 
VI.  Dispensation  from  Banns. — ^The  Council  of  of  marriafe,  both  b^  ecclesiastical  law  and,  as  ex- 
Trent  allows  the  bishop  to  dispense  with  the  publican-  plained  below,  by  civil  statute.  The  Book  of  Common 
tkm  of  the  banns,  provided  there  be  a  sufficient  rea-  Prayer  directs  that  the  banns  of  all  who  are  to  be 
son;  one  such  is  indicated  by  the  Council  itself,  i,  e.  married  shall  be  published  on  three  several  Sundays 
fear  of  a  malicious  thwarting  of  the  intended  mar-  or  Holy  Days  during  the  time  of  the  morning  service 
riage.  The  vicar-general,  vicar  capitular,  and  ad-  or  of  evening  service  (if  there  be  no  morning  service) 
miniatrator  of  a  diocese  jnay  also  dispense  from  the  immediately  after  the  second  lesson.  The  form  of 
banna.  In  case  the  contracting  parties  belong  to  publication  is  analogous  to  Catholic  usage,  and  if  the 
different  dioceses,  the  permission  of  one  bishop  parties  reside  in  dinerent  parishes,  the  banns  must 
(usually  the  one  in  whose  diocese  the  marriage  takes  be  published  in  both. 

place)  IS  held  sufficient  by  many  canonists.    In  some        VlII.  The   Civil   Law   of   Banns. — ^In   several 

owmtries,  as  in  Bavaria,  a  mutual  understanding  to  European  countries  the  civil  law  insists  by  its  own 

this  efifect  exists.    The  bishop  may  also  allow  the  authority  on  the  publication  of  banns*  in  Austria, 

deans  or  the  parish  priests  to  dispense  from  one  or  for  instance,  all   marriages    performed  without  at 

two  publication^.    In  many  dioceses  the  parish  priest  least  one  publication  of  the  banns,  and  in  the  parishes 

is  specialhr  authorized  to  cuspense  from  the  banns  for  of  both  contracting  parties,  are  declared  invalid  by 

death-bed  marriages;   elsewhere   this   authority   is  the  Civil  Code  (Vering,  862,  note  23;  Von  Scherer, 

delected  to  t&a  deans  or  the  more  centrally  located  161).    In  England,  untU  1753,  there  was  no  statutory 

pariah  priests.    The  parish  priest  may  himself  decide  publication  of  the  banns;  in  that  year  was  passed  a 

that  the  obligation  of  asking  a  dispensation  no  longer  marriage  act,  known  as  Lord  Hardwicke's  Act  (26 

exists  for  him,  i.  e.  in  cases  of  urgent  necessity  when,  Geo.  Il,  c.  xzxiii),  which  provided,  among  other  es- 

on  the  one  hand,  he  cannot  reach  the  bishop  and,  sentials,  that  in  the  future  the  true  names  of  all 

on  the  other,  the  reasons  are  such  that  the  latter  persons  intending  marriage  should  be  published  in 

would  be  bound  to  grant  the  dispensation.    In  all  the  church,  otherwise  the  marriage  would  be  null  and 

cases  where  the  three  publications  are  omitted,  the  void.    It  was,  however,  expressly  provided  that  the 

oontractlnff  parties  are  regularly  required  to  take  act  should  not  applv  across  the  seas;  hence  it  never 

the  oath  oeiore   the    bishop  (juramerUum  de  statu  became  a  part  of  the  English  Common  Law  as  re- 

Ubero)  that  they  are  not  previously  betrothed  or  ceive^  ^n  tne  United  States.    The  actual  civil  legis- 

marned,  and  tluit  they  know  of  no  impediment  to  lation  in  England  dates  mostly  from  the  reign  of 

their  marria^  (Clement  X^  Cum  Alias,  21  August,  George  IV  and  Willian  IV,  and  relieves  Catholics  and 

1570;  Ballenni-Palmieri,  VI,  716-718).  Dissenters  from  the  obligation  of  having;  their  banns 

By  a  decision  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Inquisi-  published  in  the  churches  of  the  Establishment,  as 

tion  (8  August,  1900)  the  bishop  may  delegate  to  the  was  the  case  after  the  passing  of  Lord  HardwicKe's 

parish  priest  the  performance  of  this  duty.     The  Act.  though  in  other  respects,  and  with  considerable 

oanns  are  omitted  in  the  case  of  revalidation  of  modifications,  that  act  still  governs  the  marriage 

nianuge   (S&gmtlller,    489)    and    secret    marria^  contract  in  England;  in  substance  it  is  the  Tridentine 

L  e.  regularly  performed  in  the  church,  but  behind  decree.    According  to  actual  English  statute  le^^ 

dosed  doors,  and  the  record  of  which,  toother  with  lation,  a  marriage  in  the  Church  of  England  is  in- 

the  pertineat  bi^tisms,  is  kept  in  a  ^>ecial  book  in  valid  without  a  previous  due  publication  of  the  banns 

the  diocesan  chancery  (Ballerini-Palmieri«  op.  cit.,  or  a  license  from  the  proper  ecclesiastical  authority 

VL  778).     Dispensation  from  all  the  banns  is  regu-  granted  only  within  the  church  of  the  parish  in  whicn 

lai^  granted  only  for  a  verv  urgent  reason;  less  one  of  the  parties  shall  have  resided  tor  fifteen  days 

weighty  reasons  suffice  for  a  aiq>ensation  from  two  before  the  marriage.    The  true  names  of  the  parties 

pubiieations  or  from  one.    Among  the  reasons  recog-  must  be  published  in  an  audible  voice  on  three  sue- 

oiled  by  the  law,  other  than  that  mentioned  by  the  cessive  sunda^rs  at  the  morning  service  after  the 

GoancQ  of  Trent,  are:    notable  difference  of  age,  or  second  lesson,  in  the  church  of  tne  pari^  in  which 

cQufitioii  of  Ufe;  peril  of  the  good  name  of  either  the  parties  dweU.  or  with  the  bishop's  consent,  in  a 

party;  the  approach  of  Advent  or  Lent,  when  mar-  public  chimel.    The  officiating  olerflgrman  is  entitled 

ria^lje  oaimot   be  solenmised;   notable  temporal  or  to  demand  seven  days'  notice  of  the  intended  pub- 

Bpnitual  detriment;  imminent  departure  of  the  bride-  lication,  with  the  names  of  the  parties,  place  of 

groom;  etc    The  diocesan  chancery  usually  charges  abode,  and  the  time  they  have  lived  there.    The 

a  fee  to  cover  the  clerical  expenses,  it  being  forbid&n  dissent  of  parents  or  guaroians  renders  null  and  void 

to  make  any  charge  for  the  dispensation  itself  (S.  the  publication  of  the  banns  of  minors.    The  banna 

Gong,  of  Propaganda  to  the  bishops  of  Ireland,  12  or  license  are  valid  for  a  period  of  three  months  only. 

Febniaiy.  l&l;    of.  its  decree  of  1750;  also  the  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  omission  of  the  bamn 

Etooifofieal  of  1768  to  the  same  bishops,    and  Col-  invalidates  the  marriage  only  when  the  omiadon 

Vytaiiwi  8.  Cops.  Prop.  Fid.,  Rome,  1893, 1221).    At  is  known  and   wilfuL     Non-Anglicans  (Jews   and 

tmiflt  tbe  parisE  priest  collects  a  fee  for  the  publica-  Quakers  excepted,  as  otherwise  provided  for)  are 

tion  of  banDB  (Von  Scherer,  147);  it  is  reckoned  as  freed  from  the  oUigations  of  banns  or  ecclesiastical 

ODS  of  1^  jttra  stoUBf  or  casual  sources  of  revenue.  license,  but  thev  must  give  notice  to  the  reffistnir  of 

Vn.  N<M9-CArHOUC  UsAGX, — ^The  Orthodox  Greek  the  district  within  which  the  parties  have  lived  for 

Cbath  doets  not  require  publication  of  the  banns;  seven  days  previous.    This  notice  is  inscribed  in  a 

OB  te  Hftk^BT  hand,  for  every  marriage  the  Greek  marriage  notice  book  open  to  public  inspection  at  all 

prini  nqoires  regmariy  a  special  permission  of  the  seaaQnaole    times,    and    thereafter   suspended    for 

n.— 17 


BUTQUXT  258  BAPTISH 

twentf-one  dajn  m  aome  i»iis[>iciiouB  place  In  the  b.  at  Lb  Roche,  FribourK,  Switierlsitd.  17  Decern- 

Te^trar's  office,  and  accompanied  by  a  deolaratioa  ber,  1815:  d,  at  Mount  Hope,  Harrknd,  U.  8.  A., 

as  to  absence  of  impedimentfi,  neceesaiy  conaeat  of  2  November,  1887.     At  twelve  he  began  his  studiga 

e rents  or  guardians,  etc.  ("Encyclopedia  of  the  at  the  college  of  Fdbourg,  and  on  30  S^tember,  1835, 
ws  of  England",  London,  1897,  II,  1-3;  "Ameri-  entered  the  novitiate  of  the  Society  of  Jtaaa,  E» 
can  and  English  Encyclopedia  of  Law",  2d  ed.,  was  ordained  priest,  31  December,  184fl,  after  the 
1901,  XIX,  1190-93- nUllunore,  "Ecclesiastical  Law  usual  course  of  studies  and  teaching.  He  arrived  in 
of  the  Church  of  England",  2d  ed.,  London,  1895,  New  York  in  1848  and,  though  ignorant  of  both 
II,  580  sqq.).  For  the  publication  of  banns  in  the  Enelish  and  Indian,  was  sent  to  minister  to  the 
(notestajitj  churches  of  Ireland  and  Scotland  see  ImSaos  at  Old  Town,  Maine.  Hie  inhabitantt  n- 
W,  P,  Eversley,  "The  Law  of  the  Domestic  Rela-  ceived  him  with  every  demonstration  of  joy,  bat 
tions''  {2d  ed.,  London,  1890).  In  most  of  the  he  found  them  in  a  very  degraded  moral  eonditkui. 
United  States  a  license  to  marry  must  be  obtained  They  had  been  without  a  priest  for  twenty  jem, 
by  the  contracting  parties;  in  Delaware  and  Ohio  and  he  laboured  zealously  for  their  reformatioo. 
publication  of  the  Iranns  is  equivalent  to  a  license  He  founded  several  temperance  sodetiea  in  Mune. 
<H.  J.  Desmond,  The  Church  and  the  Law,  Chicago,  In  1860  he  left  Old  Town  for  Eastport.  His  woA 
1898,  66).  In  all  the  provinces  of  the  Dominion  of  immediately  began  to  attract  attention,  both  for 
Cuiada  publication  of  the  banns  is  required  in  de-  iU  results  among  Catholics  and  the  number  of  cod- 
Kult  of  a  licenae  to  marry.  In  the  Province  of  Que-  verta  who  were  brought  into  the  Church.  As  his 
bee,  in  default  of  a  license  Issued  to  non-CathoUcs,  misaions  covered  a  large  e^itent  of  territory,  he  be- 
the  publication  of  the  banns  is  required  on  three  came  generally  known  through  the  State.  When 
Sunoaye  or  Holy  Days  with  reasonable  intervals,  at  the  Know-Notning  excitement  broke  out  he  was  at 
morning  service,  or  if  none,  at  an  evening  service.  Ellsworth.  Besides  being  disliked  as  a  CathoUo 
If  the  parties  belong  to  different  churches,  these  pub-  priest,  he  was  particularly  obnoxious  because  of  his 
lications  must  take  place  in  each  church.  They  must  efforts  Ui  estaolish  a  Catholic  school  there.  On 
contain  the  names,  surnames,  qualities  or  occupa-  3  June  his  bouse  was  attacked,  and  on  6  June,  1854, 
tion  and  domicile  of  the  parties  to  be  married,  and  in  pursuance  of  an  order  of  the  Town  Council,  which 
whether  they  are  of  age  or  minors,  also  the  names,  was  directed  to  be  published  in  the  papers,  he  was 
surnames,  occupations,  and  domicile  of  their  fathers  dragged  out  of  the  residence  of  one  of  his  people,  was 
and  mothers,  and  the  name  of  the  former  husband  tarred  and  feathered, and  ridden  onarail  to  the  woods 
or  wife.  A  certificate  of  due  publication  of  the  banns  outside  the  town,  and  ordered  u>  leave  the  neighbour- 
is  also  reqiured  before  the  mairiage,  and  mention  is  hood.  Some  accounts  have  it  that  there  was  an 
made  of  it  in  the  Act  of  Marriage;  this  certificate  must  attempt  to  bum  him  to  death,  which,  for  some  reason 
be  signed  by  the  person  who  published  the  banns,  or  other,  was  prevented.  He  recovered  from  his  in- 
and  must  contain  all  the  above  details  stated  in  the  juries  and  continued  his  work.  The  outrage  at  Ells- 
banns  themselves.  Such  certificate  is  not  required  worth  met  with  general  condemnation.  Father 
if  the  banns  were  published  by  the  same  person  who  Bapst  buiit  the  first  church  at  Bangor,  which  was 
performed  the  marriage.  Unless  the  parties  have  an  dedicated  in  1856.  He  remained  there  for  three 
actual  domicile  of  six  months  in  the  place  of  pub-  years  and  was  then  sent  to  Boston  as  rector  of  the 
lication,  the  latter  must  occur  in  the  place  of  last  college  which  was  at  that  time  t)ie  house  of  higher 
domicile  in  Lower  Canada,  or  if  out  of^  Canada  the  studies  for  the  Jesuit  scholastics.  He  was  after- 
officer  must  ascertain  that  no  legal  impediment  wards  superior  of  all  the  houses  of  Canada  and  New 
exists.  If  the  parties  are  under  the  authority  of  York,  and  subaequently  superior  of  a  Residence  in 
others  the  publication  must  take  place  in  the  domi-  Providence,  R.  I.  In  1879  his  mind  began  to  fail, 
cile  of  such  authority  (R.  S.  Weir,  The  Civil  Code  a  result,  it  was  thought,  of  the  Ellsworth  occur- 
of  Lower  Canada,  Montreal,  1898,  Noe.  57,  58,  130-  renoe.  His  remains  were  interred  at  Woodalock, 
134).    In  France  the  civil  code  prescribes  the  pub-  Maryland. 

lication   on   two   distinct   Sundays   of    the   names,        R-ood«(o(*  I*H«r».  XVI,  324;  XVII.  aiB,  3fll;  XVTII.  83. 

occupations,  domiciles,  and  names  of  parents  of  per^  ^tj^'- ^Yi^hwii  ^""'  "^  "^  *'  *^°*^"  '^"'^ 
sons  intending  to  marry.    The  marriage  cannot  take  *  •         '■  ^  ^   Campbkix. 

place  until  three  days  after  the  second  puUication; 

if  a  year  is  allowed  to  elapse  there  must  be  a  fresh        Bvptlam,  one  of  the  Seven  Sacraments  of  the  Chris- 

pubbcation    of    the    baims.      Marriages    contracted  tian  Church,  frequently  called  the  "first  aaerament", 

abroad  between  French  subjects  or  between  a  French  the  "door  of  the  sactamenta",  and  the  "door  of  th« 

subject  and  a  foreigner,  but  according  to  foreign  law.  Church". 

are  recognized  in  France.    The  publication  of  the        I.  Authoritativb  Statement  op  Doctbii™. — At 

banns,  however,  cannot  be  omitted  under  pain  of  the  outaet  we  think  It  advisable  to  grve  two  docu- 
ments which  express  clearly  the  mina  of  the  Oiarcb 

marieae  en  droit  on  the  subject  of  bt^tism.    They  are  valuable,  also, 

?^SL'dl-*Kt;  **  containing  a  summary  of  the  main  points  to  be 

uVwMndt  da  Considered  in  the  treatment  of  this  important  mattw. 

lA.  KirArnrtthi,  Baptism  is  defined  positively  in  the  one  and  negK- 

i^thii'*bMt  ti^'y  "1  '■''8  other,     (a)  Tho  positive  document  is 

1003)  Nob  667-  what  is  commonly  demgnated  as  "The  Decree  for 

(4th  ed..  iooo):  the  Armenians"  in  the  Bull  "Exultate  Deo"  ot  Pbpe 

'^,"'l#^"-  Eugene  IV.     It  is  often  referred  to  as  a  decree  of 

aKiick^r^  the  Council  of  Florence.     While  it  is  not  necessUT 

RiRia.   Fromjiia  to  hold  this  decree  to  be  a  dogmatic  definitioii  ot 

'''"^ui  the  matter  and  form  and  minister  of  the  sacramtoita, 

,     B:iu.niiNi-  it  w  undoubtedly  a  practical  instruction,  emanatii^ 

,  VI,  427-447;  from  the  Holy  See,  and  as  such,  has  full  authentioity 

2d   ed..   Itoiine,  ^  ^  canonical  sense,  that  is,  it  is  authoritative.    Tho 

l-HOUAS  J  Shaham  decree  speaks  thus  of  Baptism:  "  Holy  Baptism  hotda 
the  first  place  among  the  sacraments,  becAuse  it  is 

Buiqnet,  EccharistIc.    See  Eucbarist,  Symbol-  the  door  of  the  spiritual  life;  for  by  it  we  an  nude 

H  or.  members  ot  Christ  and  incorporated  with  the  Church. 

B>pit,  John,  Jesuit    missionary   and    educator,  And  since  through  tlie  first  man  deftth  entered  into 


Tlui  Law  0/  On 


BAPtlBM  259  BAPTISM 

tH,  unless  we  be  bom  again  of  water  and  the  Holy  and  not  to  be  forced  by  penalties  to  lead  a  Christian 

Ghost,  we  cannot  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  Heaven,  life,  except  to  be  deprived  of  the  reception  of  the 

B8  Truth  Himself  has  told  us.    The  matter  of  this  Eucharist  and  of  the  other  sacraments,  until  they 

sacram^t  is  true  and  natural  water;  and  it  is  in-  reform."     The  doctrines  here  condemned  by  the 

different  whether  it  be  cold  or  hot.    The  form  is:  Council  of  Trent,  are  those  of  various  leaders  among 

I  baptize  thee  in  the  name  of  the  Father  and  of  the  the  early  reformers.    The  contradictory  of  all  these 

Son  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost.    We  do  not,  however,  statements  is  to  be  held  as  the  dogmatic  teaching  of 

deny  that  the  words:  Let  this  servant  of  Christ  be  the  Church. 

baptized  in  the  name  of  the  Father  and  of  the  Son        II.  Etymolooy.^— The  word  Baptism  is  derived 
and  of  the  Holy  Ghost;  or:  This  person  is  baptized  from  the  Greek  word,  /3<i«-T«,  or  /Sairrffw,  to  wash  or  to 
by  my  hands  in  the  name  of  the  Father  and  of  the  immerse.    It  signifies,  therefore,  that  laving  is  of  the 
Son  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  constitute  true  baptism;  essential  idea  of  the  sacrament.    Scripture  uses  the 
because  since  the  principal  cause  from  which  baptism  term  baptize  both  literally  and  figuratively.      It  is 
haa  its  efficacy  is  the  Holy  Trinity,  and  the  instru-  employed  in  a  metaphorical  sense  in  Acts,  i,  5,  where 
mental  cause  is  the  minister  who  confers  the  sacra-  the  abundance  of  the  grace  of  the  Holy  Ghost  is 
meat  exteriorly,  then  if  the  act  exercised  by  the  min-  signified,  and  also  in  Luke,  xii,  50,  where  the  term 
ister  be  expressed,  together  with  the  invocation  of  is  referred  to  the  sufferings  of  Christ  in  His  Passion. 
the  Holy  Trinity,  the  sacrament  is  perfected.    The  Otherwise  in  the  New  Testament,  the  root  word  from 
minister  of  this  sacrament  is  the  priest,  to  whom  it  which  baptism  is  derived  is  used  to  designate  the 
belongs  to  baptize,  by  reason  of  his  office.    In  case  of  laving  with  water,  and  it  is  employed  when  speaking 
necessity,  however,  not  only  a  priest  or  deacon,  but  of  Jewish  lustrations,  and  of  the  baptism  of  John,  as 
even  a  layman  or  woman,  nay,  even  a  pagan  or  here-  well  as  of  the  Christian  Sacrament  of  Baptism  (cf . 
tic  can  baptize,  provided  he  observes  the  form  iised  Heb.,  vi,  2;  Mark,  vii,  4).     In  ecclesiastical  usage, 
by  the  Church,  and  intends  to  perform  what  the  however,  when  the  terms /Bap^i^c,  Baptism  are  em- 
uhurch  performs.    The  effect  of  this  sacrament  is  plojred  without  a  qualifying  word,  they  are  intended 
the  remission  of  all  sin,  original  and  actual;  likewise  to  signify  the  sacramental  washing  by  which  the  soul 
of  all  punishment  which  is  due  for  sin.    As  a  conse-  is  cleansed  from  sin  at  the  same  time  that  water  is 
quence,  no  satisfaction  for  past  sins  is  enjoined  upon  poured  upon  the  body.    Many  other  terms  have  been 
those  who  are  baptized;  and  if  they  die  before  tney  used  as  descriptive  synonjrms  for  baptism  both  in  the 
commit  any  sin,  they  attain  inmiediately  to  the  king-  Bible  and  Christian  antiquity,  as  the  laver  of  regenera- 
dom  of  heaven  and  the  vision  of  God. "  tion,  illiunination,  the  seal  of  God,  the  water  of  eternal 
(b)  The  negative  docimient  wo  call  the  canons  on  life,  the  sacrament  of  the  Trinity,  etc.  (cf.  Bingham, 
baptism  decreed  by  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sees.  VII,  Antiq.  Eccl.,  IV).     In  English,  the  term  christen 
De  Baptismo),  in  which  the  following  doctrines  are  is    familiariy   used    for   baptize.     As,  however,  the 
anathematized:   ''The   baptism   of  John  (the   Pre-  former  word  signifies  only  tne  effect  of  baptism,  that 
cursor)  had  the  same  efficacy  as  the  baptism  of  Christ,  is,  to  make  one  a  Christian,  but  not  the  manner  and 
True  and  natural  water  is  not  necessarv  for  baptism,  the  act,  moralists  hold  that  "  I  christen  "  could  prob- 
and therefore  the  words  of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  ably  not  be  substituted  validly  for  "I  baptize"  in 
'Unless  a  man  be  bom  again  of  water  and  the  Holy  conferring  the  sacrament  (Sabetti,  n.  657;  Lehmkuhl, 
Ghost*  are  metaphorical.    The  true  doctrine  of  the  n.  63;  Amer.  Eccl.  Rev.,  Y,  I), 
sacrament  of  baptism  is  not  taught  by  the  Roman        III.  Definition. — The  Roman  Catechism  (Ad  pa- 
Church.    Baptism  given  by  heretics  in  the  name  of  rochos,Debapt.,2, 2, 5)  defines  baptism  thus:  Baptism 
the  Father  and  of  the  Son  sjid  of  the  Holy  Ghost  is  the  sacrament  of  regeneration  by  water  in  the  word 
with  the  intention  of  performing  what  the  Church  (per  aquam  in  verba),    St.  Thomas  Aquinas  (UI,  Q. 
performs,  is  not  true  baptism.    Baptism  is  free,  that  lxvi,a.  I)  gives  this  definition:  *'  Baptism  is  theexter- 
B,  not  necessary  for  salvation.    A  baptized  person,  nal  ablution  of  the  body,  performed  with  the  pre- 
even  if  he  wishes  it,  cannot  lose  grace,  no  matter  how  scribed  form  of  words. "    Later  theologians  generally 
much  he  sins,  unless  he  refuses  to  believe.   Those  who  distinguish  formally  between  the  physical  and  the 
aie  baptized  are  obliged  only  to  have  faith,  but  not  metaphysical  defining  of  this  sacrament.    By  the 
Ui  observe  the  whole  law  of  Christ.    Baptized  persons  former  they  understand  the  formula  expressing  the  ac- 
are  not  obliged  to  observe  all  the  precepts  of  the  tion  of  ablution  and  the  utterance  of  the  invocation  of 
Qinrch,  written  and  traditional,  unless  of  their  own  the  Trinity;  by  the  latter,  the  definition:  "Sacrament 
accord  they  wish  to  submit  to  them.    All  vows  made  of  regeneration  "  or  that  institution  of  Christ  by  which 
after  baptism  are  votd  by  reason  of  the  promises  made  we  are  reborn  to  spiritual  Ufe.    The  term  "  regenera- 
ia  baptism  itself;  because  by  these  vows  injury  is  tion"  distinguishes  baptism  from  every  other  sacra- 
<ione  to  the  faith  which  has  been  professed  in  baptism  ment,  for  although  penance  revivifies  men  spiritually, 
umI  to  the  sacrament  itself.    All  sins  committed  after  yet  this  is  rather  a  resuscitation,  a  bringing  back  from 
baptism  are  either  forgiven  or  rendered  venial  by  the  dead,  than  a  rebirth.     Penance  does  not  make  us 
^  sole  rem^nbrance  and  faith  of  the  baptism  that  Christians;  on  the  contrary,  it  presupposes  that  we 
baa  been  received.     Baptism  although  truly  and  have  already  been  bora  of  water  and  the  Holy  Ghost 
pioperly  administered,  must  be  repeated  in  the  case  to  the  life  of  grace,  while  baptism  on  the  other  hand 
of  a  person  who  has  denied  the  faith  of  Christ  before  was  instituted  to  confer  upon  men  the  very  beginnings 
mfideb  and  has  been  brought  again  to  repentance,  of  the  spiritual  life,  to  transfer  them  from  the  state 
No  one  18  to  be  baptized  except  at  the  age  at  which  of  eneimes  of  God  to  the  state  of  adoption,  as  sons  of 
^^brist  was  baptized  or  at  tne  moment  of  death.  God.    The  definition  of  the  Roman  Catechism  com- 
Ma&ts,  not  being  able  to  make  an  act  of  faith,  are  bines  the  physical  and  metaphysical  definitions  of 
not  to  be  reckoned  among  the  faithful  after  their  baptism.    ^'The  sacrament  of  regeneration"  is  the 
baptism,  and  therefore  when  the]^  come  to  the  age  metaphvsical  essence  of  the  sacrament,  while  the 
<)f  diacfetion  they  are  to  be  rebaptized;  or  it  is  better  physical  essence  is  expressed  by  the  second  part  of 
to  omit  their  baptism  entirelv  than  to  baptize  tiiem  the  definition,  i.  e.  the  washing  with  water  (matter), 
aa  bdieving  on  the  sole  faith  of  the  Church,  when  accompanied  by  the  invocation  of  the  Holy  Trinity 
^  themselves  caimot  make  a  proper  act  of  faith,  (form).     Baptism  is,  therefore,  the  sacrament  by 
^»om  baptized  as  infants  are  to  be  asked  when  they  which  we  are  born  again  of  water  and  the  Holy  Ghost, 
baiJB  grown  up,  whether  they  wish  to  ratify  what  that  is,  by  which  we  receive  in  a  new  and  spiritual 
^^  sponsors  had  promised  for  them  at  their  bap-  life,  the  dignity  of  adoption  as  sons  of  God  and  heirs 
te:  iod  if  they  reply  that  they  do  not  wish  to  ao  of  God's  langdom. 
«>i  wey  are  to  fc!e  left  to  their  own  will  in  the  matter       IV.    Types. — Having    considered    the    C^hristian 


SAPTIBM  260  BAPTISM 

meaning  of  the  tenn  ''baptism",  we  now  turn  our  over,  from  the  general  doctrine  of  the  Church  on  the 

attention  to  the  various  rites  which  were  its  fore*  sacraments,  we  know  that  the  efficacy  attached  to 

runners  before  the  New  Dispensation.    Types  of  this  them  is  derivable  only  from  the  institution  of  the 

sacrament  are  to  be  foimd  among  the  Jews  and  Redeemer.    When,  however,  we  come  to  the  question 

Gentiles.    Its  place  in  the  sacramental  sjrstem  of  the  as  to  when  precisely  Christ  instituted  baptism,  we 

Old  Law  was  taken  by  circumcision,  which  is  called  find  that  ecclesiastical  writers  are  not  agteed.    The 

bjf  some  of  the  Fathers  "the  laver  of  blood''  to  dis-  Scriptures  themselves  are  silent  upon  the  subject, 

tmguish  it  from  " the  laver  of  water".   By  the  rite  of  Vanous  occasions  have  been  pointed  out  as  the  piob- 

circumcision,  the  recipient  was  incorporated  into  the  able  time  of  institution,  as  when  Christ  was  Himself 

people  of  God  and  made  a  partaker  m  the  Messianic  baptized  in  the  Jordan,  when  He  declared  the  neoes- 

promises;  a  name  was  bestowed  upon  him  and  he  was  sity  of  the  rebirth  to  Nioodemus,  when  He  sent  His 

reckoned  among  the  children  of  Abraham,  the  father  Apostles  and  Disciples  to  preach  and  baptize.    The 

of  all  believers.    Other  forerunners  of  baptism  were  first  opinion  was  ouite  a  favourite  with  many  of  the 

the  numerous  purifications  prescribed  in  the  Mosaic  Fathers  and  Schoolmen,  and  they  are  fond  of  referring 

dispensation  for  legal  uncleannesses.    The  symbolism  to  the  sanctification  of  the  baptismal  water  by  con- 

of  an  outward  washing  to  cleanse  an  invisible  blemish  tact  with  the  flesh  of  the  Grod-man.    Others,  as  St. 

was  made  very  famihar  to  the  Jews  by  their  sacred  Jerome  and  St.  Maximus,  appear  to  assume  that 

ceremonies.    Jsut  in  addition  to  these  more  direct  Christ  baptized  John  on  this  occasion  and  thus  in- 

types,  both  the  New  Testament  writers  and  the  stituted  the  sacrament.   There  is  nothing,  however,  in 

Fathers  of  the  Church  find  many  mysterious  fore-  the  Gospels  to  indicate  that  Christ  baptized  the  Pre- 

shadowings  of  baptism.     Thus  St.  Paul  (I  Cor.,  x)  cursor  at  the  time  of  His  own  baptism.    As  to  the 

adduces  the  passage  of  Israel  through  the  Red  Sea,  opinion  that  it  was  in  the  colloquy  with  Nicodemus 

and  St.  Peter  (I  Pet.,  iii)  the  Deluge,  as  types  of  the  tnat  the  sacrament  was  instituted,  it  is  not  sur- 

purification  to  be  found  in  Christian  baptism.    Other  prising  that  it  has  foimd  few  adherents.    Christ's 

loreshadowings  of  the  sacrament  are  found  by  the  words  indeed  declare  the  necessity  of  such  an  insti- 

Fathers  in  the  bathing  of  Naaman  in  the  Jordim,  in  tution,  but  no  more.     It  seems  also  very  unlikely 

the  brooding  of  the  Spirit  of  God  over  the  waters,  that  Christ  would  have  instituted  the  sacrament  in 

in  the  rivers  of  Paradise,  in  the  blood  of  the  Paschal  a  secret  conference  with  one  who  was  not  to  be  a 

Lamb,  during  Old  Testament  times,  and  in  the  pool  herald  of  its  institution. 

of  Bethsaida,  and  in  the  healing  of  the  dumb  and        The  more  probable  opinion  seems  to  be  that  bap- 
blind  in  the  New  Testament.  tism,  as  a  sacrament,  had  its  origin  when  Christ  com- 

How  natural  and  expressive  the  symbolism  of  ex-  missioned  His  Apostles  to  baptize,  as  narrated  in 
terior  washing  to  indicate  interior  purification  was  John,  iii  and  iv.    There  is  nothing  directly  in  the  text 
recognized  to  be,  is  plain  from  the  practice  also  of  as  to  the  institution,  but  as  the  Disciples  acted  evi- 
the  heathen  systems  of  religion.    The  use  of  liistral  dently  under  the/  instruction  of  Christ,  He  must 
water  is  foimd  among  the  Balr^lonians,  Assyrians,  have  taught  them  at  the  very  outset  the  matter  and 
Egyptians,  Greeks,  Romans,  Hindus,    and    others,  form  of  the  sacrament  which  they  were  to  dispense. 
A  closer  resemblance  to  Chnstian  baptism  is  found  It  is  true  that  St.  John  Clirysostom  (Horn.,  xxviii  in 
in  a  form  of  Jewish  baptism,  to  be  bestowed  on  prose-  Joan.),  Theophylactus  (in  cap.  iii,  Joan.),  and  Ter- 
lytes,  given  in  the  Babylonian  Talmud  (D6llinger,  tuUian  (De  Bap t.,c.ii)  declare  that  the  baptism  given 
First  Age  of  the  Church).    But  above  all  must  be  by  the  Disciples  of  Christ  as  narrated  in  these  ch£^ 
considered  the  baptism  of  St.  John  the  Precursor,  ters  of  St.  John  was  a  baptism  of  water  only  and  not 
John  baptized  with  water  (Mark,  i)  and  it  was  a  bap-  of  the  Holy  Ghost;  but  tneir  reason  is  that  the  Holy 
tism  of  penance  for  the  remission  of  sins  (Luke,  iii).  Ghost  was  not  given  until  after  the  Resurrection 
While,  tnen,  the  symbolism  of  the  sacrament  insti-  As  theologians  have  pointed  out,  this  is  a  confusion 
tuted  by  Christ  was  not  new,  the  efficacy  which  He  between  the  visible  and  the  invisible  manifestation 
joined  to  the  rite  is  that  which  differentiates  it  from  of  the  Holy  Spirit.   The  authority  of  St.  Leo  (Ep.  xvi 
all  its  types.    John's  bantism  did  not  produce  grace,  ad  Episc.  bicil.)  is  also  invoked  for  the  same  opinion, 
as  he  himself  testifies  (Matt.,  iii)  when  he  declares  inasmuch  as  he  seems  to  hold  that  Christ  instituted 
that  he  is  not  the  Messias  whose  baptism  is  to  confer  the  sacrament  when,  after  His  rising  from  the  dead, 
the  Holy  Ghost.    Moreover,  it  was  not  John's  baptism  He  gave  Hie  command   (Matt.,  xxviii):  "Go  ana 
that  remitted  sin,  but  the  penance  that  accompanied  teach  .  .  .  baptizing";   but   St.   Leo's   words    can 
it;  and  hence  St.  Augustine  calls  it  (De  Bapt.  contra  easily  be  explained  otherwise,  and  in  another  i>art 
Donat.,  V)  ''a  remission  of  sins  in  hope".    As  to  the  of  the  same  epistle  he  refers  to  the  sanction  of  re- 
nature   oi    the    Precursor's   baptism,   St.    Thomas  veneration  given  by  Christ  when  the  water  of  baptism 
(III,  Q.  xxxviii,  a.  1)  declares:  ''The  Imptism of  John  flowed  from  His  side  on  the  Cross;  consequently, 
was  not  a  sacrament  of  itself,  but  a  certain  sacramen-  before  the  Resurrection.    All  authorities  agree  that 
tal  as  it  were,  preparing  the  way  (dispcmens)  for  the  Matt.,  xxviii,  contains  the  solemn  promulgation  of 
baptism  of  Chnst. "    Durandus  calls  it  a  sacrament,  this  sacrament,  and  St.  Leo  does  not  seem  to  intend 
indeed,  but  of  the  Old  Law,  and  St.  Bonaventure  more  than  this.   We  need  not  delay  on  the  arguments 
places  it  as  a  medium  between  the  Old  and  New  Dis-  of  those  who  declare  baptism  to  have  been  necessarily 
pensations.    It  is  of  Catholic  faith  that  the  Pre-  established  after  Christ's  death,  because  the  eflScac^ 
cursor's  baptism  was  essentially  different  in  its  ef-  of  the  sacraments  is  derived  from  His  Passion.    This 
fects  from  the  baptism  of  Chnst.    It  is  also  to  be  would  prove  also  that  the  Hol^  Eucharist  was  not 
noted  that  those  who  had  previouslv  received  John's  instituted  before  His  death,  which  is  untenable.    As 
baptism  had  to  receive  later  the  Christian  baptism  to  the  frequent  statement  of  the  Fathers  that  the 
(Acts,  xix).  sacraments  ^wed  from  the  side  of  Christ  upon  the 

V.  Institution  op  the  Sacrament. — ^That  Christ  Cross,  it  is  enough  to  say  that  beyond  the  symbolism 
instituted  the  Sacrament  of  Baptism  is.unquestion-  found  therein,  their  words  can  be  explained  as  re- 
able.  Rationalists,  like  Hamack  (Dogmengesohichte,  ferring  to  the  death  of  Christ,  as  the  meritorious  cause 
I,  68),  dispute  it,  only  by  arbitrarily  ruling  out  the  or  perfection  of  the  sacraments,  but  not  necessarily 
texts  whlcn  prove  it.    Christ  not  only  commands  His  as  their  time  of  institution. 

Disciples  (Matt.,  xxviii,  19)  to  baptize  and  gives  them        All  things  considered,  we  can  safely  state,  therefore, 

the  form  to  be  used,  but  He  also  declares  explicitly  that  Christ  most  probabhr  institutcKi  baptism  before 

the  absolute  necessity  of  baptism  (John,  iii):  'Hlnless  His  Passion.    For  in  the  first  place,  as  is  evident  from 

a  man  be  bom  a^ain  of  water  and  the  Holv  Ghost,  John,  iii  and  iv,  Christ  certamly  conferred  bapti8m»t 

be  can  not  enter  mto  the  Kingdom  of  Qod. ''    More-  at  least  by  the  hands  of  His  Diseiples,  before  Hie 


BAPTISM  261  BAPTISM 

• 

PafflioD.   That,  this  was  an  essentially  different  |ite  are  led  by  us  to  where  there  is  water  •  .  .  and  then 

bom  John   the  Precursor's   baptism   seems  plain,  they  are  laved  in  the  water".    St.  Augustine  pod- 

because  the  baptism  of  Christ  is  always  preferred  to  tively  declares  that  there  is  no  baptism  without  water 

that  of  John,  and  the  latter  himself  states  the  reason:  (Tr.  xv  in  Joan.). 

'1  baptize  with  water  .  .  .  [Christl  baptizeth  with        The  remote  matter  of  baptism,  then,  is  water, 
the  Holy  Ghost"  (John,  i).     In  the  baptism  given  by  and  this  taken  in  its  usual  meaning.     Theologiaiis 
the  Disciples  as  narrated  in  these  chapters  we  seem  tell  us  consequently  that  what  men  would  ordinarily 
to  have  all  the  requisites  of  a  sacrament  of  the  New  declare  water  is  vaUd  baptismal  material,  whether 
Law:  (1)  the  external  rite,   (2)  the  institution  of  it  be  water  of  the  sea, 'or  fountain,  or  well,  or  marsh; 
Christ,  for  they  baptized  by  His  command  and  mis-  whether  it  be  clear  or  turbid;  fresh  or  salty;  hot  or 
son,  and  (3)  the  conferring  of  grace,  for  they  bestowed  cold;  coloured  or  imcoloured.     Water  derived  from 
the  Bbly  Ghost  (John,  i).    In  the  second  place,  the  melted  ice,  snow,  or  hail  is  also  valid.    If,  however, 
Apo6tk»  received   other   sacraments   from   Christ,  ice,  snow,  or  hail  be  not  melted,  they  do  not  come 
before  His  Passion,  as  the  Holy  Eucharist  at  the  Last  under  the  designation  water.     Dew,  sulphur  or  min- 
Supper,  and  Holy  orders  (Cone.  Trid.,  Sess.  XXVI,  eral  water,  and  that  which  is  derived  from  steiun  are 
e.  i).   Now  as  baptism  has  always  been  held  as  the  also  valid  matter  for  this  sacrament.    As  to  a  mixture 
door  of  the  Church  and  the  necessary  condition  for  of  water  and  some  other  material,  it  is  held  as  ]3roper 
the  reception  of  any  other  sacrament,  it  follows  that  matter,  provided  the  water  certainly  predominates 
the  ApcNBtles  must  have  received  Christian  baptism  and  the  mixture  would  still  be  called  water.    InvaUd 
before  the  Last  Supper.    This  argument  is  used  by  matter  is  everv  liquid  that  is  not  usually  designated 
St.  Augustine  flSp.  cbdii,  al.  xliv)  and  certainly  seems  true  water.     Such  are  oil,  sahva,  wine,  tears,  milk, 
valid.  To  suppose  that  the  first  pastors  of  the  (^urch  sweaty  beer,  soup,  the  juice  of  fruits,  and  any  mixture 
received  the  other  sacraments  by  dispensation,  be-  con  taming  water  which  men  would  no  longer  call 
fore  they  had  received  baptism,  is  an  opinion  with  no  water.     When  it  is  doubtful  whether  a  liquid  could 
foundation  in  Scripture  or  tradition  and  devoid  of  really  be  called  water,  it  id  not  permissible  to  use  it 
Terisimilitude.     The  Scriptures  nowhere  state  that  for  baptism  except  in  case  of  absolute  necessity 
Cluist  Himself  conferred  baptism,  but  an  ancient  when  no  certainly  valid  matter  can  be  obtained. 
traditi(Mi  (Niceph.,  Hist,  eccf.,  II,   iii;  Clem.  Alex.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  never  allowable  to  baptize 
Strom.,  Ill)  declares  that  He  baptized  the  Apostle  with  an  invalid  liquid.    There  is  a  response  of  rope 
Pteter  only,  and  that  the  latter  oaptized  Andrew,  Gregory  IX  to  the  Archbishop  of  Trondhjem  in  Nor- 
James,  and  John,  and  they  the  other  Apostles.  way  where  beer  (or  mead)  had  been  employed  for 
VL  Matter  and  Form  of  the  Sacrament. — (1)  baptism.    The  pontiff  says:  "Since  according  to  the 
MaUer,    In  all  sacraments  we  treat  of  the  matter  Gospel  teaching,  a  man  must  be  bom  again  of  water 
and  the  form.    It  is  also  usual  to  distinguish  the  re-  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  those  are  not  to  be  considered 
mote  matter  and  the  proximate  matter.    In  the  case  validly  baptized  who  have  been  baptized  with  beer"  ^ 
of  baptism,  the  remote  matter  is  natural  and  true  (cervisia).    It  is  true  that  a  statement  declaring  wine 
water.    We  shall  consider  this  aspect  of  the  question  to  be  valid  matter  of  baptism  is  attributed  to  Pope 
first,    (a)  It  is  of  faith  that  true  and  natural  water  Stephen  II,  but  the  document  is  void  of  all  author- 
is  the  remote  matter  of  baptism.    In  addition  to  the  ity  (Labbe,  Cone,  VI).     Those  who  have  held  that 
authorities  already  cited,  we  may  also  mention  the  "water"  in  the  Gospel  text  is  to  be  taken  metaphoric- 
Fourth  Council  of  the  Lateran  (c.  i).    Some  of  the  ally,  appeal  to  the  words  of  the  Precursor  ^att.,  iii), 
eariy  Fathers,  as  Tertullian  (De  Bapt.,  i)  and  St.  "  He  shall  baptize  you  in  the  Holy  Ghost  and  fire ".    As 
Augitttine    (Adv.    Haer.,    xlvi   and    hx)    enumerate  "  fire "  must  certainly  be  only  a  figure  of  speech  here, 
heretics  who  rejected  water  entirely  as  a  constituent  so  must  "water"  in  the  other  texts.    To  this  objec- 
of  baptism.     Such  were  the  Gaians,  Manichaeans,  tion,  it  may  be  rephed  that  the  Christian  Church,  or 
Sebudans,  and  Hermians.    In  the  Middle  Ages,  the  at  least  the  Apostles  themselves,  must  have  imder- 
Wakiensians  are  said  to  have  held  the  same  tenet  stood  what  was  prescribed  to  be  taken  fiterally  and 
(EwaW,  Contra  Walden.,  vi).     Some  of  the  sixteenth  what  figuratively.    The  New  Testament  and  church 
ecntuiy  reformers,  while  accepting  water  as  the  ordi-  history  prove  tnat  they  never  looked  on  fire  as  a 
naiy  matter  of  this  sacrament,  declared  that  when  material  for  baptism,  while  they  certainly  did  re- 
water  could  not  be  had,  any  liquid  could  be  used  in  quire  water.     Outside  of  the  insignificant  sects  of 
its  place.    So  Luther  (Tischr.,  xvii)  and  Beza  (Ep.,  Seleucians  and  Hermians,  not  even  heretics  took  the 
ii,  ilTiU.).     It  was  in  consequence  of  this  teaching  word  "fire"  in  this  text  in  its  literal  meaning.    We 
that  oertam  of  the  Tridentine  canons  were  framed,  may  remark,  however,  that  some  of  the  Fathers,  as 
CUvin  held  that  the  water  used  in  baptism  was  sim-  St.  John    Damascene  (Orth.  Fid.,  IV,  ix),  concede 
ply  symbolic  of  the  Blood  of  Christ  (Instit.,  IV,  xv).  this  statement  of  the  Baptist  to  have  a  literal  fulfil- 
•^  a  rule,  however,  those  sects  which  believe  in  bap-  ment  in  the  Pentecostal  nery  tongues.    They  do  not 
tism  at  the  present  time,  recognize  water  as  the  neces-  refer  it,  however,  literally  tx)  baptism.    That  water 
fary  matter  of  the  sacrament.    Scripture  is  so  positive  alone  is  the  necessary  matter  of  this  sa^^rament  de- 
in  Its  statements  as  to  the  use  oi  true  and  natural  pends  of  course  on  the  will  of  Him  Who  instituted  it, 
vater  for  baptism  that  it  is  difficult  to  see  why  it  although  theologians  discover  many  reasons  why  it 
shouki  ever  oe  called  in  question.     Not  only  liave  should  nave  been  chosen  in  preference  to  other  liquids, 
ve  the  explicit  words  of  Cmist  (John,  iii,  v).  'Unless  The  most  obvious  of  these  is  that  water  cleanses  and 
a  man  be  bom  again  of  water  "^  etc.,  but  also  in  the  purifies  more  perfectly  than  the  others,  and  hence 
Acta  of  ^e  Apostles  and  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  there  the  symbolism  is  more  natural. 
«»  passages  that  preclude  any  metaphorical  inter-        (b)  The  proximate  matter  of  baptism  is  the  ablu- 
jwetation.    Thus  (Acts,  x,  47)  St.  Peter  says,  "C!an  tion  performed  with  water.    The  very  word  "bap- 
^man  forbid  water,  that  these  should  not  be  bap-  tize",  as  we  have  seen,  means  a  washing.    Three 
wAV*  In  the  eighth  chapter  of  the  Acts  is  narrated  forms  of  ablution  have  prevailed  among  Christians, 
^he  e|»8ode  of  Phmp  and  tne  eunuch  of  Ethiopia,  and  And  the  Church  holds  them  all  to  be  vahd  because 
in  vene  36  we  read:  "They  came  to  a  certain  water;  they  fulfil  the  requisite  signification  of  the  baptismal 
*oA  the  eunuch  said:  See,  here  is  water:  what  doth  lavmg.     These  forms  are  immersion,  infusion,  and 
^sAtT  me  from  being  baptized?"    Equally  positive  aspersion.    The  most  ancient  form  usually  employed 
'^  the  testimony  of  Christian  tradition.    Tertullian  was  unquestionably  immersion.     This  is  not  only 
i^.  at,)  begins  his  treatise:  ''The  happy  sacrament  evident  from  the  writing  of  the  Fathers  and  the  eariy 
«  our  water".     Justin  Mart3n:  (Apol.,  I)  describes  rituals  of  both  the  Latm  and  Oriental  Churches,  but 
the  ceremony  of  baptism  and  declims:  "Then  they  it  can  also  be  gathered  from  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul, 


BAPTISM  262  BAPTISM 

who  speaks  of  baptism  as  a  bath  ^phes.,  v,  26;  the  validity  of  the  sacrament,  however,  is  plain. 
Rom.,  vi,  4;  Tit.,  iii,  5).    In  the  Latin  Church,  immer-  In  the  seventh  century  the  Fourth  Council  of  Toledo 
don  seems  to  have  prevailed  until  the  twelfth  century.  (633)  approved  the  use  of  a  single  ablution  in  bap- 
,  After  that  time  it  is  found  in  some  places  even  as  late  tism,  as  a  protest  against  the  false  trinitarian  theories 
as  the  sixteenth  century.     Infusion  and  aspersion,  of  the  Arians,  who  seem  to  have  ^ven  to  the  three- 
however,  were  growing  common  in  the  thirteenth  fold  immersion  a  significance  which  made  it  imply 
century  and  graduallv  prevailed  in  the   Western  three  natures  in  the  Holy  Trinity.    To  insist  on  the 
Church.    The  Oriental  Cnurches  have  retained  im-  unity  and  consubstantiaUty  of  the  three  Divine  Per 
mersion,  though  not  always  in  the  sense  of  plunging  sons,  the  Spanish  Catholics  adopted  the  single  ablu^* 
the  candidate's  entire  body  below  the  water.    Billuart  tion  and  tnis  method  had  the  approval  of  Pop« 
(De  Bapt.,  I,  iii)  says  that  commonly  the  catechumen  Gregory  the  Great  (I,  Ep.  xliii).     The  Eunomian 
is  placed  in  the  font,  and  then  water  is  poured  upon  heretics  used  only  one  immersion  and  their  baptism 
the  head.    He  cites  the  authority  of  Goar  for  this  was  held  invalid  by  the  First  Council  of  Constanti- 
statement.    Although,  as  we  have  said,  immersion  nople  (can.  vii);  but  this  was  not  on  account  of  the 
was  the  form  of  baptism  that  generally  prevailed  in  sinigle  ablution,  but  apparently  because  they  bap- 
the  early  ages,  it  must  not  thereby  be  inferred  that  tized  in  the  death  of  Christ.    The  authority  of  this 
the  other  forms  of  infusion  and  aspersion  were  not  canon  is,  moreover,  doubtful  at  best, 
also  employed  and  held  to  be  valid.    In  the  case  of        (2)  Form, — The  requisite  and  sole  valid  form  of 
the  sick  or  dying,  immersion  was  impossible  and  the  baptism  is:  "I  baptize  thee  (or  This  person  is  bap- 
sacrament  was  then  conferred  by  one  of  the  other  tized)  in  the  name  of  the  Father  and  of  the  Son  and 
forms.    This  was  so  well  recognized  that  infusion  or  of  the  Holy  Ghost. "    This  was  the  form  given  by 
aspersion  received  the  name  of  the  baptism  of  the  Christ  to  His  Disciples  in  the  twentv-eighth  chapter 
sick  QKLfiismus  dinicorum).     St.  Cyprian  (Ep.  Ixxvi)  of  St.  Matthew's  Gospel,  as  far,  at  least,  as  there  is 
declares  this  form  to  be  valid.    From  the  canons  of  Question  of  the  invocation  of  the  separate  Persons  of 
various  early  councils  we  know  that  candidates  for  tne  Trinity  and  the  expression  of  the  nature  of  the 
Holy  orders  who  had  been  baptized  by  this  method  action  performed.    For  the  Latin  usage:  "I  baptize 
seem  to  have  been  regarded  as  irregular,  but  this  was  thee*',  etc.,  we  have  the  authority  of  the  Council  of 
on  account  of  the  culpable  negligence  supposed  to  be  Trent  (Sess.  VII,  can.  iv)  and  of  the  Coimcil  of  Flor- 
manifested  in  delaying  baptism  until  sicK  or  dying,  ence  in  the  Decree  of  Um'on.     In  addition  we  have 
That  such  persons,  however,  were  not  to  be  rebap-  the  constant  practice  of  the  whole  Western  CJhurch. 
tized  is  an  evidence  that  the  Church  held  their  bap-  The  Latins  also  recognize  as  valid  the  form  used  by 
tism  to  be  valid.    It  is  also  pointed  out  that  the  cir-  the  Greeks:  "This  servant  of  CHirist  is  baptized",  etc. 
cumstances  under  which  St.  Paul  (Acts,  xvi)  baptized  The  Florentine  decree  acknowledges  the  validity  of 
his  jailor  and  all  his  household  seem  to  preclude  the  this  form  and  it  is  moreover  recognized  by  the  Bull 
use  of  immersion.     Moreover,  the  acts  of  the  early  of  Leo  X,  "Accepimus  nuper",  and  of  Clement  VII, 
martyrs  frequently  refer  to  baptizing  in  prisons  where  "Provisionis  nostr»".    Substantiallv,  the  Latin  and 
infusion  or  aspersion  was  certainly  employed.  Greek  forms  are  the  same,  and  the  Latin  Church  has 
By  the  present  authorized  ritual  of  the  Latin  never  rebaptized  Orientals  on  their  return  to  unity. 
Church,  baptism  must  be  performed  by  a  laving  of  At  one  time  some  Western  theologians  disputed  the 
the   head   of   the   candidate.     Moralists,    however.  Greek  form,  because  they  doubted  the  valioity  of  the 
state  that  in  case  of  necessity,  *the  baptism  would  imperative  or  deprecatory  formula:  "  Let  this  person 
probably  be  valid  if  the  water  were  applied  to  any  be  baptized"  (baptizetur).    As  a  matter  of  fact,  how- 
other  principal  part  of  the  body,  as  the  breast  or  over,  the  Greeks  use  the  indicative,  or  enimtiative, 
shoulder.     In  this  case,  however,  conditional  bap-  formula:    "This    person    is    baptized"    (fiawrl^atj 
tism  would  have  to  be  administered  if  the  person  baptizatur).      This    is    imquestionable    from     their 
survived  (St.  Alph.,  no.  107).    In  like  maimer  they  Euchologies,  and  from  the  testimony  of  Arcudius 
consider  as  probably  valid  the  baptism  of  an  infant  (apud  Cat.,  tit.  ii,  cap.  i),  of  Goar  (Rit.  Graec.  Illust.), 
in  its  mother's  womb,  provided  the  water,  bv  means  of  Martdne  (De  Aiit.  Eccl.  Rit.,  I)  and  of  the  theolcgi- 
of  an  instrument,  would  actually  flow  upon  the  child,  cal  compendium  of  the  schismatical  Russians  (St. 
Such  baptism  is,  however,  later  to  be  repeated  con-  Petersburg,  1799).    It  is  true  that  in  the  decree  for 
ditionally,  if  the  child  survives  its  birth  (Lehmkuhl,  the  Armenians.   Pope  Eugene  IV  uses  baptizetur, 
n.  61).    It  is  to  be  noted  that  it  is  not  sufficient  for  according  to  the  ordinary  version  of  this  decree, 
the  water  to  merely  touch  the  candidate;  it  must  but  Labbe,  in  his  edition  of  the  Council  of  Florence 
also  flow,  otherwise  there  would  seem  to  be  no  real  seems  to  consider  it  a  corrupt  reading,  for  in  the 
ablution.     At  best,  such  a  baptism  would  be  con-  margin  he  prints  baptizatur.    It  has  been  suggested 
sidered  doubtful.     If  the  water  touches  only  the  by  Uoar  that  the  resemblance  between  pa-rrliierai 
hair,  the  sacrament  has  probably  been  validly  con-  and  baptizetur  is  responsible  for  the  mistake.     The 
ferred,  though  in  practice  the  safer  course  must  be  correct  translation  is,  of  course,  baptizatur, 
followed.     If  only  the  clothes  of  the  person  have        In  administering  this  sacrament  it  is  abeolutely 
received  the  aspersion,  the  baptism  is  imdoubtedly  necessaiy  to  use  the  word  "  baptize"  or  its  equivalent 
void.    The  water  to  be  employed  in  solemn  baptism  (Alex.  VlII,  Prop,  damn.,  xxvii),  otherwise  the  cere- 
should  also  be  consecrated  for  the  purpose,  but  of  mony  is  invalid.    This  had  already  been  decreed  b^ 
this  we  shall  treat  in  another  section  of  this  article.  Alexander  III  (Cap.  Si  quis,I.  x,  De  Bapt.),  and  it  is 
It  is  necessary  in  baptizing  to  make  use  of  a  threefold  confirmed  by  the  Florentine  aecree.    It  has  been  the 
ablution  in  conferring  this  sacrament,  by  reason  of  constant   practice   of   both   the   Latin   and    Greek 
the  prescription  of  the  Roman  ritual.    This  neces-  CJhurches  to  make  use  of  words  expressing  the  act 
sarily  refers,  however,  to  the  liceity,  not  to  the  validity  performed.    St.  Thomas  (III,  Q.  Ixvi,  a.  6)  says  that 
of  the  ceremony,  as  St.  Thomas  (III,  Q.  Ixvi,  a.  8)  and  since  an  ablution  may  be  employed  for  many  pur^ 
other  theologians  expressly  state.     The   threefold  poses,  it  is  necessarv  that  in  baptism  the  meaning 
immersion  is  unquestionably  very  ancient  in  the  of  the  ablution  be  determined  by  the  words  of  the 
Church  and  apparently  of  Apostolic  origin.     It  is  form.    However,  the  words:  "In  the  name  of  the 
mentioned  by  Tertulhan   (De  cor.  milit.,   iii),  St.  Father",  etc.,  would  not  be  sufficient  by  thetofielves 
Basil  (De  Sp.  S.,  xxvii),  St.  Jerome  (Dial.  Contra  to  determine  the  sacramental  nature  of  the  ablution. 
Luc,  viii),  and  many  other  early  writers.    Its  object  St.  Paul  (Coloss.,  iii)  exhorts  us  to  do  all  things  in  Uie 
is,  of  course,  to  honour  the  three  Persons  of  the  Holy  name  of  God,  and  consequently  an  ablution  could  be 
Trinity  in  whose  name  it  is  conferred.    That  this  performed  in  the  name  of  the  Trinity  to   obtain 
threefold  ablution  was  not  considered  necessaiy  to  restoration  of  health.   Therefore  it  is  that  in  the  fonn 


BAPTISM  263  BAPTISM 

of  iUi  aaorament,  the   act  of  baptism  must  be  the  Council  of  Aries  (can.  xvi  and  xvii)  decreed  the 
expreaBedy  and  the  matter  and  form  be  imited  to  same  for  both  Paulianists  and  Photinians. 
leaye  no  doubt  of  the  meaning  of  the  ceremony.        There  has  been  a  theqfogical  controversy  over  the 
In  addition  to  the  necessary  word  "baptize",  or  its  question  as  to  whether  baptism  in  the  name  of  Christ 
equivalent,  it  is  also  obligatorjr  to  mention  the  sepa-  only  was  ever  held  valid.    Certain  texts  in  the  New 
rate  persons  of  the  Holy  Trinity.    This  is  the  com-  Testament  have  given  rise  to  this  diflSculty.    Thus 
manaof  Christ  to  His  Disciples,  and  as  the  sacrament  St.  Paul   (Acts,  xix)  commands  some  disciples  at 
has  its  efficacy  from  Him  Who  instituted  it,  we  can  Ephesus  to  be  baptized  in  Christ's  name:  "They  were 
not  omit  anymin^  that  He  has  prescribed.    Nothinfl^  baptized  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus. "    In  Acts,  x, 
k  more  certain  than  that  this  has  been  the  gener^  we  read  that  St.  Peter  ordered  others  to  be  baptized 
understanding  and  practice  of  the  Church.     Ter*  "in  the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ".    Those  who 
tuDiaii  tells  us  (De  Bapt.,  xiii):  "The  law  of  baptism  were  converted  by  Philip  (Acts,  viii)  "were  baptized 
(tingendt)  has  been  imposed  and  the  form  prescribed:  in  the  nan"^  of  Jesus  Christ  ".and  above  all  we  have 
Go,  teach  the  nations,  baptizing  them  in  tne  name  of  the  explicit  command  of  the  Prince  of  the  Apostles: 
the  Father  and  of  the  Son  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost."  "Be  baptized  everyone  of  you  in  the  name  of  Jesus 
St.  Justin  Martyr  (Apol.,  I)  testifies  to  the  practice  in  Christ,  for  the  remission  of  your  sins"  (Acts,  ii).    Ow- 
his  time.   St.  Ajnbrose  (De  Myst.,  IV)  declares:  "Un-  ing  to  these  texts  some  theologians  have  held  that  the 
leas  a  person  has  been  baptized  in  the  name  of  the  Apostles  baptized  in  the  name  of  Christ  only.    St. 
Father  and  of  the  Son  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  he  can  Thomas,  St.  Bonaventure,  and  Albertus  Magnus  are 
not  obtain  the  remission  of  his  sins. "    St.  Cyprian  invoked  as  authorities  for  this  opinion,  they  declaring 
(Ad  Jubaian.),  rejectinjz  the  validly  of  baptism  that  the  Apostles  so  acted  bv  special  dispensation, 
given  in  the  name  of  Christ  only,  affirms  that  the  Other  writers,  as  Peter  Lombard  and  Hu^h  of  St. 
naming  of  all  the  persons  of  the  Trinity  was  com-  Victor,  hold  also  that  such  baptism  would  oe  valid^ 
mandS  b^  the  Lord  (in  plenA  et  adurudd,  TrinUate),  but  say  nothing  of  a  dispensation  for  the  Apostles. 
The  same  is  declared  by  many  other  primitive  writ-  The  most  prol^ble  opimon,  however,  seems  to  be 
ere,  as  St.  Jerome  (TV,  in  Matt.),  Origen  (De  Princ,  that  the  terms  "in  the  name  of  Jesus",  "in  the  name 
i, ii), St.  AthanasiuB  (Or,  iv,  Contr.  Ar.;,  St,  Augustine  of  Christ",  either  refer  to  baptism  in  the  faith  taught 
(De  Bapt.,  vi,  25).    It  is  not,  of  course,  absolutely  by  CHuist,  or  are  employed  to  distinguish  Christian 
oeoeflsanr  that  the  common  names  Father,  Son,  and  baptism  from  that  of  John  the  Precursor.    It  seems 
Holy  Ghost  be  used,  provided  the  persons  be  ex-  altogether  unlikely  that  immediately  cdTter  Christ 
preiBed  by  words  that  are  eauivalent  or  synonymous,  had  solemnly  promulgated  the  trinitarian  formula  of 
But  a  distinct  naming  of  tne  Divine  persons  is  re-  baptism,  the  Apostles  themselves  would  have  sub- 
quired  and  the  form:    I  baptize  thee  in  the  name  of  stituted  another.     In  fact,  the  words  of  St.  Paul 
the  Holy  Trinity",  would  be  of  more  than  doubtful  (Acts,  xix)  imply  quite  plainly  that  they  did  not. 
validity.    The  singular  form  "In  the  name",  not  For,  when  some  Chnstians  at  Ephesus  declared  that 
"names",  is  also  to  be  employed, as  it  expresses  the  they  had  never  heard  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  Apostle 
unity  of  the  Divine  nature.    When,  through  ignor-  asks:  "In  whom  then  were  you  baptized?"    This 
ance,  an  accidental,  not  substantial,  change  nasoeen  text  certainly  seems  to  declare  that  St.  Paul  took  it 
made  in  the  form  (as  In  nomine  patrid  for  ratris),  the  for  granted  that  the  Ephesians  must  have  heard  the 
baptism  is  to  be  held  valid.  name  of  the  Holy  Ghost  when  the  sacramental 

The  mind  of  the  Church  as  to  the  necessity  of  ob-  formula  of  baptism  was  pronounced  over  them, 
servinff  the  trinitarian  formula  in  this  sacrament  has        The  authonty  of  Pope  Stephen  I  has  been  alleged 

beoi  dearly  shown  by  her  treatment  of  baptism  con-  for  the  validity  of  baptism  given  in  the  name  of 

ferred  by  heretics.    Any  ceremony  that  cud  not  ob-  Christ  only.    St.  Cyprian  says  (Ep.  ad  Jubaian.)  that 

KTve  this  form  has  been  declared  invalid.     The  this  pontiff  declared  all  baptism  valid  provided  it 

Montanists  baptized  in  the  name  of  the  Father  and  was  given  in  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ.   It  must  be 

the  Son  and  Montanus  and  Priscilla  (St.  Basil,  Ep.  noted  that  the  same  explanation  applies  to  Stephen's 

if  Ad  Amphil.).     As  a  conse(]uence,  the  Coimcil  of  words  as  to  the  Scriptural  texts  aoove  given.  ^  More- 

Laodicea  ordered  their  rebaptism.    The  Arians  at  the  over,  Firmilian,  in  his  letter  to  St.  C>jrprian,  implies 

time  of  the  Council  of  Nicsa  do  not  seem  to  have  that  Pope  Stephen  required  an  explicit  mention  of 

tampered  with  the  baptismal  fonmilaJTor  that  Coun-  the  Trinity  in  baptism,  for  he  quotes  the  pontiff  as 

(^  ooes  not  order  their  rebaptism.    When,  then,  St.  declaring  that  the  sacramental  grace  is  conferred 

.^thanasius  (Or.  ii,  Contr.  Ar.)  and  St.  Jerome  (Contra  because  a  person  has  been  baptized  "with  the  in- 

Lucif.)  declare  the  Arians  to  have  baptized  in  the  vocation  of  the  names  of  the  Trinity,  Father  and 

name  of  the  Creator  and  creatures,  they  must  either  Son  and  Holy  Ghost".    A  passage  that  is  very  diffi- 

refer  to  their  doctrine  or  to  a  later  changing  of  the  cult  of  explanation  is  found  in  the  works  of  St.  Am- 

sacnunental  form.    It  is  well  known  that  the  latter  brose  (Lib.  I,  De  Sp.  S.,  ill),  where  he  declares  that  if 

Via  the  case  with  the  Spanish  Arians  and  that  con-  a  person  names  one  of  the  Trinity,  he  names  all  of 

"equently  converts  from  the  sect  were  rebaptized.  them:  "If  you  say  Christ,  you  have  designated  God 

The  Anomseans.  a  branch  of  the  Arians,  baptized  the  Father,  by  whom  the  Son  was  anointed,  and  Him 

with  the  formula:  "In  the  name  of  the  imcreated  Who  was  anomted  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost  in  whom 

God  and  in  the  name  of  the  created  Son,  and  in  the  He  was  anointed. "   This  passajge  has  been  generally 

Dame  of  the  Sanctifying  Spirit,  procreated  by  the  interpreted  as  referring  to  tne  faith  of  the  catechumen, 

crated  Son"    (Epipnamus,  Hser.,  Ixxvii).     Other  but  not  to  the  baptismal  form.    More  difficult  is  the 

Arian  sects,  such  as  the  Eunomians  and  Aetians,  bap-  explanation  of  the  response  of  Pope  Nicholas  I  to  the 

tittd  "in  tne  death  of  Christ".    Converts  from  Sa-  Bi&garians  (cap.  civ;  Labbe,  VIII),in  which  he  states 

hellianism  were  ordered  by  the  First  Council  of  Con-  that  a  person  is  not  to  be  rebaptized  who  has  already 

stantinople  (can.  vii)  to  he  rebaptized  because  the  been  baptized  "in  the  name  of  the.Holy  Trinity  or  in 

doctrine  of  Sabellius  that  there  was  but  one  person  the  name  of  Christ  only,  as  we  read  in  the  Acts  of  the 

in  the  Trinity  had  infected  their  baptismal  form.  Apostles  (for  it  is  one  and  the  same  thing,  as  St.  Am- 

'Hie  two  sects  sprung  from  Paul  of  Samosata,  who  brose  has  explained)".    As  in  the  passage  to  which 

denied  Christ's  Divinity,  likewise  conferred  invalid  the  pope  alludes,  St.  Ambrose  was  speaking  of  the 

ba(»te[i.   They  were  tlie  Paulianists  and  Photinians.  faith  oi  the  recipient  of  baptism,  as  we  have  already 

Pcpe  Innocent  I  (Ad.  Episc.  Maced.,  vi)  declares  that  stated,  it  has  been  held  probable  that  this  is  also  the 

than  sectaries  did  not  distinguish  the  Persons  of  meaning  that  Pope  Nicholas  intended  his  words  to 

the  TVinity  when  baptizing.    The  Coimcil  of  Nicsea  convey  (see  another  explanation  in  Pesch,  Prselect. 

(eaa.  six)  ordered  the  rebaptism  of  Paulianists,  and  Dogm.,  VI,  no.  389).    What  aeems  to  confirm  this  k 


BAPTISM  264  BAPTISM 

the  same  pontiff's  reply  to  the  Bulgarians  (Resp.  15)  the  efficacy  of  their  baptism  has  been  called  in  oues* 
on  another  occasion  when  they  consulted  him  on  a  tion  owing  to  the  separation  of  the  matter  ana  tlie 
practical  case.    They  inquired  whether  certain  per-  form,  for  the  latter  is  pronoimced  before  the  imIne^ 
sons  are  to  be  rebaptized  on  whom  a  man,  pretending  sion  takes  place;  the  CongregationaUsts.  Unitariane. 
to  be  a  Greek  pri^,  had  conferred  baptism?    Pope  and  Universalists  deny  the  necessity  of  oaptism,  m 
Nicholas  replies  that  the  baptism  is  to  oe  held  vahd  hence  the  presumption  is  that  they  do  not  admin- 
"U  they  were  baptized  in  tne  name  of  the  supreme  ister  it  accurately;  the  Methodists  and  Presbyterians 
and  undivided  Trinity".     Here  the  pope  does  not  baptize  by  aspersion  or  sprinkling,  and  it  may  be 
l^ve  baptism  in  the  name  of  Christ  omy  as  an  alter-  reasonably  doubted  whether  the  water  has  touched 
native.    Moralists  raise  the  (question  of  the  validity  the  body  and  flowed  upon  it;  amon^  the  Episco- 
of  a  baptism  in  whose  administration  something  else  palians  many  consider  baptism  to  have  no  true 
had  been  added  to  the  prescribed  form,  as  "and  in  efficacy  and  to  be  merely  an  empty  ceremony,  and 
the  name  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary".    'Hiey  reply  consequenUjr  there  is  a  well-groimded  fear  that  they 
that  such  baptism  would  be  invalid,  if  the  minister  are  not  sufficiently  careful  in  its  administration.   To 
intended  thereby  to  attribute  the  same  efficacy  to  this  may  be  added,  that  Episcopalians  often  baptize 
the  added  name  as  to  the  names  of  the  Three  Divine  by  aspersion,  and  though  such  a  method  is  undoubt- 
Persons.     If,  however,  it  was  done  through  a  mis-  ealy  valid  if  properly  employed,  yet  in  practice  it  is 
taken  piety  only,  it  would  not  interfere  with  the  amte  possible  that  the  spnnMed  water  may  not  touch 
validity  (S.  Alph.,  n.  111).                                      ^  tne  skin.     Sabetti  also  notes  that  nunisters  of  the 
Vn.  (Conditional  Baptism. — From  the  foregoing  same  sect  do  not  everywhere   follow  a  uniform 
it  is  evident  that  not  all^  baptism  administer^  by  method  of  baptizing.   The  practical  method  of  recon- 
heretics  or  schismatics  is  invalid.    On  the  contrary,  ciling  heretics  with  the  Church  is  as  follows: — ^If  bap- 
if  the  proper  matter  and  form  be  used  and  the  one  tism  be  conferred  absolutely,  the  convert  is  to  make 
confemng  the  sacrament  really  ''intends  to  perform  no  abjuration  or  profession  of  faith,  nor  is  he  to 
vrb&t  the  Church  performs",  the  baptism  is  undoubt-  make  a  confession  of  his  sins  and  receive  absc^ution, 
edly  valid.    This  is  also  authoritatively  stated  in  the  because  the  sacrament  of  regeneration  washes  awav 
decree   for   the   Armenians  and  the  canons  of  the  his  past  offences.    If  nis  baptism  is  to  be  conditional, 
Council  of  Trent  already  given.    The  question  be-  he  must  first  make  an  abjuration  of  his  errors,  or  a 
comes  a  practical  one  when  converts  to  the  Faith  profession  of  faith,  then  receive  the  conditional  bap- 
have  to  be  dealt  with.    If  there  were  one  authorized  tism,  and  lastly  make  a  sacramental  confession  fol- 
mode  of  baptizing  among  the  sects,  and  if  the  ne-  lowed  by  conditional  absolution.     If  the  convert's 
oessity  and  true  significance  of  the  sacrament  were  former  baptism  was  judged  to  be  certainly  valid,  he 
uniformly  taught  and  put  in  practice  among  them,  is  only  to  make  the  abjuration  or  the  profession 
there  would  be  little  difficulty  as  to  the  status  ot  of  faith  and  receive  absolution  from  the  censures  he 
converts  from  the  sects.    But  there  is  no  such  unity  may  have  incurred  (Excerpta  Rit.  Rom.,  1878).    The 
of  teaching  and  practice  among  them,  and  conse-  abjuration  or  profession  of  faith  here  prescribed  is 
quently  the  particular  case  of  each  convert  must  be  the  Creed  of  Pius  IV,  translated  into  the  vernacular, 
examined  into  when  there  is  question  of  his  reception  In  the  case  of  conditional  baptism,  the  confession 
into  the  Church.    For  not  only  are  there  religious  may  precede  the  administration  of  the  rite  and  the 
denominations  in  which  baptism  is  in  all  probability  conditional  absolution  be  imparted  after  the  bap- 
not  validly  admim'stered^  out  there  are  those  also  tism.    This  is  often  done  as  a  matter  of  fact,  as  tne 
which  have  a  ritual  sufficient  indeed  for  validity,  but  confession  is  an  excellent  preparation  for  the  recep- 
in  practice  the  likelihood  of  their  members  having  tion  of  the  sacrament  (De  Herdt,  VI,  viii;  Sabetti, 
received  baptism  validly  is  more  than  doubtful.    As  no.  725). 

a  consequence  converts  must  be  dealt  with  differently.        VIII.  Rebaptism. — To  complete  the  consideration 

If  it  be  certain  that  a  convert  was  validly  baptized  of  the  validity  of  baptism  conferred  by  hetetics,  we 

in  heresjr,  the  sacrament  is  not  repeated,  but  the  must  give  some  account  of  the  celebrated  contro- 

ceremomes  which  had  been  omitted  in  such  baptism  versy  that  raged  around  this  point  in  the  ancient 

are  to  be  supplied,  unless  the  bishop^  for  sufficient  Church.    In  Africa  and  Asia  lienor  the  custom  had 

reasons,  judges  that  they  can  be  dispensed  with,  been  introduced  in  the  eaiiy  part  of  the  third  centuiy 

(For  the  United  States,  see  Cone.  Prov.  Bait.,  I.)    If  of  rebaptizing  all  converts  from  heresy.    As  far  as 

it  be  uncertain  whether  the  convert's  baptism  was  can  be  now  ascertained,  the  practice  of  rebaptism 

valid  or  not,  then  he  is  to  be  baptized  conditionally,  arose  in  Africa  owing  to  decrees  of  a  Synod  of  Car- 

In  such  cases  the  ritual  is:  "If  thou  art  not  yet  bap-  thage  held  probably  between  218  and  222;  while  in 

tized,  then  I  baptize  thee  in  the  name''^  etc.    The  Asia  Minor  it  seems  to  have  had  its  origin  at  the 

First  Synod  of  Westminster,  England,  directs  that  Synod  of  Iconium,  celebrated  between  230  and  235. 

adult  converts  are  to  be  baptized  not  publicly  but  The  controversy  on  rebaptism  is  especially  connected 

Erivately  with  holy  water  (i.  e.  not  the  consecrated  with  the  names  of  Pope  St.  Stephen  and -of  St.  Cyp- 
aptismal  water)  and  without  the  usual  ceremonies  rian  of  Carthage.  The  latter  was  the  main  cdiam- 
flDfecr.  xvi).  Practically,  converts  in  the  United  pion  of  the  practice  of  rebaptizing.  The  pope,  bow- 
States  are  almost  invanablv  baptized  either  abso-  ever,  absolutely  condenmed  the  practice,  and 
lutely  or  conditionally,  not  because  the  baptism  ad-  commanded  that  heretics  on  entering  the  Church 
ministered  by  heretics  is  held  to  be  invalid,  but  be-  should  receive  only  the  imposition  of  hands  in 
cause  it  is  generally  impossible  to  discover  whether  pcenitentiam.  In  this  celebrated  controversy  it  is  to 
they  had  ever  been  properly  baptized.  Even  in  be  noted  that  Pope  Stephen  declares  that  ne  is  un- 
cases where  a  ceremony  had  certainly  been  per-  holding  the  primitive  custom  when  he  declares  for  the 
formed,  reasonable  doubt  of  validity  will  generally  validity  of  baptism  conferred  by  heretics.  Cyprian, 
remain,  on  account  of  either  the  intention  of  the  on  the  contrary,  implicitly  admits  that  antKfuity 
administrator  or  the  mode  of  administration.  Still  is  against  his  own  practice,  but  stoutly  ma-inti^iTM 
each  case  must  be  examined  into  (S.  C.  Inquis.,  that  it  is  more  in  accordance  with  an  enlightened 
20  Nov.,  1878)  lest  the  sacrament  be  sacrilegiously  study  of  the  subject.  The  tradition  against  >iitn 
repeated.  ^  ^  he  declares  to  be  "a  human  and  unlawful  tradition". 
As  to  the  baptism  of  the  various  sects,  Sabetti  Neither  Cyprian,  however,  nor  his  z^ous  abettor, 
(no.  662)  states  that  the  Oriental  Churches  and  the  Firmilian,  could  show  that  rebaptism  was  older  t.ln^ 
"Old  Catholics"  generally  administer  baptism  ac-  the  century  in  which  they  were  living.  The  con- 
curately:  the  Sodmans  and  Quakers  do  not  baptize  temporaneous  but  anonymous  author  of  the  book 
ftt  all;  the  Baptists  use  the  rite  only  for  adults,  and  ''De  Rebaptismate"    says  that  the  oixlinanoes  of 


BAPTISM  265  BAPTISM 

Fope  Stephen,  forbidding  the  rebaptism  of  convOTts.  Ambrose  (II  De  Abraham.,  c.  xi)  speaking  of  the  no* 
ire  in  aooordanoe  with  antiauity  and  ecclesiastical  oessity-of  baptism, sa^:  "No  one  is  excepted,  not  the 
bndition,  and  are  consecratea  as  an  ancient,  memo-  infant,  not  tne  one  mndered  by  any  necessi^. "  In 
raUe,  and  solemn  observance  of  all  the  saints  and  of  the  Pelagian  controversy  we  find  similarly  stroiiff 
all  me  faithful.  St.  Augustine  believes  that  the  pronouncements  on  the  part  of  the  Councils  ^ 
custom  of  not  rebaptizing  is  an  Apostolic  tradition,  Uarthage  and  Mile  vis.  and  of  Pope  Innocent  I.  It  is 
and  St.  Vincent  of  L^rins  declares  that  the  Synod  of  owing  to  the  Churcn's  belief  m  this  necessity  of 
Oarthage  introduced  rebaptism  against  the  Divine  baptism  as  a  means  to  salvation  that,  as  was  already 
btw  (canonem),  against  tne  rule  of  the  universal  noted  by  St.  Augustine,  she  committed  the  power  of 
Church,  and  against  the  customs  and  institutions  baptism  in  certam  contingencies  even  to  laymoi  and 
of  the  ancients.  By  Pope  Stephen's  decision,  he  con-  women.  When  it  is  said  that  baptism  is  also  neoes- 
tinues,  antiquity  was  retained  and  novelty  was  de-  sary,  by  the  necessity  of  preo^t  (prcBceptt),  it  is  of 
stroyed  {retenta  est  anHqintaSf  eo^piosa  novitas).  It  is  course  understood  that  this  applies  only  to  such  as 
true  that  the  so-called  Apostolic  Canons  (xlv  and  xlvi)  are  capable  of  receiving  a  precept,  vis.  adults.  The 
speak  of  the  non-validity  of  baptism  conferred  by  necessity  in  this  case  is  shown  by  the  command  of 
heretics,  but  DOllinger  says  that  these  canons  are  Christ  to  His  Apostles  (Matt.,  xzviii):  ''Go  and  t^teh 
comparatively  recent,  and  De  Marca  points  out  that  all  nations,  baptizing  them",  etc.  Since  the  Apoetkfl 
St.  Cyprian  would  have  appealed  to  them  had  they  are  commanded  to  baptize,  the  nations  are  corn- 
been  in  existence  before  the  controversy.    Pope  St.  manded  to  receive  baptism. 

Stephen,  therefore,  upheld  a  doctrine  already  ancient     ^  The  necessity  of  baptism  has  been  called  in  mies- 

in  the  tnird  century  when  he  declared  against  the  tion  by  some  of  the  Kef<»tners  or  their  immediate 

rebaptism  of  heretics,  and  decided  that  the  sacra^  forerunna*s.    It  was  denied  by  Wyclif,  Bucer,  and 

ment  was  not  to  be  repeated  because  its  first  ad-  Zwingli.      According  to  Calvin  it  is  necessary  for 

mmis^tion  had  been  valid.    This  has  been  the  law  adults  as  a  precept  l>ut  not  as  a  means.    Hence  he 

of  the  Church  ever  since.    The  whole  controversy  on  contends  that '  the  infants  of  believing  parents  are 

rebaptism  is  exhaustively  treated  by  Hefele  in  the  sanctified  in  the  womb  and  thus  freed  from  original 

first  volume  of  his  histonr  of  church  councils.  sin  without  baptism.     The   Socinians   teach  that 

IX.  NECEssrrr    op    Baptism. — Theologians    dis-  baptism  is  merely  an  external  profession  of  the  Chria- 

tinguish  a  twofold  necessity,  which  they  call  a  nece»-  tian  faith  and  a  rite  which  eacn  one  is  free  to  receive 

sity  of  means  {medii)  and  a  necessity  of  precept  or  neglect.    An  argument  against  the  absolute  neces- 

ipracejii).    The  first  {medit)  indicates  a  thing  to  be  sity  of  baptism  has  been  soueht  in  the  text  (^  Scrip- 

so  neces^uy  that,  if  wanting  (^ough  inculpably),  ture:  "Except  you  eat  the  flesh  of  the  Son  of  man 

salvation  cannot-  be  attained.   The  second  (prcBcepti)  and  drink  his  blood,  you  shall  not  have  life  in  you" 

is  had  when  a  thing  is  indeed  so  "necessary  thftt  it  (John,  vi).    Here,  they  say,  is  a  parallel  to  the  text: 

noay  not  be  omitted  volimtariljr  without  sin;  yet,  '^ Unless  a  man  be  bom  asain  of  water".    Yet  every- 

ignorance  of  the  precept  or  inability  to  fulfil  it,  ex-  one  admits  that  the  Eucharist  is  not  necessary  as  a 

cuses  one  from  its  observance.    Baptism  is  held  to  be  means  but  only  as  a  precept.    The  replv  to  this  is 

necessary  both  neeeaeiiate  medii  and  prcBcepH.    This  obvious.    In  the  first  instance,  Christ  addresses  His 

doctrine  is  founded  on  the  words  of  Christ.     In  words  in  the  second  person  to  adults;  in  the  second, 

John,  iii,  He  declares:  "Unless  a  man  be  bom  a^in  He  speaks  in  the  third  person  and  without  any  dis- 

of  water  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  he  can  not  enter  mto  tinction  whatever.     Another  favourite  text  is  that 

the  kingdom  of  God.'*     Christ  makes  no  exception  of  St.  Paul  (I  Cor.,  vii):  "The  unbelieving  husband 

to  this  mw  and  it  is  therefore  general  in  its  applica-  is  sanctified  by  the  believing  wife;  and  the  unbelieving 

tion,  embracing  both  adults  and  infants.    It  is  con-  wife  is  sanctified  by  the  believing  husband;  otherwise 

sequently  not  merely  a  necessity  of  precept  but  bAbo  your  children  should  be  unclean;  but  now  they  are 

a  necessity  of  means.    This  is  the  sense  m  which  it  holy. "    Unfortunately  for  the  strength  of  this  arsu- 

has  always  been  understood  by  the  Church,  and  the  ment,  the  context  snows  that  the  Apostle  in  uiis 

Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  IV,  cap.  vi)  teaches  that  justi*  passage  is  not  treating  of  regenerating  or  sanctifyine 

fication  cannot  be  obtained,  since  the  promul^tion  grace  at  all,  but  answering  certain  quMtions  proposed 

cf  the  Gospel,  without  the  laver  of  regeneration  or  to  him  by  the  Corinthians  concerning  the  validityol 

tbe  desire  thereof  (in  volo).    In  the  seventh  session,  marriages   between  heathens   and   oelievers.     The 

it  declares  (can.  v)  anathema  upon  anyone  who  says  validity  of  such  marriages  is  proved  from  the  fact 

that  baptism  is  not  necessary  for  salvation.   We  have  that  children  bom  of  them  are  le^timate,  not  spuri- 

reodered  votwn  by  "desire''  for  want  of  a  better  ous.    As  far  as  the  term  "sanctified"  is  concerned, 

wtird.   The  council  does  not  mean  by  vohim  a  simple  it  can,  at  most,  meim  that  the  believing  husband  or 

clesire  of  receiving  baptism  or  even  a  resolution  to  do  wife  may  convert  the  imbelievin^  party  and  thus 

io.   It  means  by  vohtm  an  act  of  perfect  charity  or  become  an  occasion  of  their  sanctincation.    A  certain 

contrition^  including,  at  least  implicitly,  the  will  to  statement  in  the  funeral  oration  of  St.  Ambrose  over 

do  all  things  necessary  for  salvation  and  thus  es-  the  Emperor  Valentinian  II  has  been  brought  forward 

pedaily  to  receive  baptism.    The  absolute  necessity  as  a  proof  that  the  Church  offered  sacrifices  and 

of  this  sacrament  is  otten  insisted  on  by  the  Fathers  prayers  for  catechumens  who  died  before  baptism. 

of  the  diurch,  especially  when  liiey  speak  of  infant  There  is  not  a  vestige  of  such  a  custom  to  be  found 

baptism.    Thus  St.  Iren^us  (II,  xxii):  "Christ  came  anywhere.    St.  Ambrose  may  have  done  so  for  the 

to  nve  all  who  are  reborn  through  Him  to  God,  soul  of  the  catechumen  Valentinian,  but  this  would 

infants,  children,  and  youths"  (injarttes  et  parvuloa  be  a  solitary  instance,  and  it  was  done  apparently 

ftjmeros),    St.  Augustme  (in,De  AnimA)  says:  "If  because  he  believed  tnat  the  emperor  had  nad  the 

*70Q  widi  to  be  a  Catholic,  do  not  believe,  nor  say,  baptism  of  desire.    The  practice  of  the  Church  is 

nor  teach,  that  infants  who  die  before  baptism  can  more  correctly  shown  in  the  canon  (xvii)  of  the  Sec- 

obtain  the  remission  of  original  sin. "   A  still  stronger  ond  Council  of  Bra^ : "  Neither  the  commemoration  of 

pMwgc  from  the  same  doctor  (Ep.  xxviii,  Ad  Hieron.)  Sacrifice   [oblationts]  nor   the   service   of   chanting 

reads:  "Whoever  sa3rs  that  even  infants  are  invified  IpsaUendi]  is  to  be  employed  for  catechumens  who 

in  Christ  when  they  depart  this  life  without  the  have   died   without  the  redemption   of  baptism." 

partieipation  of  His  Sacrament  (Baptism),  both  op-  The  arguments  for  a  contrary  usage  sought  in  the 

pQsei  the  Apostolic  preaching  ana  condemns  the  Second  Council  of  Aries  (c.  xii)  and  the  Fourth  Coun- 

vhole  Churcn   which  hastens   to   baptize  infants,  cil  of  Carthage  (c.  Ixxix)  are  not  to  the  point,  f^  these 

bmnae  H  onhesitatinffly  believes  that  otherwise  councils  speak,  not  of  catechumens,  but  of  penitents 

they  etD  not  possibly  be  vi>dfied  in  Christ."    St.  who  had  died  suddenly  before  their  expiation  wm 


BAPTISM  266  BAPTISM 

aompleted.  It  is  true  that  some  Catholic  writers  (as  possibility'.  For,  as  has  already  been  ezpIalDed 
Cajetaii,  l>urandu8,  Biel,  Gerson,  Toletus,  Klee)  have  the  bapitamits  flaminis  contains  the  voium  of  re- 
held  that  infants  may  be  saved  by  an  act  of  desire  on  ceiving  the  baptiamtia  aqvm.  It  is  true  that  some 
the  part  of  their  parents,  which  is  applied  to  them  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  arraign  severely  those 
by  some  external  si^^  such  as  prayer  or  the  invoca-  who  content  themselves  with  the  desire  of  receiving 
tion  of  the  Holy  Tnmty;  but  rius  V,  by  expunmig  the  sacrament  of  regeneration,  but  they  are  speaking 
this  opinion,  as  expressed  by  Cajetan,  from  that  of  catechimiens  who  of  their  own  accord  delay  the 
author's  commentary  on  St.  Thomas,  manifested  his  reception  of  baptism  from  impraiseworthy  motives, 
judgment  that  such  a  theory  was  not  agreeable  to  the  Finally,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  only  adults  are  capable 
Church's  belief.  of  receiving  the  baptism  of  desire. 

X.  SuBSTrruTES  FOR  THE  Sacrament. — The  Fathers        (2)  The  baptism  of  blood  (paptismus  sangtnnia)  is 
and  theologians  frequently  divide  baptism  into  three  the  obtaining  of  the  grace  of  justification  by  suffering 
kinds:  the Tbaptism  of  water  (aqtuB  or  flvmtnia)^  the  martyrdom  for  the  &th  of  Christ.    The  term  *'laver 
baptism  of  desire   (flaminis),  and  the  bapjtism  of  of  blood"  Qavacrum  aanguinis)  is  used  by  Tertullian 
blood  {sanguinis).    However,  only  the  first  is  a  real  (De  Bapt.,  xvi)  to  distinguish  this  species  of  regene- 
sacrament.    The  latter  two  are  denominated  baptism  ration  from  the  ''laver  of  water"  (lavacrum  aqtus), 
only   analc^cally,   inasmuch    as  they   supply   the  "We  have  a  second  laver",  he  says  "which  is  one  and 
principal  euect  of  baptism ^  namelv,  the  grace  which  the  same  [with  the  first],  namely  the  laver  of  blood." 
remits  sins.    It  is  the  teachmg  of  the  Catholic  Church  St.  Cyprian  (Ep,  Ixxiii)  speaks  of  "the  most  glorious 
that  when  the  baptism  of  water  becomes  a  physical  and  greatest  baptism  of  blood"  (sanguinis  bapiismus), 
or  moral  impossibility,  eternal  life  may  be  obtained  St.  Augustine  (De  Civ.  Dei,  XIII,  vii)  says:  "When 
by  the  baptism  of  desire  or  the  baptism  of  blood,  any  die  for  the  confession  of  Christ  without  having  re- 
(1)  The  baptism  of  desire  (Jbaptismus  flaminis)  is  a  ceived  the  laver  of  r^eneration,  it  avails  as  much 
perieot  contrition  of  heart,  and  every  act  of  perfect  for  the  remission  of  their  sins  as  if  they  had  been 
charity  or  pure  love  of  God  which  contains,  at  least  washed  in  the  sacred  font  of  baptism."    The  Church 
implicitly,  a  desire  (votum)  of  baptism.    The  Latin  grounds  her  belief  in  the  efficacy  of  the  baptism  of 
word  flamen  ia  used  because  Flamen  is  a  name  for  the  blood  on  the  fact  that  Christ  makes  a  general  state- 
Holy  Ghost,  Whose  special  office  it  is  to  move  the  heart  ment  of  the  saving  power  of  martyrdom  in  the  tenth 
to  love  God  and  to  conceive  penitence  for  sin.     The  chapter  of  St.  Mattnew:  "Every  one  therefore  that 
"baptism  of  the  Holy  Ghost"  is  a  term  employed  shall  confess  me  before  men,  I  will  also  confess  him  be- 
in  tne  third  century  by  the  anonymous  author  of  fore  my  Father  who  is  in  heaven"  (v.  32);  and:  "He 
the  book  "De  Rebaptismate".    The  efficacy  of  this  that  shall  lose  his  life  for  me  shall  find  it"  (v.  39). 
baptism  of  desire  to  supply  the  place  of  the  baptism  It  is  pointed  out  that  these  texts  are  so  broadly 
of  water,  as  to  its  pnncipal  enect,  is  proved  from  worded  as  to  include  even  infants,  especially  the 
the  words  of  Christ.    After  He  had  declai^  the  neces-  latter  text.   That  the  former  text  also  applies  to  them, 
sity  of  baptism  (John,  iii),  He  promised  justifying  has  been  constantly  maintained  by  the  Fathers,  who 
grace  for  acts  of  charity  or  periect  contrition  (John,  declare  that  if  infants  cannot  confess  Christ  with 
xiv) :  "  He  that  loveth  Me,  shall  be  loved  of  my  Fa-  the   mouth,  they  can   by  act,     Tertullian    (Adv. 
ther:  and  I  will  love  him  and  will  manifest  myself  to  Valent.,  ii)  speaks  of  the  infants  slaughtered   by 
him,"    And   again:  "If  any  one  love  me,  ne  will  Herod  as  martyrs,  and  this  has  been  the  constant 
keep  my  word,  and  my  Father  will  love  him,  and  we  teaching  of  the  Church.     Another  evidence  of  the 
will  come  to  him,  and  will  make  our  abode  with  him. "  mind  of  the  Church  as  to  the  efficacy  of  the  baptism 
Since  these  texts  declare  that  justifying  grace  is  of  blood  is  found  in  the  fact  that  she  never  prays  for 
bestowed  on  account  of  acts  of  perfect  charity  or  martyrs.    Her  opinion  is  well  voiced  by  St.  Augus- 
oontrition,  it  is  evident  that  these  acts  supply  the  tine  (Tr.  Ixxiv  in  Joan.):   "He  does  an  injury  to  a 
place  of  baptism  as  to  its  principal  effect,  the  remis-  martyr  who  prays  for  him."    This  shows  tnat  mar- 
sion  of  sins.    This  doctrine  is  set  forth  clearly  by  the  tyrdom  is  beheved  to  remit  all  sin  and  all  punishment 
Council  of  Trent.    In  the  fourteenth  session  (cap.  iv)  due  to  sin.     Later  theologians  commonly  maintain 
the  coimcil  teaches  that  contrition  is  sometimes  that  the  baptism  of  blood  justifies  adult  martyrs 
perfected  by  charity,  and  reconciles  man  to  God,  independently  of  an  act  of  charity  or  perfect  contri- 
before  the  Sacrament  of  Penance  is  received.    In  the  tion,  Mid,  as  it  were,  ex  oj^e  operato,  though,  of 
fourth  chapter  of  the  sixth  session,  in  speaking  of  the  course,  they  must  have  attntion  for  past  sins.     The 
necessity  of  baptism,  it  says  that  men  cannot  obtain  reason  is  tnat  if  perfect  charity,  or  contrition,  were 
orinnal  justice  "except  by  the  laver  of  regeneration  required  in  martvrdom,  the  distinction  between  the 
or  its  desire"  (voto).    The  same  doctrine  is  taught  baptism  of  blood  and  the  baptism  of  desire  would 
by  Pope  Innocent  IH  (cap.  Debitum,  iv,  De  Bapt.),  be  a  useless  one.    Moreover,  as  it  must  be  conceded 
and  the  contrary  propositions  are  condemned  by  that  infsmt  martyrs  are  justified  without  an  act  of 
Popes  Pius  y  and  Gregory  XII,  in  proscribing  the  charity,  of  which  they  are  incapable,  there  is  no  solid 
31st  and  33rd  propositions  of  Baius.  reason  for  denying  the  same  privilege  to  adults 

We  have  alreaay  alluded  to  the  funeral  oration  (Cf.  Suarez,  DeBapt.,  disp.  xxxix.) 
pronounced  by  St.  Ambrose  over  the  Emperor  XI.  Unbaptized  Infants. — The  fate  of  infants 
Videntinian  II,  a  catechumen.  The  doctrine  of  the  who  die  without  baptism  must  be  briefly  considered 
baptism  of  desire  is  here  clearly  set  forth.  St.  Am-  here.  The  Catholic  teaching  is  imcompromising  on 
brose  asks:  "Did  he  not  obtain  the  nace  which  he  this  point,  that  all  who  depart  this  life  without  bap- 
desired?  Did  he  not  obtain  what  ne  asked  for?  tism,  be  it  of  water,  or  blooa,  or  desire,  are  perpetually 
Certsinly  he  obtained  it  because  he  asked  for  it."  excluded  from  the  vision  of  God.  This  teaching  is 
St.  Augustine  (IV,  De  Bapt.,  xxii)  and  St.  Bernard  grounded,  as  we  have  seen,  on  Scripture  and  tradi-* 
(Ep.  bScvii,  ad  H.  de  S.  Yictore)  likewise  discoiu^e  tion,  and  the  decrees  of  the  Church.  Moreover,  that 
in  the  same  sense  concerning  the  baptism  of  desire,  those  who  die  in  original  sin,  without  ever  having 
If  it  be  said  that  this  doctnne  contradicts  the  uni-  contracted  any  actual  sin,  are  deprived  of  the  happi- 
veraal  law  of  baptism  made  by  Christ  (John,  iii),  the  ness  of  Jieaven  is  stated  explicitiv  in  the  Confession 
answer  is  that  the  lawgiver  has  made  an  exception  of  Faith  of  the  Ekistem  Emperor  Michael  PalsBologus. 
(John,  xiv)  in  favour  of  those  who  have  the  baptism  which  had  been  proposed  to  him  h^  Pope  Clement  IV 
id  desire.  Neither  would  it  be  a  consequence  of  this  in  1267,  and  which  he  accepted  m  the  presence  of 
doctrinb  that  a  person  justified  by  the  baptism  of  Gregory  X  at  the  Second  Council  of  Lyons  in  1274. 
desire  would  thereby  be  dispensed  from  seeking  after  The  same  doctrine  is  found  also  in  the  Decree  of  XJnion 
the  baptism  of  water  when  the  latter  became  a  of  the  Greeks^  in  iho  Bull  ''Letentur  (^li"  of  PoDe 


BAPTISM                               267  BAPTISM 

Eugene  IV,  in  the  Profession  of  Faith  prescribed  for  original  sin  remains,  and  the  unregenerated  soul,  hav- 

the  Greeks  by  Pope  Gregory  XIII,  and  in  that  au-  ing  no  claim  on   heaven,  is  not  mijustly  excluded 

thorized  for  the  Orientals  by  Urban  VIII  and  Bene-  from  it. 

diet  XIV.   Catholic  theologians  are  unanimous,  con-  As  to  the  question,  whether  in  addition  to  freedom 
sequently,  in  declaring  that  infants  dyin^  without  from  the  pain  of  sense,  unbaptized  infants  en'foy  any 
[»ptism,  are  excluded  from  the  beatific  vision;  but  positive  happiness  in  the  next  world,  theologians  are 
as  to  the  exact  state  of  these  souls  in  the  next  world  not  agreed,  nor  is  there  any  pronouncement  of  the 
they  are  not  agreed.    In  spc^akin^  of  souls  who  have  Church  on  the  subject.    Many,  following  St.  Thomas 
fafled  to  attam  ssdvation,  theologians  distinguish  (De  Malo,  Q.  v,  a.  3),  declare  that  these  infants  are 
the  pain  of  loss  (poma  dainm),  or  privation  of  the  not  saddenea  by  the  loss  of  the  beatific  vision,  either 
beatific  vision,  and  the  pain  of  sense  (poma  senstis),  because  they  have  no  knowledge  of  it,  and  hence  are 
While  it  is  certain  that  unbaptized  infants  must  en-  not  sensible  of  their  privation;  or  because,  knowine 
dure  the  pain  of  loss,  it  is  not  at  all  certain  that  they  it,  their  will  is  entirely  conformed  to  Qod's  will,  ana 
are  subject  to  the  pain  of  sense.    St.  Augustine  (jSe  they  are  conscious  that  thev  have  missed  an  imdue 
Pecc.  et  Mer.,  I,  xvi)  held  that  they  would  not  be  ex-  privilege  through  no  fault  of  their  own.    In  addition 
empt  from  the  pain  of  sense,  but  at  the  same  time  to  this  freedom  from  regret  at  the  loss  of  heaven, 
be  thought  it  would  be  of  the  mildest  form.    On  the  these  infants  may  also  enjoy  some  positive  happi- 
other  hand,  St.  Gr^ory  Nazianzen  (Or.  in  S.  Bapt.)  ness.    St.  Thomas  (In  II  Sent.,  dist.  AXXIII,  Q.  ii, 
expresses  the  belief  tliat  such  infants  would  suffer  a.  5)  says:  ''Although  unbaptized  infants  are  sepa- 
only  the  pain  of  loss.    Sfrondati  (Nod.  Praedest.,  I,  i)  rated  from  God  as  far  as  arloiy  is  concerned,  yet  they 
dedares  that  while  they  are  certainly  excluded  from  are  not  separated  from  Him  entirel^r.    Rather  are 
heavenjTjBt  they  are  not  deprived  of  natural  happi-  they  joined  to  Him  by  a  particii>ation  of  natural 
ness.  This  opinion  seemed  so  objectionable  to  some  gooos;  and  so  they  may  even  rejoice  in  Him  by 
French  bishops  that  they  asked  the  Judgment  of  the  natural  consideration  and  love."    A^in  (a.  2)  he 
Holy  See  upon  the  matter.     Pope  Innocent  XI  re-  says:  "They  will  rejoice  in  this,  that  they  will  share 
plied  that  ne  would  have  the  opinion  examined  into  largely  in  the  divine  goodness  and  in  natural  per- 
by  a  commission  of  theologians,  but  no  sentence  seems  fections. "    While  the  opinion,  then,  that  imbaptized 
ever  to  have  been  pa^ed  upon  it.  infants  may  enjoy  a  natural  knowledge  and  love  of 
Since  the  twelfth  century,  the  opinion  of  the  ma-  God  and  rejoice  in  it,  is  perfectly  tenaole,  and  indeed 
jority  of  theologians  has  oeen  that  imbaptized  in-  the  more  common  opinion  of  the  schools  at  present,  yet 
fants  are  immune  from  all  pain  of  sense.    This  was  it  has  not  the  certain^  that  would  arise  from  a  unani- 
taught  by  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  Scotus,  St.  Bona-  mous  consent  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church,  or  from  a 
vulture,  Peter  Lombard,  and  others,  and  is  now  the  favourable  pronouncement  of  ecclesiastical  authority, 
common  teaching  in  the  schools.    It  accords  with  the  We  may  add  here  some  brief  remarks  on  the 
woTding  of  a  decree  of  Pope  Innocent  III  (III  Deer.,  discipline  of  the  Church  in  regard  to  imbaptized 
xiii,  3):  "The   punishment  of  original  sin  is  the  persons.    As  baptism  is  the  door  of  the  Church,  the 
deprivation  of  the  vision  of  God;  of  actual  sin,  the  unbaptized  are  entirely  without  its  pale.    As  a  con- 
eternal  pains  of  hell. "    Infants,  of  course,  cannot  be  sequence:  (1)  Such  persons,  by  the  ordinary  law  of 
guilty  ot  actual  sin.     As  to  the  theory  of  some  writers  the  Church,  may  not  be  buried  in  consecratea  ground, 
that  infants  may  be  saved  also  from  the  pain  of  loss  This  includes  the  infants  of  even  Catholic  parents. 
by  the  faith  of  their  parents,  it  is  sufficiently  evident  The  reason  of  this  regulation  is  given  by  Pope  Inno- 
that  it  is  not  in  accord  with  the  mind  of  the  Church,  cent  III  (Deer.,  HI,  XXVIII.  xii):  "It  has  been  de- 
It  has  been  urged  that,  under  the  law  of  nature  and  creed  by  the  sacred  canons  that  we  are  to  have  no 
the  Mosaic  dispensation,  children  could  be  saved  by  communion  with  those  who  are  dead,  if  we  have  not 
the  act  of  their  parents  and  that  consequently  the  conmiimicated  with  them  while  alive."    By  a  decree, 
tame  should  be  even  more  easy  of  attainment  under  however,  of  the  Second  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore 
the  law  of  grace,  because  the  power  of  faith  has  not  (No.  390),  catechumens  may  receive  ecclesiastical 
been  diminished  but  increased.    But  this  ignores  the  sepulture.    This  council  also  decrees  (No.  389)  that 
fact  that  infants  are  'not  said  to  be  deprived  of  the  custom  of  burying  the  imbaptized  relatives  of 
justification  in  the  New  Law  through  any  decrease  Catholics  in  the  family  sepulchres  may  be  tolerated. 
in  the  power  of  faith,  but  because  of  the  promulga-  (2)  A  Catholic  may  not  marry  an  unbaptized  person 
tioQ  by  Christ  of  the  precept  of  baptism  which  aid  without  dispensation,  under  pain  of  nullity.     This 
not  exist  before  the  New  Dispensation.     Nor  does  impediment,  as  far  as  illicity  is  concerned,  is  derived 
this  make  the  case  of  infants  worse  than  it  was  before  from  the  natural  law,  because  in  such  unions  the 
the  Christian  Church  was  instituted.    While  it  works  Catholic  party  and  the  oflfspring  of  the  marria^ 
a  hardship  for  some,  it  has  undoubtedly  improved  would,  in  most  cases,  be  exposed  to  the  loss  of  faitn. 
the  condition  of  most.     Supernatural  faith  is  now  The  invalidity  of  such  marriage,  however,  is  a  con- 
much  more  diffused  than  it  was  before  the  coming  of  sequence  only  of  positive  law.    For,  in  the  beginning 
Christ,  and  more  infants  are  now  saved  by  baptism  of  Christianity,  unions  between  the  baptized  and  un- 
than  were  justified  formerly  by  the  active  faith  of  baptized  were  frequent^  and  they  were  certainly  held 
their  parents.    Moreover,  baptism  can  more  readily  valid.     When,  then,  circumstances  arise  where  the 
be  applied  to  infants  than  the  rite  of  circumcision,  danger  of  perversion  for  the  Catholic  party  is  re- 
aod  Dy  the  ancient  law  this  ceremony  had  to  be  moved,  the  Church  dispenses  in  her  law  of  prohibi- 
defeired  till  the  ei^th  day  after  birth,  while  baptism  tion,  but  always  requires  guarantees  from  the  non- 
can  be  bestowed  upon  infants  immediately  after  they  Catholic  party  that  there  will  be  no  interference 
ve  bom,   and   in  case  of  necessity  even  in  their  with  the  spiritual  rights  of  the  partner  of  the  union, 
naothw^s  womb.    Finally  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  (See  Impediments  op  Matrimony.)    In  general,  we 
that  unbaptized  infants  are  not  unjustly  deprived  may  state  that  the  Church  claims  no  authority  over 
of  heaven.     The  vision  of  God  is  not  somethm^  to  unbaptized  persons,  as  they  are  entirely  without  her 
vfaich  human  beings  have  a  natural  claim.    It  is  a  pale.     She  makes  laws  concerning  them  only  in  so  far 
free  rift  of  the  Creator  who  can  make  what  conditions  as  they  hold  relations  with  the  subjects  of  the  Church. 
He  looses  for  imparting  it  or  withholding  it.    No  XII.  Effects   op  Baptism. — This   sacrament  is 
BiJQstioe  is  involved  when  an  undue  privilege  is  not  the  door  of  the  Church  of  Christ  and  the  entrance 
OMiferred  upon  a  person.    Original  sin  deprived  the  into  a  new  life.    We  are  reborn  from  the  state  of 
iuunan  race  of  an  unearned  right  to  heaven.   Through  slaves  of  sin  into  the  freedom  of  the  Sons  of  God. 
the  Divine  mercy  this  bar  to  the  enjoyment  of  God  is  Baptism  incorporates  us  with  Christ's  mystical  body 
toaoved  by  baptism;  but  if  baptism  be  not  conferred,  ana  makes  us  partakers  of  all  the  privileges  flowing 


B4PTI8M  268  BAPTISM 

from  the  redemptive  act  of  the  Church's  Divine  heaven  and  to  the  vision  of  God."    In  like  mannef 

Founder.  the  Council  of  Trent  (Seas.  V)  teaches:  "There  is  no 

The  principal  effects  of  baptism  are:  cause  of  damnation-  in  those  who  have  been  tnily 

(1)  The  remission  of  all  sm,  ori^nal  and  actual,  buried  with  Christ  by  baptism.  .  .  .  Nothing  what- 
This  is  clearly  contained  in  Holy  Writ.  Thus  we  read  ever  will  delay  their  entrance  into  heaven. " 
(Acts,  ii,  38):  "Be  baptized  everyone  of  you  in  the  (3)  Another  effect  of  baptism  is  the  infusion  of 
name  of  Jesus  Chr^it,  for  the  remission  of  your  sins;  sanctifving  grace  and  supernatural  gifts  and  virtues. 
and  you  shall  receive  the  Holy  Ghost.  For  the  prom-  It  is  this  sanctifying  grace  which  renders  men  the 
ise  is  to  you  and  to  joxxt  children  and  to  all  that  are  adopted  sons  of  God  and  confers  the  right  to  heavenly 
far  off,  whomsoever  the  Lord  our  God  shall  call.''  glory.  The  doctrine  on  this  subject  is  foimd  in  the 
We  read  also  in  the  twenty-second  chapter  of  the  seventh  chapter  on  justification  in  the  sixth  session 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  (v.  16):  "Be  baptized,  and  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  Many  of  the  Fathers  of  the 
wash  awav  thy  sins. "  St.  Paul  in  the  fifth  chapter  of  Church  also  enlarge  upon  this  subject  (as  St.  Cyprian, 
his  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  beautifully  represents  St.  Jerome,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  others), 
the  whole  Church  as  being  baptized  and  purified  though  not  in  the  technical  language  of  later  eccle- 
(v.   25  sq.):  "Christ  loved   the    Church,   and    de-  siastical  decrees. 

hvered  Himself  up  for  it:  that  he  might  sanctify  it,        (4)  Theologians  likewise  teach  that  baptism  gives 
cleansing  it  by  the  laver  of  water  in  the  word  of  life:  man  the  right  to  those  special  graces  which  are  nec- 
that  he  might  present  it  to  Himself  a  glorious  Church,  essar^  for  attaining  the  end  for  which  the  sacrament 
not  having  spot  or  wrinkle,  or  any  such  thing;  but  was  instituted  and  for  enabling  him  to  fulfil  the 
that  it  should  be  holy  and  without  blemish."    The  baptismal  promises.     This  doctrine  of  the  schools, 
prophecy  of  Ezechiel  (xxxvi,  25)  has  also  been  under-  which  claims  for  every  sacrament  those  graces  which 
stood  of  baptism:  "I  will  pour  upon  you  clean  water,  are  peculiar  and  diverse  according  to  the  end  and 
and  you  shall  be  cleansed  from  all  your  filthiness  object  of  the  sacrament,  was  already  enunciated  by 
(inquinameniis),  where  the  prophet  is  imquestionably  Tertullian  (De  Resurrect.,  viii).     It  is  treated  and 
sp^^king  of  moral  defilements.    This  is  also  the  sol-  developed  by  St.  Thomas  Ac^uinas  (III,  Q.  Ixii,  a.  2). 
emn  teaching  of  the  Church.    In  the  profession  of  Pope  Eugene  IV  repeats  this  doctrine  in  the  decree 
faith  prescribed  by  Pope  Innocent  III  for  the  Wal-  for  the  Armenians.    In  treating  of  the  grace  bestowed 
densians  in  1210,  we  read:  "We  believe  that  all  sins  by  baptism,  we  presume  that  the  recipient  of  the 
are  remitted  in  baptism,  both  original  sin  and  those  sacrament  puts  no  obstacle   (obex)  in  the  way  of 
sins  which  have  been  voluntarily  committed. "    The  sacramental  grace.     In  an  infant,  of  course,  this 
Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  V.,  can.  v)  anathematizes  would  be  impossible,   and   as  a  consequence,  the 
whomsoever  denies  that  the  grace  of  Christ  which  is  infant  receives  at  once  all  the  baptismal  grace.    It  is 
conferred  in  baptism  does  not  remit  the  ^uilt  of  otherwise  in  the  case  of  an  adult,  for  in  such  a  one 
original  sin;  or  asserts  that  everything  which  can  it  is  necessary  that  the  requisite  dispositions  of  the 
truly  and  properly  be  called  sin  is  not  thereby  taken  soul  be  present.   The  CouncU  of  Trent  (Sess.  VI,  c.  vii) 
away.    The  same  is  taught  by  the  Fathers.    St.  Justin  states  tnat  each  one  receives  grace  according  to  his 
Martyr  (Apol.,  I,  Ixvi)  declares  that  in  baptism  we  disposition  and  co-operation.     We  are  not  to  con- 
are  createa  anew,  that  is,  consequently,  free  from  found  an  obstacle  (obex)  to  the  sacrament  itself  with 
all  stain  of  sin.    St.  Ambrose  (De  Myst.,  iii)  says  of  an  obstacle  to  the  sacramental  grace.     In  the  first 
baptism:  "This  is  the  water  in  which  the  flesh  is  sub-  case,  there  is  implied  a  defect  in  the  matter  or  form, 
merged  that  all  carnal  sin  may  be  washed  away,  or  a  lack  of  the  requisite  intention  on  the  part  of 
Every  transgression  is  there  buried. "     Tertullian  minister  or  recipient,  and  then  the  sacrament  would 
(De  Bapt.,  vii)  writes:  "Baptism  is  a  carnal  act  in  be  simply  null.    But  even  if  all  these  essential  requi- 
as  much  as  we  are  submerged  in  the  water;  but  the  sites  for  constituting  the  sacrament  be  present,  there 
effect  is  spiritual,  for  we  are  freed  from  our  sins."  can  still  be  an  obstacle  put  in  the  way  of  the  sacra- 
The  words  of  Origen  (In  Gen.,  xiii)  are  classic:  "If  mental  grace,  inasmuch  as  an  adult  might  receive 
you  transgress,  you  write  unto  yourself  the  hand-  baptism  with  improper  motives  or  without  real  de- 
writing  [cfcirofirrap/wtml  of  sin.    But,  behold,  when  you  testation  for  sin.     In  that  case  the  person  would 
have  once  approached  to  the  cross  of  Christ  and  to  indeed  be  vahdly  baptized,  but  he  would  not  partici- 
the  grace  of  baptism,  your  handwriting  is  affixed  to  pate  in  the  sacramental  grace.     If,  however,  at  a 
the  cross  and  blotted  out  in  the  font  of  baptism. "  later  time  he  made  amends  for  the  past,  the  obstacle 
It  is  needless  to  multiply  testimonies  from  the  early  would  be  removed  and  he  would  obtain  the  grace 
ages  of  the  Church.     It  is  a  point  on  which  the  which  he  had  failed  to  receive  when  the  sacrament 
Fathers  are  unanimous,  and  telhng  quotations  might  was  conferred  upon  him.    In  such  a  case  the  sacra- 
also  be  made  from  St.  Cyprian,  Clement  of  Alex-  ment  is  said  to  revive  and  there  could  be  no  question 
andria,  St.  Hilary,  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  St.  Basil,  of  rebaptism. 
St.  Gregory  Nazianien,  and  others.  (5)  Finally,  baptism,  once  validly  conferred,  can 

(2)  But  baptism  not  only  washes  away  sin,  it  also  never  be  repeated.  The  Fathers  (St.  Ambrose, 
remits  the  punishment  of  sin.  This  was  the.  plain  Chrysostom,  and  others)  so  understand  the  words  of 
teaching  of  the  primitive  Chucch.  We  read  in  St.  Paul  (Heb.,  vi,  4),  and  this  has  been  the  constant 
Clement  of  Alexandria  (Psedagog.,  i)  of  baptism:  teaching  of  the  Church  both  Eastern  and  Western 
"  It  is  called  a  laver  because  we  are  washed  from  our  from  the  earliest  times.  On  this  account,  baptism  is 
sins:  it  is  called  grace,  because  by  it  the  punishments  said  to  impress  an  ineffaceable  character  on  the 
which  are  due  to  sin  are  remitted."  St.  Jerome  soul,  which  the  Tridentine  Fathers  call  a  spiritual 
^p.  bdx)  writes:  "After  the  pardon  {indtUgentiam)  and  indelible  mark.  That  baptism  (as  well  as  Con- 
of  oaptism,  the  severity  of  the  Judge  is  not  JU)  be  firmation  and  Holy  orders)  really  does  imprint  such 
fearecf. "  And  St.  Augustine  (De  Pecc.  et  Mer.,  II,  a  character,  is  defined  exphcitly  by  the  Council  of 
xxviii)  says  plainly:  "If  immediately  [after  baptism!  Trent  (Sess.  VII,  can.  ix).  St.  Cyril  (Prsep.  in  Cat.) 
there  follows  the  aeparture  from  this  life,  there  will  caUs  baptism  a  "holy  and  indelible  seal",  and  Clem- 
be  absolutely  nothing  that  a  man  must  answer  for  ent  of  Alexandria  (De  Div.  Serv.,  xlii),  "the  seal  of 
Ijitod  ohnoxium  hominem  teneat],  for  he  will  have  been  the  Lord  ".  St.  Augustine  compares  this  character  or 
freed  from  everything  that  bound  him."  In  perfect  mark  imprinted  upon  the  Christian  soul  with  the 
accord  with  the  early  doctrine,  the  Florentine  decree  character  mUUaris  impressed  upon  soldiers  in  the  im- 
states;  "  No  satisfaction  is  to  be  enjoined  upon  the  perial  service.  St.  Tnomas  treats  of  the  nature  of 
baptized  for  past  sins:  and  if  they  die  before  any  sin,  this  indelible  seal,  or  character,  ip  ^he  Summa  (III* 
they  will  immediately  attain  to  the  kingdom  of  Q.  bdii,  a.  2). 


BAPTISM  269  BAPTISM 

The  early  leaders  of  the  so-called  Reformation  Second  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  adds:  'Priests 

y4  very  cufiferent  doctrines  from  those  of  Christian  are   deserving  of   grave   reprehension   who   rashly 

antiquity  on  the  effects  of  baptism.     Luther  CDe  baptize  infants  of  another  parish  or  of  another  dio- 

Oaptiv.  Bab.)  and  Calvin  (Antid.  C.  Trid.)  held  that  cese."    8t.  Alphonsus  (n.  114)  says  that  parents  who 

thiB  sacrament  made  the  baptized  certain  of  the  bring  their  children  for  baptism  without  necessity 

perpetual  grace  of  adoption.     Others  declared  that  to  a  priest  other  than  their  own  pastor,  are  s:uilty  of 

the  calHng  to  mind  of  one's  baptism  would  free  him  sin  because  they  violate  the  rights  of  the  parisn  pnest. 

iiom  sins  committed  after  it;  others  again,   that  He  adds,  however,  that  other  priests  may  baptize 

tranagreesions  of  the  Divine  law,  although  sins  in  such  children,  if  they  have  the  permission,  whether 

themselves,  would  not  be  imputed  as  sins  to  the  express,  or  tacit,  or  even  reasonably  presumed,  of 

baptised  person  provided  he  had  faith.    The  decrees  the  proper  pastor.    Those  who  have  no  settled  place 

of  the  Council  of  Trent,  drawn  up  in  opposition  to  the  of  abode  may  be  baptized  by  the  pastor  of  any  church 

then  prevailing  errors,  bear  witness  to  the  many  they  choose. 

stnuige  and   novel   theories   broached   by   various        (b)  In  case  of  necessity,  baptism  can  be  adminis- 

exponents  of  the  nascent  Protestant  theology.  terea  lawfully  and  validly  by  any  person  whatsoever 

XIII.  Minister  op  the  Sac?rament. — ^The  Church  who  observes  the  essential  conditions,  whether  this 

distinguishes  between  the  ordinary  and  the  extraor-  person  be  a  Catholic  layman  or  any  other  man  or 

dinary  minister  of  baptism.    A  distinction  is  also  woman,  heretic  or  schismatic,  infidel  or  Jew.    The 

made  as  to  the  mode  of  administration.     Solemn  essential  conditions  are  that  the  person  pour  water 

baptism  is  that  which  is  conferred  with  all  the  rites  upon  the  one  to  be  baptized,  at  tne  same  time  pro^ 

and  ceremonies    prescribed    by    the    Church,    and  nouncing  the  words:  "I  baptize  thee  in  the  name  of 

private  baptism  is  tliat  which  may  be  administered  the  Father  and  of  the  Son  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost. " 

at  anjr  time  or  place  according  to  the  exigencies  of  Moreover,  he  must  thereby  intend  really  to  baptize 

necessity.    At  one  time  solemn  and  public  baptism  the  person,  or  technically,  he  must  intend  to  perform 

was  conferred  in  the  Latin  Church  only  during  the  what  the  Church  performs  when  administenng  this 

paschal  season  and  Whitsuntide.    The  Orientals  ad-  sacrament.    The  Koman  Ritual  adds  that,  even  in 

nunistered  it  likewise  at  the  Epiphany.  ^  conferring  baptism  in  cases  of  necessity,  there  is  an 

(a)  The  ordinary  minister  of  solemn  baptism  is  order  of  preference  to  be  followed  as  to  the  minister. 

firet  the  bishop  and  second  the  priest.     By  delcga>  This  order  is:  if  a  priest  be  present,  he  is  to  be  pre- 

tion,  a  deacon  may  confer  the  sacrament  solemnly  as  ferred  to  a  deacon,  a  deacon  to  a  subdeaoon,  a  cleric 

an  extraordinary  minister.    Bishops  are  said  to  be  to  a  layman,  and  a  man  to  a  woman,  unless  modesty 

ordinary  ministers  because  they  are  the  successors  should  require  (as  in  cases  of  childbirth)  that  no 

of  the  Apostles  who  received  directly  the  Divine  other  than  the  female  be  the  minister,  or  again,  im- 

command:  ''Go  and  teach  all  nations,  baptizing  them  less  the  female  should  imderstand  better  the  method 

in  the  name  of  the  Father  and  of  the  Son  and  of  the  of  baptizing.    The  Ritual  also  says  that  the  father 

Holy  Ghost."     Priests  are  also  ordinary  ministers  or  mother  should  not  baptize  their  own  child,  except 

because  by  their  office  and  sacred  orders  they  are  in  danger  of  death  when  no  one  else  is  at  hand  who 

pastors  of  souls  and  administrators  of  the  sacraments,  could  administer  the  sacrament.     Pastors  are  also 

and  hence  the   Florentine  decree  declares:    "The  directed  by  the  Ritual  to  teach  the  faithful,  and  es- 

Diinister  of  this  Sacrament  is  the  priest,  to  whom  it  pecially  midwives,  the  projjer  method  of  baptizing, 

belongs  to  administer  baptism  by  reason  of  his  office. "  When  such  private  baptism  is  administered,  the  other 

As,  however,  bishops  are  superior  to  priests  by  the  ceremonies  of  the  rite  are  supplied  later  by  a  priest, 

Divine  law,  the  solemn  administration  of  this  sacra-  if  the  recipient  of  the  sacrament  survives, 
meat  was  at  one  time  reserved  to  the  bishops,  and  a        This  right  of  any  person  whatsoever  to  baptize  in 

priest  never  administered  this  sacrament  in  the  pres-  case  of  necessity  is  in  accord  with  the  constant  tradi- 

CDce  of  a  bishop  unless  commanded  to  do  so.    How  tion  and  practice  of  the  Church.  Tertullian  (De  Bapt., 

ancient  this  discipline  was,  may  be  seen  from  Ter-  vii)  says,  speaking  of  laymen  who  have  an  oppor- 

tullian  (De  Bapt.,  xvii):  "The  right  to  confer  baptism  tunity  to  administer  baptism:  "He  will  be  guilty  of 

belongB  to  the  chief  priest  who  is  the  bishop,  then  to  the  loss  of  a  soul,  if  he  neglects  to  confer  what  he 

priests  and  deacons,  but  not  without  the  authoriza-  freely  can."    St.  Jerome  (Adv.  Lucif.,  ix):  "In  case 

tion  of  the  bishop."   Ignatius  fEp.  adSmyr.,  viii):  "It  of  necessity,  we  know  that  it  is  also  allowable  for  a 

»  not  lawful  to  oaptize  or  celeorate  the  a^pe  without  layman  Fto  oaptize];  for  as  a  person  receives,  so  may 

the  bishop."   St.  Jerome  (Contra  Lucif.,  ix)  witnesses  he  give."    The  Fourth  Coimcil  of  the  Lateran  (cap. 

to  the  same  usage  in  his  days:  "Without  chrism  and  Firmiter)  decrees:  "The  Sacrament  of  Baptism  .  .  . 

the  command  of  the  bishop,  neither  priest  nor  deacon  no  matter  by  whom  conferred  is  available  to  salva- 

has  the  right  of  conferrmg  baptism. "    Deacons  are  tion. "    St.  Isidore  of  Seville  (can.  Romanus  de  oons., 

only  extraordinary  ministers  of  solemn  baptism,  as  iv)  declares:  "The  Spirit  of  God  administers  the 

by  their  office  they  are  assistants  to  the  priestly  grace  of  baptism,  although  it  be  a  pagan  who  does 

wder,    St.  Isidore  of  Seville  (De  Eccl.  Off.,  ii,  25)  the  baptizing."    Pope  Nicholas  I  teaches  the  Bul- 

wys:  "It  is  plain  that  baptism  is  to  be  conferred  by  garians  (Resp.  104)  that  baptism  by  a  Jew  or  a 

pncsts  only,  and  it  is  not  lawful  even  for  deacons  to  pagan  is  valid.    Owing  to  the  fact  that  women  are 

*<hniniater  it  without  permission  of  the  bishop  or  barred  from  enjoying  any  species  of  ecclesiastical 

priest."    That  deacons  were,  however,  ministers  of  jurisdiction,  the  question  necessarily  arose  conoem- 

^  sacrament  by  delegation  is  evident  from  the  ing  their  ability  to  bestow  valid  baptism.    Tertullian 

<iaotations  adduced.     In  the  service  of  ordination  (De  Bapt.,  xvii)  strongly  opposes  the  administration 

^t  deacon,  the  bishop  says  to  the  candidate:  "It  of  this  sacrament  by  women,  but  he  does  not  declare 

hehooves  a  deacon  to  minister  at  the  altar,  to  baptize  it  void.    In  like  manner,  St.  Epiphanius  (Haer.,  Ixxix) 

ttd  to  preach. "    Philip  the  deacon  is  mentioned  in  says  of  females:  "Not  even  the  power  of  baptizing 

oaij  Writ  (Acts,  yiii)  as  conferring  baptism,  pre-  has  been  granted  to  them",  but  he  is  sp^iking  of 

stmiably  by  delegation  of  the  Apostles.    It  is  to  be  solemn  baptism,  which  is  a  function  of  the  priesthood, 

noted  that   though  every  priest,  in  virtue  of  his  Similar  expressions  may  be  found  in  the  writings  of 

Jp&ation  is  the  ordinary  minister  of  baptism,  yet  other  Fathers,  but  .only  when  they  are  opposing  the 

^,  ecclesiastical  decrees  he  cannot  use  this  power  grotesque  doctrine  of  some  heretics,  like  theMar- 

Beitfy  imless  he  has  jurisdiction.    Hence  the  Roman  cionites,  Pepuzians,  and  Cataphrygians,  who  wished 

Bitual  declares:  "The  legitimate  minister  of  baptism  to  make  Christian  priestesses  of  women.    The  au- 

■  tfae  parish  priest,  or  any  other  priest  delegated  by  thoritative  decision  of  the  Church,  however,  is  plain, 

the  paiish  pnest  or  the  bishop  of  the  place."    The  Pope  Urban  II  (c.  Super  quibus,  xxx,  4)  writes:  "It 


BAPTISM  270  BAPTISM 

10  true  baptism  if  a  woman  in  case  of  necessity  bap-  Church  always  had,  always  heldj  this  she  received 
tizes  a  child  in  the  name  of  the  Trinity."     The  from  the  faith  of  our  ancestors:  this  shepersevCTingW 
Florentine  decree  for  the  Armenians  says  explicitly:  guards  even  to  the  end.  '*   St.  Cyprian  (Ep.  ad  Fidum) 
**In  case  of  necessity,  not  only  a  priest  or  a  deacon,  writes:  "From  baptism  and  from  grace  .  .  .  miwt 
but  even  a  layman  or  woman,  nay  even  a  pagan  or  not  be  kept  the  infant  who,  because  recently  born, 
heretic  may  confer  baptism."    The  main  reason  for  has  conmutted  no  sin,  except,  inasmuch  as  it  was  born 
this  extension  of  power  as  to  the  administration  of  carnally  from  Adam,^  it  has  contracted  the  contagion 
baptism  is  of  course  that  the  Church  has  understood  of  the  ancient  death  in  its  first  nativity;  and  it  comes 
from  the  beginning  that  this  was  the  will  of  Christ,  to  receive  the  remission  of  sins  more  easily  on  this 
St.  Thomas  (III,  Q.  Ixvii,  a.  3)  says  that  owing  to  the  very  account  that  not  its  own,  but  another's  sins  are 
absolute  necessity  of  baptism  for  the  salvation  of  forgiven  it."    St.  Cyprian's  letter  to  Fidus  declares 
souls,  it  is  in  accordance  with  the  mercy  of  God,  who  that  the  Coimcil  of  Cartha^  in  253  reprobated  the 
wishes  all  to  be  saved,  that  the  means  of  obtaining  opinion  that  the  baptism  of  mfants  should  be  delayed 
this  sacrament  should  be  put,  as  far  as  possible,  until  the  eighth  day  after  birth.     The  Council  of 
within  the  reach  of  all;  ana  as  for  that  reason  the  Milevis  in  416  anathematizes  whosoever  says  that 
matter  of  the  sacrament  was  made  of  common  water,  infants  lately  bom  are  not  to  be  baptized.    The 
which  can  most  easily  be  had,  so  in  like  manner  it  Coimcil  of  Trent  solemnly  defines  the  doctrine  of 
was  only  proper  that  every  man  should  be  made  its  infant  baptism  (Sess.  VII,  can.  xiii).     It  also  con- 
minister^   Finally,  it  is  to  oe  noted  that,  by  the  law  denms  (can.  xiv^  the  opinion  of  Erasmus  that  those 
of  the  Church,  the  person  administering  baptism,  who  had  been  baptized  in  infancy,  should  be  left 
even   in   cases  of  necessity,   contracts  a  spuitual  free  to  ratify  or  reject  the  baptismal  promises  after 
relationship  with  the  child  and  its  parents.     This  they  had  become  adult.    Theologians  also  call  atten- 
relationship  constitutes  an  impediment  that  would  tion  to  the  fact  that  as  God  sincerely  wishes  all  men 
make  a  subsequent  marriage  with  any  of  them  null  to  be  saved,  He  does  not  exclude  infants,  for  whom 
£uid  void  imless  a  dispensation  were  obtained  before-  baptism  of  either  water  or  blood  is  the  only  means 
hand.    See  Affinity.  possible.    The  doctrines  also  of  the  universality  of 
XIV.  Recipient  of  Baptism. — ^E  very  living  human  original  sin  and  of  the  all-comprehending  atonement 
being,  not  yet  baptized,  is  the  subject  of  this  sacra-  of  Christ  are  stated  so  plainly  and  absolutely  in 
ment.  Scripture  as  to  leave  no  solid  reason  for  denying  that 

(1)  As  re^rds  adults  there  is  no  difficulty  or  con-  infants  are  included  as  well  as  adults.  ^ 

troversy.    Christ's  command  excej^ts  no  one  when        To  the  objection  that  baptism  requires  faith,  theo- 

He  bids  the  Apostles  teach  all  nations  and  baptize  logians  reply  that  adults  must  have^  faith,  but  in- 

them.  fants  receive  habitual  faith,  which  is  infused  into 

(2)  Infant  baptism  has,  however,  been  the  subject  them  in  the  sacrament  of  regeneration.    As  to  actual 
of  much  dispute.    The  Waldenses  and  Cathari,  and  faith,  they  believe  on  the  laith  of  another;  as  St. 
later  the  Aiiabaptists,  rejected  the  doctrine  that  Augustine  (De  Verb.  Apost.,  xiv,  xviii)  beautifully 
infants  are  capable  of  receiving  valid  baptism,  and  says:  "He  beUeves  by  another,  who  has  sinned  by 
some  sectarians  at  the  present  day  hold  the  same  another.^    As  to  the  obligation  imposed  by  baptism, 
opinion.    The  Catholic  Church,  however,  maintains  the  infant  is  obliged  to  fulfil  them  in  proportion  to  its 
absolutely  that  the  law  of  Christ  applies  as  well  to  age  and  capacity,  as  is  the  case  with  all  laws.    Christ, 
infants  as  to  adults.    When  the  Redeemer  declares  it  is  tVue,  prescribed  instruction  and  actual  faith  for 
(John,  iii)  that  it  is  necessary  to  be  bom  again  of  adults  as  necessary  for  baptism  (Matt.,  xxviii;  Mark, 
water  and  the  Holy  Ghost  m  order  to  enter  the  xvi),  but  in  His  general  law  on  the  necessity  of  the 
Kingdomof  God,  His  words  may  be  justly  understood  sacrament  (John,  iii)  He  makes  absolutely  no  re- 
to  mean  that  He  includes  all  who  are  capable  of  striction  as  to  tne  subject  of  baptism:  and  conse- 
having  a  right  to  this  kingdom.   Now,  He  has  asserted  quently  while  infants  are  included  in  tne  law,  they 
such  a  right  even  for  those  who  are  not  adults,  when  cannot   be  reouired  to   fulfil   conditions   that    are 
He  says  (Matt.,  xix,  14):  "Suffer  the  little  children,  utteriy  impossiole  at  their  age.    Wbile  not  denying 
and  forbid  them  not  to  come  to  me:  for  the  kingdom  the  validity  of  infant  baptism,  Tertullian  (De  Bapt., 
of  heaven  is  for  such."    It  has  been  objected  that  xviii)  desired  that  the  sacrament  be  not  confeired 
this  latter  text  does  not  refer  to  infants,  inasmuch  as  upon  them  until  they  have  attained  the  use  of  reason, 
Christ  says  "to  come  to  me''.   In  the  parallel  passage  on  account  of  the  danger  of  profaning  their  baptism 
in  St.  Luke  (xviii,  15),  however,  tne  text  reads:  as  youths  amid  the  aflurements  of  pagan  vice.     In 
"And  they  brought  unto  him  also  infants,  that  he  like  manner,  St.  Gr^^ry  Nazianzen  ((Jr.  xl,  DeBapt,) 
might  touch  them'';  and  then  follow  the  words  cited  thought  that  baptism,  unless  there  was  danger  of 
from  St.  Matthew.     In  the  Greek  text,  the  words  death,  should  be  deferred  until  the  child  was  three 
ppi^Pv    and    Tpoiri<f>€pop    refer    to    infants   in    arms,  years  old,  for  then  it  could  hear  and  respond  at  the 
Moreover,  St.  Paul  (Coloss.,  ii)  says  that  baptism  in  ceremonies.     Such  opinions,  however,  were  shared  by 
the  New  Law  has  taken  the  place  of  circumcision  in  few,  and  they  contain  no  denial  of  the  validiW  of 
the  Old.    It  was  especially  to  infants  that  the  rite  infant  baptism.    It  is  true  that  the  (]k)uncil  of  Neo- 
of  circumcision  was  applied  by  Divine  precept.    If  it  csBsarea  (can.  vi)  declares  that  an  infant  cannot  be 
be  said  that  there  is  no  example  of  the  baptism  of  baptized  in  its  mother's  womb,  but  it  was  teaching 
infants  to  be  found  in  Holy  Writ,  we  may  answer  only  that  neither  the  baptism  of  the  mother  nor  her 
that  infants  are  included  in  such  phrases  as:  "She  faith  is  common  to  her  and  the  infant  in  her  ^womb, 
was  baptized  and  her  household"  (Acts,  xvi,  15);  but  are  acts  peculiar  to  the  mother  alone. 
''Himself  was  baptized,  and  all  his  house  immedi-        (3)  This  leads  to  the  baptism  of  infants  in  cases  of 
ately"  (Acts,  xvi,  33)^  *'I  baptized  the  household  of  difficult  parturition.    When  the  Roman  Ritual  de- 
Stephanus"  (I  Cox\,  i,  16).  clares  that  a  child  is  not  to  be  baptized  while  stiU 

The  tradition  of  Christian  antiquity  as  to  the  neces-  enclosed  {dausus)  in  its  mother's  womb,  it  supposes 

sity  of  infant  baptism  is  clear  from  the  very  begin-  that  the  baptismal  water  cannot  reach  the  body  of 

ning.    We  have  given  many  striking  quotations  on  the  child.    When,  however,  this  seems  possible,  even 

this  subject  already,  in  dealing  with  the  necessity  of  with  the  aid  of  an  instrument,  Benedict  XTV  (Sjrn. 

baptism.    A  few,  therefore,  will  suffice  here.    Ongen  Dioec.,  vii,  5)  declares  that  midwives  should  be  in- 

(in  cap.  vi,  Ep.  ad  Rom.)  declares:  "The  CJhurch  structed  to  confer  conditional,  baptism.    The  Ritual 

received  from  the  Apostles  the  tradition  of  giving  further  says  that  when  the  water  can  flow  upon  the 

baptism  also  to  infants".     St.  Angus tii^e  (Serm.  xi,  head  of  the  infant  the  sacrament  is  to  be  administered 

De  Verb  Apost.)  says  of  infant  baptism:  ''This  the  absolutely;  but  if  it  can  be  poured  only  on  sonne  othcy- 


BAPTISM  271  BAPTISM 

pari  of  the  body,  baptism  is  indeed  to  be  conferred,  were  perpetually  insane;  or  if  -one  of  the  parents 

bat  it  muBt  be  conditionally  repeated  in  case  the  child  were  to  consent  to  the  baptism;  or  finally,  if,  after 

imrives  its  Inrth.    It  is  to  be  noted  that  in  these  the  death  of  the  father,  the  paternal  grandifather 

last  tyro  cases,  the  rubric  of  the  Ritual  supposes  that  would  be  willing,  even  though  the  moUier  objected. 

Uie  uifant  has  partly  emerged  from  the  womb.    For  If  the  children  were,  however,  not  infants,  but  had 

d  the  foetus  was  entirely  enclosed,  baptism  is  to  be  the  use  of  reason  and  were  sufficiently  instructed 

repeated  conditionally  in  all  cases  (Lehmkuhl,  n.  61).  thev  should  be  baptized  when  prudence  dictated 

Id  case  of  the  death  of  the  mother^  the  foetus  is  to  be  such  a  course  (Sabetti,  no.  662).    In  the  celebrated 

immediately  extracted  and  baptized,  should  there  case  of  the  Jewish  child,  Edgar  A^ortara,  Pius  IX 

be  any  life  in  it.    Infants  have  been  taken  alive  from  indeed  ordered  that  he  ^ould  be  brought  up  as  a , 

the  womb  even  forty-eight  hours  after  tHe  mother's  Catholic,  even  against  the  will  of  his  parento,  but 

death  (Dub.  Rev.,  no.  87).    After  the  Cesarean  in*  baptism  had  already  been  administered  to  him  some 

dsion  has  been  performed,  the  foetus  may  be  condi-  years  before  when  m  danger  of  death. 

tionally  baptizeo  before  extraction  if  possible;  if  the        (7)  As  to  children  of  Protestants  in  the  United 

sacrament  i»,administered  after  its  removal  from  the  States,  Kenrick  (no.  28)  and  Sabetti  (no.  662,  2) 

womb  the  baptism  is  to  be  absolute,  provided  it  is  declare  that  it  is  not  licit  to  baptize  them  against  the 

certain  that  life  remains.    If  after*  extraction  it  is  will  of  their  parents;  for  their  oaptism  womd  violate 

doubtful  whether  it  be  still  alive,  it  is  to  be  baptized  parental  rieht,  expose  them  to  the  danger  of  per- 

imder  the  condition : ''  If  thou  art  alive  *  \   Physicians,  version ,  and  be  contrary  to  the  practice  of  the  Church. 

mothers,  and  midwives  ought  to  be  remindc^d  of  the  Kenrick  also  strongly  condemns  nurses  who  baptize 

^ve obhgation of  administeringbaptism imder these  the  children  of  Protestants  unless  they  are  in  dimger 

circiimstanoes  (Coppens,  Lect.,  VI).   It  is  to  be  borne  of  death. 

in  mind  that  according  to  the  prevailing  opinion        (8)  Should  a  priest   baptize  the  child  of  non- 

among  the  learned,  the  foetus  is  animated  by  a  human  Catholic  parents  if  they  tnemselves  desire  it?    He 

soul  from  the   very   beginning  of  its   conception  cert€unly  can  do  so  if  there  is  reason  to  hope  that 

(O'Eane,  III,  IS,  etc.).   In  cases  of  parturition  where  the  child  will  be  brought  up  a  Catholic  (Cone.  Prov. 

the  issue  is  a  mass  that  is  not  certainly  animated  by  Bait.,  I,  deer.  x).    An  even  greater  security  for  the 

human  life,  it  is  to  be  baptized  conditionally:  "if  Catholic   education   of    such  child  would   be   the 

thou  art  a  man".  promise  of  one  or  both  parents  that  they  themselves 

(4)  The  perpetually  insane,  who  have  never  had  will  embrace  the  Faith. 

the  use  of  reason,  are  in  the  same  category  as  infants        (9)  Concerning  baptism  for  the  dead,  a  curious 

in  what  relates  to  the  conferring  of  baptism,  and  and  difficult  passage  in  St.  Paul's  Epistle  has  given 

ooDsequently  the  sacrament  is  valid  if  administered,  rise  to  some  controversy.    The  Apostle  says:  ''Other- 

If  at  one  time  they  had  been  sane,  baptism  bestowed  wise  what  shall  they  do  that  are  baptized  for  the 

upon  them  during  their  insanity  woiud  be  probably  dead,  if  the  dead  rise  not  again  at  all?   Why  are  they 

mvalid  unless  they  had  shown  a  desire  for  it  before  then  baptized  for  them?"  (I  Cor.,  xv,  29).    There 

losng  their  reason.    Moralists  teach  that,  in  practice,  seems  to  be  no  question  here  of  any  such  absurd 

this  latter  class  may  always  be  baptized  conditionally,  custom  as  conferring  baptism  on  corpses,  as  was 

when  it  is  uncertain  whether  or  not  they  had  ever  practised  later  by  some  heretical  sects.    It  has  been 

asked  for  baptism  (Sabetti,  no.  661).    In  this  con-  conjectured  that  this  otherwise  unknown  usage  of 

OGxion  it  is  to  be  remarked  that,  according  to  many  the  Corinthians  consisted  in  some  living  person  re^ 

writers,  anyone  who  has  a  wish  to  receive  all  things  ceiving  a.  symbolic  baptism  as  representing  another 

necessary  to  salvation,  has  at  the  same  time  an  im-  who  had  died  with  the  desire  of  becoming  a  Christian, 

plidt  desire  for  baptism,  and  that  a  more  specific  but  had  been  prevented  from  realizing  his  wish  for 

desire  is  not  absolutely  necessary.  baptism  by  an  unforeseen  death.    Those  who  give  this 

(5)  Foundlings  are  to  be  baptized  conditionally,  explanation  say  that  St.  Paul  merely  refers  to  this 
if  there  is  no  means  of  finding  out  whether  they  have  custom  of  the  Corinthians  as  an  argumentum  ad 
been  validly  baptized  or  not.  If  a  note  has  been  left  hominem,  when  discussing  the  resurrection  of  the 
with  a  foundling  stating  that  it  had  already  received  dead,  without  approving  the  usage  mentioned. 
bq)tism,  the  more  common  opinion  is  that  it  should  Archbishop  Mac  Evilly  in  his  exposition  of  the 
iKTcrtheless  be  given  conditional  baptism,  unless  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  holds  a  different  opinion.  He 
drcomstances  should  mi^e  it  plain  that  baptism  had  paraphrases  St.  Paul's  text  as  follows:  ''Another 
undoubtedly  been  conferred  (Sabetti,  no.  662,  4).  alignment  in  favour  of  the  resurrection.  If  the  dead 
O'Eane  (no.  214)  sa^  that  the  same  rule  is  to  be  wm  not  arise,  what  means  the  profession  of  faith  in 
{allowed  when  midwives  or  other  lay  persons  have  the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  made  at  baptism?  Why 
baptized  infants  in  case  of  necessity.  are  we  all  baptized  with  a  profession  of  our  faith  in 

(6)  The  question  is  also  discussed  as  to  whether  their  resurrection?''  The  archbishop  comments  as 
the  infant  cnildren  of  Jews  or  infidds  mav  be  bap-  follows:  ''It  is  almost  impossible  to  glean  anything 
tized  against  the  will  of  their  parents.  To  the  general  like  certainty  as  to  the  meaning  of  these  very  ab- 
qu»y,  the  answer  is  a  decided  negative,  because  struse  words,  from  the  host  of  interpretations  that 
Rich  a  bi4)ti8m  would  violate  the  natural  riehts  of  have  been  hazarded  regarding  them  (see  Calmet's 
ptrrats,  and  the  infant  would  later  be  exposea  to  the  Dissertation  on  the  matter).  In  the  first  place,  every 
danger  of  perversion.  We  say  this,  of  course,  only  in  interpretation  referring  the  words  'baptized',  or 
regard  to  the  lioeity  of  such  a  baptism,  for  if  it  were  'deaa'  to  either  erroneous  or  evil  practices,  which 
ictuaOy  adnciinistered  it  would  undoubtedly  be  valid,  men  might  have  employed  to  express  their  belief  in 
St.  Tlu>ma8  (III,  Q.  Ixviii,  a.  10)  is  very  express  in  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection,  should  be  rejected; 
denying  the  lawfulness  of  imparting  such  baptism,  as  it  appears  by  no  means  likely  that  the  Apostle 
and  this  has  been  the  constant  judgment  of  the  would  ground  an  argument,  even  though  it  were  what 
Holy  See,  as  is  evident  from  various  decrees  of  the  the  logicians  call  an  argumentum  ad  hominem,  on 
Sicred  Congregations  and  of  Pope  Benedict  XIV  either  a  vicious  or  erroneous  practice.  Besides,  such 
(H  BuUarii).  We  say  the  answer  is  negative  to  the  a  system  of  reasoning  would  be  quite  inconclusive, 
genend  question,  because  particular  circumstances  Hence,  the  words  should  not  be  referred  to  either  the 
nay  require  a  dmerent  response.  For  it  would  un-  Clinics,  baptized  at  the  hour  of  death,  or  to  the 
doabteoly  be  licit  to  impart  such  baptism  if  the  vicarious  baptisms  in  use  among  the  Jews,  for  their 
diOdren  were  in  {n'oximate  danger  of  death;  or  if  they  departed  fnends  who  departed  without  baptism, 
hid  been  removed  from  the  parental  care  and  there  The  interpretation  adopted  in  the  paraphrase  makes 

DO  likdihood  of  their  returning  to  it;  of  if  they  the  words  refer  to  the  Sacrament  of  Baptism,  which 


BAPTHM  272  BAPTIBM 

an  were  obliged  to  approach  with  faith  in  the  reaur-  baptismy  we  stated  that  true,  natural  water  is  aU 

rection  of  the  ciead,  as  a  neoeeaaxy  condition.    'Credo  jbhat  is  required  for  its  validiW.    In  admipisterinff 

in  rtsurreeUonem  mortttorum*,  ^  Tnis  interpretation —  sol^nn  baptism,  however,  the  Cauroh  prescribes  thM 

Uie  one  adopted  bv  St.  Chiysostom — ^has  the  ad-  the  water  used  should  have  been  consecrated  on 

vantage  of  giving  the  words  ^baptized'  and  'dead'  Hdy  Saturday  or  on  the  eve  of  Pentecost.    For  the 

their  literal  signification.     The  only  inconvenience  liceity  (not  vallditv)  of  the  sacrament,  therefore, 

in  it  is^  that  the  word  reatmrtction  is  introduced,  the  priest  is  obligea  to  use  consecrated  water.   Tkk 

But,  it  IB  understood  from  the  entire  context,  and  is  custom  Js  so  ancient  that  we  cannot  discover  tti 

warranted  by  a  reference  to  other  passages  of  Script-  origin.    It  is  found  in  the  most  ancient  liturgies  of 

ure.    For,  from  the  Epistle  of  the  Hebrews  (vi,  2)  it  the  Latin  and  Greek  Churches  and  is  mentioned  in 

I4>pears  that  a  knowledge  of  the  faith  of  the  resur-  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  (VII,  43).   The  ceremony 

rection  was  one  of  the  dementary  points  of  instruc-  of  its  consecration  is  striking  and  symbolic.    After 

tion  required  for  adult   baptism;   and  hence  the  signing  the  water  with  the  cross,  the  priest  divides 

8crii)tures  themselves  fumisn  the  ground  for  the  it  with  his  hand  and  casts  it  to  the  four  comers  of 

introduction  of  the  word.    There  is  another  probable  the  earth.     This  signifies  the  baptising  (^  all  the 

interpretation,  which  understands  the  words  'bap-  nations.     Then  he  breathes  upcm  the  water  and 

tian   and  'dead'  in  a  metaphorical  sense,  and  refers  immerses  the  paschal  candle  in  it.    Next  he  poiuB  into 

them  to  the  sufferings  which  the  Apostles  and  heralds  the  water,  first  the  oil  of  catechumens  and  ihen  the 

of  salvation  underwent  to  ]>reach  the  Gospel  to  the  sacred  chrism,  and  lastly  both  hohr  oils  toother, 

infidels^  dead  to  grace  and  spiriiual  life,  with  the  hope  pronouncing  appropriate  prayers.    But  what  if  dur- 

oi  making  them  sharers  in  tne  glory  of  a  happjr  resur-  ing  the  ye&r,  the  supply  of  consecrated  water  should 

rection.     The  word  'baptism'  is  employed  in  this  be  insumcioat?     In  that  case,  the  Ritual  decUres 

sense  in  Scripture,  even  by  our  divine  Redeemer  that  the  priest  may  add  common  water  to  what  re- 

Himself, — 'I  nave  a  bapHsm  wherewith  to  be  bap-  mains,  but  only  in  less  quantity.    If  the  conseexated 

tiled',  etc.     And  the  word  'dead'  is  emplojred  m  wat^   i^pears   putrid,    the   priest   must   examine 

several  parts  of  the  New  Testament  to  designate  whether  or  not  it  is  really  so^  for  the  appearance  may 

those  spiritually  dead  to  grace  and  justice.    In  the  be  caused  only  by  the  admixture  of  the  saored  oils. 

Greek,  the  words  'for  the  dead',  vrip  rQw  ptxpQv  If  it  has  really  become  putrid,  the  font  is  to  be 

'that  is,  on  account  of,  or,  in  behalf  of  the  dead,  would  renovated  and  fresh  water  to  be  blessed  by  a  form 

serve  to  confirm,  in  some  degree,  this  latter  inter-  given  in  the  Ritual.    In  the  United  States,  the  Holy 

pretation.    These  appear  to  be  the  most  probable  of  See  has  sanctioned  a  short  formula  for  the  consecra- 

the  interpretations  of  this  passage;  each,  no  doubt,  tion  of  baptismal  water  (Cone.  Plen.  Bait.,  U): 
has  its  difficulties.    The  meaning  of  the  words  was        (3)  Holy  Oils, — In  baptism,  the  priest  uses  the  <n1 

known  to  the  Corinthians  at  the  time  of  the  Apostle,  of  catechumens,  which  is  olive  oil,  and  chrism,  the 

All  that  can  be  known  of  their  meaning  at  this  re-  latter  being  a  mixture  of  balsam  and  oil.    The  ofls 

mote  period,  cannot  exceed  the  bounds  of  probable  are  consecrated  by  the  bishop  on  Maundy  Thursday, 

conjecture"  (loc.  cit.,  chap,  xv;  cf.  also  Comely  in  The  anointing  in  baptism  is  recorded  by  St.  Justin, 

Ep.  I  Cor.).  St.  John  Chiysostom,  and  other  ancient  Fathers. 

XV.  Adjuncts  of  Baptism. — (1)  Bapiieteny. — Ac-  Pope  Innocent  I  declares  that  the  chrism  is  to  be 

cording  to  the  canons  of  the  Church,  baptism  except  applied  to  the  crown  of  the  head,  not  to  the  forehead, 

in  case  of  necessity  is  to  be  administered  in  churches  for  the  latter  is  reserved  to  bishops.    The  same  may 

(Cone.  Prev.  Bait.,  I,  Decree  16).    The  Roman  Ritual  be  found  in  the  Sacramentaries  of  St.  Gregory  and 

says:  "Churohes  in  which  there  is  a  baptismal  font,  St.  Gelasius  (Martdne,  I,  i).    In  the  Greek  Kite  the 

or  where  there  is  a  baptistery  close  to  the  church",  oil  of  catechumens  is  blessed  by  the  priest  during 

The  term  "baptistery''  is  commonly  used  for  the  the  baptismal  ceremony. 

space  set  aside  for  the  conferring  of  baptism.    In  like        (4)  Sponeors. — When  infants  are  solemnlv  bap- 
manner  the  Greeks  use  4>vTtffr^fM9  for  the  same  pur-  tizea,  persons  assist  at  the  ceremony  to  make  pro- 
pose— ^a  word  derived  from  St.  Paul's  designation  of  fession  of  the  faith  in  the  child's  nama    This  practice 
baptism  as  an  "illumination".     The  words  of  the  comes  from  antiquity  and  is  witnessed  to  by  Tertul- 
Ritual  just  cited,  however,  mean  bv  "baptistery",  a  lian,  St.   Basil,  St.   Augustine,  and  others.     Such 
separate  building  constructed  for  the  purpose  <h  ad-  persons   are   designated   eponwree,   offerenUe,    «ii«- 
ministering   baptism.      Such   buildings   have    been  ceplores,  fidejttssoree,  and  patrini.    The  l«^gHli«^  term 
erected  both  in  the  East  and  West,  as  at  Tyre,  Padua,  is  godfather  and  godmother,  or  in  An^o-Saxcm, 
Pisa,  Florence,  and  other  places.    In  such  baptisteries,  gossip.     These  sponsors,  in  default  of  me  child's 
besides  the  font,  altars  were  also  built;  ana  here  the  parents,  s^re  obliged  to  instmct  it  concerning  faith 
baptism  was  conferred.     As  a  rule,  however,  the  and  morals.    One  sponsor  is  sufficient  ajid  not  more 
chureh  itself  contains  a  railed-off  space  containing  than  two  are  alloweid.    In  the  latter  case,  one  should 
the  baptismal  font.    Anciently  fonts  were  attachea  be  male  and  the  other  female.    The  object  oi  these 
only  to  cathedral  churohes,  but  at  the  present  day  restrictions  is  the  fact  that  the  sponsor  contracts  a 
nearly  every  parish  churoh  has  a  font.    This  is  the  spiritual  relationship  to  the  child  and  its  parents 
sense  of  the  Baltimore  decree  above  cited.     The  which  would  be  an  impediment  to  marriage.    Spcm- 
Second  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  declared,  how-  sors  must  themselves  be  baptised  persons  having  the 
ever,  that  if  missionaries  judge  that  the  great  diffi-  use  of  reason  and  the^r  must  have  been  designated 
culty  of  bringing  an  infant  to  church  is  a  sufficient  as  sponsors  by  the  priest  or  paroits.     During  the 
reason  for  baptizing  in  a  private  house,  then  they  are  baptism  they  must  physically  touch  the  child  eitJio' 
to  administer  the  sacrament  with  all  the  prescribed  personally  or  by  proxy.    They  are  required,  moreover, 
rites.    The  ordinary  law  of  the  Churoh  is  that  when  to  have  the  intention  of  reaJly  assuming  the  obliga- 
private  baptism  is  conferred,  the  remaining  cere-  tions  of  godparents.    It  is  desirable  that  they  should 
monies  are  to  be  supplied  not  in  the  house  but  in  the  have  be^  confirmed,  but  this  is  not  absolutriy  nec- 
ohurch  itself.    The  Kitual  also  directs  that  the  font  essary.    Certain  persons  are  mohibited  from  actiiig 
be  of  solid  material,  so  that  the  baptismal  water  may  as  sponsors.    They  are:  members  of  religious  ofd«n, 
be  safely  kept  in  it.    A  railing  is  to  surround  the  font,  married  persons  in  respect  to  each  other,  or  pai^ents 
and  a  representation  of  St.  John  baptizing  Christ  to  their  children,  and  in  general  those  who  are  ob- 
should  adorn  it.    The  cover  of  the  font  usu^ly  con-  jectionable  on  such  grounds  as  infidelity,  heresy. 
tains  the  holy  oib  used  in  baptism,  and  this  cover  excommunication,  or  who  are  members  of  oondemnea 
must  be  under  lock  and  key,  according  to  the  Ritual,  secret  societies,  or  public  sinners  (Sabetti,  no.  663). 

(2)  BapeiffmaZTTstor.— In  speaking  of  the  matter  of  Sponsors   are   also   used   in    the   solemn   bapt* 


BAFTHM  273  BAPTISM 

of  adults.    They  are  never  necessary  in  private  declaration  of  faith  and  asks  for  baptism.   The  prieei, 

baotiBin.  havinff  meantime  changed  his  violet  stole  for  a  white 

(5)  BaptUnuil  Name. — From  the  earliest  times  one,  then  administers  the  threefold  ablution,  making 
(IhHdne,  De  Ant..£c.  Rit.,  I,  i)  names  were  given  in  the  sign  of  the  cross  three  times  with  the  stream  of 
biptiBm.  The  priest  is  directed  to  see  that  obscene,  water  ne  pours  on  the  head  of  the  child,  saying  at  the 
fabulous,  and  ridiculous  names,  or  those  of  heathen  same  time:  ".  .  .N.. .,  I  baptize  thee  in  the  name  of 
gods  or  of  infidel  men  be  not  imposed.  On  the  con-  the  Father  and  of  the  Son  said  of  the  Holy  Ghost. " 
tiary  the  priest  is  to  reconmiend  the  names  of  saints.  The  sponsors  during  the  ablution  either  hola  the  child 
Tbaa  rubnc  is  not  a  rigorous  precept,  but  it  is  an  or  at  least  touch  it.  If  the  baptism  be  given  by  im- 
inatruotion  to  the  priest  to  do  what  he  can  in  the  mersion,  the  priest  dips  the  back  part  of  the  head 
matter.  If  parents  are  unreasonably  obstinate,  the  three  times  into  the  water  in  the  form  of  a  cross, 
priest  m^  add  a  saint's  name  to  the  one  insisted  pronouncing  the  sacramental  words.  The  crown  of 
apon  (O'Kane,  III,  56).  the  child's  nead  is  now  anointed  with  chrism,  "to 

(6)  Baptismal  Robe. — In  the  primitive  Chiu'ch,  a  give  him  to  imderstand  that  from  that  day  ne  is 
winte  robe  was  wont  by  the  newlv  baptized  for  a  united  as  a  member  to  Christ,  his  head,  and  en- 
certain  period. after  the  ceremony  (St.  Ambrose,  De  mited  on  His  hod^;  and  therefore  he  is  called  a 
M7Bt.,c.vii).  As  solemn  baptisms  usually  took  place  Christian  from  Chnst,  but  Christ  from  chrism" 
on  the  eves  of  Easter  or  Pentecost,  the  white  mtr-  (Catech.).  A  white  veil  is  now  put  on  the  infant's 
menta  became  associated  with  those  festivals.  Thus  head  with  the  words:  ''Receive  this  white  garment, 
SiAbattan  in  AUne  and  Dominica  in  Attne  received  which  mayest  thou  carry  without  stain  b3ore  the 
their  names  from  the  custom  of  putting  off  at  that  judgment  seat  of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  that  thou 
time  the  baptismal  robe  which  had  been  worn  since  mayest  have  eternal  life.  Amen."  Then  a  lighted 
the  previous  vigil  of  Easter.  It  is  thought  that  the  candle  is  placed  in  the  catechumen's  hand,  the  pri^t 
Engush  name  for  Pentecost — ^Whitsunday  or  Whit-  saying:  ''Receive  this  burning  light,  ana  keep  thy 
smrtide,  also  derived  its  appellation  from  the  white  baptism  so  as  to  be  without  blame.  Observe  the 
garments  of  the  newly  baptized.  In  our  present  commandments  of  God;  that,  when  Our  Lord  shall 
ritual,  a  white  veil  is  plaoed  momentarily  on  the  come  to  His  nuptials,  thou  mayest  meet  Him  to- 
head  of  the  catechumen  as  a  substitute  for  the  bap-  gether  with  all  the  Saints  and  mayest  have  life  ever- 
tiflmal  robe  (O'Kane,  no.  350  sqq.).  lasting,  and  live  for  ever  and  ever.    Amen."    The 

XVI.  Ceremonies  of  Baptism. — The  rites  that  new  Qiristian  is  then  bidden  to  go  in  peace, 
aeeompany  the  baptismal  ablution  are  as  ancient  as  In  the  baptism  of  adults,  all  the  essential  cere- 
th^  are  beautiful.  The  writings  of  the  early  Fathers  monies  are  the  same  as  for  infants.  There  are,  how- 
ami  the  antique  litur^es  show  that  most  of  them  are  ever,  some  impressive  additions.  The  priest  wears 
derived  from  Apostolic  times.  The  infant  is  broii^ht  the  cope  over  his  other  vestments,  and  he  should  be 
to  the  door  of  tne  church  bv  the  sponsors,  where  it  is  attended  by  a  number  of  clerics  or  at  least  by  two. 
met  Inr  the  priest.  After  the  godparents  have  asked  While  the  catechumen  waits  outside  the  church  door, 
faith  rrom  tne  Church  of  God  in  the  child's  name,  the  the  priest  recites  some  prayers  at  the  altar.  Then  he 
priest  tnreathes  upon  its  face  and  exorcises  the  evil  proc^eeds  to  the  place  where  the  candidate  is,  and 
qnrit.  St.  Augustine  (Ep.  cxciv,  Ad  Siztum)  makes  asks  him  the  questions  and  performs  the  exorcisms 
use  of  this  Apostolic  practice  of  exordsine  to  prove  almost  as  prescribed  in  the  ritual  for  infants.  Before 
the  existence  of  original  sin.  Then  the  iniant's  fore-  administering  the  blessed  salt,  however,  he  requirte 
head  and  breast  are  signed  with  the  cross,  the  svmbol  the  catechumen  to  make  an  explicit  renunciation  of 
of  redemption.  Next  follows  the  imposition  of  hands,  the  form  of  error  to  which  he  had  formerly  adhered, 
a  custom  certainly  as  old  as  the  Apostles.  Some  and  he  is  then  signed  with  the  cross  on  the  brow,  ears, 
Uessed  salt  is  now  placed  in  the  mouth  of  the  child,  eyes,  nostrils,  mouth,  breast,  and  between  the  shoul- 
"When  salt",  sa3r8  the  Catechism  of  the  Council  of  ders.  Afterwards,  the  candidate,  on  bended  knees, 
Trent,  "is  put  into  the  mouth  of  the  person  to  be  recites  three  several  times  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  a 
baptised,  it  evidently  imports  that,  by  the  doctrine  cross  is  made  on  his  forehead,  first  by  the  godfather 
of  faith  and  the  gift  (^  grace,  he  should  be  delivered  and  then  by  the  priest.  After  this,  taking  him  by 
from  the  corruption  of  sin,  experience  a  rdish  for  the  hand,  the  priest  leads  him  into  the  church,  where 
good  works^ana  be  delighted  with  liie  food  of  divine  he  adores  prostrate  and  then  rising  he  recites  the 
wiadom."  jPlacing  his  stole  over  the  child,  the  priest  Apostles'  Creed  and  the  Lord's  Prayer.  The  ether 
introduces  it  into  the  church,  and  on  the  way  to  the  ceremonies  are  practically  the  same  as  for  infante, 
font  the  sponsors  make  a  profession  of  faith  for  the  It  is  to  be  noted  that  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  carry^ 
iDfant.  Tne  priest  now  touches  the  ears  and  nostrils  ing  out  with  proper  splendour  the  ritual  for  baptizing 
of  the  child  with  spittle.  The  ^mibolic  meaning  is  aoults,  the  bishops  of  the  United  States  obtained  per- 
thoB^Eplamed  (Cat.  C.  Trid.):  "His  nostrils  and  ears  mission  from  the  Holy  See  to  make  use  of  the  cere- 
are  next  touched  with  spittle  and  he  is  immediately  monial  of  infant  baptism  instead.  This  general  dis- 
tent to  the  baptismal  font,  that,  as  sight  was  restored  pensation  lasted  imtil  1857,  when  the  ordinary  law 
to  te  blind  man  mentioned  in  the  Gos{)el,  whom  the  of  the  Church  went  into  force.  (See  Baltimore, 
Lord,  after  having  spread  day  over  his  eyes,  com-  Councils  of.)  Some  American  dioceses,  however, 
BiMed  to  wash  tnem  in  the  waters  of  Siloe;  so  also  obteined  individual  permissions  to  continue  the  use 
^  may  understand  that  the  eflScacy  of  the  sacred  of  the  ritual  for  infants  when  administering  adult 
aUvtkm  is  such   as  to  bring  light  to  the  mind  to  baptism. 

diaoom   heavenly   truth."     The   catechumen   now       JCVII.  Metaphorical  Baptism. — The  name"  bap- 

nakm  the  triple  renunciation  of  Satan,  his  works  and  tism"  is  sometimes  applied  improperly  to  other  oere- 

bis  pomps,  and  he  is  anointed  with  the  oil  of  cate-  monies.    (1)  Baptiem  of  Belle, — This  name  has  be^i 

fhiniwM  on  the  breast  and  between  the  shoulders:  given  to  the  blessing  of  bells,  at  least  in  France,  since 

"Oft  the  breast,  that  by  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Qhost,  tne  eleventh  centurv.    It  is  derived  from  the  washing 

l»ttaj  cast  off  error  and  ignorance  and  may  receive  of  the  bell  witJi  holy  water  by  the  bishop,  before  he 

4e  true  faith.  '  for  the  iust  man  liveth  hj  faith'  anoints  it  with  the  oil  of  tiie  infirm  without  and  with 

(CUktw,  iii,  11);  on  the  shoulders,  that  by  the  grace  chrism  within.    A  fuming  censer  is  then  placed  under 

of  the  HoJ^  Spirit,  he  may  shake  off  negligence  and  it.    The  bishop  prays  that  these  sacramentals  of  the 

tOKjfm and  engage  in  the  performance  of  good  works;  Church  may,  at  the  sound  of  the  bell,  put  the  demons 

*ke,  fttth  wiUimit  works  is  dead'  (James,  ii,  26)  ",  to  flight,  protect  from  storms,  and  call  the  faithful  to 

'«m  ^  Gatediisin.  prayer.     (2)  Baptism  of  Shi^. — ^At  least  since  the 

fl»  infant  now,  thiough  its  sponaora,  makca  a  time  of  the  OusiEides,  rituals  nave  contained  a  bless- 

IL— 18 


\  BAPTUM  274  BAPTUHJU. 

iBS  for  abJpe.   The  prieat  b^  Ood  to  bless  the  vewel    limes  (John,  iii,  23),  baptum  was  administered  vitk 

utd  protect  tluMe  who  aoil  m  it,  as  He  did  the  sak    out  apecisl  fonts,  at  the  seadde  or  id  streaina  or  poola 

of  Niie,  and  Peter,  when  the  Apostle  was  sinldng  in    of  water  (Acta,  viii,  38);  TertuUian  refers  to  St 

'■    ■     "  .......  Peter'sbapti»ingintheTiber(Debapt.,iv);ainiilari), 

in  later  periods  of  evangel!  Eation,  miBsionarice  bap- 
tiied  in  rivers  aa  is  narrated  of  St.  Paulinus  in  Eng- 
land by  Bede  (Hist.  Ewl.,  II,  liv-xvi).  Indoor 
baptiam,  however,  was  not  uncommon  (Acts,  ix,  IS; 
XVI,  33)  and,  for  the  sake  of  both  privacy  and  scdem- 
nity,  came  to  be  the  rule;  while  reverence  for  the 
rite  itself  and  for  the  watw,  which  came  in  time  to 
receive  a  apecial  ooDsecration,  gave  rise  to  the  use  of 
a  n>ecial  basin  or  font  for  the  baptiamai  ceremony 
ana,  at  a  later  period,  for  the  preservation  of  the 
water.  With  the  establishment  of  dietinctively 
Christian  places  of  worship  this  font  became  one  of 
their  important  adjuncts.  In  the  East  it  took  the 
form  of  a  pool  or  cistern,  similar  to  those  of  the  baths, 
often  larger,  and  deep  enoueh  to  permit  total  im- 
mersion. Whence  it  was  called  KoXvitfi-iepa  (swim- 
ming-bath), a  name  which  in  its  Latin  equivalent, 
noUiiorium,  was  also  used  in  the  West,  as  was  the  tenn 
pUcaia  -with  its  opt  allusion  to  birtn  and  life  in  the 
waters  (Tertullian,  De  bapt.,  i;  St.  Augustine,  De 
schis.  Donat.,  Ill,  ii).  The  name  /oru  (a  spHi^  of 
water)  was  also  io  early  use  and  came  to  prevau. 

The  oldest  western  fonts  are  found  in  the  Roman 
catacombs,  cisterns  hewn  from  the  tufa  in  the  Boor 
of  baptismal  chapels.  (See  Baftistkry.)  Examples 
are  to  be  found  in  the  Ostrian  Cemetery,  where  m  a 
small  shallow  basin  in  the  floor  a  spring  welts  up  in 
the  Cemetery  of  Pontlanus,  where  an  oblong  reservoir, 
about  eighteen  square  feet  in  surface  area  and  three 
feet  in  depth,  is  yet  filled  with  water  (Uarucchi, 
Archfoiogie  Chritienne,  II,  63);  that  of  St.  Felicitaa 
(ibid.,  304);  and  of  St.  Priscilla,  where  in  1901  was 
found  a  basin  of  particular  interest  on  account  of  its 
■  presuniftbly  high  antiquity  aa  a  baptismal  centre 
(Harucchi  in  Nuovo  Bullettino,  1901.  73).  Besides 
these  actual  Bpecimens,  the  font  ia  also  depicted  in 

j_. , _,   —   _..„ „_.   _-    .   -J     the  remains  of  early  Christian  art.     In  nearly  every 

Orim^M  Kpbm  motibi  orfminwirnii™  "f^  '*"  if^'}'.  instance  it  ia  a  shallow  poo!  or  basin  in  which  tbe 
ana  in  fc™.  d.  I'OtutU  Chrit.  (lefizi,  VII,  «IS,  (1B03)  VIII,  neophyte  Stands  with  feet  immereed,  while  watra 
ui;  ef.  Urid.  (IfiOl),  VI,  L'aneiennt  at  fa  nomilU  (MaliviE  dia  is  poured  on  bim  from  an  overhead  stream  or  from 
'"iSt'b  niBM  I  B  niBU  m  Earlt  Chhwitan    '  ^"^  ^  '^^  person  baptizing.    That  this  was 

PsmioTt:  Bi»aHAi,"5  r^^iuJ  huiorv  of  oit  vracha  of  Ae  the  Ordinary  mode  of  bapti»ing  during  the  early 
Clmrih  in  rfBrd  to  tilt  culminitlratiiin  of  bopHMn  bu  iaynen     centuries,  ia  a  view  the  aceptance  of  which  is  oom- 

(Lonci™.  ITI^U),  reprinted  in  ^»,''2^'0»'"2:  ,pi^ii  P^Hed  by  all  recent  Study  in  the  archawlogy  of  bap- 
dil^hiijTwT)!  'bibC?'  "^^^  B"^:SSi:S''N:rLi*^  ™  tiWal  fonU  (de  Rossi.  fiuUettino  di  Archeol.,  1876, 
the  ricbt  to  ^vs  butumal  najnea,  uiii  on  niiubla  ud  un-     8-15;    Duchesne,   Les  Eglisea  E^parfies,   Paris,   1905, 

™t.CT.  n™«K  ™  i^.^iucA«  OMrMi^^  89-96).    With  the  church-buUding  activity  of    the 

381,  Bad    r*««.-prot(.    ManalitrkTttt   (IBOO),   X,   101,   340.     ,      _..'     ,   _     ..       i  _* ^ .iw    I_  i ; I 

HiirricAL  B*m»i:  Besidto  atsndMTi  theologiuu  WB  6ivnt,      fourth    century    the    font   was  reverently   enshrined 

r>ittxriatiim.etc.,  fiu^  la  Ttrtptim  par  VBgive  du  bapUni  dtt  in  the  magoificent  baptisteries  which  date  from  that 
A*Wiu«  (P»ri.    1670):  Th   Bocooillon.  De  la  rduratio^    period.    It  took  the  form  of  a  basin  which  was  either 

^^sn^.rrtlS^^tp^^^AX^^^'^^^  ^^^'y  ^°^  ^^^  '■'^^  °'  *^^  baptiste,,  aoor  or 

Ponm  (Curioia)  of  Baftuu:   Barbiek  ne   Uohtidlt.  Lm  was  partially  raised  above  it  by  a  low  curb  of  masonry, 

B^™t°vi'E"Ri.  "^RMn^'V  Abt'"/  **"*'■  ri^l^tioM*of  °^*''  "'"^*'  '^*  neophytes  passed  by  steps,  in  going 

baptism   on    arly'chriati&n'nuiimnienu^  Bm"&rBiTO0wsKi,  down  into  the  water;  to  the  ascent  and  descent,  as 

ikantiarapiiit  drr  Tavfe  ChriiH  (Hunicii.  igsfi,    Thne  worka  well  as  to  the  number  of  st«pe  this  involved,  there 

??,?'6™, ''.''„.H™i'^l..*-SS  !!![1!*^  J"iJ.  ^^l   e  "^I'.-^^^-iJ'i'  "W  often  attached  a  mystical  significance  (Imdot« 

^:ii^l"i^TA^Ah%7%)tZiZ^'F:'Ro^i:  of  SeviUe.  De  divm.  oB..\l,  xxv).    Theee  fonts  wen, 

Bantuin  and  CArutinn  Ardtaiiatni  in  Studia  Bibiiea  et  BcH..  either  Circular  or  octagonal  in  form  and  rarely  hez- 

V-  "•  .-.  „  -m   I.  agonal  or  square:  a  tew  were  in  the  form  of  a  ctoas 

William  H.  W.  Fanwing.  (Gregory  otVouii,  Mirac.,  I,  rxiv),  a  type  more  com- 

Baptisin  by  Hwetlcs.    See  Baphsu.  mon  in  the  East  than  in  the  West,  while  an  oe- 

Bll)liBmftl    Font,  a  basin  or  vase,  serving  as  a  caaiona]   sarcophagus-shaped    font    was   su^eeted, 

receptacle  for  baptismal  water  in  which  the  candidate  perhaps  by  the  allusion  to  baptism  in  Romans,  vi,  4. 

for  baptism  is  immersed,  or  over  which  he  is  washed,         In  rize  fonts  varied,  but  as  a  rule  th^  wet«  lajrge 

in  the  ceremony  of  Christian  initiation.     In   the  enough  for  ttie  simultaneous  baptism  of  a  few  catie- 

Church's  present  practice  it  is  ordinarily  a  decorative  chumens.      Their  average  depth  of   lees  than  thrift 

stone  basin,  though  metal  or  wood  are  used,  sup-  feet  points  to  the  continued  prevalence  of  but  partial 

ported  on  a  pedeetal  or  columns   at  a  convenient  immersion  down  to  the  eighth  century.    Water  w«« 

height  for  receiving  the  water  which  is  poured  over  provided  either  by  natursl  springs  or  by  pipes  lelul- 

liie  head  of  the  person  baptized,  a  form  which  marks  ing  into  the  basins,  though  tnere  are  many  examples 

the  term  of  a  development  graphically  illustrating  the  of  its  beinp  poured  in  from  above  the  font,  over  the 

histoty  of  the  mode  of  conferring  baptism.  heads  of  the  neophytes.     Drain  pipes  conducted  tb« 

AitCBfOLoar. — In  the  Apostolic  Age,  aa  in  Jewish  water  into  the  earth  or  into  a  nearby  stream  After 


r 

-' 

BAPTISMAL  FONTS 


MAN. 


LEICESTERSHIRE 


NORMAN/M^i 

DECOR. 
M 

PERPEMDICULAR.    NORTH 

SOMERCOTES.  LINCOLNSHIRE 


STONESBY,       EARLY  ENGLISH.       KING 


BAPTISMAL                             275  BAPnBBCAX. 

^ceremony.    These  early  fonts  were  lined  and  paved  fonts  are  cited  the  synodal  acts  of  St.  Charles  Bor- 

with  marble  or  other  decorative  stone  and  were  often  romeo  (Acta  EccL  Mediolan.,  Paris,  1643.  58-63) 

%h]y  ornamented,  features  more  common  in  the  and  those  of  Benedict  XIII  when  Archbishop  of 

West  than  in  the  East  where  simpler  fonts,  sometimes  Benevento  (GoUectio  Lacensis,  I,  69  sq.). 

e^'enof  wood,  were  used.     The  "Liber  Pontificalis"  Two  important  liturgical  functions  centre  at  the 

fecf.  Duchesne,  1, 174)  describes  in  detail  the  Constan-  font,  the  oaptismal  rite  itself,  and  the  blessing  of 

timan  font  in  the  Lateran  baptistery  aa  a  porphyry  the  font.    The  earliest  allusion  to  such  a  blessing  is 

btan  heavily  ornamented  with  silver;  on  its  rim  were  by  Tertullian  who  refers  to  the  sanctification  of  the 

a  golden  lamb  and  seven  silver  stags  from  whose  water  by  the  invocation  of  God  (De  bapt.,  iv).    St. 

mouths  gushed  water  from  the  Claudian  aqueduct;  Cyprian  speaks  of  its  being  purified  and  sanctified 

the  golden  lamb  was  flanked  by  statues  of  the  Saviour  by  the  priest  (Ep.  Ixx,  Ad  ^n.);  St.  Basil  considered 

and  of  St.  John  the  Baptist.     From  the  centre  of  the  the  blessing,  already  of  long-standing  practice  in  his 

font  arose  a  porphyry  column  bearing  a  golden  lamp  day^  as  of  Apostolic  institution  (De  opiritu  Sancto. 

in  which,  during  the  ceremonies  of  baptism,  was  xxvii)j  St.  Ambrose  first  refers  to  an  extended  ritual 

burned  an  oil  of  fragrant  odour.    This  font  was  de-  •  includuij^  blessinss,  exorcism,  and  invocations  (De 

spoiled  by  the  barbarian  invaders,  but  its  general  myst.,  iii,  14-20).     The  oldest  Extant  rite  is  that 

(Kflign  may  be  seen  in  the  present  day  structure,  of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions   (VII,  xliii),  an  ex- 

The  passing  of  the  period  of  adult  conversion  to  tended  praver  in  Eucharistio  form.    The  blessing  of 

Christianity  and   the   growing  prevalence  of  infant  the  font  is  henceforward  an  important  feature  of  the 

baptism  with  a  consequent  frequency  of  administra-  sacramentariee  and  ordinea,  which  contain  nearly 

tion  determined  a  change  in  the  structinre  of  the  all  the  features  of  the  present  rite.    It  served  as  the 

fonts.    Instead  of  a  basin  below  the  floor  level,  walls  preUminaiy  to  baptism,  which  was  solemnized  on  the 

of  masonry  were  built  up  to  a  height  of  three  or  four  vigils  of  blaster  and  Pentecost;  and  notwithstanding 

feet,  to  facilitate  the  mmisters  holding  a  child  over  the  increasing  frequency  of    solemn    baptism,  the 

its  opening;  or  a  font  hewn  from  solid  stone  rested  on  blessing  was  reserved  for  those  two  days  on  which 

the  chapel  floor.    Immersion  of  children  had  come  it  ^omd  now  be  carried  out  in  all  churches  having 

to  be  the  rule,  and  as  the  practice  was  adopted  too  fonts  (Decreta  S.  R.  C^  3331-4005).    This  blessing 

in  the  case  of  adults,  the  fonts  were  sometim^  large  is  in  the  form  of  a  long  Eucharistic  prayer  the  burden 

enough  to  admit  of  their  being  inmiersed.     With  tne  of  whidi  is  an  appeal  that  the  Holy  Spirit  descend 

thirt^th  century,  however,  simple  infusion  came  on  the  water  and  endow  it  with  regenerative  virtue, 

by  degrees  to  be  adopted,  and  with  its  general  use,  during  which  the  celebrant  performs  a  series  of  ex- 

ue  font  became  smaller  and  more  shallow,  and  was  pressive  ceremonies  of  high  antiquity.   He  divides  the 

raised  from  the  floor  on  piers  or  columns.    The  older  water  in  the  form  of  a  cross;  signs  it  with  the  cross: 

type  of  font  continued  to  find  favour  in  Italy,  but  divides  the  water  and  casts  a  portion  of  it  toward 

in  the  Northern  countries  the  winter  chill  ot  the  the  four  cardinal  points:  breathes  on  it  in  exorcism, 

watere  hastened  the  general  use  of  infusion,  and  as  and  dips  in  it  the  Paschal  candle.    After  the  prayer  he 

this  rite  required  for  each  person  baptized  but  a  pours  mto  the  water  first  the  oil  of  catechumens,  then 

small  quantity  of  water,  the  font  generally  took  the  the  Holy  chrism,  a  rite  alluded  to  by  St.  Gregory  of 

ample  form  and  small  dimensions  it  has  to-day.  Tours  (loo.  cit.),  and  finally  the  two  oils  simultaneously. 

Canon  Law  and   Liturgy. — ^The  Church's  legis-  ,  Rogers,  BaptUm  and  ChruHan  Archeology  (Oxford,  1903): 

ktion    kept  pace   ^th   thi8   development.     Earlv  ^^Mif?^>y-(^^«;52SSJ5ti^Si23f2 
enactments  urged  stone  as   the   regular  material.  BapUme  (Paris,  1881);  Venablbb  in  Dicu  ChrUu  Antia.,  a.  v.; 
though  metal  was  permitted.     With  the  erection  of  Chabdon,  HUtoire  Om  tacremenU  (Paris,  1746),  I,  174^223; 
(onU  for  the  continual  preservation  of  the  water  ^''^J^i^J^-i^^J^h'^^fJ^BS^y,^ 
reverence  and  cleanliness  became  the  Church  s  chief  dbr  Stappbn,  Sacra  LUurgia  (Meohlln,  1900).  IV.  32-36; 
concern:  the  font,  if  not  of  impermeable  stone,  must  Piohi,  Liturgui  Sacramentorum  (Verona,  1902),  36-39;  Feb- 
be  lined  with  metal;  it  must  be  used  exclusively  for  »^«»'  ^^'  p~^p«-  (P"^*  1852).  991-992:  log-08. 
baptism,  and  to  guard  it  gainst  profanation,  se-  ''^^^  ^-  ^=t«»»on. 
c\mfy  covered  and  locked.    Frequency  of  thirteenth-  Baptisinal  Names.    See  Names,  Christian. 
ontury  legislation  on  this  point  throughout  Northern  Baptismal  Eegister.     See  Risgistkr,  Parochial. 
Europe  reveals  the  prevalence  of  a  passing  super-  •»  ^        i  «  ^       a     -a 
stitious  beHef  in  the  magical  efficacy  of  the  font  and  Baptismal  Robe.    See  Baptism. 
its  waters.    The  constitutions  of  Bishop  Poore  of  Baptismal  Vows,  the  name  popularly  given  to 
Sanun   (Salisbury,  c.  1217)  and  of  St.  Edmund  of  the  renunciations  required  of  an  adult  candidate 
Canterbury  (1236)  combated  the  abuse  in  England  for  baptism  just  before  the  sacrament  is  conferred, 
as  did   the  Councils  of  Tours  (1236),  Trier  (1238),  In  the  case  of  infant  baptism  they  are  made  in  the 
Fritzlar  (1243),  and  Breslau  (1248), on  the  Continent,  name  of  the  child  by  the  sponsors.     It  is  obvious 
The  cover  was  enacted  in  the  name  of  cleanliness  and  that  these  promises  have  not  the  theolo^cal  import 
decoration  as  well,  and,  besides  a  close-fitting,  cloth-  of    vows    properly    so    called.    According    to    the 
lined  lid,  there  was  demanded  in  many  dioceses  an  Roman  Ritual,  at  present  in  use,  three  questions 
outer  dome-like  cover,  sometimes  highly  ornamented  are  to  be  addressed  to  the  person  to  be  baptized, 
and  drfiped  with  u  canopy  or  veil.    The  repugnance  as  follows:   "Dost  thou   renounce   Satan?  and  all 
to  continued  repetition  of  baptism  over  a  font  whose  his  works?    and  all  his  pomps?  "    To  each  of  these 
water  was  to  last  for  ten  months,  was  overcome  by  interrogations   the  person,   or   the  iroonsor  in   his 
providing  two  compartments,  one  to  contain  the  name,  replies:  "I  do  renounce**.    The  practice  of 
baptismal  water,  the  other,  always  empty  and  clean  demanding   and   making   this   formal   renunciation 
to  receive  the  drippings  and  drain  tnem  into  the  seems  to  go  back  to  the  very  beginnings  of  organized 
ucrarium,  a  provision  embodied  by  Benedict  XIII  in  Christian    worship.    Tertullian    among    the    Latins 
his  stOl  authoritative  "Memoriale  Rituum"  (Tit.  vi,  and  St.  Basil  among  the  Greeks  are  at  one  in  reckon- 
er, ii,  (  5,  9).    The  Roman  Ritual  (Tit.  ii,  cap.  i,  ing  it  as  a  usage  which,  although  not  explicitly 
2S-30J  epitomizes  the  "present  law  providing  that  the  warranted  in  the  Scriptures,  is  nevertheless  con- 
font  anould  be  in  the  church  or  in  a  nearby  baptistery,  secrated  by  a  venerable  tradition.     St.  Basil  says 
within  a  railed  enclosure  and  secmred  by  lock  and  key;  this   tradition   descends   from   the   Apostles.    Ter- 
of  a  snbstantial  material  fit  to  hold  water;  of  becom-  tullian,  in  his  "De  Coron&",  appears  to  hint  at  a 
ing  ABpe  and  ornamentation  and  so  covered  as  to  twofold  renunciation  as  common  in  his  time,  one 
cxdadeanythinKunclean(cf.  Council  II  Bait.,  §  234-  which  was  made  at  the  moment  of  baptism  and 
237).    As  modeEs  of  diocesan  legislation  concerning  another  made  sometime  before,  and  pubhdy  in  the 


BAPTISMAL  276  BAFTISTEBY 

church,  m  the  ];>re8eDce  of  the  bishop.    The  form  works,  the  "TrophsBum  Gonzaga"  and  the  "Fortuna 

of  this  renunciation  as  found  In  the  Apostolic  Con-  Gonzagae",  on  tne  various  mieiortunes  of  the  young 

stitutions  (VII,  4)  has  a  quaint  interest.    It  is  as  duke;     Contra  amorem''  containing  good  advice  to 

follows:  "Let  therefore  the  candidate  for  baptism  Sigismondo  Gonzaga,  and  other  poems  celebrating  the 

declare  thus  in  his  renunciation:  'I  renoimce  Satan  latter's  elevation  to  dimities,  even  to  the  Roman 

and  his  works  and  his  pomps  and  his  worship  and  purple.    Six  times  (each  for  two  years  with  four 

his  angels  and  his  inventions  and  all  thin^  that  years  interval)  Baptista  was  nominated  vicar-general 

are  under   him'.     And   after  his   renunciation '  let  of  his  congregation,  and,  in  1513,  general  of  the 

him  in  his  consociation  say:  'And  I  associate  myself  whole  order  through  the  exertions  of  his  former 

to  Christ  and   believe  and  am  baptized  into  one  disciples,  the  duke  and  the  cardinal.    The  chapter, 

unbagotten  being ' ",  etc.  ^  however,  resenting  the  intervention,  restrictea  his 

Where  there  was  a  baptistery  the  renunciations  powers.    He  held  the  oflSce  until  his  death,  but, 

were    made    in    the   TpootJXtor  oUow,    the    vestibule  broken  in  health  and  energy,  he  exercised  but  little 

or  ante-room,  as  distinguished  from   the    i^il^epow  influence  beyond  consolidating  the  congregation  of 

oTicov,   the    inner    room    where    the    baptism   itself  Albi,  a  French  imitation  of  the  Mantuan  Reform. 

was  administered.    The  catechumen^  standing  with  Baptista  Mantuanus  was  beatified  in  1890,  his  feast 

his  face  to  the  West,  which  symbohzed  the  abode  beidg  assimed  to  23  March. 

of  darkness^  and  stretching  out  his  hand,  or  some-        Chiefly  known  as  one  of  the  most  prolific  Renais- 

times  spitting  out  in  defiance  and  abhorrence  of  sance  poets  he  excelled  in  almost  every  form  of  Latin 

the  devil,  was  wont  to  make  this  abjuration.    It  verse;   Virgil,    however,   was   his   favourite   model. 

was  also  customary  after  this  for  the  candidate  for  A  monument  represents  the  two  poets  of  Mantua 

baptism  to  make  an  explicit  promise  of  obedience  with  Poetry  hesitating  to  whom  she  is  to  offer  the 

to  Christ.     This  was  called  by  tne  Greeks  ovf^d^a^eo'^tti  crown:  "Cui  dctbof*'    Baptista  exercised  too  little 

XpUrrttf  the  giving  of  oneself  over  to  the  control  self-restraint,  however,  to  deserve  it.     He  was  bit- 

6i  Christ.     St.  Justin  Martyr  testifies  that  baptism  terly   attacked   concerning   the   ^od   taste  of  his 

was  only  administered  to  those  who,  together  with  earher  works  printed  without  his  knowledge,  and 

their  profession  of  faith,  made  a  promise  or  vow  also,  but  groundlessly,  with  reference  to  the  legiti- 

that  they  would  live  in  conformity  with  the  Chris-  macy  of  his  birth.    To  the  end  he  made  too  free  use 

tian    code.     Hence    the    generally   employed    for-  of  pagan  mythology. 

mula:  cvrrdavofixu  vot.   Xplvre,   "I    surrender   myself         Opera  omnia  (Bologna,  1502);  Hiatoria  domua  Lavretana, 

to  thee    O  Christ    to  be  ruled  by  thy  precepts",  l^ti,^ l^!' ^r^;%^J"fin{  ^i^rim^!^ 

This  took    place    directly  after   the    dTOTd^er,  or  re-  comwpondence,   chiefly  with    the  two  Pico  de  Mirandola. 

nunciation  of  the  devil,  and  was  variously  described  uncle  and  nq;>hew,  is  in  Zimmerman,  MonunutUa  hut.  Car- 

by  the  Latins  as  promissvm,  pactum,  and   votum,  7SSl?/p iHw^Jb^SIL^i J^r^^^ 
Lninng    tnis   declaration    oi    attacnment    to   Jesus  Benedict  Zimmerman. 

Christ  the  person  to  be  baptized  turned  towards  ,    ,     \ 

the  East  as  towards  the  region  of  light.  Baptdstery,  the  separate  building   m  which   the 

The  practice  of  renewing  flie  baptismal  promises  is  Sacrament  of  Baptism  was  once  solemnly  adminis- 

more  or  less  widespread.    This  w  done  under  cir-  tered,  or  that  portion  of  the  church-edifice  later  set 

cumstances  of  special  solemnity  such  as  at  the  clos-  apart  for  the  same  purpose.     In  ancient  tiroes  the 

ing  exercises  of  a  miasion,  after  the  administration  of  term  was  applied  to  a  basin,  pool,  or  other  place  for 

First  Communion  to  children,  or  the  conferring  of  bathing.    The  Latin  term  baptistenum  was  also  ap- 

the  Sacrament  of  Confirmation.     It  is  thus  intended  pHed  to  the  vessel  or  tank  which  contained  the  water 

as  a  way  of  reaflirming  one's  loyalty  to  the  obliga-  for  baptism,  and  in  the  Early  Church  denoted  in- 

tions  taken  over  by  membership  in  the  Christian  differently  the  baptismal  font  and  the  building  or 

Church.  chapel  in  which  it  was  enshrined.    There  is  no  means 

BmoHAu,  Antiquities  of  the  Chrittian  Church  (London,  183B);  of  knowing  when  the  first  baptisteries  were  built; 

Duchesne,  Oriffines  du  cuUe  cAr^rtcn  (Paris,  ispsv.  but  both  their  name  and  form  seem  borrowed  from 

Joseph  F.  Delant.  pagan  sources.     They  remind  one  of  the  bathing 

_^^.        ,--_^        «T>  T»        «  apartments  in  the  thernuBy  and  the  fact  that  Pliny,  in 

Baptismal  Water.    See  Batosm;  Holy  Saturday,  g^ing  of  the  latter,  twice  uses  the  word  bap- 

Baptist,  Saint  John  the.     See  John  the  Bap-  ti^eria  seems  to  point  to  this  derivation.    The  term 

TisT,  Saint.  was  also  applied  to  the  bath  in  the  circular  chamber 

Baptista   Mantuanus  (or  Spagnoli),  Blessed,  of  the  baths  at  Pompeii  and  to  the  tank  in  the  tri- 
Carmeli'te  and  Renaissance  poet,  b.  at  Mantua,  17  angular  court  of  suburban  villas.   The  earliest  extant 
April,   1447,  where  he  also  died,  22  March,   1516.  type  of  baptistery  is  found  in  the  catacomb  chambers 
The  eldest  son  of  Peter  Spa^oli,  a  Spanish  noble-  in  which  were  the  baptismal-pools.    (See  Baptismal 
man  at  the  court  of  Mantua,  Baptista  studied  cram-  Font.)    These  rooms  were  sometimes  spacious;  that 
mar  under  Gregorio  Tifemate,  and  philosophy  at  in  the  Roman  catacomb  of  Priscilla  adjoins  other 
Pavia  under  Polo  Bagelardi.    The  bad  exaniple  of  larger  cubicula  used  perhaps  for  the  adjuncts  of  the 
his  schoolfellows  led  him  into  irregularities.    He  fell  baptismal  rite;  that  of  the  Pontian  cemetery  bears 
into  the  hands  of  usurers  and,  returning  home,  was  traces  of  sixth-centuiy  mural  decoration,  a  beautiful 
turned   out  of  his  father's  house  owing  to  some  cnia:acm?rmto  with  other  Christian  symbols  being  yet 
calumny.    He   went   to    Venice   and    later   on   to  visible.    With  the  construction  of  edifices  for  ChTi&- 
Ferrara  where  he  carried  out  his  resolution  of  enter-  tian  worship  a  special  building  was  erected  for  the 
ing  the  Carmelite  convent  which  belonged  to  the  then  ceremonies  of  initiation.    Ordinarily  circular  or  polyg- 
flourishing    Reform    of   Mantua.     In    a    letter    ad-  onal,  it  contained  in  the  centre  the  font;  a  circular 
diesi^  to  his  father   (1  April,   1464),  and  in  his  ambulatory  gave  room  for  the  ministers  and   wit- 
first  publication,  "De  VitA  beatA",  he  gave  an  ac-  nesses  who,  with  the  neophytes,  were  numerous  at 
count  of  his  previous  life  and  of  the  motives  which  the  Easter  and  Pentecost  solemnities;  radiating  from 
led  him  to  the  cloister.  the  structure  were  rooms  for 'the  preparation  of  the 

Baptista    pursued    his    studies    at    Ferrara    and  candidates,  and  sometimes  a  chapel  with  altax  for 

Bologna  where  he  was  orda-ined  priest,  received  his  the  Eucharistic  service  following  baptism  (cf .  Bap- 

degrees,  and  delivered  lectures  m  philosophy  and  tism),  as  may  be  seen  in  the  Lateran  baptistery, 

divinity.    The  Duke  of  Mantua  entrusted  him  with  The  building   sometimes   joined,  but  was  generally 

the  education  of   his  children,  and   the  connexion  adjacent  to,  the  cathedral  or  church  to  which  it  T 

with  the  ducal  family  resul^^  i^  ^  x^vm^T  9f  poetical  longed,  and  was  usually  situated  near  the  atrium 


BAPTI8TINE8                           277  BAPTISTXim 

forecourt.    Immersion   gradually  gave  way  to  in-  century,  in  consequence  of  which  it  is  not  easy  to 

fusion,  though  in  the  South  the  custom  of  immersing  ascertain  what  the  original  external  design  reallv 

ehildren  in  the  baptisteries  persisted  long  after  the  was.    The  structure  is  crowned  by  an  outer  hemi- 

North  had  commenced  infusion  in  the  small  bap-  spherical  dome^  through  which  penetrates  a  conical 

tional  chapels.    When  separate  baptisteries  were  no  dome  60  feet  m  diameter  over  the  central  space, 

longer  needed,  the  term  was  then  applied  to  that  and  supported  on  four  piers  and  eight  coliunns. 

part  of  the  church  which  was  set  apart  for  and  con-  Thus,  if  there  were  anotner  internal  Hemispherical 

tained  the  baptismal  font.    The  font  was  sometimes  cupola,  it  would  resemble  the  constructive  aome  of 

placed  in  a  separate  chapel  or  compartment,  some-  St.  Piml,  London.    This  baptistery  bears  remarkable 

times  m  an  inclosure  formed  by  a  railing  or  open  similarity  to  the  church  of  San  Donato  (ninth  cen- 

screen  work*  and  often  the  font  stands  alone,  either  tury)  at  Zara,  in  Dalmatia,  which,  however,  has  a 

in  the  vestibule  of  the  church,  or  in  an  arm  of  the  space  only  30  feet  in  diameter.    The  baptistery  at 

tomsept,  or  at  the  western  extremity  of  one  of  the  Asti,  if  examined  with  those  of  San  Antonio,  will  give 

aides,  and  occasionally  in   the  floor  chamber  of  a  very  complete  idea  of  Lombardic  architecture  in 

the  western  tower.  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century.    More  or  less 

The  modem  baptistery  is  merely  that  part  of  the  interesting  examples  of  baptisteries  ex'st  at  Biella, 

church  set  apart  for  baptism.     According  to  the  Brindisi,  Cremona.  Galliano,  near  Milan,  Gravedona, 

Roman  Ritual,  it  should  be  railed  off*  it  should  have  Monte  Sant'  Angefo,  Padua,  Parma,  Pinara,  Pistoia, 

a  gate  fastened  by  a  lock;  and  should  be  adorned,  if  Spalato,  Verona,  and  Vol  terra.    There  are  verv  few 

n'ble,  with  a  picture  of  the  baptism  of  Christ  by  examples  in  Italv  of  circular  or  poly^nal  buildings 
ohn.    It  is  convenient  that  it  should  contain  a  of  any  class  belonging  to  the  Gotmc  age.     Bap- 
chest  with  two  compartments,  one  for  the  holy  oils,  tisteries  had  passed  out  of  fashion.    One  such  build- 
the  other  for  the  salt,  candle^  etc.  used  in  baptism,  ing,  at  Parma,  commenced  in  1196,  deserves  to  be 
The  form  of  the  early  baptisteries  seems  to  have  quoted,  not  certainly  for  its  beauty,  but  as  illustrat- 
been  derived  from  the  Roman  circular  temples  of  ing  those  false  principles  of  design  shown  in  build- 
tombs.   And  in  adopting  the  plans,  the  early  Chris-  ings  of  this  age  m  Italv.    In  later  Romanesque  and 
tians  modified  them  to  some  extent,  for  the  internal  Gothic  perio(b,  in  Italy,  where  the  churches  were 
columns,  which  in  Roman  examples  were  generally  not  derived  from  a  combination  of  a  circular  Eastern 
used  in  a  decorative  way,  were  now  used  to  support  the  .church  with  a  Western  rectangular  nave,  as  in  France, 
walls  carrying  the  domes.   To  cover  a  large  area  with  but  were  correct  copies  of  the  Roman  basilica,  the 
one  roof  was  difficult;  but  by  the  addition  of  an  baptistery  always  stands  alone.     In  Germany,  the 
aisle  in  one  story,  round  a  moderate-sized  circular  earlier  baptistery  was  joined  to  the  square  church 
tomb,  the  inner  walls  could  be  replaced  by  columns  and  formed  a  western  apse.    The  only  examples  in 
m  the  lower  half,  which  gave  such  buildings  as  these  England  are  at  Cranbrook  and  Canterbury;  tne  lat- 
eariy  baptisteries.  ter,  howev^  is  supposed  to  have  been  originally 
Tne  earliest  existing  baptistery  is  that  of  the  part  of  the  Treasury.    It  is  not  known  at  what  time 
Lateran,  said  to  have  been  erected  in  its  original  the  baptistery  became  absorbed  into  the  basilica, 
fonn  under  Constantine.     Throughout  the  Roman  The  clmnge  was  made  earlier  in  Rome  than  else- 
worid  round  or  polygonal  baptisteries  seem  to  have  where.     A  late  example  of  a  separate  baptistery, 
been  constantly  employed  from  the  fourth  century  which,  although  small,  is  very  beautiful  in  design, 
onwards.     In  many  places  the  Italians  have  pre-  is  in  a  court  aloneside  the  cathedral  at  Bergamo, 
served  the  separate  bmlding  for  baptism,  while  north  This  may  be  regarded  as  a  connecting  link  between 
of  the  Alps  the  practice  generally  prevailed  of  ad-  larse  building  and  fonts. 

ministering  the  nte  in  the  churches.    The  construe-  KssaiNo  inKirchenlex.,  1, 1975-78;  Kraus,  Real-Encj/k., 

tion  of  the  baptistery  of  the  Lateran  is  interesting  S,|^^pi^SSat^'*~''*'^^   '****^'  Lowb«,  Early 

because  of  a  direct  adaptation  of  the  colunmar  sys-  "                     Thomas  H.  Pools. 

tcm  of  the  basilica  to  a  concentric  plan.    The  inner  ttt-^oatuu-di* 

octagon  is  upheld  by  eight  simple  shafts,  upon  the  Baptiatines. — ^I.  Hermits  of  St.  John  the  Baptist, 

straight  entablature  of  which  a  secona  story  of  II.  Missionaries  of  St.  John  the  Baptist.    III.  Sister- 

eolumns  is  superimposed.    The  original  character  of  hood  of  St.  John  the  Baptist. 

the  ceiling  and  the  roof  cannot  now  be  determined,  I.  The  Congregation  of  the  Hermits  of  St.  John  the 

but  the  weak  supports  were  hardly  adapted  to  bear  Baptist  of  France  was  founded  about  1630  by  Brother 

a  vault   of  masonry.     Although   baptisteries   and  Michel  de  Saint-Sabine  who  reformed  and  imited  the 

mortuary  chapels  were  generally  built  as  simple  hermits  of  various  dioceses.    He  established  for  each 

cylindrical  halls,  without  smrounding  passages,  other  diocese  a  visitor  who  was  aided  by  four  naajors  and  a 

examples  of  the  two  modes  of  extension  are  not  secretary.    The  bishop  received  the  reli^^ous  when 

lacking.  they  took  the  habitiand  made  their  profession ,  and  the 


brief 

wnk  beneath  the  level  ot  the  floor,  ana  sometimes  first  bishops  to  make  these  statutes  obligatory  m 

raised  a  little  above  it  by  a  breastwork  of  stone,  their  dioceses  were  the  Bishop  of  MetB  (1633),  and 

The  font  was  surroimdeii  by  a  row  of  columns  which  the  Bishop  of  Cambrai  (1634).   Brother  Jean-Baptiste 

sa{»orted  curtains  to  insure  the  most  perfect  privacy  who  had  a  great  reputation  for  virtue  carried  this 

WKi  decency  during  the  inmiersion.    The  columns  reform  into  the  Dioceses  of  Vienne,  Lyons,  Geneva, 

were  united  occasionally  by  archivolts.  more  fre-  Le  Puy.  and  Lanj^res.   The  Bishop  of  lAngres,  Louis- 

qoenUy  by  architraves  adorned  by  metncal  inscrip-  Armana  de  Simiane  de  Gardes,  added  in  1680.  for 

twos;  the  eight  distichs  in  the  Lateran  baptistery  the  hermits  in  his  diocese,  several  ordinances  to  those 

are  ascribed  to  SixtusIII.  of  Brother  Michel.     He  established  four  visitors, 

The  bM)tistery  of  Pisa,  designed  by  Dioti  Salvi  in  one  for  each  division  of  the  diocese  and  the  brothers 

1153.  is  circular,  129  feet   in    diameter,  with   en-  wore  a  white  habit  to  distinguish  them  from  vagrant 

circiaig  aisle  in  two  stories.    Built  of  marble,  it  is  and  lax  hermits.    Brother  Jean-Baptiste  went  to  the 

nRoanded  extemially  on  the  lower  story  by  hidf  Diocese  of  Ancers  to  found  the  hermita^  of  Gar- 

eolonms,  connected  by  semicircular  arches,  above  delles;  and  diea  there  in  the  odour  of  sanctity,  24  De- 

^HUdi  is  an  opSi  arcade  in  two  heights,  supported  cember,  1691. 

ty  «n>l|  detached  shafts.    It  was  not  completed  till  U.  The  congregation  of  misBioiiaiy  priests  of  St. 

A.  D.  1278.  and  has  Gothic  additions  of  the  fpurteenth  John  the  Baptist,  called  Biq>ti«tinoiy  yma  founded  by  a 


BAPTISTS  278  BAPTISTS 

Genoese,  Domenioo  Olivieri.    He  began  by  uniting  eider  the  Scriptures  to  be  the  sufficient  and  exclusive 

several  zealous  priests  with  himself  for  the  evan^liza-  rule  of  faith  and  practice.    In  the  interpretation  of 

tion  of  the  people  of  the  cities  and  country.    His  plan  them,  every  individual  enjoys  unrestricted  freedom. 

of  forming  from  this  company  an  association  the  No  non-Scriptural  scheme  of  doctrine  and  duty  is 

members  of  which  should  devote  their  time  especially  recognized    as    authoritative.     Greneral    creeds   are 

to  missions  was  encouraged  by  Cardinal  Spinola  and  mere  declarations  of  prevalent  doctrinal  views,  to 

the  scheme  afterwards  received  the  approbation  of  which  no  assent  beyond  one's  personal  conviction 


placed  it  imder  the  control  of  the  Cardinal  Prefect  delphia    Confession,   and     the     New     Hampshire 

of  the  Propaganda.    The  institute  had  a  house  and  Confession.    The    Philadelphia    Confession    is   the 

an  oratory  at  Rome  near  the  church  of  St.  Isidoro,  Westminster  (Presbyterian)  Confession  (1646)  revised 

and   the  members  held  missions  in   the   different  in  a  Baptist  sense.     It  first  appeared  in  1677,  was 

churches  of  the  city  and  in  the  surroimding  country,  reprintea  in  1688,  approved  by  the  English  Baptist 

The  Propaganda,  realizing  their  zeal  and  virtue,  Assembly   of    1689,   and   adopted   by   the   Baptist 

wished  to  employ  them  in  distant  missions.    A  num-  Association  at  Philadelphia  in  1742,  a  circumstance 

ber  of  them  were,  therefore,  sent  to  Bulgaria,  Mace*  which  accounts  for  its  usual  name.     It  is  generally 

donia,  and  China:  some  became  bishops.     Foreign  accepted  bv  the  Baptists  in  England  and  the  Southern 

missions  did  not  aosorb  all  their  activitv,  for  a  num-  States  of  tne  Union,  whereas  the  Northern  States  are 

ber  were  employed  in  the  service  of  tne  Church  in  more  attached  to  the  New  Hampshire  Confession. 

Italy,  two,  Father  Imperiali  and  Father  Spinelli  be-  The  latter  was  adopted  by  the   New   Hampshire 

coming  cardinals.    The  only  vows  imposed  by  the  State  Convention  in  1833.    Its  slight  doctrinal  dif- 

pious  Toimder  were  those  of  continuance  in  the  con-  ference  from  the  Philadelphia  Confession  consists 

gregation  and  readiness  to  go  to  missions  to  which  in  a  milder  presentation  of  the  Calvinistic  syst^n. 

the  members  should  be  sent  by  the  Propaganda.  Baptists  hold  that  those  only  are  members  of  the 

Olivieri  died  at  Genoa  in  the  odour  of  sanctity,  Church  of  Christ  who   have  been   baptized   upon 

13  June,  1766.    His  society  disappeared  during  the  making  a  personal  profession  of  faith.    They  agree 

troubles  which  bverwhehned  Italy  at  the  end  of  in  the  rejection  of  infant  baptism  as  contrary  to  the 

the  eighteenth  century.  Scriptures,  and  in  the  acceptance  of  immersion  as 

III.  The  Baptistines,  or  hermit  sisters  of  St.  John  the  sole  valid  mode  of  baptism.    All  children  who 

the  Baptist,  had  as  their  founder  Giovanna  Maria  die  before  the  a^e  of  responsibility  will  nevertheless 

Baptista  Solimani.     In  1730,  when  she  was  forty-  be  saved.     Baptism  and  the  Euchirist,  the  only  two 

two  years  old,  she  gathered  her  first  companions  sacraments,  or  ordinances  as  they  call  them,  which 

together  at  Moneglia,  not  far  from  Genoa.    The  con-  Baptists  generally  admit,  are  not  productive  of  grace, 

gregation  intended  to  lead  a  life  of  penitence  in  imi-  but  are  mere  symbols.    Baptism  does  not  bestow, 

tation  of  tJie  precursor  of  Christ    and    imder  his  but   symbolizes,    regeneration,   which    has    already 

patronage.    All  the  choir  sisters,  therefore,  added  to  taken  place.    In  the  Eucharist  Jesus  Christ  is  not 

their  names  in  religion  that  of  Baptista  in  honour  of  really  present;  the  Lord's  Supper  merely  sets  forth 

their  illustrious  modeL    The  Clapuchin,  Father  Atha-  the  death  of  Christ  as  the  sustaining  power  of  the 

nasius,  aided  them  by  his  advice  during  the  drawing  believer's  life.    It  was  instituted  for  the  followers  of 

up  of  their  constitutions.     Soon  after,  Providence  Christ  alone;  hence  Baptists,  in  theory,  commonly 

gave  them  the  direction  of  the  saintly  priest  Olivieri,  admit  to  it  only  their  own  church  members  and  ex- 

the  cause  of  whose  canonization  has  Been  introduced,  elude  outsiders    (close  communion).      Open    com- 

Shortly  after  takinc^  Olivieri  as  their  director  the  munion.  however,  has    been    practised  extensively 

congregation  settled  in  the  city  of  Genoa.     Their  in  England  and  is  ^ning  eround  to-day   among 

founder  now  went  to  Rome  to  obtain  the  confirma-  American  Baptists.     In  church  polity,  the  Baptists 

tion  of  the  Holy  See;  through  the  aid  of  the  Bama^  are  congregational,  i.  e.  each  church  enjoys  absolute 

bite,  Mario  Maccabei,  the  approbation  of  Benedict  XI  autonomy.    Its  only  officers  are  the  elders  or  bishops 

was  obtained  in  1744.    Two  years  later,  20  April,  and  the  deacons.    The  elder  exercises  the  different 

1746,  the  Archbishop  of  Genoa  received  the  religious  pastoral  functions  and  the  deacon  is  his  assistant  in 

profession  of  Giovanna  Solimani  and  her  twelve  com-  both  spiritual  and  temporal  concerns.    These  officers 

panions.    Soon  after  this.  Mother  Solimani  was  elected  are  chosen  by  common  suffrage  and  ordained  by 

abbess  and  governed  the  house  until  her  death,  "councils"  consisting  of  ministers  and  representa- 

8  April,  1758.    In  1755  the  congregation  had  sent  a  tives  of  neighbouring  churches.    A  church  may,  in 

colony  to  Rome  which  founded  a  convent  near  the  case  of  need,  appeal  for  help  to  another  church;  it 

churcn  of  San  NicoUi  da  Tolentino.     Houses  were  may,  in  difficulty,  consult  other  churches;  but  never, 

also  founded  in  some  of  the  other  cities  of  Italy.   The  even  in  such  cases,  can  members  of  one  congregation 

congregation  drew  its  members   from   among    the  acquire  authority  over  another  congregation*     Much 

young  girls  and  widows  who  were  admitted;  into  less  can  a  secular  power  interfere  in  spiritual  affairs; 

their  houses  as  lay-sisters.    Tertiaries  took  care  of  a  state  church  is  an  absurdity. 

their  churches  ancf  gathered  the  alms  of  which  they  II.  History. — (1)  The  Baptists  in  the  BrUisk 
had  need.  A  rigorous  cloister  was  observed.  The  Isles,  Persons  rejecting  infant  baptism  are  fre- 
sisters  rose  at  midnight  for  Matins,  slept  in  their  quently  mentioned  in  English  history  in  the  six- 
clothes,  went  bare-footed,  and  observed  a  continual  teenth  century.  We  learn  of  their  presence  in  the 
abstinence.  The  whole  life  was  one  of  extreme  aus-  island  through  the  persecutions  they  endured.  As 
terity.  Several  convents  of  this  congregation  still  early  as  1535  ten  Anabaptists  were  put  to  death, 
exist  in  Italy.  and  the  persecution  continued  throughout  that  cen- 

HALTOT.Htf<awde«ordrMreZtbt«ttx.VIII.ll2-ll6;G^  tuTV.    Tne  victims  seem  to  have  been  mostly  Dutch 

La  me  d*iin  $olttatre  xnconnu  mart  en  Anjou,  en  odeur  de  aatnteu  „„  j  r'«..r^o«  w^fuf^oAB       fXTVio*  i'nfliiAn#»A  fK^^.^^^^.^.,^ 

(Parifl.  1699);  Hbimbuchbb,  Die  Orden  und  Kongregationen,  II,  and  German  refugees.     What  influence  they  exerted 

307-^08,  375.  m  spreading  their  views  is  not  known;    but,  afi  a 

Jean  M.  BessiI  necessary  result,  Baptist  principles  became,  through 

them,  less  of  an  unacceptable  novelty  in  the  eyes  of 

Baptists  (Greek,  /SaTr/i-eei',  to  baptize),  a  Protes-  Englishmen.    The  first  Baptist  congregations  were 

tant  denomination,  which  exists  chiefly  in  En^ish-  organized  in  the  beginning  of  the  •even teenth  cen- 

speaking  countries  and  owes  its  name  to  its  charac-  tury.    Almost  at  the  very  start,  the  denomination 

teristic  doctrine  and  practice  regarding  bi^tism.  was  divided  into  "Arminian",  or  |^General  "  Baptists, 

L  DisTiNcnvjB  Pbinciples. — The  Baptists  con-  so  named  because  of  their  belief  in  the  universal 


BAPTISTS  279  BAPTISTS 

diaracter  of  Christ's  redemption,  and  "Calvinistic"  first  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  Particular 

or  "Particular"    Baptists,    who    maintained    that  Baptists  injured  their  own  cause  by  their  excessive 

Christ's  redemption  was  intended  for  the  elect  alone,  emphasis  of  the  Calvinistic  element  m  their  teaching. 

The  origin  of  the  General  Baptists  is  connected  with  which  made  them  condemn  missionary  activity  ana 

the  name  of  John  Smyth  (d.  1612),  pastor  of  a  church  bordered  on  fatalism.    The  Weeleyan  reviviJ  brought 

'  ishire,  which  had  separated  about  a  reaction  against  the  deadening  influence  of 


at  Gainsborough,  Lincolnshire,  ,  „  _ 

fsom  the  Church  of  England.    About  1606,  pastor  ultra-Calvinism.     Andrew  Fuller   (1754-1816)    and 
and  flock,  to  escape  persecution,  emierated  to  Amster-  Robert  Hall  (1764-1831)  propounded  milder  theo- 
dam,  where  they  formed  the  second  English  congre-  logical  views.    The  Baptist  Home  Mission  Society 
gation.    In  1609,  Smyth,  owing  possibly  in  some  was  formed  in  1779.    In  1792  the  foimdation  of  the 
measure  to   Mennonite   influence,   rejected    infant  Baptist  Missionary  Society  at  Kettering,  Northamp- 
baptism,  although   he   retained   affusion.     In  this  tonshiro,  inaugiirated  the  work  of  missions  to  the 
he  was  supported  by  his  church.    Some  members  heathen.    In  tnis  undertaking  William  Carey  (1761- 
of  the  congregation  returned  to  England  (1611  or  1834)   was   the  prime  mover.    Perhaps  the  most 
1612)  imder  the  leadership  of  Helwys  (c.  1560-1616)  eminent  Baptist  preacher  of  the  nineteenth  century 
and  formed  in  London    the    nucleus    of  the  first  in  England  was  C.  H.  Spur^eon  (1834-92),  whose 
Baptist  community.    Persecution  had  abated,  and  sermons  were  published  weekly  and  had  a  large 
they  do  not  seem  to  have  been  molested.    By  1626  circulation.    In  recent  years,  the  Baptists  created  a 
there  were  in  diflferent  parts  of  England  five  General  "Twentieth  Century  Fund,"  to  be  exi>ended  in  fur- 
Baptist  churches;  by  1644,  they  had  increased,  it  is  thering  the  interests  of  the  denomination, 
said,  to  fortynseven;    and  by  1660  the  membership        (2)  The  BavtisU  in  the  United  States. — ^The  first 
of  the  body  had  reached  about  20,000.    It  was  be-  Baptist  Churcn  in  the  United  States  did  not  spring 
tween  1640  and   1660    that   the  General  Baptists  historically  from  the  English  Baptist  churches,  but 
began  to  claim  that  immersion  was  the  only  valid  had  an  independent  origm.    It  was  established  by 
mode  of  baptism.    They  were  persecuted  by  Charles  Roger.  Williams  (c.  1600-83).    Williams  was  a  nunis- 
11  (1660-85):    but   the  Act  of  Toleration    (1689)  ter  of  the  Church  of  England,  who,  owing  to  his 
broi^t  rdief  and  recognized  the  Baptists  as  the  separatist  views,  fled  to  America  in  search  of  reUgioua 
thhd  dissenting  denomination  (Presbyterians,  Inde-  freedom.    He  landed  at  Boston  (February,  1631), 
pendents,  and  Baptists).    In  the  eighteenth  century,  and  shortly  after  his  arrival  was  called  to  be  minister 
Anti-Trinitarian  ideas  spread  among  the  General  at  Salem.    Certain  opinions,  e.  g.  his  denial  of  the 
Baptists,  and  by  1750,  many,  perhaps  the  majority  right  of  the  secular  power  to  punish  purely  relieioua 
of  tiiem,  had  b^me  Unitarians.    As  a  riesult  of  the  onences  and  his  denunciation  of  the  charter  of  the 
great  Wesleyan  revival  of  the  second  half  of  the  eight-  Massachusetts  C>>lon^  as  worthless,  brought  him  into 
eenth  century,   new  reli^ous   activity  manifested  conflict  with  the  civil  authorities.    He  was  sum- 
itself  amon^  the  General  Baptists.  moned  before  the  General  Court  in  Boston  and 
Dan  Taylor  (1738-1816)  organized  the  orthodox  refusing  to  retract,  was  banished  (October,  1635;. 
portion  of  them  into  the  New  Connexion  of  the  He  left  the  colony  and  purchased  from  the  Narrangaia- 
General    Baptists.    The    latter    appellative    soon  sett  Indians  a  tract  of  land.    Other  colonists  soon 
dioippeared,  as  the  "Old  Connexion   , or  unorthodox  joined  him,  and  the  settlement,  which  was  one  of  the 
party,  gradually  merged  into  the  Unitarian  denomi-  first  in  the  United  States  to  be  established  on  the 
nation.    In  1816,  the  General  Baptists  established  principle  of  complete  religious  liberty,  became  the 
a  missionary   society.    Their   doctrinal   differences  city  of  Providence.    In  1639  Williams  repudiated 
with  the  Piu1;icular  Baptists  gradufdly  disappeared  the  value  of  the  baptism  he  had  received  in  infancy, 
m  the  course  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  the  two  and  was  baptized  by  Ezekiel  Holliman,  a  former 
bodies  united  in  1891.  member  of  the  Salem  church.    Williams  then  bap- 
The  Particular  Baptists  originated  shortly  after  tized  Holliman  with  ten  others,  thus  constituting 
the  General  Baptists.    Their  first  congregation  was  the  first  Baptist  church  in  the  New  World.    A  second 
organized  in  1633  by  former  members  of  a  London  church  was  founded  shortly  after  (c.  1644)  at  New- 
"  Separatist  Church  '    who   seceded   and  were  re-  port,  Rhode  Island,  of  which  John  Clarke  (1609-76) 
baptized.    Mr.  John  Spillsbury  became  their  minis-  became  the  pastor.    In  the  Massachusetts  Colony, 
ter.     In  1638  a  second  secession  from  the  original  from  1642  onward.  Baptists,  because  of  their  reli^ous 
church  occurred,  and  in    1640   another  Particular  views,  came  into  conflict  with  the  local  authonties. 
Baptist    Congregation    was    formed.    The    opinion  A  law  was  passed  against  them  in  1644.    In  spite  of 
now  b^an  to  be  held  that  immersion  alone  was  real  this,  we  find  at  Kehoboth,  in  1649,  Baptists  who 
baptism.    Richard  Blunt  was  sent  to  the  Nether-  began   to   hold   regular   meetings.    In    1663   John 
lands  to  be  duly  immersed.     On  his  return  he  bap-  Myles,  who  had  emigrated  with  his  Baptist  church 
tized  the  others,  and  thus  the  first  Baptist  church  from  Swansea,  Wales,  settled  in  the  same  place  and 
711  the  full  meaning  of  the  term  was  constituted  in  most  writers  date  tne  establishment  of  the  first 
1641.      In  1644  there  were  seven  Particular  Baptist  Baptist  church  in  Massachusetts  from  the  time  of  his 
churches  in  London.    They  drew  up  a  confession  of  amval.    The  community  removed  in  1667  to  a  new 
faith  (1644),  which  was  republished  in  1646.    The  site  near  the  Rhode  Island  frontier,  which  they  called 
Particular  Baptists  now  rapidly  increased  in  numbers  Swansea.    The  first  Baptist  church  in  Boston  was 
and  influence.    Some  of  tnem  held  prominent  posi-  established  in  1665,  and  the  organization  of  the  first 
tions    under    Cromwell.    With    the    latter's    army  one  in  Maine,  then  part  of  Massachusetts,  was  corn- 
Baptists  came  to  Ireland,  where  the  denomination  pleted  in  1682.    The  members  of  the  latter,  on  ao- 
ncver  flourished,  and  to  Scotland,  where  it  took  firm  coimt  of  the  persecution  to  which  they  were  still 
root  only  after   1750  and  adopted  some  peculiar  subjected,  removed  in    1684   to  Charleston,   South 
practices.     Wales  proved  a  more  fruitfid  soil.    A  Carolina,  and  founded  the  first  Baptist  church  in 
ehureh  was  foimded  at  or  near  Swansea  in  1049.    In  the  South.    The  chureh  of  Groton  (1705)  was  the 
the  time  of  the  Commonwealth  (1649-60),  churches  first  in  Connecticut,  where  there  were  four  in  existence 
multiplied   owing   to  .the   succ^sful   preaching  of  at  the  beginning  of  the  religious  revival  known  as 
Vavasour   Powefi    (1617-70);   and   the   number  of  the  Great  Awakening  (1740). 
Baptists,    all   Calvinistic,  is   to-day   comparatively        During  the  period  of  these  foimdations  in  New 
Urge  in  Wales  and  Monmouthshire.    One  of  the  prom-  Endand,  Baptists  appeared  also  in  New  York  State, 
ioeot  men  who  suffered  persecution  for  the  Baptist  at  least  as  earlv  as  1656.    The  exact  date  of  the 
eanse  tinder  Charles  II  was  John  Bunyan  (1628-88),  establishment  of  the  first  chureh  there  is  not  ascer- 
the  author  of  "The  Pilgrim's  Progress*'.    In  the  tainable,  but  it  was  very  probably  at  the  beginning 


BAFnSin  280  B4FniT8 

\ 

; 

of  the  eighteenth  century.  From  1684  on,  churches  century  was  marked  l^  a  period  of  reyivals,  ?Huoh 
also  appeared  in  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey .  and  Deia«  prepared  the  formation  of  the  "Association  of  the 
ware.  Cold  Spring,  Bucks  Co..  had  the  nrst  one  in  Baptist  churches  of  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Bruns- 
reimsylvania  (1684);  and  Middietown  heads  the  list  wick"  in  1800.  In  1815,  a  missionaiy  society  was 
in  Ndw  Jersey  (1688).  A  congregation  was  organ-  formed,  and  the  work  of  organization  in  every  line 
ized  also  in  1688  at  Pennepek,  or  Lower  Dublin,  now  was  continued  throughout  tne  nineteenth  century, 
part  of  Philadelphia.  The  latter  churches  were  to  crowing  apace  with  Baptist  influence  and  numbers, 
exert  very  considerable  influence  in  shaping  the  doc-  In  1889  some  previously  existing  societies  were  oon- 
trinal  system  of  the  largest  part  of  American  Bap-  soUdated  in  the  "  Baptist  Convention  of  Ontario  and 
tists.  Philadelphia  became  a  centre  of  Baptist  ac-  Quebec",  whose  various  departments  of  work  are: 
tivity  and  organization.  Down  to  about  the  year  home  missions,  foreign  missions,  publications,  church 
1700  it  seemea  as  if  the  majority  of  American  Bap-  edifices,  etc.  Among  the  educational  institutions  cl 
tists  would  belong  to  the  General  or  Arminian  brancn.  the  Canadian  Baptisto  may  be  mentioned  Acadia  Col- 
Many  of  the  earliest  churches  were  of  that  type,  lege  (founded  1838),  Woodstock  College  (founded 
But  only  Particular  Baptist  congre^tions  were  es-  1860),  and  McMaster  University  at  Toronto  (char- 
tablished  in  and  about  Philadelphia,  and  these,  tered  1887).  Moulton  Collie  for  women  (opened 
through  the  foundation  of  the  Philadelphia  Associa-  1888)  is  affiliated  to  the  last  mentioned  institution, 
tion  in  1707,  which  fostered  mutual  intercourse  among  In  other  parts  of  America  the  Baptists  are  chidSv 
them,  became  a  stronj;  central  organization  about  represented  in  the  countries  colonised  b^  EnglanoL 
which  other  Baptist  churches  rallied.  As  a  result,  Thus  we  find  a  Baptist  church  in  Jamaica  as  eariy 
we  see  to  day  the  large  number  of  Particular  (Reg-  as  1816.  In  Latin  America  the  Baptist  churches  are 
ular)  Baptists.  Until  the  Great  Awakenijog,  however,  not  numerous  and  are  of  missionary  origin.  Re- 
which  gave  new  impetus  to  their  activity,  they  in-  oently,  the  Northern  Baptists  have  taken  Porto  Rico 
creased  but  slowly.  Since  that  time  their  progress  as  their  special  field,  while  the  Southern  Baptist 
has  not  been  seriously  checked,  not  even  by  the  Convention  has  chosen  Cuba. 

Revolution.  True,  the  academy  of  Hopewell,  New  (b)  European  Continent.  The  founder  of  the  Bap- 
Jersey,  their  first  educational  institution,  established  tist  churches  in  Germany  was  Johann  Gerhard  Oncken, 
in  1756,  disappeared  during  the  war;  but  Rhode  whose  independent  study  of  the  Scriptures  led  him 
Island  Collie,  chartered  in  1764,  survived  it  and  to  adopt  Baptist  views  several  years  before  he  had  an 
became  Brown  University  in  1804.  Other  educa-  opportimityof  receiving  "believers' baptism".  Hav- 
tional  institutions,  to  mention  only  the  earlier  ones,  ing  incidentally  heard  that  an  American  Baptist, 
were  founded  at  tne  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  oen-  B.  Sears,  was  pursuing  his  studies  at  Berlin,  he  com- 
tury:  Waterville  (now  Q)lby)  College,  Maine,  in  1818;  municated  with  him  and  was  with  six  others  bi^ 
Co^te  University,  Hamilton,  New  York,  in  1820;  tized  by  him  at  Hambuig  in  1834.  His  activity  as 
and  in  1821,  Columbian  College  at  Washington  (now  an  evangelist  drew  new  adherents  to  the  movement, 
the  undenominational  Geoi^  Washington  Univer-  The  number  of  the  Baptists  increased,  in  spite  of 
sity).  the  opposition  of  the  Cierman  state  churches.  In 
"  Organized  mission  work  was  also  undertaken  at  Prussia  alone  relative  toleration  was  extended  to 
about  the  same  time.  In  1814  "The  General  Mis-  them  until  the  foundation  of  the  Empire  brought 
sionary  Convention  of  the  Baptist  Denomination  in  to  them  almost  everywhere  freedom  in  the  exercise 
the  United  States  of  America  for  Foreign  Missions"  of  their  religion.  A  Baptist  theological  school  was 
was  established  at  Philadelphia.  It  split  in  1845  founded  in  1881  at  Hamburg-Horn.  From  Germany 
uid  formed  the  "American  Baptist  Missionary  Union"  the  Baptists  spread  to  the  neighbouring  countries, 
for  the  North,  with  present  head-quarters  at  Boston,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Switzerland,  Austria, Russia. '  No- 
and  the  "Southern  Baptist  Convention",  with  head-  where  on  the  Continent  of  Europe  has  the  success  of 
quarters  at  Richmond  (Virginia),  and  Atlanta  (Geor-  the  Baptists  been  so  marked  as  in  Sweden,  where 

fia),  for  foreign  and  home  missions  respectively^.    In  their  number  is  lai*ger  to-dav  than  even  in  Germany. 

832,  the  "American  Baptist  Home  Mission  Society",  The  Swedish  Baptists  date  from  the  year  1848,  when 

intended  primarily  for  the  Western  States^  was  or-  five  persons  were  baptized  near  Gothenburg  by  a 

ganized  in  New  York  where  it  still  has  its  head-  Baptist  minister  from  Denmark.    Andreas  Wibeiv 

quarters.     In  1824,  the  "Baptist  General  Tract  So-  became  their  great  leader  (1865-87).    Thev  have  had 

cietv"    was    form^    at   Washington,    removed    to  a  seminary  at  Stockholm  since  1866.    Among  the 

Philadelphia  in  1826,  and  in  1840  became  the  "  Amer-  Latin  nations  the  Baptists  never  gained  a  firm  foot- 

ican    Baptist   Publication   Society".    The   Regular  hold,  although  a  Particular  Baptist  church  seems  to 

Baptists  divided  in  1845,  not  indeed  doctrinally,  but  have  existed  in  France  by  1646,  and  a  theological 

organically,  on  the  question  of  slavery.     Since  that  school  was  established  in  that  countryin  1879. 
time,  attempts  at  reunion  having  remained  fnutless;         (c)  Asia,  Australasia,  and  Africa.     William  Car^ 

they  exist  m    three    bodies:    Northern,  Southern,  first  preached  the  Baptist  doctrine  in  India  in  1793. 

and  Coloured.    The  Northern  Baptists  constituted,  India  and  the  neighbouring  countries  have  ever  since 

17  May,  1907,  at  Washington,  a  representative  body,  remained  a  favourite  fiem  for  Baptist  missionaxy 

called  the  "  Northern  Baptist  Convention  ",  whose  work  and  have  flourishing  missions.     Missions  exist 

object  is  ''  to  give  expression  to  the  sentiment  of  its  also  in  China,  Japan,  and  several  other  Asiatic  ooun- 

oonstituency  upon   matters  of  denominational  im-  tries.    The  first  Baptist  churches  in  Australasia  were 

portance  and  of  general  religious  and  moral  interest.^'  organized  between  1830  and  1840  in  different  places. 

Governor  Hughes  of  New  York  was  elected  president  Immigration  from  England,  whence  the  leading  Bap- 

of  the  new  organization.  tist  ministers  were  until  very  recently  drawn,  in- 

(3)  The  Baptists  in  Other  Countries. — (a)  America,  creased,  though  not  rapidly,  the  numbers    of   the 

The  earliest   Baptist  church  in   the   Dominion  of  denomination.     During  the  period  which  elapMSHsd  be- 

Canada  was  organized  at  Horton,  Nova  Scotia,  in  tween  1860  and  1870,  a  new  impulse  was  ^ven  to 

1763,  by  the  Rev.  Ebenezer  Moulton  of  New  England.  Baptist  activity.     Churches  were  organized  in  rapid 

This  church,  like  many  of  the  earlier  ones,  was  com-  succession  in  Australia,  and  missionary  work  was  taken 

posed  of  Baptists  and  Congregationalists.    The  influx  up  in  India.    The  two  chief  hindrances  complained 

of  settlers  from  New  England  and  Scotland  and  the  ot  by  Baptists  in  that  part  of  the  world,  are  State 

work  of  zealous  evangelists,  such  as  Theodore  Seth  Socialism,  L  e.  excessive  concentration  of  power  in 

Harding,  who  laboured  in  the  Maritime  Provinces  the  executive,  and  want  of  loyalt^r  to  strictly  denomi- 

from  1795  to  1855,  soon  increased  the  number  of  national    principles    and    practices.    The     B£4>tist 

Baptists  in  the  countiy.    The  end  of  the  eighteenth  churches  of  the  African  continent  are,  if  we  exoept 


BAE                                     281  BA&AO 

Booth  Africa,  of  mianonary  origin.    The  Negro  Bap-  mediate,  of  the  attitude  taken  by  some   Baptists 

M  of  the  United  States  had  at  an  earij  date  toward   the  Whitefield   revival   movement   of  the 

mifldoDaries  in  this  field.    Two  coloured  men,  Lott  dghteenth  century  (Separate  Baptist,  6,479;  United 

Quey.  a  former  slave,  and  Colin  Teague,  set  sail  in  Baptists.  13,209). 

1820  for  Liberia,  where  the  first  church  was  organised  (8)  The  SeverUhrDay  Baptists  differ  from  the  tenets 

in  1821.    To-day  we  find  Baptist  missions  in  various  of  the  Baptists  generally  only  in  their  observance  of 

parts  of  Africa.  the  seventh  day  of  the  week  as  the  Sabbath  of  the 

in.  BfmoR  BAPTI8T  Bodies. — Side  by  side  with  Lord.    They  appeared  in  England  in  the  latter  part 

the  laiger  body  of  Baptists,  several  sects  exist.    They  of  the  sixteenth  century  under  the  name  of  "  Sabba- 

are found  chiefly  in  the  I^iated  States.  tarian- Baptists".    Their  first  church  in  this  country 

(1)  The  Baptitt  Church  of  Christ  originated  in  was  organized  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  in  1671.  In  1818 
TennesBee,  about  1808,  and  spread  to  several  other  the  name  Seventh  Day  Baptists  was  adopted  (Com- 
Sou^em  States.     Its  doctrine  is  a  mild  fcmn  of  municants,  8,493). 

Oilvixusin,  with  belief  in  a  general  atonement  and  (9)  The  Six-principle  Bavtists  are  a  small  body  and 

admiarion  of   feet-washing   as   religious  ordinance,  date  from  the  seventeentn  centiiry.    They  are  so 

[Communicants,  8^54  according  to  Dr.  H.  K.  Garroll,  called  from  the  six  doctrines  of  their  creed,  contained 

the  ackoowledged  authority,  whose  statistics,  pub-  in  Heb.,  vi,  1-2:  (a)  Repentance  from  dead  works; 

liahed  in  "The  Christian  Advocate"   (New  York,  (b)  Faith  toward  God;  (c)  The  doctrine  of  Baptism: 

17  Januaiy,  1907,  p.  98),  we  shall  quote  for  these  sects.]  (d)  The  imposition  of  hands;  (e)  The  resiurection  of 

(2)  The  Camj^MUeSf  Disciples  of  Christ,  or  the  dead;  (f)  Eternal  judgment.  (858  communicants.) 
Ckridians,  date  oack  as  a  distinct  religious  body  (10)  The  Windyrennerians  or  Church  of  God  were 
to  the  eariy  part  of  the  nineteenth  century.  They  foimded  by  John  Winebrenner  (1797-1860)  in 
are  the  outgrowth  of  that  movement  which  mam-  Pennsylvania,  where  their  chief  strength  still  lies, 
fested  itsdf  simultaneously  in  some  of  the  religious  The  first  congregation  was  established  in  1829.  The 
denominations  in  the  United  States  in  favour  of  the  Winebrennenans  admit  three  Divine  ordinances:  bap- 
Bible  alone  without  creeds.  Thomas  Campbell  (1763-  tism,  feet-washing,  and  the  Lord's  Supper  (41,475 
1854)  and  Alexander  Campbell  (1788-1866),  father  communicants). 

aodeon,  became  the  leaders  of  the  movement.     (CJom-  IV.  Statistics. — According  to  the  American  Bap- 

municants,  1^64,758.)  tist  Year-Book,  published  annually  at  Philadelphia, 

(3)  The  thmkards  (from  the  German  tunkertf  to  there  were  in  1907,  not  including  the  minor  Baptist 
(%),  German  Baptists ,  or  Brethren ,  were  foimded  sects,  5,736,263  Baptists  in  the  world.  They  had 
about  1708  in  Germany  by  Alexander  Mack.  Be-  55,505  churches  and  38,216  ordained  ministers.  The 
tween  1719  and  1729  they  all  emimted  to  the  denomination  counted  4,974,014  members  in  North 
United  States  and  settled  mostly  in  Pennsylvania.  America;  4,812,653  in  the  United  States,  with  church 
They  are  found  to-day  in  many  parts  of  the  Union,  prqMrty  worth  $109,960,610;  and  117,842  in  Canada, 
but  divisions  have  taken  place  among  them.  They  South  America  has  but  4,465  Baptists;  Europe 
practise  threefold  immersion,  hold  their  communion  564,670  (434,751  in  Great  Britain,  44,656  in  Sweden, 
senrioe,  which  is  preceded  by  the  agave^  in  the  even-  33,790  in  Germany,  24,132  in  Russia);  Asia,  155,969; 
ing^  9M  se^  to  be  excessively  simple  and  imosten-  Australasia,  24,402;  and  Africa,  12,743.  The  statistic 
tabous  in  their  social  intercourse,  dress,  etc.  (Mem-  statement  of  Dr.  H.  K.  Carroll,  already  referred  to 
benhip.  12094.)                                         ^  above,  credits  the  R^ular  Baptists  together  with 

(4)  The  PreetnU  Baptists  correspond  in  doctrine  eleven  branch  denominations  in  the  United  States  for 
and  practice  to  the  English  General  Baptists,  but  1906  with  a  membership  of  5,140,770,  54,566  churches 
originated  in  the  United  States.  They  exist  in  two  and  38,010  ministers;  R^ular  Baptists,  North, 
distinct  bodies.    The  older  was  founded  in  North  1,113,^2;  South,  1,939,563;  Coloured.  1,779.69. 

Carolina    and    constituted    an    association    in    1729.  The  diviaionB  in  the  bibliography  correspond  to  the  divisiona 

Many  of  its  mCTabers  subsequ^tly  joined  the  Reg-  ""^  t%^^^  Su^^tentaHc  Thedoay  (3d  ed..  New  York.  1890); 

mar  Baptists.    Those  who  did  not  umte  became  Schaff,  TAe  c»wd«  of  CAriScnrfcw  (New  York,  1877).  I.  846- 

bown  as  the  "Free  Willers"  and  later  as  the  "Origi-  869:  in,  738-766;  McCuntock  and  Btrwo,  Cvdop^ia  cf 

!»)  FiwAwill   'RanfintA"    ftn*i  arft   fnnnH    in    iht^    fwn  -S**.,  Theol,  and  Bed.  LxL  (New  York,  1871),  I.  653-660; 

nai  i-reewiU^aptists  ,  and  are  found  m  the  two  cathcart.  'fhe  BaptUt  Enq/dopedia  (Phiiadeh>hi«.  I88I). 

Ouohnas.    The  larger  body  of  the  "Freewill  Bap-  II.— (i)  Crobbt.  The  Htatoru  of  the  EnatiJi,  BaptUta  (Lon- 

twts"  was  founded  in  New  Hampshire.     Benjamm  don.  1738-40);  Ivimby,  A  HiaUmf  of  o^  Enpixth  Bavtiau 

IUn<Un  nnroniK^  iho  finrf  rthiirpH  fL<-  Maw  Thirhnm  (London,  1811-30);  Tatlor,  TA^ //Mtoryo/ fft«  ^fH/iuA  Gcjiero/ 

nanmoi  organized  tne  nm  cnurcn  at  wew  uurnam  BaptUta  (London.  18I8);  Armitage,  a  History  of  me  Baptuts 

m  1780.     The  denonunation  spread  throughout  New  ([New  York,  1887);  Veddkr,  The  BaptUU  (New  York,  1903) 

^idaod  and  the  West,  and  was  joined  in  1841  by  the  in  the  5tory  of  theChwrchea  Seriea,    „     .     ^^     ^      .    ,^ 

"R«^^n»nuon  Baptiste-of  New  York  (increase.  vl^iWEStTa^lX^ €ri^li&f^ fJlT^^JTHti 

55  churches  and  2,600  mOTabers).    It  mamtams  sev-  ser.,  II,  bibliog.,  xi-xv;  Bdrraoe,  A  HUtory  of  the  Baptuda 

eal  coUeires  and  academies,  and  has  changed  its  of-  in  New  .Kivtond  (Philadelphia.  1894);  Vedder,  Hwtory  of  the 

find    n«mA    frt    "T?r«A    RiuvtiAtn"      Thft     AwiMniMin  BaptMU  \n  the  MiddU  Statea  (Philadelphia,  1898);  Smith,  il 

Ml    name    to       tree    &M>tlStS    .      ine    Amencan  ^^^.^  ^f  the  BaptUta  in  the  Western  Statea  (Philadelphia, 

General  Baptists  are  m  SUbstSUltial  doctrmal  agree-  19OO);  Rxlby,  A  Hiatory  of  the  BapHata  in  the  Southern  Statea 

meat  with   the    Freewill    Baptists.      (Membership:  (PWUideiphiB.  1899).           ^  „    ^.,  .  ..          ,  ,-r>..,   .  , 

82,363*  General  Baptists,  20,347.)  (Hamburg.  1896);  Scbroeder,  Hiatory  of  the  Swediah  BapHata 

d^  The  Old  TwoSeed^nkhe-SpirU  Predestinarian  (New  York,  1898)                                ^  ...    rr  -.^  c,  . 

Baptists  are  Manich«an  in  doctrine,  holding  that  there  J^'y'^^^^^'^^a^'^^^^^^^  1^.  i^^SIr^I^ 

Sie  two   seeds,  one  of  good  and   one  of  evil.     The  Diaciplea  of   Chriat  (New  York.  1894)  in  same  Series,  XII, 

doctrine  is  credited  to  Daniel  Parker,  who  laboured  1-162;   Stewart.  History  of  the  FreeunU  JBaptwto  (Dover,  New 

in  different  parts  of  the  Union  in  the  first  half  of  the  Hampshire,  1862).                                            WirnFR 

iwieteenth  century  (12^1  communicants).  ^      ^                                 «      «          '  vveber. 

if)   The    PnmUive    Baptists,    also    caUed     OW-  Bar,  Confederation  op.    See  Poland. 

Sduol,    Anti-Mission,    and     Hard-Shell,     Baptists  Barac  (Heb.  Bflrfla,  lightning),  the  deliverer  of 

eoostitute   a    sect   which   is   opposed   to  missions,  the  Israelites  from  tne  power  of  the  Chanaanites 

Sunday  sdiools,  and  in  general  to  human  religious  under  the  judgeship  of  Debbora.     He  was  the  son 

iutitiitions.     TTiey  arose  about  1836  (126,000  com-  of  Abinoem  of  Cedes  in  Nephtali  (Judges,  iv,  6)  and 

mmiieants).  probably  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Issachar  (v,  15). 

(7)  The  foundation  of  the  Separate  and  of  the  when,  after  the  death  of  the  Judge  Aod,  "  the  children 

V11M  Baptists  was  the  result,  either  immediate  or  of  Israel  again  did  evil  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord  " 


BMMMDMUB 


282 


BARAOA 


(iv  1),  th^y  were  delivered  into  the  hands  of  the 
Chanaanite  King  Jabin  of  Asor  who  grievously 
oppressed  them  for  twenty  vears  (iv,  3).  Thereupon 
the  prophetess  Debbora  of  Mount  Ephraim,  between 
Rama  and  Bethel ,  instigates  Barao.  manifestly  a 
leading  captain  of  the  time,  to  assemble  10,000  men 
of  the  tribes  of  Nephtali  ana  Zabulon  (iv,  6;  cf.  v,  14) 
and  to  take  the  neld  against  Sisara,  the  general  of 
Jabin's  army.  Barac  assembles  his  warriors  at 
Cedes,  moves  to  Mount  Thabor,  and  by  a  rush  down 
ihe  mountain  surprises  the  Chanaanites  (iv,  10,  12, 
14;  cf.  V,  16,  19,  21).  The  panic-stricken  army  of 
Sisara  is  attacked,  routed,  pursued,  and  finally  cut 
to  pieces  (iv^  16).  Sisara,  having  taken  to  night, 
seeKs  refuge  m  the  tent  of  Jahel,  the  wife  of  Haber. 
the  Cinite,  where  he  meets  with  a  treacherous  end 
(iVj  21;  cf.  V,  26).  This  signal  victory  of  Barac. 
which  put  an  end  to  the  power  and  oppression  ot 
Jabin.  and  which  was  followed  by  a  period  of  forty 
years  rest,  is  commemorated  in  the  triumphal  ode 
of  Debbora  and  Barac  (v).  For  the  various  accounts 
of  Barac's  exploits  which  critics  detect  in  Judges,  iv, 
and  Vy  see  Judgbs,  Book  of. 

F.  X.  E.  Albert. 

Baradgttfl,  Jacob,  a  Syrian  Monophysite  bishop, 
bom  at  Telia,  towards  the  end  of  the  fifth  or  the 
beginning  of  the  sixth  centunr,  died  in  578.  He 
was  the  son  of  Theophilus  bar  AIfin<^,  a  priest  of  Telia, 
and  hence  his  real  name  was  Jacob  bar  Theophilus; 
the  siuname  BiMe'ftnA,  corrupted  into  Baradieus, 
was  derived  from  the  coarse  horse-cloth  hdrdd^thdn 
which  he  usually  wore.  After  receiving  a  good 
education  he  became  a  monk  in  the  monastery  of 
Pesfltft.  and  a  disciple  of  Severus,  the  head  of  the 
Monopnysites.  In  the  first  half  of  the  sixth  century, 
Monophysitism,  weakened  by  internal  dissensions 
and  by  the  opposition  of  the  Emperor  Justinian, 
was  on  the  verge  of  disappearing,  especially  when 
its  leader  Severus  died,  538.  Probably  through 
the  influence  of  the  Empress  Theodora,  Baradsus 
was  made  Bishop  of  Edessa  in  543,  and  henceforth 
devoted  all  lus  energies  to  the  defence  of  Monophys- 
itism. Through  his  untiring  activity  he  breathed 
a  new  life  into  what  seemed  a  mere  expiring  faction. 
At  the  cost  of  great  hardships,  he  went  around 
ordaining  priests  and  deacons  and  strengthening 
his  coreugiomsts.  There  exists  a  profession  of  faith 
addressed  to  him  by  the  abbots  of  the  province  of 
Arabia,  with  137  signatures  (see  Lamy,  in  ''Actes 
du  XI*  Congr^  des  Orientalistes'',  §  4,  Paris,  1897) 
showing  that  he  was  the  undisputed  leader  in  Mono- 
physite circles.  It  is  because  of  his  prominence  that 
the  Monoph^rsites  were,  and  still  are,  called  after  his 
name,  Jacobites.    Baradseus  has  left  very  little  in 

writing:  a  liturgy,  and  a  few  letters. 

The  main  source  for  the  life  of  Baradsiu  is  John  of  Ephk- 
Bus.  EcdenoMtical  HiBtory,  the  third  part  of  which  has  been 
ptwlished  by  Curbton  (Oxford,  1853),  and  Live*  of  the  Orien- 
tal SainUt  Land  ed.  in  his  Aneodota  ^Syriaca.  II,  249-257;  Du- 
YAL,  LiUtrature  Svriaque  (2d  ed.,  Paris,  1900);  Klbtn,  Jacobu$ 
Baraddu*  (Leyden,  1882). 

R.  BUTIN. 

Baraga,  Frkderic,  first  Bishop  of  Marquette, 
Michigan,  U.  S.  A.,  b.  20  June,  1797,  at  Malavas,  in 
the  i)arish  of  Dobemice  in  the  Austrian  Dukedom  of 
Camiolia;  d.  at  Marquette,  Mich.,  19  January,  1868. 
He  was  baptized  on  the  ver^r  day  of  his  birth,  in 
the  parish  church  of  Dobemice,  by  the  names  of 
Irensus  Frederic,  the  first  of  which,  however,  he 
never  used,  retaining  only  the  second.  His  parents, 
Johann  Nepomuc  Baraga  and  Maria  Katharine  Jo- 
sefa  (rUe  ae  JenlHc),  had  five  children,  of  whom 
Frederic  was  the  fourth.  His  father  was  not  rich, 
but  his  mother  inherited  after  her  father's  death 
the  estate  of  Malavas,  besides  a  vast  fortune.  They 
were  God-fearing  and  pious,  and  strove,  while  they 
survived,  to  eve  a  gocd  education  to  their  children. 
His  motner  died  in  1808,  and  his  father  in  1812, 


'  vsrflflPm^^MHEII 

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Tbx  RioBT  Rev.  Fbkdbbio 
Baraga 


and  Frederic  spent  his  boyhood  in  the  house  of 
Dr.  GecMTge  Dolinar,  a  layman,  professor  in  the 
diocesan  clerical  semmaiy  at  Laibach. 

In    1816    young    Frederic    Baraga    entered   the 
University  of  Vienna,  studied  law,  and  mduatod 
in  1821,  but  soon  turned  his  thoughts  to  the  clerical 
state,    and    entered 
the  seminary  of  Lai- 
bach that  same  year. 
He   was    ordained 

?riest  21  September, 
823,  at  Laibach, 
and  laboured  with 
{;reat  zeal  and  spir- 
itual success  as  as- 
sistant in  St.  Mar- 
tin's pwsh,  near 
Krainburg,  and  at 
Metlika,  in  Lower 
Carniola.  On  the 
29th  of  October,  1830, 
he  left  his  native 
land  for  the  United 
States  to  spend  the 
rest  of  his  hfe  in  the 
Indian  missionary 
field.  After  a  jour- 
ney of  two  months, 
he  landed  in  New 
York  on  the  31st  of  December,  1830.  He  then  pro- 
ceeded to  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  where  he  arrived  18  Janu- 
ary, 1831.  He  was  most  kindly  received  by  the  Rt 
Rev.  Edward  Fen  wick.  Bishop  of  Cincinnati,  and 
during  the  winter  and  sprint  months  laboured 
among  the  German  Catholics  of  that  city  and  else- 
where. On  the  28th  of  May,  1831,  he  arrived  at 
Arbre  Croche,  now  Harbor  Springs,  his  first  Indian 
mission.  There  ho  laboured  with  ai>ostolio  zeal  at 
the  conversion  of  the  Ottawas  during  two  years 
and  four  months,  during  which  time  ne  baptiz^ 
547  Indian  adults  and  children.  He  was  succeeded 
in  1833  by  Rev.  F.  Saenderi,  Superior  of  the  Re- 
demptorists  in  the  United  States.  On  or  about  the 
8th  of  September,  1833,  Baraga  left  Arbre  Ooche 
to  found  a  new  Indian  mission  at  Grand  River.  Mich. 
He  arrived  at  his  destination  (now  Grand  Kapids, 
Mich.)  on  the  23d  of  September.  He  immediately 
began  the  building  of  a  combination  church,  school, 
and  pastoral  residence,  which  was  very  poor,  owing 
to  the  deficiency  of  funds.  There  he  labourc^d  most 
earnestly,  though  not  as  successfully  as  at  Arbre 
Croche,  until  Februanr,  1835,  when  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Father  Andrew  Viszoczky,  a  Hungarian 
priest.  Baraga  himself  estimated  the  number  of  his 
converts  at  about  two  himdred,  but  Bishop  Rese 
estimated  the  number  of  Indian  converts  in  his 
diocese  in  1834  at  three  thousand,  with  twelve 
churches  or  chapels. 

Baraga's  next  Indian  mission  was  among  the 
Chippewas  at  La  Pointe,  Wisconsin,  where  he 
amved  27  July,  1835.  There  he  laooured  suc- 
cessfully for  about  eight  years,  baptizing  981  Tndians 
and  whites.  In  1843  he  founded  the  I/Anse  Indian 
mission  in  Michigan,  arriving  there  on  the  24th  of 
October.  For  ten  years  he  laboured  in  this  vast 
mission,  being  for  many  years  the  only  Catholic 
priest  in  Upper  Michigan.  He  attended,  not  only 
to  the  Indians,  but  also  to  the  whites  of  the  vast 
territory*,  as  the  discovery  of  iron  and  coi>i>er  drew 
many  German,  French,  and  English-speaking  Cath- 
olics to  the  Northern  Peninsula  of  Micnigan.  Truly 
incredible  are  the  hardships  and  labours  of  Bi 
at  this  period  of  his  life.  On  the  29ih  of 
1853,  the  Northern  Peninsula  of  Michigan  was 
tached  from  the  Diocese  of  Detroit  and  erected  into 
a  vicariate  Apostolic,  and  Baraga  was  ai^x>inted 
its  first  bishop.    He  was  oonseorated  in  the  cathedral 


BABAT                                 283  BAEAT 

of  Cincinnati  by  Archbishop  Purcdl,  Bishop  Le-  of  the  Society  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  b.  at  Joisny, 
Fevre  of  Detroit  and  Bishop  Henni  of  Milwaukee  Burgundv,  12  December,  1779:  d.  in  Paris,  24  May, 
offidftting  as  assistant  consecrators.     Shortly  after  his  1865.    She  lyas  the  youngest  child  of  Jacques  Barat, 
elevation  to  the  episcopal  dignity  Bishop  Baraga  a  vine-dresser  and  cooper,  and  his  wife,  Madeleine 
issued  two  circulars  to  his  people,  one  in  Chippewa  Fouf^,  and  received  baptism  the  morning  alt&r  her 
and  the  other   in   English.    His   jurisdiction   ex-  birth,  her  brother  Louis,  aged  eleven,  bemg  diosen 
tended  not  only  to  the  whole  Northern  Peninsula  godfather.    It  was  to  this  brother  that  she  owed  the 
of  Michigan,  but  also  to  a  large  part  of  the  Lower  exceptional  education  which  fitted  her  for  hear  life- 
Peninsula,  to  Northern  Wisconsin,  and  to  the  North  work.    Whilst  her  mother  found  her  an  apt  pupil  in 
Shore  of  Lake  Superior.     He  laboured  in  this  vast  practical  matters,  Louis  saw  her  singular  endowments 
extent   of   territory    for    fifteen    years,    travelUne  of  mind  and  heart;  and  when,  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
ahnost  incessantly,  from  the  opening  to  the  close  of  two,  he  returned  as  professor  to  the  seminary  at 
navigation  year  after  year.     On  the  23d  of  October,  Joi^y.  he  taught  his  sister  Latin,  Greek,  history, 
1865,  by  Apostolic   authority   he   transferred   hie  natund  science,  Spuiish,  and    Italian.     Soon  she 
See  from  Sault  Ste.  Marie  to  Marquette,  where  he  took  delight  in  reading  the  classics  in  the  original, 
died  at  the  age  of  seventy  years.  and  surpassed  her  bromer's  pupils  at  the  seminaiy. 
Bishop  Bi^Etga  will  always  rank  with  the  foremost  After  the  Reign  of  Terror,  Louis  called  Sophie  to 
authors  in  American   Indian  literature.    He  com-  Paris,  to  train  her  for  the  religious  life,  for  which  she 
posed  the  first  known  Chippewa  grammar.    This  was  lonjged.    When  he  had  joined  the  Fathers  of  the 
a  trulv  Herculean  task,  for  he  had   to  establish  Faith,  a  band  of  fervent  priests,  united  in  the  hope 
after  long  and  close  observation  and  deep  study  of  becoming  members  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  on  its 
all  the   rules    of    the    Chippewa    gitunmar.    This  restoration,  he  one  day  spoke  of  his  sister  to  Father 
grammar  has  gone  through  three  editions.    In  his  Varin,  to  whom  had  been  bequeathed  b^  the  saintly 
^ace  to   his    Chippewa    dictionary,   printed   in  IA>nor  de  Tourney  the  plan  of  foundmg  a  society 
Uncinnati,  O.,  in  1853,  by  Jos.  A.  Hermann,  he  says:  of  women  wholly  devoted  to  the  worship  of  the 
"This  is,  to  the  best  of  my  knowledge,  the  first  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  to  praver  and  sacrifice,  and 
Dietionaiy  of   the   Otchipwe   language   ever  pub-  destined  to  do  for  girls  what  the  restored  Society  of 
liahed.    The  compilation  of  it  has  cost  me  several  Jesus  would  do  for  boys.    Father  Varin  had  vainly 
yean  of  assiduous  labour. "    This  dictionary  has  also  sought  a  fitting  instrument  to  be^  this  work;  he 
paseed  through  several  editions.    Both  grammar  and  now  found  one  m  this  modest,  retiring  eirl  of  twenty. 
fHctionarv  are  most  highly  prized  and  constantly  He  unfolded  the  project,  which  seemeof  to  satisfy  all 
used  by  Indian  missionaries  and  others.    His  Indian  her  aspirations,  and  ahe  bowed  before  his  authorita- 
praver  book  and  works  of  instruction  are*  much  read  tive  declaration  that  this  was  for  her  the  will  of  God. 
by  both  Indians  and  their  pastors.     Bara^  always  With  three  companions  she  made  her  first  consecra- 
wrote  in  a  very  simple  and  clear  style.    His  writings  tion,  21  November,  1800,  the  date  which  marks  the 
are  admirably  adapted  to  the  limited  capacity  of  foundation  of  the  Society  of  the  Sacred  Heart.    In 
his  Indian  readers,  and  can  be  understood  even  by  S^tember,  1801,  the  first  convent  was  opened  at 
ignorant  Indian  children.     His   ''DuSna  Tato",  a  Amiens,  axid  tiiither  Sophie  went  to  help  in  the  work 
prayer  book  in  Slovenian,  his  own  native  language,  of  teacnlng.    It  was  impossible  yet  to  assume  the 
paffied  through  ten  editions,  the  last,  in  1905,  with  name  '' Society  of  the  Sacred  Heart",  lest  a  political 
84,000  copies.     Tins  alone  is  a  proof  of  its  great  significance  be  attached  to  it;  its  members  were 
ponularity  and  usefulness.  known  as  Dames  ds  la  Foi  or  de  rinstruction  Chri- 
In  addition   to   the   ^'Theoretical  and   Practical  tienne.    Father  Varin  allowed  Sophie  to  make  her 
Grammar  of  the  Otchipwe  [Chippewa]  Language''  vows,  7  Jime,  1802,  with  Genevieve  Deshayes. 
(Detroit,  1850),  the  Chippewa  dictionary,  and  the  The  community  and  school  were  increasing,  and  a 
"Du8naP&sa"mentionedabove,  the  published  works  poor  sdiool  had  just  been  added,  when  it  became 
of  Bishop  Baraga  include:  "Veneration  and  Imita-  evident  to  Father  Varin  that  Mademoiselle  Loquet, 
tion  of  the  Biased  Mother  of  God'\  in  Slovenian  who  had  hitherto  acted  as  superior,  lacked  the  quali- 
(1830);  ''Animie-Misinaiean",  an  Ottawa  prayer  book;  ties  requisite  for  the  office,  and  Sophie,  althougn  the 
"Jesus  o    Bimadisiwim  '    (The   Life   of  Jesus),   in  youngest,  was  named  supc^or  (1802).    Her  first  act 
Ottawa  (Paris,  1837);  "On  the  manners  and  customs  was  to  kneel  and  kiss  the  feet  of  each  of  her  sisters, 
of  the    Indians"    in    Slovenian    (Laibach,    1837);  Such  was  ever  the  spirit  of  her  eovemment.    Novem- 
"Gagikwe-Masinaigan",  a  sermon-book,  in  (jhippewa  ber,  1804,  found  her  at  Sainte-Marie-d'en-Haut,  near 
(1839 and  1859);  "2aata  Jabelka" — "Golden  Apples"  Grenoble,  receiving  a  community  of  Visitation  nuns 
(Laibach,  1844);  "Kagige  Debwewinan" — "Eternal  into  her  institute.    One  of  them,  Philippine  Duchesne, 
Truths";  "Nanagatawendamo-Masinaigan"—Instruc-  was    later  to  introduce  the  society  into  America, 
tions  on  the  Commandments  and  sacraments.  Grenoble  was  the  first  of  .some  eighty  foundations 
No  Indian  missionary  of  modem  times  was  more  which  Mother  Barat  was  to  make,  not  only  in  France, 
beloved  and  revered  by  both  Indians   and  whites  butin North  America  (1818),  Italy  (1828),  Switzerland 
than  Baraga.     He  loved  his  Indians  with  a  warm-  (1830),    Belgium    (1834),   Algiers    (1841).    England 
hearted  devotion  which  they  reciprocated.     Men  of  (1842),  Ireland  (1842),  Spain  (1846),  Holland  (1848), 
all  positions  in  society,  Catholics  and  non-Catholics,  Germany   (1851),   South  America   (1853)    Austria 
revered  him  as  an  ideal  man^  Christian,  and  bishop.  (1853).  Poland  (1857). 

Hichican  has  named  after  him  one  of  her  counties.  Mother    Barat    was   elected    superior-general    in 

severu  towns,  and  post  offices,  and  his  name  has  Januarv,  1806,  by  a  majority  of  one  vote  onl^,  for 

been  given  to  one  of  the  principal  streets  of  Mar-  the  influence  of  an  ambitious  priest,  chaplain  at 

quette.    In  his  native  country  he  is,  if  possible,  even  Amiens,  wellnigh  wrecked   the    nascent    institute, 

more   popular    than    in    America.     His    life,    pub-  Prolonged    prayer,   silent    su£fering,   tact,   respect, 

iished  in   Slovenian,  in   1906,  has  already   (1907)  charity,  were  the  only  means  she  used  to  oppose  his 

reached  a  aale  of  85,000  copies.    That  life  might  be  designs.    With  Father  Varin,  now  a  Jesuit,  she  elabo- 

Bummed  up  in  the  one  phrase:  Saintliness  in  action,  rated  constitutions  and  rules  grafted  on  the  stock  of 

YnwTWT,  IMe  and  Labotart  of  Rt,  Rev.  Frederic  Baraga  the  Institute  of  St.  Ignatius.    These  rules  were  re- 

32?^S^^2S2^  ceived  with  joy  in  all  the  houses,  Amiens  alone  ex- 

A«.Ca£fc.Q.&w!(i'896)  I06»qq.  cepted;  but  Mother  Barat's  wisdom  and  humility 

Chrybostom  Vbrwyst.  soon  won  submission  even  here.    In  1818  she  sent 

Mother  Duchesne,  with  four  companions,   to   the 

Barat,  MADEUSiNS-SopHnD,  Yenbrabls,  foundress  New  World;  her  strong  and  holy  hand  was  ever 


BAEAT  284 

reftdv  to    support  and   guide   this   first   miasioner  Bourges  during  the  first  quarter  of  the  Bcwronteentli 

of  the    Society.     She  caBed  all  the  superiors    to-  eentuiy;  d.  in  1706  at  Paris.    He  began  his  sUidies 

gether   in  council  at  Paris  in   1820,  to  provide  a  at  Sens,  and  continued  them  in  Paris,  where  he  was 

uniform  course  of  studies  for  their  schools.    These  instructor  in  the  Mazarin  College.     There,  he  came 

studies  were  to  be  solid  and  serious,  to  fit  the  pupils  under  the  influence  of  Richard  Simon,  the  famous 

to  beocMne  intelligent  wives  and  devoted  mothers;  to  Orientalist  and  Biblical  scholar.    The  greater  part 

give  that  cultivation  of  mind,  that  formation  of  of  his  published  work  was  done  in  collaboration  witli 

character,  which  go  to  make  up  a  true  woman;  all  other  scholars.    With  P^re  Hordes  he  edited  the 

was  to  be  stamped  and  sealed  with  strong  religious  posthumous  work  of  Thomassin,  ''Glossarium  uni- 

principlee  and  devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart.  versale  hebraicum"  (Paris,  1697),  and  aided  J.  B. 

Foundations  multiplied,  and  Mother  Barat,  seeing  Duhamel  in  the  publication  of  his  Bible  (Paris,  1706). 

the  necessity  of  a  stronger  guarantee  of  unity,  sought  At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  engaged  on  a  French 

it  in  union  with  Rome.    The  solemn  approbation  translation    of    Schabtai's    "Rabbinical    Library", 

was  obtained  much  sooner  than  usual,  owing  to  a  His  critical  opinions,  and  much  curious  literary  in- 

memoir  drawn  up  by  the  foundress  and  presented  to  formation  that  he  had  acquired,   were  published 
Leo  XII  in  May.  1826.    The  decree  o' 
was  promulgatea  in  December.    The 
now  fully  organised  and  sealed  by  Rome' 

for  forty  years  Mother  Barat  journeyed  from  convent  ^^^  ^ 

to  convent,  wrote  manj  thousand  letters,  and  assem-  "  **"*  *'  '*'  Eneas  B.  Goodwin. 
bled  general  congregations,  so  as  to  preserve  its  origi-  -*  .  .  .  ,  .  -  . 
nal  spirit.  The  Paris  school  gamed  European  Barba,  Alvaro  Alonzo,  a  secular  pnest  of  whom 
repute;  Rome  counted  three  establishments,  asked  Nicolas  Antonio  (BibUotheoa  hispana  nova,  1786) 
for  and  blessed  by  three  successive  pontiffs.  At  »y»:  "Bpticus  ex  oppido  Lepe,  apud  Potoai"; 
Lyons  Mother  Barat  founded  the  Congregation  of  the  aence  of  Andalusian  ongin.  By  Lepe  and  Potosi, 
Children  of  Mary  for  former  pupils  and  other  ladles.  Lipes  in  western  Bolivia  might  be  indicated.  He 
Inthesameyear  (1832),  she  be^  at  Turin  the  work  V^ed  at  Potosi  during  the  period  when  its  silver- 
of  retreats  for  ladies  of  the  worid,  an  apostleship  mines  were  most  productive  and  luxury  and  revehy 
since  widely  and  profitably  imitated.  Numerous  among  the  Spanish  r^idents  and  mme-ownera  had 
foundations  brought  Mother  Barat  into  personal  con-  neafly  reached  the  chmax.  Father  Barba,  m  the 
tact  with  all  classes.  We  find  her  crossing  and  re-  nudst  of  a  turmoil  of  sensualitv,  divided  his  time 
crosemg  France,  Switaeriand,  Italy,  often  cm  the  eve  between  his  sacerdotal  duties  and  a  close  study  of  the 
of  revolutions;  now  the  centre  of  a  society  of  imigris  ores  of  this  redon  and  their  treatment.  There  had 
whose  inteUectual  gifts,  high  social  position,  and  moral  been,  since  1670,  a  complete  revolution  in  the  treat- 
worth  are  seldom  found  united;  now  sought  out  by  naent  of  silver-ores,  through  the  apphcation  of  quick- 
cardinals  and  Roman  princesses  during  her  visits  to  wlver,  and  a  number  of  improvements  followed,  of 
her  Roman  houses;  at  another  time,  speaking  on  which  Barba  had  knowledge.  In  1640  he  published, 
matters  educational  with  Madame  de  Genlw;  or  again,  at  Madrid,  a  book  entitled  "Arte  de  los  Metales  ', 
exercising  that  supernatural  ascendency  which  which,  though  properly  metaUurgio  wid  out  of  date, 
aroused  the  admiration  of  such  men  as  Bishop  Frays-  w  still  of  value  as  the  earliest  work  on  South  Amencan 
sinous,  Doctor  Rdcamier,  and  Due  de  Rohan.  ores  and  minerals.    Many  of  its  mdications  are  well 

These  exterior  labours  were  far  from  absorbing  all  worthy  the  attention  of  nuners  and  prosoectore. 

Mother  Barat 's  time  or  energies;  they  coexisted  with  This  is  especiallythe  case  m  regard  to  mineraa  locali- 

a  life  of  ever-increasing  holiness  and  continual  prayer:  t>es  in  Bolivia.    The  book  was  republirfied  in  Spanish 

for  the  real  secret  of  her  influence  lay  in  her  habitual  m  1729,  m  1770  and,  recently,  m  ChUe.    There  is  a 

seclusion  from  the  outside  worid,  in  the  strong  re-  French  translation  from  1751  and  one  also  m  English. 

limniifl  fnrmflfmn  nf  h^r  HftiivhtArR  which  this  fmrJii.  Pwblo,  Epitome,  etc.,  (1738).  II;    Nicolas  Antonio.  BOh 

lljglOUS  lormation  Ot  ner  Oaugniers  wmcn  ims  seClU-  ^^^^^^^a  hitpana  nova  {Madrid.    1786);     MendiburiS.    Dice, 

Sion  made  possible,  and  m  the  enlightened.  prcHOUna,  HiH.-bioo.,  etc.,  (Lima.  1876).   II;    Reladonet  geogrdiUoB  de 

and  supernatural  views  on  education  which  she  com-  Indiae  (Madrid.  1885),  H,  Appendix  iv. 

municated  to  the  religious  engaged  in  her  schools.  ^^'  '  •  Bandeljer. 

She  worked  by  and  through  them  all,  and  thus  Barbadoes.    See  Gvjiana. 

rewhed  outto  the  ends  of  tb^e  earth.    In  spitf  of  h«-  BarbaUssos,  a  titular  see  of  Mesopotamia.     It  was 

self  she  at^ted  and  charmed  aU  ^h<>  approach^  ^^    .    p^^^^^  Augusta  Euphr(Uensis,  where  the 

her.    New  foundations  she  always  entrusted  to  other  p,^^J^  nnimni^  TJhjrZ'yrni  k^nt  irarriRnn  (NntU.  Diir- 

hands; 

gift 

office, 

wh^nSw  «.dth^v^t«r«l  to  attribute  to  her  the  ^^^ZSt^Vi^^ti^^O^r^i^m^ 

gucc«««  rftto  Sowety^w  that  instead  of  pleasing,  ^^S);  two  other  bishops,  AquiUnus  and  Marmianus, 

.thCT  distressed  hwexceedm^y.          ^.         .    _  ire  kiiown  between  431  W  451  (Lequien,  U,  «49). 

..Atlt^^^J^^^'Jh^^jL^n^t  The  sSe  is  stOl  mentioned  in  the  sixth^tuiy.    'From 

and  pontrfb,  yet  ever  lowly  of  heart,  Mother J^t  ^^g  ^^  ^q^^  g     Jacobite  bishops  are  known  bearing 

died  at  the   mother^housem  Parte   o^  t^te  title  (Revue  de  I'Orient  clirtStien,  VI.mTlte 

Day,  18M    "  *«  b*d  i"'**""^ jfte!.fo"'.,ffJ'-  site  te  marked  by  the  ruins  at  Oala'  at  ^is,  which 

Illness.    She  was  bur^  at  ConflaM,  the  l»u«  ^  ^j      ^^^^  ^^J   ^  ^^^    ^„^  „j  Meskene,  on  the 

no^taate,  where  her  body  was  found  mtaot  m  im  J^'f^m  Aleppo  to  Souia,  where  the  Et^hrates 

*?  i^J^^'J^-^f^TzI'^^'^^'  "^  *®  *"***"  turns  suddenly  to  the  east.     The  spellings  B^baris- 

'^^f'f^S^'^^^  1^8^  Bora,  i^  ««.  and  BarbaWssos  in  .lat^'Notiti«;P^a«  j^ng; 

hampto^  1«00);  Baukard,  Hieioire  de  la  VhUnMe  Mire  SO  IS  Barbancus  campus  m  Procopius  (De  beUo  Per- 

Barai  (P^ns.  1876, 1900),  tr.  Fullbrton  (Roehampton.  1876;  gico,  II,  99).    Lequien  (I,  407)  wrongly  gives  Bar- 

SJC  !^^  to.'^2'SSSiS^°i?l^'SiXi&i;.  X^  »>alissus  as  synonymous  with  Balbisse  another  bishop- 

1900).  nc  m  Cappadocia,  known  only  m  1143. 

AucB  PowBE.  S.  Vau^hA. 

Barat,    Nioolab,  a  Freneh    Orientalist,   b.   at  Barbara,  Saint,  Virgin  and  Martyr.— There  i«  no 


BABBABZGO  285  BABBU1S0 

nfemice  to  St.  Barbara  contained  in  the  authentic  ouraa".  Id  tha  Greek  and  present  Bom&o  oalendan 
ciHt  historical  authorities  for  Cbrietion  antiquity,  the  feast  of  8t.  Barbara  falls  on  4  December,  while 
Dotaer  does  her  name  appear  in  the  original  recen-    the  martyrologiee  of  the  ninth  century,  with  ezcep- 


>.m>  -nD  wuu.K'U,  however,  mim  the  seventh  oen-    St.  Barbara  has  often  been  depicted  in  art;  she  is 
tmy.   At  about  this  date  there  were  in  axistenoe    refHTsented  standing;  by  a  tower  with  three  wmdows, 

Ifgenduy  Acta  of  her  martyrdom  which  were  in-  -       ■        ■ . 

BiTted  ID  the  collection  of  Symeon  Metaphrastea  and 

tirre  utied  as  well  by  the  authors  (Ado,  Ueuard,  etc.) 

of  the  enlarged  mulyrologies  oomposed  during  the 

tibth  century  in  Western   Europe.      According  to 

iW  nBiratives,  which   are   essentially   the   same. 

Barbara  was  the  daughter  of  a  rich  heathen  named 

Dloscoms.     She  was  carefully  guarded  by  her  father 

abo  kept  her  shut  up  in  a  tower  in  order  U>  preserve 

her  from  the  outside  world.     An  offer  of  marriage 

■hich  was  received  through  hira  she  rejected.     ^- 

/ore  going  on  a  joumCT  her  father  commanded  that  a 

bath-house  be  erected  for  her  use  near  her  dwelling, 

and  during  his  absence  Barbara  had  three  windows 

put  in  it,  as  a  symbol  of  the  Hi^  Trinity,  instead  of 

the  two  originally  intended.     When  her  father  re-  J.  F.  KiRSCH. 

turned  she  acknowledged  herself  to  be  a  Christian; 

apoD  this  she  was  ill-treated  by  him  and  dragged         BubftriffO,   Giovanni    Francksco,   Italian    Car- 

beTore  the  prefect  of  the  province,  Martinianus,  who    dinal,  nephew  of  Blessed  Gregoria  Baj-barigo  (1625- 

had  ber  cruelly  tortured  and  finely  condemned  her    97),h.  in  1658  at  Venice;  d.  in  1730.     He  first  entered 

lo  death  by  beheading.     The  father  himself  carried     the  diplomatic  service  and  was  twice  sent  as  repr&- 

oiit  (be  death-sentence,  but  in  punishment  for  this    sentative  of  the  Venetian  Repubhc  to  the  court  ot 

be  was  struck  by  lightning  on  the  way  home  and  hia     King  Louis  XIV  of  France.     Later  he  entered  the 

body  consumed.     Another  Christian  named  Juliana    ecclenastical  state  and   became   primitmut  of  the 

niSered  the  death  of  a  martyr  along  with  Barbara,     church  of  St.  Mark  at  Venice.     In  1697  he  was  named 

A  pious  man  called  Valentinus  buri^  the  bodies  of    by  Imiocent  XII  Bishop  of  Verona,  was  tnmsferred 

the  aatuts;  at  this  grave  the  sick  were  healed  and  the     to  Brescitk  in   1714,  created  cardinal   1720,  and  in 

I>iigrims  who  came  to  pray  received  aid  and  console-    1723  became  a  successor  of  his  uncle  in  the  See  of 

ticm.    The  emperor  in.whose  reign  the  martyrdoza  is    Padua.     He  was   a  Bealoua   prelate,   promoted   the 

placed  is  sometimes  called  Maximinua  and  sometimes    cause  of  beatification  of  Gr^orio  Barbarigo,  and  lent 

Haiinuanua;   owing  to  the  purely  legendary  char-    hia    encouragement   to    the   production   of   literary 

acta-  of  the  accoimts  of  the  martyrdom,  there  is  no    works.     To  his  mi^eation  was  due  the  inception  of 

good  basis  for  the  investigationB  made  at  an  earlier    the  ecidesiaBtieal  history  of  Verona,  and  the  works 

oate  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  Maximinus  Thrax    of  St.  Zeuo,  Bishop  of  Verona  (362-380),  were  re- 

(235-238),  or  Maximianusjir  Maximinus  Daza  (of  the    printed  at  tua  expense  (Padua,  1710). 

Diocletian  persecutions),  is  meant.  Fiiij.««,  Bwp.  Unm,,  nq>i>UM«(  {P»ri«,  1860),  ft 

The  traditions  vary  as  to  the  place  ot  marWrdom,  N.  A,  Webeb. 

t»D  different  opinions  being  expressed:  Symeon  ■n..fc„„..  a  »..„  „„....,  t 
l(eUphrast«i  anS  the  Latin  fegen^  given  by  Mom-  Barbaroiia.  See  Freokrick  I. 
britius  make  Heliopolis  in  Egypt  the  aite  of  the  mar-        Barbastro   (Bakbasthum   and    Civttas    Barbas- 


,  while  other  accounts,  to   which   Baronius    TRKNBIs),     Diocmbm   of,  suffia^   ot    the   Spanish 

•  ■  ■  ^''        jdia.     In   the    province   of    Huesca.      The   city    (originaUy,   per- 

'   (about  700),    nape,  Beigidum  or  Bergiduna)  is  at  the  junction  of 


J   „  _i  said;   "In  Tuscia   BarbarJe  mane  it  was  a  part  of  Hither  Spain   (Hispania  Ci- 

'Tiiinis  et  martyria",  a  statement  repeated  by  Ado  terior),    afterwMds    called    Tarraconensie.     It    wss 

indothers,  while  later  additions  to  the  martyrologies  taken  by  the  Arabs,  under  the  leadership  ot  Hiua 

of  St.  Jerome  and  Bede  say:  "Rome  Barbara  vir-  (711),  and  tlie  name  Barbaachter  given  to  it,  from 

puis"    or   "apud     Antiochiam   passio   S.   Barbarm  which  the  name  Barbastrum,  according, to  the  gen- 

rifg."    These  various  statemente  prove,  however,  erally  accepted  opinion,  is  derived.    It  was  held  by 

ooly  the  local  adaptation  of  the  veneration  of  the  the  StUHcens  until  about  the  year  1063,  when  it  was 

Jaintly  martyr  concerning  whom  there  is  no  genuine  retaken  by  Don  Sancho  Ramires,  Kin^  ot  Aragon. 

biatoncal   tradition.     It  is   certain   that   before  the  The  Arabs  once  more  obtained  possession,  but  Are- 

nialh  century  she  was  publicly  venerated  both  in  the  mei^l  IV,  Comit  of  tJrgel,  reconquered  it,  and  after 

East  and  in  the  West,  and  that  she  was  very  popular  a  third  Arab  conquest  it  was  restored  to  Bpam,  in  1 101, 

with  the  Christian  populace.     The  legend  that  her  by  Pedro  I,  KiniB  *>t  Aragon,  who,  with  the  t>o|>e's 

lather  was  struck  by  lightning  caused  her,  probably,  ooosent,  oonstituted  it  an  episco^  see,  transferring 

U  be  ngarded  by  the  common  people  as  the  patron  the  see  from  the  ancient  city  of  Roda  to  Barbastro. 

"»int  in  time  of  danger  from  thunder-atormH  and  fire.  The  first  bishop,  Pondo,  went  to  Rome  to  obtain  the 

»od  later,  by  analogy,  as  the  protector  ot  artillery-  pope's  permiwion  for  this  transfer.     Many  provincial 

men  and  miners.    She  was  ^so  called  upon  as  inter-  and  dioceaan  councils  have  been  held  in  the  citv;  the 

<»swtoasBure  the  receiving  of  the  Sacraments  of  Cortee  of  Spain  has  met  tiiere  occasionally,  and  during 

PeosDce  and  Holy  Eucharist  at  the  hour  of  death,  one  of  its  aeBsions,  King  Ramiro,  called  the  Monk, 

An  occurrence  of  the  year  1448  did  much  to  further  abdicated  the  crown  (1134).                                ^^ 

the  m«ad  of  the  veneration  ot  the  saint.    A  man  The  diocese  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Pyre- 

QanKd  Henry  Kock  was  nearly  burnt  to  death  in  a  nees,  on  the  east  and  south  Ire  the  Diocese  of  L^nda, 

fire  at  Gorkum;  he  called  on  St.  Barbara,  to  whom  he  and  on  the  west  by  those  of  Huesoa  and  Yaca.     It  is 

b«d  always  shown  great  devotion.     She  aided  him  to  a  euflragan  of  Saragosaa  and  is  composed  of  154  par- 

WMw  from  the  burning  house  and  kept  him  alive  ishes  under  the  supervision  of  ten  archprieeta,  or  vic- 

mtirhe  could  receive  the  lost  sacramentd.     A  similar  ais.     The  population  is  about  240,000.     Tbe  clergy 

arcomitance  is  relatol  in  an  addition  to  the  "Legenda  number  about  220,  and  there  are  231  churchM  and 


286 

177  chapels.    The  diocese  was  annexed  to  Huesca  in  conversion  of  the  Barber  family,  despite  the  preju- 

the  sixteenth  century,  but  was  afterwards  made  inde-  dices  of  a  Puritan  education  and  environment,  was 

pendent  and  remained  so  until  the  Concordat  of  1851,  one  of  the  most  notable  and  far-reaching  in  its  results 

which  annexed  it  once  more  to  Huesca.  preserving  its  of  any  recorded  in  the  early  annals  of  the  Church 

name   and   administration.     It  is   aoministered  at  in  New  England.     Daniel  Barber  has  left  a  **  History 

present  by  the  titular  Bisho{>  of  Claudiopolis,  Don  of  My  Own  Times''  (Washington,  1827),  in  which  he 

Juan  Antonio  Ruano,  preconized  Bishop  of  L4rida.  states  that  his  father  and  mother  were  CoDgre«i- 

Among  its  bishops,  Ram6n  II,  who  is  venerated  as  a  tional   Dissenters  of  strict    Puritanic   rule  and  De 

saint,  and  the  above-mentioned  Ramiro,  called  the  continued  in  that  sect  until  his  twenty-seventh  year, 

Moi^,  a  prince  of  the  royal  house  of  Aragon,  deserve  when  he  joined  the  Episcopalians.     Previous  to  this 

special  mention.  he  had  served  two  terms  as  a  soldier  in  the  Conti- 

Bartolom^    and    Lupercio    Argensola,    historians  nental  army.    In  his  thirtieth  year  he  was  ordained 

and  classical   Spanish  writers,  were  bom  in  Bar-  a  minister  of  the  Episcopalian  Church  at  Schenectady, 

bastro.     Bartolom^  is  the  author  of  the  "Historia  New  York.     He  mamed  Chloe  Case,   daughter  of 

de  las  Molucas",  "Anales  de  Arag6n",  and  "R^la  Judge  Owen  of  Simsbury,  Connecticut,  and  about 

de   Perfecci6n";    Lupercio    wrote    three    tragedies,  1787,  with  his  wife,  his  tnree  sons,  and  a  daughter, 

"Isabd",    "JeM",    and    "Alejandro",    and    some  moved  to  Claremont,   New  Hampshire.     He  exer- 

poems  published  with  others  written  by  his  brother  cised  the  duties  of  the  ministry  for  thirty  years 

Bartolom^.     The    cathedral,    the   episcopal    palace,  without    doubt    concerning    the    soundness    of  his 

the  seminary,  and  the  ooUe^  of  the  Clerks  Kegular  ordination,  when  one  day  the  chance  reading  of  a 

of  the   Pious   Schools,  or  Piarists,  are  among  the  Catholic  book  opened  up  for  him  the  whole  issue  of 

most  noted  buildings  in  the  city.     Besides  the  semi-  the    validity    of    Anglican    orders,    by    impugning 

nary  for  the  education  of  young  ecclesiastics,  there  Parker's    consecration.    This    doubt    was    further 

are,  in  the  diocese,  various  conmiunities  of  both  sexes  increased  by  a  visit  for  conference  to  the  famous 

devoted  to  a  contemplative  life  and  the  education  of  Bishop  Cheverus,  then  a  priest  in  Boston,  and  the 

the  young.    The  Piarists,  the  Sons  of  the  Immaculate  inabihty  of  his  Episcopalian  associates  to  offer  any 

Heart  of  Mary,  the  Poor  Clares,  and  the  Capuchin  satisfactory  refutation  of  the  arguments  advanced 

nuns  have  foundations  in  the  capital,  the  Benedic-  by  the  Catholic  priest.     Father  Cheverus  also  gave 

tines  in  the  town  of  Pueyo,  and  the  Discalced  Car-  hun  a  number  of  Catholic  books,  which  he  ana  the 

meHtes  in  Graus  and  Salas-Altas.    There  are  schools  other  members  of  his  family  read  eagerly, 
in  all  the  towns  of  the  diocese.  In  1807,  at  the  instance  of  her  parents,  he  baptized 

Fl<5rkz.  Bfpana  iSo^rrcuia,  aiid  its  cpntinu&tion  bv  Fathkr  Fanny,  daughter*  of  General  Ethan  Allen,  who  sub- 
Jos*  db  i^a^Canal  (1836).  XLVI,  148-70;  XLVIII,  225-28;  aea„p7rtlv  bpojimi*  a  nonvi-rt  and  died  a  nun  in  the 
Roman  db  Hvwbcl  J'eairo  de  Uu  lalentu  de  Aragdn  (1870),  IX;  sequentiy  became  a  (invert  ana  Qiea  a  nun  in  i  ne 

MukTos,  BibL  hiMt,  Sep.  (1858),  47-8.  convent  of  the  Hotel-Dieu,   Montreal.     A  visit  he 

TiBSO  L6pbz.  made  there  ^atly  impressed  «him,  and  Miss  Allen's 

_,,,_,  ^  ,,,i/A         .i.  change  of  faith  indirectly  had  much  to  do  with  his 

T>.?,*^^?H?'  M  BUX-JosEPH    styled  the     Apostle  of  own  conversion.    The  books  Father  Cheverus  gave 

Philadelphia    ,  b.  at  Lun6ville,  Province  of  Lorraine,  him  he  not  only  studied  carefully  himself,  but  gave 

France,  30  May,  1808:  d.  m  Philaddphia,  8  June,  them   to   his  wife   and   children.     His   son,   Virgil 

1869.     He  was  the  oldest  of  six  children,  of  whom  Horace,  who  was  a  minister  m  charge  of  an  Episco- 

fi ve  became  religious,  his  youngejt  brothw  Ignace-  paUan  academy  at  Fairfield,  near  Utica,  New  York, 

Xavier  being  the  founder  of  the  Apostolic  School  at  ^as  specially  attracted  by  these  books  when  with 

Amiens.    He  received  his  early  training  at  the  home  his  wife  he  visited  his  father,  and  he  took  Mihier's 

of  a  reverend  CTand-uncle,  and  made  his  philosophical  "End  of  Controverey"  back  to  New  York.    This 

and  theological  studies  in  a  seminary  of  which  another  visit  resulted  in  the  conversion  of  both  husband  and 

grand-uncle  was  president.     He  entered  the  Societv  ^fe  in  1817.    The  following  year  Virgil  returned  to 

of  Jesus,  7  January,  1831,  at  Whitemarsh.  Mwyland,  Claremont  from  New  York,  taking  with  him  Father 

U.S.  A.,  and  for  some  years  wsB  stationed  at  George-  Charles  Ffrench,  a  Dominican  who  was  officiating 

town  College,  D.  C.,  as  disciphnanan  and  teachw  of  there  at  St.  Peter's  church.    The  priest  remained  a 

FVench.    In  1836  he  became  assistant  pastor  of  Holy  ^©ek  in  Daniel  Barber's  house  preaching  and  saying 

Trinity  Church  at  Georgetown,  and  in  1838  was  trans-  Mass,  with  the  result  that  he  had  seven  converts, 

ferred  to  Philadelphia,  thereafter  the  scene  of  his  including   Mrs.    Daniel    Barber   and    her    children, 

apostolic  labours.     For  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  Mrs.  Noah  Tyler,  who  was  Daniel  Barber's  sister, 

century  he  was  pastor  of  Old  St.  Joseph's,  Willing's  and  her  eldest  daughter  Rosetta.     Mrs.  Tyler  was 

Mey,  which  becwne,  mainly  during  \ua  tenn  of  the  mother  of  William  Tyler,  first  Bishop  of  Hartford, 

office,  the  centre  from  which  radiated  Cat^lic  m-  Connecticut.    Her  husband  and  six  other  childrcQ 

fluences  throughout  the  city  and  diocese.    His  seal  ^ere  subsequently  converted,  and  four  of  the  daugh- 

was  untiring.    He  founded  St.  Joseph's  Hospital  m  ters  became  Sisters  of  Charity. 
his  adopted  citj^  and  was  the  first  to  establish  sodali-        Mrg,  Daniel  Barber  was  a  woman  of  great  strength 

ties  for  men  and  women  and  for  the  youngf  who  were  of  mmd  and  resolution.    She  died  in  her  sevoity- 

always  the  objects  of  his  fatherly  solicitude.     In  ninth  year,  8  February,  1825.    Her  husband  was 

1852    he  was  appointed  the  first  President  of  St.  not  baptized  with  her,  but  on  the  fifteenth  of  Novem- 

Joseph's  College.     His  many  good  works  brought  ber,  1818.  gave  up  his  place  as  mmister  of  the  Epis- 

him  into  contact  with  most  of  the  Catholics  of  the  copalian  parish  of  Claremont.    He  then  went  to 

dty.  while  his  charity  towards  aU  and  particularly  vigit  friends  in  Maryland  and  Washington,  where  be 

his  love  of  children  and  devotion  to  their  mterests  took  the  final  step  and  entered  the  Churoh.     He 

naade  him  an  object  of  veneration  to  Catholics  and  gpent  the  rest  of  his  Ufe,  after  the  death  of  his  wife, 

Pjrotestants  alike.    His  memory  is  still  held  m  bene-  in  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania,  near  his  son  VirgiL 

^'£*.*^,^*  .       ,.   ^  r,  T.  ,«!-.,  ^  .  u.  and  he  died  m  1834  at  the  house  of  the  Society  of 

iSSr^^'^^SS^'^.f^iTiSS^!^^  J«?^jt  Saint  Inigo^,  Maiybmd     Two  painplits 

Edwabd  P.  Spillane.  prmted   at   Washington,    '*Cathohc   Worships   and 

l^iety    Explained    and    Recommended    in    Sundry 

Barbelo  and  Barbeliteg.    See  GNoancs.  Lettere  to  a  Ybty  Dear  Friend  and  Othere"  (1821). 

Barber  Family,  Thb. — Daniel  Barber,  soldier  and  "History  of  My  Own  Times",  give  interesting 

of  the  Revolution,  Episcopalian  minister  and  convert^  details  of  his  life  and  show  him  to  have  been  honest 

b.  at  Simsburv,  Connecticut,  U.  S.  A.,  2  October,  in  his  convictions  and  earnestly  desirous  of  knowing 

1756;  d.  at  Saint  Inigoes,  Maxyland,   1834.    The  the  truth  and  disposed  to  embrace  it  when  found. 


BASBUBI  287  BABBOaA 

VmoiL  Horace  Barber,  son  of  Daniel,  b.  at    ^«itorf5ta«MgJ«^yorit..  1866);  torn 

n«i«mAnf     Maw    TTflmnaViin»     0    Mav     ITftp'    rf     ft.t  OtorQttown  CoUeffe  (WmahinctoB,   1891);    U,  5.  Cath,  Htm, 

Uaremont,   JNew   nampsmre,   »   May,    1/0-2,   a.   aj  50c.  IJecwi*  and  fitudie.  (New  York,  October,  1900). 
Georgetown,  D.  C,  25  March,   1847.    He  himaelf  Thomas  fr.  Mssban. 

laid  that  the  first  step  leading  to  his  conveiBion  was 


whDe  he  was  principal  of  the  Episcopalian  Academy  d.  at  Bologna.  22  December,  1666.     His  parents  were 

at  Fairfield,  New  York.    This  raised  doubts  ■  oon-  in  very  humble  circumstances.    It  is  related  that  he 

oeming  his  Protestant  faith,  which  his  bishop,  Dr.  cave  such  earlv  indication  of  his  great  talents  that 

Hobart,  and  other  Episcopalian  ministers  could  not  before  he  reached  the  age  of  ten  he  had  painted 

wive  for  him.     During  a  visit  to  New  York  CSty,  on  the  front  wall  of  his  home  a  figure  of  the  Viigin. 

in  1816,  he  called  on  Father  Benedict  J.  Fenwick,  His  first  instructor  was  Bartcdommeo  Bertoszi,  and 

SJ.,  with  the  result  that  he  resigned  his  Episcopalian  when  sixteen  he  entered  the  school  of  Benedetto 

diaige  at  Fairfield,  and  went  to  New  York,  where  Gennari,  the  elder,  at  Cento.    As  a  youth  he  had 

be  and  his  wife  Jerusha  (b.  New  Town,  Connecticut,  studied  with  great  admiration  a  famous  painting  of 

20  July,  1789)  were  received  into  the  Church  with  Ludovico  Carracci  at  the  convent  of  the  Capuchins 

their  five  children,  Mary  (b.  1810);  Abigail  (b.  1811);  at  Cento,  which  had  much  influence  on  his  work. 

Susan  (b.  1813};  Samuel  (b.  1814);  and  Josephine  Father  Mirandola,  head  of  the  convent,  took  Barbieri 

(b.  1816).    At  nrst  he  opened  a  school  in  New  York,  under  his  protection,  had  him  taught,  and  secured 

but  this  lasted  only  seven  months,  for  both  he  and  him  commissions. 

his  wife  determined  to  enter  religious  life,  he  the  After  spending  some  time  in  Bologna,  where  he 

Society  of  Jesus,  and  she  the  Visitation  Order.    Un-  studied  with  Cremonini   and   Gennari,  the  young 

der  tile  direction  of  their  friend,  Father  Fenwick,  in  painter  went  to  Venice,  where  he  received  the  coun- 

June,  1817,  they  set  out  for  Georgetown,  D.  C,  sels  of  Palma.    At  Ferrara  he  painted  the  portrait 

wbere  Mr.  Barber  and  his  son  Samuel  went  to  the  of  the   legate^  Cardinal   Jacopo   Serra,  who  made 

coDege  of  the  Jesuit  Fathers,  and  his  wife  and  the  him  a  chevaher.      On  the  invitation  of   Cardinal 

three  oldeet  girls  were  received  into  the  Visitation  Ludovisi,  later  Pope  Gregory  XV,  he  went  to  Rome, 

convent.    The  yoilngest  child,  Josephine,  then  ten  There  he  did  the  *'Awrom^'  at  the  Villa  Ludovisi, 

months  old,  was  taken  care  of  by  Father  Fenwick's  and  his  celebrated  painting  of    St.   PetronUla   in 

mother.    The  superior  at  Georgetown,  Father  John  the  Capitol.      After  the  death  of  his  papal  patron, 

Grassi,  S.J.,  shortl^r  after  sailed  for  Rome  and  took  Barbieri,  refusing  the  invitations  of  James  I  to  go  to 

Mr.  Barber  with  him  as  a  novice.    Mr.  Barber  re-  England  and  of  Louis  XIII  to  visit  France,  returned 

mained  there  a  year  and  then  retiimed  to  George-  to  Cento  and  established  there  an  academv  which 

town,  where  he  continued  his  studies  until  Decern-  was  much  frequented  by  foreign  as  well  as  native 

her,  1822,  when  he  was  ordained  a  priest  at  Boston,  painters.    He  painted  the  portraits  of  the  Duke  of 

After  his  ordination  he  was  sent  to  his  old  home,  Modena,  and  after  the  death  of  Guide,  whose  stjrle 

Claremont,  New  Hampshire,  where  he  built  a  church  he  imitated,  he  settled  at  Bologna,  where  he  died, 

and  laboured  for  two  jrears.    He  then  Bpent  some  leaving  much  wealth. 

time  on  the  Indian  missions  in  Maine,  ana  was  after  Calvi,  L^e  of  Oiovanni  Bortieri  (Boloam,  1808);  Bbtan, 

lecaOed  to  Georgetown  Collie,  where  he  passed  the  f^j^Jg^  ^  PainUn  and  Engravers  (London  and  New  Yoik. 

remainder  of  his  days.  *  '                             Augustus  Van  Cleef 

Nearly  three  years  after  their  separation,  23  Feb- 

nitiy,  1820,  husband  and  wife  met  in  the  chapel  of  Barbieri,  Remioio.    See  Qibraltab,  Diocbbb  op. 

GeoTOtown  convent  to  make  their  vow^  in  reBgion.  ^^y^^,  Peter.    See  Paul  IL 

She  first  went  through  the  formula  of  the  profession  -»-            .                            i.j              •*».«♦ 

of  a^tation  nun,^d  he  the  vows  of  a  member  ^Barbosa,   Agostino,    a    noted    canomst,    b.    at 

of  the^ety  of  Jesus.    Their  five  children,  the  ^^'^^^'^^''^i^^^J                      'o^' 

eldest  being  t^  and  the  youneest  three  and  a  half  ^,^^^'.J^^'    ®*^^P,  ^t  ^^""^  ^  ^^^' 

yeaiB  oldTwere  present.    W  Bari>er  had  been  ad-  Italy,  he  died  »even  months  lat«r.    Haying  s^died 

mitted  into  the  Visitation  convent  on  the  twenty-  ^on  law  in  his  native  land,  he  went  to  Ronw. 

rixth  of  July,  1817,  taking  the  nam^  of  Sister  Mary  Bem^  ^thout  books^  his  a^unding  memory  served 

Augustine,    faer  nivitiatlwas  one  of  severe  trials,  bim  instead     Sanctity  and  a|fabihty  won  for  hmi 

as  weU  on  account  of  her  affection  for  her  husband  entrance  into  the  libraries  of  the  city,  where  he 

as  on  account  of  her  children,  who  were  a  heavy  pawed  long  hours  reading  sedulously  Mid  memorizing 

bniden  to  the  community  then  in  a  state  of  extreme  ^thout  effort,  so  that  retmning  tj)  his  room  he  was 

poverty.    Her  pious  perseverance  triumphed,  and  able  to  put  in  wntmg  the  fruits  of  the  day  s  labour^ 

^  became  one  of  the  most  useful  members  of  the  About  1632  he  went  to  Madrid,  where  he  applied 

Older,. serving  m  the  convents  of  Georgetown,  Ka»-  bimself  to  writing  Mid  fulfilled  vanous  duties  con- 

bskia,  St.  Louis,  and  Mobile,  where  she  died  1  Janu-  nded  to  him  till  1648.                          „    ^    u-  u      • 

aiy,  1860.    She  had  the  happiness  of  seeing  all  her  ^  Among  Barbosa's  many  writings,  all  of  which  evi- 

diMren  embrace  a  reUgious  life.'   Mary,  the  eldest,  dence  mtunato  acquaintance  with  authors,  soim^, 

entered  the  Ursulme  convent,  Mt.  Benedict,  near  and  controverted  questioM^  we  mention  the  foUow- 

Chariestown,  Massachusetts,  as  Sister  Mary  Bene-  »^;   !  P^storalis  goUicitudinis,  sive   de   Officio   et 

dicta,  15  August.  1826,  ancf  died  in  the  convent  of  fo^fstato  Episwmi  Tnpartita  Descnptio"   (Rome, 

the  Older  in  QueUc,  9  May,  1844.    Abigail,  Susan,  1621;  Lyons,  16^;  m  folio,  1641,  1650,  etc).    A 

tad  Joeephhie   also   becaie   Ursulines.    The   first  ?i^lar  work  relatmg  to  pwidi  onests  wMpubhsh 

(Bed  in  Quebec,  8  December,  1879,  and  Susan  in  the  \n  R<>^e  m  1632,  Ljrpns,  1634,  Geneva,  1662,  Venice, 

«nvcnt It  Th^e  Rivers,  Canada,  24  January,  1837.  1705,  m  quarto.     " V^  Juris  Tractationes      Cm 

Sunuel,  the  son,  graduated  at  Georjretown  6oUege  ^<>»  LyoM,  1631  and  1644;  Stn^^                       Jmw 

in  1831  and  immediately  entered  tlie  Society  of  F^^lesiastici  Universi  LibnlH'    (Lvom,  1633, 1646, 

Jews.    After  his  novitiate  he  was  sent  to  Rome,  1718)      All  the  canomed  works  of  Barbosa  were 

wbere  he  was  ordained.    He  returned  to  Georgetown  published  at  Lyons   1657-75,  in  19  vok.m  qum^^ 

in  1840,  and  died,  aged  fifty  years,  at  St.  Thomas's  16  vols  m  foho,  and  again,  1698-1716,  20  vols,  m 


BAHBOaA  288  BABOILOVA 

r 

Burbosa-Maohado,  Iqnacio^  a  Portuguese  histo-  Doug^  in  ^ain  while  on  his  way  to  the  Holy  Land 

rian,  b.  at  LiBbon  in  1686;  d.  in  1734.   He  pursued  with  the  heart  of  Bruce.    It  pictures  such  events  as 

his  studies  at  the  University  of  Coimbra,  was  later  Bannodcbum,  the  si^ge  of  Berwick,  the  expedition 

sent  to  Brazil  as  a  magistrate,  and  after  the  death  to  Ireland,  and  the  wanderings  of    the  kinc.  and 

of  his  wife  entered  the  ecclesiastical  state.    He  has  sketches  the  characters  of  Stewart,  RandolphTBruce, 

left  a  number  of  historical  works,  the  most  impor-  and  Dou^^as.    The  author  finds  a  place,  too,  for 

tant  of  which  is  ''Fastos  Politicos  e  Mill  tares  de  descriptions  of  nature,  for  touches  showing  the  t^ 

Antiqua  e  Nova  Lusitania"  (Lisbon,  1745),  dealing  derness  of  the  true^  soldier,  for  snatches  of  grim 

with  the  history  of  Portugal  and  BraaiL    He  was  a  humour  or  sharp  dialogue,  for  digressions  on  neo- 

brother  of  the  more  famous  Diego  Machado  Barbosa  romancy   and    astiolo^,  and  for  learned  allusions 

(1682-1772),  also  a  priest  and  writer,  and  author  of  to  the  favourite  classic  authors  of  the  day.    This 

a  notable  monument  of  Portuguese  literature  "Bib-  narrative,  which  Barbour  called  a  romance,  is  re- 

liotheca  Lusitana,  Historica,  Cntioa  e  Chronologica"  garded  as  being  in  essential  points  a  faithful  history, 

(Lisbon,  1741-59).                                 Y.  Fusntes.  and   was  so   received   by   generations   of  read^s. 

Soott  used  some  of  its  mat^ial  in  "Castle  Danger- 

Barbour,  John,  Scottish  ecclesiastic  and  author  ous",  "The  Lord  of  the  Isles",  and  "Tales  of  a 
of  "The  Bruce",  a  historical  poem  in  the  early  Scot-  Grandfather".  The  principal  editions  of  "The  ' 
tish  or  Northern  English  dialect,  b.  about  1320;  d.  Bruoe"  are  those  of  Pinkerton  (£dinbu)igh,  1700.; 
1395.  He  was  already  Archdeacon  of  Aberdeen  in  Jamieson  (Edinburigii,  1820);  Cosmo  Innes  (Edin- 
1357,  an  honour  not  likdy  to  have  been  attained  much  buigh),  and,  accoiding  to  more  modem  require- 
before  his  fortieth  year.  At  various  times,  1357,  ments  of  scholarship,  that  of  Professor  Skeat  for  the 
1364, 1365,  1368,  he  obtained,  origmally  at  the  re-  "Early  English  Text  Society",  and  the  "Early 
quest  of  Kinx  David  of  Scotland,  passports  from  the  Scottish  Text  Societjr".  Some  fragments  on  the 
King  of  En^and  for  travel  to  Oxford  or  to  France,  tale  of  Troy,  and  a  long  poem  on  uie  lives  of  the 
presumaUy  for  the  purpose  of  special  study  or  saints  formerly  attributed  to  Barbour  are  no  longer 
research,  or  for  the  renewal  of  old  college  associa-  thought  to  be  his  work. 

tk)ns.  In  1357  he  was  appointed  by  the  Bishop  of  «  ^^F^T  ^  ^^  ^^  ^Y^-t  Vbitch.  Feding  for  Natwr*  in, 
Aberdeen  one  of  the  commissioners  to  meet  at  Edin-  ^^«***  ^^'^'  ^^^^*  ^"^  ""H  ^^'^  o-«w,« 
buigh  and  confer  about  the  ransom  from  England  ^'  ^^^^^  urown*. 
of  David  U,  captured  at  Neville's  Cross,  1346.  In  Barbus,  Paulxjs,  Italian  philosopher  and  theo- 
1373,  and  occasionally  in  later  years,  he  was  one  of  logian,  b.  at  Soncino,  Lombardy.  and  hence  known 
the  auditors  of  the  exchequer.  In  1378,  as  a  reward  also  by  the  name  of  Soncinas  wnich  appears  at  the 
for  hid  patriotic  poem,  he  was  assigned,  from  the  head  of  his  books;  d.  at  Cremona.  4  August,  1494. 
royal  rents  payable  by  the  city,  a  perpetual  pension  When  a  mere  youth  he  entered  the  Dominican 
of  twenty  shillings,  and  in  1388,  an  additional  royal  Order  and  made  his  philosophical  and  theological 
pension  for  life  of  £10  Scots  from  the  customs  of  studies  in  its  schools.  He  afterwards  taught  phi- 
Aberdeen.  He  received  also  from  the  king  £10  in  losophy  and  theology  with  great  success  at  Milan, 
1377.  and  £5  in  1386.  Innes  has  pointed  out  that  Ferrara,  and  Bologna.  At  the  time  of  his  death 
in  addition  to  these  pensions  and  gifts,  and  perqui-  he  was  prior  of  the  Cremona  Convent.  Exhibiting 
sites  incidental  to  the  wardship  of  a  minor,  Barbour  extraordinary  intellectual  powers,  and  expressing 
enjoyed  the  revenue  of  a  prebend  and  a  considerable  his  deep  thoughts  in  eloquent  «>eech  and  finished 
income  as  archdeacon.  His  pension  of  twenty  writing,  he  merited  and  received  the  esteem  of  his 
shilling  he  left  as  a  foundation  for  Masses  for  himself  learned  contemporaries,  notably  of  Pico  deOa 
and  his  parents,  to  be  said  by  all  the  priests  at  the  Mirandola.  Many  of  his  writings  were  lost  at  an  early 
cathedral  on  the  Wednesday  after  Low  Sunday,  date.  The  following  have  been  printed  frequently: 
As  Jamieson  shows,  the  pension  was  not  bequeathed  (1)  "Qusetioi  es  super  divin&  sajpienti&  Aristotelis'' 
to  a  hospital,  but  probably  reverted  to  the  Crown  (principal  edition,  Lyons,  1679);  (2)  "Divinum 
at  the  Keformation.  The  copy  of  the  document  Epitoma  auesuonum  in  IV  libros  sententiarum  a 
assigning  his  pension  to  the  dean  and  chapter  of  prinoipe  Tnomistarum  Joanne  Capreolo  Tolesano  dis> 
Aberdeen  may  be  found  in  Skeat,  along  with  the  putntarum"  (principal  edition,  ravia.  1522^.  The 
forty-eight  other  documente  which  establish  the  place  and  date  of  (3)  "In  libros  prsedicabilium  et 
facts  of  Barbour's  life.  prsedicamentorum  en>ositio  "  are  unknown. 

Barbour,  "the  earliest  poet  and  the  first  detailed  Qi74TiFANDEcBlaD,iSmptor««C^inMPnBdica<orum.I,27t). 
historian  of  Scotland",  writing  in  that  northern  Arthur  L.  McMahom. 
dialect  of  Middle  English  which  afterward  came  to  Barca»  a  titular  see  of  Cyrenaica  in  Nortiiem 
be  specifically  called  Scoteh,  composed,  besides  Africa.  According  to  most  archaeologists  it  was 
''The  Brut"  and  ''The  Stewart's  Original",  which  situated  at  Medinet  el  Merdja,  but  according  to 
are  lost,  the  long  patriotic  narrative  poem  called  Graham  (Roman  Africa)  at  Tolometa,  or  Tolmeita. 
"The  Bruce".  Tnis  work,  upon  which  Barbour  was  After  being  often  destroyed  and  restored,  it  became, 
engaged  in  1375,  exists  in  two  manuscripts,  dated  during  the  Roman  period,  a  mere  borough  (Ka'" 
1487  and  1489,  written  by  John  Ramsajr,  who  has  quardt,  Staatsverwaltung,  I^  459),  but  was,  never- 
been  identified  with  a  later  prior  of  the  Carthusian  theless,  the  site  of  a  bishopric.  Its  bishop,  Zopyros 
monastery  at  Perth.  The  second  of  these  copies  was  (Zephyrius  is  a  mistake),  was  present  at  the  Council 
made  at  the  request  of  Simon  Lochmalony,  vicar  of  of  Nicsa  in  325  ((jelzer,  ratrum  Nicsenorum  nomina. 
Auchter  Monsey,  near  Perth.  An  earlier,  incom-  231).  The  subscripti  dus  at  Ephesus  (431)  ana 
plete  manuscript,  written  by  Fenton,  a  monk  of  (Jhaloedon  (451)  give  tne  names  of  two  other  bishons, 
Melrose,  in  13G9,  is  not  extant.  "The  Bruce",  Zenobius  and  Theodorus.  The  see  must  have  ois- 
extending  through  6,000  octo^llabic  couplets,  i^speared  when  the  Arabs  cpnquered  the  Pen^jpolis 
variously  divided  mto  fourteen  or  twenty  books,  tola  in  643  (Butler,  The  Arab  Conquest  of  Egjrpt,  430). 
to  a  generation  of  Scotchmen  flushed  with  victory  Lbquucn,  Orim*  Chruu,  II,  626;  Gamb,  8erieaepi^op.,4CX, 
'  and  the  sense  of  dearly-bought  independence  the  ^'  P*^^^'- 
storjr  of  the  struggles  of  their  grandfatners,  sang  the  Barcelona  rBABciNo),  t>iocEBiB  of,  one  of  the  suf- 
glories  of  freedom,  and  picturecfthe  civic  and  knightly  fragans  of  tne  Arehdiooese  of  Tarragona.  The 
virtues  of  Bruce  and  Douglas.  The  narrative  runs  city  *:>£  this  B«aid  ]»  the  eapiutl  of  Catalonia  and  ot 
from  ^he  'dispute  for  the  crown  of  Scotland  between  the  province  of  Barcelona.  It  is  situated  on  the  ooait 
BaUiol  and  the  firsi;  xlobcrt,  whom  Barbour  poetically  of  north-eastern  Spain,  and  is  familiarly  known  as 
identifiefl  with  his  grandson,  to  the  death  of  the  Black  the  ''Queen  of  the  Mediterranean". 


BABOKLOKA           289  BABOILO>A 

fiutoty.— Barcelona  ta  one  of  the  moat  tmdent  to  monks  ahouM  be  observed.    At  the  Second  Pnv 

litiM  of  Spun,  and  the  moat  hnportant  after  the  vincial  Gounoil  (c.  590),  attended  hf  the  metropolitan 

MfitaL    pounded  b^  Hamilcar  in  Uw  ancient  region  and  twelve  bi«bope,  four  canons  were  pramt^Kted, 

of  Laletitna,  it  was  m  th^  pbaaesBion  of  tbe  CarCha-  the  first  and  aeeond  prohibiting  any  fee  for  Holy 

pniaika  until  they  were  driven  out  of  Spain,  when  it  orders  and  for  the  ohnam  used  for  Confinnatian:  the 

ptmd  ander  tbe  power  of  the  Romans,  who  favoured  third  and  fourth  commanding  the  obaervatJott  of  the 

ii  in  maDT  ways.    Julius  Cnsar  bestowed  on  it  the  canons  referring  to  thoee  awaiting  Ho^  orders,  «ntd 

uDte  <rf /uKa  Au^iuiCa  Faocnfia  in  recosnition  of  tbe  excommunicating  thoee  who,  after  having  made  a 

Rippoit  given^  him  in  his  struggle  with  Pompey;  vow  of  chastity  and  changed  Uieb'  secuUr  drees  for 

lit«r  he  made  h  a  Roman  colony  and  gave  it  the  ptt  the  religious  garb,  should  contract  a  oamal  mamage, 

idtn,  wbieh  ooiiferred  on  the  inhabitants,  although  even  if  a  woman  had  been  forced  bv  violence.  untMt 

Bill  bebnging  to  Hispania   Tarrueonetuii,  the  full  she  immediately  separated  from  the  one  who  bad 

privileges  of  Roman  citisenrfup.    The  cHy  remained  violated  her;  a  similar  excommunication  was  also 

miimportBiit  until   Ataulf,  Kine   of   the  Visigoths,  pronounced  oi^  those  who  married  after   they  had 

"'^"  "  it  for  his  nsidence    (416).     Later  it  passed  received     the     "blessing    of    penance"     (bmedietio 


..J  into  the  hands  of  the  Arabs  (713)  and     panUenliix),  i.  e,  penitenta  who  had  taken  an  addi- 

(b  Fnnks   (801),     Finally,  Wilfrid  the  Haiiy  de-    tional  vow  of  continency.     Other  oonncils  were  also 

clued  hi*  independence  and  rave  the  Spanish  March,    held  there:  that  of  1126,  presided  over  by  St.  Ok- 

or  tbe  Marea  HUpaniea,  as  tne  Franks  had  called  if, 

the  name  of  the  County  of  Barcelona.     It  remained 

under  the  independent  government  of  its  own  counts 

DntH  the  marnage  of  Petronilla,  daughter  of  Ramiro 

tlK  Honk,  with  the  Count  of  Barcelona  (1 137)  united 

Aiigoa  and  Catalonia.    After  1164,  when  Petronilla 

nsi^ied  in  favour  of  her  eon  Alfonso,  the  two  states 

fonned  but  one  Icingdom. 
fiuoefcna,  being  situated  on  the  ehoree  of  the 

Utditerranean  and  on  the  militai^  road  between 

Spsin  and  France,  was  comparatively  easy  of  access, 

tint  the  Gospel  was  preached  there  by  the  immediate 

diadples  of  the  Apostles.     The  See  of  Barcelona,  un- 

tike  moat  very  ancient  sees,  whose  ori^ns  are  ob- 

•mre,  has  preserved  catalogues  of  its  bishops  from 

Apcatolic  times,  and  although  all  the  names  givra 

esnnot  be  admitted  ae  authentic,  the  greater  num- 
ber are  handed  down  in  all  the  catalogues.     In  the 

twelfth  century  the  diocese  was  restored  by  Ramon 

Bnengar,  Count  of  Barcelona,  since  which  time  the 

■ueeession  of  bishops  has  been  uninterrupted. 
In  the  long  Une  of  bishops  we  find  many  illuBtrious 

It.  Sevenwj  a  native  of  the  city,  was  mar- 

DacianuB  in  the  reign  of  Diocletian.     St. 
(360-390)  is  famous  for  the  deamess  and 

q>iritualiVf  of  his  doctrinal  writings ;  ''in  chapter  cvi 

of  his  "De  Scriptoribua  Ecclesiasticis",   St.  Jerome 

"'"ises  the  chaste  life  of  Pacianus,  his  eloquence,  and 
writings  on  baptism,  and  penance,  also  those 
'*"-*   heretics,    particularly   the   Novatiana.    St. 

-o 1,  noted  for  the  great  purity  of  his  life,  was 

the  first  metropolitan  of  this  province.  Bishop 
tlrquLoBona  was  revered  for  his  great  charity;  ooe 
of  the  handsomest  plazas  of  Barcelona  is  still  called 

by  Mb  name.  Among  the  saints  of  this  dioc^  Mo«*«t.ht  o>  St.  Cooat  De..  V^im.  Clowtth  uro 
ue:  the  famous  virgin,  St.  Eulaba,  a  martyr  of  the  LAnriiiH 

tldtd  century,  whose  relics  are  preserved  m  a  rich 

dume  in  the  ctypt  of  the  cathedral;  Sts.  Juliana  gariua,  the  Metropolitan  and  Bishop  of  Baroetona; 
•nd  Sempronia,  virgins  and  martyra;  the  African  that  of  1339  to  decide  in  the  matter  of  the  subsidiM 
■intB.  Cncuphas  and  Felix,  mari;yred  in  the  city  of  asked  from  the  clergy;  that  of  1377,  a  quad-nkDary 
Beredona;  St.  Raymund  of  Pennafort,  founder  of  council;  that  of  1387,  on  the  occasion  of  the  Weatoni 
^le  Otder  of  Hercy  for  the  Redemption  of  Captives,  Sctiism,  which  proclaimed  legitimate  the  election  of 
wnfuaui  of  Gregory  IX  (1227-41),  and  compiler  of  Clement  VII;  those  of  1417,  1S17,  and  1564  which 
the  fnnotis  "Decretals",  in  which  he  collected  the  are  of  no  special  importance.  In  1904  the  Caitfrmo 
■ottered  decrees  of  popes  and  councils.  Hiapano-Ameritano  de  las  Congregaciorus  Manana* 

CMMCjIt  o/  Barcelona. — Many  councils  and  aaaem-  was  held  at  Barcelona  and  was  attended  by  thousands 
Uv  of  Spaolsh  bishops  were  held  in  Barcelona,  two  of  persons  for  the  purpose  of  making  unifonn  laws 
^nlndM  councils  in  the  Visigothic  period.  The  for  this  congregation  and  that  of  the  LwMe*. 
tint  <&  640),  at  which  the  metropohtan  and  six  Monuments. — Among  the  many  monuments  of 
tnfaopB  ■amrted,  promulsated  ten  canons,  ordaining  the  city,  the  most  important  is  the  cathedra],  built 
that  Hw  Miaerert  ^loulabe  said  before  the  Canticle:  in  the  early  days  of  the  Church  in  honour  of  liie 
ttatfaitfaeVespersand  Matins  the  benediction  should  Holy  Cross.  It  was  lebiiilt  by  order  of  BereuKar  I, 
'"  ''  to  the  people;  that  clerics  should  not  wear  the  Old,  Count  of  Barcelona,  and  his  wife,  Do&A 
—  long  or  sliave  their  beards;  that  penitents  Almodis,  and  consecrated  in  105S.  In  the  thirteenth 
w«tr  the  hair  short,  put  on  a  religious  garb,  century  it  was  enlarged,  and  was  finally  comi^eted 
their  time  to  prayer;  that  the  "beatifie     iP  1338,     It  is  Gothic  in  style,  one  of  its  most  notable 

. "  should  be  given  to  the  sick  so  that    features  being  the   "door  of  the   InqulsitioD ",  a 

A^  eodU  recefve  Ho^  Communion,  and  that  the  beautiful  piece  of  work  composed  of  amall  colunmi 
dneasof  tbeOi>midloiC%Alcedoo(461)  withi^ud   and  pdated  uobea  on  a  rfiminiahing  Kale,  which 

n.— 19 


tried  by  I 

Pacianui  (: 

of 

E 

•ninst  1 
OUgarius, 


betffm  ti 
thAafrlc 


BABOXLONA  290  BABOELOVA 

conceals  the  jasper  steps  that  lead  to  the  sanctuary,  where  over  2,000  women  receive  instruction^  and  am 

,  The  fagade  La  Fiedad,  composed  of  graceful  pointed  thus  prevented  from  attending  public  dance-haOa. 

arches,  is  one  of  the  purest  examples  of  Spanish  Conn^sted  with  each  of  the  asylums  before  mentioned 

Gothic.     The  church  of  St.  Severus  imites  in  its  is  one  or  more  schools;  the  ^religious  orders  conduct 

facade  all  the  architectural  charms  of  the  fifteenth  free   schools   attended   by  '12,000   boys   and   girls, 

century  in  which  it  was  built;  its  main  tabernacle  is  There  are  8  collies,  under  the  Jesuits,  the  Piarista, 

noted  for  the  rich  carving  of  its  pointed  arches:  and  other  religious  orders. 

its  chapel  of  St.  Eulalia  is  exceedingly  dehcate  ana  A  number  of  Catholic  periodicals  are  published  in 
beautiful.  The  church  of  Santa  Ana  has  two  pictures  the  diocese:  the  ''  Boletfn  Eclesidstico  de  U,  Di6ce8iB", 
bv  Juncosa.  The  ancient  church  of  Santa  Marfa  del  the  "Revista  Popular '^  founded  and  directed  by 
Mar  is  also  a  beautiful  specimen  of  Gothic  architec-  Dr.  Sarda  y  Salvany,  author  of  the  famous  book 
ture.  Santa  Maria  del  rino  has  the  most  spacious  "Liberalismo  es  Pecacio",  which  has  been  translated 
and  lofty  nave  of  all  the  Gothic  churches  in  Barcelona,  into  many  languages;  the  "Comentarius  Scholaris", 
The  church  of  Sts.  Justo  and  Pastor 'was  the  first  published  by  the  diocesan  seminary  students;  "Analea 
dedicated  to  the  worship  of  the  true  God  in  Barcelona,  del  culto  6,  San  Jos^'';  the  ''Mensajero  del  Nifio 
Judging  from  its  present  appearance,  the  unfinished  Jesils  de  Praga";  "Anales  de  Nuestra  Sefiora  del 
Templo  Expiatorio  de  la  SaCTada  Familia,  built  from  Sagrado  ConS6n";  "La  Montafla  de  San  Jos6", 
the  alms  of  the  faithful,  will  be  the  finest  ecclesiastical  official  orean  of  the  association:  "El  Boletfn  Sale- 
edifice  in  Barcelona.  The  famous  sanctuary  of  siano";  "Las  Misiones  Cat61icas  ;  "La  Horndga  de 
Monserrat  is  outside  the  city.  Apart  from  its  an-  Oro";  "La  Revista  Social";  and  "Los  Estudioa 
tiquity  and  reli^ous  interest,  it  is  remarkable  for  its  Franciscanos  *L  "  El  Correo  Cataldn "  is  the  only 
wealth  of  precious  stones,  and  for  the  beautiful  strictly  Catholic  newspaper.  It  has  the  blessing  of 
chapels  representing  the  mysteries  of  the  Rosary;  all  the  sovereign  pontiff,  and  counts  many  of  the  clergy 
these  are  modem  and  are  an  evidence  of  the  piety  of  among  its  contributors. 

the  faithful.     The  Diocese  of  Barcelona  also  possesses        Statistics, — ^There  are  231  parishes,  13  archipies- 

archives  of  great   value  in  which  many  precious  byterates,  1,180  secular  {>riests,  360  regular  clergy, 

documents,  saved  from  the  Almohad  conquest  imder  and  89  religious  commumties.    In  1906  the  popiS»- 

Almanzor  (1184-98),  are  preserved,  as  well  as  the  tion,  nearly  all  Catholic,  was  1,054,53L 
priceless    books     called    Exem'plaria,    wherein    are        V.  db  la  Fukntb,  HUl  £<f,  de  EtpaAa  (Madrid,  1875); 

chronicled  ecclesiastical  functions,  oaths  of  kines,  is^2)'x^l^U^-\yuiH^and1^^ 

and  other  notable    events^   which  make  them  the  Eapafia  ^SaaraJa    (Madrid.    1754    mix    3S:vni-Xx5xl 

best    source     of     information     for     the    history    of  Atmerich,  Nomina  et  Acta  ep.  Bare,  (ibid.,  1760);   Gams, 

pofoinnift.  KircKenp.  Spanien9  (Batisbon,   1874),  II,   ii:    EtpaHa   J2c~. 

uauuuma.  ij   u     j-o:     u  x  (Madrid!  1902),  IV;    CoUcddn  de  documentoa  hUt,  (BarceioDA, 

Chanty  and  EdtLcaiton.— it  would  be  difficult  to  1803-96^;  Alb<5  t  Marti,  The  ChariHee  of  Barcelona  (SpaniBhl 

find  in  Spain  another  city  where  Christian  charity  ibid^  1901). 

is  manifested   in    more  ways  than    in    Barcelona.  Tirso  L6pez. 

Besides  inaxiyr  general  and  private  hospitals  in  the 

city,  there  exist  a  multitude  of  asylums  tor  all  classes        Barcelona,  Universitt   of. — ^This  was  an   out- 

of  persons   maintained   by  religious  congregations  growth  of  the  ecclesiastical  schools  founded  in  the 

and  pious  associations.     Notable  among  them  is  the  eleventh  century.     To  these  were  added  gradually 

grls    orphan  asylum  of  San  Jos6  de  la  Montafia.  the  chairs  held  by  the  Dominicans  in  their  convent 

The  asylum  and  maternity  home  (casa  de  ladancia)  and  those  established  in  the  Academia  by  the  Kings 

of  Bressol,  for  the  children  of  labourers,  takes  care  of  Aragon.    In  1430,  the  town  council  of  Biu'celona 

annually  of  1,200  healthy  and  2,300  sick  children,  took  measures  f^r  the  founding  of  a  *S<t/</iwm  GericraZe 

The  asylum  of  La  Sagraaa  Familia  cares  for  about  in  order  to  prevent  the  migration  of  their  young  men 

300  children  of  workmg  mothers.    The  asylum  of  to  Lerida  and  to  the  foreign  universities  of  Paris, 

La  Madre  de  Dios  del  Carmen  of    Hostsrfranchs,  Toulouse,  and  Bologna.    But  the  university  as  such 

besides  sheltering  about  6(X)  children  and  old  per-  dates  from  1450,  the  year  in  which  its  charter  was 

sons,  has  a  pious  association  espettally  for  arranging  granted  bv  Alfonso  V  of  Aragon  and  confirmed  by 

marriages  between  persons  -who  have  been  living  the  Bull  "Constitutus  in  Speculo"  of  Po|>e  Nicholas 

together    illegally,    and    legitimizing   the    children;  V.  .The  pope  conferred  upon  the  new  university  all 

in  one  year  it  procured  120  such  marriages.    The  the  privileges  enjoyed  by  the  University  of  Toulouse 

asylum  of  St.  Raphael  is  for  scrofulous  children,  and  and  authorized  the  erection  of  chairs  in  theology, 

the   asylum    Del    Parciue  relieves  annualljr  94,234  canon  and  civil  law,  arts,  and  medicine.    The  yoimg 

poor,    and    provides   sleeping   accommodations    for  institution  had  to  struggle  with  all  sorts  of  difiB- 

20,000    poor    annually.    The    house    of    the    Good  culties.     For  nearly  a  century  it  had  no  buildings 

Shepherd  shelters  about  300  yoimg  women  rescued  adapted  to  its  purposes.    In  1544,  however,  it  entered 

from  houses  of  ill  fame.    The  asylum  of  the  Visita-  upon  a  new  era,  with  suitable  structures  and  equip- 

tion  assists  young  women  who  are  in  want,  and  in  ment,  and  in  1567  it  received  the  richly  endowed 

the  nineteen  years  of  its  existence  has  preserved  the  priory  of  St.  Ann,  formerly  held  by  the  Order  of  St. 

?urity  and  virtue  of  more  than  3,000  young  women.  John.    The  teacning  of  grammar  and  rhetoric  was 

'here  are  between  forty  and  fifty  other  institutions  entrusted  to  the  Jesuits   (1576)  and  the  diocesan 

for    charitable   purposes,   among  them   the   Durdn  seminary  was  afliliated  to  the  university  (1568).     In 

asylum  for  incorrigible  boys.    Two  have  for  their  1714  the  Faculties,  with  the  exception  of  that  of 

object  the  distribution  of  food  and  the  serving  of  medicine,  were  transferred  to  Cervera.     By   royal 

meals  to  working-men;  one  distributed  117,125  free  decree  of  Charles  III,  a  college  of  surgery  was  estab- 

rations  in  one  year,  and  the  other  fed  about  300  work-  lished  at  Barcelona  in  1764.    The  Faculties  returned 

ing-men  daily.    The  Monies  Pios  of  Nuestra  Sefiora  from  Cervera  to  Barcelona  in  1823,  and  in  1837  the 

de  la  Esperanza,  of  Barcelona,  of  Santa  Madrona,  and  new  university  was  formally  inaugurated.    It  with- 

of  Nuestra  Sefiora  de  Monserrat,  are  societies  for  the  stood  the  disturbances  that  occurred  in  1840  and 

akl  of  female  domestics  and  working-men.    An  as-  1856,  passed  under  State  control  in  1857,  and  was  pro- 

sociation  of  fathers  of  families  has  in  one  year  pre-  video  with  additional  buildings  (1863-73^.    At  pres- 

vented  the  publication  of  45,000  obscene  books  and  ent  it  has  five  Faculties:  philosophy  and  letters,  law, 

photographs.  science,  medicine,  and  pharmacy,  with  66  instructors 

In  addition  to  the  diocesan  seminary,  there  are  and  1,900  students.    The  Archives  of  the  Crown  of 

Christian  Doctrine  classes  attended  by  6,000  children,  Aragon,  foimded  in  1346,  contain  3,759,314   docu- 

and  Sunday  Schools,  supervised  by  161  young  ladiesi  ments,  and  the  library  about  2,000  manuscript^^ 


BABOSNA  291  '    BABOLAY 

U  FvKNTB,  Hiatoria  de  Uu  UniverBtdades  (Madrid.  1884\  land  with  special  affection.    In  1615  a  vdlinne  of 

I:Zaiati.  De  la  InitntccionPiiblica  enEapaila  (Madrid,  1|W>;  y^  poems  appeared  in  London. 

R^D.LL.^m.«.«^  of  Europe  tnike^.A.  (Oxford.  I8w5.  "^j PEngianTBarclay  received  occasional  help  from 

E.  A.  Pace.  the  king  and  the  Earl  of  Salisburv,  and  won   the 

_  ,  ^       n  \     I  .i-  friendship  of  Isaac  Casaubon,   Ralph  Thorie,  and 

tac«»a   (alao   Babz/^a),  Alonzo  db,  a  native  especially,  in  1606.  of  du  Peiresc,  an  attache  of  the 

rf  Bsew  m  Andahwa,  Spaing.  1628;  d.  at  Cuzco,  j^    j,  ^^bassy  and  a  patron  of  learning     In  1616 

Peni.lo  January,  1598     lie  became  a  Jesuit  jn  1565,  Bartilay^  at  the  invitation  of  Paul  V,  went  to  Rome, 

lod  went  to  Peru  in  1569.  _  He  was  first  destinwl  {or  ^^^^  ^^  ^^  welcomed  by  Bellarmine  and  jpensione<i 

tt«  miflsioM  of  Huarochin,  whence  he  was  wdered  ^y  the  pope.    Perhaps  to  prove  his  Catholic  loyalty 

(1577^  to  Jub,  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Titicaca  in  ^^  p^^M^  in  1617  his  'fpanrnesis  ad  Sectanos'' 

Southern  Peru.     He  became  one  of  the  founder  Completing  in  July,  1621,  his  Latin  novel  "Argenis". 

of  this  important    miasion.     Bar^na  remained  in  y^^  ^t"^  j^^^j,^  folfowing  month.    The  facta  as  to  the 

Central  Bohyia  for  eleven  years,  when  the  Provincwl  ^^„^^,   ^f   ^^   monument    and    inscription    from 

Ahaaa  sent  him  to  Tucuman  in  Argentana.     Hb  g^  q^^j^^  j^^^  been  perhaps  permanentW  obscured 

7^^^J^tZ^I^TJr^,'l^irf^''S^  by.  P?"*-?  dispute.^  Wis  fflen'd  Ralph  ifiorie  pub- 


of  Paraguay  continued  until  1693,  when  he  was  made  y^b^  ^  g,       »;  jgjl .    Barclay  was  admired  by  bis 

CommisMry   of  the  Inquisition  in  those  pro>ancee  contemporarKs  for  his  honesty,  his  rare  courte™ 

Eihausted  physic^y    by    his    long    and   arduous  ^^  ^  dbnvereational  charm  that  owed  something 

Ubours,  Barcena  died  at   Cuzco  in  Peru.     He  is  ,^„„  j^„„     „.    „„  .   ,  ,„„„:„„  „„j  f„i„„,„  „. 


^!S  "^rr*  -u  T   ^'"'^,.'"  t"™-,   ."T    t  grave  irony.    His  varied  learning  and  talenU  made 

credited  with  having  had  a  practical  knowledge  of  ^j^  ^  formidable  opponent, 

eleven  Indian  lancuaces  and  with  having  written  ^he  most  importaM  of 

tt»chi8m«m  most  of  them  «Argfenis",  published  by  du 

iibystiUinthearehivesof  y,^^%^j,  Xired  by  kich 

rntings  is  known  to  have  Qrotius,    Pope,    Cow^r,    Disraeli,    and    Coleri 

-J  I-      •  ♦•    J  *   1         ♦!,  of.unportant  et'iooS^Pnic  This  work  is  a  long  romance  which  introduces  tne 

^^^f^t'^J"^^.'^!!^  ^^^t.tJy^^Ji^^  leading  personages  of  international  importance.    To 


lai^ages  and  with  having  written  ^he  most  important  of  Barclay's  writings,   the 

jm^nars,  vocabularies,  catochisBM.  m  most  of  them  «Argfenis",  published  by  du  Peir«i  at  Parisri621, 

tl^eniftnuscriptflarepossibystiUinthearohivesof  y,^%^j^  Xired  by  Richelieu,  Leibnitz,  Jonson 

Lima.    Only  one  of  his  wntings  18  known  to  have  q    y        p          Co^>^t,    Disraeli,    and    Coleridge 


"ij^lS^^^^'in^J.othe'S-,  Pa*'*****"Ki'**,S^    oV  i*  were^debfcSl,  in  whole  or  in  p^,   F&ielon's 

published,  in  1885,  is  dated  8  September    law^at  «T(5l«„uique",  du  Ryer's  tragi-comeSy  "Ar««nis  et 

^f6nmP^ragaiiy,e.nd»,MieaaedU>ihBPtoyv^  poUarque^',   Calderon's   "Arlsnis  y  Poliar^",   an 

"iJ^^A^^Tn^izaaa  (Lima.  1688).  I;  Los.no.  j^>^   V^7   "i^^^^"'.  ^7  ^^    ^'^"^''''i.* 

Hi$toria  de  la  CompaMa  de  JewHs  de  la  provincia  del  Paraauay  German    play    by    Christian     Weysen,     1684.     1  he 

(Uadrid.  1765);  Idem,  Deecripcidn  del  Oran  Chaco  (Cordova,  "Argenis    was  soon  translated  into  French,  Spanish, 

iSSS"^  ^^"'i  £"»  i1^iJ:t^S*T^ST.^  f»d  German,    English  translations  appeared  as  fol- 

voce,  Hietoire  du  Paraguay  (Paris,  ITSTJ;  Saldamando.  An-  lows:    DV    Kingsmill    Long,  Ix)ndon,     1626;    by    Sir 

Hgwa  JeeuitoM  dd  PerU  (Lima,  1882);  Relacionee  geogrdficaa  Robert  Le  Grys  and  Thomas  May,  London,  1620, 

«  Provincud.  the  letter  mentioned  above  (Appendix  80,  III).  Clara  Reeve.     Ben  Jonson  m  1623  entered  a  transla- 

LuDEwio,   The  LUeraiure  of  American  Ahc^iainal  Indians  tion  at  Stationers*  Hall.    There  have  been  transla- 

liri^-if^iii^2-^lS^^^^!''Sl'JSr.^/^  tjons.into  Italian   Dutch,  Gn«k,  Hungarian   Polish. 

moHiM  et  precum  in  quuigue  Indorum  Linguie  (Peru.  1590);  it  Swedish,  and  Icelandic.     An  English  translation,  by 

is  probably  one  of  the  manuscripts  alluded  to  above.    The  Thomas  May,  of  the  fourth  part  of  the  "  Satyricon    , 

1676)"  ^*"  ^""^  SOTWULL,  BiUiotheca  SocietaHa  Jeeu  (Rome,  ^^^j,  ^^^  ^(^^^  u  rpj^^  j^j^^^^  ^^^  y^^^  „^  ^^  printed 

Ad  F  Bandelier.  ^^  London,  1633. 

Portraits  of  Barclay  may  be  found  in  the  first 

Barclay,   John,  author   of    the   political    novel  edition  of  the  "Argenis",  in  the  volume  of  1629  of 

'Areenis'*  and  other  Latin  works  in  prose  and  verse,  Le  Grys  and  May,  and  in  the  later  work  of  Collignon. 


schooling  from  the  Jesuits,  and  at  the  age  of  nineteen  de  Jean  Barclay  (Paris.  1875);  Dukas.  Bibliographie  du  Saiyri^ 

he  published  a  commentary  on  the  "Thebais"  of  «>^  J^^  ^- j?;  (?*r|f»l8?6i'.  Comjonon,  iVotcs  «u^ 
^ius.  In  16()3  father  ani  son,  perhaps  attracted  ^^^;i^KlU^^];  ^Va'^^ 
bv  the  union  of  the  Scotch  and  English  crowns,  tned  ^iivmis— with  bibliography  and  key  (Munich,  1903). 
tSeir  fortunes  in  London.  The  son  dedicated  to  J.  V.  Crowns. 
iames  his  "  Euphormionis  Lusinini  Satyricon  *'.  Af- 
ter a  brief  stay  in  France,  John  returned  to  England  Barclay,  William,  Scottish  Jurist,  b.  1546;  d. 
in  1605.  at  Angers,  France,  3  July.  1608.  He  was  of  a  good 
He  married  a  brilliant  and  clever  Frenchwoman,  Aberdeenshire  family,  ana  studied  first  at  Aberaeen 
and  was  again  in  London  in  1606.  He  published,  University  and  later,  having  emigrated  to  France 
in  Paris,  1607,  the  second  part  of  his  "Satyri-  like  so  many  of  the  Catholic  youth  of  Scotland  at  that 
am"  and  about  the  same  time  his  poems,  imder  the  time,  under  eminent  teachers  at  Paris  and  Bourges. 
title  "Sylvae",  and  a  narrative  of  the  Gunpowder  In  1578,  on  the  recommendation  ti  his  imcle,  Edmund 
Plot  (En^sh  translation,  Oxford,  1634).  His  pub-  Hay,  first  rector  of  the  newly  founded  University 
Scation  in  1609  of  his  father's  work,  "De  Potestate  of  Pont-^-Mousson,  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair 
Pi^",  which  denied  the  temporal  jurisdiction  of  the  of  civil  law  there  bv  the  Duke  of  Lorraine,  who  ma^e 
pope  over  princes,  and  his  declaration  therewith  him  also  dean  of  the  faculty  of  law  and  a  councillor 
tw  he  would  defend  his  father's  memory,  led  to  a  of  state.  Three  years  later  he  married  Anne  de 
protoDged  controversy,  in  which  his  known  opponents  Malleviller,  a  lady  of  an  honourable  Lorraine  family. 
WWB  fiellannine  and  a  Jesuit,  Andreas  Eudsemon  Barclay  published  in  1600  his  largest  work,  "De 
JbcBBes.  A  further  series  of  polemics  was  occa-  Regno  et  Recall  potestate*',  in  defence  of  the  rights 
motdbv  lus  "Apology"  (1611)  lor  the  "Satyricon".  of  Kings,  a^mst  Buchanan  and  other  writers.  The 
itt  video  he  attack^  the  Jesuits  and  his  father's  doctrines  laid  down  in  this  book,  which  was  dedicated 
{oOBer  patron,  the  Duke  of  Lorraine.  In  his  "Icon  to  Henr^r  IV,  are  discussed  at  length  by  Locke  in 
AatoMmim",  a  fourth  part  of  the  "Satyricon"  his  "Civil  Government".  After  twenty-five  years' 
(Londoii,  1614),  he  described  the  character  and  tenure  of  his  professorship,  Barclay  resigned  bis 
of  the  European  nations,  mentioning  Soot-  chair  in  1603  and  retumea  to  England,  where  the 


BASOO  292  BABD 

new  monarch.  James  I,  was  inclined  to  welcome  with  friendfihip  with  du  Vergier  and  Amauld  and,  throudi 
favour  one  wno  had  so  leamedljr  asserted  the  views  them,  with  Port^Royal  soon  brought  him  to  the 
on  the  Divine  right  of  kings  which  he  himself  held,    front  in  the  debates  of  Jansenism.    He  collaborated 


kppomtment 

tion  that  he  renomiced  his  faith,  he  returned  to  Church  and  some  on  the  then  much-mooted  quee- 

Franoe.    An  offer  was  immediately  made  to  the  tions  of  eraoe  and  predestination.    To  the  first  cUsi 

renowned  jurist  to  accept  the  professorship  of  law  belong  (1)  "Del'autorit^de  St.  Pierre  et  de  St.  Paul" 

in  the  University  of  Angers,  which  had  been  vacant  (1645).     (2)   "Orandeur  de  TEglise  de  Rome  am 

for  some  years.    In  1605  he  published  at  Paris  an  repose  sur  I'autorit^  de  St.  Pierre  et  de  St.  Paiu" 

elaborate  work  on  the  Pandects,  dedicated  to  King  (1645).     (3)  "Eclairdssements  sur  quelques  obiee- 

James.    Barclay  mentions  in  this  work  his  intention  uons  que  Von  a  form^  oontre  la  grandeur  de  TE^ise 

to  write  a  book  about  the  king,  but  he  never  lived  de  Rome"  (1646).    These  three  books  were  written 

to   publish  it.     He   was   buri^   at   the  Cordeliers  in  support  of  an  assertion  contained  in  the  book 

Chiirch  at  Angers.     His  most  famous  work,  "De  "On  Frequoit  Communion",  namely: ''St.  Peter  and 

Potestate  Pairae",   directed  against  the  pope's  au-  St.  Paul  are  the  two  heads  of  the  Roman  Church  and 

thority  over  kings  in  temporal  matters,  appeared  in  the  two   are  one".    This  theory  of  dual  church 

1609,  with  a  preface  written  by  his  son.    Cardinal  authority,  implving  an  ec^ualitv  of  the  two  Apostles, 

Bellarmine  puolished  a  rejoinder  to  it.     (See  Bar-  was  oondemnea  sa  heretical  By  Pope  Innocent  X, 

CLAY,  John.)  in  1674  (Denzinger,  Enchiridion,  965). 

Irvino,  Liv^  of  ScoM$h  Wriura.  1»  210-2M;  MiwAaij.        To  the  second  class  belong  (1)  A  censure  of  Sir^ 

frSr^,S;iVX'§<^*T«,^r22W  mondV'Pr«deBtinatu8".(1644)     (2)  «qu««tS«jed 

TK—auru»  JurU  Romani,  III.  Augustmi  et  doctnns  eius  auctontas  m  eeclesiftr  ' 

D.  O.  Hunter-Blair.  (1660).    Barcos  holds  that  a  proposition  dearly 

£?rS^\5?lt",;oSSie?  »^WnrS^eS-'  —'  f^  beginniBg  of  the  .«ntrov^  the  n«m 

Sm  rf  Juan  Ortiz  Se  Z&ite  to  th^IUo  de  LaftaSl  P^P  t^tJ^°^n^ tJ^n  J!^i^It»n^^^ 

For  tw«>^-four  years  he  followed  the_vid5«tude.  Th^l  ^^^n^^th^^c&'^T^  ^ew*^^ 


.J              _L-     -X    Au    xu«_j            •!  u  ij  •     Au  *  I'Eglise  romaine  touchant  la  srftce  et  la  pr^^stina- 

aoted  as  secretary  to  the  third  ooimcil  held  m  that  x-  Jf«  /iaoa\      tui^  k^w>v.  ««-  «r*:f4^^..  of  *v.^  -.^.i^x.* 

city.    He  retumwi  to  Europe,  where  he  finished  his  ^f\  Q^^^"  -J^uK!?  fT^^    fi         i^Ji^ 

^A^rL^lTn^Jn  oa^T^'At-oIr^^"  wWnh  hi  9^  the  JaMcmst  Bishop  of  Aleth,  PaviUon,  and  may 


S'S^HTfiJV^^w^f  ^^^^  structiom,  sur  la  gr&ce"  of'^Antoine  Amauld. 

18  slender,  hke  that  of  all  the  epics  composed  about  Hurter.  N<mencl^,  II  (Innsbruck.  1898);  Mion«.  XWrt.  d* 

his   time   on   Amencan   subjects.     It  is   a   work   of  biog.  ehrM.  (PtLnB,  IS51);  Jdnqmann  in  Kirchentex.,!,  1004; 

ponderous  rhsrme.    But  its  historical  value  is  con-  P"^!^',^^?"'^^  (London.  1861):   Fuz^,  LeaJan»eni*UM 

aderable.     He   describes   neariy   a   quarter   of   a  i^Bxina^ie);  &AiHTM>^BKUYm.  Fort^iUyval  (Ja^,  ^^^ 

century  of  Spanish  efforts  in  the  Argentine  and  ad-  '    ' 

jaoent  coimtries,  of  which  he  was  most^  an  eye-  Bard,  Henry,  Baron  Bromley  and  Viscotjnt 

witness,  and  thus  fills  a  considerable  blank  in  our  Bellamont,  an  English  soldier  and  diplomat,   b. 

knowledge  of  the  history  of  that  period,  otherwise  i604j  d.  1660.    He  waa  the  son  of  the  Reverend 

but  Uttle  known.    He  ^  aUudw  to  the  Eng^h  George  Bard,  Vicar  of  Staines,  Middlesex,  Inland, 

piracies  committed  by  Drake  and  Cavendish,  and  ^  representative  of  an  old  Norfolk  family.    He  was 

to  events  of  importance  in  Peru  during  the  admin-  educated  at  Eton,  and  in  1632  entered  King's  Col- 

istration  of   the   Viceroy  Toledo.    Several  of  the  lege,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  the  Master's  degree 

violent  earthquakes  of  the  time  are  also  mentioned  and  a  fellowship.    Before  this  date  he  had  trav^ed 

and  described,  though  not  always  with  correctness  considerably,  having  visited  Paris,  and  journeyed  on 

in  regard  to  dates.                    foot  through  France.  Italy,  Turkey,  Palestine,  and 

LwSn  t  TwEixy,  EpUame  (1629-1788);  Nicolas  Antokio,  iri»vT>f       Tf  in  tLWotn^  that  Hnrinir  hi«  flninnm  i«  th« 

Bib.  Hin,  novo  (riacfod.  1786^;  Barcia.  HutoriadareB  primi-  tl^h.,J}—i^3^^lZ?i^^.}^^^ 


AdVF.  Bandelier.  wards  presented  to  his  college. 

Banrs  habits  of  life  were  expensive,  the  liberality 

Barcos,  Martin  de,  a  French  theologian  of  the  and  generosity  of  his  wealthy  brother,  MaximiMan, 

Jansenist  School,  b.  at  Bayonne,  1600;   d.  at  St.  enablmg  him  to  indulge  them.    His  accomplishments 

Cyran,  1678.    He  was  a  nephew  of  du  Verder  de  included  the  knowled^  of  several  languages   and. 

dauranne.  Abbot  of  St.  C^rran,  who  sent  him  to  coupled  with  his  expenence  as  a  traveller  and  a  wide 

Belgium  to  be  taught  by  Jansen.    When  he  returned  knowledge  of  men  and  events,  served  to  cominend 

to  France  he  serv^  for  a  time  as  tutor  to  the  son  of  him  to  Charles  I,  with  whom  he  became  a  favourite, 

Amauld  d'Andilly  and  later,   1644,  succeeded  his  and  whose  policy  throughout  the  Qvil  War  he  sub- 

unde  at  the  Abbey  of  St.  Cvran.    He  did  much  to  tained  as  a  strong  partisan.    He  was  one  of  the 

improve  the  abbey;  new  buildings  were  erected,  the  earliest  to  take  up  arms  in  the  king's  behalf^  obtaiii- 

libraiy  much  increased,  and  the  strictest  rule  en-  ing  through  the  queen  a  colonePs  commission.     He 

foroed.    Unlike  many  commendators  of  his  day  who  distinguisned  himself  at  York,  and  at  the  battfo  of 

Bcaroelv  ever  saw  the  abbeys  over  which  they  held  Cheriton  Down,  was  severely  wounded,  lost  an  arm, 

authonty,  Barcos  became  an  active  member  of  St.  and  was  taken  prisoner.    In  Majof  1646  he  received 

Cyran,  was  ordained  priest  1647,  and  ^ave  himself  his  discharge  and  on  again  joinmg  the  king  received 

up  to  the  rigid  asceticism  preached  by  his  sect.    His  the  reversionary  grant  of  the  office  of  Governor  of  the 


BARDESANES                            293  BABDESAVU 

Island  of  Guernsey  and  Captain  of  Comet  Castle.  Valentinus,  the  Gnostics  of  the  day.    But  unfortu- 

Later  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  a  brigade  nately,  with  the  zeal  of  a  convert  anxious  to  use  his 

and  was  made  ^vemor  of  Camden  House,  Glouoes-  previous  acquirements  in  the  service  of  the  newly 

teishire.    Failing  to  hold  this  post  against  the  as-  lotmd    truth,    Bardesanes    mixed    his     Babylonian 

sadts  of  the  Parliamentarians,  ne  burned  the  house  pseudo-astronomy  with  Christian    dogma  and  thus 

(o  the  ground.  originated  a  Christian  sect,  which  was  vigorously 

Bard  was  also  Governor  of  Worcester  about  1643,  combated  by  St.  Ephrem.    The  Romans  under  Cara- 

and  in  May,    1645,    he   distinguished    himself   by  ealla,  taking  advantage  of  the  anti-Christian  faction 

being  the  first  to  scale  the  ramparts  of  Leicester,  in  Edessa,  captured  Abgar  IX  and  sent  him  in  chains 

Heabo  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  battle  of  Naseby.  to  Rome.     Thus  the  Osrhoenic  kingdom,  after  353 

On  8  July,  1646,  he  was  created  Baron  Bard  and  years*  existence,  came  to  an  end.     Though  he  was 

ViBCount  Bellamont  in  the  Kingdom  of  Ireland.    In  urged  by  a  friend  of  Caracalla  to  apostatize,  Bar- 

the  foUowing    December    Bard    was    again    taken  desanes  stood  firm,  saying  that  he  feared  not  death, 

priaoner,  when  on  his  way  to  Ireland,  but  was  finally  as  he  would  in  any  event  have  to  undergo  it,  even 

uberated  x>n  his  promising  to  go  beyond  the  sea  and  though  he  should  now  submit  to  the  emperor.     At 

never  to  return  without  permission.    The  court  of  the  age  of  sixty-three  he  was  forced  to  take  refuge  in 

Charies  II  at  The  Hague  furnished  the  needed  resting-  the  fortress  of  Ani  in  Armenia  and  tried  to  spread  the 

phuje.    In  May  of  1649  he  was  arrested,  chargv^l  Gospel  there,  but  with  little  success.     He  died  at 

with  murdering  Dr.  Dorislaus.    The  charge  came  to  the  age  of  sixty-eight,  probably  at  Edessa.    Accord- 

HMfjtit,  and  in  1656  Bard  was  sent  from  Bruges  as  ingi  to  Michael  the  Syrian,  Bardesanes  had  besides 

roeoftl  ambassador  b^r  Charles  II  to  the  Shah  of  Harmonius    two    other   sons    called   Abgarun    and 

PBrBia,to  obtain  financial  help  to  recover  the  throne  HasdO. 

of  England.    The   mission   failed,   as  the   Persian  Writings. — Bardesanes  apparently  was  a  volmni- 

monarch  was  imder  obligations  to  England  for  aid  nous  author.    Though  nearly  all  his  works  have  per- 

rendered  him  at  Ormuz  and  was  therefore  unable  to  ished,  we  find  notices  of  the  following:  (a)  Dialogues 

comply  with  the  request  of  Charles.     Bard,  who  had  aeainst     Marcion     and    Valentinus     (Theodoretus, 

been  a  Catholic  for  several  years,  lost  his  life  in  a  Hsbe.  fab.,  I,  xxii;  Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl.,  IV,  xxx,  3). 

windstorm  in  the  desert  of  Arabia  about  1660.  (b)  Dialogue    "Agamst    Fate''  addressed    to    An- 

D^S5"SSjk"*i^i^  ^^'  ^^'*  "^'  ^^^'  GiLLow,  BiU.  toninus.    Whether  this  Antoninus  is  merely  a  friend 

Thomas  Gaffnet  Taaffb.  of  Bard««nes  or  a  Roman  emperor  ^^^ 

xavrnAo  KJxi^rj^M^M.  xAAff ».  ^^^^^  which  of  thc  Antouim  is  meant,  is  a  matter  of 

Btrdesanas  and  Bardesanites. — Bardesanes  (Bar-  controversy.    It  is  also  uncertain  whether  this  dia- 

I^aitan),  a  Syrian  Gnostic  or,  more  correctly,  a  Syrian  logue  is  identical  with  "The  Book  of  the  Laws  of  the 

poet,  astrologist,  and  philosopher,  b.   11  July,  154  Countries",  of  which  later  on  (Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl., 

(164?),  at  Edessa,  of  wealthy  Persian,  or  Pamiian,  IV,  xxx,  2:  Epiphanius,  Hser.,  LVI,  i;  Theodoretus, 

parents;  d.  222,  at  Edessa.     To  indicate  the  city  Iter.  fab.,I,xxii).    (c)  A  "Book  of  Psalms",  150  in 

of  his  birth  his  parents  called  him  "Son  of  the  number,     in     imitation    of     David's     Psalter    (St. 

Dwaan",  the  river  on  which  Edessa  is  situated.    On  Ephrem,  Serm.  adv.  haBr.,  liii).    These  p»ELlms  be- 

acoount  of  his  foreign  extraction  he  is  sometimes  came  famous  in  the  history  of  Edessa*  their  words 

referred  to  as  "the  Puthian*'  (by  Julius  Africanus),  and  melodies  hved  for  generations  on  the  lips  of  the 

or  "the  Babylonian"  (by  Porphyrius);  and,  on  ac-  people.    Only,  when  St.  Ephrem  composed  hymns  in 

J^t  of  his  later  important  activity  in  Armenia,  the  same  pentasyllable  metre  and  had  them  sune  to 

"tlie  Armenian"    (by    Hippolytus).      His    pagan  the  same  tunes  as  the  psalms  of  Bardesanes,  these 

parents,  Nubama'  and  Nah  siram,  must  have   bMeen  latter  gradually  lost  favour.    We  probably  possess  a 

Pyple  of  rank,  for  their  son  was  educated  with  the  few  of  Bardesanes'  hymns  in  the  Gnostic  "Acts  of 

ffown-prince  of  the  Osrhoenic  kingdom,  at  the  court  Thomas";  the  "Hynm  on  the  Soul";  the  "Espousals 

of  Ab^r  Manu  VIII.    Julius  Africanus  savs  that  he  of  Wisdom";  the  consecratory  prayer  at  Baptism 

aw  wdesanes,  with  bow  and  arrow,  mark  the  out-  and  at  Holy  Commimion.    Of  these,  however,  only 

Ime  of  a  boy's  face  with  his  arrows  on  a  shield  which  the  "Hymn  on  the  Soul"  is  generally  acknowledge^ 

uK  boy  held.     Owing  to  political  disturbances  in  to  be  by  Bardesanes,  the  authorship  of  the  others  is 

Edessa,  Bardesanes  and  his  parents  moved  for  a  doubtful.    Though  marred  by  many  obscurities,  the 

wale  to  Hierapolis   (MabOg),  a  strong  centre  of  beauty  of  this  hymn  on  the  soul  is  very  striKin^. 

Paganism.     Here  the  bov  was  brought  up  in  the  The  soul  is  sent  from  its  heavenly  home  to  the  earth, 

wHjse  of  a  heathen  priest  An^dOzbar.    In  this  school,  symbolized  by  Egypt,  to  obtain  the  pearl  of  great 

Qo  doubt,  he  learnt  all  the  intricacies  of  Babvlonian  price.     In  Egvpt  it  forgets  for  a  wnile  its  royal 

H^trologv,  a  training  which  permanently  influenced  parentage   and   glorious   destiny.     It   is   reminded 

^  mind  and  proved  the  bane  of  his  later  life.    At  thereof  by  a  letter  from  home,  succeeds  in  snatching 

^ape  of  twenty-five  he  happened  to  hear  the  the  pearl  from  the  Serpent,  and,  once  more  clothed  in 

"^^nikes.of  Hystaspes,  the  Bishop  of  Edessa;  he  re-  a  raiment  of  light,  it  returns  to  receive  its  rank  and 

coved  instruction,  was  baptized,  and  even  admitted  glory  in  the  kin^^dom  of  its  father,     (d)  Astrologico- 

{Jjhe  diaoonate  or  the  priesthood.     "Priesthood",  theological  treatises,  in  which  his  peculiar  tenets  were 

«owever,  may  merelv  imply  that  he  ranked  as  one  of  expounded.     They  are  referred  to  by  St.  Ephrem, 

^  eoUege  of  presbyters,  for  he  remained  in  the  and  amongst  them  was  a  treatise  on  Light  ana  dark- 

^orid,  had   a   son    called   Harmonius,   and   when  ness.    A  fragment  of  an  astronomical  work  by  Barde- 

^jpr  IX,  the  friend  of  his  youth,  ascended  the  sanes  was  preserved  by  George,  Bishop  of  the  Arab 

^^fffne  (179)  he  took  his  place  at  court.     He  was  tribes,    and    republished    by    Nau    in    "Bard^sane 

J»^  no  ascetic,  but  dressed  in  Oriental  finery,  I'astrologue"  etc.  (Paris,  1899).  (e)  A  "History  of 
^A  berylls  and  caftan",  according  to  St.  Ephrem.  .  Armenia''.    Moses  of  Chorene  (History  of  G.  A.,  II, 

His  acceptance  of  Christianity  was  perfectly  sin-  66)  states  that  Bardesanes,  "having  taken  refuge  in 

J^'t  nor  do  later  stories,  that  he  left  the  Catholic  the  fortress  of  Ani,  read  there  the  temple  records  in 

y*"^  and  joined  the  Valentinian  Gnostics  out  of  which  also  the  deeds  of  kin^  were  chronicled;  to 

appointed  ambition,  deserve  much  credit.     His  these  he  added  the  events  of  his  own  time.    He  wrote 

'TbT friend  became  (probably  aftcB  202,  i.  e.  after  all  in  Syriac,  but  his  book  was  afterwards  translated 

I^JB^t  and  honourable  reception  at  Rome)  the  first  into  Greek."    Though  the  correctness  of  this  state- 

Witiaa  king;  and  both  km^  and  philosopher  la-  ment  is  not  quite  acK>ve  suspicion,  it  probably  has  a 

^1"^  to  create  the  first  Clmstian  State.    Bardesanes  foundation  in   fact.     (0   "An  Account  of  India", 

■^('w'ed  great  Uteraiy  activity  affainst  Marcion  and  Bardesanes  obtained  hiis  information  from  the  Hindu 


BARDSTOWN                             294  BAB 

ambassadors  to  the  Emperor  Eliogabalus.  A  few  val  being;  for  the  devil,  according  to  him^  is  noi 
extracts  are  preserved  by  Porphyry  and  Stobjeus  created  by  God.  He  was  also  a  Docetist,  as  he  denied 
(Langlois,  Frajera.  liist.  grsBc,  V,  Ixvih  sqq,).  "Book  Christ's  birth  of »a  woman.  According  to  St.  Ephrem, 
of  the  Laws  of  the  Countries ".  This  famous  dialo^e,  the  Bardesanites  of  his  d^  were  given  to  many 
the  oldest  remnant  not  only  of  Bardesanite  leammg,  puerilities  and  obscenities.  Sun  and  Moon  were  con- 
but  even  of  Syriac  literature,  it  we  except  the  version  sidered  male  and  female  principles,  and  the  ideas  of 
of  Holy  Writ,  is  not  by  Baraesanes  hin^lf ,  but  by  a  heaven  amongst  the  Bardesamtes  were  not  without 
certain  Philip,  his  disciple.  The  main  speaker,  how-  an  admixture  of  sensuality.  St.  Ephrem's  zealous 
ever,  in  the  dialogue  is  Bardesanes^  and  we  have  no  efforts  to  suppress  this  powerful  heresy  were  not 
reason  to  doubt  that  what  is  put  m  his  mouth  cor-  entirely  successful.  Rabbula,-  Bishop  of  Edessa  in 
rectly  represents  his  teaching.  Excerpts  of  this  work  431-432,  found  it  flourishing  everywhere.  Its  exist- 
are  extant  in  Greek  in  Euseb.  (Praep.  Ev.,VI,x,6sq(^.)  ence  in  the  seventh  century  is  attested  by  Jacob  of 
and  in  Csesarius  (Quaestiones.  xlvii,  48);  in  Latin  m  Edessa;  in  the  eighth  bv  George^  Bishop  of  the  Arab 
the  "Recognitions"  of  Pseuao-Clement,  IX.  19  sqq.  tribes;  in  the  tenth  by  the  historian  Masudi;  and  even 
A  complete  Syriac  text  was  first  published  from  a  in  the  twelfth  by  Shashrast&ni.  Bardesfmi^m  seems 
sixth-  or  seventh-century  MS.  in  the  British  Museum,  to  have  degenerated  first  into  Yalentinianism  and 
by  Cureton,  in  his  "Spicilegium  Syriacum"  (London,  then  into  coounon  Manichaeism.  The  last-named 
1855),  and  recently  by  Nau.  It  is  disputed  whether  writer  states:  "The  followers  of  Daisan  believe  in 
the  original  was  in  Syriac  or  in  Greelc;  Nau  is  de-  two  elements,  light  and  darkness.  The  light  causes 
cidedly  and  rightly  in  favour  of  the  former.  Against  the  good,  deliberately  and  with  free  will;  the  darkness 
a  questioning  disciple  called  Abida,  Bardesanes  seeks  causes  the  evil,  but  by  force  of  nature  and  necessity, 
to  show  that  man's  actions  are  not  entirely  neces^  They  believe  that  lignt  is  a  living  thing,  possessing 
sitated  by  Fate,  as  the  outcome  of  stellar  combina-  knowledge,  might,  perception,  and  understanding; 
tions.  From  the  fact  that  the  same  laws,  customs,  and  and  from  it  movement  and  hfe  take  their  source;  but 
manners  often  prevail  amongst  all  persons  living  in  a  that  darkness  is  dead,  ignorant,  feeble,  rigid,  and 
certain  district,  or,  though  locally  scattered,  uving  soulless,  without  activity  and  discrimination;  and 
under  the  same  traditions,  Bardesanes  endeavours  to  they  hold  that  the  evil  within  them  is  the  outcome 
show  that  the  position  of  the  stars  at  the  birth  of  of  their  nature  and  is  done  without  their  co-opera- 
individuals  can  have  but  little  to  do  with  their  sub-  tion"  [Haarbriicker  tr.  (Halle,  1850),  1-293]. 
sequent  conduct.  Hence  the  title  "Book  of  the  Laws  Buonaidti,  Lo  Gnostieitmo  (Rome,  1907);  Nau,  Bardi^ane 
/\f  iha  P^iinfmoa  "  Vtutrologue,  U  UvTc  de»  lota  den  paye  (2d  ed.,  Paris,  1899); 
OI  ipe  VX)Unmes.  ,  .  .  .  .  ,  ^  Idem,  Dictionnaire  de  thiol,  cath.,  s.  v.  (Paris,  1903);  Barden- 
System. — ^VanOUS  Opmions  have  been  formed  as  to  hewer,  OMch.deraltk.  LU.  (Freiburg,  1902),  I,  337  eqq.;  Merjc. 
the  real  doctrine  of  Bardesanes.     As  early  as  Hip-  Bardeaanet  von  Edeaaa  (^Halle,  1863);  Hilqenfeld.  Bardeaonem 

polytus  (Philos    VI   50)  his  doctrine  was  described  S'X.^^I^'v^sSr&^fi  Kfrd^xTJ"  "^^  "^  """^ 

as  a  variety  of  Valentimanism,  the  most  popular  j^  p^  Arendzen^. 

form  of  Gnosticism.    A.  Hilgenfeld  in  1864  wrote  *"i  -,     ,                 at 

able  defence  of  this  view,  based  mainly  on  extracts  BaroBtown.    See  Louisville. 

from  St.  Ephrem.  who  devoted  his  life  to  combating  Bar  Hebratui  (A  bu*l  Faraj),  a  Jacobite   Syrian 

Bardesanism  in  Edessa.    But  the  strong  and  fervent  bishop,   philosopher,  poet,   grammarian,   physician, 

expressions  of  St.  Ephrem  against  the  Bardesanites  Biblical    commentator,    historian,    and    tneoloman, 

of  nis  day  are  not  a  fair  criterion  of  the  doctrine  of  b.  at  Mehtene  (Malatia),  Asia  Minor,    1226;   d.    at 

their  master.    The  extraordinary  veneration  of  his  Maragha,  Persia,  1286.     He  was  the  son  of  a  Jevtrish 


suggest  a  "  Son  of  the  Hebrew  .     Under  the  care  of  his  father 
milder  view  of  Bardesanes's  aberrations.    He  cannot  he  be^an  as  a  boy  (a  teneris  unguictUis)  the  study  of 
be  called  a  Gnostic  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word,  medicme  and  of  many  other  branches  of  knowledge. 
He  believed  in  an  Almightv  God,  Creator  of  heaven  which  he  pursued  as  a  youth  at  Antioch  and  Tripoli, 
and  earth,  whose  will  is  absolute,  and  to  whom  all  and  which  he  never  abandoned  until  his  death.      In 
things  are  subject.    God  endowed  man  with  freedom  1246  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Gubos,  by    the 
of  will  to  work  out  his  salvation.    This  world  He  Jacobite  Patriarch  Ignatius  II,  and  in  the  following 
allowed  to  be  a  mixture  of  good' and  evil,  light  and  year  was  transferred  to  the  See  of  Lacabene.      He 
darkness.    All  things,  even  those  which  we  now  con-  was  placed  over  the  Diocese  of  Aleppo  by  Dionysius 
sider  inanimate,  have  a  measure  of  liberty.    In  all  (1252)  and  finally  was  mad^  Primate,  or  Maphrian, 
of  them  the  light  has  to  overcome  the  darkness,  of  the  East  by  Ignatius  III  (1264).     His  episcopal 
After  six  thousand  years  this  earth  shall  have  an  end,  duties  did  not  interfere  with  his  studies;  he   took 
and  a  world  without  evil  shall  take  its  place.    To  advantage  of  the  numerous   visitations,  which    he 
Bardesanes  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets  were  living  had  to  make  throughout  his  vast  province,  to   con- 
beings,  to  whom,  under  God,  the  government  of  this  suit  the  libraries  and  converse  with  the  leanjed  men 
world  was  largely  entrusted;  ana  though  man  was  whom  he  happened  to  meet.     Thus  he  gradually 
free,  he  was  strongly  influenced  for  good  or  for  evil  accumulated  an  immense  erudition,  became  familiar 
by  the  constellations.    Bardesanes'  catechism  must  with  almost  all  branches  of  secular  and   reli^ous 
have  been  a  strange  mixture  of  Christian  doctrine  knowledge,  and  in  many  cases  thoroughly  mast-ered 
and  references  to  the  signs  of  the  Zodiac.    Misled  by  the  bibhography  of  the  various  subjects  which    he 
the  fact  that  "spirit"  is  feminine  in  Syriac,  he  seems  undertook  to  treat.     How  he  could  have  devoted  so 
to  have  held  erroneous  views  on  the  Trinity.     He  much  time  to  such  a  systematic  study,  in  spite  of 
apparently  denied  the  Resurrection  of  the  Body,  but  all  the  vicissitudes  incident  to  the  Mongol  invasion, 
tnought  Our  Lord's  body  was  endowed  with  incor-  .is  almost  beyond  comprehension.     The. main  claim 
ruptibility  as  with  a  special  gift.  of  Bar  Hebrajus  to  our  gratitude  is  not,  however. 
School. — Bardesanes's    son    Harmonius    strayed  in  his  original  productions,  but  rather  in  his  having 
farther  from  the  path  of  orthodoxy.     Educated  at  preserved  and  systematized  the  work  of  his  prede- 
Athens,  he  added  to  the  Chaldee  astrology  of  his  cessors,  either  by  way  of  condensation  or  by  ^nray  of 
father  Greek  errors  concerning  the  soul,  the  birth  and  direct  reproduction.     Both  on  account  of  his  virtues 
destruction  of  bodies,  and  a  sort  of  me  tern  psychosis,  and  of  his  science.  Bar  Hebrseus  was  respected   hy 
A  certain  Marinus,  a  follower  of  Bardesanes,  is  re-  all,  and  his  death  was  mourned  not  ohly  by  mert  of 
futed  in  the  "  Dialogue  of  Adamantius  ".    This  Mari-  his  own  faith,  but  also  by  the  Nestorians  ar&d    the 
nuB,  a  dualist,  held  the  doctrine  of  a  two-fold  prime-  Armenians.    He  was  buried  at  the  convent  of   Mar 


BABI                                    295  BABI 

Matthew,  near  Mosul.    He  has  left  us  an  autobioe-  of   the   Sanctuary",   and   the   KethObhd  dhe-Zdlgi, 

laphy,  to  be  found  in  Assemani,  "Biblioth.  Orient.  ,  "Book  of  the  Rays' ,  a  summary  of  the  first.    These 

II,  ^8^263;  the  account  of  his  death  (ibid.)  was  works  have  not  been  published,  and  exist  in  manu- 

written   by    his   own    brother,    Bar   Sauma.    The  script   in   Paris,    Berlin,    Lonaon,    Oxford,   Rome. 

works  of  Bar  Hebrseus  are: —  Ascetical  and  moral  theology  were  also  treated  by 

I.  Encyclopedic  and  Philosophical. — (1)  His  Bar  Hebrseus,  and  w^e  have  from  him  Kethdbhd  dhe" 
great  encyclopedic  work  is  his  H&xjodth  Hikhmethd,  'Ithfqonf  "Book  of  Ethics",  and  KethdbhA  dhe- 
"The  Cr^un  of  Science",  which  deals  with  almost  Yaundf  "Book  of  the  Dove",  an  ascetical  giiide. 
eveiy  branch  of  human  knowledge,  and  comprises  Both  have  been  edited  by  Bedjan  in  "Etnicon 
the  whole  Aristotelean  discipline,  after  Avicenna  seu  Moralia  Gregorii  Barhebrsei "  (Paris  and  Leipzig, 
and  other  Arabian  writers.  This  work,  so  far,  1898).  The  "I&ok  of  the  Dove"  was  issued  simul- 
has  not  been  pubUshed,  with  the  exception  of  one  taneously  by  Cardahi  (Rome,  1898).  Bar  Hebrseus 
chapter,  by  Margoliouth,  in  "Analecta  Orientalia  codified  the  juridical  texts  of  the  Jacobites,  in  a 
ad poeticam  Aristoteleam"  (London,  1887),  114-139.  collection  called  KethQbhd  dhe-HUdkayP,  "Book  of 
The  rest  is  to  be  found  only  in  MSS.,  preserved  at  Directions",  edited  by  Bedjan,  "Barheoraei  Nomo- 
Florence,  Oxford,  London,  and  elsewhere.  (2)  canon'*  (Paris,  1898).  A  Latin  translation  is  to  be 
TigkrtHh  TighrOtkd,  "Commerce  of  Commerces",  a  found  in  Mai,  "Scriptorum  Veter.  Nova  CoUectio", 
iwim^   of    the    preceding,   also    unpublished.     (3)  vol.  X. 

Keth&bhA  dhe-Bhibhdthdf   "  Book  of  the   Pupils  of  Bar  Hebrseus  has  left  besides  many  other  works. 

the  Eyes";    compendium   of   logic   and   dialectics.  On  grammatical  subjects  we  have  the  "Book  of 

(4)  Kethdbhd  dhe-Sewddh  Sophia,  '"Book  of  the  Speech  Splendours"  and  "  Book  of  the  Spark",  both  edited 

of  Wisdom";  compendium  of  physics  and  metaphys-  by  Martin,  "(Euvres  grammaticales  de  Aboul  Farad] 

ics.    To  these  should  be  added  a  few  translations  of  dit  Barhebrseus"  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1872);  also  works 

Arabic  works  into  Syriac,  as  well  as  some  treatises  on  mathematics,  astronomy,  cosmography,  medicine, 

written  directly  in  Arabic.  some  of  which  have   been  published,   but  others 

II.  Biblical. — The    most    important    work    of  exist  only  in  manuscript. 

Bar  Hebrseus  is  Aucdr  Rdzi.  "Storehouse  of  Secrets",  Most  editors  of  Bar  Hebneiu'  works  also  give  in  their  in- 

.  «»mnentary  on  the.  entire  Bible    both  doctrinal  JS;^"«"°^,rN"./^SfS5i.^''??S;a'?£Sf  "^S?^ 

and  critical.      Before  giving  his  doctnnal  exposition  H,   248-321;    Wrioht,  a  •Hon  history  of  Syriac  LUeraturB 

of  a  passage,    he   first    considers   its   critical   state.  (London,   1894).    266-281;    Duval,   La    literature    Swiaqw 

Althnnirh  h^  iifaofl  f h**  Ppahiftyi  aa  a.  hfurin    he  Irnowfl  ("«""«.  1900),  pfisnm,  see  index;   GdTTBBEROER,  Bar  Hebrcetf 

Artnougn  ne  uses  tne  I'esmttO  as  a  oasis,  ne  Knows  ^  ^^  ScholSn  t.  keiligen  Sckrift  (Freiburg  im  Breisgau, 

umt  It  IS  not  perfect,  and  therefore  controls  it  by  1900). 

the  Hebrew,  the  Septuagint,  the  Greek  versions  of  ,  Jfor  informcoion  a$  to  works  ofBAn  Hebbjeus  dastifved 

Symmachus,  Theodotion,  Aquila,  by  the  Oriental  og^«^t*tu/erI:DuvAL,op.cit..262,432;  G6Tr8BKRQER,op.cit.. 

versions,  Armenian  and  Coptic,  and  finally  by  the  For' II  {Biblical),  lists  of  the  pubUshed  works  are  given  in: 

other    Syriac    translations,    Heraclean,    Philoxenian  Klostbrmann,  Syrische  Orammatik  (Berlin,  1906).  138  sqq  ; 

jnd  «,pedaUv  Syro-Hexapla.    The   work  of   Bar  ^,^^-^'-^^;;i^b^ig,^T§Tu,^?:tl'Iit:St'^^ 

HebrSSUS  is  of  prime  importance  for  the  recovery  of  »emchaft  (1901),  101-144.     There  exist  several  MSS.  of  the 

these  versions  and  more  specially  of  the  Hexapla  of  Storehouse  of  Secrets,  for  which  see  Duval,  loc.  cit.;  G6TT8- 

Orig«i,  of  which  the  Syro-Hexapla  is  a  translation  ^ffi^'^FTth^chr^ctilk  see  list  of  sources  in  ABaEMANi,  op. 

by  Paul   of   Telia.     His   exegetical   and   doctnnal  cit.,  313  sqq. 

portions   are   taken   from   the   Greek   Fathers   and  IV.  {Theological)   Assemani,  op.  cit.,  284  aqq.;   Duval, 

previous  Syrian  Jacobite  theologians.     No  complete  °^'  ^^•'  ^^'                                                 t>   b^tin 

edition  of  the  work  has  yet  been  issued,  but  many 

individual  books  have  been  published  at  different  Bari,  Archdiocese  of^  is  situated  in  the  prov- 

times.     (See  bibliography  at  end  of  article.)  ince  of  the  same  name,  in  Apulia,  Southern  Italy. 

in.  Historical. — Bar  Hebrseus  has  left  a  lar^e  The  city  of  Bari  is  the  principal  city  in  the  province, 
historical  work  called  Mdkhtbh&niUh  Zdbhnif  ''Chroni-  with  a  population  of  about  65,000,  and  is  located  on 
oon"y  in  which  he  considers  the  history  from  the  a  peninsula  which  extends  into  the  Adriatic.  An- 
Creation  down  to  his  own  dajr.  It  is  aivided  into  ciently  ctdled  Barium,  it  fell  into  the  power  of  the 
two  portions:  the  first  deals  with  political  and  civil  Romans  after  the  war  with  Pjnrhus,  retaining,  how- 
history  and  is  known  as  the  "Chronicon  Syriacum";  ever,  its  autonomy.  Beinga  seaport  facing  the  Orient, 
the  second,  "Chronicon  Ecclesiasticum ",  comprising  Bari  must  have  received  Christianity  at  a  very  early 
the  religious  history,  be^ns  with  Aaron  and  treats  date.  According  to  a  local  tradition,  St.  Peter  him- 
in  a  first  section  of  the  history  of  the  Western  Syrian  self  preached  the  Gospel  there  and  consecrated  the 
Church  and  the  Patriarchs  of  Antioch,  while  a  second  first  bishop.  Histoiy,  nowever,  is  silent  as  to  the  be- 
section  is  devoted  to  the  Eastern  Church,  the  Nes-  ginning  ofChristiam^  in  this  city, 
torian  Patriarchs,  and  the  Jacobite  Maphrians.  The  first  known  fiishop  of  Bari  was  Gervasius, 
Bar  Hebrseus  utilized  almost  all  that  had  been  who,  in  347,  assisted  at  tne  Council  of  Sardica.  In 
vritten  before  him.  The  best  edition  of  the  "Chroni-  530  Bishop  Peter  held  the  title  of  Metropolitan  under 
con  ftrriacum"  is  that  of  Bedjan,  "Gr^orii  Bar-  Epiphanius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople.  In  780 
hebnei  Chronicon  Syriacum"  (Paris,  1890).  The  Bishop  Leontius  was  present  at  the  Seventh  (Ecumeni- 
bcsl  edition  of  the  "Chronicon  Ecclesiasticum"  is  cal  Council,  the  Second  of  Nicsea.  In  the  ninth  cen- 
that  of  Abbeloos  and  Lamy  (3  vols.,  Louvain,  1872-  tury  the  Saracens  laid  waste  Apulia,  destroyed  the  city 
77).  The  "Chronicon  Syriacum*' was  rendered  into  of  Canosa  (Canusium)  and  captured  Bari.  In  841, 
Anbie  by  Bar  Hebrseus  himself  tmder  the  name  however,  the  Byzantine  army  reconquered  Bari,  and  in 
of  ''flistoiy  of  Dynasties";  the  latest  and  best  844  St.  Angelarius,  Bishop  of  Canosa,  then  in  ruins, 
MfitSofQ  of  this  work  is  that  of  SaUiani  (Beirut,  1890).  brought  to  Bari  the  relics  of  Sts.  Runnus,  Memorus, 

IV.   Theoixxhcal. — In    theology    Bar    Hebrseus  and  Sabinus,  which  he  had  rescued  from  the  ruins. 

WIS  a  Monophysite.    He  probably,  nowever,  thought  Pope  Sergius  II  conferred  on  him  the  title  of  Bishop 

tet  the  differences  between  Catnolics,  Nestorians,  of  the  two  dioceses  of  Bari  and  d^osa,  a  title  whicn 

tad  the  rest  were  of  a  theological,  but  not  of  a  dog-  the  Archbishops  of  Bari  retain  to  the  present  time. 

il  nature,  and  that  they  did  not  affect  the  In  933  Pope  John  XI  granted  the  Bishops  of  Bari  the 

on  faith;  nence,  he  did  not  consider  others  as  use  of  the  pallium.    It  seems  that  the  Bishops  were 

%  and  was  not  himself  considered  as  such,  at  dependent  on  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  until 

bgr  the  Nestorians  and  the  Armenians.     In  this  the  tenth  century.    Giovanni  II  (952)  was  able  to 

Sel^we  have  from  him  MendnUh  QridhsM,  "Lamp  withdraw  from  this  influence,  refusing  to  accept  the 


BABILLON  296  BABXWOBTH 

prescriptioiiB  of  the  patriaroh  conoeming  lituii^cal  218  sq.).    He  was  a  monk  and  afterwards  became 

points.     All  connezior  was  finally  severed  in  the  bishop  of  three  cities,  Beth-Ramman,  Beth-Kionaya. 

elevoith  century,  and  Bari  became  a  direct  depend-  and  Mossoul  on  the  Tigris,  assuming  the  name  ot 

e&cy  of   Rome.     Archbishop  Bisanzio   (1025)  ob-  Severus.     For  ten  years   ne  was   the  patriarchal 

tained  from  the  pope  the  privilege  of  consecrating  his  "Periodeutes",  or  visitor,  of  the  Diocese  of  Tagrit, 

suffragans;  he  also  oegan  the  construction  of  the  new  where,  by  his  wise  administration  and  learning,  he 

cathedral,  which  was  continued  by  his  successors,  acquiied  a  great  fame  and  reputation.     He  was 

Nicold  (1035),  Andrea  (1062),  and  JBlia  (1089),  the  buried  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Seigius,  situated  on 

last-named  a  member  of  the  Benedictine  Order.  the  Tigris,  near  his  native  city. 

In  1007  some  Bari  sadlors.  on  their  return  from  the       The  works  of  Moses  Bar-Kepha  are  veiy  numerous, 

East,  brou^t  with  them  the  relics  of  St.  Nicholas,  and  deal  with  many  t^eolc^oal,  philosophical,  con- 

Biihop  of  Mira.  for  which  Roger,  Duke  of  Apulia,  troversial,  exegetical,  and  Oturgical  subjects.    The 

built  a  splendia  church;  this  became  the  object  ot  principal  are:  (1)  A  Commentaiy  on  the  Old  and 

neat  veneration  and  of  innumerable  pilgrimages.  New  Testaments,  often  quoted  by  Bar  HelHWUs.  and 

About  tUs  time  Urban  II,  beinff  in  Apulia,  went  to  most  of  it  still  extant  in  manuscript  form;  (2)  a 

Bari  to  venerate   the  relics  of  the  uolv  wonder-  treatise  on  predestination  and  free  will,  TOBserved 

wort^er  and  to  consecrate  the  basilica.    Here  also  he  in  a  MS.  in  the  British  Museum  (Add.  14,731);  (3) 

held  a  council,  attended  by  183  bishops,  to  consider  a  commentary  on  Aristotle's  "Dialectics  ".mentioned 

the  reunion  of  the  Greeks  with  the  Church  of  Rome,  by  Bar  Hebneus;  (4)  a  commentary  on  the  Hexameron 

St.  Anselm  of  Canterbury  distinguished  himself  at  in  five  books,  preserved  in  the  Biblioth^ue  Nationale 

this  coimcil  l^  his  learned  defence  of  the  procession  of  at  Paris  (Syr.  241).  a  passage  of  which  is  translated 

the  Holy  Ghost  and  the  use  of  tmleavened  bread  for  into  French  by  Abo6  Nau  in  his  "Bard^sane  Tastro- 

the  Hol^  Eucharist.    Another  coimcil  had  been  held  logue"  (Paris,  1809),  p.  59;  (5)  a  "Tractatus  de  Para- 

at  Bari  in  1064,  presided  over  b^r  Amoldo,  Vicar  of  diso",  in  three  parts,  dedicated  to  his  friend  Ignatius. 

Alexander  IL    Cn  the  later  provincial  councils  that  [The  Syriac  original  of  this  work  is  lost,  but  a  Lsktin 

of  1607  is  worthy  of  mention.    In  the  reorganization  version  of  it  was  published  by  Masius  (Antwerp. 

of  the  dioceses  of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples,  at  the  1569)  under  the  title  "De  Paracuso  Commentarius ''. j 

beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  Diocese  of  (6)  A  treatise  on  the  soul,  in  forty  chapters,  with  a 

Bitetto  was  suppressed  and  made  a  part  of  the  Dio-  supplementary  essay  on  the  utilitv  of  offering  prayers 

oese  of  Bari.     The  suffragan  sees  under  Bari  are:  and  sacrifices  for  the  dead.    [Tnis  treatise  is  pre- 

Conversano,  Rufo,  and  Bitonto.  served  in  the  Vatican  Library;  a  (merman  trazMia- 


upper  and  a  lower  church,  both  richly  adorned  with  putationum  adversus  hsreses"  (see  Assemani,  B.  O. 
precious  marbles.  The  cathedral,  dedicated  to  the  II,  57);  (8)  a  treatise  on  the  Sacraments;  (9)  a  corn- 
Assumption,  is  likewise  remarkable  for  the  two  high  menta^  on  the  Liturgy;  (10)  am  ecclesiastical  his- 
beU  towers  with  which  it  is  flanked.  ^  ^  tonr.  His  other  works  comprise  discourses,  homilies. 
The  most  celebrated  Archbishops  of  Bari,  in  ad-  and  a  commentary  on  the  writings  of  St.  Gregory 
dition  to  those  already  mention^^  are:  Romualdo  Nazianzen. 
Grisoni  (1280),  distinguished  for  his  restorations  of  .  Braun.  AfatM  Bor-XtpAa;  Bab  Hbbiubub.  CAroniocm  J?rcafe- 

ehurohes:  Bartolomeo  Prignano  (1377),  lat«  Po^  XSjSSIl.'i^^S^'lSSSSijif  fT^^is'-^^'^PiA^^^^ 

Urban  VI,  who,  however,  never  saw  this  see;  Ascamo  ShoH  Hiatory  of  Syriac  LUerature  (London.  18M),  207-211: 

Gresualdo  (1613),  who  gave  a  wonderful  exainple  of  iCvcAanfe*.,  s.  v.;  Duval,  La  lAtf^roiiirw  5y^^ 

oharity  in  the  earthquake  of  1632:  Diego  Sersale  391-302.                                         n*»„,wT  rkr«.o*«», 

(1638),  who  at  his  own  expense  rebuilt  the  cathedral,  uabriel  uussani. 

the  episcopal  palace,  and  the  seminarv;  the  Domini-  Barkwoith  (aZuis  Lambert),  Mark,  Veni:rabl.k, 

canTbnimasoMaria,  of  theDiikesof  fiagnara  (1684),  priest  and  martyr,  b.  about  1572,  in  linoolnehire; 

who  died  in  the  odour  of  sanctity.  executed  at  Tyburn  27  February,  1601:  he  was  edu- 

The  Diocese  of  Bari  contains  a  population  of  300,400.  cated  at  Oxford ,  and  converted  to  the  Faith  at  Douai 

It  contains  7  rural  deaneries,  33  parishes,  260  churches,  in  1594,  by  Father  George,  a  Flemish  Jesuit,      In 

chapds,  and  oratories,  250  secular  priests,  110  semi-  1596  Baxkworth  went  to  Rome  and  thence  to  Vall&- 

nansts.  30  regular  clergy,  34  lay  brothers,  200  mem-  dolid.    On  his  way  to  Spain  he  is  said  to  have  had  a 

bers  Of  female  congregations,  45  schools  for  boyl^,  vision  of  St.  Benedict^  who  told  him  he  would  die  a 

35  for  girls.  martyr,  in  the  Benedictine  habit.    Admitted  to  the 

Cappbixbtti, Ledw^ d'luUia  (Venice,  1844), XXI;  Annua-  English  CJollege,  16  December,  1596,  he  was  ordaiAed 

Ho  sed.  (Rome,  1906).                                     i^^^Tnx-T  V^^^^  in  1599,  and  set  out  for  the  English  Mission 

u.  uENiGP,!.  together  with  Yen.  Thomas  Garnet.    On  his  way  he 

BariUon,  Emile.    See  Malacca,  Diocese  of.  stayed  at  the  Benedictine  Abbey  of  Hyrache    in 

Navarre,  where  his  ardent  wish  to  jom  the  order  ^vas 

Barjeaoa  (Gr.  BopiiiroOt),  a  false  prophet  found  granted  by  his  being  made  an  Oblate  with  the  privi- 
in  the  company  of  the  Proconsul  Sergius  Paulus  by  lege  of  making  profession  at  the  hour  of  death.  AXter 
St.  Paul  and  Barnabas  during  their  stay  at  Paphos  bavins  escapM^ffreat  peril  at  the  hands  of  the  here- 
in Qyprus  (Acts,  xiii,  6-12).  Because  of  his  opposition  tics  of  La  Kochelle,  ne  was  arrested  on  reaching 
to  uie  Proconsul's  conversion  to  Christiamty,  Bar-  England  and  thrown  into  Newgate,  where  he  lay 
jesus  was  struck  blind  by  St.  Paul.  He  was  also  six  months,  and  was  then  tranaferred  to  Bridleiieell. 
called  Elymos  (Arab,  'o/tm,  i.  e.  "wise"),  which  Here  he  wrote  an  appeal  to  Gecil,  signed  "Oeorve 
St.  Luke  translated  by  ''magician"  (Acts,  xiii,  8).  Barkworth".    At  his  examinations  he  odiaved  Tvititi 

F.  X.  E.  Albert.  extraordinary  feariessness  and  frank  gaiety.    Having 

been  condemned  he  was  thrown  into  "Limbo",  the 

Bar-Kepha,  Mobbs,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  horrible  underground  dungeon  at  Newgate,  where  he 

Jacobite  bi^ops  and  writers  of  the  ninth  century,  remained  "very  cheerful"  till  his  death, 

b.  at  Balad,  aoout  the  year  813;  d.  at  the  age  of  Barkworth  suffered  at  Tyburn  with  Yen.  H4Mer 

ninety,  in  903.    A  biography  of  him,  written  by  an  Filcock,  S.J.,  and  Yen.  Anne  Lyne.     It  was  the  ISst 

anonymous  ^rriac  writer,  is  preserved  in  one  of  the  Tuesday  in  Lent,  a  bitterly  cold  day.    He  san^,  on 

Yatican  manuscripts,  extracts  from  which  are  given  the  way  to  Tyburn,  the  Paschal  Anthem:  "Hsee  cUee 

by  Assemani  in  nis  "Bibliotheca  Orientalis      (II,  quam  fecit  Dominus  exidtemus  et  Istemur  in  eii'V 


BABLAAX                                   297  BAELETTA 

On  his  arrival  he  kissed  the  robe  of  Mrs.  Lyne,  who  translation   was   made  by   F.    Liebrecht   (Mtknster, 

wu  already  dead,  saying:  '' Ah,  sister,  thou  hast  got  1847).     Latin  translations  (Migne,  P.  L.,  LXXIII), 

the  start  of  us,  but  we  will  follow  thee  as  quickly  as  were  made  in  the  twelfth  century  and  used  for  nearly 

we  may  ";  and  told  the  people:  "  I  am  come  here  to  all  the  European  languages,  in  prose,  verse  and  in 

die,  being  a  Catholic,  a  priest,  and  a  religious  man,  miracle    plays.    Among    them    is    prominent    the 

belonging  to  the  Order  of  St.  Benedict;  it  was  by  this  German  epic  by  Rudolph  of  Ems  in  the  thirteenth 

lame  order  that  England  was  converted".     He  was  century  (Kdnigsherg,  1818,  and  somewhere  later  at 

tall  and  burly  of  figure,  gay  and  cheerful  in  dispo-  Leipzig).     From  the   German   an   Icelandic  and  a 

sition.    He  suffered  in  the  Benedictine  habit,  under  Swedish  version  were  made  in  the  fifteenth  oentury. 

which  he  wore  a  hair-shirt.     It  was  noticed  that  his  At  Manila  the  legend  appeared  in  the  Tagala  language 

imeefl,  were,  like  St.  James',  hardened  by  constant  of  the  Philippines.     In  the  East  it  exists  in  Syriao, 

kneeling,  and  an  apprentice  in  the  crowd  picking  up  Arabic,  Ethiopic,  Armenian,  and  Hebrew. 

one  of  his  legs,  after  the  quartering,  called  out  to  the  ,  J5Jp^»»   M^fraHan  o/  FabUu  in  CmUmv.  Renew   (July. 

».'..w»^.  «  TD^:»u  ^r  »^»  n^ovw^ilJ^.  »«««  ok^nr  eii/ik  <>  1870);   Idem,  Selected  Esaaya   (London.   1881);  Libbbxcbt  m 

miniffters:      Which  of  you  Gospellers  can  show  such  a  jahA'ueh  far  ramanUehe  uXd  englUehe  lAtteraiur,   II;  Bbaun- 

knee?  holz.  Die  erste  nichtehrietHche  Parabd  dea  Barktam  u.  JoaaptuU^ 

Barkworth's  devotion  to   the   Benedictine   Order  ^  ^^m^^  Mt<^lia(!^S^eaSiMi^^^ii^^ 

led  to  his  suffering  much  from  the  hands  of  the  su-  J^g).   z^^Sirift  fiir  IcathSia'che    Thelioie,    1%2;   BuidkS- 

penors  of  the   Valladohd   College.      These   SUffermgS  rkwer.  GeachichU  der  altkirchliehen  LUtemt^  (Freiburg,  1902); 

are  probably   much   exaggerated,   however,   by  the  l^,  ^"^^  ^l?S^2\j^hhJSJxS^^ 

.»*:  T^..u   Zr^u^^  Tir„*«J;«     -D«»»»K»    „«^   Ti«il  ^w'-  (1880),  XXXVIII,  579-608;  Kuhn  in  AbkaruU.  d,  Bayer. 

antl-Jesuit  writers   Watson,   Barneby,   and   BeU.  Akad.  der  Wiasenaehaften  (1893);  AndUda  BoUandiana,  XIII. 

Camm,  A   Benedictine  Mar^  m   ^ngioiui   (Ix)ndon,   1897)j  299;  Jacobs,  Barlaam  and  Joeaphat,  Bngliah  Lima  of  Buddha 

P?^^;  lJ>tiM)ir«  (1750);  W  C,  A  Reply  to  Father  Peraona  (London,  1896);  Vacawt,  Diet,  de  thiol,  oath.,  II,  410;  Krum- 

ZArf  (lfi03):  WATaoN,  Decacordon  o"^  TenQuodlibet  Queatwna  bachkr.  Geach.  d.  Byzant.  Litteratur  (2d  ed..  Munich,   1897), 

(1«B):  Kkox.  Douay  Dumea  (London,  1878).  886;  BibUoth.  Hag.  Latina,  147. 

Bedb  Camm.  Fbancis  Msrshman. 

Bariaam,  Monk  OP  Gbrace.    See  Hestch^m.  BaAttbL,   Gabkibl   (sometimes   cilled   Barletb, 
Barlaam  and  Josaphat,  the  principal  characters  Dig  Barolo,  Barolus),  preacher,  b.,  according  to 
o!  a  legend  of   Christian   antiquity,   which   was  a  some,  in  the  Neapolitan  territory  at  Barletta,  whence 
favourite  subject  of  writers  in  the   Middle  Ages,  h©  took  his  name,  or,  according  to  others,  at  Aquino; 
The  story  is  substantially  as  follows:  Many  inhabi-  d.  sometime  after  1480.     Little  is  known  of  his  life 
tants  of  India  had  been  converted  by  the  Apostle  other  than  that  he  was  a  Dominican  and  probably  a 
St.  Thomas  and  were  leading  Christian  lives.     In  p^pU  of  St.  Antoninus.    All  his  contemporaries  held 
tiie  third  or  fourth  century  King  Abenner  (Avenier)  him  in  high  esteem  as  a  orator.     He  was  generally 
persecuted  the  Church.     The  astrologers  had  fore-  proposed,   even   during   his  lifetime,   as   the   model 
told  that  his  son  Josaphat  would  one  day  become  a  orator.     After  his  death  his  fame  did  not  diminish, 
Christian.     To  prevent  this  the  prince  was  kept  in  if  the  popular  saying  which  Altamura  has  preserved 
dose  confinement.     But,  in  spite  of  all  precautions,  for  us  be  a  criterion     Throughout  Italy  it  was  the 
Btflaam,  a  hermit  of  Senaar,  met  him  and  brought •  common   saying:    Neseit   prf»dicare   qui   nescit   bar^ 
him  to  the  true  Faith.     Abenner  tried  his  best  to  UUare,    His  sermons  appeared  in  two  volumes  at 
pervert  Josaphat,   but,   not  succeeding,   he   shared  Brixen  in  1497,  and  have  bc<5n  reprinted  very  fre- 
the  government  with  him.     Later  Abenner  himself  quently  since.     Echard  says  that  no  less  than  thirteen 
became   a    Christian,   and,    abdicating   the   throne,  editions  appeared  in  eighty  years.     The  best  edition 
became  a  hermit.    Josaphat  governed  alone  for  a  is  that  of  Venice  (1577),  in  two  volumes. 
time,  then  resigned,  went  into  the  desert,  found  his  In  form  his  sermons  are  nothing  else  than  the  ordi- 
former  teacher  Barlaam,  and  vnth  him  spent  his  re-  nary  homily  on  the  virtues  and  vices  of  life.     He 
m&ining  years  in  holiness.     Years  after  their  death,  spares  none  of  the  foibles  and  weaknesses  of  his  con- 
the  bodies  were  brought  to  India  and  their  grave  temporaries,  and  in  his  denunciations  passages  of 
became  renowned  by  miracles.     Barlaam  and  Josa-  eloquent  and  biting  sarcasm  are  often  met  with.     At 
phat  found  their  way  into  the  Roman  Martyrology  times  he  descends  to  an  almost  burlesque  mimicry, 
(27  November),  and  into  the  Greek  Calendar  (26  Au-  as  witness  his  sermon  on  the  manner  in  which  the 
pMt).    Vincent  of  Beauvais,  in  the  thirteenth  cen-  rich    ecclesiastic    says    the    Lord's    prayer.    Coarse 
tury,  had  given  the  story  in  his  "  Speculum  His-  things  are  also  to  be  found,  but  not  so  frequently  as 
toriale  ".     It  is  also  found  in  an  abbreviated  form  in  the  printed  sermons  of  some  of  his  rivals.    He  has 
m  the  "  Golden  Legend  "  of  Jacobus  de  Voragine  been  blamed  for  this  coarseness  by  Bayle  and  The- 
of  the  same  century.  ophilus  Raynaud,  but  his  name  has  been  completely 
The  story  is  a  Christianized  version  of  oiie  of  the  vindicated  by  Dominic  Casales,  O.P.,  in  the  work 
legends  of    Buddha,    as  even   the   name    Josaphat  "  Candor  lilii  seu  Ordo  Praedicatorum  a  calumniis 
would  seem  to  show.     This  is  said  to  be  a  corruption  Petri  a  Valle  Clausa  [i.  e.  Theop.  Reynaldi)  vindi- 
(rf  the  original   Joasaph,   which  is  again  corrupted  catus ".     Some    maintain    (Ttibing,    Quartalschrift, 
m>m  the   middle   Persian   Buddsif  (Budsaif  =  Bod-  1872,  II,  270)  that  Barletta  is  not  the  author  of  the 
hMoibn),     Still  it  is  of  historical  value,  since  it  con-  sermons  which  bear  his  name.     They  base  their  con- 
tains the   "  Apology  "   presented  by  the   Athenian  tention  on  a  sentence  of  Leander  Alberti  [Descria- 
philosopher   Aristides  to   the   Emperor   Adrian    (or  zione  di  tutta  Italia  (Bologna,  1550),  200],  who  says 
Antoninus   Piua).     The   Greek  text  of  the  legend,  that   an  unskilled  youth  whom  he  knew  gathered 
written  probably  by  a  monk  of  the  Sabbas  monas-  together  old  and  unknown  sermons  and  ascribed  them 
t«jy  near  Jerusalem  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  to  Barletta.     Furthermore,  they  must  have  appeared 
eeatory.   was   first  ^  published  by  Boissonade  in  his  in  the  vernacular,  whilst  we  know  them  in  the  Latin 
Aoeedota  Gweca  "  (Paris,  1832),  IV,  and  is  repro-  alone.     Thus  they  have  suffered  many  changes  and 
meed  in  Migne,  P.  G.,  XCVI,  among  the  works  of  alterations.     But    up    to    the    seventeenth    oentury 
St  John  Damascene.     The  legend  cannot,  however,  there  was  no  question  of  the  authorship.     They  show 
Mve  been  the  work  of  the  great  Damascene,  as  was  sure  signs  of  the  times  and  are  not  unworthy  of  his 
^ovttd  by  Zotenberg  in  "  Notices  sur  le  livre  de  fame.     Hence,   scholars   generally   accept   them   as 
Birlaam  et  Josaphat  "  (Paris,  1886)  and  by  Hammel  authentic. 

*  **  Verhandl.    des   7   internat.    Orientalisten    C^n-  Qrfirip  and  Echard.  Scriptorea  Ord.  Prod.,  I,  844.  append.. 

pmu'\  Semit.  Section   (Vienna,   1888).     Another  LI' ?5i' '^^'T?*™' .^'' /'^  i^^ 

jj;4: *.     -,         o I      „               J       u       T^     V    .     ,  Paulus    in   Literanache   Bedage   der    Kdlniachen    VolkaaettuHg 

•OWB   of    the    Greek    was    made    by    Kechajoglos  (1904),  No.  lo. 

(Athens,  1884).     From  the  original  Greek  a  German  Thos.  M.  Schwertner. 


BAELETTA  298  BABLOW 

Barletta,  Diocese  of.  See  Trani  and  Barletta.  where  his  elder  brother  William  Rudesind  was  a  pro- 
Barlings,  Abbey  of,  located  about  six  miles  ^^^^  T^^ni^^^c"^*?  ^'""^^^  professed  in  1616  and 
E.N.E.  of  Lincoln,  England,  founded  in  1154  in  S"""^"^®?'  ^^^l-  ^"!u*^  England,  he  laboured  in 
honour  of  Our  Lady  by  Ralph  de  Haye  who  had  ^"^^  i^'^^'r  '^^w^PS^^^'HS  fwV*'''^  /^'"JT 
given  some  lands  to  the  Abbot  of  Newhouse  (also  in  ^  ^^^^^  ?,^>efly  **  Wardley  Hall,  the  seat  of  the 
Lincolnshh-e,  the  first  abbey  of  the  Norbertine  g<>^e  family,  near  Manchester,  and  at  Morley; 
Order  erected  in  England,  founded  in  1143)  with  Ha\»  mansion  of  the  Tyldesleys,  in  the  Parish  of 
the  request  to  send  a  colony  of  White  Canons  to  f«»8*>'  e??^  feyf?  «n»!f8  ^om  Manchester.  At  the 
Barlings.     The   abbey   was  afterwards  removed  to  J^'f  ^r,  his  skull  is  still  Pje^rved    m  a  Lttle  recep- 

Oxeney,    another    locality    in    the    same    township,  **^^S  ^^  *Mi.^«Tfi?^\,  ^\**?   ***®'i?l*^*l  ^^J"*" 

where   it   was   dissolved   by   Henry   VIII   m   1537.  bended  for  tiie  fifth  and  last  time  on  Ea^r  8u^^^ 

Much  information  concerning  the  Abbey  of  Barlings,  25  April,   1641.     He  was  arrested  by  the  Vicar  of 

as  well  as  concerning  other  Norbertine  abbeys  in  ^«^'«?»  ^^«  marched  at  the  head  of  his  parishioners^ 

England,    may   be   derived  from   Bishop   Redman's  ^^^^  "^  ^»5  surplice,  and  was  followed  by  some  400 

"  Register  of  Visitations  ",  preserved  in  the  Bodleian  P^"*  armed  with  clubs  and  swords.     He  was  .  reach- 

Library  at   Oxford,   and   lately   published   in   three  >?«  ^t  *he  time  and  could  haye  escaped  m  the  confu- 

volumes  by  Abbot  Gasquet  under  the  title  of  "  Col-  s*^'^!  ^"*  ^^\^^^  ^'"^^  ""V^J"'^  enemies,  and  was 

lectanea     Anglo-Premonstratensia ".     This     register  can->ed   off   to    Lancaster   Cattle.     Here   after   four 

contains  various  documents,  lists  of  White  Canons  months  imprisonment  he  was  tned,  on  6  or  7  Septem- 

in  each  abbey,  notes  and  remarks  made  at  the  time  *^^'  ^^  sentenced  next  day,  havmg  confessed  tl^t  he 

of  each  visitation,  during  a  period  of  about  thirty-  Y^  *  ?"««*•    .^^  Friday.  10  September,  he  suffered 

five  years  that  Redman  was  visitor  of  all  the  Nor-  the  usual  penalties  at  LajncaMer.  ,     ^,    „ 

bortine    abbeys  'and    priories    in    England    for    the  ,  ^  beautiful  picture  of  his  life  is  given  by  ChaUoner 

Abbot-General  of  the  Order  of  Pr^montr^.     Richard  ^^^^  ^^  ^S.  relations  belongmg  to  St.  Gregory  s 

Redman    was   Abbot  of  the    Norbertine   Abbey  of  monasteixone  written  by  his  brother  J)om  Rudesind 

Shap  in  Westmoreland  when  he  became  visitor,  and  ^^}o'^*  Slf^^P*  ^^  *^«  ^5^°"®!?.,  i^^l'iSu     ?*^" 

he   acted   in   the   same    capacity    when    he   succes-  P,V°^\  .P®'®  is  another  MS.   entitled     The  Apos- 

sively  became  Bishop  of  St.  Asaph  in  1472,  of  Exeter  ^^^^  I'^ej?^  Ambrose  Barlow"  written  by  one  of  his 

in  1495,  and  of  Ely  in  1501.     He  died  24  August.  P^P^  for  Dom  Rudesmd,  which  is  at  present  in  the 

250^  Library  of  Owen  s  College,  Manchester.     It  is  to  be 

This  register  records  no  fewer  than  nine  visitations  P™*^^   ^J???*   *^«   publications   of    the    Chetham 

•of  Barlings  Abbey  made  by  Redman.     The  various  ^l^*?' ,T^  contains   many   details  hitherto  un- 

liste  found  therein  give  the  names  of  about  eighteen  Pubbshed.     Two  portraits  of  this  martyr  exist  a^d 

canons  at  each  visitation.     The  names  of  nineteen  ^  o^«  ^^,  ^«  father,  Sir  Alexander.     Many  of  his 

abbote  are  known;  the  first  abbot  was  called  Adam  ^i»^8  are  also  preserved,  a  hand  being  at  Stanbrook 

(1154),  the  last  Matthew  Mackarel  (1532-37)  who  is  ^^^y  n^.  Worcester.     A  full  biography  is  in  course 

said  to  have  been  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Pilgrimage  of  preparation.  

,  r^  •      T  •        1     u-  rnu  j  i^^T  •    Allanson,    Btoffravhtcol    MSS.    (preserved    at    Ampleforth 

of  Grace  in  Lincolnshire.     The  supposed  complicity  Abbey),  I;  Gillow.  BiW.  Did.  Eng.  Cath.  (London.  1886): 

of  Abbot  Mackarel,  like  that  of  other  heads  of  religious  Challoner.   Memoirs;  Fletcher   Moas,    PUm-imaoes  to  Old 

hou^8,  gave  Henry  VIII  the  opportunity  of  kying  !^^^)^^:>''cl^}i,}''T c^  ^ll^3i&. 

hands  upon  the   Abbey  of   Barlings  and  of  placmg  1894);  Dodd.  Church  History  0/  England  (Brussels.  1739). 
it  under  the  law  of  attainder.     The  abbey  church,  Bede  Camu. 

300  feet  in  length    was  defaced,  the  lead  torn  from        Barlow,  William  Rudesind,  third  son  of  Sir  Alex- 

the  roofs,  and  melted  down  under  the  special  direction  ^^er  Barlow  of  Bariow  Hall,  near  Manchester.  Eng- 

ofCromwell      Abbot  Mackarel  some  of  his  religious,  ^^^    ^^^   ^ary   Brereton  his   wife,   date   of   birth 

and  many  of  the  clergy  and  laity  were  taken  to  I^-  uncertain;  d.  at  Douai,  19  Sept.,  1656.     The  martyr, 

coin,  and  some  of  these  were  afterwards  sent  to  the  yen.  Edward  Barlow,  was  his  younger  brother  and 

Tower  in  London.     Tho^  m  Lincoln,  among  whom  ^^  educated  with  him  at  the  English  College,  Douai. 

thCTc  were  four  canons  of  Barhngs,  were  tried  6  Mareh,  Wishing  to   become   a   Benedictine,   he    joined   the 

1537,  and  ordered  for  immediate  execution.     Towards  Spanish  congregation,  being  professed  at  Cella  Nueva 

the  end  of  March,  Abbot  Matthew  Mackarel  one  of  ^f  Gallicia  in  1605.     Ordained  priest  in  1608  he  be- 

his  canons  and  some  others  were  tned  in  London  ^^^^  jy^^^^^  ^j  Divinity  at  Salamanca.     In  1611  he 

before  Chancellor  Oudeley,  found  guilty    and  oon-  ^^^^  ^o  St.  Gregory's,  Douai,  where  he  was  made 
demned  to  be  hanged  and  quartered.     At  the  time        j^^^  ^^  1514  ^^  ^^^  j^^^     professor  of  tbeol- 

of  the  dissolution  the  abbey  and  its  possessions  were  ^      ^^  g^    Vaast's  College,  an  office  which  he  held 

granted  to  Charles,  Duke  of  Suffolk.     An  arch  and  for  forty  years.     Weldon  says:  "  He  formed  almost  aU 

part  of    a  wall  are    the  only  remains      The  Right  ^^^  bishops,  abbote,  and  professors  that  flourished  in 

Rev.    Martin    Geudens    of   Corpus   ChristiPriory;  ^^^^     J^^  f^^  g^^^  ^^^^  ^^ter.     He  was  esteemed 

Manchester    was  named  Titular  Abbot  of  Barbngs,  ^^e  first  or  chief  of  the  scholastic  divines  or  casuiste 

7  May,  1898,  and  blessed  17  September,  of  the  same  ^f  ^is  time,  and  in  knowledge  of  the  canon  law  in- 

^""AnnaUs  Pram.:  MonaHicon  Anglic;  Rkdman.  Mss.  Register  ^?"7  ^,  'Jf.  «f  .  <^^/^  ^^'"^  ^j*  ^^"^^  before."      pe 

in    Gasquet,     Collectanea    Anglo- Premonstratensia;    Gasquet,  Circle   of   his   friends   included   i5eliarnune   and    other 

Henry    VIII  and  the    English   Monasteries    (6th   ed.,   London,  contemporary  scholars. 

^^^^'  nr  r^  He  more  than  once  refused  the  dignity  of  abbot 

Martin  Geudens.  ^^^^  bishop,  **  and  it  was  thought  he  would  ha\-e  re- 
Barlow  (alias  Radclippe  and  Brereton),  Ed-  fused  that  of  cardinal,  which  was  said  to  have  been 
WARD  Ambrose,  Venerable,  priest  and  martyr,  b.  at  preparing  for  him."  From  1621  to  1629  he  was 
Barlow  Hall,  1585;  d.  10  September,  1641.  He  was  President-General  of  the  English  Congregation.  In 
the  fourth  son  of  Sir  Alexander  Barlow,  Knight  of  1633  he  became  titular  Cathedral-Prior  of  Canter* 
Barlow  Hall,  near  Manchester,  by  Mary,  daughter  of  bury.  Beyond  a  circular  letter  to  the  English  Bene- 
Sir  Uryan  Brereton,  Knight  of  Handforth  Hall,  Co.  dictines  about  their  relations  to  the  vicar  Apostolic, 
Chester,  and  was  baptized  at  Didsbury  Church  30  No-  none  of  his  writings  are  left,  although  Gee,  writing 
vember,  1585;  the  entry  in  the  register  may  still  be  in  1624,  attributes  to  him  a  book  called  '*  The  Ene- 
seen.  Educated  at  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  St.  mies  of  God  ".  Weldori  adds  that  after  his  death  a 
Gregory,  Douai,  he  entered  the  English  College,  Valla-  bishop  offered  the  Benedictines  of  Douai  an  estab- 
dolid,  20  September,   1610,  but  returned  to  Douai,  lishment  if  they  wpuld  give  him  Father  Rudesind  s 


BABNABA8                                299  BABIIABA8 

writings.    "But  in  vain  they  were  sought  for,  for  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  and  St.  Ignatius.    Not  con* 

they  were  destroyed  by  an  enemy."    It  is  said  that  tent  with  regarding  the  history  and  institutions  of 

on  the  death  of  Dr.  Bishop,  the  vicar  Apostolic,  he  the  Jews  as  containing  types  of   Christianity,  he 

was  consulted  by  the  pope  as  to  the  best  successor,  casts  aside  completely  the  transitory  historical  char- 

and  that  he  warmly  recommended  Dr.  Smith,  who  acter  of  the  old  religion.    According  to  many  scholars 

was  appointed,  but  later  he  opposed  that  prelate  on  he  teaches  that  it  was  never  intended  that  the  pre- 

the  Question  of  the  extent  oi  the  vicar  Apoetolic's  cepts  of  the  Law  should  be  observed  in  their  literal 

jarisoiction.  sense,  that  the  Jews  never  had  a  covenant  with  God, 


Edwin  Burton.  actly  that  he  condemns  the  exercise  of  worship 

among  the  Jews  in  its  entirety  because,  in  his  opinion, 

Barnabas,  Ei^stlb  attributed  to. — AtUhorities  the  Jews  did  not  know  how  to  rise  to  the  spiritual 

far  the  Text  and  Editiona, — ^There  is  a  triple  tradition  and  typical  meaning  which  God  had  mainly  had  in 

of  the  Greek  text  of  this  document.     Up  to  1843  view  in  giving  them  the  Law.    It  is  this  purely 

eight  manuscripts  of  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas  were  material  observaiice  of  the  ceremonial  ordinances, 

known  to  be  m  Western  libraries.    These  manu-  of  which  the  literal  fulfilment  was  not  sufficient, 

scripts  were  all  derived  from  a  common  source,  and  that  the  author  holds  to  be  the  work  of  the  Devil, 

no  one  of  them  contained  chapters  i-v,  7a.    Since  and,  according  to  him,  the  Jews  never  received  tb9 

then  two  complete  manuscripts  of  the  text  have  been  Divine   covenant   because   they   never   understood 

discovered  that  are  independent  of  each  other  and  its  nature  6ch.  vii,  3, 11;  ix,  7;  x,  10;  xiv). 

of  the  preceding  group  ot  texts,  namely:  the  famous  Intent, — -The  Epistle  of  Barnabas  is  not  a  polemic. 

Codex  Sinaiticus  of  the  Bible  (fourth  centaury),  in  The  author  takes  no  notice  of  paganism.    Although 

which  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas  and  the  ''Pastor"  he  touches  on  different  points  that  had  relations  to 

follow  the  books  of  the  New  Testament,  and  the  the  doctrines  of  the  Gnostics,  still  he  has  no  knowledge 

Jerusalem  Codex  ^eleventh  century),  which  includes  of  these  latter.    The  perfectlv  composed  manner 

the    Didache.    There  is  also  an  old  Latin  version  in  which  he  expounds  the  wisdom  he  desires  to  im- 

of  the  first  seventeen  chapters  which  is,  perhaps,  part  shows  that  another,  heretical  wisdom  (gnosis) 

of  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  (St.  Petersburg,  is  not  in  his  thoughts.    Moreover,  the  way  in  which 

Q.,  I,  39).    This  version  is  a  very  free  one  and  can  he  speaks  of  the  Old  Testament  would  not  be  ex- 

hardier  serve  for  the  restoration  of  the  text.    The  plicable  if  he  had  known  the  wron^  use  that  a  Badl- 

same  is  true  of  the  citations  from  the  epistle  in  the  ides  or  a  Marcion  could  make  of  it.    Besides,  there 

writings  of  Clement  of  Alexandria,  of  Origen,  and  was  nothing  in  the  Judaizing  theories  to  alarm  his 

others.    The  best  authority  for  the  text  is  the  Lkxlex  faith.    He  speaks  of  Judaism  only  in  the  abstract, 

Sinaiticus.     The    Epistle    of    Barnabas    has    been  and  nothing  in  the  letter  excites  the  soispicion  that 

edited  among  the  works  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers,  the  members  of  his  flock  had  been  exposed  to  the 

The  two  chief  editions  are:  (jlebhard  and  Hamack,  peril  of  falling  again  imder  the  yoke  of  tiie  Law.    No 

"Bamabse    Epistula''    in    "Patrum    Apostolicorum  clear  situation  is  described  in  the  letter.     In  short. 

Opera"  (Leipzig,  1878),  I,  II,  and  Funk,  "Patres  it  should  be  regarded  rather  as  the  peaceful  specula- 

Apostolici''   CI^QDingen,  1901),  I.    Use  can  also  be  tions  of  a  catechist  and  not  as  the  cries  of  alarm  of 

made  of   the   edition   of   Sharpe,    "St.   Barnabas'  a   pastor.    Consequently,    it   cannot   be   admitted 

£p»tle  in  Greek  with  Translation"  (London,  1880),  that  the  author  may  have  wished  to  take  part  in 

as  well  as  that  of  Lightfoot,  ed.  Harmer,  "The  Apos-  the  struggle  against  the  Judaizers  either  at  Jerusalem 

tolic   Fathers"    (London,    1898),    and    of    Vizzini,  (Di  Paim)  or  at  Rome  (Volter). 

''Patres  Apostolici"  (Rome,  1902),  III.  Date. — ^This   abstract    discussion    of   Judaism    is 

Contents, — ^The  Epistle  of  Barnabas  contains  no  the  sign  of  an  epoch  when  the  Judaizing  controver- 

due  to  its  author  nor  to  those  for  whom  it  was  in-  sies  were  already  a  thing  of  the  past  in  the  main  body 

tended.     Its  aim  is  to  impart  to  its  readers  the  per-  of  the  Church.    In  settling  the  date  of  the  letter 

feet  wisdom    (gnosis) ^  that  is  an  exact   knowl^ge  reference  is  often  made  to  verses  3-5  of  chapter  four, 

of  the  economy  of  salvation.     It  is  made  up  of  two  where  the  writer,  it  is  believed,  finds  the  fulfilment 

parts,  the  subject  of  each  beiiig  announced  m  verses  of  the  prophecy  of  Daniel  (Dan.,  vii,  7,  sqq.)  in  the 

6  ana  7  of  the  first  chapter.    The  first  part  (ch.  i-v.  succession  of  the  Roman  Emperors  of  his  time. 

4)  is  hortatory;  in  the  evil  days  that  are  now  at  hand  Starting  from  this,  some  critics  place  the  composition 

in  which  the  end  of  the  world  and  the  Judgment  shall  of  the  epistle  in  the  reign  of  Vespasian  (Weizs&cker, 

appear,  the  faithful,  freed  from  the  bonds  of  the  Lightfoot),  others  in  the  reign  of  Domitian  (Wieseler), 

Jewish  ceremonial  law,  are  to  practise  the  virtues  and  still  others  in  the  rei^  of  Nerva  (Baraenhewer, 

and  to  flee  from  sin.    The  secona  part  (ch.  v,  5-xvii)  Funk).    But  there  is  nothmg  to  prove  that  the  author 

is  more  speculative,  although  it  tends,  owing  to  the  considers  the  prophecy  to  Be  already  accomplished. 

nature  of  the  argument,  to  establish  the  freedom  Besides,  he  might  nave  taken  the  words  of  the  proph- 

of  diristians  in  respect  to  the  Mosaic  regulations,  ecy  to  mean  a  series  of  kingdoms  instead  of  a  fine 

The  author  wishes  to  make  his  readers  comprehend  of  kings.    It  is  necessarv,  therefore,  to  fall  back, 

the  real  nature  of  the  Old  Testament.    He  shows  with  SchOrer  and  Hamack,  on  verses  3-5  of  chapter 

how  the  ordinances  of  the  Law  should  be  understood  xvi.    Reference  is  here  made  to  the  command  given 

as  leCerring  allegoiically  to  the  Christian  virtues  and  by  Adrian  in  a.  d.  130  for  the  reconstruction,  in 

iostittttions,  and  he  pauses  to  make  plain  by  a  series  honour  of  Jupiter,  of  the  Temple   at  Jerusalem. 

of  qrmbolical  explanations,  that  are  often  singular,  which  had  been  destroyed  by  Titus.    Adrian  had 

bow  tile  Old  Testament  prefigures  Christ,  His  Pas-  also  forbidden  the  Jews  to  practise  circumcision. 

notty  His  Church,  etc.    Before  concluding  (ch.  xxi)  The  writer  of  the  letter  makes  allusion  to  this  (ch. 

the  suthor  repeats  and  enlariges  the  exhortations  of  ix,  4).    The  epistle  must,  consequently,  have  been 

the  fizst  part  of  the  epistle  by  borrowing  from  an-  written  in  a.  d.  130-131. 

other  document  (the  Didache  or  its  source)  the  de-  General  Characteristics. — In  what  befell  Jerusalem 

■eriuUun  of  the  two  ways,  the  way  of  light  and  that  and  the  Temple  the  author  saw  the  refutation  by 

^  wknefls  (xviii-xx).  events  of  the  errors  of  the  Jews,  or  rather  of  the 

Om  of  AUegory. — ^The  epistle  is  characterized  by  Ebionites,  for  it  is  the  latter  that  he  has  in  mind 

the  ymt  of  exaggerated  all^ry.    In  this  particular  whenever  his  language  grows  more  definite  (ch.  iv^ 

te  wiiter  goesTar  beyond  St.  Paul  the  autnor  of  the  4, 6;  v,  5;  xii,  10;  xvi,  !)•    His  flock  are  not  in  danger 


BABNABA8  300  BillNABAa 

of    falling    into    these    eirors.     Therefore    he    never  «i«f  I>^  BarnqbatbneflibeT  Olaubetmd  Werkf^  in  Der  KaAtiA 

uttju^kft  thPfn  HirM*tl\r      TTa  aimnlv  tftlroa  orlvontoon  dw*),  8d  senes.  XIX;  V6LTEB,  Du  apoMtoltBchen  Vdier  neu 

attacKs  tnem  airecuy.    He  simply  t^ea  advantage  ^ntgrsiicht  (Lcyden.  1904).  I;  liENNBCKB,  NeuteatamenHdt 

of  the  opportunity  that  occurrences  offer  hun  to  give  Apokryphen   in    Verbinduno   mit   Fachodehrien    m   deyiuker 

his  opinions  as  to  the  position  and  nature  of  Judaism  Uweraetzung  und  mit  EinUiiungen  her(nui(fccfd>en   (TObincen, 

and  its  Law.    Hence  the  epistle,  in  its  general  char-  ^®^)'  p  t  ^^.^j- 

acter,  is  more  like  a  treatise  or  a  homily  than  a  letter.  ijadvuzs. 

However,  the  epistolary  form  is  not  entirely  ficti-       Barnabas  (on'ginally  Jobeph).  Saint,  styled  an 

tious.    The  author  is  not  writing  to  Christians  in  Apostle  in  Holy  ^ripture,  and»  like  St.  Paul,  ranked 

general,  but  to  a  particular  church  in  which  he  haa  by  the  Church  with  the  Twelve,  though  not  one  of 

exercised  the  office  of  a  di6daKako9  and  from  which  them;  b.  of  Jewish  parents  in  the  Island  of  Cyprus 

he  finds  himself  separated  (ch.  i,  2.  4;  xxi,  7,  9).  about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  Era.    A  Levite, 

From  a  literary  point  of  view  the  Epistle  of  Bar-  he  naturally  spent  much  time  in  Jerusalem,  probably 
nabas  has  no  merit.  The  style  is  tedious,  poor  in  even  before  the  Crucifixion  of  Our  Lord,  and  appears 
expression,  deficient  in  clearness,  in  elegance,  and  in  also  to  have  settled  there  (where  his  relatives,  fae 
correctness.  The  author's  logic  is  weak,  and  his  mat-  family  of  Mark  the  Evangelist,  likewise  had  tlidr 
ter  is  not  under  his  control;  from  this  fact  arise  the  homes.  Acts,  xii,  12)  and  to  have  owned  land  iri  its 
numerous  digressions.  These  digressions,  however,  vicinity  (iv,  36,  37).  A  rather  late  tradition  re- 
afford  no  reason  for  doubting  the  integrity  of  corded  by  Clement  of  Alexandria  (Strom..  II,  20, 
the  letter,  or  for  regarding  as  interpolations  either  P.  G.,  VlII,  col.  1060)  and  Eusebius  (H.  £.,  II,  i, 
entire  chapters  TSchenkel,  Heydecke,  Vfilter),  or  a  P.  G.,  XX,  col.  117)  says  that  he  was  one  of  the 
consecutive  number  of  verses  or  parts  of  verses  in  seventy  Disciples;  but  Acts  (iv,  36-37)  favours  the 
each  chapter  (Weiss).  Wehofer  recently  thought  opinion  that  he  was  converted  to  Christianity  shortly 
that  he  had  discovered,  in  the  arrangement  of  the  after  Pentecost  (about  a.  d.  29  or  30^  and  immedi- 
epistle,  an  adherence  to  the  laws  of  the  Semitic  ately  sold  his  property  and  devoted  the  proceeds  to 
strophe.  But  the  phenomena  noted  are  found  in  the  Church.  The  Apostles,  probablv  because  of  his 
all  authors  who  work  out  their  thought  without  success  as  a  preacher,  for  he  is  later  placed  first  among 
being  able  to  subordinate  the  argument  to  the  rules  of  the  prophets  and  doctors  of  Antioch  (xiii,  1),  sur- 
literary  style.  named  nim  Barnabas,  a  name  then  interpreted  as 

From  the  dogmatic  point  of  view  the  chief  impor-  meaning  "son  of  exhortation"  or   "consolatk>n'\ 

tance  of  the  epistle  is  m  its  relation  to  the  histoiy  of  (The  real   etymology,  however,   is   disputed.     See 

the  Canon  of  the  Scriptures.    It  cites,  in  fact,  the  Encvl.  BibI.,I,  col.  484.)   Though  nothing  is  recorded 

Gospel  of  St.  Matthew  as  Scripture  (ch.  iv,  14),  and  of  fiarnabaa  for  some  vears^  he  evidenUv  acquired 

even  reconiizes  aa  in  the  Canon  of  the  Sacred  Books  during  this  period  a  high  position  in  the  Church. 
(y^pavrou),   along   with   the   collection   of   Jewish        When  Saul  the  persecutor,  later  Paul  the  Apostle, 

writings,  a  collection  of  Christian  ones  (ch.  v,  2),  made  his  first  visit  (dated  variously  from  a.  d.  33  to 

the  contents  of  which,  however,  cannot  be  deter-  38)  to  Jerusalem  after  his  conversion^  the  Church 

mined.    The    author    regards    several    apocryphal  there,  remembering  his  former  fierce  spirit,  was  slow 

books  as  belonging  to  the  Old  Testament — ^probably  to  believe  in  the  reality  of  his  conversion.    Barnabas 

IV  Esdras  (ch.  xii,  1)  and  without  doubt  Henoch  stood  sponsor  for  him  and  had  him  received  by  the 

(ch.  iv,  3:  xvi,  5).    In  his  Christology,  his  soteriology  Apostles,  as  the  Acts  relate  (ix,  27),  though  he  saw 

and  his  doctrine  concerning  justification  the  author  only  Peter  and  James,  the  brother  of  the  Lord,  ac- 

developt  the  ideas  of  Paul  with  originality.    It  has  cording  to  Paul  himself  (Gal.,  i,  18,  10).    Saul  went 

been  wrongly  said  that  he  regards  the  pre-existent  to  his  nouse  at  Tarsus  to  live  in  obscurity  for  some 

Christ  as  only  a  spirit  in  the  image  of  God.    Without  years,  while  Barnabas  appears  to  have  remained  at 

expUcitly  asserting  the  consubstantiality  and   the  Jerusalem.    The  event  that  brought  them  together 

true  sonship,  he  evidently  acknowledges  the  Divine  again  and  opened  to  both  the  door  to  their  lifework 

nature   of  Christ   from   oefore   the  Creation.    The  was  an  indirect  result  of  Saul's  own  persecution.    In 

eschatological  descriptions  are  decidedly  moderate,  the  dispersion  that  followed  Stephen's  death,  some 

He  is  a  millenarian,  but  in  speaking  of  the  Judgment  Disciples  from   (Cyprus   and   Cyrene.  obscure   men, 

to  come  he  simply  expresses  a  vague  belief  that  the  inaugurated  the  real  mission  of  the  Christian  Church 

end   is  approachmg.  by  preaching  to  the  Gentiles.    They  met  with  great 

Nationality  of  the.  Author, — History  of  the  Epistle. —  success  amon^  the  Greeks  of  Antioch  in  Syria,  reports 

The  extremely  allegorical  character  of  the  exegesis  of  which  coming  to  the  ears  of  the  Apostles,  Barnabas 

leads  to  the  supposition  that  the  author  of  the  letter  was  sent  thither  by  them  to  investigate  the  work  of 

was  an  Alexandrian.     His  way  of  constantly  placing  his  countrymen.    He  saw  in  the  conversions  effected 

himself  and  his  readers  in  opposition  to  the  Jews  the  fruit  of  God's  grace  and,  though  a  Jew,  heartily 

makes  it  impossible  to  believe  that  either  he  or  the  welcomed  these  first  Gentile  converts.    His  mind  was 

larger  part  of  his  readers  were  of  Jewish  origin,  opened  at  once  to  the  possibilities  of  this  immense 

Besides,  he  is  not  always  famiUar  with  the  Mosaic  field.    It  is  a  proof  how  deeply  impressed  Barnabas 

rites  (cf.  ch.  vii).    The  history  of  the  epistle  con-  had  been  by  Paul  that  he  thought  of  him  immediately 

firms    its    Alexandrine    origin.     Up  to    the   fourth  for  this  work,  set  out   without  delay  for  distant 

century    only    the    Alexandrians    were    acquainted  Tarsus,  and  persuaded  Paul  to  go  to  Antioch  and 

with  it,  and  in  their  Church   the  epistle  attained  to  begin  the  work  of  preaching.    This  incident,  shedding 

the  honour   of    being  publicly  read.    The   manner  light  on  the  character  of  each,  shows  it  was  do  mere 

in  which  Clement  of  Alexandna  and  Origen  refer  to  accident  that  led  them  to  the  (Gentile  field.    Together 

the   letter  gives   confirmation    to   the  Belief   that,  they  laboured  at  Antioch   for  a  whole  year   and 

about  the  year  a.  d.  200,  even  in  Alexandria  the  "taught  a  ereat  multitude".    Then,  on  the  coming 

Epistle  of  Barnabas  was  not  regarded  by  every  one  of  famine,  by  which  Jerusalem  was  much  afflicted! 

as  an  inspired  writing.  the  offerings  of  the  Disciples  at  Antioch  were  carriea 

Richardson.  The  Ante-Nicrn.  Father,  (Bt.fTalo.  1887),  T,  (^^put  A.  D    45)  to  the  mpther^hurch  by  Barnabas 

Bibl.  Syn..  16-19;  Millioan  in  Diet.  Christ.  Biog.  (ixjndon,  and  Saul  (Acts,  xi).    Their  mission  ended.  the;y  re- 

1900);  Punk.  Patret  Avottolici  (TQbingen,  1901),  Pr^,,  turned  to  Antioch,  bringing  with  them  the  cousin,  or 

^rr^-t^''^^^^'?n3Z':SZA'*'J'i,S^:  nephew  of  Bamabw  (OSC  iv.  10).  John  Mark,  the 

Eputoharaphie  (VtennA.  1901);  Van  Vbldhutzf.n.  De  Britf  future  Evangelist  (Act«,  xn,  25). 

van  BamaboB  (Qroningen,  1901);  Bartlet,  Bamabtu  and  Hta       The  time  waB  now  ripe,  it  was  believed,  for  more 

grrSS^f^\'''f&SSrpilS  ^jJ^Jr^ViflSf  ^-'Si:  ?y«»t«natjc  Ubo^   amftiie  Church  of  Antioch  felt 

La  Uttre  de  Bamabaa  in  Ann,  de  phil,  chrit.  (1903);  Schwbit-  mspired  by  the  Holy  Ghost  to  send  out  missionanes 


BABNABA8  301  BARNABAS 

to  the  Gentile  worid  and  to  designate  for  the  work  was  attached  to  him  as  a  disciple,  which  is  regarded 
Bvnabas  and  Paul.     They  accordingly  departed,  as  an  indication  that  Barnabas  was  no  longer  livinj; 
after  the  imposition  of  hands,  with  John  Mark  aa  (Ool.,  iv,  10).    This  seems  probable.    Various  tradi- 
helper.    Qypnis,  the  native  land  of  Barnabas,  was  tions  represent  him  as  the  first  Bishop  of  Milan,  as 
first  evangelised,  and  then  they  crossed  over  to  Asia  preaching  at  Alexandria  and  at  Rome,  whose  fourth 
Minor.    Here,  at  Pei^e  in  Pamphylia,  the  first  stoi>-  (7)  bishop,  St.  Qement,  he  is  said  to  have  converted, 
pmg  place.  John  Mark  left  them,  for  what  reason  his  and  aa  having  suffered  martyrdom  in  Cyprus.    The 
meod  St.  Luke  does  not  state,  though  Paul  looked  on  traditions  are  all   late  and  untrustwortny.     With 
the  act  as  desertion.     The  two  Apostles,  however,  the  exception  of  St.  Paul  and  certain  of  the  Twelve, 
puidiing  into  the  interior  of  a  rather  wild  country,  Barnabas  appears  to  have  been  the  most  est^emecl 
preached  at  Antioch  of  Pisidia,  Iconium,  Lystra,  man  of  the  first  Christian  generation.     St.  Luke, 
at  Derbe,  and  other  cities.     At  every  step  they  met  breakii^  his  habit  of  reserve,  speaks  of  him  with 
with  (^position  and  even  violent  persecution  from  affection,  ''for  he  was  a  eood  man,  full  of  the  Holy 
the  Jews,  who  also  incited  the  Gentiles  against  them.  Ghost  and  of  Faith".    His  title  to  glory  comes  not 
The  most  striking  incident  of  the  journey  was  at  only  from  his  kindliness  of  heart,  his  personal  sane- 
LvBtra,  where  the  superstitious  popiuaoe  took  Paul,  tity.  and  his  missionary  labours,  but  also  from  his 
who  had  just  cured  a  lame  man,  for  Hermes  (Mer-  readiness  to  lay  aside  his  Jewish  prejudices^  in  this 
ctuy)  ''because   he  was   the   cnief  speaker '^  and  anticipating  ccnl^n  of  the  Twelve;  from  his  large- 
Barnabas  for  Jupiter,  and  were  about  to  sacrifice  a  hearted  welcome  of  the  Gentiles,  and  from  his  early 
bun  to  them  when  prevented  by  the  Apostles.    Mob-  perception  of  Paul's  worth,  to  which  the  Christian 
like,  they  were  soon  persuadea  by  the  Jews  to  turn  Church  is  indebted,  in  large  part  at  least,  for  ita  great 
and  attack  the  Apostles  and  wounded  St.  Paul  almost  AposUe.     His  tenderness  towards  John  Mark  seems 
fatalh^.    Despite  opposition  and  persecuticm,  Paul  to  have  had  its  reward  in  the  valuable  services  later 
and  Samabas  made  many  converts  on  this  journey  rendered  by  him  to  the  Church.    The  feast  of  St. 
aixl  returned  by  the  same  route  to  Per^,  organising  Barnabas  is  celebrated  on  11  June.    He  is  credited  by 
churches,  ordaininfl^  presbyters  and  placing  them  over  Tertullian  (probably  falsely)  with  the  authorship  of 
the  faithful,  so  tnat  they  felt,  on  agam  reaching  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  and  the  so-called  Epistle 
Antioch  in  Syria,  that  God  haa  "opened  a  door  of  of  Barnabas  (see  Barnabas,  Epistle  Attributed 
faith  to  the  Gentiles"  (Acts,  xiii,  13^ — xiw,  27;  see  to)  is  ascribed  to  him  by  many  Fathers. 

article  Paul,  Saint).  Kambat,  St,  Paul,  the  TravelUr  and  the  Roman  CitiMen  (Lon- 

RftmAKflja  knH  Pftiil  haH  fv»<»n  for  "nn  nmoll  +imp"  St°°»   1806);  ScHifiEDEL  in  Bncyc,  Bib,  (New  York,   1899); 

UarnaOas  and  ram  naa  been  for     no  wnall  tmae  Fodard,  St  Peter  (New  York,  1893);  Idem,  St.  Paul  and  Hie 

at  Antioch,  when    they   were    threatened    with    the  Mieeunu  (New  York,  1894);  (Save,  Livee  of  the  Moet  Eminent 

undoing  of  their  work  and  the  stopping  of  its  further  Faihertof  the  Church  (Oxford,  184p);  CoNyBBARE  AND  How- 

progiS.    Preachers  came  from  Jerusalem  with  the  ^\^^'ixa^i^*fib!iFi^^^r^     '     ^'  Le Camus 
goepei  that  circumcision  was  necessary  for  salvation,  **  ...  j^^^  p^  Fbnlon. 
even  for  the  Gentiles.    The  Apostles  of  the  Gentiles,        _        .         *  ■■      ,  ^r  v   ^  .  '  *,. 
perceiving  at  once  that  this  cioctrine  would  be  fatal        Bamabas  of  Temi  (Interamna),  Fnar  Minor  and 
to  their  work,  went  up  to  Jerusalem  to  combat  it;  missionary,  d.  1474  (or  1477).    He  belonged  to  the 
the  older  Apostles  received  them  kindly  and  at  what  noble  family  of  the  Manassei  and  was  a  man  of  great 
is  called  the  Council  of  Jerusalem  (dated  variously  learning,  being  Doctor  of  Medicine  and  well  versed  m 
from  A.  D.  47  to  61)  granted  a  decision  in  their  favour  letters  and  philosophy.    Despising  the  honours  and 
a«  well  as  a  hearty  commendation  of  their  work  vanities  of  the  world,  he  entered  the  Order  of  Friars 
(Acts,  xiv,  27— XV,    30;   see   articles  Jerusalem,  Minor  in  the  Umbria  province  of  the  order  and  prac- 
Counql  of;  Peter,  Saint).     On  their  return  to  <^>sed,  with  unusual  fervour,  every  virtue  of  the  re- 
Antioch,  they  resumed  their  preaching  for  a  short  hgious  life.    After  devoting  himself  assiduously  to  the 
time.    St.  Peter  came  down  and  associated  freely  ^^^^Y  of  theology,  Bamabas  b^an  to  preach  with 
there  with  the  Gentiles,  eatmg  with  them.    This  dis-  wonderful  success,  but  a  severe  illness  obliged  him  to 
Plwsed  some  disciples  of  James;  in  their  opinion,  abandon  this  work.    Althouj;h  gifted  with  the  gra^ 
Peter's  act  was  unlawful,  as  against  the  Mosaic  law.  of  praver  and  contemplation  m  an  eminent  degr€«^  he 
Upon  their  remonstrances,  Peter  yielded,  apparently  was  almost  continually  employed  in  different  offices 
through  fear  of  displeasing  them,  and  refused  to  of  importance,  for  which  his  prudence,  kindness,  and 
ett  any  longer  with  the  Gentiles.    Bamabas  followed  affabilitv  well  fitted  him.    By  word  and  example  he 
his  example.     Paul  considered  that  they  "walked  Proved  himself  a  zealous  promoter  of  that  branch  of 
not  uprightly  according  to  the  tmth  of  the  goepeV  *^e  order  known  as  the  Observance.    He  died  at  the 
and  upbraided  them  before  the  whole  church  (Gal.,  hermitage  of  the  Careen  on  Mount  Subiaco  at  an 
S.  11-15).     Paul  seems  to  have  carried  his  point,  advanced  age  and  his  remains  were  deposited  there 
Shmlly  afterwards,  he    and   Bamabas  decided  to  ^  ^*^e  Chapel  of  St.  Mary  Magdelene.    He  is  com- 
revisit  their  missions.    Bamabas  wished  to  tiie  John  memorated  in  the  Franciscan  martyrology  on   17 
Mark  tSong  once  more,  but  on  account  of  the  previous  February.    To  Bamabas  belongs  the  honour  of  hav- 
difeetion  Paul  objected.    A  sharp  contention  ensuing,  ^^  established  the  first  of  the  celebrated  monh  d% 
the  Apostles  agreed  to  separate.    Paul  was  probably  pieta^  or  charitable  loan-mstitutions,  designed  to  pro- 
somewhat  influenced  by  the  attitude  recently  taken  <^et  poor  people  against  the  outrageous  usury  of  the 
by  Bamabas,  which  might  prove  a  prejudice  to  their  Jews.    After  consiUtinff  his  fellow  religious  Fortuna- 
work.    Bamabas  sailed  with  John  Mark  to  Cyprus,  tus  Coppoli,.who  had  been  an  emment  jurisconsultv 
white  Paul  took  Silas  and  revisited  the  churches  of  and  with  the  generous  co-operation  of  the  wealthy 
Asia  Minor.    It  is  believed  by  some  that  the  church  Peru^ans,  Bamabas  established  the  first  monte  di 
of  Antioch.  by  its  God-speed  to  Paul,  showed  its  f"^  »n  their  city  in  1462.   Violent  opi)08ition  ensued, 
tpfxroval  of  his  attitude;  this  inference,  however,  is  out  Bamabas  and  Fortimatus  prevailed  over  their 
not  certain  (Acts,  xv,  35-41).  enemies  at  a  public  disputation.     Bamabas  next 
little  is  known  of  the  subsequent  career  of  Baraa-  extended  his  work  to  other  cities;  it  was  enthusiasti- 
b«a.    He  was  still  living  and  labouring  as  an  Apostle  cally  taken  up  by  several  great  Franciscan  mission- 
in  5§  or  57.  when  Paul  wrote  I  Cor.  (be,  6,  6),  from  aries,  and,  in  their  day,  the  rrwnii  di  pietd,  wonder- 
idridi  we  team  that  he,  too,  like  Paul,  earned  his  ^ully  improved  the  social  conditions  of  Italy.     (See 
own  living,  though  on  an  equality  with  the  other  Bernabdine  of  Feltre.) 
Aposltes.     The   reference   indicates   also   that   the  « ^''''''™°*  rd*'*l^^'^li  ^^  *5-^i  ^'Yli^'-^viSy?' 

fjZTjlu^    1^ \  At-     *       *A*v"v«vw    cwovr    wM«v     u**^  HoLZAPFBL,  Die  AnfdnQer  der  MotUee  Ptetatu  (Mumch«  1903), 

meadsbip  betwe^i  the  two  was  unimpaired.    When  35  poMtm.  •»   -i^  x         -,         , 

hal  was  a  prisoner  in  Rome  (61-^),  John  Mark  Thomas  Plassmann 


-4' 


BARlfABITES  302  BABNABITE8 

Bamabites,  the  popular  name  of  a  religious  order  tion.    Their  chief  theatres  of  action  were  in  Italy, 

which  is  canonicall^  known  by  the  title,  given  to  it  France.  Savoy.  Austria,  and  Bohemia.     In  1582, 

by  Pope  Paul  III  m  1535,  of  Regular  Clerics  of  St.  Pope  Gregory  aIII,  at  the  solicitation  of  the  tk>v- 

Paul  (Clerici  Regulares  Sancti  Pami).    This  institute  ereign  Oraer  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  sent  Bamabite 

was  founded  by  three  Italian  noblemen:  St.  Anton  Fathers  to  Malta,  and  in  1610  Hennr  IV  of  France 

Maria  Zaccaria  (canonized  by  Leo  XIII,  27  March ,  obtained  their  services  in  defence  of  Catholicism  in 

1897),  Ven.  Barthelemy  Ferrari,  and  Yen.  Jacopo  Btom,  whence  they  spread  to  Paris  and  other  parte 

Morigia,  the  last  two  of  Milan.    Second  in  seniority  of  France.    The  Emperor  Ferdinand  II  invited  them 

of  the  orders  of  regular  clerics  (the  Theatines  being  into  Austria,  in  1627,  to  oppose  the  spread  of  Prote*- 

first),  the  foundation  of  the  Bamabites  as  a  congre-  tantism,  and  gave  them  the  court  parish  of  St 

gation  dates  from  the  year  1530.    Clement  VII,  ly  Michael,  where  a  house  was  built  for  their  accommo- 

the  Brief  "Vota  per  qu©  vos",  18  February,  1533,  dation.   The  order  also  possesses  at  Vienna  the  parish 

canonicallv  approved  of  the  congregation;  Paul  III,  church  of    Bifaria-Hilf,  a  famous  sanctuary  erected 

by  the  Bulls  "Dudum  felicis  recordationis ",  28  July,  in  thanlc^ving  for  Sobieski's  deliverance  of  the  city 

1535,  and  "Pastoralis  officii  cura",  29  November,  from  the  Turks  in  1683.    Belgium  has  recently  proved 

1543,  exempted  them  from  the  jurisdiction  of  their  a  providential  refuge  for  the  order,  those  expelled 

diocesan.    Lastlv,  the  Bulls  of  Julius  III,  "Rationi  from  France  by  the  Government  of  that  country 

congruit"  and  "Ad  hoc  nos  Deus  prsetulit",  dated  having  establisned  themselves  at  Brussels  and  in 

respectively  22  February,  and  11  August.  1550,  con-  other  parts  of  the  neighbouring  kingdom, 
firmed  and  augmented  tne  existing  privileges  of  the        Foreign  Missions, — ^In  1718,  when  Clement  XI  sent 

institute,  which,  from  being  a  congregation,  thence-  Monsignor  Mezzabarba  to  the  Emperor  of  China  to 

forward  became  a  religious  order  in  the  strict  canonical  attempt  a  settlement  of  the  famous  question  of  the 

sense,  its  members,  nowever,  still  adhering  to  the  Chinese  Rites,  His  Holiness  attached  nve  Bamabites 

custom  of  calling  it  "the  Congregation".  to  the  special  mission.     No  substantial  result  was 

The  popular  name  Bamdbitfis  came  naturally  to  obtained,  but  when  the  rest  of  the  party  left  the 

the  Congr^ation  through  its  association  with  the  country,  one  member  of  the  order,  Father  Ferrari, 

church  of  St.  Barnabas,  Milan,  which  came  into  its  remained  in  China,  taking  up  his  residence  firot  at 

possession  within  the  earliest  years  of  the  foundation  Peking  and  then  at  Canton,  where  he  sowed  the  firet 

of  the  institute,  which  was  at  nrst  peculiarly  Milanese,  seed  of  that  work  of  the  Holy  Infancy  with  which 

St.  Charles  Borromeo,  Archbishop  of  Milan,  presided,  the  name  of  the  French  Bisnop  Forbin-Janson  is 

in  1579,  as  Cardinal  Protector,  over  the  commission  justly  associated.     From  that  time  until  1738  the 

which  determined  once  for  all  the  constitution  of  companions  of  Father  Ferrari  preached  the  Gospel  in 

the  order,  and  the  general  chapters  were  regularly  Cochin  China,  where  Fattier  Alessandro  degli  Alessim- 

held  at  Milan  until  the  reign  of  Alexander  VII  (1655-  dri  was  for  sixteen  years  vicar  Apostolic.    The  Holy 

67),  who  ordered  them  to  convene  in  Rome.    Inno-  See  meanwhile  desiring  a  regular  Bamabite  mission  in 

cent  XI  (1676-89),  however,  finally  decreed  that  the  Ava  and  Pegu,  the  order  wiflingly  assumed  that  duty, 

^neral  cnapters  of  the  Bamabites  should  assemble  and  the  mission  was  maintain^  until  1832,  when  the 

in  Rome  and  Milan  alternately.    These  assemblies  of  inability  to  supply  labourers  for  this  field,  the  con- 

the  provincials  are  held  every  three  years  for  the  seauence  of  Napoleon's  suppression  of  the  religious 

election  of  a  new  general,  whose  term  of   office  is  orders,  necessitated  its  transfer  to  the  Paris  Society 

limited  to  that  period,  only  one  re-election  beine  al-  of  Foreign  Missions.    An  account  of  what  the  Bama- 

lowed  to  each  incumbent  of  the  office.    The  members  bites  accomplished  in  Ava  and  Pegu  may  be  found  in 

of  the  order  make,  in  addition  to  the  three  regular  Cardinal  Wiseman's  translation   (published   by  the 

vows   of   poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience,  a  vow  Asiatic  Society)  of  Sauzerman's  "Religione  del  r^no 

never  to  strive  for  any  office  or  position  of  dig-  Birmano".    The  Regular  Clerics  of  St.  Paul  also  kept 

nity,  or  to  accept  such  otherwise  than  under  a  com-  missionaries,  for  some  time,  in  Scandinavia.     Their 

mand  of  the  Holy  See.    The  scope  of  their  special  missions  are  now  established  in  Brazil, 
vocation,  besides  preaching  in  general,  catechizing,        Saints  and  other  distinguished  members  of  the  Con- 

hearing  confessions,  giving  missions,  ministrations  gregation, — Besides  its  canonized  Saints  Anton  Maria 

in  hospitals  and  prisons,  and  the  education  of  youth,  Zaccaria  and  Alexander  Sauli,  and  Blessed  Xavier  M. 

includes  also  a  particular  devotion  to  the  thorough  Bianchi  (d.  1815)  who  was  known  as  the  Thauma- 

study  and  exposition  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles.    Their  turgus  of  Naples,  the  Bamabite  Order  glories  in  a 

habit  is  the  black  soutane   (tunica  talaris)  which  number  of  Venerables^  among  whom  have  been  sev- 

formed  the  usual  garb  of  Milanese  secular  priests  in  eral  religious  distinguished  u>r  their  austere  purity 

the  time  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo.  and  taken  to  their  reward  while  yet  yoimg.    Upon  the 

Spread  of  the  Order. — ^The  Congregation  has  never  extraordinary  graces,  such  as  miracles  and  visions, 

failed  of  the  holy  object  for  whicn  it  was  instituted:  undeniably  vouchsafed  to  members  of  the  order,  it  is 

to  revive  the  ecclesiastical  spirit  and  zeal  for  souls  not  expedient  here  to  insist;  Alfonso  Paleotti,  however, 

among  the  clergy.    Church  history  records  the  sub-  who  in  1591  succeeded  his  cousin,  Cardinal  Gabriel 

stantial  assistance  which  that  saint  received  from  Padeotti.  in  the  Archbishopric  of  Bologna,  relates  in 

them  in  his  great  work  of  reforming  the  Diocese  of  his  autobiography  that  when  he  was  praying  for  li^t 

Milan;  his  biographies  make  mention  of  his  affection  and  help  in  the  government  of  his  archdiocese,  a  holy 

for  them  and  of  the  satisfaction  which  he  took  in  man  who  was  commonlv  called  il  Vidente^  on  acooimt 

sojourning  at  their  house  of  St.  Barnabas.'  St.  Francis  of  his  sift  of  visions,  told  him,  as  a  message  from  the 

of  Sales,  who  loved  to  call  himself  a  Bamabite,  in-  Blessed  Virgin,  that  he  ought  to  send  for  the  Bama- 

vited  the  Congregation  into  his  diocese,  to  establish  bites  and  nmke  them  penitenrierif  because  they  had  a 

colleges  at  Annecj^  and  at  Thonon;  while  the  Bama-  great  devotion  for  her.  were  her  faithful  servants, 

bite  Uu^rin  was  his  coadjutor  and  later,  having  sue-  and  she  would  assist  tnem  in  drawing  souls  to  the 

ceeded  him  in  the  See  of  Geneva,  was  conspicuous  for  practice  of  daily  Communion. 

the  zeal  with  which  he  promoted  his  canonization.        Learning,  the  pursuit  of  which  the  Bamabites  re- 

The  Bamabites,  who  take  a  holy  pride  in  the  title  gard  as  a  great  preservative  of  religious  observance 

of  episcoporum  adjutores^  have  constantly  cultivated  has  always  been  cultivated  among  them  in  all  its 

the  meek  and  gentle  spirit  of  St.  Francis  of  Sales  in  branches.    To  cite  only  a  few  names,  the  order  has 

their   relations   with   ecclesiastical   authorities,   the  been  distinguished  in  theology  by  Rotarius,   Poi- 

diocesan  clergy,  and  members  of  other  religious  or-  zobonelli,  and  Mademi;  in  Biblical  science  by  Gorio 

ders.    Though  never  very  extensive,  the  spreading  of  and  Vercellone;  in  ecclesiastical  history  by  Tomidli, 

the  order  in  Europe  began  very  soon  after  its  founda-  whose  "  Annales  Sacri"  are  regarded  as  an   intra 


BABOOOIO  303  BARON 

dDQtion   to   those  of  Baronius;  in  liturgiology  by  afUrbino,  and  "The  Annunciation",  which  is  at 

Gavantus;  in  archteology  by  Caronni,  whose  work  ro-  Loretto. 

oaves  praise  in  Eckel^  "Doctrina  nummonun  vet-        Returning  to  Rome,  where  Guido  della  Rovere 

erum";  Cortenova^  who  illustrated  the  antiquities  of  was  one  of  his  patrons,  the  artist,  together  with 

PriuU  and  Aquileia;  Delle  Torre,  who  restored  the  Federigo    Zuccaro,   received    from   Pope    Rus   IV 

Fcrwn  JvUi  of  Cividale;  Ungarelli  the  Egyptologist,  the  commission  to  decorate  the  little  palace  of  the 

fiiend  of  ChampoUion  and  Rosellini,  and  interpreter  Bosco  di  Belvedere  in  the  Vatican.     At  this  time 

of  the  Roman  ooelisk;  and  Benzi,  who  elucidated  the  it  is  said  that  he  was  poisoned  at  a  banquet  given 

iDscription  of  Vercelli.    Among  the  names  of  Bama-  him  by  some  painters  jealous  of  his  success.     From 

bites  who  have  been  eminent  in  philosophy  are  those  this  he  never  recovered,  for  fotn*  years  was  unable 

of  Baranzano,  the  friend  of  Galileo  and  of  Francis  to  work  at  all,  and  for  the  rest  of  nis  life  but  a  few 

daoon,  who  communicated  to  him  first  the  theory  hours  a  day.     After  three  years  at  Perugia,  and  a 

of  the  "Noviun  Organum",  of  Cardinal  Gerdil,  and  short  visit  to  Florence.  Baroccio  returned  to  end 

of  Fini,  the  author  of  "Protologia":  among  those  his  long  life  of  eighty-four  years  at  Urbino,  dying 

eminent  in  physical  and  mathematical  science,  Frisi,  of  apoplexy.     In  tne  Louvre  are  his  "CSrciXmcision   , 

Gavailezi,  L^za^  founder  of  the  Italian  Meteorologi-  "The  Virgm  and  Child  Jesus  adored  by  St.  Anthony 

cal  Society  and  nrst  director  of  the  Vatican  Obeerva-  and  St.  Lucy",  and  "St.  Catherine";  m  the  London 

toiy,  and  Bertelli,  the  seismologist.   To  the  Bamabite  National  Gallery  a  "Holy  Family";  at  Urbino  a 

arciutect  Binaghi  is  due  the  restoration  of  the  Escorial  "  Last  Supper ' '  and  **  St.  Sebaatian   ;  at  the  cathedral 

towards  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  centiuy.  whilst  in  Perugia  a  "Descent  from  the  Cross";  at  Ravenna 

the  Bamabite  Mazenta  was  the  architect  both  of  the  "The  Martyrdom  of  St.  Vi talis"*  at  Naples  a  "Holy 

Cathedral  of  Bologna  and  of  the  fortifications  of  Family";  and  at  Rome  a  "Last  Supper    and  "Christ 

Le^om.    To  these  names  might  be  added  those  of  and  Magdalen". 

many  Bamabites  who  have  become  famous  in  litera-         Brtan,  Dictionary  of  PairUen  and  Engravers  (London  and 

ture,  and  the  order  has  giveh  to  the  CathoUc  Church  New  York.  W3-06).  AiToufiTua  van  Cleep 
more  than  fifty  bishops  and  these  six  members  of  ^  ,  ^  ,  Augustus  van  cleep. 
the  Sacred  College:  Caddini,  Fontana,  Gerdil,  Lam-  Barocco  style  (Fr.  baroque),  a  debased  apphcation 
bruschini  Bilio  and  Graziello.  ^  architecture  of  Renaissance  features.  The  term  is 
In  1856  Count  Schouvaloff,  a  distmguished  Russian  al«>  employed  to  denote  a  bad  taste  in  design  and  or- 
convert,  joined  the  Bamabite  Congregation,  and  nament  generally.  Carlo  Madema  (1556-1639),  Ber- 
thed in  1859.  It  was  his  ardent  desire  that  his  nini  (1598-1680),  and  Borromini  (1599-1667),  were 
brethren  mi^t  do  something  for  the  reunion  of  among  the  more  famous  who  practised  this  form  of 
Christendom.  With  this  object  the  order  haa  founded  art.  Among  the  most  prominent  examples  are  the 
an  Association  of  Masses,  and  by  the  Brief  "Aposi-  churches  of  Santa  Maria  della  Vittona  by  Mad»na, 


celebrated  once  a  month  in  the  Chapel  of  the  Bama-  creditable  designs.    The  domical   chureh  of   Santa 

bites  at  Paris.     His  Holiness,  moreover,  granted  to  Maria  della  Salute,  at  Venice,  by  Longhena,  is  a 

the  general  of  the  order  faculties  for  extending  the  majestic  edifice  m  excellent  style,  and  here  and  there 

Kke  privilege  to  any  other  church  in  which  a  monthly  other  churches  offer  exceptions  to  the  then  preva- 

Maas  for  the  same  intention  should  be  said  upon  the  lent  baseness  of  architecture.    The  three  Venetian 

day  appointed  by  the  ordinary.     This  privilege  is  churches,  San  Bamaba  (1749),  San  Basso  (1670), 

freely  extended  by  the  general  to  all  bishops  who  and  San  Moise,  are  examples  of  three  different  types 

may  desire  it.  ^^  *h®   baroque.    This   style   prevailed   in   church 

Sicco  AMD  Mosio,  D«  Cleric.  Reg.  8.  Pavli  Cong,  et  Parenti-  architecture  for  nearly  two  centuries.     See  Rbnais- 

6m  Symopns   (Milan.   1682);  Barelli,  Memorie  deU'  origins  SANCE.                                                     ThoMAS  H.  PoolB. 

.  .  .  cfefZa     Congregatione    dei    Chierici    Reg,  .  .  .  Bamabiti         ^  _  ....        .  *     j  t  •  i.  t^ 

(BdoBMfc,  1703-07);  CoMtitutiones  Cleric.  Rea.  S.  Pa^d%  Decol^  Baron,  BoNAVENTURA,  a  distinguished  Insh  Fran- 
tali  (MUin.    1579;   Milan,   1617;   Naples,   1829):   Grazioli.  ciscan  theologian,  philosopher,  and  writer  of  Latin 

SS35£r«";;2r«'"L'^'^?^;S?fr(B^oloS^^  il^  ^^  rl^r/^i  *'•  **  Cfen^f'-  county  Tipperary, 

Umoabklli,  Bibliotheca  ScripL  e  Cong.  Cleric  Reg,  8,  Pauli  Ireland,  1610;  d.  at  Rome,  18  March,  1696.     His 

(BonMb  1836);  Gabuzio,  i/wt..  Cong.  Cleric.  Reg.  s,  Pauli  mother  was  a  sister  of  the  well-known  Franciscan, 

(SST'i^f '  ^"'''"^'  ^'^'"^  biografici  dx  uungnx  Bamabut  j^^^  Wadding,   and   his   brother  Geoffrey  was   a 

Ces.  Tondini  di  Quarenghi.  trusted  ambas^idor  of  the  Irish  Confederates  in  their 

negotiations  with  the  continental  rulers.    He  himself 

Baroccio  (Barocci),  Federigo,  called  Fiore  d'Ur-  joined  the  Franciscan  community  of  Clonmel,  pur- 

bino,  a  distinguished  painter  and  engraver,  b.  at  Ur-  sued  his  studies  in  philosophy  at  Lou  vain,  and  after- 

bino,  1528;   d.  at  the  same  place^O  September,  1612.  wards  proceeded  to  Rome,  where  he  took  up  his 

His  father,  who  was  Ambro^io  Baroccio,  a  sculptor,  residence  in  the  Irish  Ck)llege  of  St.  Isidore  founded 

of  a  Milanese  family,  ^ave  him  his  first  art  lessons,  bv  his  uncle.  Father  Wadding.    Here,  on  the  com- 

He  then  studied  drawing  with  Francesco  Manzocchi  pletion  of  his  theological  course,  he  was  appointed 

of  FoflL     His    uncle,    tne   architect    Bartolommeo  professor,  and  devot^  himself  specially  to  a  defence 

Geoga,  decidmg  that  Federi^  must  become  an  ar-  of  the  Scotist  system  then  generally  assailed.    During 

tist,  placed  him  with  the  emment  Venetian  painter,  his  stay  in  Rome  he  published  numerous  works  on 

Ba^twta  Franco,  then  in  the  service  of  Duke  Guido-  theology,  philosophy,  and  history,  a  full  list  of  which 

beldo  n  at  Urbino.     On  Franco's  departure  Baroccio  is  appended  below.     About  the  year  1651  he  left 

went  to  his  ancle's  house  at  Pesaro,  and  while  study-  Rome,  owine,  it  is  said,  to  some  difficulty  with  the 

ing  perq>ective  with  him,  copied  some  pictures  of  master  of  the  sacred  palace,  and  went  first  to  a 

Iman  in  the  ducal  gallery.     When  twenty  he  went  house  of  his  order  at  Schwaz  in  the  Tyrol,  and  then 

to  Rome  and  spent  his  time  chiefly  in  the  study  to  Salzburg,  where  he  was  kindly  received  by  Arch- 

of  the  works  of  his  great  townsman^  Raphael.    On  bishop  Guiaobald.    He  was  sent  as  provincial  com- 

his  letom  to  Urbino,  Baroccio  copied  the  pastels  missary  into  Hungary  (about  1656),  was  again  in 

of  Oorremo,  and    painted    some    pictures    which  Schwaz  (1661),  went  to  Paris,  taught  for  some  time 

hiirwiftlil   hun  much  reputation.    His  subjects  were  at  WOrzburg,  where  he  published  a  volume  of  his 

cfaiMQT  reXigioiis,  and  included    some    large    altar-  "Opuscula"  (1668),  taugnt  theology  at  Lyons,  and 

pieeei.    Of     these    he    etched    two    masterpieces,  finally  returned  to  Italy.    It  is  said  that  representa- 

Hie  Pardon  of  San  Francesco  d'Assisi".  which  is  tions  were  made  to  secure  his  appointment  to  the 


BABOM 


304 


BABomm 


irchbiBhopric  of  Cashel,  but  that  he  declined  the 
office.  He  was  appointed  historiompher  (1676)  by 
Cosmo  de'  Medici,  Grand-duke  of  Tuscany,  and  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Florence. 
While  imder  the  patronage  of  the  grand-duke  he  pub- 
lished the  "Trias  Tuscia",  in  honour  of  three  re- 
markable religious  of  the  country,  -and,  in  the  same 
year,  the  "  Oroes  Medicei ".  His  last  work  was  a  his- 
tory of  the  Order  for  Redemption  of  Captives,  from 
1108  till  1297.  He  died  18  March,  1696,  and  was 
buried  at  St.  Isidore's  in  Rome,  where  his  tomb  with 
the  inscription,  written  by  John  De  Burgo,  a  rector 
ot  the  college,  stiU  exists.  Two  contemporaiy  oil 
paintings  of  him  have  come  down  to  us,  one  preserved 
m  St.  Isidere's,  the  other  in  the  Franciscan  house, 
Dublin.  Hisprincipal  works  are:  "Panegyrici  Sacro- 
prophani"  (Rome,  1643;  Lyons,  1656);^Obsidio  et 
expugnatio  Arcis  Duncannon  sub  Thomd  Preston"; 
"ftslusiones  Philosophies"  ^tome,  1651;  Lyons, 
1661);  "Boetius  Abeolutus"  (Rome,  1653);  "Scotus 
defensus  et  amplificatus"  (3  vols.,  Colonie,  1664); 
"Cursus  Theologicus"  (6  vols.,  1670);  '^Opuscula'^ 
(4  vols.,  1666-71);  " Annales  Ordinis  Sanct®  Trinita- 
tis  pro  redemptione  captivorum  ab  anno  1198  usque 
ad  annum  1297"  (Rome.  1864). 

AnnaUi  Minorum  (Fonseca^  1731);  Wabm,  Iruh  WrUera,  ed. 
Habbib,  263;  Gilbxst  ed.,  Hutory  at  Irish  Confederation  and 
War  in  Ireland,  1641-43  (DubUn.  1882);  Franciacan  M8S. 
(Dublin);  Mesh  am,  R%$e  and  Fall  of  the  Irieh  Franciecan 
MonoMUrioi  (Dublin.  1872),  89-03,  217. 

James  MacCaffret. 

Baron,  Vincsmt,  a  Dommican  theologian  and 
preacher  b.  at  Martres,  in  the  department  of  the 
Haute-Garonne,  France,  17  May,  1604;  d.  in  Paris. 
21January  1674.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  passed 
from  the  college  of  the  Jesuits  in  Toulouse  to  the 
Dominican  convent  of  St.  Thomas  in  the  same  city. 
There  he  made  his  rdigious  profession,  16  May,  1622, 
completed  his  course  in  pnilosophy  and  theologjr, 
and  taught  these  branches.  As  early  as  1634  ne 
was  first  professor  in  his  convent  and  conventual 
doctor  in  the  University  of  Toulouse.  Rare  erudi- 
tion, depth  of  thought,  and  clearness  of  exposition 
earned  for  him  the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the  lead- 
ing theologians  of  France.  While  discharging  his 
professorial  duties  he  delivered  courses  of  Lenten 
sermons  in  the  principal  churches  of  Toulouse, 
Avignon,  BordiMux^  and  other  cities  of  Southern 
France.  Upon  the  mvitation  of  the  bishops  of  Lan- 
guedoc  he  preached  throuffhout  their  dioceses  for 
ten  years,  reviving  the  faitn  of  Catholics,  elevating 
their  morals,  and  combating  the  errors  of  the  Cal- 
vinists,  with  whose  ministers  he  frequently  joined 
in  open  debate,  sometimes  in  their  public  synods. 
He  published  an  abridgment  of  these  controversies 
under  the  title  "L'h^r&ie  convaincue"  (Paris,  1668). 
Of  his  sermons  to  Catholic  con^egations  we  have 
only  those  preached  at  Paris  m  1658  and  1659 
(Paris,  1660),  doctrinal  discourses  and  paneorics 
possessing  much  intellectual  merit,  composed  in 
the  force?  style  and  manner  of  his  age.  In  the  pulpit 
Father  Baron  was  always  a  teacher;  but  while  mtent 
upon  forming  the  mincb  of  his  hearers  he  won  their 
hearts  by  his  disinterestedness,  sincerity,  and  charity. 
From  1630  to  1659  he  filled  the  office  ojf  prior  in  the 
convents  of  Toulouse  (twice),  Rhodez,  Castres, 
Albi.  Avignon,  and  in  the  general  novitiate  in  Paris, 
always  promoting  the  reforms  in  study  and  reli^ous 
observance  inaugurated  by  Sebastian  Michaebs  in 
the  first  years  of  the  century  In  1660,  havinsr  de- 
clined the  office  of  provincial  in  the  Province  of  Tou- 
louse, he  was  sent  by  the  master-general  of  his  order 
to  make  a  canonical  visitation  of  the  Portuguese 
convents.  On  his  return  to  Paris  he  devoted  himself 
during  the  remaining  fourteen  years  of  his  life  to  the 
composition  of  theological  works. 

His  most  important  productions  were  written  to  sat- 
isfy the  desire  expressed  by  Pope  Alexander  VTI  to  the 


Dominicans  assembled  in  a  general  chapter  at  Rome 
in  1656,  that  tJiey  should  publish  a  course  in  moral 
theology  conformable  to  the  doctrine  of  St.  Thomas, 
and  thus  correct  the  laxity  of  morals  encomtiged  by 
certain  casuists.    These  works  were:  (1)  '^Theologis 
Moralis  adv.  laxiores  probabilistas  pars  prior"  (Paris, 
1665);  (2)  '*  Manuductionis  ad  Moralem  Theobgiam 
pars  altera  *'  (Paris,  1665);  (3)  "Theologi»  monOis 
summa  bipartita ' '  (Paris,  1667).   In  these  works,  whfle 
condenming  opinions  that  seemed  too  lax,  and  censur- 
ing others  that  appeared  to  be  too  rigoroiis,  he  ably  de- 
fended the  system  of  Probabiliorism.    With  the  fa- 
mous critic  Jean  de  Laimoy  he  was  long  in  controversy 
as  to  the  "  Smnma  Theologica ' '  of  St.  Thomas  Aouinas 
the  authenticity  of  which  he  ably  defended,  altnough 
he  did  not  demonstrate  it,  as  later  writers  have  done. 
The  manuscript  of  a  work  entitled  "Apologia  pro 
sacr&    congreffatione    Indicis"    having    been    pub- 
lished with  alterations  made  by  a  stranger,  which 
brought  upon  it  the  condemnation  of  uie  Sacred 
Congregation,  he  promised  a  new  edition,   which 
was  emoodied  in  his  "SS.  Augustinl  et  Thomse  vera 
et  ima  mens  de  libertate  human&"  Q^aris,  1666). 
Another  valuable  work  is  his  "libri  V  apoiogetici 

Sro  religione,  utr&que  theologiA,  moribus  ac  juribus 
>rd.  Praed. "  (Paris,  1666).  At  the  time  of  his  death 
he  was  engaged  on  a  complete  course  in  theology 
to  be  entiSed  "D.  Thomas  sui  Interpres".  From 
this  work,  but  half  completed  and  never  published, 
the  one  bearing  the  same  title  by  Antomnus  Mas- 
souli^,  O.P.,  is  entirely  distinct. 

Qutrir  ET  EcHARD,  Script.  Ord.  Prwd.,  II.  656; 
TouRON.  Hiet,  dee  hommee  iUusL  de  Vordre  de  SL  Domim^gmet  V, 
489-488. 

Arthur  L.  McMahon. 

BaroniuB,  Cesare,  Venerable,  Cardinal  anti  ec- 
clesiastical historian,  b.  at  Sora  in  the  Kingdom  of 
Naples,  30  August.  1538;  d.  at  Rome,  30  June, 
1G&7:  author  of  ''Annales  Ecclesiastic!",  a  woric 
which  marked  an  epoch  in  historiography  and 
merited  for  its 
author,  after  Euse- 
bius,  the  title  of  a 
Father  of  Ecclesi- 
astical History. 

Baronius  was 
descended  from 
the  Neapolitan 
branch  of  a  once 
powerful  family, 
whose  name,  de 
BaronOf  was 
changed  by  Cesare 
himself  to  the 
Roman  fonn,B(»- 
ronius.  His  par- 
ents, humble  citi- 
zens of  Sora  in 
the  Sabines,  some 
six^  miles  east 
of  Rome,  could 
bestow  no  ances- 
tral wealth  and 
power  upon  their 
only  son.  He  was, 
however,  to  pos- 
sess qualities  which  better  proclaim  nobflity — a 
deeply  relieious  spirit,  a  charity  to  which  selfiamiesB 
was  painfmly  repugnant,  a  firmness  of  will  tempered  in 
humole  obedience,  and  a  keenness  and  vigour  of  .miad 
scrupulously  dedicated  to  the  cause  of  truth.  "Fheae 
qualities  distinguished  Baronius  as  a  pe^  in  sanctity 
and  scholarship  amon^  many  saintly  and  teamed 
contemporaries.  He  mherited  his  more  vigoroua 
traits  of  character  from  his  father,  Camillo,  a  worldly 
and  ambitious  man,  whose  strong  will  and  tetuuscky 
of  purpose  were  one  day  to  clash  with  like  QuaUtaat 


Oabdinal  Cbbabb  BABoocma 


B4901IIDS                             305  BABOmUS 

to  his  equally  determined  son.    To  the  influence  of  Church  had  departed  from  primitive  teaching  and 

liii  piouB  and  charitable  mother.  Portia  Phaebonia,  practices,  in  contrast  to  the  consonance  therewith 

whose  devotion  to  Cesare's  religious  interests  was  of  the  Reformed  Church.    It  was  conceived  in  1552 

inteagified  by  what  she  considered  his  miraculous  b^  Mathias  Flach  Francowiez  (Flacius  Illyricus^  and, 

deliverance  from  death  in  infancy,  he  owed  his  con-  with  the  collaboration  of  several  Lutheran  scholars 

nicuous  tender   qualities  and  cnildlike  simplicity  and  the  oo-operation  of  evangelical  princes  and  other 

or  faith.   To  this  latter  was  due  his  vivid  realization  wealthy  Protestants,  was  hurriedly  completed.    Its 

of  God's  guidance,  vouchsafed  often  in  visions  and  thirteen  volumes  dealt  each  with  a  century  of  the 

dreams.    Baronius  received  his  early  education  from  Christian   Era,   whence   the   name    ''Centuriators" 

his  intelligent  parents  and  in  the  schools  of  nearby  applied  to  the  authors.    Though  the  work  had  the 

Veroli.    His  intense  love  of  study  and  intellectual  great  merit  of  being  the  pioneer  in  the  field  of  modem- 

maturity  encouraged  his  father  to  send  him,  at  the  ized    church    history,    and    displayed    considerable 

ajp  of  eighteen,  to  the  school  of  law  at  Naples,  critical  spirit,  its  unscrupulou8l}r  partisan  colouring 

iWe,  after  a  few  months,  the  confusion  due  to  the  of  Lutheran  claims  ana  its  misrepresentations  of 

Franco-Spanish  war  for  Italian  dominion  compelled  Catholicity  predestined  it  to  but  ephemeral  honour. 

him  to  remove  to  Rome,  where,  in  1557.  he  became  It  is  of  interest  only  as  a  sunken  landmark  in  the 

a  pupil  of  Cesare  Costa,  a  master  in  civil  and  canon  field  of  historical  literatm-e.  and  as  the  stimulus  of 

law.  Baronius's  genius.     The  publication   of   its   initial 

He  was  there  but  a  short  time  when  he  met  one  volumes,  however,  at  a  time  when  its  polemical 

who  was  potently  to  influence  his  destiny  and  de-  value  made  it  acceptable  to  Protestants,  provided  the 

tennine,  even  to  details,  his  career  and  occupations.  Reformers  with  a  most  formidable  weapon  of  attack 

It  was  Philip   Neri,   a  priest  remarkable  for   his  on  the  Catholic  Church.    It  did  much  harm.    The 

sancUtv  and  lor  the  spirit  of  piety  and  charity  with  feasibility  of  a  counter  attack  appealed  to  Catholic 

which  be  inspired  a  httle  group  of  priests  and  lay-  scholars,  but  nothing  adequate  was  provided,  for 

men  whom  he  had  formed  into  a  confratemitv  of  the  science  of  history  was  still  a  thing  of  the  future. 

good  works  at  the  church  of  San  Girolamo  aella  Its  founder  was  as  yet  but  twenty-one  years  of  age 

CaritiL    The  importance  of  this  meeting  cannot  be  and  knew  very  little  of  history.    It  was  in  that  vouth 

overestimated:   a  Baronius  the  world  might  have  that  St.  Philip  Neri  discerned  a  possible  David  who 

had,  but  the  Baronius  of  history  is  the  creature  of  would  rout  the  Philistines  of  Magdeburg.    He  forth- 

St.  Philip  Neri.    He  was  impreB9ed  by  the  serious  with  directed  Baronius  to  devote  his  conferences 

law  studoit  of  such  transparent  innocence  of  life  and  at  San  Girolamo  exclusively  to  the  history  of  the 

finding  in  him  a  responsive  subject,  enrolled  him  in  Church.     Baronius  was  disconcerted.     History  had 

his  little  band.    This  did  not  prevent  Baronius  from  no  attraction  for  him.     His  youthful  zeal  would 

conUnuing  the  studies  for  which  he  came  to  Rome,  rather  vent  itself  in  the  fiery  moral  conferences  which 

but  in  all  else  his  surrender  of  self  to  Philip's  guidance  he  had  creditably  given  during  the  preceding  year. 

was  spontaneous  and  complete.    It  was  not  without  But  he  obeyed,  and  within  three  years  summarilv 

its  sacrifices.    In  token  of  renunciation  he  burned  a  covered  the  field  of  church  history  in  his  conferences 

vdume  of  his  own  Italian  verses  in  the  composition  and  developed  a  keen  interest  in  historical  studies. 

of  which  he  had  shown  marked  proficiency;  the  same  Twice  he  ^ave  the  course  before  his  ordination  to  the 

fate  later  befell  his  doctorate  diploma.     For  three  priesthood,  and  five  times  again  did  he  repeat  it 

TeacB,  in  his  zeal,  he  yearned  to  b»x>me  a  Capuchin  during  the  following  twenty-three  years,  perfecting 

friar,  but  Philip  restrained  him.     More  distressing  his  work  with  each  succeeding  series.     The  early 

BtiU  was  the  bitter  antagonism  of  his  father,  who  saw  historians  and  the  Fathers  became  his  familiars. 

iaaB  this  but  folly  and  the  frustration  of  nis  pater-  The  libraries  of  Rome  yielded  to  his  diligent  quest 

nal  anbition.    He  feared,  too,  the  extinction  of  his  a   host   of   unpublished   documents.     Monuments. 

faiifl^;  whose  hope  for  a  brilliant  revival  was  cen-  coins,   and   inscriptions^  told   to   him   unsuspected 

tnA  iHaoe  in  Cesare.    Father  and  son  were  firm,  stories.     What  he  did  in  and  about  Rome  willing 

Scut  off  his  scanty  allowance  and  Cesare  was  correspondents  did  for  him  elsewhere,  and  the  name 

id  to  live  on  the  nospitality  of  one  of  Philip's  of  Baronius  came  to  be  known  over  Europe  as  a 

For  six  years  Baronius  led  a  semi-religious  synonym  for  unprecedented  historical  ^  penetration, 

ttl_  iMh  the   community   of   San   Girolamo,   the  power  of  research,  and  zeal  for  verification.    Philip's 

~  Ml  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Oratory.    From  plan  for  arranging  in  lasting  form  the  material  thus 

l^.fct  received  direction  in  study  and  spiritual  garnered  must  have  been  made  known  to  Baronius 

and  at  his  bidding  gave  all  his  spare  time  before  1569,  but  despite  the  importance  of  the  work, 

fale  work  amon^  the  sick  and  poor.    During  he  was  compelled  by  his  master  to  share  in  all  the 

1558  Philip  assigned  to  him  the  important  exercises  of  the  now  growing  Oratory.   At  the  church 

preaching  at  the  confexences  given  often  of  San  Giovanni  dei  Fiorentinij  which  he  served  from 

l^iie  week  in  the  church  of  San  Girolamo.    In  1564  to  1575,  he  had  his  part  in  the  parish  ministra- 

~  nceived  priestly  ordination  and  resolved  tions  and  took  his  turn  in  the  menial  domestic  ser- 


telkipiis  lot  with  Philip  s  little  bimd,  but  so  intense  vices.    " Baronius  coquus  perpetuus"  was  the  legend 

^a^kto^oui  for  the  religious  hie  that  he  had  already  he  playfully  inscribed  in  the  Oratory  kitchen,  where 

tdb  ?o<WB   of   poverty,   chastity^   humility^   and  he  often  received  distinguished   visitors.     To  the 

obiHMfl0e  to  Phiup  as  to  a  superior.     Of  his  will  many  mortifications  imposed  by  Philip  he  added 

h*  VM  to  be  the  gelding  instrument  for  yet  twenty-  generously,  and  thereby  provoked  the  cugestive  dis- 

ftvBjmirB.   That  time  was  to  be  eiven  to  the  prepara-  orders  that  often  racked  his  body  in  life  and  xilti- 

kioii  te  his  work  on  ecclesiastical  nistory,  about  which  mately  precipitated  his  death.    Despite  all  obstacles, 

BiipBJiis'  life-interest  henceforth  centres.  his  prodigious  capacity  for  work  and  contentment 

Tb^  Cfedit  of  its  conception  belongs  to  Philip,  as  with  but  lOur  to  five  hours  sleep  a  night  made  possible 

BjjQBto  testifies  with  filial  devotion  in  the  "Annals",  an  amazing  progress  in  his  researches.     After  the 

TlittMmt  shared  keenly  in  the  distress  and  dismay  canonical  foundation  of  the  Oratonr  (15  July.  1575) 

ftnmd  bi-  Catholic  circles  by  the  publication  of  the  he  took  up  his  residence  at  Santa  Mana  in  Vallicella. 

"OtttmsM  of  Magdeburg"  (Ecclesiastica  Historia:  definitive  home  of  the  new  congregation,  and  lea 

htflgiimi  ecdena  Christi  ideam  complectens,  con-  the  same  busy  life.    In  the  early  eighties  plans  were 

Mbi  Mr  aliquot  studiosos  et  pios  viros  in  urbe  matured  for  the    publication  of   the  new  churclr 

lUinwMoiH,    13  vols.,  Basle,  1559-74).     The  pur-  history,  and  hf  1584,  a  quarter  of  a  century  since 

pMhVf  Hbb  work  was  to  commit  history  to  the  cause  he  began  his  preparation,  Baronius  had  the  work 

<tf  |Vot#*(aiitWi  by  showing  how  far  the  Catholic  well  und^  way,  when  his  patience  suffered  a  new 

IL— 20 


BABONIUS  306  BABOMIUS 

trial     Gregory  XIII  confided  to  him  the  revision  of  severely  tried  in  the  two  conclaves  of  1605.    Baroniui 

the  Roman  Martjrrology.    The  work  was  necessary  was  the  choice  of  a  majority  of  the  cardinals  and, 

because  of  confusion  m  feast-days  due  to  the  Gre-  despite  Spanish  opposition,  might  have  been  elected 

gorian  calendax-reform  (1582);  besides,  it  was  an  op-  had  he  not  turned  his  diplomacy  to  encompass  his 

portune  time  to  correct  the  many  errors  of  copyists  own  defeat.    Thirty-seven  votes  out  of  a  necessary 

long  accumtdating  in  the  Martyrology.     Baronius  forty  in  the  first   conclave  and  a  violent  attempt 

gave  two  years  to  the  wide  research  and  keen  crit-  to  precipitate  his  "adoration"  in  the  second  attest 

icism  the  work  demanded.     His  annotations  and  the  esteem  in  which  he  was  held, 
corrections  were  published  in  1586,  and  in  a  second        In  the  spring  of  1607  Baronius  retiuned  to  the 

edition  he  corrected  several  errors  which  he  was  Oratory,  for  a  vision  hsui  warned  him  that  his  sixty- 

cha^ined  to  have  overlooked  in  the  first  (Martyr-  ninth  year  would  be  his  last,  and  he  had  reached 

ologium    Romanum,     cimi     Notationibus    Csesaris  the  portended  last  volume  of  the  "Annals".    Soon, 

Baronii.  Rome,  1589).  critically  ill,  he  was  removed  to  Frascati,  but,  dis- 

^  The  oifficulties  which  beset  Baronius  in  the  publi-  ceming  the  end,  he  returned  to  Rome,  where  he  died 

cation  of  the  "Annals"  were  many  and  annoying.  30  June,  1607.    His  tomb  is  at  the  left  of  the  high 

He  prepared  his  manuscript  unaided,  writing  and  re-  altar  in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  in  Vallicella 

writm^  every  page  with  his  own  hand.    His  brother  (Chiesa  Nuova). 

Oratonans  at  Rome  could  lend  him  no  assistance.        Cardinal  Baronius  left  a  reputation  for  profound 
Those  at  Naples,  who  helped  him  in  revising  his  sanctity  which  led  Benedict  XIV  to  proclaim  him 
copy,  were  scarcely  competent  and   almost  exas-  "Venerable"  (12  January,  1745).    The  restorations 
perated   him   by   their   dilatoriness   and   uncritical  which  he  made  in  his  titular  church  of  Sts.  Nereus 
judgment.    The  proofs  he  read  himself.    His  printers,  and  Achilleus  and  in  St.  Gregory's  on  the  Coelian 
m  the  infancy  of  their  art,  were  neither  prompt  nor  still  feebly  bespeak  his  zeal  for  decorous  worship, 
painstaking.    In  the  spring  of  1588  the  nrst  volmne  But  the  "Annals"  constitute  the  most  conspicuous 
appeared  and  was  imiversally  acclaimed  for  its  sur-  and  enduring  monument  of  his  genius  and  devotion 
prising  wealth  of  information,  its  splendid  erudition,  to  the  Church.    For  three  centuries  they  have  been 
and  its  timely  vindication  of  papal  claims.     The  the  inspiration  of  students  of  history  and  an  inex- 
" Centuries"  were  eclipsed.    Those  highest  in  ecclesi-  haustible  storehouse  for  research.    No  one  work  has 
astical  and  civil  authority  complimented  the  author:  treated  so  completely  the  epoch  with  which  they  deal, 
but  more  gratifying  still  was  the  truly  phenomenal  Nowhere  are  there -to  be  found  collected  so  niany 
sale  the  book  secured  and  the  inmiediate  demand  important  documents.    Unbiassed  scholars  recognize 
for    its    translation    into    the    principal    European  in    them    the    foundation-stone    of   true    historical 
languages.     It  was  Baronius'  intention  to  produce  science,  and  in  their  author  the  qualities  of  the  model 
a  volume  every  year;  but  the  second  was  not  ready  historian:  indefatigaole  diligence  in  research,  passion 
until  early  in  1590.    The  next  four  appeared  yearly,  for  verification,  accuracy  of  judgment,  and  unswerv- 
the  seventh  late  in  1596,  the  other  five  at  still  longer  ing  loyalty  to  truth.     Even  in  the  bitter  contro- 
intervals,  up  to  1607,  when,  just  before  his  death,  versies  which  the  early  volumes  aroused,  Baronius' 
he  completed  the  twelfth  volume,  which  he  had  most  scholarly  critics  acknowledged  his  thorough- 
foreseen  in  a  vision  would  be  the  term  of  his  work,  ness  and  honesty.    But  this  does  not  imply  that  Tub 
It  brought  the  history  down  to  1198,  the  year  of  the  work  was  faultless  or  final.    Master  though  he  was. 
accession  of  Innocent  III.  Baronius   was   a   pioneer.     Gifted   with   a   oritieal 
Baronius'  student  life  during  the  twenty  years  of  spirit  which  was,  to  say  the  least,  much  keener  than 
publication  was  even  more  disturbed  than  formerly,  that  of  his  contemporaries,  his  exercise  of  it  was  ten- 
His  growing  repute  brought  heavy  penalties  to  one  tative  and  timid.    Yet  he  stimulated  a  spirit  of  crit- 
of  his  humuity.    Three  successive  popes  would  have  icism  which  would  infallibly  advance  the  science  of 
made  him  a  Ibishop.     In  1593  he  became  superior  history  far  beyond  the  reaches  attainable  by  hiniBelf. 
of  the  Oratory,  succeeding  the  aged  Philip,  on  whose  With  this  wider  vision  his  successors  have  oeen  ena- 
death,  in  1596,  he  was  re-elected  for  another  triennial  bled  to  subject  the  "Annals"  to  no  little  corrective 
term.     In  1595  Clement  VIII,  whose  confessor  he  criticism.    His  scanty  knowledge  of  Greek  and  He- 
was,  made  him  protonotary  Apostolic  and.  on  5  June,  brew  limited  his  resources  in  aealing  with  Oriental 
1596,  created  him  cardinal.     Baronius  oitterly  re-  questions.     Despite  his  care,  he  cited  many  docu- 
gretted  his  removal  from  the  Oratory  to  reside  at  ments  as  authentic  which  a  more  enlightened  crit- 
the  Vatican,  or  even  away  from  Rome  when  the  icism  has  rejected  as  apocryphal.    His  most  serious 
papal  court  was  absent  from  the  city,  a  circumstance  defects  were  incident  te  the  very  accuracy  he  essayed 
doubly  distressing  as  it  prevented  active  work  on  in  casting  his  history  in  the  strictly  annalistic  form, 
the  "Annals".    In  1597  Clement  paid  the  highest  The  attempt  to  assign  to  each  successive  year  ite 
possible  tribute  to  his  erudition   by  naming  him  own  events  involved  nim  in  numerous  chronolo^cal 
Librarian  of  the  Vatican.    This  ofiice.  together  with  errors.     Baronius  himself  recognized  the  possibility 
the  charge  of  the  newly  foimded  Vatican  press  and  of  this  and  made  many  corrections  in  his  second 
his  duties  in  the  Congregations,  left  him  still  less  edition  (Mainz,  1601-05);  and  later  it  was  by  his 
time  for  his  "Annals".    Troubles  he  had  of  another  allies,  and  not  by  enemies,  that  the  most  thorough 
order.    His  zeal  for  the  liberties  of  the  Church  had  effortis  at  chronological  revision  were  made,  a  point 
early  invited  the  disfavour  of  Philip  II  of  Spain^  who,  seemingly  lost  on  those  who  refer  to  Pagi's  "refuta- 
because  he  was  the  strongest  Cat  nolle  sovereign  in  tion"  of  Baronius'.  errors.    One  has  but  to  recall  the 
Europe,  was  striving  to  exercise  imdue  influence  on  diversity  of  opinion  in  matters  of  chronology  among 
the  papacy.    lie  incurred  Philip's  further  displeasm^  the  chief  exponents  of  historical  science  to-day  to 
by  supporting  the  cause  of  his  enemy,  the  excom-  find  palliation  for  the  mistakes  of  that  science's 
municate  Henry  IV  of  France,  whose  absolution  founder.    Whatever  must  be  said  in  justice  to  Baro- 
Baronius  warmly  advocated.    The  "Annals"  were  nius,  it  remains  true  that  the  present-day  value  erf 
condenmed  by  the  Spanish  Inquisition.     Later  on,  his  work  is  to  be  measured  in  the  light  of  these  defects^ 
when  he  published  his  treatise  on  the  Sicilian  Mon-  and  it  is  to  the  critical  editions  of  the  "Annals"  that 
archy,  proving  the  prior  claim  of  the  papacy  to  that  the  student  will  profitably  refer,  bearing  always  in 
of  Spam  in  the  suzerainty  of  Sicily  ana  Naples,  he  mind  that  the  mistakes  of  Baronius  affect  but  little 
provoked  the  bitter  hostility  of  both  Philip  II  and  the  value  of  the  precious  legacy  his  industry  and 
Philip  IIL    He  found  solace,  however,  in  the  thought  genius  handed  down  to  later  historians.    The  most 
that  the  enmity  of  Spain  would  prevent  the  growmg  extensive  work  of  emendation  is  that  of  the  Pagi: 
possibility  of  his  being  made  pope.    This  hope  was  "  Critica    historico-chronologica    in   Annales ",  eta 


SAB0NIU8  307  BAR&AMDE 

(3d  ed.,  Antwerp,  1727, 4  vols.).    Its  preface  contains       Barradas,  SebastiIo,  a  Portuguese  exegete  and 

aeood  studjr  of  the  early  criticism  of  the  "Annals",  preacher,  b.  at  Lisbon  in  1643;  d.  at  Coimbra  in  1615. 

To  the  original  twelve  volumes  of  the  "Annals"  In  1558  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus.    He  was 

there  have  been  added  continuations  in  the  style  of  professor  of  Scripture  for  many  vears  at  Ck>imbra  and 

Baronius.     The  most  worthy  are  those  of  the  three  Evora  and  preached  with  sucn  zeal  that  he  was 

Oratorians:  Raj^aldus,  ablest  of  the  continuators.  styled  the  Apostle  of  Portu^l.     He  published  two 

who  with  material  accmnulated  by  Baronius  carriea  works:    (1)    "Commentaria   m   concordiam   et   his- 

the  history  to  the  year  1565  (Rome,  1646-77, 9  vols.);  toriam  evangelicam"  (4  vols.,  Coimbra,  1599-1611). 

Laderchi,  who  continued  it  thence  to  1571  (Rome,  This  work,  which  is  a  treasure  house  for  preachers  on 

172S-37,  3   vols.);   and  August  Theiner,  to   1583  the  Gospels,  was  frequently  reprinted  m  Germany, 

(Rome,  1856).     Less  notable  are  the  continuations  Italy,  and  France.    The  last  eaition  was  printed  at 

of  the  Polish  Dominican.  Bzovius,  1198  to  1571  Augsourg,  1642.     (2)  "Itinerarium  filiorum  Israel  ex 

(Cologne,  1621-30,  9  vols.),  and  the  French  bishop.  JE^pio  in  terram    repromissionis  "  (Lyons,  1620). 

Sponde,  119^  to  1647  (Paris,  1659).    There  is  a  good  It  is  a  useful  commentary  on  the  Book  of  Exodus. 

study  of  the  work  of  the  continuators  by  Mansi  in  ^Sommoivooel,  Bibl,  de  la  c  <U  J..  I,  911;  Idem  in  Vio^ 

the  Bar-le-Duc  ediUon  of  Baronius,  XX,  pp.  iii-xi.  J>^^^  -»*^.  ^        CoKBErr 

Many  epitomes  of  the  work  have  been  made,  the  best 

bemg  that  of  Sponde  (Ck)logne,  1690,  2  vols.).    As        Barral,  Loms-MATHiAs,  Coont   db,  Archbishop 

an  exemplar  of  recent  scientific  working  of  a  small  of  Tours,  France,  b.  26  April,  1746.*  at  Grenoble; 

portion  of  the  field  covered  by  Baronius  may  be  cited,  d.  7  June,  1816.  at  Paris.     He  was  educated  for  the 

Rauschen,*'JahrbQcher  derChristlichen  Kircheunter  priesthood  at  tne  seminary  of  St.  Sulpice,  in  Paris, 

dem  Kaiser  Theodosius  dem  Grossen.    Versuch  einer  and  after  ordination  was  made  secretary,  then  co- 

Emeuerung  der  Annales  Ecclesiastici  des  Baronius  adjutor,  and  in  1790,  successor,  to  his  uncle,  the 

far  die   Jahre   378-395"  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1897).  Bishop  of  Trojres.    In  1791,  he  refused  to  take  the 

The  best  editions  of  Baronius  are  those  of  Lucca  oath  to  the  civil  constitution  of  the  clergy,  and 

(1738-59,38  vols.)  and  Bar-le-Duc  (1864-83, 37  vols.):  withdrew  from  France  to  Ck)nstance  in  Switzerland 

the  former  contains  the  continuations  of  Raynald  and  later  to  England.    In  1801  he  returned  home, 

and  Laderchi,  the  critique  of  Pagi  and  others,  and  and  was  appointed,  imder  the  new  concordat  be- 

18  enriched  by  the  notes  of  Archbishop  Mansi:  the  tween  France  and  the  Holy  See,  to  govern  the 

latter  contains  what  is  best  in  the  former  ana  the  Diocese  of  Meaux,  and  in  1805  was  promoted  to  the 

editorial   additions  of  Father  Theiner,  whose  con-  Archbishopric    of    Tours.    During    the    long    and 

tinuation  was  to  be  included.    Publication  was  sus-  harassing  ne^tiations  which  Napoleon  earned  on 

pended  with  the  history  of  the  year  1571.    Baronius  with  Pope  Pius  VII,  while  the  latter  was  virtually 

published  mdnv  lesser  worksj  most  of  which  found  a  prisoner   at   Savona   and   Fontainebleau,   Arclv> 

place  in    the   "Annals".     His  life  of  St.  Gregory  bisnop  de  Barral  acted  frequently  as  the  emperor's 

Nazianzen  is  in  Acta  SS.,  XV,  371-427.  intermediary.    He   was   afterwards    appointed    al- 

Haterials  for  the  life  of  Baronius  are  found  in  an  unfinished  moner  to  the  Empress  Josephine,  and  he  pronounced 

^^ ^r^^l^L^\^"^X^^ ^^^V^Mi^.  her  funeral  oratron     Later  stiA  he  was  named  a 

aos.  Ven.  Cc  9arU  Baronii  .  .  .  EpwtoUt,  O^uacula  .  .  .  VUa  senator  and  a  count  of  the  Empire.    On  the  down- 

(Rome,  1769-70,  3  vols.);  recent  diacoveries  by  Laemmkr,  fall  of  Napoleon,  the  archbishop  took  his  seat  in 

tirr^S^^'^'^^l^^'UtZ^^^r^^A^^^  the  Chamber  of  Pee™  under  I^ute  XVIII    and  fc 

the  references  Baronius  makes  to  his  work  in  the  ilnmiZs  are  by  the   government    Of    the       Jlimarea    JJays    ,   wnicn 

8«>Ni>*  in  his  ^pi/o»n«  ;Barnabeo  (Vienna.  1718):  andRicci  followed  on  the  return  of  Napoleon  from  Elba,  he 

liSSS  \^&  TrFU^r^E.'^Vi^Xc^.'&tS  oSr;  ^  retained  hU  political  posfiion.    On  the  .««>nd 

1868);  Kerr.   Life  of  Ceaare  Card.  Baronius  (London,  1808);  restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  however^  he  was  obliged 

Cafecio^atbo-Popk,  Li^of  St.  Philip  Ntri  (London,  1882),  to  resign,  and  from  this  time  till  his  death,  which 

Ad^f^^ritiir^'ofB^'nius:  CAHArBOK.  ErerciiaHone,  occurred  in  the  following  year,  he  confined  himself 

(Geneva,  1654).  cf.  PATTifiON./eoac  Casaubon  (Oxford.  1892),  entirely  to  the  adnmustration  of  his  archdiocese. 

315-341— shallow   and  lOLtremeiCAv^  Ifutorui  Liurana  He    has    left    among    other    works: — "Fragments 

f^£S:;^^iS^^,^  %"^itf^f^>^?  w^  reUtifB   k    rhistoire    eccl^siastique   des    premidree 

tr^uc^  to  Cruual  Study  of  Eccl,  Hutory  (London.  1888).  ^^^^^  ^^  ^j^,  ^.^^j^  „  ^p^^S,  1814);    anS  a  DOSt- 

John  B.  Peterson.  humous  work,  published  dv  his  brother:   "Defense 

Baronius,  JusTtJs.    See  Calvin,  Justv s.  des  liberies  de  l'6glise  gallicane  et  de  I'assemblte 

Barqnisimeto  (de  BAH«ri8iME«)),  Diocese  op.  ^^  ±1^,,^^!'!!:?^,  *^"lif:>sfli.^^' ^^^ 

in  V«2ezuela,   South   America.     The   city  is  the  de  plusieure  puvi^Mpubli&  r^cemment  en  Angle- 

«^taTo7  the  fetate  of  Lara,is  about  161  m/es.south-  '^^J^.^ll^^fJ:'^!^^    l^^^'c^S^ 

west  of  Caracal,  and  COntams  about  30,000  mhabl-  (Paris,  1888);  Dbbidoijr.  HUtoire  de%  nmorta  de  V^iae  et  dt 

tants.  though  some  authorities  give  a  lower  figure,  ilf^  «»  France  de  1789  A  1570  (Parw,  1898);  Baudruxabt, 

Fomi'ded  i/l652  by  the  Spaniards,  und«-  the  name  ^'^:^':^rf^^^^l^X^l^J'«^ 

of  Nueva  Segovia,  Barquisimeto  is  one  of  the  oldest  dergi  de  France,  lee  ^iquee  pendant  la  rivoluHon  (Paris,  1903). 
?:)panidi  possessions  in  South  America.     In  1812  it  Edward  A.  Gilligan. 

^  f^^^  ^f/'^iL^L'SrlJ^r  »!:fL.!5^^^*       Bamnde.  Joachim,  French  .  paleontologist,   b. 


ihe  Oaribbean 
Stote  of  Calabozo 


jDd  O^a.    ;[YJ^'^''^^^^^}^  Catholics,    ^^  F^hsdorff,  and  he  acted  alS  as  the*administrator 
"^JSSJ^W^Il^^i^^^  Miseianc    of   his   property.     .Barrande's    inteiest   was   early 


Ml0tt^<PzY>pa«aoda,  Rome,  1907). '  '       '  awakened  in  the  fossil  remains  of  his  adopted  countiy 

U.  Benigni.        and  their  distribution  in  the  various  strata.    The 


BABHaWA                               308  BABBIBNTOS 

field  was  a  new  one  for  until  the  date  of  his  first  pub-  which  de  Tracy  had  taken  from  the  Dutch,  de  la 

lication  scarcely  any  attention  had  been  paid  to  Barre  return^  to  France  in  the  autumn  of  the  same 

stratigraphical  geology  and  paleontology  in  Bohemia,  year^  and  while  there  published  an  account  of  his 

During  the  summers  of  1840-50  he  mcSe  preliminary  mission   and  his  hopes   for  the  future  of  Guiana, 

surveys  on  foot  of  the  Silurian  district,  an  area  of  under  the  title  of  ''  La  Description  de  la  France  ^ui- 

about  140  sq.  miles.    This  was  the  beginning  of  his  noxiale".    Soon  after,  be  was  appointed  commander 

extensive  investi^tions  on  the  Silurian  system  of  of  Guiana  and  the  French  Antilles.    In  1671  he  was 

Bohemia.     Quames  were  opened  and  workmen  en-  made  captain  of  a  man-of-war;  in  the  same  year  he 

eaged  to  search  for  fossils,  and  for  forty-three  years  published  the  ''Journal  du  voyage  du  sieur  de  la 

he  devoted  his  time  and  resources  to  the  vast  under-  Barre  en  la  terre  ferme  et  He  de  Qtyenne". 

taking  and  especially  to  describing,  naming,  and  De  la  Barre  was  appointed  Governor-General  dS 

figuring  the  numerous  specimens  which  were  dis-  Canada  to  replace  Frontenac,  and  reached  Quebec 

covered.    The  results  of  his  labours  are  contained  early  in  October,  1682.    He  received  wise  and  de- 

in  bis  great  work — "Syst^me  silurien  du  centre  de  la  tailed  instructions  for  his  guidance  in  the  government 

Bohilme — ^which  stands  almost  unrivalled  in  palseon-  of  the  colony  and  was  especiallv  directea  to  prevent 

tological  literature"  (von  Zittel).      The  first  volume  the  disorders  caused  by  the  traders  and  to  keep  th^n 

was  published  in  1852  and  at  the  time  of  his  death  from  fraudulent  practices.    De  la  Barre  was  already 

twenty-two  large  quarto  volumes  with  1160  plates  old  and  was  animated  more  by  the  love  of  mon^ 

had  appeared.*    Barrande  was  also  the  author  of  than  by  the  desire  to  advance  the  interests  of  the 

"Colonie    dans  le  bassin  silurien  de  la  Bohtoe"  colony.    He  was  induced  by  some  of  the  traders  to 

(1860);  "Documents  sur  la  faune  primordiale  et  le  join   in   various   enterprises.     Instead   of   devotins 

Byet^Oke  taconicjueen  Am^rique"  (1861);  ^'Reprdsen-  himself  to  the  organization  of  the  internal  affairs  ch 

tation  de  colonies  de  la  Boh^e  dans  le  bassin  silurien  the  colony    he  ulowed  his  advisers  to  dispatch  a 

du  nord-ouestde  la  France "  (1863> ;  "(Dephalopodes —  trading  expedition  to  Hudson  Bay  and  aided  them 

Etudes  fl^n^rales".    His  private  life  was  simple  and  in  sending  clandestine  trading  parties  to  Albany,  to 

uneveniiul.     He  carried  on  a  correspondence  with  the  region  of  the  Mississii^pi,  and  the  West.    In  1684, 

the  leading  geologists  of  other  countries,  some  of  under  pretext  of  overawing  the  Iroquois,  he  took  a 

whom  visited  him  at  Prague.    At  his  death  he  pro-  body  of  ill-equipped  troops  as  far  as  Fort  Frontenac 

vided  means  for  the  completion  of  his  "  Syst^me  si-  at  the  head  of  Lake  Ontario.    The  troops  were  in 

lurien  "  and  bequeathed  his  librarv  and  valuable  col-  reali^  intended  to  be  an  escort  to  a  trading  expedi- 

lection  of  fossils  to  the  Natural  History  Museum  at  tion  in  which  he  was  interested.     Sickness  broke  out 

Prague.  among  his  soldiers,  and  he  was  obliged  to  make  a 

Ojotoy^  Afaa<v»*M  (Dec.,  1883;  new  Mries,  Ite^  disgraceful  treaty  with  the  Iroquois.     De  la  Bane 

(LoSfoiT^iioir                "^        ~^^        ^ateonferfw  g^ye  the  Iroquois  unrestricted  rights  in  the  r^n 

H.  M.  Brock.  extending  towards  the  country  of  the  Illinois  Indians. 

#T»             vT              i-xT-T»  which  de  la  Salle  at  that  time  was  on  the  point  of 

BarraBft  (or  Barraza),  Jacinto,  b.  at  Luna,  Peru,  winning  for  France  in  spite  of  all  the  obstadee  that 

early  m  the  seventeenth  century;  d.  there,  22  Nov.,  the  governor  put  in  his  way.     Louis  XIV  heard  of 

1704.    men,  in  the  seventeenth  century,  the  differ-  the  disastrous  ejcpedition   to   Fort  Frontenac   and 

ent  rehgious  orders  appointed  histonoeraphere  or  recalled  do  la  Barre  (10  March.  1685),  who  did  not 

official  chromclers  of  the  work  done  in  their  several  leave  Quebec^  however,  until  the  arrival  of  his  sue- 

American    provinces,    the   Jesuits   selected    Father  cesser,  the  Marquis  de  DenonviUe,  in  October,  1685. 

Ijnacio  Arbieto  for  theu-  Peruvian  missions,  but  as  in  iggy  de  la  Barre  was  again  appointed  Governor 

his  account  was  not  accepted  Father  Jacinto  Barrasa  ^  Cayenne  and  died  three  years  later. 

was  appointed  in  his  stead.     His  fame  was  principally  Hotter  ManuscHpU;    Collectum  -  Monau   SamtrMiry,    fVl 

as  a  preacher,  and  two  volumes  of  his  "Sermones  ArchiveM  coloniales  de  France,  Series  B,  IX,  X:  C.  VI,  VII; 

were  publieh«l,  one  at  Madrid  in  1678.  the  other  at  ^Z  IZ'^t:^^^ B^ST^',  \^Aft"^'''  ^"""^  "^ 

Ldma  m  1679.     In  the  latter  year  he  finished  his  j  Edmond  Roy. 
voluminous  history  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  Peru, 

which  is  still  at  Lima  in  private  hands,  and  compri-  Barreira,  Balthabar,  a  Portuguese  Jesuit  .mi&- 
ses  1,350  pages  of  manuscript.  Its  title  is:  "Historia  fiionary,  b.  at  Lisbon,  1531;  d.  1612,  on  the  mission 
"    '         '    "                   -    .    ^           -*  A — 1-    — ^L  — X ^     r   Ai._.__^  ^^g  scene  of 

consist  chiefly 

_    „ '  of  the  Society 

trafiajaron."    No  allusions  are  made  in  that'chronicle  of  Jesus,  describing  the  condition  of  the  province 

to  any  other  events  than  those  of  a  reliaous  or  ec-  wi*^h  regard  to  both  ite  political  and  spintual  aspects, 

desiastical  nature.    In  addition  to  the  "Sermones",  He  has  recounted  in  detail  the  victory  of  the  Span- 

a  "Panegirico",  pronoimced  by  him  in  1669  on  the  iards*  led  by  Paul  de  Morales,  over  a»army  of  native 

beatification  of  St.  Rose  of  Lima,  was  also  printed,  negroes  in  the  year  1583.    Accoimte  of  the  conversion 

Torres  Saldamando,  Loe  antiguoa  JeeuUae  del  PerU  (Lima,  of  pagan  tribes  and  the  baptisms  of  native  kings   as 

1882);  CoBo.  Hiatorta  de  la Jundaci4nde  lAma  (published  at  well  as  treatises  on  the  manners  and  customs  of  the 

Lima.  1882,  but  wntten  jn  the  year  1639)  j^  ^  ^j^^  principal  subjects  of  his  writings. 

AD.   1^ .  15ANDELIBR.  Sommbrvooel,  Bibl.  de  la  c,  de  J..  I,  918.  

Barre,  Antoinb-Lefebvrb,  Sieur  db  la,  tenth  James  M.  Cotteb. 

French  Governor-General  of  Canada,  b.  at  Paris  in  BarrientOB,  Lopez    de,    a    Spanish    Dominican 

1622;  d.  in  1690.     De  la  Barre  was  made  a  counsellor  bishop,   patriot,  and  diplomat,   b.   at   Medina    del 

of  the  Parlement  (High  Court)  in  1646,  master  of  Campo,    Kingdom   of    Leon    1382;    d.    at   Cuenca, 

requests  in  1653,  and  was  Intendant  of  Paris  during  21  May,  1469.     He  was  of  noble  parentage,  and  after 

the  civil  war.    After  this  he  successively  held  other  receiving  a  liberal  education  in  the  University  of 

offices  until  he  became  Intendant  of  Bourbonnais  in  Salamanca,   entered   the   Dominican   Order,    in    his 

1663.     There  be  formed  a  company  called  "Com-  native   town,    when  about   eighteen   years  of    age. 

pagnie  de  la  France  ^quinoxiale"  to  colonize  Guiana,  After  bis  religious  profession,  he  was  again  sent  to 

and  was  appointed  lieutenant-general  and  governor  Salamanca  for  a   course   of   divinity.     In   this    he 

of  that  part  6f  America.     He  sailed  from  Kochelle  showed   extraordinary   talent   and   love   for  study, 

in  1664  with  the  Marquis  de  Tracy,  who  had  been  He  soon  became  known  as  one  of  the  greatest  theo- 

appointed    viceroy    of    the    French    possessions    in  logians  of  Spain,  and  was  appointed  to  the  first  chair 

America.     After  establishing  himself  at  Cayenne,  of  theology  in  that  famous  university.     In    1433, 


309  BAEBaW 

John  n  of  CafitOe  and  Leon  called  him  to  hk  court,  Qravelines,  where  his  sister  was  a  nun.  he  resumed 

to  be  his  coiiiessor  and  tutor  to  the  heir  presumptive,  his  studies  at  Douai,  and  was  ordained  Uiere  27  June, 

afterwards  Henry  IV.     Because  of  his  ability  ana  1766.    After  a  short  stajr  in  London  at  the  house 

prudence,  he  was  then  made  Grand  Chancellor  of  in  Red  Lion  Square  oooupied  by  the  parents  of  Bishop 

State  and  Inquisitor  General.    He  became  succes-  Miner,  he  set  out  on  horseback  tor  Claughton  in 

flvdy  Bishop  of  Segovia,  1439;  of  Avila.  1442;  of  Lancashire.     At  this  mission,  which  had  been  for- 

Qienca,  1444.     Later  he  refused  the  Archbishopric  merhr  attached  to  the  Hall,  the  seat  of  the  ancient 

ol  Compostella.    John  II,  in  his  last  will  and  testa-  family  of  Brockholes,  he  remained  from  the  time  of 

ment,  1454,  also  named  him  tutor  to  Prince  Alphon-  his  arrival,  in  July,  1766,  until  his  death.    He  was 

8U8,  a  younger  son.     By  his  wise  counsel  and  eminent  buried  at  the  adjoining  mission  of  New  House. 

statesmanship,  he  rendered  his  king  and  country        Father  Barrow  was  a  man  of  notable  courage,  wlH. 

eonspicuous  service.    He  sIbo  did  much  in  the  way  and  industiy.    He  was  a  master  of  French  and 

of  religious  reformation  and  works  of  charity,  and  Italian,  wrote  degant  Latin  and  forceful  Enghsh. 

was  a  liberal  patron  of  learning.    His  name  fre-  "He  ma^r  sometimes  have  shown  but  scant  courtesy 

qoently  appears  in  the  Spanish  history  of  those  to  the  wishes  or  commands  of  his  own  bishop,  but 

troublous  tmies.     His  writings  comprise  a  treatise  he  insisted  that  everybody  else  should  be  obedient 

on  the  sacraments,  a  compencuum  of  moral  theology,  and  deferential  to  ecclesiastical  authority'^  (Gillow). 

a  commentary  on  a  part  of  the  *'  Book  of  DecretiJs''  He  enlarged  the  parish  church  of  Claughton,  in  1794, 

(all  in  Latin),  and  several  Spanish  manuscripts  on  improved  the  roads  as  township  overseer,  made  wise 

ecclesiastical  matters  and  doctrinal  subjecte.  reinvestmente  of   the  fund  for  th^  secular  clergy, 

ToTTBON,  HiaL  dethommea  iu.  deVordre  d«  Saint  Domj^dque  and  negotiated  with  Sir  Edward  Smythe  for  the  ac- 

I(t2),  Oouege.    Though  his  name  is  on  the  liBt  of  Douai 

VicTos  F.  O'Damixl,  writers,  no  description  of  bis  writings,  is  recorded. 

BanlSra,  Jeaw  de  la.    See  Fediixants.  I*  »  Kkely  that  he  contributed  to  the  Catholic  Oom- 

Bwros,  JoAO  DB,  historian,  b.  in  Portugal,  1496:  d.  '^S?1^1*«'^'^- .  3'^^L  ^^^""^  ^">'»  ""- 

20  Octobi,  1670.    Of  his  eariy  youth  UtS  \a  kno^  published  letters  would  imp(y&atBarrow  was  no 

In  1522    he  went  to  Mina  l7  Portuguese  Africa  fptleopponent.    In  abetter  preserved 

jnd  was  made  tourer  of  the  C^  da^ndia  Mina,'  |\h2±^V^ffiic1o^^  ^TZ  I^r 

and  Ceuta  (Afncan  possessions)  m  1625j  and  a^n  t^  cTiJe  of  the^lvS^ 

in  1532.    Here  he  cultivated  iusUterary  inclinations       q^^^^  sm.  Diet.  eZ.  Cath,,  1. 146;  Gbadwixl,  HUtarical 

and  attached  himself  to  the  Crown  of  Portugal  by  suteh  of  the  Mi$non  of  ClaughUm  in  the  Liverpool  Catholic 

other  ties  than  those  of  a  faithful  subordinate  and  Almanac,  1886.  ^^ 

accountant.    At  the  age  of  twenty-four,  he  pub-  *•  j^*  '^'K)Wini. 

^•^„'^^^°^  *K^t,^f  k2^.J^2M:.A  ?.  -oii^  HAB'cqtmT),  V.  English  Jesuii  martyr,  b.  .in' 


bar  of  the  MaranhSo.  and  nearly  everybody  perished.  ^"^  ^^^VuTtt  irTthlnZtJ^  Pl„r*Th«  frJdl 

Two  sons  of  Banos  were  in  the  expedition,  But  their  ^^X  v^'h^K  Si^'J^t^^^rKh  Jftl^' 

Uf^ :«  ^^4.  -:,.^«     rrui«  Vx««..»i>*  -dJ;*.^-  «i»I^«4-  *«  *i.^  M^  wmcn  he  naa  as  leilow-pnsoners  nis  colleagues, 

J^  «?^^J^     w!  thii^fw^n^Jf L^«^^  Fa«»e"  Thomas  Whitbl«J.  John  FenwicOohi^ 

3-    rS^ZSi    Ra   f^^t/^  K^fh^lnW^?  G»van,  and  Anthony  Turaei;,  commenced  13  June. 

jS^n,^^<!S^-^fi  h^^  .w.i^'^iorl  ^'^J'  1«79,  ind  is  famous;  or  mth^  infamous,  in  history 

I^i^^/^t^wT^  fil  ^r^^  P^rf.'^li  ^^  Chief  Justice  Scroggs  presided,  and  Oat^, 

SS^aSd  fol^thrinfo^rnVLrS'^B:!  ?ed^.  f^  I>"«dale  .X  princiUl  vritnes«» 

•d«  pving  an  ac«>unt  of  discovery  and  conquest  ^4«  SSS^S^^toU'^ldnr-d  ^ittS 

a,ri.«»^Jj^^K'i*?h«'pU^^.!^'^t?^^^^  Protertant  religion.    Thej  made^a  brave  defence, 

umstiamzation  by  the  Portuguese  m  their  Afncan  „„  j  l„  xl^  ♦^o*;»««»>«.  «/  ♦k-^;.  -r*«r^  -^rii^^^^^  ««J 

and  Asiatic  possessions,  the  foundmg  of  churches,  ??4  ^l  *^®  ^^^""^^J^  ^^"^  ^^  witnesses  and 

m*j.     Tkl    fii-*^™Jir   «t!™,Zi^    1KKO      J^tTw  w^eur  cross-examinations  of  their  accusers  proved 

t^  have  been  fully  published.    A  fourth,  of  some-  j™r/ But  Scroggs  laid  down  4e  two  monst/bus 

iW   questionable   authenticity,   has   been  partly  {^rfidnles  thati^ 

On  th;  life  of  Barros,  see  D«  Feria,  Vida  dt  JoSo  do  recently  received  the   Tpysi   pardon,  none  of  then- 

Banoi  (laabon,  1778):  ^ilva,  Diceionario  bibliogrdfico  portu-  Undeniable  previous   nusd^neanours    could    be   le- 

91m  (Lisbon,  1869).  Ill;  Biofftaphie  wmwrtcUe  (Paris,  1864),  I.  g^lly  admitted  as  impairing  the  value  of  their  tes- 

Ad.  F.  Bandblisr.  timony;  and  (2)  that  no  Catholic  witnesr  was  to  be 

Barrow,  John,  priest,  descended  from  a  family  of  believed,  as  it  was  |>resumable  that  he  had  received 

stanch  Catholic  yeomen,  b.  13  May,  1736,  at  Westby-  a  dispensation  to  he.    Moreover,  he  obstructed  the 

in-the-Fykle,    Lancashire;    d.    12    Februaiy,    1811,  defence  in  every  way  by  his  brutal  and  constant  in- 

&t  daughton,  Lancashire.    His  uncle.  Father  Ed-  temiptions.    Accordingly.  Father  Barrow  and  the 

ward  Barrow,  S.J.,  had  been  serving  tne  mission  at  others,   though    manitestly    innocent,    were   found 

Westby  Hall  m  1717  when  he  was  outlawed  as  a  guill^.  and  condemned  to  undergo  the  punishment 

popish  priest  and  his  goods  forfeited.    John  Barrow,  of  hi^  treason.    They  suffered  together,  at  Tyburn, 

after  a  course  of  seven  vears  at  the  English  College  20  June,  1679.    By  the  papal  decree  of  4  December, 

in  Rome,  was  impressed  at  Portsmouth  and  served  1886,  tins  martyr's  cause  was  introduced  under  the 

five  years  in  the  navy.     Deserting  at  Dunkirk,  he  name  of  "William  Harcourt". 

was  acquitted  by  the  court-martial  through  pre-  .^^"'^STL^'^tlT^^ 

tending  succ^utly  to  understand  no  language  W  'J^^e^f:S}S;^8!j^^^^ 

ItaGan.     In  1761,  after  escortiUK'  two  young  women  b^y,  Barrow;  lom,  LancoMrc  Recuoanto, 
nun  London  to  the  Convent  of  the  roor  Clares  at  Sydnet  F.  SmUtb. 


BAUtUlL                               310  SABBY 

Barrael,    Auoustin.   controversialist    and    pub-  been  the  first  to  portray  clearly  the  necessary  con- 

lidst,  b.  at  Villeneuve  de  Bferg  (Arddche),  2  October,  sequences  to  civil  governments,  to  the  Church,  and 

1741;  d.  at  Paris,  5  October,  1820.    Reentered  the  to  social  order  that  must  result  from  the  atheistic 

Society  of  Jesus  in  1756  and  taught  grammar  at  oathbound  associations   which  had   acquired   such 

Toulouse  in  1762.     The  storm  against  the  Jesuits  tremendous  power  on  the  continent  of  Europe, 

in  France  drove  him  from  his  coimtry  and  he  was  On  the  fall  of  the  Directory  in  1802,  Bamiel  was 

occupied  in  coUe^  work  in  Moravia  and  Bohemia  enabled  to  return  to  France.    He  fuUy  accepted  and 

until  the  suppression  of  the  order  in  1773.    He  then  persuaded  many  other  clei*gymen  to  accept  the  new 

returned  to  France  and  his  first  literary  work  ap-  political  order  of  things  in  his  native  country  and  he 

peared  in  1774:  "Ode  sur  le  glorieux  avdnement  de  wrote  several  books  to  defend  his  opinions.    When 

Louis  Auguste  au  tr5ne".<  That  same  year  he  be-  the  Concordat  was  made  in  1801  between  Pius  VII 

came    a    collaborator    of    the  "Ann4e    litt6raire",  and  Napoleon,  Barruel'WTote:  ''Du  Pape  et  de  ses 

edited  bv  Fr^on.     His  first  important  work  was  Droits  Religieux".    His  last  important  controversy 

"Les  Helviennes,  ou  Lettres  Provmciales  philosophi-  was  a  defence  of  the  Holy  See  in  its  deposition  of 

cues"  (Amsterdam,  1781).    The  seventh  edition  of  the  French  bishops,  which  had  been  necessitated 

tne  work   (Paris,   1830)  contains  a  sketch  of  the  by  the  new  order  of  things  in  France,  established 

author.     Of  these  letters,  the  seventyndxth  is  con-  by  the  Concordat.    His  book  appeared  also  in  £ng- 

sidered  the  most  Inilliant.     His  book  provoked  a  lish:  "The  Papal  Power,  or  an  historical  essay  on 

controversy  with  M.  Giraud-Soulavie,  and  the  re-  the  temporal  power  of  the  Pope"  (London,  1803). 

plies  and  counter-replies  were  many.  Many  attackea  the  work,  but  as  usual  the  author  did 

In  the  meantime,  national  affairs  in  France  were  not  suffer  an  antagonist  to  go  unanswered.    His  new 
gjowine  more  and  more  turbulent,  but  Bamiel  con-  book  involved  him  in  a  very  extended  controversy, 
tinned  his  literary  activity,  which  from  now  on  oc-  for  his  work  was  translated  into  all  the  principal 
cupied  itself  specially  with  public  questions.   In  1789  European  languages.     His  friends  and  foes  alike 
appeared  "Lettres  sur  le  Divorce",  a  refutation  of  became  involved  m  a  wordy  war.    Blanchard  pub- 
a  book  by  Hennet.     From  1788  to  1792  he  edited  lished  in  London  no  less  than  three  refutations, 
the  famous   "Journal  Eccl^siasticiue"  founded  by  Two  works  are  erroneously  attributed  to  Barruel: 
Dinouart  in  1760.    In  this  periodical  was  published  "L'Histoire  civile,  politique  et  religieuse  de  Pie  VI" 
Bajrruel's  "  La  ConduiteduS.Sidgecnvers  la  France",  and  "D^couverte  importante  sur  le  sjrstdme  de   la 
a  vigorous  defence  of  Pope  Pius  VI.     He  likewise  Constitution    du    Clerg^,  d^cr^t^    par    TAssenibl^ 
wrote  a  number  of  pampmeta  against  the  civil  oath  nationale".    The  many  articles  Bamiel  contributed 
demanded  from  ecclesiastics  and  against  the  new  to  journals  and  his  many  published  letters  are  net 
civil  constitution  during  1790  and  1791.    He  after-  touched  on  here.    He  had  promised  to  compose  t^wo 
wards  gathered  into  one  "Collection  Eccl^iastique "  works  whioh  never  appeared,   viz:   "Histoire    dee 
all  the  works  relative  to  the  clergy  and  civil  constitu-  Soci^t^s  Secretes  au  Moyen-A^e"  and  "Dissertation 
tion.    The  ninth  volume  of  this  collection  was  pub-  sur  la  Croisade  centre  les  Albigeois".    In  regard  to 
hshed  in  1793.                                                      ^  the  latter  work,  Barruel  stated  that  his  object  would 
The  storm  of  the  French  Revolution  had  in  the  be  to  defend  the  Church  against  the  reproacli   of 
meantime  (1792)  forced  Barruel  to  seek  refuse  in  having  deposed  kings  and  having  freed  their   sub- 
England,  where  he  became  almoner  to  the  refugee  jects  from  the  oath  of  all^'ance.     He  contended 
Prince  de  Conti.     Here  he  wrote  in  1793  his  well-  that  objections  on  this  score  arose  only  from  an  ig- 
known  "Histoire  du  Clerc^  pendant  la  Revolution  norance  of  histonr.    During  the  whole  course  of  a 
FranQaise".    He  dedicated  the  work  to  the  En^ish  life  of  multiplied  activity,  Barruel  was  ever    the 
nation  in  recognition  of  the  hospitality  it  had  shown  wakeful  apologist  and  unwearied  defender  of  Chris- 
towards   the   unfortunate  French  ecclesiastics.  ^  It  tian  truth  and  of  the  rights  of  the  Church.    At  the 
has  been  translated  into  German,  Italian,  Spanish,  time  of  his  death,  he  was  engBL^ed  On  a  refutation  of 
Polish,   and   English.     The   English   version   went  the  philosophical  system  of  K&nt,  but  never   corn- 
through  several  editions  and  did  much  to  strengthen  pleted  his  work, 
the  British  nation  in  its  opposition  to  French  revo-  Sommervooel,  Bibl  de  la  c.  d«  /.  (Brussels,  1890);    Tyom- 

lutionaxy  pHnciplee      An  &«m  edition  of  the  5r^.^^i!f  ^fe^  ^kftsSI^/S^xl^^?^;  2Sl^^i 

work    appeared    at    Burimtton    m    1824.       While   in  icHvatM,  S.  J,  (Ubge,  1853);  QutRARO,  La  France  IxUertnre 

London,   Barruel  published  an  English  work:  "A  (Paris.  1827),  1. 196,  97.                      „  ,tt   t^ 

Dissertation    on    Ecclesiastical   Jurisdiction   in   the  *                      William  H.  W.  Fanning. 

Catholic  Church"  (1794).     But  none  of  his  works  «,---,     g^  riT^ATT^.Ta  n^w^^^T-^ 

attracted  so  much  attention  as  his  "Mtooires  pour  ^*^-    ^  Giraldus  Cambrensis. 

servir  k  Thistoire  du  Jacobinisme"  (London,  1797-98).  Barry,  John,  captain  in  the  United  States  navy,  b. 

It  appeared  in  an  English  dress:  "Memoirs  of  the  atTacumshane,County  Wexford,  Ireland,  in  1745;' d! 

History  of  Jacobinism  and  FreOTiasonry  of  Barruel,  at  Philadelphia,  13  September,  1803.    At  an  early  age 

translated  into  English  by  the  Hon.  Robert  Clifford*'  Barry  was  sent  to  sea.    He  arrived  at  Philadelpma 

(London,  1798)  in  four  volumes.     This  important  when  he  was  fifteen  years  old,  and  made  that  city 

work  is  an  endeavour  to  account  for  the  French  Revo-  his  home  to  the  time  of  his  death.    He  was  employed 

lution  by  a  study  of  the  anti-Christian  and  anti-  in  the  West  Indian  trade  and  commanded  several 

social  principles  of  the  secret  societies  and  ency-  vessels  until  December,  1774,  when  he  sailed   from 

clopedic  philosophers.    Owing  to  its  translation  into  Philadelphia,  as  captain  of  a  fine  large  ^p   ^'The 

every  modern  language  it  was  everjrwhere  read  and  Black  Prince",  bound  for  Bristol,  England,  returning 

commented  upon.    A  sharp  criticism  in  the  "Monthly  to  Philadelphia  13  October,  1775.  the  day  the  ContS 

Review",  brought  forth  a  reply  from  Barruel,  who  nental  Congress,  then  in  session  tnere,  authorized  the 

greatly  increased  the  circulation  of  his  book  by  issuing  purchase  oftwo  armed  vessels  for  the  beginning  of  the 

an  abridgment  of  it  in   1798.    The  Freemasons  of  Continental  Navy.    Bany  immediately  volunteered 

France,  Germany,  and  England  angrily  contested  his  services,  and  he  was  assigned  to  the  command  of 

his  assertions  and  a  voluminous  literature  was  the  the  first  vessel  purchased,  the  "Lexington".       His 

consequence.     While  some  are  of  the  opinion  that  commission  was  dated  7  December,  1775,  the   first 

Barruel 's  work  attributes  to  the  secret  societies  many  issued  by  the  Marine  Committee  of  the  Continentel 

evil  deeds  for  which  they  are  not  responsible,  all  aci-  Con^'ess.    On  22  December,  1775.  Esek  Hopkins  was 

mit  that  his  exposition  of  their  principles  and  the  appointed   Commander-in-chief   of   the   Navy— hot 

logical  consequences  flowing  from  them  is  the  work  waa  dropped  from  its  roll  in  March,  1777.    Barry  was 

of  a  powerful  mind.    Barruel,  indeed,  seems  to  have  in  command  of  the  "Lexington"  from  hia  appoint- 


BASBT                                   311  BA&KT 

nwDt  until  October,  1776,  when  be  wsb  sssigiied  to  the  lutencounteToftheRevolutioiiftry  fuataea.  Peaoe 
"Effingham  ",  28  guns,  then  building  in  Philadelphia,  was  declated  11  April,  17S3,  the  "  Alliajtce  "  irassold. 
During  that  time  he  performed  efficient  service  in  and  the  country  woa  without  a  navy.  The  United 
Idifu Delaware  Bayion  31  March,  1776,  he  put  tosea,  States  navy  was  permanently  organized  by  Act  ot 
duding  the  British  man-of-war  "  Roebuck  "  on  guard  Congreas,  27  March,  1794.  Six  captains  were  ap- 
in  DeUware  Bay,  and  on  7  April  fell  in  with  the  pointed  by  President  Washington,  "  by  and  with  the 
"  Edward  ",  a  tender  of  the  British  man-of-war  consent  of  the  Senate  ",  and  Barry  headed  the  list. 
"  UverpooT  ",  and  after  a  sharp  engagement  captured  His  commission,  signed  by  George  Washington,  Presi- 
lut;  Barry  brought  his  prize  to  Philadelphia,  arriving  dent,  was  dated  22  February,  1797  and  appointed  him 
U  April,  1776.  This  was  the  first  war-veseel  cap-  captain  in  the  navy  "  to  take  rank  from  the  4th  day 
tured  by  a  commissioned  Continental  naval  officer  of  June,  1794  "— "  Registered  No.  I  ".  He  was  thus 
tbit  was 'brought  to  that  city.  He  was  officially  con-  made  officially  the  ranking  officer  of  the  United 
lected  with  the  "  Effingham  "  until  her  destruction,  States  navy.  He  superintended  the  building  ol  the 
7  May,  1778,  by  the  British  forces  then  in  control  frigate  "  United  States  ",  44  guns,  and  made  several 
of  Philadelphia.  She  had  been  sunk,  by  order  of  cruises  in  her  with  other  vessels  under  his  command. 
Wubington  and  the  Naval  Board,  in  the  Delaware  In  1801  the  navy  was  reduced  to  a  peace  basis;  nine 
for  some  time  previously  and  then  raised  only  to  be  captains  were  retained  Barry  being  at  the  head  of 
destroyed  by  the  enemy.  In  December,  I7T6,  Barry,  the  list.  His  sea  service  was  ended,  and  being  in  poor 
oviog  to  the  blockade  of  his  ship  in  the  Delaware  by  health  he  remained  at  this  home  in  Philadelphia  until  , 
the  English,  with  a  company  of  volunteers  joined  the  his'death.  Barry  has  often  been  referred  to  as  "  Com- 
trmy  under  Washington  and  took  part  in  the  battles  modore  ";  tiiere  was  no  such  grade  in  the  United 
of  Trenton  and  Princeton.  He  was  aide  to  General  Stetes  navy  until  17  July,  1862.  Captain  was  tiie 
Csdw&llader  and  special  highest  grade  before  that 
aid  to  General  Washing-  date,  although  the  non- 
Ion,  who  held  him  in  high  offiual  title  of  commo- 
oteem.  Returning  to  dore  was  generally  ap- 
bii  command,  he  carried  plied  to  a  captain  whUe 
out  many  gallant  and  m  command  of  two  or 
ijuing  boat  expeditions  more  vessels.  Barry  was 
on  the  Delaware,  sue-  married  twice,  both  times 
cciBfully  annoying  and  to  PTotevtanta  who  sub- 
apturing  vessels  laden  Bequently  became  cou- 
with  supplies  for  the  verta  to  the  Catholic 
British  army.  In  1778  faith.  His  first  wife  died 
lie  was  ordered  to  com-  in  1771,  and  »n  7  July 
mand  the  "Raleigh",  1777  he  married  Sar^ 
32  guos,  and  sailed  from  Austin  who  survived  him. 
Boston  25th   September,  She  died   13  November, 

1778.  On  the  27th  he  1831,  Both  hia  wives 
fell  in  with  two  British  were  buried  with  him  in 
frigates,  the  "  Experi-  the  graveyard  of  St. 
meat ",  50  guns,  and  Mary's  Church,  Philadel- 
"  Unicom  ",22guns,and  phia.  There  was  no  ia- 
alter  a  gallant  and  un-  sue  from  either  marriage, 
equal  engagement  Barry  His  epitaph  was  written 
nn  his  ship  ashore  and  by  Dr.  Benjamin  Ru^, 
set  her  on  fire,  escapbg  a  signer  ot  the  Declara- 
with  moat  of  his  crew,  tion  of  Independence.  A 
Being  without  a  Con-  statue  and  fountain  were 
tineatal  command  Barry  erected  to  his  memory 
icoepted,     IS    February,  jn    1876,    in    Fairmount 

1779,  command  of  the  Park,  Philadelphia,  by 
privateer  "  Delaware  ",  the  Catholic  Total  Ab- 
12  guns,  and  during  the  i  n  ii  a  w  gtinonoa  Union  of  Amer- 
mu«e  captured  the  Brit^  joHNUAsaT,  u.o.n.  .^^  ^  portrait  (oopy  of 
iah  sloop  ot  war  "  Harlem ",  14  guns.  In  No-  original  by  Gilbert  Stuart)  was  presented  to  the 
»wuber,  1780,  he  was  ordered  to  command  the  "  AI-  city  of  Philadelphia  by  the  Friendly  Sons  of  St. 
^ee  ■',  38  guns,  at  Boston,  in  which  he  sailed  to  Patrick,  18  March,  1895,  to  be  placed  in  Independ- 
Fiance,  Uth  February,  1781,  with  Col.  John  Laurens,  enoe  Hall.  In  1906  Congress  passed  a  bill  appropria- 
qiKial  commissioner  to  the  French  Government,  ting  150,000  for  the  erection  of  a  monument  in  Wash- 
On  the  return  trip  he  captured  the  brig  "  Mars  ",  22  jngton  to  the  inemory  of  Captain  John  BarrJ;  and 
guns,  and  the  brig  "Minerva",  10  guns.  On  28th  May  ig  March  1907,  a  bronie  statue  of  him  was  erected  in 
he  fell  in  with  the  "Atlanta",  16  guns,  and  the  Independence  Square,  Philadelphia,  by  the  Friendly 
'Trepasaey  ",   14  guns,  and  after  a  very  sharp  fight  g^ns  a(  St.  Patrick. 

ot  three  hours  they  struck  their  colours.      In  this  fight  Dkaib.   Diclianarv  of  Aintriaai  BicmiiJi^  (Boatoo,   IS72); 

Bmtj  was  severely  wounded  in  the  shoulder  by  a  grape  All«n.  Am^nBy.  Dm    ^.^■•™£%^J}\A^- 

Aet-    On  23  December,  1781,  he  sailed  from  Boston  S^"^^"M^e% ^L.^X^^ar'^iTk  «S^ 

twmnce  with  the  Marquis  de  Lafayette  as  passenger,  a/ our  Natv  (Now  York.  1897):  Lomiko,  Hiiiarv  of  Oa  V.  S. 

iidietuming  arrived  at  New  London  13  May,  1782.  £'<«*  (Hnrtfotd,  1870):  P*ul^«    Th.  N<m Jr-  "<•  A«m™ 

a.»iled.   4   August,   1782,  on  the   most  successful  ^^Z  fX"ictS^l^l^!''Ph^^".'lM3°f  vS^^ 

crtPN  of  the    war;   the   prizes   he    captured  sold  for  The  fka  ol  At   V.  S.  (Boston,  t8S0)j  Coonca,  Natal  Hittoty 

mmt  than  £600,000.     Returning  by  way  of  the  West  (1868). 

IltfMand  Havana,  on  10  March,  1783,  he  fell  in  with  ^°^^  Fobht. 

fl»  SMtish  frigate  "  Sybille  ",  38  guns,  and  after  a  Ban;,  John,  second  Bishop  of  Savannah,  Georgia, 

A«tp  fight  of  forty-five  minutes  she  hauled  off  ap-  U.   S.   A.;  b.    1799  in   the  parish   of   Oylegate,    Co. 

pmktly  much   injured  and  joined  two  other  ships  Werford,  Ireland;   d.    in   Paris  19  November,   1859, 

*tt  *hich  she  had  been  in  company.    This  was  the  He   was    accepted   as   an  ecclesiastieal    ntudent  by 


BAEBY  312  BAETH^IEICT 

Bishop  England,  and  was  ordained  priest  at  Charles-  1721  was  ordained  priest.     Christopher  von  Hutten, 

ton,  S.  C,  24  September,   1825.     After  ministering  Prince-Bishop  of  Wtiriburg,  sent  him,  in   1725,  to 

for  several  years  in  Georgia,  in  which  State  he  opened  Rome    to    study    ecclesiastical    law    itnder    Prosper 

the  first  Catholic  day  school  at  Savannah,  he  was  Lambertini,    later    Pope    Benedict    XIV.     Buihel 

made   Vicar-General   of   the    Diocese  of   Charleston  returned   as    Doctor    Utriusque   Juris,    in    1727,  to 

and  superior  of  the  seminary  in  1844,  while  still  re-  Wtirzburg,  where  he  became  president  of  the  semi- 

taining  charge  of  the  parish  at  Augusta,  Georgia.     In  nary  and  (1728)  professor  of  canon  law  at  the  uni- 

1853  he  was  appointed  Vicar-General  of  Savannah,  versity.     Other  ecclesiastical   and   academical  hon- 

under   Bishop   Gartland,   and   when,   in   1854,   that  ours,    among   them   the    vice-chancellorship   of  the 

prelate  died  of  yellow  fever,  he  was  named  admin-  university    (1754)    were    conferred    upon    him.     He 

istrator  of  the   diocese,   and  as  such  attended  the  took    an    active    part    in    settling    the    controversy 

Eighth   Provincial   Council  of   Baltimore,   in   May,  occasioned  by  the  erection  of  the  new  Diocese  of 

1855.     He   was  then  appointed  to   the   vacant  see  Fulda     (1752).     His     chief     importance,     however, 

and  consecrated  at  Baltimore,  2  August,  1857.     He  lies  in  his  career  as  a  teacher.     His  work  in  that 

governed  the  diocese  with  energy  and  was  especially  line  was  appreciated  by  both  Catholics  and  Prot- 

notable  during  his  missionary  labours  for  his  charity  estants,  and  his  lectures  were  circulated  at  various 

and  zeal  in  several  yellow-fever  epidemics.     Ill  health  schools.     He    broke    with    the    traditional    method 

forcing  him  to  make  a  visit  (July,  1859)  to  Europe,  in  canonical  science,  being  one  ^f  the  first  to  adopt 

he  died  at  the  house  of  the  Brothers  of  St.  John  of  the    historico-critical    treatment   in    Germany.     His 

God,  in  Paris,  19  November,  1859,  having  lost  his  efforts   to    distinguish    between   the   essentials   and 

reason  some  time  before  his  death.     His  body  was  nonessentials  in  Catholic  doctrines,  and  his  attribu- 

brought  back  to  Savannah  for  burial,  in  September,  tion  of  excessive  power  to  the  State  in  its  relations 

1865.  with  the  CLurch  caused  his  opinions  to  be  denounced 

^^^;  ^***,^'^'S^^  ^"K.^- ^^  ^^^7f^^^^^'  ^^^*^i^^*  at    Rome    as    unorthodox.     In   his    "  promemoriA " 

flSl^aS!''^:^  "^f  Sf'bl^'^^^^^  S  (1751)  he  submitted  his  views  and  method. to  his 

Catholic  Almanac,  1833  to  1860.  former    teacher,    Benedict    XIV,    and    obtamed    a 

Thomas  F.  Meehan.  favourable  decision.     His  works,  apart  from  what 

was    written    in    the    Fulda    controversy,    as    "  De 

Barry,   Patrick,   horticulturist,   b.   near   Belfast,  Pallio  "   (1753),  deal  principally  with  the  relations 

Ireland,   May,   1816;   d.   at   Rochester,   New  York,  between  Church  and  State,  especially  in  Germany. 

U.  S.  A.,  23  June,  1890.     After  teaching  for  a  while  Several  of  them  are  found  in  the  "  Opuscula  juridica 

in  his  native  land,  he  emigrated  to  America  in  1836  varii  argumenti  "  (WOriburg,  1765,  1771). 
and  was  employed  by  a  nurseryman  at  Flushing,        STAMB«NaER  in   Kirehenlex.,  1,  2051,  2052:  Schulte.  Die 

Long  Island.     In  1849  he  became  a  partner  in  the  2St^  I  l^^X^\  ^Sd*"2JSS*"i»&Snu^. 

same  busmess  with  George  EUwanger  at  Rochester,  i875— ),  II,  103, 

New  York.     The   firm  took  the  lead  in  importing  N.  A.  Webeb. 

from   abroad   or    developing    by    culture    improved 

varieties  of  flowering  plants  and  fruits,  hardy  exotics,        Barfh^lemy,  Jean-Jacques,  a  celebrated   French 

and  introducing  to  cultivation  wild  species  of  shade  numismatologist  and  writer,  b.  at  Vassis  (Provence), 

trees.     Their   nurseries   developed   into   the   largest  1716;    d.    in    Paris,    1795.     He   began   his    classical 

in  the  country.     Barry  wrote  exteusively  on  subjecte  studies  at  the  College  of  the  Oratory  in  Marseilles, 

connected  with  pomology  and  flower-gardening,  and  took   up   philosophy   and   theology   at   the    Jesuits' 

edited  "  The  Genesee  Farmer  "  from  1844  to  1852,  college,   and   finally  attended  the  seminary   of   the 

and    *'  The    Horticulturalist "    from    1852   to    1854.  Lazariste,   where  he   devoted  most  of  his    time  to 

His   published    works   include   a   ''  Treatise   on   the  Oriental  languages.     He  soon  became  renowned  for 

Fruit   Garden"    (New   York,    1851;  new  ed.   1872)  his  scholarship  and  earnestness  in  learned  researches, 

and   a    "  Catalogue   of   the    American    Pomological  in  which  he  rivalled  the  Humaniste  of  the   Renais- 

Society  ".  sance.     Having  completed  his  course,   he    received 

Cyd.  of  Am.  Biog.  (New  York.  1900).  the  tonsure  and  wore  the  ecclesiastical  habit  without 

Thomas  F.  Mbehan.  taking  Holy  orders.     For  several  years  he  lived  in 

L  T         X     •      icoT     J      X  ^^   lonely  residence   at   Aubagne,   near    Marseilles, 

Barry,   Paul  de,   b.   at   Leucate   m   1587;   d.   at  devoting  himself  entirely  to  numismatics,  under  the 

Avignon,  28  July,  1661.     He  was  a  member  of  the  direction  of  his  friend,  M.  Gary  of  MarseiUes.     In 

Society  of   Jesus,   rector  of   the   Jesuit   coUeges  at  1744  ^^  ^^^t  to  Paris  and  became  secretary  to  M.  de 

Aix,  Nlmes,  and  Avignon    and  Provincial  of  Lyons.  3^,^^  deeper  of  the  medals  at  the  King's   Library, 

He  composed  a  number  of  devotional  works  on  the  ^^d  three  years  Uter  he  was  elected  to  the  Academy 

Blessed  Virgm,  St.  Joseph,  and  the  samte,  and  a  ^f    Inscriptions    and    BeUes-Lettres.     In    1753,    he 

"  Pensea-y-bien    ,  which  latter  had  a  large  circulation  succeeded  M.  de  Boae  and  remained  in  this  position 

and    has    been    translated    mto    several    languages,  until  the  Revolution,  during  his  term  nearly  doubling 

The  only  ones  of  his  works  translated  mto  English  the  collection. 

are  "  Pious  Remarks  upon  the  Life  6f  St.  Joseph  ",        j^  1754^  ^ewas  sent  to  Italy  on  a  scientific  mission, 

published   m    1600;   the       Glories   of   St.    Joseph  Qn  his  way,  he  gathered  a  large  number  of  medals, 

(Dublin,  1835);      Devotions  to  St.  Jowph    ,  edited  ^^d  conceived  the  idea  of  the  book  which  made  his 

^y«t^?  S®^  .,  ,  Tickell,. S.J.  (London,  187-).  jj^me   famous,    "  Voyage    du   Jeune    Anacharsis   en 

BMxatht^  de  la  compoimu  de  Jieus,  1. 945.  ^   ^^^^^^^  Gr^ce  vers  le  milieu  du  IVe  si^cle  avant  P^re  vul- 

gaire  ".     This  book,  begun  in  1756,  was  not  finished 

Barry,  Thomas  Francis.     See  Chatham,  Diocese  until  1788,  and  was  a  description  of  ancient  Greece, 

QY,  of   Hellenic   civilization,   institutions,   arte,    history, 

Barsanians.     See  Monophtsitism.  philosophy,  and  literature,  appealing  to  every  class 

Barthe,   John   Mary.     See   Trichinopolt,    Dio-  by  reason  of  ite  charming  narratives  and  vivid  pict- 

CESE  OF.  ures.     In    successive    reprinte    and    English     trans- 

Bartiiel,    Johann    Caspar,    a    German    canonist,  lations  (London,  1790,  1800),  it  still  finds   readers, 

b.  10  June,  1697,  at  Kitzingen,  Bavaria;  d.  8  April,  Recent  archaeological  discoveries  have  shown   some 

1771.     He  was  the  son  of  a  fisherman,  attended  the  of  the  statements  to  be  erroneous,  but  on  the  whole, 

schools  of  his  native  place,  and  from  1709  to  1715  the  book  remains  a  very  successful  attempt  to  diffuse 

studied  at  the  Jesuit  College  at  Wiirzburg.     In  1715  a  correct  knowledge  of  Greek  manners  and  customs. 

he  entered  the  seminary  of  the  latter  city  and  in  From  the  time  of  Barth^lemy's  journey  through  Italy, 


BAETHOIJ                              313  B4BTHOU>MIW 

the  Duke  of  Ofioiseul  had  been  his  patrcm  and  had  the  university.    The  date  of  Bartholomsus's  death  is 

gven  him  many  pensions  and  benenoes.    After  the  uxiknown.    He  was  formerly  identified  with  a  later 

U  of  his  friend  (1770),  Barth^lemy  followed  him  Franciscan  and  Englishman,  Bartholomseus  of  Glan- 

into  exile  at  Chanteloup,  near  Amboise,  where  milike  villa,  or  Olaunvilla,  who  died  about  1360,  and  to  him 

^Ms  de  cour  he  was  busily  engaged  in  polishing  the  famous  work  "De  proprletatibus  rerum"  was 

his  elaborate  literary  productions.    He  was  elected  ascribed.     Recent  researches  place   beyond  doubt 

to  the  French  Academv  in  1789.    During  the  Revo-  that  the  two  men  must  be  distinjguished  and  that 

hition,  he  was  ajrested  (September,  1793)  and  con-  the  authorship  of  the  work  in  question  must  be  attrib- 

fioed  in  a  prison  for  a  few  days.    On  his  release,  uted  to  the  Magdeburg  professor  of  1231 

he  declined  to  resume  his  functions  as  kegpor  of  the  "De  proprietatibus  rerum''  is  an  encyclopedia  of 

medals,  and  having  been  despoiled  of  his  fortune  by  all  the  sciences  of  that  time:  theology,  philosophy, 

the  Revolution  died  in  ^vertv.    Besides  the  "Voy-  medicine,  astronomy,  chronology,  zoology,  botany, 

Bge  du  jeune  Anachams*',  Barth^lemy  has  left  a  geography,  mineralogy,  are  the  siibiects  treated  m 

Dumbsr  of  essays  on  Oriental  limguages  and  archie-  the  nineteen  books  of  this  work.    We  have  in  it  the 

ciopi  original^  read  before  the  Academv  of  In-  first  important  encyclopedia  of  the  Middle  Ages  and 

flcm»tioos  aad  Belles-Lettres*  "Les  amours  de  Csryte  the  first  in  which  the  works  of  Greek,  Arabian,  and 

et  oe  Polydore'%  a  novel  illustrating  ancient  man-  Jewish  naturalists  and  medical  writers,  which  had 

nen;  "Un  voyage  en  Italie";  and  ^''M^moires"  of  been  translated  into  Latin  shortly  before,  were  laid 

his  life.    His  woncs  were  edited  by  Villenave  (1821).  under  contribution.     Aristotle,  Hippocrates,  Theo- 

BAmiBLiMT,  iTAfkWM  (wprica,  1821).  I;  Man^  phrastus.  the  Jew  Isaac  Medicus,  the  Arabian  Haly, 

Si^.idi':r«*x;i;ii*'^^''.te  and  other.celebnties  are  quoted     To  Baxtholom»us 
hatntwlnmeaite au XVllr nhde  (Paria,  1828).  zlii;  Vn^B-  must  be  given  that  honour  which  has  been  accorded 
HATi  in  BarthAemy'B  works  (1821),  I.  until  recently  to  the  Dominican,  Vincent  of  Beau- 
Louis  N.  Dblamabre.  vais,  whose  work  exceeds   by  ten  times  the  400- 

BarthoH,  Fbancesco  deixa  Rossa,  Friar  Minor  }J^^:?}!?jl'{rr«^L"'!^^n;S!fr;h»^V^ 

«.d  chronicler,  died  o.  1272.    Little  is  tnown  of  his  t5R^^'^3?'^t„^!^^  "TIhJh    ^n^.u?!?^ 

Bfe  save  what  may  be  gathered  from  hia  own  writ-  ^^^  t^fSl  a,ri^r^.„T^r,?^r.t^?M?- 

iiig8.   A  native  of  AssiS,  he  is  found  in  1312  as  a  J^'^^^t^  *^.T»^rH^T?,LTSh^^'^^r,^f..^ 

ffint  in  Perugia,  and  k  1316  at  Cologne,  whence  ^??fv.  v^^,  'l^^lj}ZfL  if  if^hf  N^fTJ? 

he  returned  rembria_bearing_many  relics  includ-  yS^±„^'1  "tST^^Z  r^'f  £ '*^  '^^  1*.^^' 


Wt/w  /xf  f  K<wxi^>«r^  «♦  ♦k-  -p^*.:,,»^,,io   :«  1  oQo  «„«^  Frankfort.     By   being   translated   and   thus   made 

&a*Dfeo1^d'in'^?^h^wLrat  ^  Co  —'We  to.£e  laityf  the  encyclopedia  of  BaHholo- 

fu..«-^*r    ,^r*"«~*^  «~*^"**"»^"'' "«»■•»' """^'••^^  m®us   exercised   a   creater   influence   on   medieval 

fe^Sffl^triterS  ^feuJ^  *^„?"«^*  ^  *•-*  <Yr^f  •  „  Of  the  latter^,  work 

John  of  La*Vema,  Alvarus  Pela^us  aadotW  t^K  S^K^'f  "Speculum  h^tona^e"  waa  trandated.  but 

bown  Fnmciscank    Whether^  is  to  be  id«>tifeKl  l^J^'^^^^^Z'^^^^'^t^i:^  t^'}'^^  t 

with  the  Francesco  Rubea  who  is  mentioned  among  l!^±i  Zcrt^^'rh^  ^rWR.'Jh^l^l... 

4e  partisans  of  IGchael  de  Cesena  or  with  the  Fr^  SP     u   P?7t^r^^^-  j       ^-  °^  ^^f^^^i^^f^, 

dsmde^dsio wlS^ tong^risonedat  FlorracB  *^°"«''  °***  ^"^"«  ""'J^^'S  ^^^^^^  of  n«tH 

aUwuA  BMth^  wrote  Beveralworks  Indudmg  a  dbl,.l«  in  Hi»u,ir.m  l  la  Fra^  (P»™.  i888).  XXX. 

tmarf  <a    the   JraSSIOn,  be  U    best   Known  for   niS  3S2  aqq.;  Felder,  Qeadiidtte  der  Studien  im  Framukanavnim 

"nictatus  de  Indulgentift  SancttB  Maris  de  Portiun-  (Fn>>>uig.  1904),  248,  ses  miq. 

eoli"  oompoeed  about  1336.    He  spent  many  of  his  •'^^^  '^^  Lbnbart. 


nSnA^ZZ^:r*Z:  iT:tl-  '*T"S.'"*  i  •  ^  ;  Marie,  iii,  18;  Luke,  vi,  14),  and  seventh  in  the 
affiSJ?  i^S'S^i^H*^'**^  iv.^  ecclesiastical  ^^j^  '(j  \^^  The  na^e  B«p»oXoMaa«)  meaiw 
S?2»  »?^  P^PS""  l^.^J^£  tJ^f^^l?R    of  Talirlai"' (or  Thohnai).  Ufch  .^  ai  ancie. 


seventh  in  the  list  of 
•r)  means  ''son 
an  ancient  He- 


^^^^^^^p.-«,      v*««f  *«'w,  »v*x.  j^j.    v"^  *v.«**     shows,  at  least,  that  Bartholomew  was  of  Hebrew 
Wadwko,  Script  Ord.  Min.  (1660),  114;  Bbabalba,  Sup^    descent;  it  may  have  been  his  genuine  proper  name 


Pabchal  Robinson         Nothing  further  is  known  of  him  for  certain.    Many 

i^rtliotomsras  a  Martyribiu.      See  Bartholo-    scholars,   however,   ident^y   him   with    Nathanael 

wewofBbaoa.  (John,  1,45-51;  XXI,  2).   The  reasons  for  this  are  that 

Bartholomew  is  not  the  proper  name  of  the  Ajpoetle; 


l^    '  1     ^^Vl!  T^^^»  *"  ^^^  "^  ^^^'  '*®  enterea  tne  usts  ot  Mattnew  and  Luke,  and  found  next  to  it  in 

toeiwly  estabhshed  Order  of  St.  Francis  in  c<Mnpany  Mark,  which  agrees  well  with  the  fact  shown  by  St. 

^hM  countryman  and  fellow-professor  of  theology.  John  that  Philip  was  an  old  friend  of  Nathanael's 

nynio  of  FaycrshMi,  and  two  other  professors  of  and  brought  him  to  Jesus;  that  the  call  of  NathanaeL 

yyy  '?^^l^   ^®  continued  his  lectures  in  the  mentioned  with  the  call  of  several  Apostles,  seems 

Q^MMaebool  tiU  1^1,  when  he  was  sent  to  Magde-  to  mark  him  for  the  apostolate,  especially  since  the 

«ag  mGennany.^   He  was  succeeded  by  his  iUustri-  rather  full  and  beautiful  narrative  leads  one  to  expect 

gcouptprinan  Alexander  of  Hales  (q.  v.)  who,  by  some  important  development;  that  Nathanael  was 

DW axD^ber  of  the  university,  raised  the  private  of  Galilee  where  Jesus  found  most   ::  not  all,  of  tt- 

■ttool  of  the  Franciscans  to  the  dignity  of  a  school  of  Twelve;  finally,  that  on  the  occasion  of  the  appeal 


BABTHOLOMEW  314  BABTBOX.OMEW 

ance  of  the  risen  Saviour  on  the  shore  of  the  Sea  of  leader  of  these  monks  was  the  learned  John  of  Khema 
Tiberias,  Nathanael  is  found  present,  together  with  (Khemi),  the  head  of  a  monastery  near  Khema  in  the 
several  Apostles  who  are  named  and  two  unnamed  district  of  Erentschag  (now  Alenja),  not  far  from 
Disciples  who  were,  almost  certainly,  likewise  Apos-  Nachidjewan.    John  was  a  pupil  of  the  celebrated 
ties  (the  word  ''apostle"  not  occurring  in  the  Fourth  theologian  Isaias,  whose  school  had  produced  370 
Gospel  and  "disciple"  of  Jesus  ordinarily  meaning  doctors  of  theology    (T''arto6erf).     In    1328  John  of 
Apoistle)  and  so,  presumably,  was  one  of  the  Twelve.  Khema  sought  out  Bishop  Bartholomew,  remained 
This  chain  of  circumstantial  evidence  is  ingenious  with  him  a  year  and  a  half  and  b^ame  a  warm  advo- 
and  pretty  strong;  the  weak  link  is  that,  after  all,  cate  of  imion  with  the  Roman  Church.    He  sent  an 
Nathanael  may  nave  been   another  personage   in  invitation  to  a  conference,  drawn  up  by  the  zealous 
whom,  for  some  reason,  the  author  of  the  Fourth  missionary,  to  his  former  fellow-students,  and  Bar- 
Gosi)el  may  have  been  particularly  interested,  as  he  tholomew  went  with  him  to  Khema,  where  the  con- 
was  in  NiiXKiemus,  who  is  likewise  not  named  in  the  f erence  was   held.     The   result   was  that  a  lar^ 
synoptists.     (See  Nathanael.)  number  of  learned  monks  joined  John  of  Khema  in 
No  mention  of  St.  Bartholomew  occurs  in  eccle-  submitting  to  the  authority  of  the  Holy  See.    In  order 
siastical  literature  before  Eusebius,  who  mentions  to  promote  union  and  raise  religious  life  John  founded 
that  Pantsenus,  the  master  of  Origen,  while  evangeliz-  in  1330,  with  the  consent  of  Bartholcmiew,  a  religious 
ing  India,  was  told  that  the  Apostle  had  preached  congregation  called  the  "Uniats  (Unitoree)  of  St. 
there  before  him  and  had  given  to  his  converts  the  Gregory  the  Illuminator",  which  was  later  incorpo- 
Gospel  of  St.  Matthew  written  in  Hebrew,  which  was  rat^  with  the  Dominicans.    About  this  time  Bar^ 
still  treasured  "by  the  Church.    "India"  was  a  name  tholomew  seems  to  have  substituted  Nachidjewaji 
covering  a  very  wide  area,  including  even  Arabia  for  Maragha  as  his  see.    This  brought  him  nearer  to 
Felix.     Other  traditions  represent  St.  Bartholomew  the  centre  of  Armenia,  so  that  he  was  able  to  worik 
as  preaching  in  Mesopotamia,  Persia,  Egypt,  Ar-  more  efficiently  for  the  development  of  the  union, 
menia,  Lycaonia,  Phrygia,  and  on  the  shores  of  the  He  translated  a  number  of  works  into  the  Armenian 
Black  Sea;  one  legend,  it  is  interesting  to  note,  identi-  language,  as:  the  Psalter,  treatises  of  St.  Augustine, 
fies  him  with  Nathanael.    The  manner  of  his  death,  the  "  Summa  contra  Gentiles  "  of  St.  Thomas,  and  a 
said  to  have  occurred  at  Albanopolis  in  Armenia,  is  part  of  the  Summa  theologica;  he  also  wrote  several 
equally  uncertain;  according  to  some,  he  was  be-  original  works,  especially  a  work  on  casuistry  and  a 
headed,  according  te  others,  nayed  alive  and  crucified,  treatise  on  the  sacraments. 

head   downward,   by  order  of  Astyages,  for   having         ConcUiaHonea   ecdesia   Armen^   cum   Romand.ed.    Clkm. 

inverted  his  brother   Polvmius,  fcng  of  Armenia.  S*^t22i.^T?iSr^'*^i'^Si '^^^^  ^J^"^ 

On  account  of  this  latter  legend,  he  is  often  repre-  o  morH  in  Bolotma  (Bologna,  1.79),  cl.  II,  vol.  II.  iia-i42; 
sented  m 
as  flayed 
relics  are 

church  ol  ,., , ooo-'wii  _       _ 

His  feast  is  celebrated  on  24  August.    An  apocryphal  280-281.  j^  p  Kirsch. 

gospel  of  Bartholomew  existed  in  the  early  ages.  •*      ,    ,  «      * 

Lb  Camus,  Vie  de  NotreSeigneur  (tr.  New  York.  1906).  I;  Bartholomew,  GoSPEL  OF.     See  APOCRYPHA. 

iDiM  in  Vio.,i>£c^.  d«  ^Bie>te.  where  reference  M^  Bartholomew    of    Braga,    Venerable,    b.     at 

the  sources  of  the  traditions;  Fodar»,  Life  of  Chrxal  (New         -•«*  •«*v*v***« Y .  if        w^    ieV-*     j       a^/-  -TJ. 

York,  1891).  ioHN  F.  Fenlon.  Verdela,  near  Lisbon,  May,  1614;  d.  at  Viana,   16 

July,  1590.     Bartholomew  Fernandez,  later  known 
Bartholomew,  Apostle  of  Armenia,  also  called  Bar-  as  a  Martyribus,  out  of  veneration  for  the  church  in 
tholomffius  Parvus  (the  Little),  b.  at  Bologna,  year  which  he  was  baptized,  came  of  humble  parenta^. 
not  known;  d.  15  August,  1333.    Nothing  certain  has  He  entered  the  Dominican  Order,  11  November,  1527, 
been  preserved  as  to  his  family.    At  the  end  of  the  and  was  professed  20  November,  1529.    On  the  corn- 
thirteenth  century,  while  still  young,  he  entered  the  pletion  of  his  studies,  he  taught  philosophy  in  the 
Dominican  Order,  made  his  studies  in  the  monastery  monastery  at  Lisbon,  and  then  for  aoout  twenty  years 
of  his  native  town,  and  soon  became  noted  as  a  ca-  theolo^  m  various  nouses  of  his  order.    In  1551  he 
pable  theolo^an  and  a  preacher  zealous  for  souls,  received  the  Master's  degree  at  the  provincial  chapter 
rope  John  aXII  cherished  a  great  desire  not  only  to  of    Salamanca.      While    teaching    theology    in    the 
keep  the  Catholic  Armenians  in  connexion  with  the  monastery  of  Batalha,  he  was  summonea  to  Evora 
Roman  See,  but  also  to  lead  the  schismatic  part  of  bv  the  Infante  Dom  Luis  to  undertake  the  religious 
this  people  into  unity  with  the  Church;  for  this  reason  eaucation  of  his  son,  Dom  Antonio,  who  was  entering 
he  supported  and  encouraged  the  Dominican  mis-  the  ecclesiastical  state.     He  devoted  two  years  ,to 
sions  m  the  regions  inhabited  by  Armenians.     Bar-  this  task.    In  1558,  against  his  own  desires,  and  orily 
tholomew  was  selected  to  be  the  head  and  leader  of  a  out  of  obedience  to  hia  provincial,  Luis  of  Granada, 
little  band  of  Dominican  missionaries  whom  John  he  accepted  the  appointment  to  the  archiepiscopal 
XXII  sent  to  Armenia.    He  was  consecrated  bishop  See  of  Braga,  for  which  he  had  been  chosen   by 
and  re<Jeived  as  his  see  the  city  of  Maragha,  lying  east  Queen  Catherine,  and  in  1559  received  episcopal  con- 
of  Lake  Urumiah.     Accompanied  by  several  com-  secration.    With  true  apostolic  zeal  he  devoted  hiizi^ 
panions  the  new  missionary  oishop  arrived  (1318-20)  self  to  the  duties  of  his  new  office, 
m  the  territory  assigned  to  him.     He  studied  the        On  the  resumption  of  the  General  Council  of  Trent 
Armenian  language,  built  a  monastery  for  his  brethren  in  1561,  Bartholomew  repaired  to  the  council  axi<i 
of  the  order,  and  with  the  aid  of  these  began  his  took  part  in  the  last  sessions.     He  was  highly  ee- 
apostolic  labours.     He  met  with  such  success  that  teemed  among  the  Fathers  of  the  council  botn   on 
large  numbers  of  heathen  and  Mohammedans  were  account  of  his  theological  learning  and  the  hoiinees 
converted   and  many   schismatic   Armenians   were  of  his  life,  and  he  exercised  great  influence  in  t.he 
brought  into  Cathohc  imity.     The  zealous  bishop  discussions,  particularly  those  \\ith  regard  to   the 
gave  great  care  to  this  latter  part  of  his  missionary  decrees  on  the  reform  of  ecclesiastical  hfe.    On  tlie 
labours,  as  he  foimd  many  Armenians  favourably  dis-  conclusion  of  the  council  he  returned,  in  February, 
posed  to  union.    Bartholomew's  reputation  for  saint-  1564^  to  his  see,  and  in  1566  held  an  impovtant 
uness  and  learning  spread  rapidly  into  distant  regions  provincial  synod  in  which  excellent  decrees  v^ere 
and  came  to  the  Knowledge  of  a  group  of  Armenian  passed  for  the  restoration  of  ecclesiastical  discipline 
monks  who  were  striving  after  a  higher  degree  of  and  the  elevation  of  the  moral  life  of  clergy  aA<l 
perfection  and  the  attainment  of  Church  unity.   The  peopte  (Concilium  provinciale  Bracarense  quartuxn 


BARTHOLOMEW                         315  BARTHOLOMEW 

Bhiga,  1567).    The  archbishop  now  devoted  himself  Bartholomew  of  Brescia,  an  Italian  canonist,  b. 

mo6t  zealously  to  the  task  of  carrying  out  the  re-  probabljr  in  the  second  half  of  the  twelfth  century 

fonns  of  the  Council  of  Trent  as  well  as  the  decrees  at  Brescia;  d.  1258.     He  studied  Roman  and  eccle- 

d  his  own  provincial  synod.     A  great  famine  and  a  siastical  law  at  Bologna,  where  he  himself  became  a 

visitation  of  the  plague  revealed  the  depths  of  his  teacher.    It  is  believed  that  he  was  murdered,  when 

cl^ty.     After  repeated  requests,  having  received,  Ezzelino,  the  leader  of  the  Ghibellines,   captured 

on  20  February,  1582,  permission  to  resign  his  see,  Brescia  (1258).    His  literary  work  consisted  almost 

he  withdrew  to  the  monastery  of  his  order  at  Viana,  entirely  in  the  revision  of  the  nroductions  of  other 

to  prepare  in  solitude  for  the  end.  writers.     His  "Brocarda",  or  Canonical  Rules  (Ly- 

In  1845  Gregory  XVI  declared  him  Venerable.    In  ons,  1519),  were  a  working-over  of  those  of  Damasus 

the  interests  of  a  truly  Christian  life  and  the  promo-  (twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries);  his  "Casus  decre- 

tion  of  ecclesiastical  discipline,  he  wrote:  "Compen-  torum"  were  a  revision  of  the"(;asus"of  Benencasa 

cKum  spiritualis  doctrinseex  variis  sanct.  Patrum  sen-  (d.  c.  1206);  the  "Historiffi  super  libro  Decretorum" 

tentiis  magna  ex  parte  collectum"  (Lisbon,  1682);  reproduced  the  work  of  an  unknown  author.    Both 

''Stimulus  pastonmi  ex  gravissimis  sanct.  Patnmi  his  "Casus"  and  "Histori»"  derive  their  importimoe 

sententiis  concinnatus,  in  quo  agitur  de  vitA  et  mori-  from  their  incorporation  into  the  Paris  edition  (1506) 

bus  episcoporum  aliorumque  prselatorum ' '  (Rome,  of  Gratian's  "  Decretum  ".  The  "  Ordo  Judiciarius ' '  of 

1564;  published  at  the  instance  of  St.  Charles  Boi-  Tancred  (d.  c  1235)  was  also  revised  by  Bartholomew. 

romeo);  "Catechismo  ou  Doutrina  Christiana"  (Lis-  More  important  than  the  preceding  works  was  his 

bon,  1562).    All  these  writing  have  been  frequently  "Glossa  Ordinaria"  to  the    Decretum"  of  Gratian,  a 

repuUished  and  translated  mto  several  languages,  correction   of   the    "Glossa",   or  "Apparatus",  of 

A  collective  edition  is:  "Opera  onmia  curft  et  studio  Johannes  Teutonicus  (thirteenth  century).    His  only 

MalachisB  d'Inguinbert,  archiep.    Theodos."  (1  vol.  certain    independent    work    was    th^   "(^usestiones 

fol.  in  2  parts,  Rome,  1734-35).  dominicales  et   veneriales",  lectures    delivered    on 

Qutmr-EcHARD,  Script,  ord.  Prod.  (Paris  1721),  11,  296;  Sundays  and  Fridays. 

1645);  Db  Sact.  Laviede  Dom  BarthHhny  dea  Martura  (Paris.  ,o?^^''I^  ^•f^^  ^9^*^^^'  ^^^^'^  ^  ^-J^^ 

1663).    Ther«  is  a  detaUed  biography  in  the  introduction  i^  $§i"!!P%_l?^^Lox  *  t^^L    ^S^'S  ^   Ktrd^enUx, 

the  above-mentioned  collective^ditioi  of  his  works.    For  his  <J^,  <«••  Freiburg,   1882).   I.   2066.   2066;   Hurter.  Moment 

beatification,  Romana  aeu  Bracharen.  beaHficaiwnia  et  canoni-  ciatar, 

MCumit  Barih.  de  MartyrOms  poaitio  auper  vtrhUibua  (3  vols.  N.  A.  Wbbkr. 
foL,  Rome,  1819-44). 

«  ^^  ,               *•                r^    ^V^'^m^.,  Bartholomew  of  Oarrania.    See  Carrawea,  Bar- 

Bartholomew  of  Bragan^a,  b.   about   1200;  d.  tolomeo. 

1  July,  1271.     He  made  his  studies  at  Padua,  re-  _  _^_  ',               -  •  -           «    .            ,    . 

ceiving  there  the  habit  of  the  Dominican  Order  from  Bartholomew   of   Edeaaa,  Synan  apologist  and 

the  hands  of  St.  Dominic.     According  to  Leander,  polemical  wnter.    The  place  of  his   birth   is  not 

author  of  the  oldest  life  of  Bartholomew,  he  was  made  known,  it  was  probably  Edessa  or  some  neighbouring 

master  of   the  sacred  oalace  in   1235,  during  the  ^^i  ^?r  he  was  certamly  a  monk  of  that  city, 

.  pontificate  of  Gregory  DC;  but  there  is  no  mention  and  in  his  refutation  of  Agarenus,  he  calls  hunself 

of  this  event  in  his  last  testament,  where  he  expressly  several  tunes     the  monk  of  Edessa".    The  time  m 

states  the  important  positions  held  by  him.    He  was  ^^^^  ^  flourished  is  also  doubtful;  it  is  certam, 

appointed  to  the  See  of  Nemonicum,  in  Cyprus,  1248;  however,  that  it  was  after  the  Mohanunedan  oon- 

wlit  city  this  was  is  not  now  kno\^Ti.     While  King  ^l^est   of   Syria,    and   the    controversy   concerning 

Louis  of  France  was  engaged  upon  his  expedition  the  sacred  unages  which  began  m  725.      There  is  a 

against  the  Infidel,  Bartholomew  joined  the  king  and  work  of  his  wntten  m  Greek,  which  he  directed 

queen  at  Joppa,  Sidon,  and  Acre,  in  the  character  of  against  one  Agarenus,  a  Mohammedan.    The  be- 

ApoetoHc  legate,  according  to  some  writers,  his  own  ghinine  of  the  refutation  is  lost;  the  title  as  given 

account  merely  stating  that  he  visited  the  king  and  bv  Le  Movne  (Varia  Sacra,  Leyden,  1685).  is  "Elen- 

queen  at  these  places.     King  Ix)ui8  desired  him  to  ehus  et  a)nfutatio  Agarem".     This  work  may  be 

make  a  visit  to  France,  promising  rich  relics  for  his  J^  ^  ^^^  Migne  collection,  P.  G.,  CVI,  1381-1448. 

chureh,  should  he  comply  with  the  request.    To  ensure  This  treatise,  a«  it  now  stands,  opens  with  a  state- 

the  presence  of  so  distinguished  a  prelate  at  his  own  "^ent  of  the  objections  of  Mohammedans  against 

court,  Alexander  IV  made  him  Bishop  of  Vicenza,  Christianity,  among  which  are  the  dogmas  of  the 

in  1256,  and  during  his  tenure  of  that  see  he  was  Blessed  Trinity,  of  the  Incarnation,  and  of  Con- 

aubject  to   the  tyranny  of    Ezzelino,  a    notorious  Session.     Bartholomew  then  gives  his  answers,  and 

aemy  of  relieion.    This  persecution,  however,  served  makes   many   oomiter-charges   agamst   Mohanmied 

to  bring   ouT  the   true   qualities   of  pastor  which  and  his  so-called  Revelation. 

Bartholomew  possessed  in  a  higii  degree.    It  has  been  The  main  lines  of  argumentation  are  taken  from 

said  that  he  was  named  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  but  *'^e    Ufe    of    the    prophet    himself.    Bartholomew 

this  is  doubtful,  his  testament  being  silent  on  this  shows  that  nothing  either  in  his  parentage,  educa- 

point  also.     In  1254,  he  was  sent  as  legate  to  the  ^^^P^  o^  ^e  betrays  any  God-given  mission.    From 

courts  of  EIngiand  and  France  and  as  Henry  III  was,  ^^^  ^e  concludes  that  Mohammed  was  an  impostor, 

at  this   time,   in  Aquitaine,    thither   Bartholomew  preaching   without    any    Divine    credentials.    Bai^ 

betook  himself,  towards  the  close  of  that  year,  ac-  tholomew   is   well    acquainted   not  only  with   the 

companying  the  English  king  and  queen  to  Paris.  Christian  position  which  he  defends,  but  also  with 

He  was,  on  this  occasion,  presented  by  the  King  of  *he  position  of  his  adversaries;  he  knows  the  cus- 

France  with  a  relic  of  the  true  Cross  and  a  thorn  toms,  practices,  and  beliefs  of  the  Arabs,  and  he 

from  Our  Saviour's  Crown.     These  he  afterwards  l>oa8ts  that  he  has  read  all  of  their  books.    A  second 

pbfied  in  the  beautiful  Dominican  Chureh,  built  by  treatise   "Contra   Muhammedum"    is  also  printed 

him,  at  Vicenza  and  known  as  the  Church  of  the  ^   Migne  Ooc.  crt.,  144a-58)   under  the  name  of 

Oom.    He  was  venerated  by  the  people  and,  accord-  Bartholomew  of  Edessa;  but,   in  spite  of  the  nu- 

ing  to  the  Bollandists,  has  alwajrs  been  honoured  with  nierous  resemblances,  explainable  otherwise  than  by 

the  title  of    Blessed.     He  wrote  commentaries  on  identity  of  authorship,  the  differences  are  of  such 

flcripture.  was  the  reputed  author  of  a  commentary  a  nature  as  to  make  the  ascription  of  it  to  Bar- 

oa  fte  "  Hierarchy  "  of  St.  Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  tholomew  unjustified.    Such  are  e.  g.  the  names  and 

of  two  volumee  of  sermons,  and  some  smaller  works,  t^e  number  of  Mohammed's  wives  and   children; 

fiS.,  July.  1, 246  sqq.;  alao  May^l.  692.  the  editor  of  the  Koran;  the  Neetonan  monk  who 

WiLUAM  Devlin.  taught  Mohammed  ChrisUanlty,  etc. 


■ARTHOLOmW  316  BABTBOLOMIW 


C4TB.  DiMtriflft'g  Je  teripionkHBinetrtmaiaiU  i&  StHgitrmm  named  Btftholoinew  living  in  Pisa  at  the  same  time 

fef^JSf^^KSir.^^^  ^^  c»"sed  considerable  confusion,  and  most  recent 

fSii^(»^3?uf^  eccM.i««(r««  ^^^^  following  MaFianus  of   riorenoe.  Mark  of 

R.  BuTiN.  Lisbon,  and  Wadding,  have  fallen  into  the  enx)r  of 

^  _^,    ,  ..  /  V  attributinir  to  Bartholomew  Albisi  the  famous ''Book 

Bvtholomew  ofLucca  (or  db  Fia^onibub  some-  ^^  ConforSiities-,  which  was  reaUy  written  by  Bar- 

tmiesabbrevrnted  ProLOMKO  or  Toudmbo)  histonwi,  tholomew  Rinonico.    The  Utt^r,  with  whom  we  are 

b.  about  1227  at  Lucca;  d.  about  1327.    At  an  «u;ly  ^^  ooncemed,  was  a  Pisan  of  noble  family.    In 

a^  he  entered  the  Dominican  Order.    He  was  dis-  ^^^  he  was  a  student  at  Bologna  and  Uter  fiUed 

tmgmshed  for  piety,  and  his  intense  apphcation  to  ^^  ^^^  ^^  Lec^^  ^1^^  ^  ^^^^  ^^  p^      pj^ 

stuBy,  for  which  reasons  he  won  the  rwpect  and  warn  q.  ^  Florence.     He  also  preached  for  many 

friendship  of  St.  Thomas  Aauinas.    He  was  not  only  ye^^sWith  great  success  in  different  Italian  citiei 

his  discipl^,  butjlsp  his  confidant  and  confessor  (Pto-  ^^  ^^  ^^^  ^^^    renowned  no  less  for  sancUty 


Nuova  reached  him  He  was  elected  pnor  of  t^  con-  remarkable  book, "  De  Conformitate  Vit4B  B.  ^Fran- 
vent  of  his  native  city  m  1288.  At  Naples  (1294)  he  ^^^  ^  y^^am  f)omini  Nostri  Jesu  Christi",  begun 
took  an  active  part  m  the  pubhcdemoMtration  which  i^  1386  and  formally  approved  by  the  gena^  chap- 
was  made  to  prevent  Pc-^ '^''''*-*''*'' ^ '•^'^ '■'*"'^"^'*            - ^     rr    _     .  ^.      .0..            .  r. 

In  1301  he  was  elected 
at  Florence.  Later  he 
was  chaplain  for  nine 

Patrasso,  Bishop  of  Albano,  ^^         ,^>,..,^,«„«„ 

death  in  1311  to  Ws  fellow-religious  Cardinal  William  '^  Barfti^*  Mdndir'^EiJ^'Sii^f  Iind  Alcoian 

of  Bayonne.    Echard  aflSrms  that  he  was  the  dose  ^^  ^iner  Vorrede  D.  M.  Luthers.  1531)  in  reply  to 

fhend  and  often  the  confwsor  of  John  XXH   w1m>  which  Henry  Sedulius,0.  F.M.,  published  his"  Apolo- 

«?>P<Mnted  hma  BiAop  of  TorceUo  March  16,1318.  ^j^^   adversus   Alwranum   tranciscanorum    pro 

A  conflict  with  the  Patnarch  of  Grade  concerniMt  gj^^    Conformitatum"    (Antwerp,    1607).      Subse- 

apnointment  of  an  abbess  of  St.  Anthony  s  at  Tor-  ^^^^  ^^^^  ^^   Franciscan   history   treated  the 

?^^Jj^^  his  excommunication  m  1321   and  exile^  fiasoi'a  work  with  most  unmerited  ostracism;  more 

In  1323  be  i^  peace  wrth  thD  patriarch,  returned  recently  it  has  come  to  be  lauded  in  certain  circles 

*^rS?  see,  and  died  there  m  1327.              .   . .    «  .  in  terms  which  savour  of  exaggeration.     Between 

TH^r^^?^^'^S^^uL^^^'\'^n^  these  extreme   views,   the   paOSit   and   discerning 

nales*'  a061-1303),  finished  f bout  1307,  wherem  are  ^^^^^^^  ^^  ^^  ^^^  '^'Confomities"  a  book  of  v«t 

'^^^JTIS^.^f^rt'^T'ifJt^^^^^  iPeven  value,    The  paraUels  l^tween  the  lives_of 


sqq 

Aven  *^«,  ««  ^ 

tita"  ImoTmJOTiy  from  his  own  reference  an^  irMSrn  VlMoT^d  in7513.*Vhe  il^w  "^^ion 
tions  The  "Ertracta  de  chromco  Fr  Ptolomffii  de  published  at  Bologna  in  1590  is  mutilated  and  cor- 
Luca"andthe''Ex^taexchromcisFr.Ptolom»i  '  ^^  especiaUy  in  the  historical  parts,  at  ahnost 
are  no  longer  considered  onginalwor^  by  separate  ^^^  pag^^A  Sorely  needed  critical  edition  of  the 
authors,  but  are  extracts  from  the  HistonaEccle-  t«xt  hiTlately  been  published  in  tom.  IV  of  the 
siastioaKova  'by  some  unknown  compiler  who  hved  «*  Analecta  Frinciscana^'  (Quaracchi,  1906). 
after  the  death  of  Bartholomew  He  is  also  weU  ^^  addition  to  the  "Conformities",  Bartholomew 
tonown  for  his  completion  of  the  De  Repmne  left  some  thirty  other  works,  including  an  exposition 
Pnncipum,  '  wluch  St  Thomas  Aqnoinas  had  been  ^j  ^^^  j^^^^  ^j ''the  Friars  Minor  found  in  the  "Spec- 
unable  to  finish  before  his  death.  This  was  no  small  ^^^n  j^Q^in  (Rouen,  1509)  and  a  book  "De  Via 
task,  for  the  share  of  Barthol^ew  begins  with  the  g  ^^^  Virginis",  published  at  Venice  in  1596; 
sixth  chapter  of  the  second  book  and  mcludes  the  ^^  Lenten  sermons  were  printed  at  Milan  in  1498, 
third  and  fourth  books  (vol  XVI  m  the  Parma,  1865,  Venice,  1503,  and  Lyons,  1519.  Sbaralea  and  otherP 
edition  of  St.  Thomas).  Though  he  does  not  follow  j^^^  erroneously  attributed  to  him  the  "Summa 
the  order  of  the  saint,  yet  his  treatment  is  clear  and  Casuu^  Conscientise*',  which  is  really  the  work  of 
logacal.  A  w^  on  the  Hex«mCTon  by  him  was  Bariiholomew  a  S.  Concordio  of  Pisa,  O.  P.,  and  the 
published  by  Magetti  in  1880.  With  a  few  exceptions.  ,.y|^  ^  Gerardi",  which  was  written  by  Bartholo. 
the  writings  of  B^holomew  have  alwayp  been  held  ^^^  ^^^^  mentioned  above. 

m  high  esteem.     He  showed  great  care  m  verifying  waddino,  AnnaUi;  ud.  ann.  1399.  IX.  vii.  viii.  and  Senp- 

his  statements.    The  lives  of  the  Avignon  popes  were  toret  (I66O),  48:  Sbaralka.  Supplemeruum,  lOO;  TiRABoecia. 

written  from  original  documents  under  his  hands  and  Star,  fea^/to'^a805).  V.  1^;  da  Ciy««A.  BM,Sam  Jj^^S 

were  controlled  ly  the  statements  ot  eye-witness^.  ^TA^^pj.'^'i^i^'f  ^d^.  O^^ 

His   acceptance   of   fables    now   exploded,   e.    g.   the  st^fa,    StuOien   im   FranxUkanerord,    (;Freiburs.  1904).  104 

Popess  Joan,  must  be  attributed  to  the  uncritical  «»<i.P««SSr\  Qji^^opcH'  ^^'^^.J^t^MuHM^J^ 

.  __1 ^t  u:J  4.:^^  racom,  1906),  71  and  pctsnm;   Faloci  in  Mxtcai,  J^raneete, 

temper  of  his  time.  dOOi),  VIII,  faac.  V.  148  eqq. 

KrOokr.  De^PtoiomcBua  Lueeneu  Jjeben  «»?«  »?^?»^  (fj?*^^  PascHAL  R0BIN8ON. 

Bartholomew  of  San  Ooncordio  (also  of  Pisa). 

avii  (B«riin,  1896)J|*5.  canonist,  and  man  of  letters,  b.  at  San  Concordio 

THoa.  M.  ScHWERTNBR.  ^^  pj^^  ^y^^^  1260;  d.  at  Pisa,  11  June,   1347. 

Bartholomaw   of  Piia,  Friar  Minor  and  chroni-  He  entered  the  Dominican  Order  in  1277,  studied  at 

der.    The  fact  that  there  were  two  Friars  Minor  Pisa,  Bologna^  and  Parb,  and  taught  at   Lucca^ 


BABTHOLOm^rs 


317 


BMWTOlOOOt 


Florence,  and  Pisa.  A  preacher  of  renown,  he  wis 
as  l^Niroed  as  he  was  devout,  as  skilled  in  Latin  and 
Tuscan  poetiy  as  he  was  versed  in  canon  and  civil 
hw.  Hb  fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  alphabetical^ 
arranged  ''Summa  de  Casibus  Conscientise",  van- 
oofliy  called  "Pisana'',  "Pisanella",  "Bartholom«a", 
and  "Magistniccia".  The  idea  if  not  the  basis  of 
this  work  was  a  "Summa  Gonfessonim"  by  John 
Rnmsik,  0.  P.,  I^ector  of  Freiburg  (d.  1314).  Bar- 
tbobmew's  treatise  was  clear  and  concise,  and  it 
eonformed  to  the  newer  laws  and  canons  of  nis  time. 
Evidently  a  hii^hlv  useful  digest,  it  was  very  popular 
and  much  used  during  the  foinrteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries,  and  was  among  the  first  books  imdertaken 
by  some  of  the  earliest  printers  of  Germanv,  France, 
and  Italy.  Nicholas  of  Osimo,  O.  M.,  added  a  su^e- 
mrat  in  1444,  which  also  appeared  in  many  editions. 
Otiiers  likewise  incorporatea  the  work  in  later  hand- 
books, notaUy  James  of  Ascoli.  O.  M.,  1464,  and 
Ange  de  Qavasio,  O.  M.,  in  his  "Smnma  Angelica". 
Apart  from  several  MSS.  on  moral  and  utenu^ 
subjects,  his  works  include  ^'De  documentis  anti- 
quorum",  edited  by  Albertus  Clarius,  O.  P.  CTarvisi, 
1601)  in  8vo.  The  same  treatise  in  the  vernacular, 
"  Ammaestramenti  degli  antichi"  (Florence,  1662), 
eame  to  be  regarded  as  a  Tuscan  classic. 

Qctmr-EcHARD,  Scriptorea  Ord,  Prod.  (Pftris,  1719).  I.  628; 
Maxdonnkt  in  DicL  de  thiol,  cath.,  436;  Panzbr,  AeUeate 
BucUruekerffnehiehte  NUmbergM  (Nuremberg.  1789),  p.  18,  n. 
22;  HcBTSB,  Nomendator  (Innsbruck,  1906),  1I»  612. 

John  R.  Volz. 

Bartholomew's  Day,  Massacre  or.  See  Saint 
Babtholombw's  Day. 

Bartholomites,  the  name  given  to  Armenian 
monks  who  sought  refuge  in  Italy  after  the  invasion 
of  their  country  by  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  in  1296. 
The  first  of  their  number  landed'  at  Genoa,  where  a 
ehurch  of  St.  Bartholomew  was  built  for  them,  hence 
their  name  Bartholomites.  Others  soon  followed  this 
first  band  and  were  established  in  various  Italian 
dtiee,  in  Parma.  Sienna,  Pisa,  Florence,  CivitA- 
Vecraia,  Rome,  and  Ancona.  To  these  early  founda- 
tionfi  were  afterwards  added  others  at  Milan,  Naples, 
Perom,  Gubbio,  Ferrara,  Boloena,  Padua,  Rimini, 
Viterbo,  etc.;  in  fact  the  Bartholomites  were  both 
Domerous  and  prosperous.  In  the  b^inning  they 
observed  the  Rule  of  St.  Basil  and  the  Armenian 
Liturgy,  Clement  V  acknowledging  their  right  thereto. 
But  in  time  they  abandoned  their  national  traditions 
for  the  Roman  Liturgy,  adopted  a  habit  resembling 
that  of  the  Dominicans  and  nnally  replaced  the  Rule 
(rf  St,  B^l  by  that  of  St.  Augustine.  Innocent  VI, 
who  approved  this  change  (13§6),  also  confirmed  the 
union  ot  their  monasteries  into  one  congregation  gov- 
erned by  a  superior-ceneral  and  a  general  chapter. 
The  superiors-general  were  at  first  elected  for  life^ 
but  in  1474  rope  Sixtus  IV  caused  them  to  be 
voted  for  every  tnree  years. 

Boniface  DC  granted  the  congregation  the  privi- 
^m  of  the  Oraer  of  St.  Dominic  and  Innocent 
Vul  and  Paul  III  ratified  the  same;  nevertheless 
the  Bartholomites  were  prohibited  from  joining  any 
otha  religious  order  except  that  of  the  Carthusians. 
Duniszo,  their  first  cardinal  protector,  was  appointed 
by  Urban  VIII  in  1640,  but  they  did  not  long  enjoy 
tnis  signal  advanta^.  Their  regular  observance 
be^  to  decline,  their  ranks  were  out  meagrely  re- 
ennted  and  most  of  their  houses  had  to  be  closed  till 
at  length  only  four  or  five  were  left,  in  which  about 
forty  monks  Uved  as  best  they  coula.  There  seemed 
to  t!e  no  way  of  averting  this  decadence.  Innocent  X 
aothorised  the  Bartholomites  to  enter  other  religious 
ordoa  or  dse  to  secularize  themselves^  assuring  each 
of  them  a  pension.  He  suppressed  their  congregation 
and  ita  houses  and  revenues  were  put  to  new  uses. 
Among  Uie  most  noted  B^iJiolonutes  were:  Father 
Mvtfai,  who  conducted  the  first  Armenian  monks  to 


Genoa  and  was  their  superior;  Father  Anthony  of 
Pisa,  who  Wis  the  first  superior-general  of  their  oon- 
gregation;  £steban  Palma,  who  four  times  held  the 
office  of  geoMoal  and  laboured  sealously  for  tiie  re- 
form of  the  eonoregation;  Cherubini  Cerbelloni  of 
Genoa  and  Paul  Cbsta  of  Blilan,  who  were  celebrated 
preachers,  and  Sooti,  Pori,  Girolamo  Gavalieri,  J.  B. 
lAdriani,  and  Gregorio  Bitio  who  left  literaary  woriu 
which  were,  however,  soon  forgotten.  In  tJieir  church 
at  Genoa  is  still  preserved  the  cdebrated  portrait 
of  Ohrist  Ipiown  as  the  Holy  Face  of  Edessa. 

Brxip,  Reianone  del  prmeMo  e  ttaUo  deiU  Rtti^ume  de*  Pr, 

It  m  Italia;  HiftLYor,  Uietotn  dee  ardree 


di  8,  BaeUi  degH  armeni 
mcnaetiqueey  I.  243-248. 


J.  M.  Bbssb. 


Bartoli,  Daniello.  a  historian  and  litUrateur, 
b.  at  Ferrara.  12  February,  1608;  d.  in  Rome.  12 
January,  1685.  After  a  brilliant  course  of  studies 
under  the  Jesuits,  he  entered  the  novitiate  of  San 
Andrea,  Rome,  in  1623,  before  the  completion  of 
his  sixteenth  year.  The  story  of  the  labours  and 
sufferings  of  tne  members  of  the  Society  of  Jesus 
in  the  Indies  and  Japan  awakened  in  the  youthful 
religious  an  ardent  desire  to  emulate  the  seal 
and  devotion  of  the  missionaries.  He  asked  to  be 
sent  on  the  foreign  missions,  but  Father  Mutius 
Vitelleschi.  the  General  of  the  order,  kept  hhn  in 
Italy.  After  some  years  of  teaching,  Father  Bu^ 
toll  began  his  apostolic  career  as  a  preacher,  his 
sermons  meeting  with  extraordinary  success  in 
Ferrara,  his  native  place,  Genoa  Lucca,  Flormce, 
and  Rome.  He  was  engaged  in  this  fruitful  mini»- 
try  when  the  contemplation  of  the  erfis  to  youth, 
caused  by  the  reading  of  romances,  suggested  one 
of  his  first  books,  "The  Learned  Man".  This  work 
was  received  with  great  applause  and  is  aaid  to 
have  gone  through  eight  editions  in  the  first  year 
of  its  put^cationj  it  was  translated  into  French, 
German,  and  Eni^ish. 

The  success  of  this  venture  decided  the  vocation 
of  Father  Bartc^  as  a  writer.  He  was  called  to 
Rome  by  his  superiors  in  1650»  and  ftom  that  time 
until  his  death  be  published  many  works  in  history 
as  well  as  in  other  departments  of  literature,  aU  of 
them  written  in  Italian.  The  best  known  and  the 
most  important  is  a  history  of  the  Society  of  Jesus, 
which  appeared  in  Rome  from  1650  to  1673.  in  six 
volumes  foho,  and  was  translated  into  Latin  by 
Father  Janin«  S.J.  Bart<^'s  works  were  coUeoted 
and  published  in  Florence  in  1826,  in  50  vols., 
16mo.  He  is  universally  esteemed  for  his  erudition, 
as  wcJl  as  for  the  purity  and  eleganoe  of  his  style. 
His  fellow-countr^onen  have  honoured  him  with 
a  place  among  we  classical  writers  of  the  Italian 
language. 

Bartoli,  Opere  Varie  (Venice.  1716).  A  dcetoh  of  the 
author  is  prenxed  to  the  first  volume.  See  also  edition  of 
Marictti    (Turin.    1826-56);    PATMGNAin,    Menologio    lor 

"~    -  - "   ipi.  8. 

km,  Bi 

_     _       _  M5  so.; 

IHeL  HiMtor;  QtAmnKn^xaur,  HuL  de  la  c  de  J,  (Bnasnls, 
1851),  IV  261;  Dbewb,  FaeU  8oc  Jee,  for  Id  Jan.,  p.  17; 
Da  QuiLBKEirr,  Mend,  de  la  e,  de  J,,  Aeeiekmee  d'ltaHe, 

EdWABD  p.  SPIIiLAlfB.. 

Btrtolo  di  8matoCeir»to.  See  Rouah  Law« 
Bartoloeci,  Giulio,  a  Cistercian  monk  and 
learned  Hebrew  scholar,  b.  at  Celleno  in  tbe  old 
kingdom  of  N^les,  1  April,  1613:  d.  at  Rome, 
19  October,  16^.  He  began  his  Hebrew  studies 
imder  Giovanni  Battista,  a  converted  Jew,  and  in 
1651  was  appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  and  rab- 
binical literature  at  the  Collegium  Neopi^rtoitim 
at  Rome  and  Scriptor  Hebraicus  at  tbe  Vatioaii 
Library.  It  was  here  that  he,  with  the  aMstauM 
of  Battista,  coQated  the  materials  for  hit  faooDooi 
WOTk  ''Bibliotheca  Ma^^  RabWniea"  wUdi  ^p- 


BAETOZAHHIO  3 

peEired  in  four  vcdumes  during  the  yean  1675-93. 
The  last  volume  was  published  by  his  disciple,  C^iio 
Giuaeppi  Imbonati,  who  also  publiahed  a  Bupple- 
mentaiy  volume  in  16S4.  Thiq  monumental  work 
oontaios  an  account  of  Jewish  literature  and  embodies, 
besides  ite  numerous  bibliographical  and  biographical 
data,  a  number  of  disaertations  on  Jewish  cuatonts, 
etc.  Although  it  hsa  been  adjudged  uncritical  by 
Rich&rd  Simon,  Bart^locci's  work  was  adopted  by 
Wolf  aa  the  baaisof  tusown  "BibliothecaHeDraica  , 
Bartolocci  died  aa  Abbot  of  the  monastery  of  St. 
Bebastiani  ad  Catacumbas  in  Rome. 

Wolf,  Bibl.  Hcbr..  i  0-9^  FDbst,  BM.  jud..  i,  SS,  iii  IiziT: 
IfoiatiU  Biograjihie  (JmveritiU,  b.  v.;  laeiih  Bntvdovtiiili, 
1.  v.;  Kaulih  in  KirchaUziam,  i,  v. 

P.  X.  E.  Albbbt. 

Bartolommeo,  Fsa,  an  Italian  pmnter  and  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Dominican  Order,  b.  in  1475  in  tlie  terri- 
tory belonging  to  Florence;  d.  at  Florence  in  1517. 
He  bore  the  worldly  name  of  Bartolommeo  di  Pagholo 
del  Fattoriuo  and  was  called,  more  familiarly,  Baccio 
della  Porta,  the  nickname  being  a  reference  to  the 
dicumstanoea  of  bis  family,  nie  work  as  a  painter 
characterizes  the  transition  of  the  Renaissance  from 
it8  early  period  to  the  time  of  its  greatest  splendour. 
In  1484  ne  entered  the  studio  of  Cosimo  Rosaelli, 
one  of  whose  pupils  at  the  same  time  was  a  tad  of 
about  Bartolommeo 's  age,  Mariotto  Albertinelli. 
The  friendship  between  Bartolommeo  and  the  some- 
what more  worldly  Albertinelli  caused  the  two  to 
Corm  a  business  partnersbip  in  1400  which  lasted 
until  1512.  At  tiroes  the  two  friends  were  estranged 
on  account  of  Bartolommeo's  admiration  for  Savon- 

Bartobnuneo  adopted  Savonarola's  theories  con- 
oeming  art,  painted  the  reformer's  picture  a  number 
of  tiroes  and  after  Savonarola's  tragic  end  (1498) 
entered  the  same  order  to  which  the  reformer  had 
belonged.    Before  this,  though,  he  had  painted  the 


BABTOLOHHSO 


For  a  number  of  years  after  his  entrance  (1500) 
into  the  Convent  of  San  Marco  he  gave  up  his  ar^ 
although  he  did  not  become  a  priest.  However,  he 
resumed  his  work,  painting  in  the  style  of  Angelim, 
which  was  in  agreement  with  the  spirit  of  Savonarola, 
and  also  in  part  in  the  style  of  Masaccio  and  Filippino. 
He  had  previously  studied  the  Florentine  art  of  tha 
time  with  great  care  and  painted,  above  all,  in  the 
roanner  of  this  school.  Iiie  influence  of  Leonardo 
da  Vinci,  who  worked  at  Florence,  or  near  by,  from 
1501  to  1608,  is  also  evident.  The  "Last  Judgment" 
dt«w  the  attention  of  Raphael,  who  was  eight  yeai^ 
the  younger  ot  the  two,  to  Bartolommeo.  Bartolom- 
meo had  charge  of  the  studio  of  San  Marco  when  Ra- 
phael came  to  Florence.  Raphael  visited  Bartolom- 
meo and  the  acquaintance  was  productive  .of  benefit 
to  both.  In  1508  Raphael  went  to  Rome.  In  the 
same  year  a  visit  to  Venice  gave  Bartolommeo  a  new 
stimulus.  The  influence  of  the  rich  colouring  used  by 
Bellini  and  Titian  showed  itself  in  the  altar-piece  fm 
the  Museum  at  Lucca), wliich  represents  God  the 
Falser,  with  St.  Catherine  and  Mary  Magdalen  in  eca- 
tasy.  Some  years  later  Bartolommeo  went  for  a 
short  time  to  Rome.  Here  he  studied  the  works  of 
Michelaneelo  in  addition  to  those  of  Raphael.  For 
a  while  he  was  m  Lucca,  but  generally  he  worked 
at  San  Marco,  where  he  finally  died. 

Fra  Bartolonuneo  developed  his  undoubted  talent 
for  painting  by  the  roost  diligent  study.  In  his 
work  deptli  ot  religious  feeling  and  the  dignity  suit- 
able to  sacred  subjects  are  happily  united  with  the 
advance  in  the  technic  of  art  of  liis  time.  In  per- 
spective, characterization  of  bis  subject,  drapery, 
colour,  grouping,  and  rhythm  of  pose  and  move- 
ment Bartolommeo  holds  to  the  (^quecento,  while 


the  impression  made  by  his  devotional  pictures  ia  ii 
no  way  lowered  by  reaCsm  or  by  seeking  after  extc " 
nal  effect.     The  works  which  he  painted  to  sell  a 


Tku  DasoENT  raoif  IWB  Croh  (PItti  Odlery.  Floranct) 

fresco  of  the  Last  Judgment,  which  is  in  the  Church 
of  ^inta  Maria  Nuova,  Florence.  The  upper  part  of 
the  fresco  depictfl  the  Saviour,  the  Virgin  Mary,  and 
tbc  Apostles;  the  figures  while  preserving  their  tradi- 
tional dignity  exhibit  a  strildng  freedom  in  the  pose. 
"The  work  also  shows  an  entirely  new  perception  of 
per^iective.  The  lower  half  of  the  fresco,  pamted  by 
Albertinelli,  is  also  skilfully  composed.  At  times,  per- 
haps, a  little  more  action  would  be  preferable.  Be- 
oiaes  this  work  all  that  we  have  of  Bartolommeo's  first 
ptaiod  are  numerous  carefully  executed  drawings  which 
are  in  various  collections.  Savonarola  made  the  same 
deep  impression  on  Bartolommeo  that  he  made  on 
many  other  Florentine  painteis.  According  to  Va- 
■Bii,  the  artist,  influenced  by  Savonarola's  preocb- 


e  and  unconscious  as  the  Fiesole  pictures, 
tor  Bartolommeo  came  more  in  contact  with  the 
world.  Tlie  "  Vision  ot  St.  Bernard"  exhibits  a  shy, 
tender  grace;  the  "  Marriage  ot  St.  Catherine"  (in  the 
Pitti  Palace,  Florence)  has  more  animation  although 
filled  with  the  mystic  dcptlia  ot  reUgious  feeling. 
Bartolommeo  loved  symmetry  in  the  grouping,  but 
he  understood  how  to  avoid  monotony  by  varying  the 
portion  of  the  body,  the  turn  of  the  head,  and  by  the 
use  of  other  signs  of  movement  as,  for  example,  in 
the  "Mother  of  Mercy"  in  the  museum  at  Lucca. 
In  an  unfinished  altar-piece  a  beauty  of  form  cxpr^ 
aive  of  the  character  of  the  perBonages  is  united  to 
skilful  variety  and  strict  adherence  to  the  etibject. 
This  altar-piece  (in  the  Uffiri  Palace,  Florence)  repre- 
sents the  patron  saints  of  Florence  with  the  Madonna 
and  Cliild.  St.  Anna  who  is  also  portrayed  is  some- 
what higher  in  position,  while  two  angels  sit  at  the 
foot  of  the  altar  and  others  are  poised  over  the  wlwie 
group. 

The  art  with  which  Bartolommeo  expressed  the 
individuality  of  his  subjects  is  still  greatly  admired 
in  small  frescoes  which  he  produced,  such  as  the 
"Ecce  Homo"  and  representations  of  the  Madonna 
with  various  saints.  The  heroic  figure  ot  St.  Mark 
in  the  Ktti  Palace,  Florence,  an  imitation  of  the 
style  of  Michelangelo,  is  lees  strikine  in  expresaon 
and  pose  than  in  the  treatment  of  the  drapery.  A 
dehghtful  simplicity  and  dignity  characterize  the 
painting  of  a  Risen  Christ  blessing  the  world.  "ITie 
evangelists  are  with  him  and  the  world  is  eecn  as  a 
landscape  in  a  mirror  held  by  two  angels.  Still  more 
unassuming  but  yet  more  beautiful  is  a  MiuloDna 
with  St.  Stephen  and  John  the  Baptist.  Another 
canvas  which  is  greatly  admired  is  a  "Descent  from 
the  Cross";  or,  "Lamentation  over  Christ",  in  which 
the  expiesdon  of  suftering  on  the  faces  is  asost  fiaely 


BA&TOLOZZI  319  BAEUOH 

pded  and  so  subdued  tliat  a  heavenly  peace  ilium-  who  sent  a  commission  of  three  Canterbuiy  Bene- 
ines  the  group.  Bartolommeo's  masterpieces  are  to  diotines,  Bocldng,  Hadleigh,  and  Barnes,  two  Fran- 
be  found  chiefly  in  Florence  and  Lucca.  ciscans,  Hugh  Kch  and  Richard  Risby,  a  diocesan 


G.  GiETMANN.        cure  her  at  a  certain  chapel  was  fulfilled,  when  in 


BtftoloMi.    Francesco,     an     engraver,    etcher,    PjJ^nce  of  a  large  crowd  sle  was  restore 


Hia  ^bpr  w»i\  mld^mit'h^Af  V-jcwlTpnt^^'iiv  anH  t**"'/.  ^it^  *  ««»*  reputation  for  boluiess.    Her 

Zy  ^At^l^  ^^it  huri^t^^^^^^o  ^«»«  g«duaUy  spread  \mtil  she  came  into  wide 

^  ten  veaw  oTW  enlravS^ two  hlad^^whidi  P.'*'^''  ■J°*'«*-     ^^  P^tested  "in  the  name  and  by 

B^nro^oThE.  f^ure^ere     In  the  FT^rltine  ^}'^  authority  of  Go5"  against  the  king's  projected 

f^e'^^yTe  le^id  to  ^oTin  oV  ch^°*^"d  tfr^    To  further. her  opposiUon.beddes  writing 

aquarelle.     Unsurpassed  by  any  artist  of  hii  day  ^  the  pope  she  had  mterviews  with  Fisher,  Wolsey, 

b^his  knowledge  of  anatomy,  and  with  a  passion  f  ^  *^  ^  ^'"^^-    O^-ng  to  her  reputation  for 

for  the  antique:  young  Bartolozri  became  a  master  !?^^*y /H  S^""^  ,T   ^'^   ^''^  ™«?*  ,^^^}^^ 

.^epictingVauV  o^f  expression,  movement,  and  ^T"^t  ^^^il'^^r^^  S"eit^iS?^B 

From  1745  until  1751  he  studied  with  Wagner,  ^L *^*""  ^^  T  ^  November  with  Dr  Booking, 

the  Venetian  historical  engraver.    This  appr^nW  ^I'^i^*^''  ««1  <>%"'  committed  to  the  Tower. 

rfup  ended,  he  married  Lucia  Ferro  and  tlie  young  Subsequently  all  the  pnsonere  were  made  to  do  pubhe 

paiir,  on  CaVdinal  Bottari's  invitation,  went  to  feome  Fnan<»  at  St.  Paul's  and  at  Canterbury  and  to  pub- 

dming  to  Venice,  his  fame  grew  very  rapidly,  Iwh  confessions  of  deception  and  fraud. 

and  in  1764,  Dalton    King  Geo^  Ill's  librarian  .J? '1*?""^'^^%  *  ^'"J  k*  »**»"»<*??; •**"  *™™**' 

took  him  to  England,  where  he  was  appointed  En-  SCf*^^!'^^  k^'*^  ''l^'  sympathizers,  among 

gra%-er  to  the  King,  and,  four  years  Tter,  Royal  3?°""  *«'«  ^">^^  ?fA  M*"*'   ,,^«'P*  the  latter; 

Academician.    In  London   he  engraved   over  tVo  ^^^  ,T"l  iT"  '^**'4«7°,'.  '^^''^  condemned 

thousand  pUtes,  neariy  all  in  stipple  or  the  "red-  ^^^"^  p^ J""' ^'*^?'  i^u"^^  ^^^'  ^'f**!!,' 

chalk  style",  a  method  recently  invented  by  the  ?'?' ♦?''*^?',  "S^ iP*^*^!*"  ^^iT^  ^"^  ^S**""^ 

French,  but  trought  into  vogue  knd  elevated  mto  a  *«  f •«'**^'  ^^^  ^^^"^  f^  fiy«»  o**** "  '^5"'  "^^r  *T?? 

distinct   art    by   Bartolozzi.*  He   devoted    hin^lf  to  imprisonment  and  forfeiture  of  goods.    Hizabeth 

to  the  human  figure,  and  his  engravings  aboundin  55*^>^  ????'tT'^  ^"^  *T*"*1!*  **  ^^11!]?  i."" 

sweet  and  tende?  tyi)es  of  beauty,  graceful  in  form  ^A^^^i  '^K''  she  is  said  to  have  repeated  her 

and  outline.    Eveiyi^ere  are  foiAcf  delicate  modu-  concession.    Protestant   authors   allege    t>at    these 

lations  of  Ught  and  shade  with  a  roundness,  finish,  ??°^^1H-  *^°"?f  "*  *?""'*i?"I*  "l  her  imposture, 

and  suggestion  of  flesh  never  before  seen  in  eAgrave^  fej^*''"^"  r"*?"'  ^^°^K  ^^u^  ^^""l  ^*'*  ^^.^ 

^Qj^  ^^                                                             °  hold  divergent  opimons  about  the  nun,  have  pointed 

Bartolozzi's  drawing  was  superb;  and  although  °?*'  ^^  «Jggestive  fact  that  aU  thatis  known  as  to 
be  was  a  reproductive  artist  he^proved  the  work  *-^  confessiona  emanatw  from  Cromwell  or  his 
he  copied,  specially  the  drawing,  even  Sir  Joshua  ?gf"*f,i  that  all  available  documento  are  on  his  side; 
Reynolds  th^kmg  him  for  such  a  service.  His  that  the  confession  issued  as  hers  is  on  the  face  of  it 
pupils  caUed  him  the  "god  of  drawing".  His  splen-  »»°t  her  own  composition:  that  she  and  her  corn- 
did  line  work  was  obscured  by  the  weat  popularity  §"""»«  '^^^  ^''"^l^'^'T^J' ^^^l^"^^  ^^^  ^^' 
attained  by  his  stippled  printe,  and  his^w  etch-  dinned  and  executed  unheard:  that  there  is  contem- 
inffl  show  a  free  bold  and  unfettered  sween  of  PO'^O' evidence  that  the  alleged  confession  was  even 
Bm  Thev  too  '  were 'renroduced  from  nictuies  "'®'*  believed  to  be  a  forgery.  For  these  reasons 
by  'others     but  'the   translaticn   alwavs   iinoroved  *'*®  matter  cannot  be  considered  as  settled,  and  un- 

on  the  ori^al     In  1802  Bartolozzi  we^t  to.fisbon,  t^*fL  't.^^Jl^l  °ij^^;±.f^L  "^"^ 
Where  he  was  knighted, 
taught    until    his   dcatl 

church     of     Saint     Isabella.    Among     ^     _  ,.  ..  

best  productions  are  the  " Royal  Academy  Diploma",  ^^^SS^JS^w^FSir'nsSrf '  ^^TiJ^Tf^i^SP^j^Jb 

"TTie    Marlborough    Gems",  the    "Illustrations   tcJ  TlS^!^yT'     '   ^  ^"^  ^^^^*  "'  ^''^'"*  ^"  "^  ^^ 

Shakespeare",  and  some  of   his  small   "Tickets",  Edwin  Burton. 

all  in  stipple:  and  "The  Silence"  and  "Clytie",  en-        »««„.i.    /xr  u    d^-^ll    ui       j    t>      j-.^ 

graved  in  pui^  line.  fl.^i^LJP?^T.T^^^^^-  ^'•T^i  Benedict; 

TuEB.  Bafiolozn  and  BU  Work*  (London.  1881).  2  vol*.  ^V}-  B«P«>x)r  f.   BaruCT,  the  disciple  of  Jeremias. 

Leigh  Hunt.  ^^d  the  traditional  author  of  the  deutero-canonical 

book,  which  bears  his  name.     He  was  the  son  of 

Bftrton,  Elizabeth,  b.  probably  in  1506;  executed  Nerias  (Jer.,  xxxii,  12, 16;  xxxvi,  4,  8,  32;  Bar.,  i,  1), 

atTybum,  20  April,  1634;  called  the  "Nun  of  Kent",  and  most  probably  the  brother  of  Saraias,  chief 

The  career  of  this  visionary,  whose  prophecies  led  cnamberlain  to  King  Sedecias  (Jer.,  xxxii,  12;  li.  59; 

to  ber  execution  imder  Henry  VIII,  has  been  the  Bar.,  i,  1).    After  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem  had  been 

aouree  of  a  historical  controversy  which  resolves  itself  plundered  by  Nabuchodonosor  (699  b.  c),  he  wrote 

into  the  question:  Was  she  gifted  with  supernatural  under  the  dictation  of  Jeremias  the  oracles  of  that 

knowledge  or  was  she  an  impostor?    In  1626,  when  n^at  prophet,  foretelling  the  return  of  the  Baby- 

nineteen  years  of  age,  being  then  employed  as  a  tonians,  and  read  them  at  the  risk  of  his  life  in  the 

domestic  servant  at  Aldington,  Kent,  she  had  an  hearing  of  the  Jewish  people.     He  wrote  also  the 

iflnesB,  during  which  she  fell  into  frequent  trances  secona  and  enlarged  edition  of  the  prophecies  of 

and  toki  "wondrously  things  done  in  other  places  Jeremias  after  the  first  had  been  burned  oy  the  in- 

vhilBt  she  was  ndther  neiself  present  nor  yet  heard  no  furiated  kin^,  Joddm  (Jer.,  xxxvi).    Throughout  his 

report  thereof ".    From  the  first  her  utterances  as-  life  he  remained  true  to  the  teachings  and  ideals  of 

amned  a  religious  character  and  were  "  of  marvellous  the  great  prophet,  although  he  seems  at  times  to 

hotiiien  in  rebuke  of  sin  and  vice".    Her  parish  have  given  way  to  feelings  of  dependency,  and  per- 

pQCrty  Richard  Masters,  convinced  of  her  sincerity,  haps  even  of  personal  ambition  (cf.  Jer.,  xlv).    He 

Mfiotted  the  matt^  to  the  Archbishop  of  Cant«]rNiry;  was  with  Jeremias  during  the  last  siege  of  JeruMlem. 


MUKOOB, 


320 


and  witnessed  the  purchajse  hy  the  prophet  of  hia 
ancestral  estate  in  Anathoth  (Jer.,  xxxii).  After  the 
fall  of  the  Holy  City  and  the  ruin  of  the  Temple 
(588  B.  c.)  Banioh  lived  probably  for  some  time  with 
Jeremias  at  Masphath.  His  enemies  accused  him  of 
having  prompted  the  prophet  to  advise  the  Jews  to 
remain  m  Juda,  instead  of  goUig  down  into  Egypt, 
as  thev  were  contemplating.  In  consequence,  he  was 
carried,  together  with  his  master,  to  Ervpt  (Jer., 
xliii),  where,  according  to  a  Hebrew  tracution  pre- 
served by  St.  Jerome  (In  Isai.,  xxx,  6,  7),  both  oied 
before  Nabuchodonoeor  invaded  that  countnr.  This 
tradition,  however,  conflicts  with  the  data  found  in 
the  opening  chapter  of  the  Prophecy  of  Baruch, 
wherem  we  are  told  of  Baruch  writing  his  book  in 
Babvlonia,  reading  it  publicly  in  the  fifth  year  after 
the  burning  of  the  Holy  Citjr,  and  apparently  beine 
sent  to  Jerusalem  by  the  Jewish  captives  with  sacred 
vessels  and  gifts  destined  to  the  sacrificial  service  in 
Yahweh's  Temple.  It  conflicts  likewise  with  various 
traditions,  both  Jewish  and  Christian,  which  perhaps 
contain  some  particles  of  truth,  but  which  do  not 
allow  us  to  determine  the  date,  place,  or  manner  of 
Baruch's  death,  with  anvthing  like  probability. 

In  the  Catholic  Bible  "the  ftophecy  of  Baruch"  is 
made  up  of  six  chapters,  the  last  of  which  bears  the 
special  title  of  an  ^'Epistle  of  Jeremias".  and  does 
not  belong  to  the  book  proper.  The  Propnecy  opens 
with  an  nistorical  introduction  (i,  1-14),  stating 
fiirst  (1-2)  that  the  book  was  written  by  Baruch  at 
Babylon  in  the  fifth  year  after  Jerusalem  had  been 
burned  by  the  Chaldeans,  and  next  (w.  3-14)  that 
it  was  read  in  an  assembly  of  King  Jechonias  and 
other  Babylonian  exiles  upon  whom  it  produced  the 
most  benencial  effects.  Tne  first  section  in  the  body 
of  the  book  H,  15:  iii,  8)  contains  a  twofold  confession 
of  the  sins  wnich  led  to  the  exile  (i,15— ii,5;  ii,  6-13), 
together  with  a  prayer  that  Qod  may  at  len^h 
forgive  His  people  (ii,  14;  iii,  8).  While  the  foregomg 
section  has  much  in  common  with  the  Book  ot 
Daniel  (Dan.,  ix,  4-19).  Baruch-s  second  section 
(iii,  9;  iv,  4)  closely  resembles  passages  in  Job,  xxviii, 
xxxviii.  It  is  a  beautiful  panegyric  of  that  Divine 
Wisdom  which  is  nowhere  founa  except  in  the  Law 
given  to  Israel;  only  in  the  guise  of  the  Law  has 
Wisdom  appeared  on  the  earth  and  become  accessible 
to  man;  let,  therefore,  Israel  prove  faithful  again  to 
the  Law.  The  last  section  of  the  Book  of  Baruch 
extends  from  iv,  5  to  v,  9.  It  is  made  up  of  four 
odes,  each  beginning  with  the  expression,  "Take 
courage"  (iv,  5,  21,  27,  30),  and  of  a  psalm  closely 
connected  with  the  eleventh  of  the  apocryphal 
Psalms  of  Solomon  (iv,  36;  v.  9).  Chapter  vi  contiains 
as  an  appendix  to  the  whole  book  '"The  Epistle  of 
Jeremias",  sent  by  that  prophet  "to  them  that  were 
to  be  led  away  captives  into  Babylon"  by  Nabucho- 
donosor.  Because  of  their  sins  they  were  to  be  re- 
moved to  Babylon  and  to  remain  there  "for  a  long 
time,  even  to  seven  generations".  In  that  heathen 
city  they  would  witness  the  gorgeous  worship  paid 
to  "ffods  of  gold,  and  of  silver,  and  of  stone,  and  of 
wood",  but  snould  not  conform  to  it.  All  such  gods, 
it  is  argued  in  various  ways,  are  powerless  and  perish- 
able works  of  man's  hand;  they  can  do  neither  harm 
nor  good;  so  that  they  are  not  gods  at  all. 

It  is  certain  that  this  sixth  chapter  of  Baruch  is 
truly  distinct  from  the  rest  of  the  work.  Not  only  its 
special  title,  "The  Epistle  of  Jeremias",  but  also  its 
style  and  contents  clearly  prove  that  it  is  a  writing 
wholly  independent  of  the  Prophecy  of  Baruch. 
Again,  while  some  Greek  MSS.  that  have  Baruch 
have  not  the  "Epistle"  others,  amonc  the  best,  have 
it  separate  from  the  Book  of  Barucn  and  immedi- 
ately before  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremias.  The  fact 
that  the  sixth  chapter  of  Baruch  bears  the  title, 
"The  Epistle  of  Jeremias",  has  been,  and  is  still  in 
the  eyes  of  many,  a  decisive  reason  for  holding  the 


time-homnffed  view  that  that  great  prophet  k  tti 
author.    It  is  also  urged  that  the  vivia  and  aocunte 
description  of  the  splendid,  but  infamous,  worriiip  o( 
the  Babylonian  gods  in  Baruch,  vi^  makes  for  the 
traditional  authorship,  since  Jer.,  ziiK  5,  6^  probably 
speaks  of  the  twofold  joununr  of  Jereimas  to  the 
Euphrates.     Finally  it  is  aflormed  that  a  certain 
number  of  Hebraisms  can  be  traced  t>ack  to  a  Helwew 
ori^nal  point  in  the  same  direction.    Over  agunst 
this   traditional    view,    most   contemporary  critioB 
argue  that  the  Greek  style  of  Baruch,  vi,  proves  that 
it  was  originally  written  not  in   Hebrew,  but  in 
Greek,  and  that  consequently  Jeremias  is  not  the 
author  of  the  Epistle  ascribed  to  him.     For  this  and 
for  other  reasons  suggested  by  the  study  of  the  con- 
tents of  Baruch,  vi,  Uiey  think  that  St.  Jerome  was 
decidedly  correct  when  he  called  this  writing  i^cvderf- 
7pa0of .  tnat  is,  inscribed  with  a  false  name.   How- 
ever this  may  be,  an  impartial  study  of  the  Canon 
of  Holy  Writ  proves  that,  despite  tne  assertions  of 
Protestants  to  the  contraiy,  Baruch,  vi,  has  always 
been  recognized  by  the  Church  as  an  inspired  woik. 
With  regard  to  the  ori^al  language  of  the  Book 
of  Baruch  proper  (chaps,  i-v),  a  variety  of  opinions 
prevail   among  contemporaiy   scholars.     Naturally 
enough,  those  who  simply  abide  by  the  title  which 
ascribes  the  Book  to  Eianich,  admit  that  the  whole 
work  was  originally  written  in  Hebrew.    On  the  con- 
trary, most  of  those  who  question  or  reject  the  cor- 
rectness of  that  title  think  that  this  writing  was 
totally,  or  at  least  partially,  composed  in  Gred.    It 
is  indeed  true  that  the  Greek  literary  features  of  the 
various  sections  do  not  point  back  with  equal  force 
to  a  Hebrew  original.    Yet,  it  can  hardly  be  doubted 
that  the  whole  of  Baruch  proper  in  its  extant  Greek 
form  looks  like  a  translation.   The  linguistic  evidence 
is  also  confirmed  by  the  following  considerations: 
(1)  It  is  highly  probable  that  Theoootion  (end  of  the 
second  century  of  our  era)  translated  the  Book  of 
Baruch  from  a  Hebrew  original.    (2)  There  are  some 
marginal  notes  of  the  Syro-Hexaplar  text  stating 
that  a  few  words  in  the  Greek  "are  not  foimd  in  the 
Hebrew".     (1)  Baruch,  i.  14,  says  that  the  book 
was  meant  to  be  read  publicly  in  the  Temple;  hence 
it  must  have  been  composed  m  Hebrew  for  that  pur- 

Eose.  Besides  this  unity  as  regards  its  original 
inguaj^e,  Baruch  presents  a  certain  unity  in  point 
of  subject-matter,  so  that  most  of  these  who  main- 
tain that  the  whole  work  was  primitively  written  in 
Hebrew  admit  also  its  unity  oi  composition.  There 
are,  however,  in  the  Book  of  Baruch  many  traces 
of  the  compilatory  process  whereby  its  various  parts 
were  apparently  brought  together.  The  difference  to 
literary  form  between  i-iii,  8,  on  the  one  hand  and 
iii,  9-5,  is  very  great  indeed,  and,  taken  together  with 
the  abrupt  manner  in  which  the  paneg^c  on  Wis- 
dom is  introduced  at  iii,  9,  suggests  a  mfferenoe  with 
respect  to  orisin.  The  two  cmifessions  of  the  sins 
which  led  to  the  exile  in  i,  15;  iii,  8,  are  put  side  by 
side  without  any  natural  transition.  The  literary 
differences  between  iii.  ^— ivj  4,  and  iv,  6—^ ,  0,  are 
considerable,  and  the  oeginning  of  the  third  section 
at  iv,  5,  is  no  less  abrupt  than  that  of  the  seoond  at 
iii,  9.  Again,  the  historical  introduction  seems  to 
have  been  composed  as  a  preface  to  only  i,  16— 4i,  5. 
In  view  of  these  and  other  such  facts,  contiemporary 
critics  generally  think  that  the  work  is  the  outeome 
of  a  compilatory  process,  and  that  its  unity  is  due 
to  the  final  editor,  who  put  together  the  various  docu- 
ments which  obviously  bore  upon  the  exile.  Suefa  a 
literary  method  of  composition  does  not  neoessarily 
conflict  with  the  traditionid  authorship  of  the  Book 
of  Baruch.  Many  of  the  sacred  writers  of  the  Bible 
were  compilers,  and  Baruch  may,  and,  according  to 
the  CathoKo  scholars  who  admit  the  compilatoiy 
character  of  the  work  inscribed  to  him.  must»  be 
numbered  among  them.    The  grounds  oi  Gathoiiof 


]|AiMJ(<fi                             321  BASIL 

for  this  view  are  chiefly  three:  (1)  The  book  is  as-  among  other  things:  Grant  us,  O  Lord,  Thy  streng;th 
cribed  to  Baruch  by  its  title;    (2)  it  haa  always  been  and  i>roteetion;  make  the  evil  good  and  preserveuie 
regarded  as   Banich's    work  oy  tradition;    (3)  its  just  in  their  righteousness.  For  Thou  canst  do  all 
coDtents  present  nothing  that  would  be  later  than  things  and  there  is  no  one  who  may  oppose  Thee; 
Baruch's  time,  or  that  should  be  regarded  as  foreign  for  when  Thou  desirest,  Thou  savest,  and  no  one  re- 
to  the  style  and  manner  of  that  faimful  disciple  and  sists  Thy^  will. "     (P.  L.,  LXV,  449.) 
secretary  of  Jeremias.    Over  agaipst  this  view,  non-  Leontius  of  Byzantium,  writing  about  the  middle  oi 
Catholics  aigue:  (1)  That  its  ultimate  basis  is  simply  the  sixth  centiuy,  censures  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia 
the  title  of  the  lx)ok;  (2)  that  this  title  itself  is  not  because  he  was  not  content  with  the  liturgies  handed 
in  harmony  with  the  historical  and  literary  contents  down  by  the  Fathers  to  the  churches,  but  composed 
of  the  work;  and  (3)  that  those  contents,  when  im«  a  Mass  of  his  own,  showing,  thereby,  no  reverence 
partially  examined,  point  to  a  much  later  compiler  either  for  that  oi  the  Apostles,  or  for  that  composed 
than  Baruch;  in  fact  some  of  them  go  so  far  as  to  in  the  same  spirit  by  the  great  St.  Basil  (r.  G., 
ascribe  the  composition  of  the  book  to  a  writer  living  LXXXVI,  1368).    The  Quinisext,  or  Trullan  Coun- 
after  a.  d.  70.     Catholics  easily  disprbve  this  last  cil  (692),  in  its  thi^-seoond  canon  draws  an  argu- 
date  for  the  Book  of  Baruchj  out  they  do  not  so  ment  from  the  written  liturgy  of  the  archbishop  of 
easily  dispose  of  the  serious  difficulties  that  have  been  the  church  of  the  Csesareans,  St.  Basil,  whose  glory 
raised  against  their  own  ascription  of  the  whole  work  has  spread  through  the  whole  world  (Mansi.  Coll. 
to  Baruch.    Their  answers  are  considered  as  suffi-  Cone,  XI,  958).     Finally,  in  the  Barberini  library 
dent  by  Catholic  scholars  generally.     Should  any  there  is  a  manuscript  of  tne  latter  part  of  the  eighth, 
one,  however,  judge  them  inadequate,  and  therefore  or  the  early  part  of  the  ninth,  century  which  con- 
consider  the  Book  of  Baruch  as  the  work  of  a  later  tains  a  Greek  liturgy  entitled  the  "Liturgy  of  St. 
editor,  the  inspired  character  of  the  book  would  still  Basil". 

remain,  provided  this  later  editor  himself  be  re-  It  is  not  known  precisely  just  what  the  nature  of 

garded  as  inspired  in  his  work  of  compilation.    That  the  Basilian  reform  was,  nor  what  liturgy  serv^  as 

the  Book  of  Baruch  is  "a  sacred  and  canonical''  the  basis  of  the  saint's  work.     Very  probably  he 

writing  has  been  defined  by  the  Coimcil  of  Trent:  shortened  and  changed  somewhat  the  bturgy  of  his 

that  it  has  just  as  much  right  to  be  held  'Mnspirea  own  diocese,  which  was  akin  to  the  Liturgy  of  St. 

of  God"  as  any  other  book  of  Holy  Writ  can  readily  James.    In  later  times  it  underwent  some  aevelop- 

be  shown  by  a  close  study  of  the  Uaxion  of  the  Bible,  ment,  so  that  with  our  present  knowledge  of  its 

Its  Latin  rendering  in  our  Vulgate  goes  back  to  the  history  it  would  be  almost  impossible  to  reconstruct 

old  Latin  ver^on  anterior  to  St.  Jerome,  and  is  it  as  it  came  from  the  pen  of  the  Bishop  of  Csesarea. 

tolerably  literal  from  the  Greek  text.  According:  to  the  tradition  of  the  Greek  Orthodox 

n.  Baruch,  the  son  of  Zachai,  who  helped  to  re-  Church,  their  liturgy  is  practically  the  wofk  of  St. 

build  the  wcdl  of  Jerusalem  (II  Esd.,  iii,  20).  Basil,  due  allowance  being  made  for  changes  and 

in.  Baruch,  a  priest  who  signed  the  renewed  amdioration  in  the  course  of  time.    This  is  older 

Covenant  after  the  Exile;  perhaps  the  same  as  the  than  either  of  the  other  two  Byzantine  litumes, 

forcing  (II  Esd.,  x,  6).  and  is  mentioned  under  the  name  of  St.  Basu  in 

Iv.  Baruch,  ope  of  the  children  of  Juda  who  ancient  times  as  if  it  were  then  the  normal  litur^. 

settled  in  Jenisalem  after  the  Captivity  (II  Esd.,  Of  the  anaphoras  attributed  to  St.  Basil  the  Synac 

xi,  5).  and  Armeman  are  probably  derived  from  the  Byzan* 


(1801).                                       '                      '  Arabic,  and  Greek  Egyptian  liturgies  are  substantially 

inindueHont  of  S.  Davidson  (18^);  Vigouroux  (1880);  the  same.    These  Egyptian  anaphoras  of  St.  Basil 

Ww  (1890);  Tbochon  (1890);  Cornblt  (1897);  Gioor  are  different  from  the  Cesarean  or  Byzantme  liturgy, 

Pji^)f(;ig  £  GiooT.  ^^^  ^^  ^^^  possess  all  the  characteristics  of  3^e 

Alexandrian  Kite,  but  appear  rather  to  be  modelled 

Bamchy  Apocaltpbb  op.    See  Apocrypha.  on  the  Syrian  type,  so  they  are  probabljr  an  importa- 

Bftiedow,  JOHANN  Bbbnhard.    See  Philanthro.  tion*into   Egypt.    The   Greek   Egyptian   contains 

nmMi^  several  prayers  (identic^  with  those  m  the  Byzantme 

•  liturgy)  expressly  ascribed  to  St.  Basil,  and  from 

Basil,  LrruROY  op  Saint. — Several  Oriental  litur-  these  it  may  derive  its  title, 

gies.  br  at  least  several  anaphoras,  have  been  attrib-  The  Cses£u*ean  or  Byzantine  Liturgy  is  used  in  the 

utea   to   the  great   St.   Basil,   Bishop  of  C^sarea  coimtries  which  were  evangelized  from  Constanti- 

in  Cappadoda  from  370  to  379.    That  St.  Basil  nople,  or  which  came  under  its  influence  for  any 

composed  a  liturgy,  or  rather  reformed  an  existing  considerable  period.    It  is  used,  for  example,  by  the 

fittogy,  is  beyona  doubt,  since  besides  the  constant  Orthodox  and  Uniat  Greek  churches  in  the  Orient, 

tradition  of  the  Byzantine  Church  ^ere  are  many  as  well  as  by  the  Greek  communities  in  Italy  and 

testimonies  in  ancient  writings  to  establish  the  fact.  Sicily.    Translated  into  the  Old  Slavonic  it  is  used 

In  a  treatise  on  the  tradition  of  the  Divine  liturgy  by  (Jrthodox  and  Uniat  Cathodes  in  Russia  and  in 

attributed  to  St.  Proclus,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  some  parts  of  the  Austrian  Empire;  translated  into 

(43^-466),  it  is  stated  that  when  St.  Basil  noticed  Georgian  and  Rumanian    it  is  used    respectively 

the  slothfulness  and  degeneracy  of  men,  how  they  in  Georgia  and  Rumania.     It  has  also  been  trans- 


testimony  to  the  existence  of  a  litur^cal 

text  which  went  under  the  name  of  St.  Basil  is  given  use  in  Syria.    Since  the  Liturgy  of  St.  John  Chnrsos- 

in  a  letter  of  Peter  the  Deacon,  one  of  the  Scythian  torn  has  become  the  normal  liturgy  of  the  Greek 

monks  sent   to  Rome  to  settle  certain  donnatic  Church,  that  of  St.  Basil  is  now  used  only  on  the 

questionsw     Writing  about  the  year  520  to  the  African  Sundays  of  Lent  with  the  exception  of  Palm  Sunday, 

bishops   in   exile  m  Sardinia,  Peter,  an  Oriental,  on  Holy  Thursday  and  Holy  Saturday,  on  the  vigas 

mentioiis  a  Liturgy  of  St.  Basil,  which  was  known  of  Christmas  and  of  the  Epiphany,  and  on  the  feast 

and  used  throughout  the  entire  East,  and  even  quotes  of  St.  Basil,  which  in  the  Greek  calendar  occurs  on 

a  passage  from  it:    ''Hence,  also.   Blessed  Basil,  the  first  day  of  January. 

Bisfaop  of  Ctesaria,  in  a  prayer  of  the  holy  altar,  The  liturgy  may  be  divided  into  the  Mass  of  the 

with  which  almost  the  entire  East  is  familiar,  says  catechumens  and  the  Mass  of  the  faithful.    The  first 
U.— 21 


contains  the  prayers  of  the  prathesia,  of  the  snti-  had  for  euide  a  tradition  accepted  by  all  the  monlta. 

phons,  of  the  little  entrance,  and  of  the  triweon,  Thia  tradition  was  enriched  as  time  went  on  bv  the 

the  lessons,  and  the  prayers  of  the  ecteaes  and  of  the  decisioEis   of    councils,    by    the    ordinances    of   the 

talochumens.     The  Maas  of  the  faithful  b^ns  with  Emperors  of  Constantinople,  and  bv  the  repilatiota 

the   two  prayers  of  the  faithful,  and  contains   the  of  a  number  of  revered  abbots.     Tnus  there  anMc  s 

prayer  of  the  great  entrance,  the  prayer  of  the  Offer-  body  of  law  by  which  the  monasteries  were  regulated. 

tory,  which  is  expressly  ascribed  lo  St.  Basil,  the  klas  Some   of   these   lavs  were   accepted   by  all,  others 

of  peace,  the  Creed,  and  tha  Anaphora.    The  Ana-  were  observed  only  by  the  houses  of  some  one  coun- 

phora  proper,  starting  with  the  Eucharistic  Preface  try,  wbile  there  were  regulations  which  applied  only 

followed  l^  the  Sanctus,  embraces  the  prq>aratarv  to   certain   communities.       In  this   reganl   Orientu 

prayers  for  the  Consecration,  the  Consecration  itself,  monaaticism  bears  much  resemblance  to  that  of  the 

the  Epiclesis  or  invocation  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  Weet;  a  great  variety  of  observances  is  noticeable. 

Great  Intercession  for  the  living  and  the  dead,  the  The  existence  of  the  Rule  of  St.  Basil  formed  a 

Lord's    Prayer,    the    inclination,  Elevatbn,    Com-  princi^e  of  unity. 

mumoujthanluigiviag,  and  dismissal.  II.  Thi:  Monabtebieb  of  the  East.— ^Tbe  monas- 

rum  (VcaiM.  1730);  teries  of  Cappadocia  were  the  first  to  accept  the  Rule 

jfars  (Oilord.  I90fl»  of  St.  Basil;  it  afterwards  spread  gradually  to  all 

SS^CM^^^  **•*  monasteries  of  the   East.     Those  of  Armenia, 

ud  ^VAOsoH.  Th*  Chaldea,  and  of  the  Syrian  countries  in  general  pre- 

iLE.  Hitiorv  ol  At  ferred  instead  of  the  Rule  of  St.  Basil  those  observ- 

nmoa^S^a^-  *°***  '^^'^'^^  "*"*  ''I'O'™  among  them  as  the  Rule  of 

rie  (Fmnlitort.  1S4T)!  St.    Anthony.      Neither   the   ecclesiastical    nor   the 

J.  P.  GoooiN.  imperial  authority  was  exerted  to  make  conformity 

to  the  Baaiiian  Rule  universal.     It  is  therefore  im- 

Bull,  RnLE  OF  Saint, — I.  Under  the   name  of  possible  to  tell  the  e;>ach  at  which  it  acquired  the 

Basilians  are  included  all  the  religious  who  follow  supremacy  m  the  reli^ous  communities  of  the  Greek 

the  Rule  of  St.   Basil.      The   monasteries   of  aucb  world;  but  the  date  is  probably  an  early  one.     The 

religious    have    never    possessed    tlie    hierarchical  development  of  monaaticism  was,  in  short,  the  cause 

organisation  which  ordinarily  exists  in  the  houses  of  its  diffusion.     Protected  by  the  emperors  and 

of  an  order  properly  so  called.     Only  a  few  houses  patriarchs  the  monasteries  increased  rapidlv  in  num- 

were  formerly  grouped  into  congregations  or  are  to-  ber.    In  536  the  Diocese  of  Constantinople  Contained 

day  so  combined.     St.  Basil  drew  up  his  Ruie  for  no  less  than  sixty-eight,   that  of  Chalcedon   forty, 

the  members  of  the  monastery  he  founded  about  356  and  these  numbers  continually  inci«aaed.    Although 

on   the   banks  of   the   Iris   in   Cappadocia.      Before  monaaticism  was  not  able  to  spread  in  all  parts  of 

forming   tliis   community   St.    Basil   visited   Egypt,  the  empire  with  equal  rapidity,  yet  what  it  probably 

Palestine,  C<Elesvria.  and  Mesopotamia  in  order  to  must  have  been  may  be  inferred  from  these  figures. 

see  for  himself  the  manner  of  life  led  by  the  monks  These  monks  took  an  active  part  in  the  ecclesiastical 

in  these  countries.     St.  Gregory  of  Natianzus,  who  life  of  their  time;  they  had  a  share  in  all  the  quarrels. 

shared  the  retreat,  aided  Basil  by  his  advice  and  both  theological  and  other,  and  were  associated  with 

experience.     The  Rule  of  Basil  is  divided  into  two  all  the  works  of  charity.     Their  monasteries   were 

parts:  the  "Greater  Monastic  Rules"  (RegulEe  fusius  places  of  retuge   for  studious   men.      Many_  of   the 

tractatte,  Migne,  P.  G.,  XXXI,  889-1052),  and  the  bishops  and  patriarchs  were  chosen  from  their  ranks. 

"Lesser Rules"  (Reeuls  brevius  tractets,  ibid,  1051-  Their  history  is  mterwoven,  therefore,  with  that  of 

1306).      Rufinus   who   translated   them   into   Latin  the  Oriental  Churches.     They  gave  to  the  preaching 

united  the  two  into  a  single  Rule  under  the  name  of  the   Gospel   ite   greatest   apostles.      As   a   result 

of  "Regulte  sancti  Basilii  episcopi  Cappadociee  ad  monastic  life  gainea  a  footing  at  the  same  time  aa 

monachos"   (P.   L.,  CIIl,  483-554);   this   Rule  was  Christianity  among  all  the  races  won  to  the  Faith. 

followed  by  some  western  monasteries.    For  a  long  The  position  of  the  monks  in  the  empire  was  one  of 

time  the  Bishop  of  Cssarea  was  wrongly  held  to  be  great   power,  and   their   wealth   helped   to   increase 

the  author  of  a  work  on  monasticism  callfd  "Cbn-  their    mfluence.      Thus    their    develomneut    ran    a 

■titutionea  monastics"  (P.  G.,  XXXI,  1316-1428J.  course  parallel  to  that  of  their  Western  brethren.    The 

In  his  Rule  St.  Basil  follows  a  catechetical  method;  monka,  as  a  rule,   followed   the  theological   vicissi- 


the  disciple  asks  a  question  to  which  the  master  tudes  of  the  emperors  and  patriarchs,  and  tfaey 
replies.  He  Umits  himself  to  laying  down  indisputa-  showed  no  notable  independence  except  duHnK 
ble   principles  which  will   guide   the  superiors  and    the   iconoclastie   persecution;   the  stand   they    took 


a  their  conduct,    m  sends  his  monks  to  the  in  this  aroused  the  anger  of  the  imperial  coatn>- 

Saored  Scriptures;  in  his  eyes  the  Bible  is  the  basis  of  veisialists.    The  Faith  had  its  martyrs  among  them; 

all  monastic  legislation,  the  true  Rule.   The  questions  many  of  them  were  condemned  to  exile,  and  some 

refer   generally   to    the    virtues    which    the    monks  took  advantage  of  this  condemnation  to  reorganise 

should  practise  and  the  vices  they  should  avoid.    The  their  relieious  life  in  Italy. 

greater  number  of  the   replies   contain   a  verse  or        Of  all  the  monasteries  of  this  period  the  most,  cde- 

several  verses  of  the  Bible  accompaaied  by  a  comment  brated  waa  that  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  of  Studium, 

which   defines    the   meaning.     The    most   striking  founded  at  Constantinople  in  the  fifth  century.     It 

qualities  of  the  Basilian  Rule  are  its  prudence  and  acquired   ite  fame  in   the   time  of  the  iconoclaatic 

its  wisdom.     It  leaves  U.  the  superiors  the  care  of  persecution  while  it  was  under  the  government  of 

settling  the  many  details  of  local,  individual,  and  theialnUy  Hemtmenos  (abbot)  Theodore,  called    the 

daily  life;   it  does  not  determine   the  material  ex-  Studite,     Nowhere  did  the  heretical  emperors  meet 

ercise  of  the  observance  oi  the  administrative  regu-  with    more    courageous   resistance.     At    the    same 

lations  of  the  monastery.     Poverty,  obedience,  re-  time  the  monasten^  was  an  active  centre  of  uitelleo- 

nunciation,  and  self-abnegation  are  the  virtues  which  tual  and  artistic  life  and  a  model  which  exercised 

St.  Basil  makes  the  foundation  of  the  monastic  life,  considerable  influence  on   monastic  observanoee   in 

As  he  gave  it,  the  Rule  could  not  suffice  for  any-  the  East.    Further  details  may  be  found  in  "  Prescrip- 

one   who   wished   to  organize   a   monastery,   for  it  tio  constitutionis  monasterii  Studii"  (Migne,  P.  0-, 

tAkes  this  work  as  an  accomplished  fact.     The  life  XCIX,  1703-20),  and  the  monastery's  "Canones  de 

of  theCappadocian  monks  could  not  be  reconstrueted  confesaione  et  pro  peccatissatisfactione"  (ibid,  1721— 

from  his  references  to  the  nature  and  number  of  the  30).    Theodore  attributed  the  observances  followed 

meals  and  to  the  garb  of  the  inmates.    The  superiors  by  his  monks  to  hia  uncle,  tbe  saintly  Abbot  Flatty 


BjUOL                                   323  BASIL 

■ 

who  fint  introduced  them  in   his  monastery  of  the  spirit  ot  proselytism  existed  in  the  East  thf 
Saccudium.      The    other    monasteries,    one    after  monasteries  furnished  the  Church  with  all  its  mis- 
another,  adopted  them,  and  they  are  still  followed  sionaries.    The  names  of  two  have  been  inscribed 
bv  the  monks  of  Mount  Athos.    The  monastery  of  by  Rome  in  its  calendar  of  annual  feasts,  namely, 
Mount  Athos  was  foimded  towards  the  close  of  the  St.  Cyril  and  St.  Methodius,  the  Apostles  of  the  Slavs, 
tenth  century  through  the  aid  of  the  Emperor  Basil  The  Byzantine  schism  did  not  cnange  sensibly  the 
the  Macedonian  and  became  the  largest  and  most  position  of  the  Basilian  monks  and  monasteries, 
celebrated  of  all  the  monasteries  of  the  Orient;  it  Their  sufferings  arose  through  the  Mohammedan  con- 
is  in  realitv  a  monastic  province.    The  monastery  quest.     To  a  large  number  of  them  this  conquest 
of  Mount  Oljrmpus  in  Bitnynia  should  also  be  men-  brought  complete  niin,  especially  to  those  monas- 
tioned,  although  it  was  never  as  important  as  the  teries  in  what  ia  now  Turkey  in  Asia  and  the  region 
other.    The  monastenr  of  St.  Catherine  on  Mount  around  Constantinople.    In  the  East  the  convents 
Sinai,  which  goes  back  to  the  early  days  of  monas-  for  women  adopted  the  Rule  of  St.  Basil  and  had 
ticism,  had  a  great  fame  and  is  still  occupied  by  monks,  constitutions  copied  from  those  of  the  Basilian  monks. 
Reference  to  Oriental  monks  must  here  be  limited  III.  Schismatic  Basiuans. — ^The  two  best  known 
to  those  who  have  left  a  mark  upon  ecclesiastical  monasteries  of  the  schismatic  Basilians  are  those  of 
literature:  Leontius  of  Bysantium  (d.  543),  author  Moimt  Athos  and  of  Mount  Sinai.     Besides  these 
of  a  treatise  against  the  Nestorians  and  Eutychians;  there  are  still  many  monasteries  in  Turkey  in  Asia, 
St.  8o{)hronius,  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  one  of  the  of  which  10  are  in  Jerusalem  alone,  1  at  Bethlehem, 
most  vigorous  adversaries  of  the  Monothelite  heresy  and  4  at  Jericho.    They  are  also  numerous  on  the 
(P.  G.,  LXXXVII,  3147-4014);  St.  Maximus  the  islands  of  the  iEgean  Sea:  Chios  3,  Samoa  6,  Crete 
Confessor,  Abbot  of  Chrysopolis  (d.  662),  the  most  about  60,  Cyprus  11.    In  Old  Cairo  is  the  monastery 
brilliant  representative  of  Byzantine  monasticism  of  St.  George.    In  Greece  where  there  were  formerly 
in  the  seventh  century;  in  his  writings  and  letters  400  monasteries,  there  were,  in  1832,  only  82,  which 
St.  Maximus  steadily  combated   the   partisans  of  by  1904  had  increased  to  169;  9  Basilian  convents 
the  erroneous  doctrines  of  Monothelitism  (ibid,  XC  for  women  are  now  in  existence  in  Greece.    In  Ru- 
snd  XCI);  St.  John  Damascene,  who  may  perhaps  mania  there  are  22  monasteries;  in  Servia  44,  with 
be  included  among  the  Basilians;  St.  Theodore  tne  only  about  118  monks;  in  Bulgaria  78,  with  193  in- 
Stndite  (d.  829),  tne  defender  of  the  veneration  of  mates.    Montenegro  has  11  monasteries  and  about 
lacred  ima^;  his  works  include  theolo^cal,  ascetic,  15  monks;  Bosnia  3  and  Herzeg;ovina  11.    In  Dal- 
hagiographical,    liturgical,    and    histoncal    writings  matia  are  11  monasteries  and  in  Bukowina  3.    Hun- 
(P.  G.,  XCIX).    The  Byzantine  monasteries  furnish  gary   has   25   monasteries   and   5   branch   houses, 
a  long  fine  of  historians  who  were  also  monks:  John  The  schismatic  monks  are  much  more  numerous  in 
Malauis,  whose  *'Chronographia*'   (P.  G.,  XCVII,  Russia;  in  this  coimtry,  besides,  they  have  the  most 
M90)  served  as  a  model  for  Eastern  chroniclers;  influence  and  possess  the  richest  monasteries.    No- 
Geomus  S^cellus,  who  wrote  a  ''Selected  Chrono-  where  else  has  the  monastic  life  been  so  closely  inter 
mpbua";  ms  friend  and  disciple  Theophanes  (d.  817),  woven  with  the  national  existence.    The  most  celo* 
Abbot  of  the  '*  Great  Field "  near  Cyzicus,  the  author  brated  monasteries  are  Pescherskoi  at   Kieff  and 
of  another  "Chronographia"   (P.  G.,  CVIII);  the  Troltsa  at  Moscow;  mention  may  also  be  made  oi 
Patriarch  Nicephorus,  who  wrote  (815-829)  an  his-  the  monasteries  of  Solovesk,  Novgorod,  Pskof,  Tver, 
torical  ''Breviarium"  (a  Bvzantine  history),  and  an  and  Yladmir.    Russia  has  about  9,000  monks  and 
''Abridged   Chronographia  '    (P.   G.,   C,   879-991);  429  monasteries.    There  is  no  diocese  which  has  not 
Geoige  tfa«  Monk,  whose  Chronicle  stops  at  a.  d.  842  at  least  one  religious  house.    The  monasteries  are 
(P.  Q  ,  CX).    There  were,  besides,  a  large  number  of  divided  into  those  having  state  subventions  and 
monks,  hagiographers,  hynmologists,  and  poets  who  monasteries  which  do  not  receive  such  aid. 
had  a  large  share  in  the  development  of  the  Greek  IV.  Catholic  Basilians. — ^A  certain  number  of 
Litui^.     Among  the  authors  of  hymns  may  be  Basilian   monasteries   were   always   in   communion 
mentioned:  St.  Maximus  the  Confessor;  St.  Theodore  with  the  Holy  See.    Amone  these  were  the  houses 
the  Studite;  St.  Romanus  the  Melodist;  St.  Andrew  of  foimded  in  Sicily  and  Italy.     The  monastery  of 
Crete*  St.  John  Damascene;  Cosmas  of  Jerusalem,  Rossano,  founded  by  St.  Nilus  the  Younger,  remained 
and  St.  Joseph  the  Hjrmnographer.    Fine  penman-  for  a  long  time  faithful  to  the  best  literary  tradition£ 
ship  and  the  copying  of  manuscripts  were  held  in  of  Constantinople.   The  monasteries  of  Sa^  Salvatore 
honour   among  the   Basilians     Among  the  monas-  of  Messina  and  San  Salvatore  of  Otranto  may  be 
teries  which  excelled  in  the  art  of  copying  were  the  mentioned;  the  monastery  of  Grotta  Ferrata  was  also 
Studium,  Hoimt  Athos.  the  monast^  of  the  Isle  celebrated.     The  emigration  of  the  Greeks  to  the 
of  Patmos  and  that  of  Kossano  in  Sicily;   the  tradi-  West  after  the  fall  of  Constantinople  and  the  union 
tion  was  continued  later  by  the  monastery  of  Grotta  with  Rome,  concluded  at  the  Council  of  Florence, 
Ferrata  near  Rome.    These  monasteries,  and  others  eave  a  certain  prestige  to  these  conmiunities.    Car- 
as  wen,  were  studios  of  retigiou^art  where  the  monks  dinal  Bessarion,  who  was  Abbot  of  Grotta  Ferrata, 
tofled  to  produce   miniatures  in  the  manuscripts,  sought  to  stimidate  the  intellectual  life  of  the  Basil- 
paintings,  and  goldfflnith  work.   Hie  triumph  of  or-  ians  by  means  of  the  literary  treasures  which  their 
thodoxy  over   the   iconoclastic    heresy  infused   an  libraries  contained. 

extraordinary  enthusiasm  into  this  branch  of  their  A  number  of  Catholic  communities  continued  to 

labours.  exist  in  the  East.    The  Holy  See  caused  them  to  be 

From  the  begiimin^  the  Oriental  Churches  often  took  united    into   congregations,    namely:    St.    Saviour, 

their  patriarcSis  and  bishops  from  the  monasteries,  founded  in  1715,  wmch  includes  8  monasteries  ana 

Later,  when  the  secular  cler^  was  recruited  largely  21  hospices  with  about  250  monks*  the  congregation 

from  among  married  men^  this  custom  became  almost  of  Aleppo  with  4  monasteries  and  2  hospices;  that 

universal,' for,  as  the  episcopal  office  could  not  be  of  the  ^aladites  (Valadites)  with  4  monasteries  and 

conferred  trpon  men  who  were  married,  it  developed.  3  hospices.    These  last  two  congre^tions  have  their 

in  a  way,  mto  a  privilege  of  the  religious  who  nad  houses  in  the  district  of  Mount  Lebanon.    St.  Josa- 

taken  the  vow  of  celibacy.    Owing  to  this  the  monks  phat  and  Father  Rutski,  who  laboured  to  bring  back 

formed  a  class  apart,  corresponding  to  the  upper  the  Ruthenian  Churches  into  Catholic  unity,  re- 

^ergy  of  the  Western  Churches;  this  gave  and  still  formed  the  Basilians  of  Lithuania.    Thev  began  with 

eves  a  preponderating  influence  to  the  monasteries  the  monastery  of  the  Holy  Trinity  at  Vilna  (1607). 

themsdves.    In  some  of  them  theological  instruction  The  monastery  of  Byten,  founded  in  1613,  was  the 

^  given  both  to  denes  and  to  laymen.    As  long  as  citadel  of  the  union  in  Lithuania.     Other  houses 


BASn,TAN8  324  BASILIUIB 

Mlopted  the  reform  or  were  founded  by  the  reformed  on  money  loaned  at  interest,  that  was  published  at 
monks.  On  19  July,  1617,  the  reformed  monasteries  Madrid  in  1637,  and  one  on  tithes,  published  at  Madrid 
were  organized  into  a  congregation  imder  a  proto-  in  1634.  The  Spanish  Basilians  were  suppressed  with 
archimandrite,  and  known  as  the  congregation  of  the  the  other  orders  in  1833  and  have  not  been  re- 
Holy  Trinity,  or  of  Lithuania.  The  congregation  establi^bed.  At  Annonay  in  France  a  religious  conv- 
increased  with  the  growth  of  the  union  itself.  The  munity  of  men  was  formed  (1822)  under  tne  Rule  of 
number  of  houses  had  risen  to  thirty  at  the  time  of  St.  Basil,  which  has  a  branch  at  Toronto,  Canada, 
the  general  chapter  of  1636.  After  the  (}ouncil  of  (See  Basilians,  Pbibstb  of  thb  Communitt  of 
Zamosc  the  monasteries  outside  of  Lithuania  which  St.  Basii#.) 

Trinity       Bimb.  Le9 

inff  thft  fnovnea  de  Com 

/i^Vom  I'union  des  igltset  au  jlv n*  $itciet  at.  joaapnat  ^f aria,  iauT), 

{lioV),  Lbbot-Bbaulibu   La  religion  in  L'empire  de%  Tmwa  e(  let 

Benedict  XIV  desired  (1744)  to  form  one  COngrega-  /Ju«#m  (Paris,  1889)  III;  Clavel.  Antifriledad  de  la  reHpidnp 

tion  out  of  th^  *r''^^?fJ''^  new  orjgnization^e  AtJS'^t  ktetB'i2J'lkK';n?!&^ 

name  of  the  Ruthenian  Order  of  St.  Basil  and  dl-  tionen,  I,  44-47;  Miniam.  8an  NUo  (Naplen.  1892);  RodotI; 

viding  it  into  the  two  provinces  of  Lithuania  and  Origine^progreeeo  e  Uato  attuals  del  rtto  greco  in  Italia  (Rome, 

Courland.    After  the  supcression  of  the  Society  of  iL"<tt?M"Ji:£Sf l1SriL2;S£?S;S4'^/«i£.te 

Jesus  these  reugious  took  charge  of  the  Jesuit  colleges,  morgme,  Kvtdhe  (2od  ad.,  Moetar,  1905). 
The  overthrow  of  Poland  and  the  persecution  in-  J.  M.  Besse. 

stltuted  by  the  Russians  a^inst  the  Uniat  Greeks 

was  very  unfavourable  to  the  growth  of  the  congre-       Basilians    (Pribsts     of    ths    Communitt    of 

gation,  and  the  number  of  these  Baailian  monasteries  St.  Basil). — During  the  French  Revolution,  Mgr. 

ffreatly  diminished.     Leo  XIII,  by  his  Encyclical  d 'Avian,  the  last  Arcnbishop  of  Vienne,  saw  his  clersy 

''Singulare  prsesidium"  of  12  May,  1881,  ordained  diminish  so  rapidly  through  i>er8ecution,  that  oiuy 

a  reform  of  the  Ruthenian  Basilians  of  Galicia.   This  about  one-thira  of  them  remained,  with  no  recruits 

reform  began  in  the  monastery  of  Dabromil;  its  to  replace  them.    It  was  impossible  to  maintain  a 

members  have  ^dually  replaced  the  non-reformed  college  or  a  seminary,  so  in  1800  he  founded  a  school 

in  the  monasteries  of  the  region.   They  devote  them-  in  the  almost  inaccessible  little  village  of  St.  Sym- 

selves,  in  connexion  with  the  Uniat  clergv,  to  the  phorien  de  Mahun,  in  the  mountains  of  the  Vivarais. 

various  labours  of  the  apostolate  which  the  moral  This  institution  was  placed  in  the  charge  of  Father 

condition  of  the  different  races  in  this  district  de-  Lapierre,  who  had  managed  to  take  care  of  the  parish 

mands.  of  St.  ^mphorien  during  this  period  of  persecution. 

V.  Latin  Basiu^^s. — In  the  sixteenth  century  the  His  assistant  was  Father  Marie  Joseph  Actorie,  who 

Italian  monasteries  of  this  order  were  in  the  last  had  been  professor  of  philosophy  in  the  seminary  of 

stages  of  decay.     Ureed  by  Cardinal  Sirlet  Pope  Die  before  the  Revolution,    in  spite  of  its  humble 

Gregory  XIII  ordained  (1573)  their  union  in  a  con-  beginning  and  the  many  dangers  to  which  it  was 

eregation  under  the  control  of  a  superior  general,  exposed,  the  school  prospered.    In  1802,  the  state 

Use  was  made  of  the  opportunity  to  separate  the  of  the  country  had  improved  to  such  an  extent  that 

revenues  of  the  abbeys  from  those  of  the  monasteries,  concealment  was  no  longer  necessary,  and  Father 

The  houses  of  the  Italian  Basilians  were  divided  into  Picansel,  parish  priest  of  Annonay,  and  vicar  general 

the  three  provinces  of  Sicily,  Calabria,  and  Rome,  of  the  diocese,  succeeded   in  obtaining  from   the 

Although  the  monks  remained  faithful  in  principle  municipal  authorities  of  that  town  the  lease  of  a 

to  the  Greek  Liturgy  they  showed  an  inclination  former  Franciscan  monastery,  to  which  the  school 

towards  the  useoftheLatin  Liturgy;  some  monasteries  was  transferred.     For  man^  years  the  school  per- 

have  adopted  the  latter  altogether.    In  Spain  there  formed  the  work  which  the  bisnop  had  expected  from 

was  a  Basilian  congregation  which  had  no  traditional  it,  but  the  long  fight  against  poverty  and  the  perse- 

cohnexion  with  Oriental   Basilians;    the    members  cution  of  soHcalled  lib^als  threatened  at  last  to  be 

followed. the  Latin  Liturgy.    Father  Bernardo  de  la  too  much  for  those  in  charge.    Some  other  method 

Cruz  and  the  hermits  of  Sstnta  Maria  de  Oviedo  in  the  had  to  be  tried,  imd  in  1822,  the  professors  asked  to 

Diocese  of  Jaen  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  congrega-  be  permitted  to  found  a  reli^ous  community,  with 

tion.    Pope  Pius  VI  added  them  to  the  followers  of  the  college  at  Annonay  for  its  mother-house.     The 

St.  Basil,  and  they  were  affiliated  with  the  monastery  Bishop  of  Viviers,  in  whose  diocese  the  town  of 

of  Grotta  Ferrata  (1561).   The  monasteries  of  Turdon  Annonay  was  included,  granted  the  necessary  per- 

and  of  Valle  de  Guillos,  foimded  by  Father  Mateo  de  mission,  and  appointed  a  commission  to  draw  up  a 

la  Fuente,  were  for  a  time  imited  with  this  congrega-  rule  for  the  new  society.    On  21  November,  1^2, 

tion  but  they  withdrew  later  in  order  to  form  a  the  ten  members  who  were  at  the  time  the  teaching 

separate  congregation  (1603)  which  increased  very  staff  of  the  college,  made  the  promise  which  bound 

little,  having  only  four  monasteries  and  a  hospice  them  temporarily  to  the  work.    They  were.  Fathers 

at  Seville.    The  other  Basilians,  who  followed  a  less  Lapierre,  Duret,  Vallon,  Polly,  Tourvieille,  Tracol, 

rigorous   observance,   showed   more   growth;    their  Martin^he,.  Fayolle,  Payan,  and  Pages, 
monasteries  were  formed  into  the  two  provinces  of       In  1837  a  constitution  was  drawn  up  and  sent  to 

Castile  and  Andalusia.    They  were  governed  by  a  Rome  for  approval.     By  this  the  members  of  the 

vicar  general  and  were  under  the  control,  at  least  society  were  to  be  bound  by  the  simple  vows  of 

nominally,  of  a  superior  general  of  the  order.    Elach  poverty,  obedience,  chastity,  and  stability.    The  vow 

of  their  provinces  nad  its  college  or  scholasticate  at  of  poverty,  however,  was  limited.    Each  member  of 

Salamanca  and  Seville.    They  did  not  abstain  from  the  community  could  retain  all  his  own  propertv 

wine.    Like  their  brethren  in  Italy  they  wore  a  cowl  and  his  Mass  intentions,  and  was  to  receive  a  small 

similar  to  that  of  the  Benedictines;  this  led  to  re-  salary  from  the  community.     By  his  vow  he  could 

criminations  and  processes,  but  they  were  authorized  not  accumulate  and  increase  his  possessions,  but  had 

by  Rome  to  continue  the  use  of  this  attire.    Several  to  spend  all  his  salary  and  the  annual  income  from 

writers  are  to  be  found  among  them,  as:  Alfonso  his  property,  and  this  included  the  prohibition  of 

Clavel,  the  historiographer  of  the  order;  Di^o  Niceno,  speculation   or   any   other   worldly   moneymaking. 

who  has  left  sermons  and  ascetic  writings;  Luis  de  los  The  community  was  to  be  under  the  direction  of  a 


of  St.  Basil;  Felipe  de  la  Cruz,  who  wrote  a  treatise    as  intended  to  become  priests.   This  constitution  waa 


nginecl  by  several  French  bisbopa,  all  of  whom  had  the  commercial,  tlie  classical,  and  the  phUoaophioal. 

b^  able  to  appfeeiat«  the  work  done  by  the  com-  Among  tbe  more  prominent  of  those  who  made  their 

mimitj,  and  to  testify  to  the  piety  and  teal  of  ita  studiee.  either  partiEdly  or  entirely,  at  St.  Michael's 

mouberB.   The  Holy  Bee  was  pleased  to  declare  the  were  toe  AiehDiahop  of  Toronto  and  the  Bishops 

locietv  worthy  of  praise,  and  in  1863  PiUH  IX  con-  of    Hamilton,    Peterborongb     London,    and    Sault 

Gmieil  this  decree,  granting  at  the  same  time  certain  8te.  Marie  in  Canada,  and  Albany  and  Columbus  in 

pririle^  and  imposing  certaixi  restrictions  on  the  the  United  States. 

paneesioiui  of  the  community.    A  few  years  ago,  the  The  American  Province  includes  four  other  coHepeo 

cowtitutions  were  again  sent  to  Rome,  but  the  Holy  and  numerous  parishes.   The  colleges  are  Assumption 

%e  wished  to  make  some  changes  in  the  administra-  College,  Sandwich,  Canada;  St,  Basil's  College,  Waco; 

ioQ  of  the  community,  and  these  are  now  being  St.  Thomas's  ColleKe,  Houston,  and  St.  Harm's  Semi- 

l«sted  with  a  view  to  their  final  approval.     When  narv,  La  Porte,  in  Texas.    Of  the  parishes  m  charve 

the  recent  decree   banishing   reli^ous   orders   from  of  tne  Basilians,  the  most  important  are,  St.  Basil's 

('ranre  was  put  in  faroe,  tl£  Baailians  had  collies  and  the  Holy  Rosary,  Toronto,  Sandwich,  Amheret- 

In  Annona^,  P^rigueux.  Aubenas,  Privas,  and  Ver-  burg,  and  Owen  Sound  in  Canada,  and  St.  Anne's, 

noui,  in  France;  Blidan  and  Bone  in  Algiers;  and  Detroit,    The  novitiato  of  the  community  and  the 

Plymouth  in  England.    All  these,  with  tbe  exception  scholasticate  are  in  Toronto,     The  novitiate  lasts' for 

if  the  last,  wwe  &aasf eired  to  seculats  or  oonfiocated,  one  yeAr,  after  which  tiie  members  remain  under 


iHTKBioB  or  Sun'  AMkUOUaa  Neovo,  Kivehhi 

mi  the   religious   obliged   to   scatter  until   more  temporal  vows  for  three  years.    As  no  one  can  enter 

(ivouraWe  times.  the  society  who  does  not  intend  to  become  a  priest. 

Id  1852,  Mgr.  de  Charbounel,  Bishop  of  Toronto,  the  final  vows  are  not  taken  until  the  Bubdiaconate, 

Canada,  requested  the  Elasiliana  to  found  a  coUege  so  that,  if  at  the  end  of  three  years  the  scholastic  is 

in  Ills  diocese.     Accordingly,  a  small  number  were  not  ready  for  Holy  orders,  he  renews  his  temporri 

•nit  there,  and  opened  a  school  which  has  developed  vows.    St.  Basil's  College,  Waco,  Texas,  was  founded 

into  the   present  St.   Michael's   CoU^,  tlie   h^td-  in  1889.     The  course  of  studies  includes  both  the 

lloarters  of  the  Basilians  in  America.    It  was  opened  commercial  and  classical  departments.    St.  Thomas's 

in  a  small  house,  but  was  soon  moved  to  a  wmg  of  College,  Houston,  Texas,  was  founded  in  1900.    It  is 

Ihc  bishop's   palace  which  had  been   built  for  the  a  day  school    St.  Mary's  Seminary,  la  Porte,  Texas, 

purpose.     Id   September,  185fi,   the  cornerstone  of  was  opened  in  October,  1901,  by  the  Rt.  Rev.  N.  A. 

ihe  present  building  was  laid.      Since  then  various  Gallagher,  Bishop  of  Galveston.    Its  primary  object 

sdditioDs  have  been  made,  and  the  college  is  now  is  the  education  of  young  men  for  tlie  priesthood, 

aUe  to  accommodate  a  la^  number  of  students,  but  there  is  also  mamtained  in  connexion  with  the 

The  first  superior  was  Father  Soulerin,  who  managed  seminary  a  college  in  which  boys  and  voung  men 

tbe  college  from  1862  to  1805,  when  he  was  elected  are  prepared  for  any  of  tbe  learned  proleasions.    It 

loperior  general  of   his  community.     St.  Blichael'a  is  under  the  direct  supervision  of   the  Bishop  of 

ia  federated   with   the   University   of  Toronto,   its  Galveston. 

pniideiit  is  ex  officio  a  member  of  the  Senate  of  tbe  J,  C.  Plomeb. 

univetaity  and  of  tbe  university  council,  and  it  also 

Wpointa  two  other    t^ptvsentatives  to  the   senate.         BulBeA   (oroA   paaAuei,  or  jSafflXox)  dgnifies   a 

Tben  are  three  courses  of  study  open  to  it*  students,  kingly,  and  secondarily  a  beautiful,  hi^    'The  namr 


Adieat«e  the  Esstem  origin  of  the  building,  but  it 
is  in  the  West,  above  all  in  Rome,  that  the  fineet 
examplea  of  the  basilica  are  found.  Between  184 
and  121  B.  c.  there  were  built  in  the  Forum  at  Rome 
the  basilicas  of  Porcia,  Fulvia,  Sempronia,  and 
Opimia;  after  46  a,  c,  the  great  BaaiGcB  JuHa  of 
Cssar  and  Augustus  whs  erected.  These  buildings 
were  desifned  to  beautify  the  Forum  and  to  be  of 
use  both  for  market  purposes  and  for  the  adminis- 
tration  of  justice.  Iney  were  open  to  the  public 
and  were  well  lighted.  According  to  Vitruvius,  who 
in  tliie  certaioly  agrees  with  Greek  authorities,  the 
usual  construction  of  a  baaiUca  was  the  following:- — 

The  ^und  plan  w$ib  a  paralleiogram  in  which 
the  width  was  not  greater  than  one-half  of  the  length 
and  not  lees  than  one~third  of  it.  When  tiiere  was 
more  space  in  the  length,  porticoes  were  built  oo  the 
short  aides.  The  middle  space  was  Mpara(«d  by 
oolumns  from  a  lower  ambulatory  or  portico;  the 
width  of  the  ambulatory  equalled  the  height  of  the 
columns  and  measured  one-third  of  the  width  of  the 
central  space.  Above  the  columns  just  mentioued 
stood  others,  giving  entrance  to  light,  which  were 
shorter  and  slighter,  In  order  that,  as  in  or^nic 
structures,  a  tapering  effect  upwards  should  be  given 
(De  architectuii,  V,  i,  or  ii).  A  basilica  erected  by 
Vitruvius  himself  showed  a  decided  variation  from 
this  plan.  It  had  two  ambulatories,  one  above  the 
other.  Part  of  the  columns  of  the  middle  space  was 
left  free  so  that  light  might  enter.  These  columns  rose 
up  to  the  rafters.  Pilasters  leitning  against  the  col- 
umns served  to  carry  the  flat  roof  of  the  ambulatories. 
The  length  of  the  middle  nave  was  double  its  breadth 
and  six  times  the  breadth  of  the  ambulatory.  One  of  ' 
the  long  sides  of  the  parallelogram  spread  out  into 
an  apse  where  legal  cases  were  tried,  but  it  was 
separatad  by  the  width  of  the  ambulatory  from  the 
space  for  merchants  (the  ancient  exchangi^. 

The  same  writer  speaks  (VI,  viii  or  v)  of  half- 
public  basilicas  in  the  bouses  of  distinguished  states- 
men which  served  as  council-chambers  and  for  the 
settlement  of  disputes  b^  arbitration.  Vitruvius 
compares  these  (VI,  v  or  iii)  with  the  Egyptian  halls 
because  the  latter  had  also  covered  ambulatories 
around  a  middle  space  supported  by  oolumns  and 
openings  for  light  between  columns  above.  These 
are  the  distinctive  features  of  a  basilica  which  we 
may  venture  to  deHne  as  an  oblong  structure  with 
columns,  having  an  ambulatory  of  lower  height,  re- 
ceiving light  from  above,  and  possessing  a  projecting 
additi         •    ■        ■   ■ 


with  five  and  seven  aisles.  The  old  construction  of 
the  basilica  with  an  apse  was  well  suited  to  the  service 
of  the  altar.  A  transept  extending  more  or  less 
towards  both  sides  was  often  placed  between  ths 
nave  and  the  B[>se  both  to  serve  practical  needs  and 
on  account  of  its  symbolism.     The  roofing  of  tbs 


9  a  particular  purpose. 
:a  oi   the  early  C 
ictly  to  the  snap 


of  the   Chrit 
which  began 


The  form  of  the  l^asilica 
Church  corresponds  so  exact  „ 

basilica  of  the  Forum  or  of  the  house  that  it  does  not 
aeem  necessary  to  seek  another  model,  as  for  instance, 
the  alrium  or  the  cemetery  cells.  The  dark,  nar- 
is  entirely  unsuited  for  the  holding 
an  church  services.  These  services, 
ith  the  Last  Supper,  were  often  held 
m  large  rooms  in  the  dwellings  of  prosperous  Chris- 
tians. When  these  facts  are  considered  it  cannot 
be  a  matter  of  surprise  that  as  early  as  the  time  of 
Constantine  the  style  and  name  of  the  basilica  seem 
to  have  Deen  in  common  use  for  the  Christian  place 
of  worship.  Moreover,  the  chief  deviations  from 
the  general  type  of  the  ancient  basilica,  such  as  five 
ai^es,  pillaiB,  angular  form  of  the  apse,  omission  of 
the  portico,  etc.,  have  been  used  as  well  in  the 
Christian  basilica  to  which  the  original  meaning  of 
the  word  batUun,  "the  hall  of  tnu  king",  could 
DOW  again  be  applied. 

As  a  rule,  the  building  at  this  time  was  divided 
into  three  |>arts  by  columns,  the  well-lighted  central 
part  rose  higher  tniui  the  other  divisions,  and  there 
was  an  apse.  Only,  in  place  of  the  former  sucround' 
ing  portico,  or  ambulatoiy,  there  was  a  side  aisle 
to  tee  right  and  left.    Tbero  were  also  baulicas 


Basilica  or  ConnjunTm,  Rom 


ing,  in  the  West,  was  used  only  at  times  in  (he  side 
aisles;  nothing  beyond  a  Rat  roof  was  ventured  upon 
for  the  very  broad  middle  nave,  and  often,  at  the 
b^linning,  the  rafters  of  the  roof  were  left  iukot- 

It  was  only  aft«r  the  fifth  century  that  imind  or 
square  side-towera  came  into  use.  These  ttntretB 
were  first  incorporated  in  the  mtun  building  in  Syria. 
The  early  Christian  basilica  showed  a  high,  yet  light 
construction,  and  was  roomy  and  well  lighted.  The 
arcades  with  slender  columns  which  led  up  to  the  altar 
were  a  particularly  beautiful  feature.  The  round 
form  of  the  arches,  of  the  window-beads,  and  the 
ground  plan  of  the  basilica  were  the  first  indicationa 
of  the  Romanee(]ue  style.  The  idea  of  a  room  in  which 
the  King  of  Kings  gave  audience  naturally  led  to 
rich  ornamentation.  The  back  wall  of  the  apae  and 
the  "arch  of  triumph",  which  opened  into  the  tran- 
sept, were  decorat«l  with  mosaics.  The  attar  stood 
In  or  before,  the  apse  under  a  decorated  baldacchini 
(ciborium).  The  walls  were  often  adorned  witl 
pictures,  and  the  floor  was  made  of  mosaic.  Hucb 
use  was  made  in  the  rich  churches  of  beautiful 
woven  stuffs  and  of  fine  goldsmith- work.  If  tbr 
employment  of  these  symbols  had  a  tendencj^  t* 
inspire  pride,  other  observances  produced  humility 
of  mind,  as,  for  example,  the  symbolic  washing  at  tba 
fountain.  G.  Gibtmann. 

BMllld  UbrL     See  Rouan  Law. 

Baillldel,  the  earliest  of  the  Alexandrian  Gdob 
tics;  he  was  a  native  of  Alexandria  and  flourisbed 
under  the  Emperors  Adrian  and  Antoninjia  Pius, 
about  120-140.  St.  Epiphanius's  assertion  that  be 
was  a  disciple  of  Menander  at  Antioch  and  oi^  Uter 
moved  to  Alexandria  is  unlikely  in  face  of  the  state- 
ment of  Eusebius  and  Theodoret  that  be  was  an 
Alexandrian  by  birth.  Of  his  life  we  know  nathing 
except  that  he  had  a  son  called  Isidore,  who  followed 
in  his  footsteps.  The  remark  in  the  Acts  of  Arche- 
laus  (Iv)  that  Basilides  was  "a  preacher  amongat 
the  Persians"  is  almost  certainly  the  result  of  some 
confusion.  Basilides  invented  prophets  for  himoelf 
named  Barcabbas  and  Barcoph,  and  claimed  to  have 
received  verb^  instructions  from  St.  Matthias  the 
Apostle  and  to  be  a  disciple  of  Gl&ucias,  a  disciple 
of  8t.  Petfli. 


BASnjDU  327  BMIILIDia 

His  Ststem. — As  practically  nothing  of  Basilides'  nor  the  invisible^  neither  man  nor  an^  nor  god  nor 
writini^  is  extant  and  as  we  have  no  contemporaneous  any  of  those  things,  Which  are  called  by  names  or 
Gnostic  witnesses,  we  must  gather  the  teaching  of  perceived  by  the  mind  or  the  senses.    The  Not-Being 
this  patriarch  of  Unosticism  from  the  following  ^arly  God  (odjc   &p  Bt6i\    whom   Aristotle   caUs  Thought 
sources:  (a)  St.  Irenseus/' Contra  Hsereses",  I,  xkiv,  of  thought  {vhrn^a  r^  roiJ<rewj),  without  conscious- 
written   about    170;    (b)    Clement   of   Alexandria,  ness,  without  perception,  without  purpose,  without 
"BUt)mata",  I,  xxi,  II,  vi,  viii,  xx,  IV,  xi,  xii,  xxv.  aim,  without  passion^  without  desire,  had  the  will 
V,  i,  etc.,  written  between  208-210,  and  the  so-called  to  create  the  world.    1  say /had  the  will'  ".  continues 
''Exceipta  ex  Theodoto"  perhaps  from  the  same  Hippolytus,  "only  by  way  of  speaking,  because  in 
hand;  (c)  Hippolytus  of  Rome.  '  Philosc^humena",  reuity  ne  had  neither  will,  nor  ideas  nor  perceptions: 
Vn,  written    about    225;    (a)    Pseudo-Tertullian,  and  by  the  word  'world'  I  do  not  mean  this  actual 
''Against  All  Heresies",  a  little  treatise  usually  at-  world,  which  is  the  outcome  of  extension  and  di- 
tacbed  to  TertuUian's  "De  Prfiescriptionibus",  but  vision,  but  rather  the  Seed  of  the  world.    The  seed 
really  by  another  hand,  perhaps  by  Victorinus  of  of  the  world  contained  in  itself,  as  a  mustard  seed, 
IHtau,  written  about  ^0  and  based  upon  a  non-  all  things  which  are  eventually  evolved,  as  the  roots, 
extant  ''Compendium"  of  Hippolytus;  (e)  Artistic  the  branches,  the  leaves  arise  out  of  the  seedcom 
remains  of  Gnosticism  such  as  Abrasax  gems,  and  of  the  plant."    Strang  to  say  this  World-seed  or 
literaiy  remains  like  the  Pistis  Sophia,  the  latter  All-seed  (Panspermia)  is  still  described  as  Not-Being, 
part  of  which  probably  dates  back  to  the  end  of  It  is  a  phrase  of  Basilides:  "God  is  Not-Being,  even 
the  second  centaury  and,  though  not  strictl^rBasilidian,  He,  who  made  the  worid  out  of  what  was  not'  Not- 
yet  illustrates  early  Alexanmian  Gnosticism.    Later  Beine  made  Not-Being." — Basilides  distinctly  re- 
sources are  Epiphanius,  "Adv.   Hear.",  xxiv,  and  jected  both  emanation  and  the  eternity  of  matter. 
Theodoret,"H«r.Fab.Comp.",I,iv.    Unfortunately,  "What  need  is  there",  he  said,  "of  emanation  or 
the  descriptions  of  the  Basil idian  system  given  by  whyaccept'Hvle'[(}Xi7,  Matter};  as  if  God  had  created 
our  chief  informants,  St.  Lrenaeus  and  Hippolytus,  the  worla  as  the  spider  spins  its  thread  or  as  mortal 
are  so  strongly  divergent  that  th^  seem  to  many  man  fashions  metal  or  wood.     God  spoke  and  it 
quite  irreooncuable.    According  to  Ireneeus,  Basilides  was;  this  Moses  expresses  thus:  'Let  there  be  li^ht 
was  apparently  a  dualist  and  an  emanationist,  and  and  there  was  li^t  ."    This  sentence  has  a  Christian 
accorcnng  to  Hippolytus  a  pantheistic  evolutionist,  ring,  but  we  must  not  forget  that  to  Basilides  God 
Seen  from  the  viewpoint  of  IrensBUs,  Basilides  was   Absolute   Negation.     He   cannot   find   words 
taught  that  Nous  (Mind)  was  the  first  to  be  bom  from  enough  to  bring  out  the  utter  non-existence  of  God; 
the  Unborn  Father;  from  Nous  was  bom  Logos  God  is  not  even  "unspeakable"  (Appi^'or),  He  simpl^ 
^eaaon^;  from  Logos,  Phronesis  (Prudence);  from  is  Not.    Hence  the  popular  designation  of  Oukontiani 
Phronesis,  Sophia  (Wisdom)  and  Dynamis  (Strei^pth)  for  people  who  always  spoke  of  Ouk6n,  Not-Being, 
and  from  Phronesis  and  Dynamis  the  Virtues,  Phnoi-  The  dimculty  lies  in  placing  the  actual  transition 
palities,  and  Archangels.    By  these  angelic  hosts  tliue  from   Not-Being  into   Being.     This  was  probably 
oighest  heaven  was  made,  by  their  descMendants  the  supposed  to  consist  in  the  Sperma  or  Seed,  which 
second  heaven,  and  by  the  descendants  again  of  in  one  respect  was  Not-Bein^,  and  in  the  other,  the 
tibese  the  third,  and  so  on  till  l^ey  reach^  tiie  num-  All-seed  of  the  manifold  worid.    The  Panspermia  con- 
ber  365.    Hence  the  year  has  as  many  days  as  there  tained  in  itself  a  threefold  Filiation,  Hyidt^  {ylbniiy, 
are  heavens.    The  angdls,  who  hold  l^e  last  or  visible  one    composed    of    refined    elements,    Leptomeres 
heaven,  brou^t  about  all  things  that  are  in  the  (Xcirrofte/)^),  a  second  of  grosser  elments,  Pachy- 
ivorid  and  shared  amongst  themselves  the  earth  and  meres  (raxvAicp^s),  and  a  third  needing  purification, 
the  nations  upon  it.    T^  highest  of  these  angels  is  Apokatharseos  deomenon  {jixoKaOdpff^w  Myuewov), 
^  one  who  is  thought  to  be  the  God  of  the  Jews.       These  three  Filiations  idtimately  reach  the  Not- 
And  as  he  wished  to  make  the  other  nations  subject  Being  God,  but  each  reaches  him  in  a  different  way. 
to  that  which  was  especially  his  own,  the  other  The  first  Filiation  rose  at  once  and  flew  with  the 
angelic  principalities  withstood  him  to  the  utmost,  swiftness  of  thought  to  the  Not-Being  God.    The 
Hence  Xub  aversion  of  all  other  peoples  for  this  race,  second,  remaining  as  yet  in  the  Panspermia,  wished 
The   Unborn   and    Nameless    Father   seeing    their  to  imitate  the  first  Filiation  and  rise  upwaitis;  but, 
niiserable  plight,  sent  his  First-bom,  Nous .  (and  this  being  too  gross  and  heavy,  it  failed.    Whereupon  the 
18  the  one  who  is  called  Christ)  to  deliver  those  who  second  Filation  takes  to  itself  wings,  which  are  the 
diould  believe  in  him  from  the  power  of  the  angelic  Holy  Ghost,  and  with  this  aid  almost  reaches  the  Not- 
agendes  who  had  built  the  world.   And  to  men  Christ  Being  God.    But  when  it  has  come  near,  the  Holy 
seemed  to  be  a  man  and  to  have  periormed  miracles.  Ghost,  of  different  substance  from  the  Second  Filia- 
It  was  not,  however,  Christ  who  suffered,  but  rather  tion,  can  go  no  further,  but  conducts  the  Second 
Simon  of  Gyrene,  wno  was  constrained  to  carry  the  Filiation  near'  to  the  First  Filiation  and  leaves.    Yet 
cross  for  him,  and  mistakenly  crucified  in  Christ's  he  does  not  return  empty  but,  as  a  vessel  full  of 
stead.     Simon  having  received  Jesus'  form,  Jesus  ointment,  he  retains  the  sweet  odour  of  Filiation; 
assumed  Simon's  and  thus  stood  by  and  laughed  at  and  he  becomes  the  "Boundary  Spirit"  (Methorion 
them.     Simon  was  crucified  and  Jesus  returned  to  Pneuma,  fu$6piop  xpeOfui),  between   the  Supermun- 
His  Father.    Through  the  Gnosis  (Knowledge)  of  dane  and  the  Mundane  where  the  third  Filiation 
Clirist  the  souls  of  men  are  sayed,  but  their  bodies  is  still  contained  in  the  Panspermia.    Now  there  arose 
perish.— Out  of  Epiphanius  and  Pseudo-Tertullian  out  of  the  Panspermia  the  Great  Archon,  or  Ruler; 
we  can  complete  tne  description  thus:  the  highest  he  sped  upwards  imtil  he  reached  the  firmament, 
god,  i.  e.  the  Unborn  Father,  bears  the  mystical  and  thinking  there  was  nothing  above  and  beyond, 
name  Abrasax  (q.  v.),  as  origin  of  the  365  heavens,  and  not  knowing  of  the  Third  Filiation,  still  con- 
The  Angels  that  made  the  world  formed  it  out  of  tained  in  the  Panspermia,  he  fancied  himself  Lord 
Eternal  Matter;  but  matter  is  the  principle  of  all  and  Master  of  all  things.     He  created  to  himself 
evil  and  hence  both  the  contempt  of  the  Gnostics  a  Son  out  of  the  heap  of  Panspermia;  this  was  the 
for  it  and  their  docetic  Christology.     To  undergo  Christ  and  being  himself  amazed  at  the  beauty  of 
martyrdom  in  order  to  confess  the  Crucified  is  useless,  his  Son,  who  was  greater  than  his  Father,  he  made 
for  it  is  to  die  for  Simon  of  Cyrene,  not  for  Christ,  him  sit  at  his  right  hand;  and  with  him  he  created 
Hippolytus   sets  forth  the  doctrine  of  Basilides  the    ethereal  heavens,  which  reach  unto  the  Moon. 
as  foUows:  "The*e  was  a  time  when  nothing  existed.  The  sphere  where  the  Great  Archon  rules,  i.  e.  the 
neither  mattev  nor  form,  nor  accident;  neither  the  higher  heavens,  the  lower  boundary  of  which  is  the 
ample  nos  tt&e  compound,,  neither  the.  imknowabla  plane  where-  the  moon  revolves,  is  called  the  Ogdoad 


BASILlDlB  328  BA8ILZD18 

The  same  process  is  repeated  and  we  have  a  second  in  tone,  and  elsewhere  Valentinus,  Basilides,  and 

Archon  and  nis  Son  ana  the  sphere  where  they  rule  Satuminus  follow  in  the  list. 

is  the  Hebdomad,  beneath  the  Ogdoad.    Lastly,  the       Writings. — Nearly  all  the  writings  of  Basilides 
third  Filiation  must  be  raised  to  the  Not-Being  God.  have  perished,  but  the  names  of  three  of  his  works 
This  took  place  through  the  Gospel.     From  Adam  and  some  fra^ents  have  come  down  to  us.    (a) 
to  Moses  the  Archon  of  the  Ogdoad  had  reigned  A  Gospel.    Ongen  in  his  Homily  on  Luke,  i,  states 
(Rom.,  V,  14);  in  Moses  and  the  F^ophets  the  Archon  that  Basilides  had  dared  to  write  a  Gospel  aooprding 
of  the  Hebdomad  had  reigned,  or  God  of  the  Jews,  to  Basilides.     St.  Jerome  and  St.  Ambrose  adoi]^ 
Now  in  the  third   period  the  Gospel  must  reign,  this  statement  of  Origen;  and  St.  Jerome,  in  tne 
This  Gospel  was  first  made  known  from  the  First  Prologue  of  his  Commentary  on  St.  Matthew,  a^pin 
Filiation  through  the  Holy  Ghost  to  the  Son  of  the  speaks  of  an  ''Evangelium  Basilidis''.    In  all  like- 
Archon  of  the  Ogdoad;  the  Son  told  his  Father,  who  hnood  this  ''Gospel "  was  compiled  out  of  our  canoni- 
was   astounded   and   trembled   and   acknowledged  cal  Gospels,  the  text  being  curtailed  and  altered 
his  pride  in  thinking  himself  the  Supreme  Deity,  to  suit  nis  Gnostic  tenets,  a  diatessaron  on  Gnostic 
The  Son  of  the  Archon  of  the  Ogdoad  tells  the  Son  lines,     (b)   A   Gospel  Commentarv  in  twenty-four 
of  the  Archon  of  the  Hebdomad,  and  he  again  tells  books.    (Clement  ot  Alexandria  calls  it  ''Exegetica"; 
his  father.    Thus  both  spheres,  including  the  365  the  Acta  Archelai  et  Manetis,  "TractatU8"i)    Frag- 
heavens  and  their  chief  Archon,  Abrasax.  know  the  ments  of  this  Commentary  have  come  down  to  us  (m 
truth.    This  knowledge  is  now  conveyed  through  the  Stromata,  IV,  12-81,  sqq.;  Acta  Arch.,  Iv;  probably 
Hebdomad  to  Jesus,  the  Son  of  Marv,  who  through  also  in  Origen,  Commentary  on  Romans  Y,  i).    (c) 
his  life  and  death  redeemed  the  third  Filiation,  that  Hymns,    Origen  in  a  note  on  Job,  xxi.  1  soq.,  speaks 
Is:  what  is  material  must  return  to  the  Chaos,  what  of  ''Odes"  of  Basilides;  and  the  so-called  Muratorian 
is  psychic  to  the  Hebdomad,  what  is  spiritual  to  the  Fragment,  containing  a  list  of  canonical  and  non- 
Not-Being  God.     When  the  third  Filiation  is  thus  canonical  books  (170  or  thereabouts)  ends  with  the 
redeem^,  the  Supreme  God  pours  out  a  blissful  words:   "etiam  novu  psalmorum  librum   marcioni 
Ignorance  over  all  that  is  and  that  shall  so  remain  conscripseruntunacumBasilideassianumcatafrycum 
forever.     This  is  called  "The  Restoration  of  all  constitutorem".      This    sentence,    notwithstanding 
things".                                                             ^  its   obscurity,  supports  Origen 's  statement.      For  a 

From  Gement  of  Alexandria  we  get  a  few  glimpses  collection  of   Basuidian  fragments  see   Hilgenfeld, 

into  the  ethical  side  of  the  system.     Nominally,  "KetzergeschichtedesUrchrist"  (Leipzig,  1884),  207, 

faith  was  made  the  beginning  of  the  spiritual  life;  213. 

it  was  not,  however,  a    free  submission  of  the  in-       School. — Basilides  nevw  formed  a  school  of  di»- 

tellect,  but  a  mere  natural  gift  of  understanding  ciples,  who  modified  or  added  to  the  doctrines  of  their 

(Gnosis)  bestowed  upon  the  soul  before  its  union  leader.    Isidore,  his  son,  is  the  only  one  who  elabo- 

with  the  body  and  which  some  possessed  and  others  rated  his  father  s  system,  especially  on  the  anthropo- 

did  not.    But  if  faith  is  only  a  natural  quality  of  lof^cal  side.     He  wrote  a  work  on  the  "  Psyche  Proe- 

Bome  minds,  what  need  of  a  Saviour,  asks  Clement,  phyes  "  (irepl  Tpoc^vodt  ^wx^O»  or  Appendage-Soul; 

and  Basilides  would  reply  that  faith  is  a  latent  force  another  work,  called  "  Ethics  "  by  Oement  and  "  Pa- 

which  only  manifests  its  ener^  through  the  coming  rsenetics"  by  Epiphanius;  and  at  least  two  books  of 

of  the  Saviour,  as  a  ray  of  Ugnt  will  set  naphtha  on  "Commentaries  on  the  Prophet  Parchor.     Basilidian- 

fire.    Sin  was  not  the  result  of  the  abuse  of  free  will  ism  survived  until  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  as 

but  merely  the  outcome  of  an  inborn  evil  principle.  Epi phanius  knew  of  Baflilidians  living  in  the  Nile  Delta. 

All  8u£fering  is  punishment  for  sin;  even  when  a  child  It  was  however  almost  exclusively  umited  to  Egypt, 

suffers,  this  is  the  punishment  of  it«  own  sin,  i.  e.  though  according  to  Sulpicius  Severus  it  seems  to 

the  latent  evil  principle  withinj  that  this  indwelling  have  found  an  entrance  into  Spain  through  a  certain 

principle  has  had  no  opportumty  to  manifest  itselt,  Mark  from  Memphis.     St.  Jerome  stat^  that  the 

IS  immaterial.    The  persecutions  Christians  under-  Priscillianists  were  infected  with  it.    Of  the  customs 

went  had  therefore  as  sole  object  the  punishment  of  the  Basilidians,  we  know  no  more  than  that  Basili- 

of  their  sin.     All  human  nature  was  thus  vitiated  des  enjoined  on  his  followers,  like  Pytha^ras,  a 

by  the  sinful;  when  hard  pressed  Basilides  would  silence  of  five  years;  that  they  kept  the  anniversary 

call  even  Clmst  a  sinful  man,  for  God  alone  was  of  the  Baptism  of  Jesiis  as  a  ieast  day  and  spent 

righteous.     Viewed  in  another  wav  evil  waa  a  sort  the  eve  of  it  in  reading;  that  their  master  told  tnem 

of  excrescence  on  the  rational  soul,  the  result  of  an  not  to  scruple  eating  things  offered  to  idols;   that 

original  disturbance  and  confusion.     "Their  whole  they  wore   amulets   with   the  word   Abrasax    and 

system",  says  Clement,  "is  a  confusion  of  the  Pan-  symbolic  figures  engraved  on  them,  and,  amonpist 

spermia  (All-seed)  with  the  Phylokrinesis  (Difference-  other    things,    beheved    them    to    possess    healing 

in-kind)  and  the  return  of  things  thus  confused  to  properties. 

their  own  places."    St.  Irensus  and  St.  Epiphanius       Although  Basilides  is  mentioned  by  all  the  Fathers 

reproach  Basilides  with  the  immorality  of  his  system,  as  one  of  the  chiefs  of  Gnosticism,  the  system  of 

and  St.  Jerome  calls  Basilides  a  master  and  teacher  Valentinus  seems  to  have  been  much  more  popular 

of  debaucheries.    It  is  likely,  however,  that  Basilides  and  wider  spread,  as  was  also  Marcionism.     Mence, 

was  personally  free  from  immorality  and  that  this  though  anti-Gnostic  literature  is  abtmdant,  we  know 

accusation  was  true  neither  of  the  master  nor  of  of  only  one  patristic. work,  which  had  for  its  express 

some  of  his  followers.    That  Basilidianism,  together  purpose  the  refutation  of  Basilides,  and  this  work 

with  the  other  forms  of  Gnosticism,  eventually  led  is  no  longer  extant.    Eusebius  (Hist.  Ecd.,  XV,  vii, 

to  gross  immorality,  there  can  be  no  doubt.    Clement  6-8)  says:  "There  has  come  down  to  us  a   most 

of  Alexandria  and  St.  Epiphanius  have  preserved  powerful  refutation  of  Basilides  by  Agrippa  Castor, 

for  us  a  passage  of  the  wntings  of  Basilides  son  and  one  of  the  most  renowned  writers  of  that  day,  'which 

successor,  which  counsels  the  free  satisfaction  of  shows  the  terrible  imposture  of  the  man."     With 

sensual  desires  in  order  that  the  soul  may  find  peace  the  exception  of  a  few  phrases  given  by  Eusebius  we 

in  prayer.     And  it  is  remarkable  that  Justin  the  know  nothing  of  this  Agrippa  and  his  work.      (See 

Martyr  in  his  first  ApoloQr  (xxvi),  that  is,  as  early  Gnosticism.) 

as  150-155,  suggests  to  ^e  Roman  emperors  that        BuoNAum,    Lo   OnoBticumo   (Rome.    1907):    Duch^kk. 

possibly  the  Gnostics  are  guilty  of  those  immoralities  HUL  andenne  de  VEglUe  (3d  ed,.  Paris,  1907),  I,  xi.  a,  V.  La 

of  which  Christians  are  falsely  accused.    It  is  true  (^noM«tte  Af«;cumitm«;  Baeeille  in  7)ict«fa<ft^  a.  w. 

inat  m  tnis  passa^  ne  menuons  omy  aimon,  menan-  bardenhbwbr,  Oe«*.  der  altkirch,  Lit,  (Freiburg,  1002),  I; 

der,  and  Marcion  by  name;  but  the  passage  is  general  Kmo,  The  Qnottic9  and  Tkrir  Remains  (2d  ed..  LonAoo.  i€S7>; 


1 


,   BAIILXDU                              32d  BAIXL 

iIbab.  l^ammu  tfa  FajUh^  ForgoUen  (Londpajmd  BenaNt,  Baailiflsa. — ^Various  fonale  martyrs,  attributed  to 

I900)j  HoBT.m  Dto.  ChruL  B^og,,  L  268-281;    Majwbbl,  different  localities  yet  beaiimr  the  common  name  of 

.V.  r.  (Leipiif.  1868);  Uhmorn,  Daa  BanlidianiSu  SytUm  Baailiflsa.  are  referred  to  m  all  the  catalogues  of 

(G«ttiiif«n,  1856).                               j^  p^  Abbndzbn,  martyrs  both  of  early  Christianity  and  of  the  Middle 

B..iiij^>     %r  -J u    -:  -  Akl   1««^^    ^t    r>^  Ages:  their  names  also  appear  in  the  calendars  and 

BMffldM.-Martyw  beamig  l^he  ^me    of    Ba-  gg^oal  books  of  the  Gf2S^d  Roman  Churchea 

ahdes  we  mentioned  m  the  old  martyrolwiw  on  Notfing  m  known  positively  as  to  any  one  of  these 

^'^*^°***^'^f'LflK?'ii^i  w  ^fc  »»ffereS  for  the  cSiaa  5"aith;  the^Acts  of  their 

Under  the  kst  date  is  placed  the  lone  Ust  of  Alex-  niartyrdoms,  so  far  as  such  exist.  Ln  purely  legendary 

andnan  martyrs  who  suffered  during  the  persecution  ^^  Xririna^at  a  later  ^     'Sie  i^  however 

ef  Septimius  8ever«s,_and  among  these  occurs,  the  ?hi^hf?l^  lU l^^^^im^  in  th^  sHLTJS 


cata- 


naine  of  a  Basilides.    Eusebius  gives  an  entire  chap-  „artvroloinr  of  8t   Jerome  and  In  old  Greek 

ter  of  his  church  history  (VI,  v)  to  Basilides  and  wSifa^aiT  nnSF^hara  nZber  ^female 

Potomiana.    After  Potamiana  had  been  sentenced  ^^  ,^^  Baklissa  were  actuaUy  venerated  in 

to  death  Basdides  an  offiow  of  the  court,  led  her  to  ^^^  ^^^^^  ^^^^^    j^t  t,^^  ^^^  ti^^  it  j^  ^^  5^. 

oecution.     He  showed  himself  compassionate  to  ^y    ^,,^^4  ^j^^  ^^^^  ^^^     j^  recorded  on  differ- 

Potamiana  and  kept  back  the  h^then  rabble  who  ^^        Among  these  saints  should  be  mentioned: 

"'!?'''  i^JliT*^^  ilf  •    Potjf '»"»»  *han^.  ^  JuUan  and  Basili^  of  AnUoch;  in  the  martyrology 

aod  exhorted  him  to  be  consoled,  for  after  her  death  .^j  g^  j^^^^^  ^.  Rossi-Duchesne,  6)  they  ai4  givSi 

she  would  entreat  the  Lord  concermng  him  wid  ^^^^rtyrs  under  6  January.    A  later  le^id  i£akes 

would  reward  ^  kindness     Shortly  aftw  this  B^  BasiW  the  virgin  wife  of  Julian  and  ^ates  that 

lades  was  cjUed  on  to  take  an  oath.    He  replied  ^^    ^^  ^  ^j^^^j  ^^^^^  together  with  other  viigins, 

that  he  coiJd  not  swear,  and  operiy  acknowtedged  ^y,    j^j.^  ^^^^^  martyrdom  in  company  %nti 

hmwelf  to  be  a  Christian.    When  token  before  the  ^        ^4,,^,  Christians  duririg  the  Diocleti^  pSrsecu- 

judge  he  made  an  unwavering  confewion  and  was  j.     "^  ^he  same  martyrol<^  makes  mention,  under 

thrown   into   prison     He   was   visited   by  several  12  March,  of  a  female  marty^Basilissa,  wife  of  telicio 

ChnstiMSto  whom  he  related  that,  three  days  after  ^j  ^^^^^  ^^^  j^,^.^    "jn-'Asia".    On  the  next  day, 

her  mMtyrdom,  Potamiana  had  appeared  to  hun  Mid  ,3  jj^^j^  ^^  the  name  of  another  martyr  call^ 

hjd  set  a  crown  on  his  head  with  the  assurance  that  fiasilissa,  wife  of  the  presbyter  Eustacius  of  Nico- 

^  Ijird  woiUd   soon   take   Basilides   to  amself.  ^^j^    ^^^  legends,  whicli  were  accepted  by  tiie 

&«hdM  was  then  baptized  «id  the  next  day  he  w-as  q^^  menologiw  and  synaxaria,  speak  of  a  wgin 

beheaded.    In  the  prtaent  Roman  martyrolMfy  his  j  ^^      jfaailissa  of  Nioomedia,^w1ioee  feast  was 


Roman  Basilides  are  still  m  existence;  they  have,  J^^J^  ^^^         ^  i^  sometimes  written  BaaiUa  and 

however,  no  histoncal  existence  and  belong  to  a  date  gometimes  Basilissa,  was  venerated  on  20  May.    She 

considerably  later.                                       v..-.™  t  was  buried,  it  is  stated,  on  the  Via  Salaria.    The 

EcRKBius,  nwt  eca.  (Turin,  1746),  VI,  v,  ed.  VAi.iBnj8, 1,         ,  .      .    •  fe ,'     ti„:ii_    „u„  j;,^  •     qaj 

2M;  Mmty^.  Himmym.,  ed.  De  Romi  and  Ddchebnb  in  Celebrated  Roman  martyr  Basilla.  who  died  m  304 

X(*iSS.,NoTemb«r,  11,77;  MoHBRrm)s,iSanc(uarH<m  (Venice,  and  whose  feast  is  entered  from  the  year  3o4  under 

1474):  ijrto  SS.,  Juim.  II.  608  »qq.,  355  »qq.;  Aixakd,  UUl  22  September  in  the  oldest  known  Roman  catalogue 

imvmlaau,^  (Pan..  1866).  II,  »6  aqq.    ^  ^  ^^^^^  ^  ^^^  (Depoeitio  martyrum)  was  buried  in  the 

B  ^«j       ^             •                          n  '  T.  catacomb  of  Hermes  on  the  Via  Salaria  Vetus.    It  is, 

BasllideB,  Gospel  According  to.    See  Bamudbs  therefore,  a  question  whether  the  saint  given  under 

(Onoetic).  20  May  and  this  latter  Basilla  are  not  one  and  the 

BuiUnopoUs,  a  titular  see  of  Asia  Minor.    Origi-  same  person;  but  the  identity  of  the  two  cannot  lu 

nally  a  small  village  in  Bithynia  Prima,  it  obtained  positively  aflSrmed.    The  present  martyrology  in- 

the  rank  of  a  city  under,  or  perhaps  shortly  before,  eludes  several  of  these  sainte;  0  Jamiary,  Basilissa  ol 

Julian  the  Apostete  (Mansi,  VII,  305).    The  first  Antioch;  22  March,  Basilissa  and  Callinice;  15  April, 

known  bishop,  Alexander,  was  consecrated  by  St.  Basilissa  and  Anastaaia;  3  September,  Basilissa  of 

John  Chrysostom  about  400.    Other  _  bishops  are  Nicomedia. 


metropolitans  of  Nicomedia  and  Nicsea  about  juris- 
diction.   Basilinopolis    was    finally    made    by    the 

council  a  suffragan  of  Nicomedia  (Mansi,  ibid.,  301-  Basilissa  (Wife  op  Julian).     See  Julian  and 

314);  uid  it  remained  so  until  about  1170  under  Basilissa. 

Basilius),  Bishop 
Latin  version  of  the 

, ,             itjr  Chronicle  of  Eusebius  the  statement  occurs  undei 

Ambtfess  having  been  destroyed  by  the  Osmanh.  the  275th  Olympiad  (a.  d.  321-324)  that  Basileus, 

Ite  exact  site  is  not  known.    According  to  W.  M.  Bishop  of  Amasea  in  Pontus,  suffered  martyrdom  in 

Ramsay  (Hist  Geogr.  of  Asia  Minor,  179),  it  was  the  reign  of  Licinius  [ed.  SchOne  (Berlin,  1875).  191]. 

probaUy  situated  on  the  western  side  of  the  Lake  of  There  is  no  reason  for  doubting  the  trustworthiness 

Nioea    (Isnik-Ghueul),  near    Bazar-Keui,  between  of  this  mformation.     Amone  the  signatures  of  the 

KioB  (Ghemlek)  and  Nicsea  (Isnik).  bishops  who  attended  the  Councils  of  Ancyra  and 

LttjuiDi,  Oriemt  ChH$L.  I.  628-«26.          g  VailhIl  Neo-Aesarea  (314)  is  to  be  found  the  name  of  BasileuB 


BAilL                                  330  BASn. 

of  Amasea  (Mansi,  Ooll.  cone.  II,  534,  548).    ESose-  Photius,  Basil  also  dealt  in  verse  with  the  life  and 

bids  also  relates  (Hist,  eccl.,  X,  viii)  that  in  the  time  miracles  of  Thecla. 

of  Licinius  Christians  were  treated  with  great  cruelty,  „  Hbtixe.  Concti|fen<7e»cJic^(2d  ed).  H.  331,  375.  430; 

eapeciaUy  in  Amasea  and  the  other  cities  of  Pontus.  ^SSSK^M^il!^:  4^".  Viji^S^v':  i^L*^. 

and  that,  m  particular,  the  governor  mflicted  upon  (190O),  IX,  329-353;  Baboenhewbb.  Pairologie  (Freiburi, 

several  bishops  the  ordinary  punishments  of  evil-  1901).  468,  469.                           Jambs  MacCaffiusy. 

doers.    St.  Atnanasius  mentions  the  great  Basileus  of        «  ^,  ^-     ••  -       «  «      «         ^ 

Pontus  among  the  bishops  of  the  early  part  of  the  «""  "*•  ^Idw,  Saint.    See  Basil  the  Gr«at, 

fourth  century  who  held  firmly  to  the  uke  substance  "^nt» 

of  the  Son  with  the  Father;  the  reference  is  evidently  Basil  the  Great,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Csesarea,  one 

to  the  martyr-bishop  of  Amasea   (Athan.  Opera,  of  the  most  distinguished  Doctors  of  the  Church, 

ed.  Mannius,  I*  122).   The  statement  of  Philostoreius  b.  probably  329;  d.  1  January,  379.    He  ranks  after 

[ed.  Valesius:  Eusebius,  Hist.  eccl.  (Turin,  1748),  III,  Atnanasius  as  a  defender  of  the  Oriental  Church 

433],  that  Basileus  attended  the  Council  of  Nicsea,  a^inst  the  heresies  of  the  fourth  centiiry.     With 

cannot  be  quoted  a^dnst  this  proof  of  the  martyrdom  ms  friend  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  and  his  brother, 

of  Basileus  under  Licinius,  as  there  is  evidently  a  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  he  makes  up  the  trio  known  as 

mistake  in  what  Philostor^us  says;  among  the  signac  "The   Three   Cappadocians",    far   outclassing   the 

tures  at  the  Council  of  Nicsea  appears  that  of  Eutv*  other  two  in  practical  genius  and  actual  achievement, 

chianus  as  Bishop  of  Amasea.    The  Acts  of  the  Life. — St.  Basil  the  Elder,  father  of  St.  Basil  the 

martyrdom  of  Basueus,  supposedly  written  by  an  eye*  Great^  was  the  son  of  a  Christian  of  good  birth  and 

witness,  a  presbyter  nam^  Johannes,  are  not  au«  his  wife,  Macrina  (Acta  SS.,  January,  II),  both  o! 

thentic  and  the  narrative  is  entirely  legendary.    The  whom  suifered  for  the  Faith  during  the  persecution 

feast  of  Basileus  falls  on  26  April,  on  which  date  it  of  Maximinus  Galerius  (305-314),  spendiiL^  several 

occurs  both  in  the  Greek  synaxaria  and  mensea  and  years  of  hardship  in  the  wild  mountains  of  Pontus. 

in  the  Roman  martyrolojn^.  St.  Basil  the  Elder  was  noted  for  his  virtue  (Acta  SS. 

Ada  SS.,  April,  III,  416-422:  Suriub.  Deprob.  vituSanetar.  May,  VII)  and  also  won  considerable  reputation  as 

{tSSS^v •  l?o]^}\^'^::^'  TiLLKMONT.  MhnotreM  (BniBiels,  ^  teacher  in  CfiBsarea.    He  was  not  a  priest  (Cf .  Cave, 

173 j;,  V ,  ^19  »qq.,  35^  »qq.                      ^  ^  KiRSCH.  Hist.  Lit. ,  1, 239).   He  married  Emmelia,  the  daughter 

of  a  martyr,  and  became  the  father  of  ten  children. 

Basil   of    Beleucia,    Bishop    and    ecclesiastical  Three  of  these,  Macrina,  Basil,  and  Gregory  are 

writer,  date  of  birth  uncertain;  d.,  probably,  between  honoured  as  saints;  and  of  the  sons,  Peter,  Gregory, 

458  and  460;  was  distin^ished  during  the  period  and  Basil  attained  the  dignity  of  the  episcopate, 

when  the  Eastern  Churcn  was  convmsed  bv  the  Under  the  care  of  his  fatner  and  his  grandmother. 

Monophysite  struggles,  and  was  necessarily  obliged  the  elder  Macrina,  who  preserved  the  traditions  of 

to  take  sides  in  aU  tnose  controversies.    Those  of  their  countrynian,  St.   Uregory  Thaumaturgus   (c 

his  writings  which  have  come  down  to  us,  though  213-275)  Basil  was  formed  in  habits  of  piety  and 

somewhat  too  rhetoricid  and  involved,  prove  deany  study.    He  was  still  young  when  his  father  died  and 

that  he  was  a  man  of  ereat  literary  ability.  the  mmily  moved  to  the  estate  of  the  elder  Macrina  at 

-He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Seleucia  in  Isauria,  Annesi  in  Pontus,  on  the  banks  of  the  Iris.  As  a 
between  the  years  432  and  447,  and  was  one  of  those  boy,  he  was  sent  to  school  at  CsBsarea,  then  "a  me- 
who  took  part  in  the  Synod  of  Constantinople^  which  tropolis  of  letters*'^  and  conceived  a  fervent  admira- 
was  summoned  (448)  by  the  Patriarch  Flavian  for  tion  for  the  local  bishop,  Dianius.  Later,  he  went  to 
the  condemnation  of  the  Eutychian  errors  and  the  Constantinople,  at  that  time  "distinguished  for  its 
deposition  of  their  great  champion,  Dioscurus  of  teachers  of  philosophy  and  rhetoric  ',  and  thence 
Alexandria.  Curiously  enough,  though  Basil  seems  to  Athens.  Here  he  became  the  inseparable  com- 
to  have  agreed  to  these  measures,  he  attended  the  panion  of  Gr^ory  of  Nazianzus,  who,  m  his  famous 
Latrocinium,  or  Robber  ^rnod,  of  Epheeus,  held  panegyric  on  Basil  (Or.  xliii),  gives  a  most  interesting 
in  the  next  year  (449),  and,  induced  probably  more  description  of  their  academic  e^roeriences.  Ac- 
hy the  threats  and  violence  of  the  Monophysite  cording  to  him,  Basil  was  already  mstinguished  for 
party  than  by  their  arguments,  he  voted  lor  the  brilliancy  of  mind  and  seriousness  of  character  and 
rehabilitation  of  Eutycnes  and  for  the  (kposition  associated  only  with  the  most  earnest  students, 
of  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  was  thus  He  was  able,  grave,  industrious,  and  well  advanced 
regarded  for  a  time  as  a  supporter  of  Monophysite  in  rhetoric,  grammar,  philosophy,  astronomy,  ^ 
opinions.  Like  the  other  prominent  supporters  of  ometry,  ana  medicine.  (As  to  his  not  knowing  Liatm, 
Dioscurus,  he  should  have  been  removed  from  his  see  Fialon,  Etude  historique  et  litt^raire  sur  St. 
see  had  he  not  in  the  meantime  accepted  the  doctrine  Basile,  Paris,  1869.)  We  know  the  names  of  two 
contained  in  the  I>pgmatic  Epistle  of  Pope  Leo  to  of  Basil's  teachers  at  Athens,  Prohseresius,  possibly 
Flavian,  and  joined  in  the  condemnation  otEutyches  a  Christian,  and  Himerius,  a  pagan.  It  has  been 
and  Dioscurus.  After  this  period  he  seems  to  have  affirmed,  though  probably  incorrectly,  that  Basil 
continued  a  zealous  opponent  of  the  Monophysite  spent  some  time  under  Libanius.  He  tells  us  himself 
party,  for  we  find  that  m  the  year  458  he  joined  with  that  he  endeavoured  without  success  to  attach  him- 
his  fcdlow-bishops  of  Isauria^  in  an  appeal  to  the  self  as  a  pupil  to  Eustathius  (Ep.,  I).  At  the  end  of 
Emperor  Leo  I,  requesting  him  to  use  his  influence  his  sojourn  at  Athens.  Basil  being  laden,  says  St. 
in  forwarding  the  Decrees  of  Chalcedon,  and  in  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  "with  all  the  learning  attaina- 
securing  the  deposition  of  Timotheus  iElurus,  who  ble  by  the  nature  of  man",  was  well  equipped  to  be 
had  intruded  himself  (457)  into  the  Patriarchate  a  teacher.  Cssarea  took  possession  of  nun  gladly 
of  Alexandria.  This  is  the  last  reference  we  find  to  "as  a  founder  and  second  patron"  (Or.  xliii),  aiKl 
Basil,  and  it  is  commonly  supposed  that  he  died  as  he  tells  us  (ccx),  he  refused  the  splendid  offers 
shortly  afterwards.  of  the  citizens  of  Neo-CaBsarea,  who  wished  him  to 

Forty-one  sermons   (K6yoi)  on  different  portions  imdertfdce  the  education  of  the  youth  of  their  city, 

of  the  Old  Testament  have  come  down  to  us  under  To  the  successful  student  ana  distinguished  pro- 

his  name,  and  are  found  in  Migne  (P.  G.,  LXXXV,  feasor,  "there  now  remained",  says  Gregory   (Or. 

27-474),  where  is  abo  his  history  of  the  protomartyr  xliii),  "no  other  need  than  that  of  spiritual  perfeo- 

TTiecla  and  of  the  miracles  wrought  at  her  grave  tion".    Gregory  of  Nyssa,  in  his  life  of  Macrina,  mves 

(ibid.,  477-618).     Most  of  these  sermons  may  be  us  to  imderstand  that  Basirs  brilliant  succese  both 

regarded   as   genuine,  though    some  of   th«n   are  as  a  university  student  and  a  professor  had  left  traces 

DOW  generally  assigned  to  Nestorius.    According  to  of  worldliness  and  self-sufficiency  on  the  soul  of  the 


fiAfln.                              331  BASIL 

young  man.    Fortunately,  Basil  came  a«am  in  con-  again  withm^w  into  the  solitude  of  Pontus.    A  little 

tact  with  Dianius,  Biahop^of  Cffisarea,  the  object  of  later  (365)  when  the  attempt  of  Valens  to  impose 

his  bovish  affection,  and  Dianius  seems  to  have  ba]>-  Arianism  on  the  clergy  and  the  people  necessitated 

tized  him,  and  ordained  him  Reader  soon  after  his  the  presence  of  a  stronj^  personfdity,  Basil  was  re- 

retum  to  Geesar^.    It  was  at  this  time  also  that  he  stored  to  his  former  position,  being  reconciled  to  the 

fell  under  the  influence  of  that  very  remarkable  bishop  by  St.  Gregory  of  Nazianzus.    There  seems 

woman,  his   sister  Macrina^   n^o   had   meanwhile  to    have    been    no   further   disagreement    between 

founded  a  rdigious  commumty  on  the  family  estate  Eusebius  and  Basil  and  the  latter  soon  became  the 

at  Annesi.    Basil  himself  tells  us  how,  like  a  man  real  head  of  the  diocese.    ''The  one",  says  Gregory 

roused  from  deep  sleep,  he  turned  his  eyes  to  the  of  Nazianzus  (Or.  xliii),  ''led  the  peoi^e  the  other 

roarveUotis  truth  of  the  €k>6pel,  wept  many  tears  led  thdr  leader".     During  the  five  years  spent  in 

over  his  miserable  life,  and  praved  for  guidance  from  this  most  important  office,  Basil  gave  evidence  of 

God:  "Then  I  read  tne  Gospel,  and  saw  there  that  being  a  man  of  very  unusual  powers.    He  laid  down 

a  great  means  of  reaching  perfection  was  the  selling  the  Utw  to  the  leadmg  citizens  and  the  imperial  gov- 

of  one's  goods,  the  sharing  of  them  with  the  poor,  emors,  settled  disputes  with  wisdom  and  finality, 

the  dying  up  of  all  care  for  this  hfe,  and  the  refusal  assisted  the  spiritually   needy,   looked  after   "  the 

to  ulow  the  soul  to  be  turned  b^  any  sympathy  support  of  the  poor,  the  entai^ainment  of  strangers, 

towards  things  of  earth"  (Ep.  ccxxiii).    To  learn  the  the  care^of  maidens,   legislation  written  and  un- 

ways  of  peitection,  Basil  now  visited  the  monas-  written  for  the  monastic  li&,  arrangements  of  prayers, 

eries  of  Egypt,  Palestine,  Coele-Syria,  and  Meeopo-  (litujpgy?),  adornment  of  the  sanctuary"  (op.  cit.). 

tamia.    He  retiuned,  filled  with  admiration  for  the  In  time  of  famine,  he  was  the  saviour  of  tne  poor, 

austerity  and  piety  of  the  monks,  and  founded  a  In  370  Basil  succeeded  to  the  See  of  Ceesarea,  being 

monastery  in  his  native  Pontus,  on  the  banks  of  the  consecrated    according    to    tradition    on    14    June. 

Iris,  nearly  opposite  Annesi.    (Of.  Ramsay,  Hist.  Geog.  Csesarea  was  then  a  powerful  and  wealthy  city  (Soz., 

of  Asia  Minor,  London,  1890,  p.  326.)    Eustathius  Hist.  EccL,  V,  v).    Its  bishop  was  Metropolitan  of 

oi  Sebaste  had  alreadjr  introduced  the  eremitical  life  Otppadocia  and  Exarch  of  Pontus  which  embraced 

into  Asia  Minor;  Basil  added  the  cenobitic  or  com-  more  than  half  of  Asia  Minor  and  comprised  eleven 

munity  form,  and  the  new  feature  was  imitated  by  provinces.    The  See  of  Geesarea  ranked  with  Ephesus 

many  companies  of  men  and  women.    (Gf .  Sozomen,  inmiediately  after  the  patriarchal  sees  in  the  coimcils. 

Hist.  Eccl.,  VI^  xxvii;  Epiphanius,  HsBr.,  Ixxv,  1;  and  the  bishi^  was  the  superior  of  fifty  chorepiscopi 

Basil,  Ep.  ccxxiii;  Tillemont,  M4m.,  IX,  Art.  XXI,  (Baert).      Basil's    actual    influence,    says    Jackson 

and  note  XXVI.)    Basil  became  known  as  the  Father  (Prolegomena,  XXXII)  covered  the  whole  stretch 

of  Oriental  monasticism,  the  forerunner  of  St.  Bene-  of  country  "from  the  Balkans  to  the  Mediterranean 

diet.    How  well  he  deserved  the  title,  how  seriously  and  from  the  iEgean  to  the  Euphrates".    The  need 

and  in  what  spirit  he  undertook  the  systematizing  of  a  man  like  Basil  in  such  a  see  as  Geesarea  was  most 

of  the  religious  life,  may  be  seen  by  the  study  of  his  pressing,  and  he  must  have  known  this  well.    Some 

Rule.    He  seems  to  have  read  Orieen's  writings  very  (e.  g.  Allard.  De  Broglie,  Venables,  Fialon)  think 

mtematically  about  this  time,  For  in  union  with  that  he  set  about  procuring  his  own  election;  others 

Gr^ory  of  Nazianzus,  he  published  a  selection  of  (e.  g.  Maran^  Baronius,  Geillier)  say  that  he  made 

them  called  the  "Philocalia".  no  attempt  m  his  own  behalf.     In  any  event,  he 

Basil  was  drawn  from  his  retreat  into  the  arena  of  became  Bishop  of  Gsesarea  lately  by  the  influence 

tbeological  controversy  in  360  when  he  accompanied  of  the  elder  Gregory  of  Nazianzus.     His  election, 

two  delegates  from  Seleucia  to  the  emperor  at  Con-  says  the  younger  Gregory  (loc.  cit.),  was  followed 

stantinople,  and  supported  his  namesaice  of  Ancyra.  by  disaffection  on   the   part  of  several   suffragaT) 

There  is  some  dispute  as  to  his  coura^  and  his  bishops  "on  whose  side  were  found  the  greates\ 

perfect  orthodoxy  on  this  occasion  (cf.  Philostorgius.  scoundrels  in  the  city".     During  his  propous  ad- 

Hist.  Eccl.,  IV.  xii;  answered  by  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  In  ministration  of  the  diocese  Basil  had  so  clearly  de- 

Eunom.^,  ana  Maran,  Proleg.,  vii;  Tillemont,  M^.,  fin^  his  ideas  of  discipline  and  orthodoxy,  that  no 

note  XvIII).    A  little  later,  nowever,  both  qualities  one  could  doubt  the  direction  and  the  visour  of  his 

oeem  to  have  been  sufficiently  in  evidence,  as  Basil  poli<^.    St.  Athanasius  was  greatly  pleased  at  Basil's 

forsook  Dianius  for  having  signed  the  heretical  creed  election  (Ad  Pallad.,  953;  Ad  Joann.  et  Ant.,  951); 

of  Rimini.    To  this  time  v^.  361)  may  be  referred  the  but    the    Arianizing    Emperor    Valens,    displayed 

"Moralia";  and  a  little  later  came  the  books  against  oonsidecable  annoyance  and  the  defeated  minority 

EuDomius    (363)    and   some    correspondence    with  of  bishops  became  consistently  hostile  to  the  new 

Athanasius.    It  is  possiUe,  also,  that  Basil  wrote  his  metropoiutan.    By  years  of  tactful  conduct,  however, 

nnmastic  rules  in  the  briefer  form  while  in  Pontus,  "blending  his  correction  with  consideration  and  his 

^nd  enlarged  them  later  at  Gaesarea  (Baert).    There  eentleness  with  firmness"   (Gr^.   Naz.,  Or.  xliii), 

is  an  account  of  an  invitation  from  Julian  for  Basil  he  finally  overcame  most  oi  his  opponents, 

to  present  himself  at  court  and  of  Basil's  refusal,  Basil's  letters  tell  the  story  of  his  tremendous 

coupled  with  an  admonition  that  angered  the  em-  amd  varied  activity;  how  he  worked  for  the  exclusion 

peror  and  endangered  Basil's  safety.    Both  incident  of  unfit  candidates  from  the  sacred  ministry  and  the 

uul  correspondence  however  are  questioned  by  some  deliverance  of  the  bishops  from  the  temptation  of 

eriticflr(e.  e.  Blaran;  cf.  Tillemont,  De  Broglie,  Fialon).  simony;  how  he  required  exact  discipline  and  the 

Basil  still  retained  considerable  influence  in  0»sarea,  faithful  observance  of  the  canons  from  both  laymen 

and  it  is  regarded  as  fairiy  probable  that  he  had  a  and  clerics;   how  he  rebuked  the  sinful,  followed 

hand  in  the  election  of  the  successor  of  Dianius  who  up  the  offending,  and  held  out  hope  of  pardon  to  the 

died  in  3d2,  after  having  been  reconciled  to  Basil,  penitent*    (Gf.  Epp.  xliv,  xlv,  ana  xlvi,  the  beautiful 

In  any  case  the  new  bishop,  Eusebius,  was  pra<>-  letter  to  a  fallen  virgin,  as  well  as  Epp.  liii,  liv,  Iv, 

ticaUy  placed  in  his  office  by  the  elder  Gregory  of  dxxxviii,  cxcix,  ccxvii,  and  Ep.  dxix,  on  the  strange 

Naaanzus.     Eusebius  having  persuaded  the  reluo-  incident  of  Glycerins,  whose  story  is  well  filled  out 

tant  BasQ  to  be  ordained  pnest,  gave  him  a  promi-  by  Ramsay,  The  Ghurch   in   the   Roman  Empire, 

J^tDt  place  in  the  administration  of  the  diocese  (363).  New  York,  1893,  p.  443  sc|q.)    If  on  the  one  hand  he 

In  ability  for  the  management  of  affairs  Basil  so  far  strenously  defencied  clerical  rights  and  immunities 

eclipsed  the  bishop  that  ill-feeling  arose  between  the  (Ep.  civ),  on  the  other  he  trainea  his  clergy  so  strictly 

two.    "All  the  more  eminent  and  wiser  portion  of  that  they  grew  famous  as  the  type  of  all  that  a  priest 

the  church  was  roused  against  the  bishop"  (Greg,  should  be  (Epp.  cii,  ciii).    Baml  did  not  confine  his 

Naz.,  Or.  xliii;  £p.  x),  amd  to  avoid  trouble  Basd  activity  to  diocesan  affairs,  but  threw  himself  vig 


BASIL  332  BASIL 

oiously  into  tne  troublesome  theological  disputes  379.  His  death  was  regarded  as  a  public  bereave- 
then  rending  the  unity  of  Christendom.  He  drew  ment;  Jews,  pagans,  and  foreigners  vied  with  his 
up  a  summary  of  the  orthodox  faith;  he  attacked  own  flock  in  doin^  nim  honour.  The  eariier  Latin 
by  word  of  mouth  the  heretics  near  at  hand  and  wrote  martyroioffies  (Hieronymian  and  Bede)  make  no 
tellingly  against  those  afar.  His  correspondence  mention  of  a  feast  of  ot.  Basil.  The  first  mention  is 
shows  that  he  paid  visits,  sent  messages,  gave  inter-  by  Usuard  and  Ado  who  place  it  on  14  June,  the 
views,  instructed,  reproved,  rebuked,  threatened,  supposed  date  o^  Basil's  consecration  to  the  episconate. 
rep^ached,  imdertook  the  protection  of  nations.  In  the  Greek  ''Mensea"  he  is  commemoratea  on 
cities,  individuals  great  and  small.  There  was  very  1  January,  the  day  of  his  death.  In  1081,  John, 
little  chance  of  opposing  him  successfully,  for  he  Patriarch  of  Constantinople^  in  consequence  of  a 
was  a  cool,  persistent,  fearless  fighter  in  defence  both  vision,  established  a  feast  m  oonunon  honour  of 
of  doctrine  and  of  principles.  His  bold  stand  against  St.  Basil,  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  fmd  John  Chrysos- 
Valens  parallels  the  meeting  of  Ambrose^  with  tom,  to  be  celebrated  on  30  January.  The  Bol- 
Theodosius.  The  emperor  was  dumbfounded  at  landiists  give  an  account  of  the  origin  of  this  feast; 
the  archbishop's  calm  indifference  to  his  presence  th^  also  record  as  worthy  of  note  that  no  relics 
and  his  wishes.  The  incident,  as  narrated  by  Gregorv  of  St.  Basil  are  mentioned  biefore  the  tw^th  century, 
of  Nazianzus,  not  only  tells  much  concerning  Basil  s  at  which  time  parts  of  his  body,  together  with  some 
character  but  throws  a  clear  light  on  the  t3rpe  of  other  very  extraordinary  relics  were  reputed  to  have 
Christian  bishop  with  which  the  emperors  had  to  been  brought  to  Bruges  by  a  returning  Crusader, 
deal  and  ^oes  far  to  explain  why  Arianism,  with  the  Baronius  (c.  1599)  save  to  the  Naples  Oratory  a 
court  behind  it,  oould  make  so  little  impression  on  relic  of  St.  Basil  sent  Trom.  Constantinople  to  the  pope, 
the  ultimate  history  of  Catholicism.  The  Bollandists  and  Baronius  print  descriptions  of 

While  assisting  Eusebius  in  the  care  of  his  diocese.  Basil's  personal  appearance  and  the  former  reproduce 
Basil  had  shown  a  marked  interest  in  the  poor  ana  two  icons,  the  oloer  copied  from  a  codex  presented 
afflicted;  that  interest  now  displayed  itself  in  the  to  Basil,  Emperor  of  the  East  (877-886). 
erection  of  a  magnificent  institution,  the  Ptocho-        By    common   consent,    Basil    ranks    among   the 
tropheion,  or   Basileiad,  a  house  for  the  care  of  greatest  figures  in  church  history  and  the  rath^ 
friendless  Btrani;ers,  the  medical  treatment  of  the  extravagant   panegyric    by   Gregory   of   Nazianzus 
sick  poor,  and  the  industrial  training  of  the  unskilled,  has  been  all  but  equalTed  by  a  host  of  other  eulogists. 
Built  in  the  suburbs,  it  attained  such  importance  Physically  delicate  and  occupying  his  exalted  po- 
as  to  become  practically  the  centre  of  a  new  dtv  sition  but  a  few  years,  Basil  did  magnificent  and 
with    the   name   of  ^  jcoii^    r6Xif   or   "Newtown'',  enduring  work  in  an  age  of  more  violent  world  con- 
It  was  the  mother-house  of  like  institutions  erected  vulsions   than   Christianity  has   since  experienced, 
in  other  dioceses  and  stood  as  a  constant  reminder  (Cf.   Newman,  The  Church  of  the  Fathers.)      By 
to  the  rich  of  their  privilege  of  spending  wealth  in  a  personal  virtue  he  attained  distinction  in  an  age  of 
truly  Christian  way.     It  may  oe  mentioned  here  saints;   and  his  purity,  his  monastic  fervour,  his 
that  the  social  obligations  of  the  wealthy  were  so  stem  simplicity,  his  friendship  for  the  poor  became 
plainly   and   forcibly   preached    by   St.    Basil   that  traditional  in  the  history  of  Christian  asceticism, 
modem  socialists  have  ventured  to  claim  him  as  In  fact,  the  impress  of  his  genius  was  stamped  in- 
one  of  their  own,  though  with  no  more  foundation  delibly  on  the  Oriental  conception  of  religious  life, 
than  would  exist  in  the  case  of  any  other  consistent  In  his  hands  the  great  metropolitan  See  of  Csesarea 
teacher  of  the  principles  of  Catholic  ethics.     The  took  shape  as  a  soH  of  model  of  the  Christian  diocese; 
truth  is  that  St.   Basil  was    a    practical  lover  of  there  was  hardly  any  detail  of  episcopal  activity  in 
Christian  poverty,  and  even  in  his  exalted  position  which  he  failed  to  mark  out  guiding  lines  and  to  give 
preserved  that  simplicity  in  food  and  clothing  and  splendid  example.     Not  the  least  of  his  glories  is 
that  austerity  of  life  for  which  he  had  been  remarked  tne  fact  that  toward  the  officials  of  the  state  he 
at  his  first  renunciation  of  the  world  (Nitti,  Catholic  maintained  that  fearless  dignity  and  independence 
Socialism,  New  York,  1895,  iii;  Villemain,  Tableau  which  later  history  has  shown  to  be  an  indispensable 
d'^loq.  Chr^t.,  Paris,  1891,  116  sqq.).  condition  of  healthy  life  in  the  Catholic  episcopate. 

In   the   midst   of   his   labours,   Basil   imderwent        Some  difficulty  has  arisen  out  of  the  corresponctence 

suffering  of  many  kinds.    Athanasius  died  in  373  and  of  St.  Basil  with  the  Roman  See.    (Bossuet,  "Crallia 

the  elder  Grecory  in  374,  both  of  them  leaving  gaps  Orthodoxa",  c.  Ixv;  Puller,  "Primitive  Saints  and 

never  to  be  filled.    In  372  began  the  painful  estrange  the  See  of  Rome",  London,  1900.)    That  he  was  in 

ment  from  Gregory  of  Nazianzus.    Authimus,  Bislu>p  communion  with  the  Western  bishops  and  that  he 

of  Tyana,  became  an  open  enemy,  Apollinaris  "a  wrote  repeatedly  to  Rome  asking  that   steps   be 

cause   of   sorrow   to    the   churches"    (Ep.    ccbdii),  taken  to  assist  the  Eastern  Church  in  her  struggle 

Eustathius  of  Sebaste  a  traitor  to  the  Faith  and  with  schismatics  and  heretics  is  imdoubted;  butUie 

a  personal  foe  as  well.    Eusebius  of  Samosata  was  disappointing  result  of  his  appeals  drew  from  him 

banished,  Gregory  of  Nyssa  condemned  and  deposed,  certam  words  which  require  explanation.    Evidently 

When  Emperor  Valentinian  died  and  the  Arians  he  was  deeply  chaKrined  that  Pope  Damasus  on  the 

recovered  tneir  influence,  all  Basil's  efforts  must  have  one  hand  hesitated  to  condemn  Marcellus  and  the 

seemed  in  vain.    His  health  was  breaking,  the  Goths  Eustathians,  and  on  the  other   preferred  Paulinus 

were  at  the  door  of  the  empire,  Antioch  was  in  schism,  to  Meletius  in  whose  ri^ht  to  the  See  of  Antioch 

Rome  doubted  his  sincerity,  the  bishops  refused  to  St.  Basil  most  firmly  believed.    At  the  best  it  must 

be   brought   together   as   ne   wished.      (Duchesne,  be  admitted  that  St.  Basil  criticized  the  pope  freely 

L'Eglise  d'Orient,  Paris,  1881.)    ''The  notes  of  the  in  a  private  letter  to  Eusebius  of  Samosata   (Ep. 

church  were  obscured  in  his  part  of  Christendom,  ccxxxix)  and  that  he  was  indignant  as  well  as  hurt 

and  he  had  to  fare  on  as  best  he  might, — admiring,  at  the  failure  of  his  attempt  to  obtain  help  from  the 

courting,  yet  coldly  treated  by  the  Latin  world.  West.    Later  on,  however,  he  must  have  reoc^mced 

desiring  the  friendship  of  Rome,  yet  wounded  by  that  in  some  respects  he  had  been  hasty;  in  any  event, 

her  reserve, — suspected  of  here^  by  Damasus,  Mid  his  strong  emphasis  of  the  influence  which  the  Roman 

accused  by  Jerome  of  pride"  (Newman,  The  Church  See  could  exercise  over  the  Eastern  bishops,  and  his 

of  the  Fathers).    Had  he  lived  a  little  longer  and  abstaining  from  a  charge  of  anything  like  usurpation 

attended  the  Council  of  0>nstantinople   (381),  he  are  ereat  facts  that  stand  out  obviously  in  the  story 

^ould  have  seen  the  death  of  its  first  pre»dent.  his  of  the  disagreement.    With  regard  to  the  question 

rriend  Meletius,  and  the  forced  resignation  of  its  of  his  association  with  the  Semi-Arians,  Philostorgiufi 

second,  Gregory  of  Nazianzus.    Basil  cued  1  January,  speaks  of  him  as  championing  the  Semi-Arian  causa 


BASIL                                 333  BAUbL 

and  Newman  says  he  seems  miaToidably  to  have  (De  Nabuthe  Jez.,  v,  21-24),  and  the  homily  (xxii) 
Arianized  the  first  thirty  years  of  his  life.    The  ex-  on  the  study  of  paean  literature.     The  latter  was 
planation  of  this,  as  well  as  of  the  disagreement  with  edited  by  Fremion  (Fans,  1819,  with  French  trans- 
the  Holy  See,  must  be  sought  in  a  careful  study  of  lation),  Sommer  (Paris,  1894),  Bach  (Munster,  19(X)), 
the  times,  with  due  reference  to  the  unsettled  and  and  Maloney  (New  York,  1901).     With  regard  to 
changeable  condition  of  theological  distinctions,  the  Basil's  style  and  his  success  as  a  preacher  much  has 
lack  of  anything  like  a  final  pronouncement  by  the  been    written.      (Cf.    Villemain,    "Tableau    d'^log. 
Church's  defining  power,  the '^inffering  imperfections  chr^t.  au  IV*  sidcle*',  Paris,  1^1;  Fialon,  "Etude 
of  the  Saints"  (Newman),  the  substantial  orthodoxy  Litt.  sur  St.  B.",  Paris,  1861;  Roux,  "Etude  sur  la 
of  many  of  the  so-called  Semi-Arians,  and  above  all  pr^cation  de  B.  le  Grand",  Strasburg,  1807;  CJroiset, 
the  great  plan  which  Basil  was  steadily  pursuing  "Hist,  de  la  litt.  Grecque",  Paris,  1899.)     Moral 
of  effecting  unity  in  a  disturbed  and  divided  Christen-  and  AsceticaL — This  group  contains  much  of  spurious 
dom.     (p(,  De  Broglie^  "L'Eglise  et  ITSmpire  Ro-  or   doubtful   origin.      Probably   authentic   are   the 
main",  Paris,  1866,  \»  u;  Rivington,  "The  Primitive  latter  two  of  the  three  prefatory  treatises,  and  the 
Church  and  the  See  of  reter  ",  London,  1894:  Newman,  five  treatises :  "  Morals  ", "  On  the  Judgment  of  God  ", 
"The  Church  of  the  Fathers",  Idem.  "The  Arians  "On  Faith",  "The  Longer  Monastic  Rules",  "The 
of  the  Fourth  Century":  Jungmann,  "Dissertationes  Shorter  Monastic  Rules  .    The  twenty-four  sermOns 
select,  in  hist,  eccl.",  it,  13;  De  Smedt.  "Disserta-  on  morals  are  a  cento  of  extracts  from  the  writings 
tiones  select,  in  primam  setatem  hist,  eccl.*',  p.  276.)  of  Basil  made  by  Simeon  Metaphrastes.    CJonceming 
WmriNGS. — Dogmatic, — Of  the  five  books  against  the  authenticity  of  the  Rules  tnere  has  been  a  good 
Eunomius  (c.  364)  the  last  two  are  classed  as  spurious  deal  of  discussion.    As  is  plain  from  these  treatises 
by  some  critics.     The  work  assails  the  equivalent  and  from  the  homilies  that  touch  upon  ascetical  or 
Arianism  of  Eunomius  and  defends  the  Divinity  of  moral  subjects,  St.  Basil  was  particularly  felicitous 
the  Three  Persons  of  the  Trinity;  it  is  well  summarized  in  the  field  of  spiritual  instruction.    Correspondence,^ — 
by  Jackson    (Nicene    and    Post    Nicene    Fathers,  The  extant  letters  of  Basil  are  366  in  niunber,  two- 
Series  II,  VIII).     The  work  "De  Spiritu  Sancto".  thirds  of  them  belondng  to  the  period  of  his  episoo- 
w  treatise  on  the  Holy  Spirit  (c.  3/5)  was  evokea  pate.      The    so-called    "Canonical    Epistles"    have 
ia  part  by  the  Macedonian  denial  of  the  Divinity  of  been  assailed  as  spurious,  but  are  almost  surely  gen- 
the  Third  Person  and  in  part  by  char^  that  Basil  uine.     The  correspondence  with  Julian  and  with 
himself   had    "slurred   over    the   Spirit"    (Gregory  Libanius  is  probably  apocryphal;  the  correspondence 
Naz.,  Ep.  Iviii),  that  he  had  advocated  communion  with  Apollinaris  is  uncertain.    All  of  the  366  letters 
with  all  such  as  should  admit  simply  that  the  Holy  are    translated    in    the    "Nicene    and    Post-Nicene 
Ghost  was  not  a  creature  (Basil,  Ep.  cxiii),  and  that  Fathers".     Some  of  the  letters  are  really  dogmatic 
he  had  sanctioned  the  use  of  a  novel  doxology,  treatises,  and  others  are  apologetic  replies  to  per- 
namely,  "Glory  be  to  the  Father  with  the  Son  to-  sonal  attacks.     In  general  they  are  very  useful  for 
gether  with  the  Holy  Ghost"  (De  Sp.  S.,  I,  i).    The  their  revelation  of  the  saint's  character  and  for  the 
treatise  teaches  the  doctrine  of  the  Divinity  of  the  pictures  of  his  age  which  they  offer.    LitvrgicaL — 
Holy  Ghost,  while  avoiding  the  phrase  "Uod.  the  A  so-callt^  "Litur^  of  St.  Biasil"  exists  in  Greek 
Holy  Ghost"  for  prudential  reasons   (Greg.   Naz.,  andinGoptic.   (See  Basil,  Liturgy  op.)    It  goes  back 
Or.  xliii.    Wuilcknis  and  Swete  affirm  the  necessity  at  least  to  the  sixth  century,  but  its  connexion  with 
of  some  such  reticence  on  Basil's  part.    (Cf.  Jackson,  Basil  has  been  a  matter  of  critical  discussion  (Bright- 
op.  cit.,  p.  XXIII,  note.)     With  regard  to  Basil's  man,   "Liturgies,  Eastern  and  Western",  Oxford, 
teaching  on  the  Third  Person,  as  expressed  in  his  1896,  I;  ProMt,  "Die  Liturgie  des  vierten  Jahrhun- 
work  against  Eunomius  (III,  i),  a  controverery  arose  derts  und  deren  Reform",  MUnster,  1893,  377-412). 
at  the  Council  of  Florence  between  the  Latins  and  Editions  op  St.  Basil. — ^The  edUio  princeps  of  the 
the  Greeks;   but  strong  arguments,  both  external  orinnal  text  of  the  extant  works  of  Basil  appeared 
and  internal,  availed  to  place  Basil  on  the  side  of  at  Basle,  1551,  and  the  first  complete  Latin  trans- 
the  "Filioque".    The  dogmatic  writings  were  edited  lation  at  Rome,  1515  (autograph  manuscript  in  the 
separately  by  Goldhom,in  his  "S.  Basilii  Opera  Dog-  British  Museum).     The  best  eidition  is  that  of  the 
matica  Selecta"  (Leipzig,  1854).    The  "De  Spiritu  Maurist   Benedictines.   Gamier  and   Maran    (Paris, 
Sancto",  was  translated  into  English  by  Johnston  1721-30),  republishea  with   appendixes   by   Migne 
(Oxford,  1892);  by  Lewis  in  the  Christian  Gassic  (P.  G.,  XXIX-XXXII).    For  fragments  attributed 
Series  (1888)*  and  by  Jackson  (op.  cit.).    Exegetical, —  to  Basil  with  more  or  less  certainty,  and  edited  by 
These  include  nine  homilies  "On  the  Hexaemeron"  Matthaei,  Mai,  Pitra,  and  others,  see  Bardenhewer. 
and  thirteen  (Maran)  genuine  homilies  on  particular  "Patrologie"    (Freiburg,    1901),   247.     Portions  of 
Psalms.    A  lengthy  commentary  on  the  first  sixteen  letters  recently  discovered  in  Egyptian  papyri  were 
chapters  of  Isaias  is  of  doubtful  authenticity  (Jack-  published  by  H.  Landwehr."Griecnische  Handschrif- 
son),  though  by  a  contemporary  hand.    A  commen-  ten  aus  FayQm",  in  "Philologus",  XLIII  (1884). 
tary  on  Job  has  disappeared.     "TheHexaemeron"  Bibliographies.— Chevalii:r,  Ripertoire,  BiobihUographie, 
was  highly  admired  by  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  (Or.  b.  t.;  Bardenhewer.  QtKh.  der  aUkuxh.  IMAFnihma,  1902). 
xliii    n    fi7"^       Tt  \a  translAtPri  Pntir«»  hv  Tftnkfion   (nn  Ck)NT»MPORART     AuTHORmES.— Greo.     Naz.^     Ora^jonea, 
•X  n'      rtS^'i.        .1^  ^^ansiaiea  entire  oy  JaCKSOn  (Op.  ^Bpecially  xlUi;  Idem,  Eputolce;  Idem,  Carm.  de  vitd  «t*4:  Greo. 
«t.).      The  homilies   on   the   Psalms  are  moral   and  YiTBB.,Viia  Macnna;  iDiM^Or.in  laudem  fratrU  Banlii-  Idkm, 
hortatory  rather  than  strictly  exegetical.     In  inter-  In  Ewwm.,  I:  Socrates,  Hut.  Eccl.,  IW,  xxvi;  VI.  iii:  Sobomen. 

preting  the  Scripture    B^U  uses  both  the  literal  ^^!Si^%Sl' E^ri^."^!  rSr^-^n^^A'h.S: 

and  the  allegorical  methods,  but  favours  the  hteral  vill,  xi-xiii:  Ephrjbm  Syrum,  Encomium  in  Btu.,  ap.  CkyrE- 

system  of  Antioch.      His   second   homily   contains  l™,  Af on. J?cci./?r.,  II;  Jerome,  i)«  Fir. /««•/..  cxvi.    The 

a  denqnciation  of  usury  which  has  become  famous.  J^^?^**  ^^  Amphh^chius  ib  a  forgery  of  about  the  ninth 

Homiletical. — ^Twenty-four  sermons,  doctrinal,  moral,  Studies  on  Basil.— Bjert  in  Acta  88.,  June.  IU\  Marar 

and  panegyrical  in  character,  are  looked  upon  as  and  Garnish  in  P.  <?..  XXIX;  Tillemont,  Af ^mot««,  IX; 

generally  jsenuine    certain  critical  difficulties,  how-  ?v^T'".t•uf 'l^l^L^i^':  ^^""r >t'2- fp^'^'iT^^^^ 

e^er,  remaming  still  unsolved.     Eight  of  these  ser-  Allard^  8aint  BaHU  (Paria,  1903);  Allard  in  Did.  de  tMol, 

mons  were  translated  into  Latin  by  Rufinus.    The  «?<*».^.^- ^J^**  Jackton,  A  5«tec<Li6ror^ 

discourses  place  Basil  among  the  very  greatest  of  ^rn'i"ri5:^lf'?K^r^''r^^'ti^.''B'S:.^"i'; 

Christian  preachers  and  evmce  his  special  gift  for  Butler,  lAvea  of  0ie  SainU,  14  June;  Newman.  Church  of  the 

preaching  upon  the  responsibilities  of  wealth.    The  FaOter»,l'-lll;  &wvit..  Doctrine  of  Oie 

most  "^worthy  in  the  collection  are  the  homilies  J„'L*\'Bto^^'^B^''B^'^'ri«r5^'tt 

on   the    nch    (vi   and   VU)    copied    by   St.   Ambrose  le  ^rand  (Rennes.  1865):  Scaou.,  Die  Lehre  dee  heiLB,  von  der 


BA8XN  334  BA8UB 

gnafe(FmbuK, im);ThnnLjnT^oloo.Quaj^^  (e.  g.  Nat.  AJeoMnder,  JX,  pp.  433-599)  admit  that 

l;;^^S^7^^;frOi^2^  af^r  the  appeanmc^  of  tie  BuU  of  Eugene  IV 

in  ChrUtian  Review,  XXIII.  XXIV.  (18  September,   1437)  transfemng  the  council  to 

Joseph  McSorlby.  Ferrara,  the  proceedings  at  Basle  can  be  regarded 

Basin,    Ecclesiasticai,    Use    op.— Basins    were  o^y  ^  t^e   work  of  a  schismatical   conventicle, 

extensively  used  in  the  Jewish  Ritual  and  were  in  On  the  other  hand,   writers   like   Bellarrnine  (De 

early  use  in  Christian  churches  for  ablutions  and  to  Concil.,  I,  vii),  Roncagha,  and  Holstem  absolutehr 

receive  lamp-drippings  etc.      The  Missal  prescribes  refuse  to  number  Basle  among  the  general  councils 

its  use  at  the  "Lavabo"  of  the  Mass  (Rit.  Cel.  vii,  10);  of  ^^e  Church  on  account  of  the  small  number  of 

the  "Caeremoniale  Episcoporum"  provides  a  basin  for  bishops  in  attendance  at  the  beginning,  and  the 

bearing  the  cruets  U^ib.  I,  xi,  10)  and  for  the  pre-  subsequent  rebelhous  attitude  m  face  of  the  papal 

paratory  ablutions  of  bishops  (ibid.,  12).     They  are  decrees  of  dissolution.    The  true  opinion  seems  to 

ordinarily  of  ornamented  metal.  b©   that  put   forward   bv   Hefele    (Conciliengesch., 

CATALxm,  CaremoniaU  Epiecoporum  comment.  (Paris,  1860J,  2d  ed.,  I,  63-99)  that  the  assembly  at  Basle  may 

1.226-229;  Van  derStappkn,  5a<To  (Purina  (Mec^^^  be   regarded   as   OBcimienical   from    the   beginning 

i^VKii2'KDTtn^'8rs^.K<^^?t"v!^°'"'°'  '**^'  V?«l  »>  Bull  "Doctoris  Gentium "  (18  Septeu^ber 

John  B  Peterson  1437)  transferred  its  sessions  to  Ferrara,  and  that 

^    ,^    .  _  «      ••*  -rv  "i®  decrees   passed  dunng  that   penod   regarding 

Basle,  Augustine  Francis.    See  Mysore,  Dio-  the   extirpation   of   heresy^    the   establishment^ 

c^^E  OP.  peace  among  Christian  nations,  and  the  reform  of 

Basle,  Council  of,  convoked  by  Pope  Martin  V  the  Church,  if  they  are  not  prejudicial  to  the  Apos- 
in  1431,  closed  at  Lausanne  in  1449.  The  position  tolio  See,  ma^r  be  considered  as  the  decrees  of  a 
of  the  pope  as  the  common  Father  of  the  (Jnristian  general  council.  In  accordance  with  the  above- 
world  had  been  seriously  compromised  by  the  trans-  mentioned  decree  of  Constance,  the  Council  of 
fer  of  the  papal  court  to  Avignon,  and  by  the  subse-  P^via  had  been  convoked  by  Martin  V  (1423),  and 
quent  identincation  of  the  mterests  of  the  Church  on  the  appearance  of  the  plague  in  that  city  its 
with  those  of  a  particular  race.  Men  began  to  re-  sessions  were  transferred  to  Sienna.  Very  little 
gard  the  papacy  more  as  a  national  than  a  universal  was  done  except  to  determine  the  place  where  the 
institution,  ancf  their  feeling  of  religious  loyalty  was  next  council  snould  be  held. '  An  Italian  city  was 
often  nearly  balanced  by  the  promptings  of  national  looked  upon  with  disfavour,  as  likelv  to  l>e  too 
jealousy.  Nor  was  the  papacy  likely  to  be  strength-  friendly  to  the  papacy;  the  French  bisnops  and  the 
ened  by  the  events  of  the  Great  Western  Schism  Paris  University  were  anxious  that  some  place  in 
(137^1417),  when  rival  claimants  were  seen  con-  France  should  be  selected;  but  finally,  owing  mainly 
tending  for  the  throne  of  St.  Peter  and  for  the  alle-  to  the  representations  of  Emperor  Sigismund, 
giance  of  the  Christian  nations.  Such  a  spectacle  Basle  was  agreed  upon  by  all,  and  this  choice  having 
was  well  calculated  to  shake  men's  belief  in  the  been  made,  the  council  was  dissolved  (7  March, 
monarchical  form  of  government  and  to  drive  them  1424).  As  the  time  approached  for  the  assembling 
to  seek  elsewhere  a  remedy  for  the  evils  which  then  of  the  ooimcil  Martin  V  was  urged  from  all  sides 
afflicted  the  Church.  It  was  not  strange  that  the  to  place  no  obstacle  in  the  way,  and  though  knowing 
advocates  of  a  general  council  as  the  final  arbitra-  the  tendency  at  the  time,  and  fearing  that  the  oouncif 
tor,  the  ultimate  court  of  appeal  to  which  all,  even  would  lead  to  revolution  rather  than  reform,  he 
the  pope,  must  yield,  should  have  secured  a  ready  finally  gave  his  consent  fmd  appointed  Cardinal 
attention.  The  success  of  the  Council  of  Constance  Giuliano  CsBsarini  as  president  (1  February,  1431). 
(1414-18)  in  securing  the  withdrawal  or  deposition  The  principal  purpose  of  the  coimcil  was  to  be 
of  the  three  rival  popes  had  supplied  a  strong  ar-  the  reformation  of  the  Church  in  its  ''head  and 
gument  in  favour  oi  the  concihar  theory.  It  is  members '',  the  settlement  of  the  Hussite  wars,  the 
clear  both  from  the  speeches  of  some  of  the  Fathers  establishment  of  peace  among  the  nations  of  Europe, 
of  Constance  as  well  as  from  its  decrees  that  such  a  and  finally  the  reunion  of  the  Western  and  Eastern 
feeling  was  rapidly  gaining  ground,  and  that  many  Churches.  The  demands  of  the  Roman  Curia, 
people  had  come  to  regard  the  government  of  the  its  constant  interference  in  the  bestowal  of  bene- 
Church  by  general  councils,  convoked  at  regular  fices,  the  right  of  appeal  on  all  matters  to  the  prejiv 
intervals,  as  the  one  most  in  harmony  with  the  dice  of  the  local  authorities,  the  financial  burdeof 
needs  of  the  time.  As  a  result,  in  the  39th  session  involved  in  such  institutions  as  annates,  expectancies, 
of  the  Coimcil  of  Constance  (9  October,  1417)  we  and  reservations,  not  to  speak  of  the  direct  psLpaX 
find  it  decreed:  that  general  councils  should  be  held  taxation,  only  too  common  since  the  thirteenth 
frequently;  that  the  next  should  be  convoked  within  century,  had  given  just  grounds  for  complaint  to 
five  years;  the  following  seven  years  later,  and  after  the  clergy  and  secular  powers  of  the  different  nationa 
this,  a  council  should  be  held  every  ten  years;  that  These  papal  taxes  and  encroachments  on  the  rights 
the  place  of  convocation  should  be  determined  by  of  the  local  authorities,  both  ecclesiastical  and  civil, 
the  council  itself,  and  could  not  be  changed  even  by  had  long  been  bitterly  resented,  especially  in  Eng- 
the  pope  imless  in  case  of  war  or  pestilence,  and  then  land  and  Germany,  and  it  was  because  a  remedy 
only  with  the  consent  of  at  least  two-thirds  of  the  for  these  abuses  was  hoped  for  only  from  a  eeneraJ 
cardinals.  It  was  in  accordance  with  this  decree  council  that  people  regarded  sympatheticaln*  the 
that  Martin  V  convoked  the  Council  of  Basle,  and  assembly  at  Basle,  even  at  times  when  they  did 
it  is  only  by  understanding  the  feeling  underlying  not  agree  with  its  methods.  In  addition  to  these, 
this  decree  that  we  can  grasp  the  significance  of  the  question  of  simony,  of  concubinage  amon^  tbe 
the  dispute  waged  between  Eugene  IV  and  the  clergy,  of  reorganization  of  diocesan  and  provuicial 
council.  Which  was  to  govern  the  Church?  Was  synods,  of  the  abuse  of  censures,  especially  of  inter- 
it  to  be  the  pope  or  the  coimcil?  That  was  the  issue  met,  called  for  some  reform  in  the  discipune  of  the 
really  at  staJce.  Church.    But    besides    these    disciplinary  matters 

Wnether  Basle  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  general  the  teaching  of  Wyclif  and  Hus  had  found  sympa- 

council,  and  if  so,  in  what  sense,  has  beeir  often  thetic  supporters  in   England  and  Bohemia,    and 

warmly   discussed.    The   extreme  Gallicans    (e.    g.  notwithstanding   the    condemnation    at    Constance 

Edmund  Richer,  Hist.  Concil.  Gen.,  Ill,  vii)  contend  the   Hussites  were  still  a  powerful  party   in    the 

that  it  should  be  reckoned  as  oDcumenical  from  its  latter  coimtry.    Though  the  death  ot  their  leader 

beginning  (1431)  till  its  end  in  Lausanne  (1449):  Ziska  (1424)  bad  proved  a  serious  loss,  the  different 

wlule  the  moderate  writers  of  the  Galilean  school  sections  still  oontmued  the  struggle,  and 


BASLMi  335  BASLE 

SigiimmKl  was  naturally  anxious  that  an  end  should  foroes,  but  at  the  same  time  to  dispatch  two  of  hli 

be  put  to  the  war  which  had  already  taxed  his  re-  companions,  John  of  Palomar  and  John  of  Ragusa. 

lources  to  the  uttermost.    Furthermore,  the  growing  to  act  as  his  representatives  at  Basle.    These  ar- 

power  of  the  Turks  was  a  menace  not  alone  to  the  rived  there  on  19  July  and  held  an  assembly  (23  July) 

ezistenoe  of  the  Eastern  Empire  but  to  the  whole  in  the  Cathedral  of  Basle  at  which  the  documents 

of  Europe,  and  made  it  imperative  upon  the  Chrjs>  of  authorization  were  read,  and  the  council  declared 

tian  pnnces   to   abandon    their   internecine   strife  formally  opened.    Though  there  were  not  a  dozen 

and  unite  with  the  Greeks  in  defence  of  their  common  members  present  the  assembly  immediately^  arro- 

dmstianity    i^ainst    the    power    of    Islam.    The  gated  to  itself  the  title  of  a  general  council,  and 

movement  in  favour  of  reunion  had  been  specially  began  to  act  as  if  its  authority  were  secured, 
favoured  by  Martin  V  and  by  the  Emperor  John  VII        Csesarini,  after  the  failure  of  his  crusade  against 

Palaologus    (1425-48).  *  the  Hussites,  arrived  in  Basle  on  the  11th  of  September 

The  president  of  the  council,  Cardinal  Giuliano  and  a  few  aays  later  (17  September),  in  accordance 

C^Bttirim,  appointed   by  Martin   V  and   confirmed  with  instructions  received  from  Eugene,  dispatched 


Thie  members    then    nominated    Bishop    Philibert  the  coimcil  represented  to  the  pope  that  very  few 

of  Oonstance    as    president.    Later    on.  probably  prelates  had  attended,  that  there  was  little  hope 

at  the  seventh  general  session  (6  November,  1432),  of  an  increased  number  owing  to  the  war  between 

Csearini   resumed    the   presidency   and    continued  Burgundy  and  Austria  and   the  general   unsafetv 

the  guiding  spirit  in  opposition  to  the  pope  till  of  the  roads,  and  that  even  the  city  of  Basle  itself 

the  extreme  element  tmder  Cardinal    d'Allemand  was  in  danger  and  its  people  unfriendly  to   the 

of  Aries  began  to  gain  the  upper  hand.    In  the  clergy.    On  the  receipt  of  this  news  Eugene  issued 

general  assembly   (6   December,   1436)   he   refused  (12   November)  a  commission  to   Csesarini,  signed 

to  agree  to  the  wishes  of  the  majority  that  Basle,  by  twelve  cardinab,  empowering  him  to  dissolve 

Avimon,  or  some  city  of  Savoy  should  be  selected  the  coimcil,  if  he  should  deem  it  advisable,  and  to 

as  t£e  meeting  place  of  the  coimcil  to  be  held  for  the  convoke  another  to  meet  at  Bologna  eighteen  months 

reunion  of  the  Greeks  with  tho  Western  Church,  but  after    the    dissolution.    Meanwhile    the    assembly 

he  continued  to  act  as  president  till  the  31st  of  July,  at  Basle  had  entered  into  communication  with  the 

1437,  when  a  decree  was  passed  summoning  Pope  Hussites,  requesting  them  to  send   representatives 

Eugene  IV  to  appear  at  Basle  within  sixty  days  to  the  council,  and,  in  case  they  comphed,  grantling 

to  answer  for  his   disobedience.    Csesarini   finally  letters  of    safe-conduct.     This  was  understood  at 

left  Basle  after  the  appearance  of  the  Bull,  "  Doc-  Rome  as  indicating  a  desire  to  reopen  for  discussion 

toris  Gentium"  (18   September,   1437)  transferring  questions  of  doctrme  already  settled  at  Constance 

the  council  to  Ferrara,  and  joined  the  adherents  and  at  Sienna,  and  as  a  result  Eugene  IV  issued 

of  the  pope.    After  his  withdrawal,  Cardinal  d'Alle-  (18  December)  a  Bull  dissolving  the  council  and  con- 

mand  played  the  leading  part  and  on  the  election  voking  another  to  meet  at  Bologna. 

of  the  antipope,  Felix  V,  was  nominated  by  him  as        Before  the  arrival  of  this  Bull  Csesarini  had  already 

president  of  the  assembly.    The  nomination  how-  (14  December)  held  the  first  public  session,  at  which 

ever,  was  disregarded  by  the  members  who  there-  were  present  three  bishops,  fourteen  abbots,  and  a 

upon  elected  the  Archbishop  of  Tarentaise.    The  consiaerable  body  of  doctors  and  priests.    Naturally 

other  members  of  the  council  who  took  a  prominent  enough,  the  Bull  of  dissolution,  though  not  entirely 

Krt  in  the  proceedings  were  Capranica  who  had  unexpected,  gave  great  offence  to   those  present, 

m  appointeid  cardinal  by  Martin,  but  who  as  his  and  on  the  3d  of  January,  1432,  when  it  was  to 

af)po)ntment  had  not  been  published  was  not  ad-  have  been  read,  the  members  absented  themselves 

mitted  to  the  conclave  on  tne  death  of  Martin  nor  from  the  sitting  to  prevent  its  publication.    Csesarini 

recognized  by  Eugene;  ^Eneas  Sylvius  Piceolomini,  forwarded  td  Iu>me  a  strongly  worded  protest  against 

afterwards   Fope    Fius   II;    the   renowned   scholar  the  di^olution.  in  which  he  pointed  out  the  evil 

Nicholas    of    Cusa;     Cardinal    Louis    d'Allemand;  consequences  which  would  result  from  such  a  step, 

John  of  Antioch;    John  of  Ragusa,  and  the  two  but  at  the  same  time  in  obedience  to  the  papal 

canonistA,   Nicholas,  Archbishop   of    Palermo,  and  Bull  he  resigned  his  position  as  president  of  the  coun- 

Louk  Pontanus.  cil.    Sigismund,  w1k>  had  already  appointed  Duke 

Eugene  IV  confimled  his  predecessor's  appoint-  William  of  Bavaria  protector  of  the  council,  was 

inent  of  Csesarini  as  president  on  the  very  day  of  also  opposed  to  the  action  of  Eugene  IV,  as  he  had 

his  coronation  (12  March),  but  with  certain  reserva-  great  liopes  that  through  this  council  the  Hussite 

tions  which  were  dictated  by  Eugene's  desire  of  controversy   might   be   terminated;   on   the   other 

holding  a  council  in  some  city  more  convenient  for  hand,  he  wishea  to  stand  well  with  the  pope,  from 

the    representatives    of    the    Greeks.    There    was  whom  he  expected  the  imperial  crown.     Hence  it 

present  at  Basle  on  the  day  on  which  the  council  is  that  while  sympathizing  generally  with  the  council, 

should  have  been  opened  (4  March)  only  one  dele-  he  played  the  r61e  of  mediator  rather  than  that  of 

l^te,  but  by  the  beginning  of  April,  three  representa-  defender.     Delegates  were  dispatched  from  Basle 

tives  arrived  from  the  University  of  Paris,  together  to  secure  the  withdrawal  of  the  Bull, 
with  the  Bishop  of  CThalons  and  the  Abbot  of  Ctteaux.        Many  of  the  princes  of  Europe  who  had  hoped 

These  six    came   toother    (11    April)   and   issued  for  useful  reforms  from  the  labours  of  the  council 

pressing  letters  of  invitation  to  the  cardinals,  bishops,  expressed   their  disapproval   of   the   papal   action, 

ttid  pnnces  of  Europe.    Csesarini,  who  up  to  this  and  more  especially  the  Duke  of  Milan  who  was 

time  had  been  engaged  in  the  crusade  organized  personally  hostile  to  Eugene  IV.    Relying  on  this 

against  the  Hussit^,  endeavoured  to  reassure  the  support  the  second  public  session  was  held  (15  Feb- 

cklegates    and    to    restrain    their   eagerness,    while  ruary,  1432)  at  which  were  renewed  the  decrees  of 

the  influence  of  Sigismund  was  employed  in  the  Constance  declaring  that  a  general  coimcil  had  its 

same  direction.    The  pope  wrote  to  Caesanni  (31  May)  authority  directly  from  Chnst  and  that  all,  even 

requesting  him  to  settle  the  affair  of  the  Hussites  the  pope,  are  bound  to  obey  it.     Besides,  it  was 

as  quickly  as  possible  and  then  to  oroceed  to  Basle  decreed  tnat  the  ''General  Council"  now  in  session 

for  the  opening  of  the  council.    ()n  the  reception  could   not   be   transferred,  prorogued,  or  dissolved 

of  this  letter  the  legate  determined,  after  consults-  without  its  own  consent.     Everything  seemed  just 

taon  with  Sigismund,  to  remain  with  the  military  then  to  favour  the  council.     Sigismund  had  a  power. 


BASLE  336  BASLE 

ful  army  in  Northern  Italy;  an  Assembly  of  the  astical  rank  the  members  were  divided  Into  four 
French  Clergy  at  Boui^ges  (February,  1432)  de-  committees,  on  which  the  four  nations  attending 
clared  for  the  continuation  of  the  council  at  Basle  the  council  should  be  equally  represented.  The 
and  resolved  to  send  representatives;  the  Duke  of  votes  of  the  cardinals  or  bishops  were  of  no  more 
Burgundy  wrote  that  he  would  send  the  bishops  importance  than  those  of  the  professors,  canons,  or 
of  his  own  nation  and  would  use  his  influence  with  parish  priests;  in  this  way  it  was  secured  that  the 
the  King  of  England  to  induce  him  to  do  likewise;  mferior  der^  should  have  the  controlling  voice 
the  Dukes  of  Milan  and  Savoy  were  equally  sym-  in  the  decisions  of  the  council.  Each  committee 
pathetic,  while  the  Paris  University  declared  that  was  to  carry  on  itp  sittings  in  a  separate  hall  and  to 
'he  devil  alone  could  have  inspired  the  pope  to  communicate  its  decisions  to  the  others,  and  it  was 
adopt  such  a  course.  Thus  encouraged  the  council  only  when  practu^al  unanimity  had  been  secured 
held  its  third  public  session  (29  April,  1432)  in  which  among  the  comnuttees  that  the  matter  was  intro- 
the  pope  was  commanded  to  withdraw  the  Bull  ducea  at  a  public  session  of  the  whole  body.  This 
of  dissolution  and  to  appear  at  Basle  either  per-  arrangement,  whereby  the  irresponsible  members 
sonally  or  by  proxy  withm  three  months.  A  similar  had  gained  the  upper  hand,  tended  to  brins  affairs 
summons  was  addressed  to  the  cardinals,  and  both  to  a  crisis.  In  the  seventh  public  session  (6  Novem- 
pope  and  cardinals  were  threatened  with  judicial  ber)  it  was  arranged  that  in  case  of  Eugene's  death 
proceedings  unless  they  complied.  In  the  fourth  the  cardinals  should  appear  at  the  council  within 
public  session  (20  June,  1432)  it  was  decreed  that  60  days  for  the  holding  of  the  conclave.  Shortiy 
in  case  the  papal  throne  should  become  vacant  afterwards,  at  the  eighth  public  session  (18  Decern- 
during  the  time  of  the  council,  the  conclave  could  ber),  the  pope  was  Slowed  a  further  term  of  sixty 
be  held  onlv  at  its  place  of  session;  that  in  the  days  to  witndraw  the  Bull  of  dissolution,  under 
meantime  Eugene  I V  should  appoint  no  cardinals  threat  of  canonical  proceedings  in  case  he  failed  to 
except  at  the  council,  nor  shomd  he  hinder  any  comply,  and,  finally,  at  the  tenth  public  session 
person  from  attending,  and  that  all  censures  pro-  (19  February,  1433)  this  threat  was  enforced,  and 
nounced  against  it  by  him  were  null  and  void,  in  the  presence  of  five  cardinals  and  forty-six  bishops 
They  even  went  so  far  as  to  appoint  a  governor  for  the  pope  was  declared  contumacious  and  caQoni<»l 
the  territory  of  Avignon  and  to  forbid  any  papal  proceeoings  were  instituted  against  him. 
embassy  to  approach  Basle  unless  letters  of  safe-  Eueene  IV,  afflicted  with  bodily  suffering,  de- 
conduct  had  been  previously  requested  and  granted,  serted  by  many  of  his  cardinals,  and  hard  pressed 

Sigismund  was  m  constant  communication  with  ,  by  Italian  rebels,  endeavoured  by  every  means  in 

the  pope  and  urged  him  to  make  some  concessions,  his  power,  together   with   the   support    of    Philip, 

In   file   beginning  Eugene  IV   agreed   to   allow  a  Duke  of  Milan,  to  bring  about  a  settlement.     He 

national  council  to  be  held  in  some  German  city  proposed  (14  December,  1432)  an  Italian  town  as  the 

for  the  reform  of  abuses  in  the  Church  of  Germany  place  for  the  council,  allowing  the  assembly  at  iWle 

and  for  the  settlement  of  the  Hussite  controversy,  four  months  to  settle  up  the  HusiSite  controversnr; 

Later  on,  he  was  willing  to  permit  the  council  at  on  the  rejection  of  this,  ne  agreed  that  it  should  Be 

Basle  to  continue  its  discussions  on  church  reform,  held  in  a  German  city  provided  twelve  impartial 

the    Hussite    controversy,    and    the    establishment  bishops  and  the  ambassadors  of  the  different  ooun- 

of  peace   among  Christian   nations,  provided   that  tries  so  wished  it.     Later  still  (1  February,  1433) 

its  aecisions  were  subject  to  the  papal  confirmation,  he  accepted  a  German  town  unconditionally,  aqd 

and  provided,  too,  that  a  council  should  be  held  even  went  so  far  as  to  agree  to  accept  (14  February, 

in  Bologna,  or  some  Italian  city  for  the  reunion  of  1433)  Basle  itself  in  case  the  decrees  against  the 

the    Eastern    Church.     Sigismund    forwarded    this  papal  power  were  withdrawn,  his  own  legate  allowed 

letter  to  Basle  (27  July)  and  exhorted  the  delegates  to  pi-eside,  and  the  number  of  bishops  present  at 

to  moderation.     On  the  22d  of  August,  the  pleni-  least  seventy-five.    These  offers  were  rejected  by 

potentiaries  of   the  pope  were   receive^   at   Basle  the  council   (March,   1433),   the  decree   about    the 

and  addressed  the  council  at  length,  pointing  out  superiority  of  a  general  council  renewed  (27  April), 

that  the  monarchical  form  of  government  was  the  and  it  was  with  difficulty  that  Duke  William  of 

■one  established  by  Christ,  that  the  pope  was  the  Bavaria  prevented  the  opening  of  the  process  a»inst 

supreme  judge  in  ecclesiastical  affairs,  and  that  the  the  pope  in  the  twelfth  general  session  (13  July). 

Bull  of  dissolution  was  not  due  to  the  pope's  jealousy  MeanwnUe  Sigismund  had  made  peace  with  Eugene 

of  a  general  council  as  such.    They  ended  by  de-  and  had  received  the  imperial  crown  in  Rome  (31  May. 

daring  that  the  assembly  at  Basle,  if  it  persisted  1433).    He  requested  the  council  not  to  proceed 

in   its   opposition    to   Eugene,   could   be   regarded  further  against  the  pope  until  he  himself  should  be 

only  as  a  schismatical  conventicle  and  was  certain  present,  and  on  the  other  hand  he  pressed  the  pope 

to  lead,  not  to  reform,  but  to  still  greater  abuses,  to  make  some  further  concession.    In  response  to 

In  the  name  of  the  pope  they  made  an  offer  of  this  appeal  Eugene  issued  (1  August,  1433)  a  Bull 

Bologna  or  some  city  in  the  Jrapal  States  as  the  in  whicn  he  declared  that  he  was  willing  and  content 

place  for  the  future  council,  the  pope  to  resign  his  that  the  council  should  be  recognized  as  lawfully 

sovereign  rights  o^'er  the  city  selected,  so  long  as  constituted  from  the  beginning  and  continued   as 

the  assembly  should   be  in  session.    The  council  if  nothing  had  happened,  and  that  he  himself  would 

replied  to   this  communication    (3  September)   by  assist  its  deliberations  by  every  means  in  his  power, 

reasserting  the  superiority  of  a  general  council  over  provided,  however,  that  his  legates  were  admitted 

the  pope  in  all  matters  appertaining  to  faith,  dis-  as  real  presidents,  and  that  all  decrees  against  him- 

cipline,  or  the  extirpation  of  schism,  and  by  an  self  or  his  cardinals  were  withdrawn.    This  declara- 

absolute  rejection  of  the  offers  made  by  the  pleni-  tion  coincided  exactly  with  the  formulil  sent    by 

potentiaries.  Csesarini  to  the  emperor  (18  June)  except  that  the 

In  the  sixth  public  session  (6  September),  at  which  pope  had  inserted  ''we  are  willing  and  content" 

were    present    four    cardinals    (Uaesarini,    Branda,  {volumua   et   contentamur)    in   plaoe   of   the    words 

Castiglione,  and  Albergati)  and  thirty-two  bishops,  "we  decree  and  declare"  (decemimus  et  declaramtis). 

it  was  proposed  to  declare  Eugene  and  his  eighteen  This  change  was  displeasing  to  the  council,  implying, 

cardinals    contumacious,    but    this    proposal    was  as  it  did,  mere  toleration  and  not  the  approbation 

postponed,  owing,   mainlv,  to  the  representations  which  they  desired;  so  relying  upon  Eugene's  troubles 

of   Sigismund.     In    October,    the   standing   orders  in  Italy  with  the  Colonnas,  the  Duke  of   Milan, 

for  the  transaction  of  the  business  of  the  council  and  others,  they  refused  to  accept  even  this  oon- 

were  drawn  up.    Without  roference  to  their  ecclesi-  cession.    Finally,  on  the  15th  of  December,    1433, 


BASLB  337  BA8LE 

isiugene  issued  a  Bull  in  which  he  acoepM  the  on  the  1st  of  October  he  was  declared  contumaciouB. 
formula  ''we  decree  and  declare"  fay  which  he  with-  Eugene  IV  replied  to  these  excesses  by  the  publica- 
drew  all  his  previous  manifestoes  against  the  Council  tion  of  the  Buii  "Doctoris  gentium"  (18  September), 
of  Basle.  in  which  it  was  stated  uiat  unless  the  delegates 
Thus  peace   was   established   between   the   two  abandoned  their  methods  and  confined  themselves 
parties,  but  the  reconciliation  was  more  apparent  for  a  limited  nimiber  of  days  only  to  the  Bohemian 
than  real.    The  papal  legates  were  indeed  aamitted  affair  the  council  would  be  transferred  to  Ferrara. 
as  presidents,   but  their  jurisdiction   was   denied,  The  reply  was  a  reassertion  of  the  superiority  of  a 
their  powers  limited  by  the  will  of  the  council,  they  general   council    (19  October).     Cardmal   Csesarini 
were  even  forced  to  accept  the  decrees  of  Constance  made  one  final  effort  to  effect  a  reconciliation,  but 
which  they  did  in  their  own  name  but  not  in  the  failed,  and  then,  accompanied  by  all  the  cardinals 
name  of  the  pope   (24  April,   1434),  and  finally,  except  d'Allemand  and  by  most  of  the  bishops,  he 
when  in  the  eighteenth  public  session  (26  June)  the  left  Basle  and  joined  the  pope  at  Ferrara,  to  which 
Constance    decrees    were    solemnly    renewed    they  place  the  council  had   been  definitely  transferred 
refused  to   attend.    In   spite  of   their  efforts   the  by  a  Bull  of  Eugene  IV  (30  December). 
council  continued   in   its  opposition  to  the  pope.        Henceforth  the  assembly  at  Basle  could  be  re- 
claiming jurisdiction    in   alt    affairs,    political   and  garded  only  as  schismatical.     Most  of  the  Christian 
religious,  and  entering  into  negotiations  with  the  world  stood  loyal  to  the  pope  and  to  the  Council 
Greeks  about   the   reunion   of   the   Churches.     At  of  Ferrara.     F&igland,  Castile   and   Aragon,   Milan, 
the  twentieth   public   session    (22   January,    1435)  and    Bavaria   disavowed   the   assembly   at   Basie, 
the  reform  of  church  discipline  was  begun.     Decrees  while,  on  the  other  hand,   France  and   Germany, 
were  passed  a^inst  concubinage  of  the  clergy  and  though    recognizing    Eugene    IV,    endeavoured    to 
the  abuse    of    excommunicationB    and    interdicts,  maintain  a  neutral  position.     In  a  meeting  of  the 
On  the  9th  of  June,  1435,  annates  and  all  the  cus-  French  Clergy  at  Bourges   (Mav,  1438),,  at  which 
tomary  papal   taxes  were  abolished,   although  no  were  i)re8ent  delegates   from  the  pope   and   from 
steps  were  taken  to  provide  for  the  financial  status  Basle,  it  was  determined  to  remain  loyal  to  Eugene, 
of  the  papacy.     Later    still    the    papal    collectors  while  at  the  same  time  many  of  the  reforms  of  Basle 
Were  order^  to  appear  in  Basle  to  render  an  account  were  accepted  with  certain  modifications.    It  was 
of  their  work,  and  all  outstanding  debts  due  to  the  on  this  basis  that  the  twenty-three  articles  of   the 
pope  were  to  be  paid  at  Basle.    The  papal  delegates.  Praematic   Sanction   of    Bourges   were    drawn    up 
especially  Traversari  and  Anton  de  Vito,  defended  (7  July,   1438).     In  Gerthany,   after  the  death  of 
the  rights  of  Eugene,   but  the  moderate  element  Sigismund   (9  December,   1437),   delegates  of  both 
was  gnidually  losmg  control  in  the  assemblv,  and  parties  attended  at  Frankfort   (1438)  to  seek  the 
the  extreme  partv,  gathered  around  Cardinal  Ix)uis  assistance   of  the   princes,    but   they   declared   for 
d'Allemand,  could  no  longer  be  restrained.     No  leg-  neutrality  imtil  a  king  had  been  elected,  and  even 
idation  had  any  chance  of  being  passed  unless  directed  after  the  election  of  Albrecht  II   the  attitude  of 
against  the    Holy   See.    At   last,  after   the   papal  neutrality  was  maintained   till   at   last,   in   Mainz 
deputies,  Cardinals    Albergati    and    Cervantes,  ha^  (March,  1439),  they  followed  the  example  of  France 
been  received    very    badly   at    Basle   (25    March,  and  declared  for  Eugene  IV  as  lawful  pope  while 
1436),  and  after  decrees  had  been  passed  regarding  they  accepted  many  of  the  reforms  of  Basle, 
the  future  conclave,  the  papal  oath,  the  number  of        In  Basle  itself  it  was  resolved  to  depose  the  pope 
cardinals,  etc.,  Eugene  IV  realized  that  conciliation  and  in  order  to  prepare  the  way  for  deposition  three 
was  no  longer  possible,  and  addressed  a  Note  to  articles  were  drawn  up,  namely:  (1)  that  a  general 
the  princes  of  Europe  in  which  he  summed  up  the  council  is  superior   to  a  pope;  (2)    that    the   pope 
injuries  inflicted  on  the  papacy  by  the  council  and  cannot   prorogue,   or   dissolve    such    an    assembly; 
requested   the    different   rulers   to   withdraw   their  ^3)  that  whoever  denies  these  is  a  heretic.     Car- 
bishops  from  Basle  and  assist  in  the  preparation  for  ainal  d'Allemand  was   the   leading    spirit  in   this 
another  general  council  from  the  aeliberations  of  widertaking.     Against   the   wishes   of   the   bishops 
which  something  better  might  be  awaited.  and  most  of  the  ambassadors  present,  these  decrees 
The  council  had  previously  opened  communication  were  passed  (16  May,  1439),  and  Eugene  IV  was 
with  the  Greeks    (September,   1434)   to  determine  deposed   as  a   heretic   and   schismatic    (25   June). 
where  the    assembler  for   reunion   should   be  held.  Immediatdiy  steps  were  taken  to  elect  his  successor. 
In  December,  1436,  it  was  proposed  that  the  council  Cardinal   Ixmis    d'Allemand,    eleven   bishops,   five 
should  be  held  either  at  Basle  itself,  at  Avignon,  theologians,  and  nine  jurists  and  canonists  formed 
or  in  Savoy.    Cardinal  Csesarini  refused  to  put  this  the  conclave,  and  on  the  30th  of  October,  1439, 
proposal   to   the   meeting,   but  on   the  motion  of  Amadeus,  ex-Duke  of  Savoy,  was  elected  and  took 
Cardinal    d'Allemand    it    was    passed.     The    pope  the  name  of  Felix  V.    Since  his  retirement  he  had 
refused  to  consent,  and  the  deputies  of  the  Cfreek  been  living  with  a  body  of  knights,  which  he  organized 
Emperor  protested  against  it  (23  Februair,  1437),  as  the  Order  of  St.  Maurice,  on  the  banks  of  the 
whoeupon  a  new  embassy  was  dispatchea  to  Con-  Lake  of  Geneva.    He  waa  closely  connected  with 
stantinople.    The   Greeks   refused   to   come  either  many  of  the  princes  of  Europe,  and  the  coimcil 
to  Basle  or  Savoy,  and  the  people  of  Avignon  had  stood  in  bad  need  of  the  wealth  which  he  was  re- 
shown  no  desire  that  the  council  should  be  held  puted  to  possess.      He  named  Cardinal  d'Allemand 
there.    A    strong    mmority,    including    the    papal  president^  but  the  conventicle  resented  this  act  of 
legates,  and  most  of  the  bishops  present,  wished  authority  and  elected  instead  the  Archbishop  of  Ta- 
fhat  some  Italian  city  should  be  selected;  the  ma*  rentaise  (26  February.  1440).    Steps  were  also  taken 
jority,  led  by  Cardinal  d'Allemand  and  composed  to  levy  taxes  on  ecclesiastical  benefices  to  provide 
Daainly  of  the  inferior  clergy,  were  opposed  to  this  revenue  for  Felix  V   (4  August,    1440).    But  the 
propoeal.andafteradisorderly  session  (7  May,  1437),  election  of    an  antipope    alienated  the  sympathy 
at  whicn    both    parties    published    their    decrees,  of  the  worid  from  Basle.    Henceforth  they  could 
Eugene  IV  confirmed  that  of  the  minority,  and  the  rely  only  upon  Switzerland  and  Savoy. 
Greek  ambassador  declared  it  to  be  the  one  ac-        Dic^utes   soon  broke  out  between  Felix  V  and 
ceptabk  to  the  emperor.    The   revolutionary  party  the  conventicle  at  Basle.    It  refused  to  allow  his 
DOW  completely    controlled    the    council.    Against  name  to  precede  that  of  the  council  in  the  promulga- 
the  wishes  of  Csesarini,  Cervantes,  and  Sigismimd,  tion  of  ita  decrees,  and  he  was  unwilling  to  undergo 
the  pope  was  commanded  (31  July,  1437)  to  appear  the  expense  of  supporting  nuncios  in  the  different 
before  the  council  to  answer  for  his  disobedience,  and  ooimlanes.    The  sessionB  became  less  frequent,  the 

IL— 22 


BA8LE-LU0AN0                          338  BASUS-i^UOAHO 

relations  between  Felix  V  and  the  ooimdi  were  The  Council  of  Baale  might  have  done  much  \fi 

strained  until,  at  last,  in  defiance  of  its  wishes,  he  secure  reforrast  then  so  bamj  needed,  and  to  restore 

left  Basle  and  took  up  his  residence  at  Lausanne  confidence    in    ecclesiastical    authority.     From   aU 

(December,  1442).     Disappointed    in    the    hope  of  sides  it  was  assured  of  sympathy  and  support  m 

securing  the  support  of  oforza,  Aragon,  or  Milan,  the  one  remedy  for  the  abuses  which  existea.    But 

the  council  held  its  last  session  at  Basle  (16  May.  under  the  influence  of  extreme  theories  and  theoristo 

1443),  and  decreed  that  a  general  council  should  it  allowed  itself  to  be  hurried  in|^  an  inglorio'u 

be  held  in  Lyons  after  three  years;  that  imtil  the  struggle  with  the  pope,  and  the  valuable  time  and 

opening  of  this  the  Ootmcil  of  Basle  should  con-  eneigy  which  should  have  been  given  up  to  u<iefu) 

tinue  its  work,  and  in  case  the  city  of  Basle  should  legislation    were    spent    in    useless   discussions.    It 

become   imsafe   that   it   should   be   transferred   to  succeeded  in  fixing  the  eyes  of  the  world  upon  the 

Lausanne.     No    decrees    Of    ^neral    interest    were  abuses,  but  without  the  pope  it  had  not  sufficient 

passed  after  this  session.    But  it  was  some  time  before  authority  to  carry  through  the  necessary  reforms 

the  princes  of  Germany  could  be  induced  to  abandon  and  as  a  consequence  the  secular  rulers  undertook 

the    attitude    of    neutrality.    At    different    diets,  what   the   ecclesiastical   authority   had   shamefully 

Nuremberg  (1438),  Mainz  (1441),  Frankfort  (1442),  failed  to  set  right.     It  struck  a  terrible  blow  at  the 

Nuremberg  (1443,  1444),,  Frankfort  (1445),  it    was  rights  of  the  Holy  See  and  shook  men's  faith  in 

proposed  that  a  new  general  council  should  be  held  the  pope's  spiritual  power  at  a  time  when  his  temporal 

to  settle  the  disputes  between  Basle  and  Eugene  IV.  sovereignty  was  in  inuninent  danger.    In  this  waj 

A    sentence   of   deposition    issued    by   Eugene    IV  it  led  directly  in  France,  through  the  Pragmatic 

against  the  Prince-Electors  of   (k>logiie   and  Trier  Sanction  of  Bourges,  to  the  establishment  of  Galli- 

who  favoured  Basle  roused  all  the  princes  of  Ger-  canism  as  a  definite  formula,  while  in  Giermany, 

many  against   him,  and  at  the  Diet  of  Frankfort  through   the    long   intervals   of   neutrality,   people 

(1446)  it  was  resolved  to  send  an  embassy  to  Rome  were  prepared  for  the  complete  severance  trom  the 

to  demand  the  convocation  of  a  new  council,  and,  Holy  See   which  was   afterwards  effected   in  the 

in  the  meantime,   the   recognition  of  the  reforms  Reformation, 

effected  in  Basle:  else  they  would  withdraw  from  Manm,  ConcU,  CoU.,  XXVC-XXXX;  Habdouim.  CimdL 

tneir  allegiance.     lUe  ii^mperor  I'redencK  ill  ais-  g^jj^nt   (Vienna.   l867-©6),  I-III;  Deut$eh0   ReieUtagmUatm 

sented  from  this  decision  and  sent  his  secretary,  VII-XI;   MARTfeNc  and  Durand,   Veterum  •eript  h  moi^ 

iEneas    Sylvius,  to  confer  with  the  pope.     At  last,  umenL  coUedtio,   VIII  j  jEneas  Sylviub,  £>•  rthu%  Banlem 

after  long  negotiation  in  Rome  and  ignkfort,  an  SSS?"  (SJmlnV:S)irASaiin^r  p'l?Si<^tTJSli'S£: 

agreement  was  arnved  at  (February,  1447)  known  ciHorum  BwU.  et  Floren.,    ©d.    HARDonm.   CmcUia,  DC; 

as  the  Concordat  of   the  Princes.    On  their  side  S^^'V'l'U  ^"*'^^'"*^  Qwllen  zur  OeBchichie  dea  KonxiU^vm 

they  agreed  to  abandon  the  attitude  of  neutraUty,  ^^^'y]^  'm^J.lJl^'i^r''^^^  gS^SiS! 

while  the  pope   restored  the  deposed   pnnces  and  onehicfue,  VII;  Pastor,  Hiatoru  of  the  Pope;  tr.  Antbobub 

accepted  with  modifications  certain  of  the  reforms  Uxindon,  1891),  I.j^o-asO;   Creiohton.  A  Hi§tory  of  iht 

of  Basle.     In  accordance  with  this  agreement  the  ^''^'^  (London,  1802),  II,  02-194 

Vienna  Concordat  was  drawn  up  between  the  sue-  uAmi^  oi^av^a******. 

cessor  of  Eugene  lY  and  the  Emperor  Frederick  III.  Basle-Lugano,  Diocese  of,  is  the  largest  Catholic 

The  pope ^8  rights  in  the  appointment  to  benefices  diocese  of  Switzerland.     It  is  composed  of  the  two 

were  clearly  defined,   and  the  sources  of  revenue  Dioceses  of  Basle  and  Lugano  whicn  are  united  only 

to  take  the  place  of  the  annates,  then  abolished,  were  by  having  a  bishop  in  common, 

agreed    uix>n.    Once    this    had    been    concluded,  v     I.  The  Diocese  of  Basle. — This  has  taken  the 

Frederick  III  forbade  the  city  of  Basle  to  harbour  place  of  the  old  Diocese  of  Augst  (Augusta  Raura- 

any  longer  the  schismatical  assembly,  and  in  June,  corum),  the  origin  of  which  is  obscure;  a  Bishop  of 

1448,    they   were   obliged    to    retire   to    Lausanne.  Augst  was  a  memberofa  council  held  at  Cologne  in  346. 

Finally,  after  a  few  sessions  at  Lausanne,  Felix  V  When  Augusta  Rauracorum  sank  into  decay  during 

resigned  and  submitted  to  the  lawful  pope,  Nicholas  V.  the  disorders  of  the  migrations  the  seat  of  the  diocese 

The  members  of  the  assembly  also  elected  Nicholas  was    transferred    to    the    present    Basle    (BasileaJ, 

as  pope  and  then  decreed  the  dissolution  of  the  founded  in  374  by  the  Emperor  Valentinian  I.     No 

council  (25  April,  1449).  definite  information  has  been  preserved  concerning 

It  only  remains  to  deal  with  the   nejH)tiations  the  first  bishops.    The  most  important  bishop  in  the 

between   the   Council  of   Basle  and   the   Hussites,  early  period  of  the  history  of  the  diocese  is  Hatto.  a 

The  latter  were  invited,  as  we  have  seen,  at  the  very  Benedictine  from  the  monastery  of  Reichenau,  who 

beginning  of  the  council,  but  it  was  only  in  the  was  a  friend  of  Charlema^e;  he  was  Bishop  of  Basle 

fourth  session  (20  June,  1432)  that  the  conditions  from  the  year  805.    He  issued  a  capitulary  of  great 

proposed  by  the  Hussites  were  accepted,  and  prayers  importance  for  his  diocese,  resignea  his  position  in 

ordered  for  their  return  to  the  Church.    About  the  822,  and  retired  to  Reichenau  where  he  died  in  836. 

beginning  of  January,  1433,  nearly  three  himdred  During  the  episcopate  of  Adalbert  (999-1025)  the 

of  the  Calixtine  party  arrived,  and  after  repeated  foundation  of  the  secular  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishops 

negotiations  in  Prague  and  Basle,  the  four  articles  of  Basle  was  laid  by  the  grants  made  by  Kinf  Ru- 

demanded  by  the  Hussites  were  agreed  upon  with  dolph  III   of   Burgundy;   the  king  appointed   the 

certain  modifications.    These  were  Communion  im-  bishop  administrator  and  protector  of  several  re- 

der  both  kinds,  though  their  priests  were  to  teach  ligious  foundations,  bestowed  a  number  of  towns 

that  Communion  under  one  kind  was  equally  valid;  and  territories  on  him,  and  conferred  various  rights, 

free  preaching  of  the  word  of  God,  but  subject  to  such  as  the  right  of  coinage,  hunting-rijghtfl,  etc. 

ecclesiastical  authority;   the  punishment  of  mortal  Adalbert    rebuilt    the    cathedral    which    had    been 

sin,  but  only  by  a  lawful  tribunal;    the  retention  of  pillaged  by  the  Ma^ars  and  consecrated   it  with 

their  temporalities  by  the  clerics,  who  were  however,  much  pomp  in  1019  in  the  presence  of  the  Emperor 

bound  t^  bestow  their  superfluous  wealth  according  to  Henry  II  and  his  wife.    Adalbert's  inunediate  suc- 

the  canons.    These  formed  the  Compact  of  Prague,  cessors  Ulrich  II  (1025-40)  and  Dietrich  (1041-53) 

agreed  upon  the  30th  of  November,  1433.     Many  of  were  included  among  the  spiritual  princes   of  the 

the  more  extreme  sects,  such  as  the  Taborites,  re-  Holy  Roman  Empire.    In  the  period  toUowing  Adal- 

fused  to  accept  this  treaty,  but  after  their  defeat  berths  administration  the  territory  of  the  diocese  was 

(IJppau,  1434)  a  better  feeling  set  in,  and  a  similar  greatly  increased,  especially  through  gifts  made  by 

compact  was  proclaimed  at  Iglau  in  July,  1436,  and  the  Emperors  Henry  II,  Henry  III,  and  Conrad  II. 

enforced  by  the  Council  oi  Basle  (15  Januaiy,  1437).  As  pnnces  of  the  empire  the  Bishops  of  Baale  ware 


SAIU-LTrOUm  339  B«ILft.LUaJUIO 

jnwn  into  the  strugcle  between  the  |Mqwc^  Mtd  tha  power  of  tbe  biahops,  but  nCFt  tbeir  secul&r  jurisdio- 
empire;  meet  of  the  Duhope  took  atdu  wHn  tbe  emr  titm,  aztcnded  orer  the  entire  northwestern  part  ol 
pcTon  apinat  the  popefl.  Rerva^r  (1057-72)  ]wt>>  pvcsent  Switserland  lying  between  the  Riven  Aaj«, 
[Doladpinopposition  to  Aiexanderll,  thenomination  Rhine,  and  Doubs,  over  the  southern  part  of  the 
of  ibe  Antjpope  Honorius  at  a  synod  held  at  Bksle  present  Alsaoe  bb  f ar  as  Rappoltsweiler  and  Schlett- 
in  lOSl;  Burkhard  of  Hasenburg  (1071-1107)  wae  etodt,  as  well  ae  over  Bome  small  districts  in  Baden 
OH  of  the  moet  r«solut«  chsmpjons  of  the  imperial  and  France.  Tbe  Refonnation  was  to  rob  the  bishops 
diimg  and  a  faithful  partisan  of  Heniy  IV  whom  he  of  a  Lurse  part  of  t^eir  flock.  At  the  beginning  of 
•MMnpaQJed  to  Canoesa.  Ortlieb  of  Frobui^  (1137- :  the  reli|poiu  agitation  the  diocese  was  under  the  rule 
M)  went  with  tbe  Emperor  Conrad  III  on  a  crusade  of  Christopher  ot  Utonheim  (1502-37),  one  of  the 
to  Pslmtine  and  took  part  in  the  Italian  eampairns  meet  distinguished  of  the  Prince-Bishops  of  Basle, 
of  Frederick  Barb&roesa;  Ludwig  of  Orttieb  was  mso  He  was  a  fnMid  of  the  arts  and  sciences  and  a  pii> 
1  partisan  of  the  emperor  and  of  the  Antipope  Pas-  moter  of  the  new  art  of  printing,  then  ^ouriahing 
chkl;  Alexander  III,  therefore,  deposed  him  in  1179.  at  Basle.  In  order  to  train  and  reform  his  clei^ 
Amongthe  Hucceeding  bishops  tbe  moat  noteworthy  Bishop  ChristophM"  held  in  1503  a  synod  at  whicn 
voe:  Henry  II  of  Thun   (I238-~19),  who  built  the    excellent  statutes  were  issued;  he  also  called  learned 

oldest  bridge  across  the  Rhine  near  Basle  (recdaced    mm  as  professors  and  preachers  for  the  un' ''" 

in  1S04-O6  by  a  new  one);  Henry  of  Isny  (1276-86),  that  had  been  founded  m  1480.  Thie  last  n 
a  Franciscan,  who  after  1286  was  Archbishop  of  however,  promoted  the  entiy  of  the  new  doctrine. 
Viini,  as  was  also  his  successor  Peter  Rich  of  Ricnen-  A  number  of  the  scholars  who  had  been  appointed, 
as  Capito,  PellicanuB,  (Ecolampadius,  and  for  a  time 
also,  Erasmus  and  GlareanuB,  took  sides  with  tb* 
Reformers  and  worked  for  the  spread  of  the  Refor- 
mation. Basle  became  a  centre  for  the  printing  and 
dispatch  in  all  directions  of  the  writings  of  the  Re- 
formers. Before  long  the  Great  Council  and  the 
eitisens  were  split  into  two  religious  parties  and  in- 
ternal disputes  were  common.     Bent  from  e  ' 


age.  Bishop  Christopher,  in    1527,  resigned   his   see. 
Sfore  his  successor  Phihp  of  G      '  '  '    "'  '■'""  '"'■ 


Phihp  ot  Gundelsheitfi  (1527-53) 
o  enter  the  city,  tbe  party  advocating  the 
new  doctrine  obtained  control,  the  Catholic  members 
of  tbe  Great  Council  were  driven  from  office,  the 
Catholic  religion  was  declared  to  be  abolished,  tlie 
monasteriee  were  closed,  and  the  churcbes  were 
plundered.  The  bishop  changed  his  place  of  residence 
to  iSruntrut  (Porrentruy);  the  cathedral  chapter 
went  to  Freiburg-in-the-Breisgau  and  did  not  return 
into  the  terrilon'  of  the  diocese  until  167S  when  it 
VwBT  Dooa.  Oaihimui.  c»  Basu  estaUiehed  itself  at  Arlesheim. 

Succeeding  bishops  devoted  themselves  to  repairing 
Hapabuir;  Peter  of  Aspelt  (1206-1306),  later  Arch-  tbe  severe  lossee  nnich  the  diocese  had  suffered  dui^ 
bisbop  of  Mainz,  who  laboured  to  restore  church  dis-    ing  the  Reformation.     Tbe  bishop  who  dee ''  ~ 


.-^. n  his  diocese.    During  the  fourteenth  century  greatest  credit  for  the  restoration  of  the  prosperity 

tat  prestige  of  the  See  of  Baste  declined;  many  of  thie  of  the  bishopric  was  Jacob  Christopher  Bjarer  von 

bishops  involved  tbe  diocese  in  debt  in  various  ways;  Wartensee  (1575^1608).    He  made  an  alliance  offen- 

Iff  taldng  part  in  the  potiti<»l  quarrels,  by  feuds  with  eive  and  defensive  with  the  Catholic  cantons  of  Swit- 

tbe  noUee  living  in  Baste,  and  by  quarrels  with  the  lerland  in  1680,  proclaimed  the  decisions  of  the  Coun* 

tity,  which  was  rapidly  growing  in  strength.     The  cil  of  Trent,  held  in  1581  a  diocesan  synod  witich 

rity  of  Basle  bought  nearly  the  whole  of  the  jurisdio-  bore  good  fruit,  and  brought  back  to  the  Churcb 

lira  over  itself  from  the  impecunious  bi^ops  and  numerous  subjects  who  had  been  estranged  from  the 

>ntu)e  itself  almost  entirely  independent  of  episcopal  Catholic  religion.    He  was  ably  seconded  in  his  la- 

Koular  rule.    When  John  II  of  HDnsingen  (133&-65)  hours  by  the  Jesuits  whom  he  called  in  1691  to  Prun^ 

vu  [riaced  under  the  ban,  along  with  the  cit^  of  trut  and  put  in  charge  of  the  newly  founded  coll«e. 

Baile,  as  a  partisan  of  Louis  the  Bavarian,  the  citiaens  His  successors  followed  in  his  footsteps,  especiajW 

of  the  town  threw  the  papal  nuncio  into  the  Rhine  Josesh  William   Rink   von   Baldenstem   (1608-28). 

and  forced  the  clergy  to  continue  the  church  services  In  the  course  of  the  Thirty  Years  War  the  diocese 

or  (o  leave  the  place.    Tbe  earthquake  ot  1366  de-  suffered  from  invasions  by  the  troops  ot  Bernard  of 

firoyed  a  lai^  part  of  the  city  and  also  did  much  Weimar.      During   the   episcopate   of   Bishop   John 

■' o  the  cathedral.    John  III  of  Vienne  (1366-  Conrad  von  Romnbacb   (1656-93)  the  cathedral 


82)  became  involved  in  a  dispute  with   Bern  which  chapter  eetablisiM  itself  once  more  in  the  diocese, 

lal  to  a  quarrel  with  Basle  and  the  siege  ot  this  city  at  Arlesheim,  as  has  been  mentioned  above.    Bishop 

by  the  bishop.     The  increased  burden  of  debt  thus  Conrad   von   Reinach   (1705-37),  who  founded   the 

csund  was  a  source  of  great  anxiety  to  the  succeeding  seminary  for  nriests  and   built  Castle  Delsberg,  a 


biebope,  several  of  whom  resigned  their  office.     It    residence  of   toe  prince-bishops,  issued  e 
— :  not  until  the  episcopate  of  John  IV  of  Flecken-    ordinances  in  1726  which  curtailed  the  i 

D  (1423-36),  who  held  two  reform  synods,  that    privilc^^  of  the  land.     This  caused  a  revolt  that 


.  ___:  again  to  high  reputation.  The  Council  lasted  into  the  episcopate  ot  his  successor  Jacob 
rf  Bade  (1431-*9)  was  held  in  the  city  of  the  same  Sigmund  von  Reinach  (1737-43)  and  was  only  sup- 
name  during  this  episcopate  and  that  of  tbe  follow-  pressed  with  the  aid  of  French  troops.  The  three 
ing  bithop,  Fredenck  of  the  Rhine  (1436-61).  (See  leaders  of  the  revolt  were  executed  in  1740.  An 
BuLE,  CoiTNcn.  or.)  The  diocese  suffered  greatly  estrangement  resulted  that  was  not  overcome  in 
ai  the  time  of  the  struggle  of  the  Swiss  confederation  spite  of  all  the  efforts  of  the  succeeding  bishops, 
*itb  Charies  of  Burgundy;  many  towns  and  castles  Joseph  William  Rink  von  Baldenslein  (1744-62), 
tere  ravaged  and  burned  during  these  trouUes.  Simon  Nicholas  von  Frobeiv  (1762-75),  aud  Frederick 

The  Dioceae  of  Basle  attained  its  greatest  extent  Ludmg  von  Wangen-Geroidseck  (1776^). 

'■»  the  Goune  of  tbe  fifteenth  oectuiy.    Tbe  spiritual  The  Frenob  Revolution  put  an  end  to  the  seoulai 


BAUM-IXSQAMO^  340  BAV^mOAlTO 

jurisdiction  of  the  bishops.     The  piince-bishoprio  ful  to  the  bishop.    Here  in  Lucerne  he  continued  to 
was  occupied  by  French  troops  in  1792  and  Bisnop  administer  the  diocese.     His  appeals  to  the  federal 
John  Sigmund  von  Roggenbach  (1782-04)  fled  to  authorities  of  Switserland  were  rejected  and  the  Catb- 
Constfmce.    His  territory  was  turned  into  the  Rau-  olic  commimity  was  forbidden  to  have  communica- 
racian  Repubh'c  which  after  four  months  was  in-  tion  with  him.    It  was  not  until  the  pontificate  of 
corpora  ted,  1793,  in  the  French  Republic.    Besides  Leo  XIII  that  this  unfortunate  state  of  affairs  was 
the  loss  of  secular  jurisdiction  the  bimiop  had  also  to  brought  to  an  end  and  peace  re-established.    Bishop 
forego  a  lar^e  part  of  his  ecclesiastical  diocese,  for,  Laclmt  resigned  his  office  in  1885  and  was  made  titu- 
according  to  the  Concordat  made  in  1801  between  lar  Archbishop  of  Damietta  and  Administrator  Apo&- 
Pius  VII  and  Napoleon,  a  large  part  of  the  Bishopric  tolic  of  the  newly  formed  Bishopric  of  Lugano  (see 
of  Basle  was  given  to  the  Diocese  of  Strasburg.  below).    He  died  in  1886.    On  19  January,  1885,  the 
The  next  bishop,  Francis  Xavier  von  Nevea  (1794-  Holy  See  appointed  Frederick  Fiala  Bishop  of  Basle 
1828),  resided  first  at  Constance  and  then  at  Offen-  (1885-88).     The  new  bishop  sought  to  efface  the 
burg;  he  ruled  only  a  small  territory  in  the  present  traces  of  the  late  struggle  and  re-establish  the  cathe- 
Cantons  of  Solothum,  Aargau,  and  Bern.     It  was  dral  chapter;  he  diea4  May,  1888.    Leonard  Haas 
not  until  1814  that  the  bishop  obtained  again  the  (1888-1906)  was  appointed  to  the  see  11  July,  1888. 
right  to  ecclesiastical  supervision  over  the  lamr  part  Bishop  Haas  was  an  eloquent  preacher;  he  encour- 
of  the  former  prince-bishopric;   but  his  enoTiB  to  a^ed  the  use  of  congregational  sinking  and  held  a 
bring  about  the  restoration  of  the  secular  power  were  diocesan  synod  in  1896.     He  was  followed  in  1906 
unavailing.    In  1815  the  Congress  of  Vienna  gave  the  by  Dr.  Jacob  Stammler,  bom  2  January,  1840,  and 
territory  of  the  diocese  to  the  Cantons  of  Bern  and  ordained  to  the  priesthood  in  1863. 
Basle,  with  the  exception  of  the  portion  already  ben-        Statistics. — ^The  present  Diocese  of  Basle   (ex- 
longing  to  Germany.    Not  long  after  this,  however,  eluding  Lugano)   embraces  the  Cantons  of   Basle, 
the  Diocese  of  Basle  was  enlarged.    After  the  disor-  Bern,  Xucerne,  Solothum,  Aai*gau,  Thurc»u.  and 
ders  of  the  Napoleonic  era  the  Swiss  confederation  Schaffhausen;  in  1900  it  contain^  444,471  Catnolics 
had  been  reorg^zed;  in  order  to  make  it  equally  and  903,400  Protestants.     The  majority  of  the  in- 
independent  in  Church  matters  the  Swiss  part  of  the  habitants  are  Germans,  although  in  the  Canton  of 
Diocese  of  Constance  was  separated  in  1814  from  Bern  some  6,000  Catholics  speak  French.     For  the 
that  bishopric  and  placed  provisionally  under  a  vicar  spiritual  direction  of    the  Catholic  community  the 
Apostolic.      Long   nepiotiations    were   entered    into  diocese  is  divided  into  8  deaneries,  14  rural  chapters, 
between  the  cantons  m  the  territory  of  which  these  406  parishes,  and  149  curacies  and  chaplaincies.    The 
portions  of  the  diocese  lay,  and  it  was  finally  resolved  parishes  in  the  Cantons  of  Zug  and  Scnaffhausen  are 
to  carry  out  the  plan  that  had  been  steadily  urged  not  united  in  a  rural  chapter.     The  secular  priests 
by  the  Canton  of  Solothum;  this  was,  to  revive  the  number  660;  the  regular  clergy  (O.S.B.  and  O.M.C.) 
Bishopric  of  Basle  and  to  define  anew  its  boundaries.  85.    The  cathedral  senate,  which  has  the  right  to  elect 
The  negotiations  with  Rome  were  concluded  in  1828;  the  bishop,  consists  of  five  resident  canons  (canonici 
the  Bull  of  Leo  XII,  ''Inter  praecipua  Nostri  Aposto-  residentuuea)   and  six  non-resident  canons  (canonui 
latusmunera",  issued  7  May,  1828,  settled  the  bound-  forenses);    besides  these  there  are  seven  cathedral 
aries  of  the  new  Diocese  of  Basle,  and  the  Bull  of  capitulars,  who  do  not  belong  to  the  cathedral  senate. 
13  July,  1828,  was  solenmly  read  at  Solothum  in  In  1907  the  office  of  capituJaj*  was  vacant.      There 
the  collegiate  church  of  Sts.  iTrsus  and  Victor  which  is  a  collegiate  church  at  Lucerne  having  an  independ- 
had  been  elevated  to  a  cathedral.     Bishop  Francis  ent  provost  and  9  canons  (in  1907  the  canonries  were 
Xavier  von  Nevoi  died  a  few  days  later.    The  new  not  ^ed),  and  a  collegiate  church  at  Beromiinster 
cathedral  chapter,  which  had   been  appointed,  in  with  1  provost  and  20  regular  canons  (the  number 
order  to  bring  it  into  existence  by  the  pope,  nomi-  of  canons  in  1907  was  17). 

nated  as  bishop  the  dean  of  the  cathedral  who  had        The  schools  for  the  education  of  the  clergy  are:  a 

formerly  been  the  administrator  Apostolic,  Anthony  cantonal  theological  school  at  Lucerne  with  a  semi- 

Salzmann   (1828-54).     The  new  Diocese  of  Basle,  nary  for  priests,  and  at  Zug  St.  Michael's  boarding- 

which  is  directly  dependent  on  the  Apostolic  See,  school  for  boys.    The  private  seminary  for  teachers 

embraced  at  first  the  Cantons  of  Lucerne,  Bern,  at  Zug  is  entirely  Catholic  in  character.    In  accord^ 

Solothum,  and  Zug*  in  1829  Aargau  and  Thurgau  ance  with  the  Swiss  constitution  the  public  schoola 

were  added;  somewhat  later  Basle,  for  the  Catholic  are  open  to  members  of  all  denominations,  conse- 

district  of  Birseck;  in  1841  Schaffhausen,  first  pro-  quently  there  are  no  genuine  Catholic  parish  schools, 

visionally,  and  then,  in   1858,  definitely  although  In  the  Cantons  of  Lucerne  and  Zug,  which  are  almost 

without  confirmation  from  Rome.  entirely  Catholic,  instruction  is  given  in  many  of  the 

The  germs  of  many  conflicts  lav  hid  in  this  merely  schools  by  Catholic  teaching-sisters,  who  are  obliged 

provisional  new  arrangement  and  in  the  vmcertainty  to  pass  a  state  examination.    The  male  orders  and 

as  to  the  legal  relations  of  the  new  see.    However,  their  houses  in  the  Diocese  of  Basle  are  as  foUowp: 

during  the  episcopate  of  Bishop  Salzmann  and  that  Capuchins,  7  houses  with  73  priests,  19  clerics,  and 

of  his  immediate  successor  Charles  Arnold  (1854-62),  24  lay  brothers;  the  Hermit- Brothers  of  Luthem,  1 

the  founder  of  a  seminary  for  priests  at  Solothum,  house;    the  Benedictines  of    Mariastein,  who   were 

peace  was  fairly  well  preserved.     During  the  epis-  included  in  the  Swiss  congregation  of  the  Benedic- 

copate  of  Eueene  Lachat  (1863-85)  a  struggle  broke  tines,  were  driven  in  1874  from  Mariastein  and  have 

out,  caused  oy  the  Old-Catholic  movement  which  gone  to  Ddrrenberg  near  Salzburg;  the  Benedictines 

won  many  adherents  in  Switzerland.     The  liberal  of  Muri  have  gone  for  the  same  reason  to  Cries  near 

cantons  of  the  Diocese  of  Basle  (all  except  Lucerne  Bozen,  and  the  Cistercians  of  Witteneen  to  Meherau 

and  Zug)  closed  the  seminary  for  priests  in  April,  near  Bregenz.    The  female  orders  and  congregations 

1870,  and  forbade  the  promulgation  of  the  decrees  are  more  largely  represented  in  the  diocese  than  the 

of  the  Council  of  the  Vatican.     When  in  1871  the  male  orders.    These  institutes  and  their  houses  are 

bishop,  nevertheless,  proclaimed  these  decrees,  the  as  follows:  Benedictine  nuns,  1  house;  Ursulines,  4 

majority  of  the  cantons  belonging  to  the  diocese  houses;   Capuchin  nuns,  4;   Franciscan  Sisters,    1; 

voted  ms  deposition,  29  January,  1873.  and  dissolved  Cistercians,  2;  Clares,  1 ;  Sisters  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales, 

the  cathedral  chapter,  21  December,  1874,  which  had  1  house  with  a  boarding-school  for  girls  attached; 

refused  to  elect  a  new  bishop.     The  bishop,  being  Sisters  of  Charity,  5;  Sisters  of  the  Divine    Pro^^- 

forced  to  leave  his  residence,  went  to  Lucerne  which,  dence,  1.    There  are  large  numbers  of  the  Sisters  of 

like  the  canton  of  Zug,  had  protested  against  the  the  Cross  of  Ingenbohl,  who  have  charge  chiefly  of 

action  of  the  other  cantons  and  had  remamed  faith-  orphaa  aaiyiums  and  hospitals  and  who  act  as  attend- 


BAS-BBUEF                              341  BA8-KELIEF 

Ants  on  the  mck;  also  of  the  teaching  Sisters  of  the  and  Mgr.  Alfred  Peri-Morosini.    The  latter  was  bom 

H0I7  Cross  of  Menzingen,  who  cany  on  larse  insti-  12  March,  1862,  and  was  consecrated  17  April,  1904. 

tutes  for  girls  at  Menzingen,  Bald^gg,  and  Cham.  Statistics. — ^According  to   the   Swiss   census  of 

sod  conduct,  besides,  250  elementary  schools,  fma  1900  the  Diocese  of  Lugano  includes  135,200  Catho* 

ASf  institutionb  for  the  poor,  orphans,  and  sick  in  lies  in  a  total  population  of  142,800  for  the  Canton  of 

different  parte  of  Switzerland.    In  addition  to  the  Ticino.     For  purposes  of  religious  administration 

three  Catnolic  schools  for  girls  mentioned  above,  the  diocese  is  divided  into  14  episcopal  vicariates,  5 

there  are  similar  institutions  at  Solothum  and  Lu-  rural  chapters,  and  248  parishes  and  chaplaincies; 

ceme.    The  most  important  Catholic  church  of  the  54  parishes  use  the  Ambrosian  Rit^  the  other  194 

diocese  is  the  Cathedral  of  Solothum,  which  was  parishes  belong  to  the  Latin  Rite,    llie  care  of  souls 

built,  1762-63,  in  the  style  of  the  Italian  Renaissance;  is  exercist^  by  330  secular  prieste  and  22  regular 

others  worthy  of  mention  are:  the  collegiate  church  clergy.    The  cathedral  chapter  oonsiste  of  an  arch- 

of  St.  Leodegar  at  Luceme  (built   1633-35);  the  priest  and  16  canons  (10  resident  and  6  non-resident), 

church  of  St.  Oswald  at  Zug;  the  churches  of  the  The  collegiate  churcnes  are:  Bellinzona,  a  provost 

fonner  monasteries  of  Fischmgen,  Kreuziingen,  and  and  14  canons;  Agno,  a  provost  and  7  canons;  Lo- 

BeromQnster;  the  church  of  the  institute  at  Men-  camo,  a  provost  and  8  canons;  Balema,   a  provost 

nogen,  etc.    The  most  frequented  pilgrimages  are:  and  8  canons,  and  Mendrisio,  a  provost  and  8  canons. 

Manastein  near  Basle,  and  Vorburg  near  Delsberg.  Catholic  institutions  of  learning  are:  the  seminary 

(See  SwrrzERLAMD.)  for  prieste  at  Lugano;  the  episcopal  seminary  for 

Nbuoabt,   Bpiteopatua   Cofutantierui*   AUmannicut   (St.  boys,  Santa  Maria  near  PoUegio;  the  papal  academy 

BlMgM8W.Fmbija«.i^^  at  Ascona;  the  College  Don  Bosco  at  Bellinsona; 

r::J:rL'^i}fSi\?S^^^^^^^  the  institute  I>ante^hten,  .^                       th^ 

OetdktdUe  tUr  BUtkote  von.  Baid  (BMie,  1860-62),  2  parts  Somaschi,  at  Bellmzona,  and  the  mstitute  at  Ouvone. 

o^odi^  to  13«);  Attknhofbr.  Die  reduiiche  SMiima  tUr  The  orders  and  congregations  in  the  diocese  and  the 

Sl!?^ir?r^^  number  of  their  houses  are  as  foUows:  Capuchins. 

(RhMiedeln.  1884-86, 2  vola.);  Schmiplw.  Die  katholiwchrtheolo'  4  houses:   the  Somaschi,   1;   Benedictine  nuns,   1; 

#McJe  im««  kirMehe  Ltu^aiur  d^Bu^unut  Basel  vam  Jahre  AuguaJinian  nuns,  1  house,  which  has  an  academy 

irSOhte  MUm  Jakre  189S  (Bern,  l894r-96);  Ft.KSSIM,  stoat  und  IrTonnnt^iiein    wifli    it.    nonn/*liin    mma     !•    Qiafj^m   ftf 

BieAofmoaklimBietmnBaeel  (Leipsig.  181>7);   Daccoubt.  L«t  S  co^nf^jjon  Wltn  it,  i^puclmi  nuns,  1,  bisters  Of 

Mchia  ttttMM  (Fraiburs,  1901):  Idem,  Dictumnoire  hiatori^ue  Mercv  of  St.  Vmcent  de  Paul,  2  (hospitals  at  Lugano 

^paroi99t9deVfpMUdeBiUe(^^  and  Locamo);  School-Sisters  of  Menaingen,  2  (col- 

S22?k^ai±!'SJr^^  lege  at  Bellinzona);  Sisters  of  the  Holv  Cr««  3  (they 

also  conduct  an  asylum  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  at 

n.  The  Diocese  of  Luqano. — ^The  Diocese  of  Lu-  Locarno);  Sisters  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  1;  Sisters  of 

gano  was  erected  by  a  Bull  of  Leo  XIII  (7  September,  the  Childhood  of  Jesus,  1 ;  and  the  Sisters  of  the  Divine 

1888).    It  includes  the  Swiss  Canton  of  Ticino,  where  Providence,  1.   The  most  noted  church  of  the  diocese 

the  population  is  almost  entirely  Catholic  and  Italian  is  the  cathedral  of  San  Lorenzo  at  Lu^mo,  which 

is  the  common  language.     Before  the  Diocese  of  was  built  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries 

Lugano  was  founded  the  Canton  of  Ticino  was  under  and  has  a  celebrated  Renaissance  facade;  the  most 

the  jurisdiction,  in  ecclesiastical  matters,  of  bishops  frequented  place  of  pilgrimage  is  the  snrine  Madonna 

who  were  not  Swiss.     The  smaller,  northern  part  del  Sasso  not  far  from  Locarno,  which  is  the  national 

belonged  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Milan   and,  conse-  shrine  of  the  Canton  of  Ticino. 

qoently,  StUl    uses  the  Ambrosian  Rite;   the  other,  Franscini.  D«r  Kmton  Teeein.hietorie^,  (feoirmi^iedi  und 

«dm«ch  larger  partof  the  canton  belonpnl  to  the  fUt^^i^f^'^'-^^^'  i^^JSHS^'"^ 

Diocese  of  Como.     Soon  after  the  formation  of  the  Lugano  (Einsiedeln,  1892);  Rahn.  2>wr  mittelaUerlicken  Kune^ 

Chaton  of  Ticino,  in  1803,  efforte  were  made  to  separ-  denkmAler  dee  Kantone  Jreeein  (Ziurich,   1803);   BoRRANi.  It 

jiteit  in  ita  church  relations  as  well  as  from  foreign  J^  STSiii'lffi&n V^I^^H^  KotS!  Ai^; 

powers  and  to  umte  it  m  these  with  the  rest  of  Swit-  Motta.  BoOetino  etorieo  di  Ticino  (nnce  1879).  and  the  works 

Krland.    But  it  was  several  decades  before  the  Great  by  BOchi  and  Dauooubt  quoted  in  the  bibliography  above. 

Councfl,  in  1855,  went  thoroughly  into  the  matter.  Joseph  Lins. 
Without  consultation  with  the  Holy  See  the  Federal 

Council  in  1859  declared  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bas-relief,  a  sculpture  executed  upon  and  at- 
^hops  of  Como  and  Milan  to  be  abolished  in  the  tached  to  a  flat  surface.  The  usual  impression  pro- 
territory  of  Switzerland;  after  this  n^tiations  were  duced  by  an  artistic  relief  is  that  about  one-hau  of 
begun  with  Rome.  No  settlement  of  the  Question  the  actual  proportions  of  the  obiect  are  being  seen 
was  reached  until  the  pontificate  of  Leo  XIII.  By  in  their  third  dimension  of  depth.  Strictlv  speak- 
the  convention  of  1  September,  1884,  made  between  ing,  however,  relief  sculpture  is  subdivided  into 
the  Curia  and  the  Federal  (Council,  Ticino  was  canoni-  various  kinds.  In  alto-rilievo  (It.  for  high  relieO 
cally  separated  from  ite  former  diopesan  connexions  the  figures  are  sculptured  partljr  or  wholly  in  the 
aod  was  placed,  provisionalljr,  under  an  administrator  round,  that  is,  they  project  entirelv,  or  almost  en- 
Apostolic,  the  pope  appointing  as  administrator,  tirely,  from  the  surface  of  the  block  in  which  they 
fiidiop  Lachat  of  Basle  (see  above).  After  Bishop  are  cut.  The  metopes  from  the  Parthenon  (Elgin 
Laefaat's  death  (1886)  the  new  Bishopric  of  Ticino  Marbles)  now  in  the  British  Museum,  are  among  tne 
was  formed  l^  the  Bull  of  circumscription  ''Ad  brat  examples  of  alto-rilievo.  Mezzo-rilievo  (It.  for 
onivcrsam"  of  Leo  XIII  (7  September,  1888),  and  semi-relief;  Fr.,  demi-rdief)  prssente  figures  that  are 
united  with  the  Diocese  of  Basle  imder  the  title  of  roimded  to  half  their  natural  proportions,  but  with- 
ttie  Diocese  of  Basle-Lugano.  The  same  year  the  out  detached  parte.  Basso-rilievo  (It.  for  low-relief; 
Qiorch  of  San  Lorenzo  was  elevated  to  a  cathedral.  Fr.,  baa-relief)  is  a  form  of  surface-ornamentation  in 
The  union  is  merely  a  nominal  one,  for,  although  which  the  projection  is  very  slight.  The  finest  known 
the  Bidhop  of  Basle  is  called  the  Bishop  of  Lugano  specimen  of  low  relief  is  the  frieze  aroimd  the  cella 
he  exercises  no  ri^te  of  jurisdiction  in  this  diocese,  of  the  Parthenon;  large  portions  of  it  are  to  be  seen 
It  is,  in  realitv,  under  the  independent  rule  of  an  in  the  British  Museum.  The  lowest  kind  of  relief  is 
admmistrator  Apostolic  who  has  the  rank  and  power  that  described  by  the  Tuscan  term  rilievostiacciato 
of  a  bishop.  He  is  appointed  by  the  pope  with  the  (depressed  or  flattened  relief).  ^  This  scarcely  rises 
ooncurrenee  of  the  Bisnop  of  Basle  from  among  the  from  the  surface  upon  which  it  is  carved,  and  is 
OMmbers  of  the  clergv  of  the  Canton  of  Ticino.  The  mostly  an  art  of  fine  lines  and  delicate  indications. 
fifBt  administrator  TLpostolic  was  Eugene  Lachat;  Donatello's  Florentine  Madonnas  and  sainte  are 
he  was  followed  by  Mgr.  Vincent  Molo  (1887-1904),  among    the    best    examples.    Finally    cavo-riUevo 


aU-REUEF                               342  BAS-EBLIZF 

(It.  tor  hollow  relief;  Fr.,  Telief-en-crevx)  is  a  method  existed  before  the  JDtroduction  of  sculpture  in  the 

'  of  concave  sculpture  in  whicn  the  highest  [tart  or  round,  or  when  ontr  rude  figures  of  the  deities  had 

outline   is   Od   a  level   with   the  surface,   while   the  '  been  attempted.     The  BabylonianB,  Aasyriaas,  and 

roundness    is    considerably    below    it.      Cavo-rilievo  Hittit«8  practised  it  contemporaneously  with  scylp- 

was  practised  chiefly  by  the  Egyptians  whose  hollow  ture  in  the  round.    The  Egyptians,  though  they  em- 

reliete  are  known  by  the  Greet  term  Koilanaglyphi,  ployed  a  kind  of  low  relief,  especially  on  the  interiorB 

Relief  is  the  form  of  sculpture  that  comes  nearest  of  buildings,  made  a  still  greater  use  of  Koilsna^yphs, 

to  painting,  both  having  composition,  perspective.  The  Greeks,  conceiving  relief  sculpture  in  its  purely 

and  the   play  of  li^ht  and  shadow.     Relief  would  plaaticsense,  achieved  the  greatest  mastery  of  tne  art 

seem  to  have  much  m  common  with  drawing,  though  With  them  it  was  used  both  as  an  ornament  and  as  an 

in  reality  less  importance  attaches  to  line  than  to  tne  inte^l  part  of  the  plan  when  allied  with  architecture, 

modelling  of  contour  and  to  the  true  and  effective  Distinguishing'  strictly  between  high  and  low  relief, 

rendering  of  chiaroscuro.     The  human  form  is  un-  they  used  the  former  between  the  triglyphs,  and  in 

doubtedly  the  proper  object  of  relief,  which  appears  the  tympana  of  the  temples,  and  the  latter  in  fricMS. 

to   be   particularly  suited   to   the   representation   of  tombstones,  etc.     CertaLn  fixed  principles  governed 

numerous    fibres    in    action.      In    the    Greek    and  the  Greek  relief;  the  spaces  were  adequately  filled, 

Roman   classic   reliefs   these   figures   are  usually   in  the   backgrounds  never  carved,   and   it  Has   a  rule 

processional   order,  engaged   in   historic  or  militan'  that  all  heads  should  be  at  the  same  height  from 

events,  or  in  the  ceremonial  of  worship.    Relief  is  the  base,  whether  the  figures  sat,  rode,  or  stood  (/•»• 


Tbe  A-tkohcution,  AmraiiA  Della  Bobbia,  Hospitu.  or  m  Imooam,  Flobb<c» 

well  suited,  also,  to  the  portrayal  of  series  of  scenes,  kepkaleui).  Id  the  HellenistJo  period  a  more  pic- 
as in  the  bronze  doors  or  various  Italian  baptisteries  turesaue  and  dramatic  form  of  composition  prevailed, 
illustrating  the  Old  and  the  New  Testament.  Fi^-  and  the  backgrounds  were  carved  in  pictorial  style. 
ures  and  objects  in  relief  are  generally  worked  out  m  With  the  Ktruscans  relief  was  apfjUed  mainly  in  tbo 
the  same  material  as  the  background,  though  there  artistic  handicrafts.  In  Rome  it  frequently  do- 
are  exceptions  to  this  rule  in  Greek  art,  and  in  the  generated  into  a  pictorial  mode  in  wluch  several 
decorative  work  of  the  Chinese  and  Japanese.  In  planes  were  employed,  but  esamples  are  still  extant 
tbe  larger  reliefs  marble,  bronze,  and  terra-cotta  are  that  are  highly  classic,  e.  g,  the  groups  of  the  Arch 
used  exclusively;  while  in  smaller  works  the  precious  of  Titus,  the  continuous  winding  reUefa  of  the  Colmnn 
metals  and  stones,  ivory,  stucco,  enamel,  wood,  etc.,  of  Trajan,  imperial  sarcophagi  (in  the  Vatican),  and 
predominate.  The  reliefs  of  the  Egyptians  and  reliefs  of  the  Capitol  Museum,  Rome.  The  Romaoa 
Assynsns,  not  highh'  plastic,  were  made  more  no  doubt  owed  their  finest  reliefs  to  the  Greek  artists 
eflective  by  the  introcfuction  of  strong  colours.  The  they  harboured  and  employed  upon  themes  taJkso 
early  Greeks  also  made  uae  of  polychroray,  as  in-  from  the  history  of  Rome. 

stanced   in    the    metope   relief   in    the   Museum   of  The  Christian  Era  inaugurated  what  nd|^t  be  dub* 

Palermo.     In  Gothic  art  and  in  the  Renaissance  it  taken  for  a  new  art,  but  the  change  was  in  sutMOCt 

was  the  custom  to  tint  wood,  t«rra-cotta,  and  stucco,  more  than  in  mode,  for  all  the  early  examples  bqow 

but  not  marble  or  stone.     Relief  is  one  of  the  earliest  a  groat  similarity  to  antique  models  in  form,   poee^ 

forms  of  sculpture  practised,  and  probably  originated  and  drapery.     Cnristian  relief  appears  rnainly  in  the 

with  the  stone-cutters  of    prehistoric  days,  though  sarcophagi  with  their  Biblical,  ApostoUc,  or  symbolio 

olay  and  wood  are  supposed  to  have  i>een  the  earliest  subjects:   Daniel   in   the   lions'   den,   Moses  striloDg 

materials  employed,  owing   to   greater   facility  in  water  from  the  rock,  the  adoration  of  the  Magi,  the 

moulding  ana  carving  them.  raising  of  Lazarus,  the  Good  Shepherd.    Heatbm 

Ibere  is  reason  to  believe  that  relief  sculpture  myths  are  also  used,  invested  with  a  new  signifi- 


ttnce:  Orpheus  is  Christ,  diBwiDg  the  oreaturM  of 
tbe  wild  by  the  crweet  strains  of  ms  muaio:  Vhtae^ 
(tucbed  to  the  mast  is  believed  to  typify  t&e  Cawd- 
GnoD  (0.  Marucchi}.  OccasiouLlly  a  carving  oa  a 
Cil^corub  tombstone  shows  real  merit,  and  the 
iMtpB  adorned  with  Christian  symbols  are  frequently 
ullstic.  As  they  depart  from  the  classic  tradition, 
however,  Christian  reliefs  grow  ruder  and  more  im- 
perfect. Those  of  the  latter  part  of  the  second  and 
ihe  third  century  have  little  merit.  The  fourth 
century,  in  spite  of  the  decline,  bequeathes  some 
^ledmens,  now  in  the  Lateran  Museum'  the  sai>- 
cophasug  of  Junius  fissaus  in  the  vaults  of  St.  Peter's 
ii  highly  esteemed  as  a  work  of  art.  When  the 
t^iristian  l>asilica  replaced  the  cubiculum  the  influ~ 
cncc  of  imperial  Constantinople  had  substituted 
mosucs  for  Doth  sculpture  and  paintinE-  The  few 
!^lieh  of  that  period  that  have  survived  bear  a 
stmngly  Byzantine  character,  which  is  also  apparent 
in  all  early  Prankish  workmanship,  reliefs,  ivory 
diptvclw,  etc.  The  reliefs  of  Ravenna,  from  the  time 
nf  Ttieodoric,  show  the  same  influence  in  combina* 


MHioeptkn.  During  the  entire  tmraqne  period 
nuicbfilangelo  being  the  last  Italian  sculptor  of 
the  late  RenaiBsanee)  works  of  a  low  order  of  in- 
spiration prevtuled.  The  Danish  sculptor  Thor- 
waldsen,  influenoed  by  the  study  of  Attic  models, 
produced  reliefs 
of  great  beauty  I 
and  plasti 
The '- 


^^  „«,«»  of  VX, 

Oanova    were    iC^' 
likewise  clasmca,    |0.' 
though  frequents     tf\ 
ly    cold     and     '* 
feeble.     Rauch 
in  Germany  and 
Rude  in   France 
modelled  spirited 
reUefs.      In    our 
day  at  the  head 
of  the  admirable 
French  school  of 
sculpture  stands 

presdonist  and 
psychologtBt, 
producing  unfin- 
ished rehcfs  which  nevertheless  are  almost  Greek  in 
their  imprint  of  life.  In  Gemiany,  Austria,  and  Eng- 
land, fine  reliefs,  especially  decorative  works,  are  being 
modelled.  In  Spain  and  Italy  the  younger  men  ar« 
forming  new  schools  of  pkstio  work.  In  America, 
though  good  work  in  rehef  is  done,  sculpture  in  the 
round  prevails.  Everywhere  the  tendency  is  t«  neg- 
lect the  distinction  Mtween  the  different  kinds  of 
relief,  to  be  independent  in  method  and  treatment, 
and  principles  sway  as  of  old  between  the  pictorial 
and  the  plastic. 

LObie,  Hiloni  «f  Art  (tr.  Kew  Yoik,  1S7T);  Oasdho 
•    -—■^-ikatOnikB--—''—-'-    "■"-■" 


Bab-Rbliep,  AXbRU  DiUul  ROBSU 

HoenriL    or    tbb    iHHociMm, 


Hsu  OF  St.  Jont  PsnwNTsD  to  HaaoD,  DcnsTExo 

don  with  the  Teutonic  spint,  as  in  the  dxth-century 
Mulptures  of  San  Titale.  In  figure-carving,  how- 
ever, there  ts  a  distinct  tending  from  symbolism  to 
Ratism.  The  rude  LombarcUc  bas-icliefs  of  Milan 
ud  Brescia  frequently  border  on  the  grotesque,  but 
tbe  authors  went  to  nature  for  their  hunting  scenes 
and  forms  of  animals.  The  bronze  reCefs  of  the 
ehurth  of  St.  Michael,  Hildeaheim,  Germany,  are  one 
of  the  lerakciea  of  the  eleventh  century;  those  of  the 
Golden  Gate,  Freiburg,  are  considered  the  finest 
vork  of  the  late  Romanesque  period. 

With  the  merging  of  the  Komanesoue  into  the 
Cothie,  relief  sculpture  assumes  a  new  coaracter  and 
a  peculiar  importance  in  its  close  association  with 
architecture,  and  in  the  many  uses  it  is  put  to  in 
tympana,  spandrels,  etc.  As  a  purely  Cbnatian  and 
heautiful  form  of  art  it  ranks  high;  numerous  ex- 
amples are  extant,  e^cially  in  the  northern  coun- 
tries of  Europe.  In  Italy  it  had  small  hold,  for  as 
csdy  as  1300  Andrea  Pisano,  who  is  called  a  Gothic, 
*ss  inaugurating  a  renaissance.  Kcturesque  relief 
reached  its  fullest  development  in  Florence,  as  in  the 
baptistery  doors  of  Gbiberti  and  the  marble  pulpit  of 
Santa  Croce  by  Benedetto  da  Ma^ano.  Donatello  in 
bis  admirable  high  and  low  reliefs  and  the  Delia 
BoUiias  in  their  JT)fLm«ia  return  to  a  more  plastic 


, k  Seulptun  (London.  1807);  UAROcrHi, 

Lft  takuaaba  nmaimt  (Bonn.  18M>:  Frrkinb.  Hitlmiua 
HanMoidc  of  Italian  Sculfitim  (Loadim.  13S3):  UOnri,  La 
pr<cur((ur«  dt  la  Bmauaana  (Paiia,  Londoo,  1SS2), 

M.  li.  Hanslet. 

Baase  Tarre,  Diocxbe  op.    See  Guaceloufb. 

Baaaeln,  a  town  situated  twenty-nine  miles  north 
of  Bombay  in  British  India,  and  now  of  much  bistorlii 
interest  as  an  old  settlement  of  the  Portuguese,  It 
js  the  birthplace  of  St.  (Jonsalo  Garda,  the  only 
^dian  saint,  who  was  a  companion  of  St.  Philip  de 
las  Casas,  the  first  native  of  America  to  be  canonised. 
These  two  missionaries  were  in  the  group  of  the  first 
martyrs  of  Japan,  crucified  on  the  hill  of  Nagasald, 
5  February,  1697  Baesmn  was  the  most  important 
settlement  of  tha  Hirtuguese  in  the  north  of  India, 
Ooa  lying  farther  to  the  south.  In  many  respects 
Bassem  was  Cloa's  rival  in  the  sixteenth  and  seven- 
teenth centuries,  as  Bombav  is  of  Calcutta  now. 
T^e  city  of  Basaeiu,  in  the  island  of  the  same  name, 
was  founded  in  1636  by  Nunho  de  Cunha,  one  of  thcae 
Intrepid  Portuguese  soldiers  who  distinguished  them- 
selves in  Inina  as  warriois,  administrators,  and 
sealous  workers  for  the  spread  of  the  Gospel.  He 
conquered  the  island  from  its  Mohammedan  ruler, 
Ba)iaduT  Shati,  Kipg  of  Guierat,  and  soon  had  a 
strong  fort  built  ni  the  soutri-westem  corner.^  The 
island  is  rich  in  timber,  which  was  regarded  in  the 
sixteenth  century  as  the  best  material  for  ship- 
building. Its  fertility  and  position,  together  with 
its  healthy  climate,  made  it  a  commercial  centre  of 
some  importance,  and  tlie  home  of  many  Portuguese 
noblemen. 

Side  by  side  with  this  eariv  conquest  and  oolonJta- 
tion  the  Gospel  was  spread  oy  the  zeal  of  the  Fran- 
ciscan missionary,  Antonio  do  Porto,  to  whom  is 
attributed  the  conversion  of  10.156  pagans,  and  who 
is  known  as  the  "Apostle  of  Baasein",  Father  An- 
tonio do  Porto  buih  at  A^aahi  in  the  Dorthero 


BA881R 


344 


BA88I 


Bassein  district,  as  early  as  1535,  an  or];^nage  for 
the  education  and  maintenance  of  forty  bo^B,  all 
converts  from  pa^mism,  under  the  invocation  of 
Nossa  Senhora  da  Luz.  This  orphanage  gave  to  the 
Church  the  first  Indian  martyrs  known  to  history. 
In  April,  1540,  a  Mohammedan  force  from  Gujerat 
approached  the  orphanage,  on  the  return  from  a 
fruitless  attack  on  the  Bassein  fort.  Nearly  all  the 
inmates  of  the  orphanage  had  fled  for  shelter  to  the 
fort,  but  five  of  tnem  had  remained.  These  were  at 
first  ureed  to  renounce  their  faith;  failing  in  this, 
the  Mohammedans  cruelly  tortured  them,  and  lock- 
ing them  in  a  room  set  fire  to  it. 

In  1542  the  Jesuits  came  to  Basseih.  St.  Francis 
Xavier  visited  the  city  of  Bassein  three  times,  once 
in  1544,  and  twice  in  1548.  During  his  last  visit,  in 
December,  1548,  he  founded  the  College  of  the  Holy 
Name  of  God.  The  Jesuits  on  their  idvent  divided 
both  the  missionary  and  educational  work  with  the 
Franciscans,  the  latte]^  labouring  among  the  lower, 
and  the  former  among  the  higner,  classes.  Other 
religious  orders  also  found  their  way  to  Bassein, 
which  became  the  centre  of  their  missionary  activity. 
In  the  college  of  the  Jesuits  in  the  Bassein  fort 
St.  Gonsalo  Garcia  was  brought  up  from  his  early 
youth.  He  was  bom  about  the  year  1564.  At  the 
ajge  of  sixteen  he  voluntarily  accompanied  some  of 
the  Jesuit  fathers  of  the  couege,  who  were  ordered 
to  join  the  mission  of  Japan.  He  laboured  with 
singular  zeal  as  a  catechist  for  eight  vears,  having 
acquired  the  Japanese  language  marvellously  within 
a  short  time.  During  that  time  he  petitioned  to 
join  the  order,  but  as  his  reception  was  delayed  he 
left  the  Jesuits  on  the  best  of  terms  and  became  a 
merchant.  He  was  blessed  with  an  abundance  of 
riches  which  he  distributed  largely  among  the  poor. 

Business  interests  often  tooK  Uonsalo  to  Manila, 
where  he  used  to  visit  the  Franciscan  fathers  and 
assist  them  as  an  interpreter  in  hearing  the  confes- 
sions of  some  Japanese  Christians.  On  one  occasion, 
when  deep  in  prayer,  he  was  inspired  to  seek  ad- 
mission into  the  Franciscan  Order.  He  did  so,  and 
became  an  exemplary  lay  brother.  On  21  May, 
1593,  he  was  sent  back  to  Japan  with  a  body  of 
Franciscans  to  aid  them  in  preaching  the  Gospel. 
The  manv  conversions  made  by  them  caused  a  perse- 
cution which  gave  to  the  Church  the  first  martyrs  of 
Japan.  They  were  twenty-six  in  number  and  were 
crucified  on  a  hill  at  Nagasaki  ^  February,  1597. 
They  were  beatified  in  1627,  and  canonized  m  1862. 

Bassein  was  taken  from  the  Portuguese  by  the 
Mahrattas  in  1739,  from  the  Mahrattas  by  the 
English  in  1802,  and  is  now  a  ruined  town  of  much 
historic  interest  which  no  one  who  goes  to  Bombay 
fails  to  visit.  The  fort  is  perhaps  the  best  of  the 
ruined  Portuguese  fortifications  m  India.  Bassein 
is  a  Christian  oasis  in  the  midst  of  the  pagan  and 
Mohammedan  population  of  India.  It  has  nine 
churches,  twelve  priests,  and  16,119  Christians,  all 
Catholics;  a  Protestant  mission  was  opened  in  1904 
by  the  Ritualists  but  did  not  flourisn  and  is  now 
practically  abandoned. 

D'CuNHA,  History  and  Antiquitiea  of  Batsein:  The  Bombay 
,  XIV;  Fkrnandes,  Life  of  Si.  Qona^ih  Oarcia, 


Qatetteer,  XIII, 


P.  A.  Febnani>i». 


Bassett,  Joshua,  convert  and  controversialist. 
Master  of  Sidney  Sussex  College,  Cambridge,  England, 
under  James  II,  b.  about  1641,  at  Lynn  Regis,  where 
his  father  was  a  merchant;  d.  in  London,  in  1720.  In 
1657,  after  preliminary  instruction  by«a  Mr.  Bell,  he 
was  admitted  sizar  of  Gonville  and  Caius  College, 
Cambridge,  in  care  of  a  Mr.  Bolt.  He  proceeded 
B.  A.  in  1661,  M.  A.  in  1665,  and  B.  D.  in  1671.  In 
1664  he  became  junior  fellow,  and  in  1673  senior 
fellow  of  his  college.  On  the  death  of  Dr.  Richard 
Minshull  in  December,  1686,  he  was,  by  mandate  of 
ja^mes  II,  elected  Master  of  Sidney  Sussex  College. 


He  was  iiiBoaired  without  the  usual  oaths,  and  in 
January  declared  himself  a  Catholic.  He  had  Mass 
celebrated  in  his  private  rooms,  and  altered  some  of 
the  college  statutes  which  stood  in  the  way  of  his 
co-religionists.  He  was  concerned  in  the  famous 
dispute  which  arose  when  the  king  demanded  that 
the  university  confer  the  degree  of  M.  A.  upon  the 
Benedictine,  Alban  Francis.  After  the  Revolution, 
when  Bassett,  having  left  the  college  in  haste,  desired 
to  take  away  his  personal  belon^'ngs,  he  was  threat- 
ened with  arrest  as  a  priest.  It  is  thought,  however, 
that  Bassett  had  not  been  ordained.  He  died  in 
extreme  poverty. 

The  critics  of  Bassett  admitted  that  he  possessed 
learning  and  ability,  but  objected  to  his  pride  and  to 
his  interference,  for  religious  reasons,  with  college 
regulations  and  routine.    He  forbade  a  chapel  service 
on  the  5th  of  November,  disciplined  a  speaker  who 
had  satirized  Rome,  and  threatened  to  take  over  the 
chapel    for    Catholic    services.     Craven,    who    was 
Master  of  Sidney  Sussex  College,  declared  in   1725 
that  Bassett  ''had  so  many  nostrums  in  his  religion 
that  no  part  of  the  Roman  Church  could  own  him". 
Gillow  believes  that  Bassett  acted  in  his  conversion 
from  a  thorough  conviction.     His  known  or  sup- 
posed  writings   are:    (1)    "Ecclesiae  Theoria  Nova 
Dodwelliana  Exposita"  (1713),  the  only  work  con- 
taining his  name  on  the  title  page;  (2)  'Reason  and 
Authority"  (1687);  (3)  "Essay  towards  a  proposal 
for  a  Catholic  communion  .  .  .  b^r  a  minister  of 
the  Church  of  England"  (1704);  this  was  reprinted 
in  1879,  with  an  introduction,  in  "An  Eirenicon  of 
the    Eighteenth    Century"    by    H.    N.    Oxenham; 
(4)  Occasional  verses  in  the  University  collections, 

CoopEB  in  Did,  Nat.  Biog.,  Ill,  381;  Gillow,  BiU.  Diet 
Eng,  Cath,t  I,  163;  Macaulat,  History  of  England. 

J.  V.  Crownb. 

Bassi,  Matthew  of.  founder  and  first  Superior- 
General  of  the  Order  of  Friars  Minor  Capuchins,  the 
principal  branch  issued  from  the  Reform  of  the  Ob- 
servance, b.  in  1495,  at  Bascio,  Diocese  of  Monte- 
feltro,  in  the  Duchy  of  Urbino;  d.  at  Venice  in  1552. 
At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  entered  the  Order  of  the 
Observants  at  Montefiorentino.  In  1525  he  was  a 
priest  and  missionary,  being  a  member  of  the  Re- 
formed Province  of  Ancona.  Moved  by  the  need 
of  reform  which  was  felt  almost  all  through  the 
Franciscan  family,  he  resolved,  in  1525,  the  year  of 
the  Jubilee,  to  begin  a  more  austere  life,  choosing 
a  form  of  earb  more  resembling  that  of  St.  Francis. 
Clement  Vll  granted  his  request  and  also  permitted 
him  to  preach  everywhere  and  to  have  a  companion. 
Some  ouier  members  of  the  Observance  asked  and  ob* 
tained  permission  to  join  him,  and  on  the  3d  of  July, 
1528,  the  pope  issued  the  Bull  "Religionis  zelus  , 
by  which  tne  new  Reform  was  canonically  approved 
and  placed  under  the  nominal  jurisdiction  of  the 
Conventuals.  The  name  "Capuchin",  at  first  given 
by  the  people  to  the  new  Franciscan  monks,  was 
afterwards  officially  adopted.  In  the  pontifical 
decrees  Bassi's  followers  are  variously  styled  "Capu- 
cini",  "Capuciati",  *'Capulati",  and  "Fratres  de 
Observantia  Capucinorum  . 

In  April,  1529,  the  new  order  held  its  first  chapter 
at  Albacina,  where  Matthew  of  Bassi  was  elected 
vicar-general  by  acclamation.  A  code  of  constitu- 
tions which  was  to  serve  as  a  basis  to  the  Reform 
was  elaborated.  But  the  humble  founder. did  not 
hold  his  charge  very  long.  After  visiting  his  brethren, 
wishing  to  resume  his  apostolic  career,  and  perhaps 
feeling  powerless  against  the  difficulties  which 
menaced  nis  disciples,  he  resigned  his  office.  Thence- 
forward he  took  no  part  in  the  government  of  the 
order.  He  even  decided,  about  1537,  to  return  to 
the  obedience  of  the  Observants,  through  fear 
of  incurring  some  ecclesiastical  censure.  As  it 
was,  these   last    had  obtained,  at  different  tlme& 


BASUAirxni  345  BASTOir 

BuOfl  or  Decrees  asainst  the  new  Reform.  Baasi  Revolution  of  1830  he  was  appointed  justice  of  th« 
ueached  through  the  whole  of  Italy  and  part  of  peade  at  Mugron  and,  being  deeply  interested  in 
Germany.  He  died  at  Venice,  in  the  midst  of  his  political  economy,  gave  himi^  up  to  it  with  great 
labours,  and  was  buried  in  the  Church  of  the  Ob-  earnestness  and  constituted  himseu  the  champion  of 
servants  of  that  city  in  the  presence  of  a  vast  con-  commercial  liberty.  /  In  1841  he  published  his  first 
course  of  people  attracted  by  his'  reputation  as  a  essay  ^'Le  fisc  et  la  vigne"  and,  apprised  of  the  free- 
saint.  The  following  eulo^  by  Arthur  du  Monstier  trade  movement  that  Ck)bden  was  then  directing 
18  read  in  the  Franciscan  Mar^rologium  under  the  '  in  England,  joined  forces  with  him.  In  1844,  his 
3dof  August:  "There  died  at  Venice,  Btessed  Matthew,  article,  ''L'innuence  des  tarifs  anglais  et  franyais" 
confessor,  founder  of  the  congregation  of  Capuchins,  in  the  "Journal  des  Economistes"  opened  his  way  to 
His  continual  fastings,  vigils  and  prayers,  his  most  fame.  Then  appeared  successiv^y:  "Sophismes 
high  poverty  and  araent  zeal  for  souls,  lastly  his  ^conomiques",  "Cobden  et  la  h'gue",  and  several 
extraordinary  holiness  and  the  gift  of  miracles  made  pamphlets,  one  of  which.  "Petition  des  marchands 
his  memory  glorious".  de  cnandelles",  against  tne  sim  that  interferes  with 
Joan,  de  T^uAitpyAChr^ieadeong^            ^S^^  the  candle  merchants'  trade,  is  a  little  masterpiece 

9nm  i.  FroncxMct.  in  Acta  SS.^  VIII,   4   Mau,  381-289;    db     ^m  ^rt^^^e^  on/4    r1ai;/.ofA  i^^^^t      i?!;.^^^^^   ♦^   ♦K«>  n^^ 

LoBOKKE.  Chronica  doa  Meno^a  (Lkbon.  1615):  Bovebius.    Of  verve  and  delicate  uony.    Elected  to  the  Con- 

and  then  to  the  Legisla- 
the  implacable  enemy  of 


Palomes,  De9  FrtTf  mxnem  et  de  leura  denomtnatume  (Pal-     *iat^      T*»    iqaq    \%^    ^^^um^u^a    f<TX».«v^»*«:^«    x«««« 
«™riHKn.  f%.  P*irT«  TJA^^-;i^i^Mmu»'nkiy»^fv^n^s»^i^K\     tiscs.     lu    1849    ne    pubusned      Harmonies   econo- 


III,  xi.  1^.  nuques  ',  which  the  illness  that  had  already  under- 

F.  Candide.  mined  his  health  prevented  him  from  finishing. 

BassianoB,  Bishop  of  Ephesus  (444-448).    As  a  .  ?^'?:*  ^^"^  ^  ^^^u'^"^  school  ancTenun. 

prfeHfEphe^  the  chan?i^of  Bassianus^  so  won  ^^  '*t  P^T^^f*  ''''  ^^^  foUowmg  hues:  "Let 

t»«;ff^*jX^^  <4,o  rL^^  fW  nien  work,  trade,  learn,  form  partnerships,  act  and 

I^Tmo^,  ^t  h^^t  v' l^y^iS^^  T^P?i  o-  ^o'^Xl  ^^-^^  -^^^-^^^^^  ^lecrees 

himtothefcho^coflvaza.    Bassianui  repudiate!  ^L?^^^!^' J?t^H  ^^V^^^^ 

the  consecration  to  which  he  was  violenUy  forced  to  ff^g^,  ^^/L/J^   ^^T  w  ^   "^*^^^5«°^   ^P^^T 

aubmit,  an  attitude  approved  by  Mennon's  successor,  ^^J^'  r.^T^haZlJ'm\^  i^^A^^^^^  ^a 

s3:sron?^;,^c^L^^^^^  i^^^ '^e^'si^  ir^^ 

by  Theodosius  if  and  reluctantly  by  Proclus,  Patri-  i^L''^®''l?lii'%^^&-  2L^f  JlSf'r  ^-  *^^  ^!5 

afch  of  Constantinople.     Bassiiui  reigned' undis-  §^,hT!^  "1^^!^^,^?^^]^^^^^^ 

turbed  for  four  yeanT    At  the  Easter  oSfebration  in  5??^''^A„f  ^?^'  p!5^n  ff  ^  «?  ^   It     """T 

rellr^^Po^  Uo  I  ^d  thTfiis^ODs^^  ^^*^  ^^  ^^^^  ^^^  ^^  ^^  ^^^^  »^"*  «^^'  ^ 

;!!;f ,T7i!^.«3?f«  ^  \  ^tutuJTf^^  a  new  lease  of  life  he  would  devote  his  energy  to  the 


emperor 
ease  was 


csuea  ine  rmgieaaer  ot  nis  opponents,  was  eiectea  d  "  i^TVn.    ~~  ^"Z^ 

in  his  stead.    The  CouncU  of  Chaicedon  on  29  Octo-  ^^^  rP^   1854    1872^ 

ha-,  451,  considered  the  plea  of  Bassianus  for  rein-  BAUNAio.  La  pJli  ia^ea  (Ptib,  1884-1902).  IL  107; 

statement  and  was  disposed  to  favour  mm,  but  owinff  Fbrrin,   Lea  doctrinea  iconomiquea  dtpuia  vn  aOcU   (i'aria, 

to  the  complex  irregularities  of  the  case  it  was  deemed  1880),  IX,  125:  Gardellc,  Frfdiric  Baatiat  (discourse  at  the 

advisable  to  declare  the  see  vacant.    Bassianus  and  ?5°P®^  ""^  T^  ^^  ^JJ^B^i  °i  F^^  ^^VLf""^^^ 

a* u                **ww«*v.  w..«  ax^   *<.x«»uv.     .^^i^ictiiuo  ^*x*  Notice  btograpfuque   aur  FrSdine  BaatuU   (Paris,    1855);    de 

^epben  were   retired   on   a   pension   with   episcopal  Fontbnat,  Notice  aw  la  vie  et  lea  Scrita  de  Frid^ric  Baatiat 

mgnity.      During    the   process    Stephen    cited    Pope  (introduotion  to  his  works);  de  Molinari,  F.  Baatiat,  in  Journal 

I^s  letter  deposing  Bassianus,  a  document  unfor-  pi^^TSSSS!;^^"*  ^^  ^^''  ^^^'  Macleod  in  Diet,  of 

HA«iJuiN?A*cto  Conca,  (Paris.  1714).  II,  646-668;  Tille-  •,     ,              ^                        *   StaIHSLAS  A.  LOWTIE. 

i»KT.  ITAnwes  (Venice,  1722).  XV.  460-465,  690-692.  896-  BaSton,       GuiLLAUMS-ANDRiKRENE,     a       French 

?*^5'*»?^  ^^^*^f*^^/vlli?*'^'  ^®^^^»  ^L!®k*^/  theologian,  b.  at  Rouen,  29  November,  1741;  d.  at 

J^^^^^li.  1883),  III.  370-376;  Venable.  m />u^  CArt^^  Saint-Lau^nt     26    September,    1825.     He   studied 

John  B.  Pbterson.  theology  at  St.  Sulpice  in  Paris  arfd  finished  his 

studies  at  Angers.     He  was  then  appointed  professor 

Baatiat,  CLAnDS-FRtD]6RiCj  a  French  economist,  of  theology  at  Rouen.    During  tne  Revolution  he 

b.  at  Mugron,  a  small  city  m  the  Department  of  wrote  against  the  Civil  Constitution  of  the  Clergy. 

Landes,  29  June,  1801;  d.  at  Rome,  24  December,  Having  refused  to  take  the  oath,  he  was  obli^sd  to 

1850.     He  was  the  son  of  Pierre  Bastiat,  whose  go  into  exile  (1792)*  first  to  London,  then  to  Holland, 

father  had.foimded  at  Bayonne  a  business  house  and  finally  to  Ktefeld   in  Westphalia.     In  1803  he 

that   pron>ered    in    consequence    of    the    franchise  returned  to  Rouen,  where  he  was  appointed  vicaiv 

granted  this  jwrt  by  the  Treaty  of  Yersailles,  but  general  and  dean  of  the    chapter  by  Archbishop 

ceased  to  flourish  under  the  prohibitory  regime  of  the  Cambacdr^.    As  a  Gallican,  he  won  the  favour  of 

EmfHre.     The  widely  different  effects  of  these  two  Napoleon,  who  appointed  him  Bishop  of  S^z  (1813) 

eooDomlc  systems  upon  the  fortunes  of  his  family  ana  the  chapter  of  the  cathedral  accepted  him  as 

Qodoubtedly  gave  rise  to  Bastiat's  free-trade  opin-  capitular  vicar.     Pope  Pius  VII  failing  to  approve 

ions.    Left  an  oiphan  at  the  age  of  nine,  he  was  of  this  nomination,  the  cathedral  chapter  revoked 

brought  up  by  his  paternal  grandfather  and,  after  the  nomination  (1814),  and  Baston  went  into  retire- 

punuin^  his  studies  at  St.  Sever  and  Sor6ze,  entered  ment  at  Saint-Laurent  near  Pont-Audemer,  where 

the  business  founded  by  his  grandfather  and  then  he  died.     Baston  was  the  author  of  numerous  works 

oonducted  by  his  imcle  at  Bavonne.    Returning  to  on  theology,  the  most  important  being  "Lectiones 

Mugron  in   1825,  he  inherited  an  extensive  estate  theologies",  written  while  he  was  professor  of  theol- 

tbroueb  the  death  of  his  grandfather,  and  subse-  ogy,  in  collaboration  with  Abb6  Tuvache  (10  vols.. 

"^S^eoSj    devoted    hunself    to    farming.    After   the  Rouen,  1818),  fmd  he  puUished  several  polemical 


348  BATHILDB 

canons  from  thiiirjr-five  to  fifty,  and  founded  a  ^rain«  Father  Mansoni,  the  Apostolic  Nuncio,  to  Irelaod. 

mar  school.    On  his  death,  the  monks  of  Bath  ignor*  This  mission  led  them  first  to  the  Court  of  Spain  and 

ing  the  chapter  of  Weils,  elected  as  his  successor  while  there  they  learned  that  peace  had  been  ccm- 

R^ger,  one  of  their  own  conmiunity,  for  whom  they  eluded  between  Spain  and  England  and  that  the 

obtained   royal   and   papal   confinnation,    but   the  journey  to  Ireland  was  no  long;er  neceeeary.    Bathe 

consequent  appeal  by  the  Wdls  chapter  brought  remained  in  Spain,  living  at   valladolid  and  later 

about  the  final  settlement  of  the  difficvdty.    The  pope  at  the  Irish  CoIle|;e  in  Salamanca.    It  was  here  that 

decided  that  Roger  should  remain  bishop  with  the  he  wrote  his  pnncipal  work  ''Janua  Lingimnun" 

style  ''Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells",  and  that  the  old  (Salamanca,  1611).     It  was   designed  to  facilitate 

arrangement  as  to  joint  election  should  in  future  be  the  study  of  languages  and  thus  to  aid  missionaries, 

observed.  confessors,  and  students  both  young  and  old.    For 

Hie  histor]^  of  the  see  was  thenceforth  tranquil,  this  purpose,   1330  short  sentences  were  grouped 

only  three  bishops  during  the  next  two  centuries  imder  certain  headings,  the  Latin  and  Spfmish  on 

calling  for  special  mention,  Ralph  of  Shrewsbury  opposite  pages,  with  an  index  giving  the  translation 

(1329-63),  who  completed  the  buildings;  Thomas  of  the  Latin  words — ^in  all  about  5300.    The  work 

Bekynton  (1443-65),  another  liberal  benefactor  of  went  through  many  editions  in  which  its  method 

tl^  city;  and  Oliver  King  (1495-1503),  who  rebuilt  was  applied,   by   various  combinations,   to  eleven 

Bath  Abbey  in  the  Perpendicular  style.    One  bishop,  languasee,  including  Greek  and  Hebrew.     It  was 

William  Bytton  (1267-74),  died  with  a  reputation  printed   at   London    (1615),  Leipzig   (161^),  Milan 

for  sanctity  and  his  tomb  became  a  place  of  pilgrim-  (1628),  Venice  (1655),  and  oy  1637  it  had  been  pub- 

a^.    In  tlie  fifteenth  century  there  were  two  absentee  lishedf  in  Bohemian,  lUyrian,  and  Hungarian.    An 

bishops,  Adrian  de  Castello  (1504-18),  during  whose  English  edition  (London,  1617)  bore  the  title,  "The 

tenure  the  see  was  administered  bv  the  historian  Messe  of  Tongues  (Latin,  French,  English,  Hispan- 

Polydore  Vergil;   and  Cardinal   Wol^y    (1518-^23),  ish)".    It  naturally  found  imitators,  and  among  uiese 

who  held  the  see  simultaneously  with  that  of  York,  the  great  work  by  John  Amos  Comenius  holds  first 

After  the  dissolution  of  Bath  Abbey  in  1538,  the  rank.     In  the  preface   to  his   "Janua  Lin^uanim 

bishop,  though  retaining  the  old  style,  had  his  seat  Reserata"  (1631),  Comenius  acknowledges  nis   in- 

at  Wells  alone,  but  final  ruin  was  impending.     In  debtedness  to  Bathe,   while  in  the  work  itself  ha 

1549  the  notorious  William  Bariow  was  intruded  adopts  and  develops  the  plan  which  the  Jesuit  had 

into  the  see,  and  alienated  much  of  its  property,  originated.     Bathe  is  also  credited  by  some  of  his 

On  the  accession  of  Mary  he  fled,  and  was  succeeded  biographers    (Al^ambe,   Sherlock)   with  a   treatise 

bythelastCatholicBishopjGilbert  Bourne  (1554-59),  on  **The  Mysteries  of  Faith"  and  another  on  the 

who  held  the  see  till  he  was  deprived  of  it  by  Eliza-  "Sacrament  of  Finance".     Sommervogel,  however, 

beth  and  imprisoned  in  the  Tower,  thus  becoming  takes  a  different  view.    To  his  industiy  as  a  writer 

one  of  the  eleven  Confessor-Bishops  who  died  in  Bathe  added  an   unflagging  zeal  for  the  spiritual 

bonds.    He  died  in  1569.     Of  the  twin  cathedrals  welfare  of  his  fellowmen,  the  relief  of  suffering,  and 

of  the  diocese,  Bath  Abbey  was  rebuilt  (1499-1539)  thetinstruction  of  the  poorer  classes.    He  had  just 

in  late  Perpendicular  style  and  is  the  last  complete  been  invited  by  the  King  of  Spain  to  give  the  spiritual 

monastic  building  erected  before  the  Reformation,  exercises  to  the  memmrs  of  the  Court  when  death 

while  the  cathedral  at  Wells,  though  small,  is  the  ended  his  labours. 

most  perfect  example  of  a  secular  cathedral  and  one  ^  Sommervooel.  BM.  de  e,  de  J.;  MacDonaijD,  in  The  /mk 

of  the  most  beautTful  Gothic  buUdinw  in  EnrianA  §^JS;^^^^liTi'^)f*^SSS^I>l^^ 

Datmg  m  the  mam  from  the  early  thirteenth,  it  was  Pace,  Bathe  and  Comeniue,  in  Cath,  Univ,  BuU.  (Wi 


practically  complete  by  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  1907),  XIII.  i?   a    t> 

century.    The  diocese  contained  three  archdeacon*  E.  A.  Pacb. 

ries,  Bath,  Wells,  and  Taunton.    The  arms  of  the        Bathilde    (or  Battlds).  Saint,  wife  of  Qovis  II, 

see  were: — Azure,  a  saltier  quarterly  quartered,  or  King  of  France,  time  ana  place  of  l^rth  unknown; 

and  az.  d.  .January,  680.    According  to  some  chronicles  Aq 

HvNTm,  A  brief  Hi^ory  oi  the  biehopnck  of  S  came  from  England  and  was  a  descendant  of  tiie 

Sri'"o/W/(ird'ol;  it?§rrir  ?^^S^^.  An/tlo^on  kings  but  this  is  a  doubtful  8tatem«it 

ite  Foundation,  ConeHtuHon,  Hieiory  and  StatuUe  (1880):  Reo-  It  IS  certam  that  she  was  a  slave  m  the  service  of  the 

tetert  of  Biehopa  Giffard,  Bowett  and  Fox  (Somerset  Record  wife  of  Erchinoald,  mayor  of  the  palace  of  Neustria. 

Tl'gir]m^ilS"lfS^-t^''lnnZ^ilSi',y  S^l  Her  unusual  oualities  of  mind  and  her  virtues  in- 

The  Cathedral  Church  of  WcUe  and  a  Hietory  of  the  Epieoopal  sDired  the  confidence  of  her  master  who  ffave  manv 

See  (London,  1898,  3d  ed.,  1903);  Someraet  Arehaological  of  the  affairs  of  the  household  into  her  charge  ana, 

SocUty  Traneactione.  i^,.^  T^rr^r^i^  after  the  death  of  his  wife,  wished  to  marry  her.    At 

ISDWm  J3UKTON.  ^^   ^j^^   ^^  ^^   ^^   ^^   ^ j   ^^^   ^^^^^    ^^ 

Bathe,  William,  writer  on  music  and  education,  Erchinoald  had  married  again.     About  this   time 

b.  at  Dublin,  Ireland,  2  April.  1564;  d.  at  Madrid,  Clovis  II  met  her  at  the  house  of  the  mayor  of  the 

17  June,  1614.    His  parents,  John  Bathe  and  Eleanor  palace,  and  was  impressed  by  her  beauty,  grace,  and 

Preston,  were  distinguished  both  by  their  lineage  the  good  report  he  had  of  her.    He  freed  and  married 

and  by  their  loyalty  to  the  Catholic  Faith.    He  went  her,  649.    This  sudden  elevation  did  not  diminish 

to  Oxford  about  1583  and  while  a  student  there  the  virtues  of  Bathilde  but  gave  them  a  new  lustre. 

^ivTote  "A  Brief  Introduction  to  the  Art  of  Music"  Her  humility,  spirit  of  prayer,  and  laige-hearted 

(London,   1584).     Another  treatise  from  his  pen,  generosity  to  the  poor  were  particularly  noticeable. 
'^A  Brief  Introduction  to  the  Skill  of  Song",  was        Seven  years  after  their  marriage  Clovis  II  died, 

published  at  London  in  1600.    These  writings  and  656.  leaving  Bathilde  with  three  eons,  Qothaire, 

nis  skill  as  master  of  various  instruments,  especially  Childeric,  and  Thierry.    An  assembly  of  the  leading 

the  Irish  harp,  won  him  the  favour  of  Queen  Eliza-  nobles  proclaimed  Gothaire  III,  afted  Gve^  kine  under 

beth  to  whom  he  was  related  through  the  Kildare  the  re^ncy  of  his  mother.  Bathude.    Aiddd  ojr  the 

family.    His  own  inclinations,  however,  were  towards  authority  and  advice  of  Erchinoald  and  the  saintly 

the  religious  life.    From  the  English  court  he  went  bishops,  Eloi   (Eligii^)  of  Noyon,  Ou^i  of  Rousa, 

to  Louvain  where  he  studied  theology.    On  6  August,  I4ger  of  Autun,  and  Chrodebert  o^  Paris,  tiie  oueen 

1595  (1596)  he  entered  the  novitiate  of  the  Society  was  able  to  carry  out  useful  reforms.    She  atxwahed 

of  Jesus  at  Toumai.    His  later  studies  were  pursued  the  disgraceful  trade  in  Christian  slaves,  and  firmly 

at  St.  Omer  and  completed  at  Padua.    In  1601  Bathe  repressed  simony  among  the  clergy.    She  alao  led  the 

was  selected  by  the   father  general  to  accompany  way  in  founding  charitable  and  religious  institutiotib 


lint,  came  from  Jouarre.    The  queen  wished  to  of  religious  education  in  Australia".    At  his  death, 

,  _ice  ner  position  and  enter  the  religious  life,  but  16  Januarjr,  1885,  there  were  in  the  diocese  28  priests, 

duties  kept  her  at  court.    Erchinoaui  died  in  659  56  Cathohc  schools,  21  convents,  192  nuns,  and  5  re- 

I  was  succeeded  by  Ebroin.    Notwithstanding  the  li^ous  brothers.    Dr.  Quinn  was  succeeded  by  the 


B4THnB8T  340  BATTAaLIHI 

floeh  as  hospitals  and  monasteries.     Through  her    ters  of  St.  Joseph  and  the  Patrician  Brothers:  the 

generosity  the  Abbey  of  Corbie  was  founded  for  men,  foimding  of  a  Catholic  newspaper,  the  "Record'*;  the 
and  the  Abbey  of  Chelles  near  Paris  for  women,  erection  of  St..  Stanisbius'  College,  in  1873,  at  a  dost 
Aft  about  this  date  the  famous  Abbeys  of  Jumi^ges,    of  £15,000^  and  of  St.  Charles   Ecclesiastical  Semi- 

Jouarre,  and  Luxeuil  were  established,  most  probably  nary  eight  years  later.    Dr.  Quinn  was  a  man  of  great 

in  large  part  through  Bathilde's  generosity.     Ber-  energy,  deep  piety,  cultivated  intellect,  and,  says 
(hilde,  the  first  Abbess  of  Chelles,  who  is  honoured    Caromal  Moran,  was  one  of  the  "foremost  champions 
as  a  saint, 
renoimoe 
her 
and 

ambition  of  the  new  niayor  of  the  palace,  the  <]ueen  Hight    Rev.    Joseph    Patrick    Byrne    (consecrated 

was  able  to  maintain  her  authority  and  to  use  it  for  9  August,  1885).    In  1887  the  new  Diocese  of  Wil« 

the  bmefit  of  the  kingdom.    After  her  children  were  cannia  was  formed  out  of  the   Bathurst  Diocese, 

well  establi^ed  in  their  respective  territories,  Childe-  At  the  same  time  some  districts  from  the  Maitland 

ric  IV  in  Austrada  and  Thierry  in  Burgundy,  she  re-  diocese  were  added  to   the   Bathurst  jurisdiction, 
turned  to  her  wish  for  a  secluded  life  and  withdrew    Dr.  Byrne,  says  Cardinal  Moran,  "strenuously  and 

to  hear  favourite  Abbey  of  Chelles  near  Paris.  successfully  carried  on  the  great  work  of  education 

On  altering  the  abbey  she  laid  down  the  insignia  and  religion  begim  b^  his  predecessor",  and,  like  him. 

of  royalty  and  desired  to  be  the  lowest  in  rank  was  "a  model  to  his  clergy  in  his  im wearying  ana 

among  tlie  inmates.    It  was  her  pleasure  to  take  her  self-sacrificing  toil".     St.  Stanislaus'  College,  which 

position  ^ter  the  novices  and  to  serve  the  poor  and  from  its  foundation  had  been  under  the  control  of 

mfinn  with  her  own  hands.    Prayer  and  manual  toil  secular  priests,  was  in  1888  entrusted  to  the  Vincen- 

occnpied  her  time,  nor  did  she  wish  any  allusion  made  tian  Fathers.    It  is  now  (1907)  one  of  the  foremost  • 

to  the  grandeur  of  her  past  position.    In  this  manner  educational  institutions  in  Australia,  and  noted  for 

she  pa^ed  fifteen  years  of  retirement.     At  the  be-  the  work  done  in  its  well-equipped  physical  and 

ginning  of  the  year  680  she  had  a  prasentiment  of  the  chemical    laboratories.     When    pronounced    to    be 

approach  of  death  and  made  religious  preparation  stricken  by  an  incurable  malady,  Dr.  B^nme  received 

for  it.     Before  her  own  end,  that  of  Kade^nde  from  his  priests  and  people,  on  the  Epiphany,  1901, 

occurred,  a  child  whom  she  had  held  at  the  baptismid  a  pathetic  demonstration  of  affection,  accompaniea 

font  and  had  trained  in  Christian  virtue.     Sne  was  by  a  money  gift  of  £2,530.    He  passed  awav  on  the 

buried  in  the  Abbey  of  Chelles  and  was  canonized  by  12th  of  January,  1901.    To  him  succeeded  the  Right 

Pope  Nicholas  I.     The  Roman  martyrology  places  Rev.  John  Dunne — builder,  missioner,  or^nizer — 

her  feast  on  26  January;  in  France  it  is  celebrated  who  was  consecrated  8  September,  1901.    rie  is  to 

30  January.  complete  the  architecturally  fine  college  of  St.  Stan- 

Aeta  88.,  II;  BvBOJSy  Histoire  eedisiattkue  de  Paris,  108;  islaus,  and  under  his  administration  the  missionary 

Baa  Lame  exceU^deSa^uBaihtUeiP^ia,!^^      Corb-  ^^^  scholastic  traditions  of  the  diocese  are  well  sus- 

Sainie  BathUde  in  Carrespondani  (1873),  XXXII.   227-246;  tamed.     The  efficiency  of  the  Cathohc  SChools  IS  m 

Dbioo,  La  reine  BaOiilde  (Limoges.  1865);  GntcT  in  Revue  no  small  measure  dUe  tO  the  system  of  inspection 

^mMohmque  .1866),  XII.  603-6l(J.  ir^„„„^  inaugurated  by  the  Rev.  J.  J.  Brophy.  D.  D.,  LL.  B. 

A.  r  ouRNET.  ,j^g  principal  lay  benefactors  of  the  diocese  are  Mr. 

Bftthnnt,  Diocese  of,  situated  in  New  South  James  Dalton,  IC.S.G.,  and  Mr.  John  Meagher,  K.S.G. 
Wales,  Australia,  in  the  ecclesiastical  Province  of       Religious  Statistics. — In  the  diocese  there  are: 

Sydn^,  comprises  the  territory  immediately  west  of  18  parochial  districts;  89  churches;  29  secular  priests; 

we  Dividing  Range;  it  extends  north  to  the  Barwon  7  regular  priests*  7  religious  brothers;  242  nunsj  1 

River,  is  boimded  on  the  west  by  the  Macquarie  River  college;   8  boarding  schools  for  rirls;  11  day  high 

as  far  up  as  Warren  and  thence  by  a  line  to  the  schools;  39  primarv  schools   (witn  3,496  pupils)-  1 

Lachlan  River  twenty  miles  below  Eauabolohg.  orphanage;  4,298  children  in  Catholic  schools;  and  a 

History. — Bathurqt  (population  in   1901,  9,223)  Catholic  population  of  about  27,(X)0. 

was  founded  in  1824.     Owing  to  the  hostility  of  the         Moran.  H«tory  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Auatralaeui  (Syd- 

abongmab   and   other   causes    population   filtered  ^^^':  ^i^  ^^l^Sk^,S^^^fy"1!^Z^^&l 

aowly  into   the    nch    Bathurst    plains    till    the   first  Ca^ie  Directory  for   1907   (Sydney,    1907);   RepoH  of   the 

paying  goldfield  was  discovered  in  the  district,  in  ^^1^^  ?<^52?^«i*?  ^  ^^T^.9f  ^aOiurst  for  th^  Year  woe 

1861.    The  first  church  in  Bathurst,  says  Cardinal  ^Dubbo.  1907);  Ifwtum^Cat/io/uroj  (Propaganda,  Rome,  1907). 

Horan,  "was  nothing  better  than  a  bark  hut".  It  Henrt  W.  Clear y. 
was  superseded  in  1861  by  a  fine  new  edifice  (now  the  «  •^  a  ^  t> 
cathechal),  which  was  erected  at  a  cost  of  £12,000  by  Batrun,  Diocese  of.  See  Gibail  and  Batrun. 
Dean  Grant,  pastor  of  Bathurst  for  nearly  twenty  Battaglinii  Marco,  a  historian  of  the  councils, 
years  till  his  death  in  1864.  In  1865  Bathurst,  then  b.  at  Rimini,  Italy,  25  March,  1645;  d.  at  Cesena, 
part  of  the  Diocese  of  Sydney,  was  made  the  cache-  19  September,  1717.  He  studied  law  at  Cesena, 
dral  centre  of  a  new  diocese,  which  extended  from  the  both  civil  and  ecclesiastical,  and  at  the  age  of  six- 
River  Murray  to  Queensland,  and  from  the  Blue  teen  he  obtained  the  de^e  of  doctor  in  both 
Mountains  to  the  border  of  South  Australia.  That  branches.  After  some  years  of  service  in  the  civil 
vast  and  sparsely  populated  territory  was  divided  administration  of  the  Papal  States,  he  entered  the 
at  the  time  into  five  missions,  ministered  to  by  six  priesthood,  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Nocera  in  Urn- 
priests,  with  seven  small  churches  and  six  state-aided  mia,  1690,  and  in  1716  was  transferred  to  Cesena. 
Catholic  schools,  attended  by  492  pufuls.  Its  first  He  was  greatly  esteemed  for  his  learning,  and  for  his 
bidiop  was  the  Right  Rev.  Matthew  Quinn.  who  had  generous  and  frank  character.  His  principal  works 
taken  an  active  part  in  organising  the  Irish  Bri^^e  are:  (1)  "II  legista  filosofo"  (Rome,  1680),  or  the 
that  fought  for  the  defence  of  the  Papal  States  in  man  of  law  as  a  philosopher;  (2)  "  Istoria  universale 
1860.  He  was  consecrated  in  DuHin,  14  Novwnber,  di  tutti  i  concilii^'  (Venice,  1686.  1689,  1696,  1714). 
1865,  and  reached  Bathurst  1  November,  1866,  ao-  The  first  edition  contained  the  nistory  of  only  475 
eompanied  by  five  priests  and  seven  pioneer  Sisters  of  councils;  in  subsequent  editions  that  of  403  more 
Mercy.  Years  of  toilsome  organization  followed —  was  added.  A  valuable  supplement  was  the  cata- 
labonous  visitations;  opening  new  missions  and  sup-  logue  of  all  the  ancient  and  contemporary  episcopal 
plying  them  with  clergy;  church,  school,  and  convent  sees;  (3)  "  Annfdi  del  sacerdesio  e  dell'  imperio  in- 
exteiuion;  the  introduction  of  the  (Australian)  Sis-  tomo  all' interosecolodeoimoaettimo"  (Venice.  1701- 


BATTBUX                               350  BAUBXiaiB 

11;  Ancona,  1742),  or  a  history  of  Uie  world  during  Rufu0.    It  was  designed  for  one  hundred  and  foity 

the  seventeenth  century  in  the  form  of  annals.  mcmks,  though  there  were  never  more  than  sixty 

HuRTKR,  Nomendator,  II;  Bauer  in  Kireh^tl^.,  IL in  reddenoe  at  any  one  time.    The  first  monks  were 

Francis  J.  Scaaafia.  from  the  Benedictine  Abb^  of  Marmoutier  in  Nor- 

Battenx,  Charles,  abb6  and  writer  on  philosophy  g*f ^K*^  ^^^  foundation  was  dedicated  to  the 

and   fiBsthetics,  b.   near  Vouziers,  France,  6  May,  Holy  Trimty,  St  Mary,  and  8t.   Martin,  and  was 

1713;  d.  at  Paris,  14  July,  1780.    He  was  professor  opMeCTated  on  11  Februaiy,  1094.     The  king  offfered 

at  Paris  of  the  humanities  and  rhetoric,  then  of  Greek  there  his  father's  aword  and  coronation  robes,  and 

and  Roman  philosophy,  and  was  made  a  member  of  *^^  abbey  was  enriched  by  many  privileges,  mdudhig 

the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  and  of  the  Acadtoie  *°e  right  of  sanctuwy,  of  treasure   trove,  of  free 

FranQaise.    His  works  on  Epicurus  and  other  Greek  warren,  and  of  inquest,  and  the  inmates  and  tenants 

philosophers  attracted  much  attention.    At  the  time  ^e^  exempt  from  all  episcopal  and  secular  jurisdie- 

of  his  death  he  was  issuing  a  large  collection  of  me-  *'<^°'    I*  w*?  ruled  by  a  mitred  abbot  who  afterwards 

moirs  on  China;  the  series  was  continued  by  Br6-  ^"^  *  s©**  "^  Parliainent  and  who  had  the  curious 

quigny   and    de    Guignes.     Of    Batteux's   writings  privilege  of  pardoning  any  criminal  he  mieht  meet 

those  that  received  at  once  the  most  praise  and  being  led   to  execution.    The    monastic   buildings 

blame  were  the  following  three  works:  "Beaux-arts  w®^  about  a  mile  in  circuit  and  formed  a  lai^ge 

rdduits  k  un  mtoe  pmicipe",   "Cours  de  belles-  quadrangle,  the  high  altar  of  the  church  beinc  on 

lettres",  and  "Trait4  de  la  construction  oratoire".  ">©  spot  where  Harold  fell.     At  the  Abbey  was  kept 

These  were  issued  later  in  five  volumes  under  the  ^^  famous  "Roll  of  Battle  Abbey"  whidi  was  a  hst 

common  title:  "Cours  des  belles-lettres",  and  in  a  of  all  those  who  accompanied  WiUiam  from  Nor^ 

new  edition  of  six  volumes,  in  1824,  as  "Principes  mandy.    As  time  went  on  and  the  honour  of  descent 

abr6g^  de  la  litt^rature".  ^rom  one  of  these  Norman  families  was  more  highly 

Fdilowmg  Aristotle,  but  taking  at  the  same  time  a  thought  of,  unauthentic  additions  seem  to  have  been 

somewhat   one-sided   and   superficial    view   of   the  n^ade,  and  the  present  state  of  the  text  of  the  Roll  i« 

philosopher's  meaning,  Batteux  deduced  art  from  unsatisfactory  from  a  critical   point   of  view.    At 

the  free  imitation  of  nature,  that  is,  from  the  free  *^e  time  of  the  suppression  of  the  Abbey  (May,  1638), 

copying  of  nature  in  ite  beautiful  forms.     Utility  ^^^^  ^«^re  seventeen  monks  in  residence  and  the 

is  the  aim  of  the  mechanical  arts;  beauty,  the  end  of  income  was  returned  as  £987  which  would  be  more 

the  fine  arts,  and  both  utility  and  beauty  the  aim  ^^^an  £10,000  in  present  value.     Abbot  Hammond, 

of  the  beautifying  arts.     Architecture  and  oratory  the  last  of  the  line  of  thirty-two  abbots,  was  pensioned 

bdong  to  the  last  category.    The  arts  aim  to  in-  off  and  the  buildings  were  given   to   Sir  Antony 

fluence   either  sight   or   hearing   and   are   divided,  Browne,  a  royal  favourite,  who  pulled  down  the 

therefore,  into  two  classes.     Besides  these  the  rhyth-  abbey,  and  built  a  mansion  on  its  site.     The  entrance 

mical  arts,  music  and  dancing,  and,  in  addition,  ^te  and  considerable  ruins   now  alone  remain  of 

painting  and  poetry  are  closely  related  to  one  an-  ^^^^  original   buildings.     In    1719,    Lord   Montaguo 

other.    In  these  writings  there  Is  a  lack  of  compre-  «>ld  Battle  Abbey  to  Sir  Thomas  Webster  whose 

hensive  definitions  of  the  different  arts;  those  given  descendants  held  it  imtil  1868,  when  it  was  bought 

are  often  inexact  and  uncertain.     Nevertheless.  Bat-  by  If  rd  Harry  Vane,  afterwards  Duke  of  Qeveland. 

teux  may  be  regarded  as  the  real  founder  of  Aesthetics  CH  the  death  of  the  Duchess  of  Cleveland  in  1901  it 

in  France.     Of  his  works  devoted  exclusively  to  rheto-  was  purchased  by  Sir  Augustus  Webster,  a  descend- 

ric  and  poetry  mention  should  be  made  of  "Lee  "^*'  of  ite  former  owners.    Through  the  ei^tecnth 

Suatres  jx)6tique8  d'Aristote,  d'Horace,  de  Vida,  et  century  a  small  Catholic  congregation  continued  to 

e  Boileau"  in  two  volumes.  exist  at  Battle,  and  now  there  is  a  Catholic  church 

Critical  mention  of  Batteux  may  be  found  in:  Nkrdtoge  de*  and  a  resident  priest  in  the  tOWn. 

hommei  c^libret  de  France,  XWl;  Ann4e  liU^raire.  1780;  Scha»-  The  Chronicle  of  BciUU  Abbev,  1066-1170.  ed.  Lown  (Lon- 

LER,  OtBch,  der  ^atheWe;  Zxmmbrmakn,  Oeech.  der  JEalhetik,  don,  1861);   Chronxeon  MonaeL  de  Bella  in  Anglia  Chrietiana 

Q.  GlETMANN.  (London,  1846);  Dugdale.  M&ruuHcon  (London,   1821).  Ill, 

233-259;    CuatumaU    of    Battle    Abbey    1S83-131B    (Camden 

BattiSta,  Giovanni    Giuda    Giona    (his    original  Society.  1887),  New  Seriee,  XLI;  Duchbbs  op  Clbvblahd, 

name  was  Jehuda  Jona  Ben-Isaac)   b  of  JeTjish  S^^it^-^/SV^S'-tUti^^^Tfa*^ 

parents  at  Safed  m  Galilee,  on  the  28th  of  October^  folio  volumes. 

1588;  d.  at  Rome,  26  May,  1668.    As  a  Jewish  rabbi  Edwin  Burton. 
he  undertook  an  extensive  journey  through  Europe, 

and  it  was  durine  his  stay  in  Poland  that  he  was  Bauberger.  Wilhelm,  German  physician,  novel- 
converted  to  Gatholicism.  After  his  conversion  he  ist,  and  poet,  b.  at  Thannhausen  in  owabian  Bavaria, 
was  sent  by  the  King  of  Poland  on  a  mission  to  Gon-  3  March,  1809;  d.  at  the  same  place,  8  February, 
stantinople,  where  he  was  arrested  as  a  spy,  and  1883.  As  a  physician  he  was  ^leatly  esteemed  for 
narrowly  escaped  with  his  life  through  the  inter-  his  skill,  but  more  so  for  his  kmdliness  of  manner, 
vention  of  the  ambassador  of  Venice.  Later  he  His  fame  rests  chiefly,  however,  on  his  tales.  The 
<«Tnt  to  Italy,  where  he  taught  Hebrew  and  Aramaic  earliest  of  these,  ''Die  Beatushdhle ",  written  at  the 
«»t  the  Academy  of  Pisa  and  then  at  the  Propaganda  age  of  nineteen,  while  the  author  was  still  a  medical 
at  Rome.  Among  his  pupils  was  Giulio  Bartolocci,  student,  met  with  such  extraordinary  success  among 
who  is  indebted  to  his  learned  master  for  the  idea  all  classes  of  readers  that  Bauberger  published  aU 
and  plan  of  his  famous  work  "Bibliotheca  Magna  his  subsequent  tales  as  by  the  author  of  ''Die 
Habbinica".  Battista's  principal  work  was  the  Beatnsh6hle''.  He  drew  his  most  sucoemful 
translation  of  the  Gospels  from  Latin  into  Hebrew,  themes  from  history  and  legend.  His  recognised 
published,  with  a  preface  by  Glement  IX,  at  Rome,  model  for  the  spirit  and  tone  of  his  stories  was 
1668.  Christoph  Schmid. 

Rbt  in  Via.(  Diet,  de  la  Bible,  b,  t.;  Jewieh  Encyclopedia,  BauMrger    also    essayed    lyrical    and    dramatic 

tf.  V.  Bartolocci,                                t?  Y  1?   ArnvDm  compositions,  but  with  indifferent  success,  for,  along 

r,j^.£,.  ALBERT.  ^^^  ^^^^  ^y^^^  ^  ^^^^       ^^^^  bcautiful,  his  verae 

Battle  Abbey,  founded  by  William  the  Conqueror  contains  more  that  is  feeble  and  commonplace, 
on  the  site  of  the  Battle  of  Senlac  or  Hastings  (1066),  His  fame  as  a  writer  suffered  no  permanent  eclipse 
nearly  seven  miles  from  the  town  of  Hastings,  in  the  from  the  inferiority  of  his  poetry,  for  new  tales, 
(bounty  of  Sussex,  England.  The  building  was  begun  exhibiting  all  the  charm  of  his  early  work,  constant Iv 
in  the  following  year,  but  was  erected  on  such  a  great  appeared  to  redeem  his  dramatic  failures  or  half- 
scale  that  it  was  not  finished  till  the  reign  of  WiUiam  sucoeaeeB.    Bauberiger'a  literary  acUvitv  conUaued 


BAUDSAir                               351  BAUMaAETinER 

muJ)ated  until  his  death.    A  list  of  his  works  printed  ^9,xang9Xto»t,   Qallus   Jaqob,   a  Swiss  states- 

during  his  lifetime  is  found  in  Kehrein's  **  iLexicon  man,  b.  18  October,  1797,  at  Altst&tten,  Switzerland; 

der  kath.   Bichter,  Volks-  imd  Jugendschriftsteller  d.  12  July,  1869,  at  St.  Gallen.    After  attending  the 

im  19ten  Jahrhundert"  (1872),  I,  13,  and  a  complete  gymnasium  at  St.  Giallen  he  studied  law  at  Fribourg, 

list  of   lus   posthimious  works  in  the  ''Allgoimeine  Switserland,  and  at  Vienna.    From  1817  to  1819  he 

deutsche  Biographic",  XLVI,  232  sqq.  was  a  tutor  in  Hungaiy.     Returning  to  Vienna  in 

Heimdi^m,  Repertorium  der  P&dktocoik,  I,  ^.  1819,  he  WBS  arrested  there  after  the  murder  of 

Matthias  Leimkuhleb.  Kotzebue  by  Sand  on  the  false  suspicion  of  belonging 

Bandeau,  Nicolas,  Regular  Canon  and  economist,  *?  »  Swiss  political  society  and  was  expelled  from 

b.  at  Amboise,  France,  25  AprU,  1730:  d.  in  1792.  Jl^e  city  in  1820.    He  began  his  pohtical  career  as 

He  became  a  religious  of  the  Abbey  of  Chancelade,  keeper  of  the  archives  of  his  native  canton,  St.  Gallen. 

near  P^rigueux,  and  taught  theology  there  for  some  This  position  gave  him  the  opportunity  of  learning 

time.     It  was  there  that  he  wrote  his  "Anatyse  de  ^^e  topographv,  history,  laws,  and  legal  relations  of 

Touvrage  du  pape  Benott  XIV  sur  les  beatifications  the  canton     In  1822  he  was  made  official  secretary; 

et  canonisations^'  (Paris,  1769),  which  was  examined  i?  1825  he  became  a  member  of  the  great  council  of 

and  approved  by  the  pope  himself.     It  is  fotmd  in  t*^e  canton  and  was  appointed  chancellor. 

Migne^s  "Theologi»  Cursus  Completus"  (torn.  Ill),  ,0n  a,ccount  of  his  knowledge  of  business  he  was 

He  was  called  to  Paris  by  the  Archbishop  de  Beau-  selected,  m  1831,  for  the  position  of  Landammann, 

mont  and  there  he  gave  all  his  time  to  the  study  of  ^^  ^®^  magistrate  of  the  canton,  and  held  the  office 

economics.      In  1765  he  founded  a  periodical  ''^Les  ^til  1846.     During  his  administration  he  bent  all 

Eph^m^rides  du  citoyen "  in  which  he  attacked  the  ^»  energies  to  makmg  a  closely  united  republic  out 

principles  of  Quesnay  and  of  the  physiocratical  schod.  ^[  t^he  loosely  connected  cantons,  and  to  improving 

Soon  after,  he  accepted  and  defended  these  principles  t^e  Swiss  roads  and  water-ways.    Appointed  a  dele- 

and  became  one  of  their  most  notable  supporters.  &^^>  ^^  ^"^  time,  to  the  diet  at  Lucerne  he  endeav- 

In    1771   he  published  his  most  important  work,  oured  at  the  diet  to  brin^  about  a  reorganization  of 

"  Premiere  introduction  ilia  philosophic  ^(momique",  the  confederation.    He  wished  to  create  a  vigorous, 

in  which  he  expounds  the  doctrines  of  the  phyaocrat-  organicaUv  umted  repubhc  similar  to  that  of  the 

ical  school.    There  are  two  great  economic  factors,  Umted  Stetes,  retaramg  at  the  same  time  a  large 

nature  and  art;   and  there  are  three  kinds  of  art,  amount  of  independence  for  the  mdividual  cantons. 

fecund    or    productive,  which   consists    in  helping  Baiimgartner's  chief  opponents  in  carrying  out  this 

nature  to  give  the  most  abundant  production  possible  project  were  the  Gathohc  clergy,  for  he  aimed  to 

(hunting,  fishing,  breeding,  agriculture,  ete.);  sterile  separate  the  Church  entirely  from  Rome  and  to 

or  non-productive,  which  gives  to  these  proauctions  place  it  under  the  control  of  the  State.    He  was 

a  more  useful  or  pleasing  form  (industry,  commerce,  largely  influenced  by"Josephinism"  and  by  the  ideas 

etc.);   social  art,  which  gives  the  knowledge,  pro-  of  WeMenberg.                   ^        xu    t>.  .       .      #  ^l 

tection,  and  means  necessary  for  the  exercise  of  the  ^^  1832,  at  ms  suggestion,  the  Bishopnc  of  Chur 

productive   and    non-productive    arts   (instruction,  ^as  dissolved.     In  1834,  at  the  ao-called  Assembly 

reli^ous  worship,  protection,  administration).    Pro-  of  Baden,  he  mve  exprwsion  to  his  views  in  the  mo- 

ductive  art  is  the  most  important.  *io«^  ^  mtroduoed.    These  were,  that  ecclesiastical 

When  he  died  he  had  lost  the  use  of  his  faculties,  administration  of  law  be  placed  under  the  control  of 

B^des    the   works   already  mentioned,  he    wrote  the  State,  that  it  should  nave  direction  of  the  educa- 

"Id^esd'un  citoyen  sur  radministrationdes  finances  tion  of  the  clergy,  that  the  ecclesiastical  right  of 

du  roi"  (1763);  "Id^es  d*un  citoyen  sur  les  besoins,  patronage  should  be  hmited  and  that  the  pnvileees 

les  droits,  et  les  devoirs  des  vrais  pauvres"  (1765);  of  the  religious  orders  should  be  revoked.     When  his 

"  Let  tree  sur  les  ^eute8populaires"(l  768) ;  "Lettres  political    friends   in    1841    dissolved    the   monastic 

d'uzi   citoyen  sur  les  vingti^mes  et  autres  imp6te"  nouses  of  Aargau  by  force,  plimdered  them,  and 

(1768);    ''^Principes  dconomiques  de  Louis   501  et  drove  their  inmates  away,  he  saw  to  what  his  Church 

du    Cardinal   d'Amboise,  de   Henri  IV,  et  du  due  policy  would  lead.    Soon  after  this  he  changed  his 

de    Sully  sur  I'administration  des  finances"  (1776):  opmions  and  came  over  to  the  side  of  his  former 

"Chariea  V,  Louis  XII,  et  Henri  IV  aux  Fran^ais*'  opponents.    On  this  accoimt  he  had  to  retire  from 

(1787).  ^  position  as  Landammann,    In   1845  he  again 

MioNie.  Theohtriet  Curtut  CompUtut,  III;  Espinas,  Hiatoin  entered  the  diet  as  representative  of  the  Catholic 

dem  doeirine9  ieonomiqu€9;  Daxbb,  ColUctum  dM  pr»nc»|K>u«  P^ples'  party,  but  after  two  years  was  forced  out  by 

^''^*"'^^**'***                                         p  jjr  g  4 ^vAflE  *^®  victory  of  the  Liberals.    He  now  urged  the  views 

oAuvAQB.  ^£  ^j^g  Catholic  Church  in  the  press  and  in  popular 

Bandonin,  Michel,  Indian  missionMy,b.m  Quebec,  assemblies.    He  was  once  more  a  member  of  the 

Canada,  8  March,  1692,  entered  the  Societjr  of  Jesus  Swiss  federal  assembly,  1857-60,  and  became  again 

m  France  at  the  age  of  twenty-one,  am ved  m  Louisi-  Landammann  but  was  overthrown  in  1864. 

anA  (on  his  return  to  America)  m  1728;  d.  at  New  The  pi^sent  political  organization,   well-ordered 

Orleans  in,  or  after,  1768.    Shortiy  after  his  arrival  in  administration,  and  material  prosperity  of  the  canton 

Louisiana,  he  was  sent  to  the  Choctaw  Mission,  where  of  gt.  Qallen  are  due  to  Baumgartner's  public  labours; 

be  laboured  for  eighteen  years.    When  he  was  on  the  the  Catholic  Church  owes   to  him  especially  the 

eve  of  deriving  some  fruit  from  his  labours,  he  was  founding  of  the  Bishopric  of  St.  Gallen.    Besides  all 

re<»Ued  by  his  superior  to  New  Orleans,  owing  to  the  this  he  prepared  the  way  for  the  later  development 

disturbance  excited  by  the  English  among  the  In-  of  Switicerland  in  the  outUne  of  a  new  constitution 

diana  and  the  dangers  to  which  he  was  exposed.    He  for  the  confederation  which  he  drew  up.    After  his 

-wraa  Superior-General  of  the  Louisiana  Mission  from  defeat  in   1864,  Baumgartner  withdrew  altogether 

1749    until  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  from  that  from  public  life  and  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 

<^on^  in   1763.     When  that  untoward  event  took  the  history  of  his  native  canton.    The  resulte  of  his 

place.  Father  Baudouin  was  not  banished  from  the  researches  appeared  in  two  works  issued  by  him: 

eountry  as  his  fellow  Jesuits  were,  but  with  a  pension  "Die  Schwew  in  ihren  K&mpfen  und  Umgestaltun- 

of  three  or  four  hundred  francs  was  aUowed  to  re-  gen  von  1830-1850"   (4  vols.,  Zurich,  1853,  1866). 

main  in  the  colony,  a  planter  having  offered  the  aged  and  "Oeschichte  des  schweizerischen  Freistaats  und 

priest  a  home  on  his  ^te.  Kantons  St.  Gallen"    (2  vols.,   Zurich,   1868).    A 

fj^^:^^^%^^^:  tt/^'^SSJ?;  t^  third  volume  of  tbB  history  was  prepared  by  his  son, 

(London,  1847),  II.  Alexander,  from  the  papers  Baumgartner  left  at  his 

Edward  P.  Spillans.  death,  and  issued  at  Einsiedeln  in  1890.    A  biog- 


BAUVASO  352  lAtrBSBT 

raphy  of  Baumgartner  giving  full  detail  of  hia  life  has  distinguiBhed  prelates  of  his  age,  especially  of  Fraiv 

been  published  by  his  son  under  the  title:  "Gallus  ^ois  (Suxiinal  de  la  Rochefoucauld,  who  chose  him 

Jakob  Baumgartner  mid  die  neuere  Staateentwick-  as  his  spiritual  director,  and  of   Ren6  de  Rieux, 

lungderSchweiz"  (Freiburg,  Baden,  1892).  Bishop  of  Lfen,  who  entrusted  to  him  the  settle- 

Patrichtb  Sc^laobr.  ment  of  the  most  delicate  affairs  of  his  episcopate. 

Baunard*    Louis,    educator,    b.    at     BeUegarde  ^^.^y's  ^^"^J^P.^l  ^^^  theotogy  was  singih 

(Loiret),  France,  in  1828.    He  was  one  of  the  d^gy  r"/  P"^^^^'   ^^*  ^®  T"  "^  ^y,  points  top 
of  Orleans,  until  1877.  after  which  he  was  attachld       '^^^•'  ,.«w«nduemdulgence  excited  the  phan- 

to  the  CatAolic  University  of  Lille,  first  as  professor,  !fi*?^p"^^^J*'^  ^{J^  i^^^^^J  ^^]^  "^f^  ^  ^"^ 

and  later  as  rector.    No  CathoUc  university  profit^  ^^^IS^^'c^^'^i  f^  ^^^5*  *^^'  ^^^'^  ^^^^ 

more  by  the  Law  ot  1875  that  granted  freeW  of  ^^^^^  ^^^  Society  of  Jesus  of  teaching  lax  morality, 

higher  education.     The  transfer %f  the  State  Uni-  S^^.f  *i?n  °^^'^/^'^'i^  seventy  towards 

versity  from  Douai  to  Lille  did  not  retard  the  prog-  *¥°w^*^' »  s^Uf"}  ?^^  of  souls,  fufi  of  chanty  towards 

ress  of    the    CathoUc    institution.     Guided  by  its  "^®"'  prudent  m  the  mana^ent  of  affairs;  hence 

zealous  rector,  and  supported  by  the  active  clirity  ^  ."^  f^^  surpnsed  to  read  that  he  died  m  the 

of  the  manufacturers  ofNorth^i  France,  the  Urn-  ^^^IV"  r^  ^9^l^y*  ^^Bt  m  the  very  exercise  of  his 

versity  of  Lille  has  graduated  a  great  number  of  ^^}?^t!^^^^''^^^^''^'^.^^,?f  eighty^five. 

CathoUc    physicians,    lawyers,    and  business   men,  o^  lM)lw»li«d    works   are:    (1)    "ConstituUones 

Many  yoOng  priest^  also   have   been  prepared  at  §y^<«afe«-  diocesia  Leonensis,  a  Renato  de  Rieux 
LiUe  for  the  career  o!'  '      '  '           « •  »      « 
since  followed  as  profc 

and  boarding  schools.  xc;vxuaiv<m  ^^^^tuocD  ca4»i*  lu^  :]•  i.  •!.  j.*  j  i^^  ^/r  i  ^  ^  .  •  .  '  < 
those  who  intend  to  devote  themselves  to  manu-  Si**'^^^*?^^?" '?^l^il^,*^l"**y*®  *'.^*«^'** 
facturing  industries;  a  department  of  economics  ""P^  (Pans,  1634);  (3)  De  Sacmmentis  ac  Per- 
and  the  social  sciences  was  established  through  the  ^'^  P**™'  eanunque  digmtate,  obhgatiombus  m 
efforU  of  M.  Duthoit  for  the  development  of  the  i"^'  J"*,**  sacrarum  htteranim  testimonia,  SS.  Pa- 
social  principles  of  Catholicism;  finafiy  the  "uni-  trum  sententiw  Cam)nuin  ac  ConcUiorum  sanctjones, 
versity  extcMion",  a  sort  of  popular  circulating  «>«»  summanis.  mdice  dupbce,  uno  tractetuum  et 
university,  provides  for  lecturesHby  the  univerei^  SS^'^JS"'  •'*'?Si^^*^'*^*.•  ^,^  w?S®  I"?"^'?  ^"^ 
professora  ii  aU  the  industrial  centres  of  Northeii  P*^  g,*"^.  l.«^)  "»  ^"^KJ^I  '^^^^Vf  ^tl*"- 
France  ^**'''  eeclesiaaticis  '  (Pans,  1642),  m  foL;  (5)  "Nova 

Mgr.'  Baunard  received  U»e  degree  of  Doctor  of  •^5*^^T.?f*'^  '  I '"  ^^'T^  ^^V'    '^^'^'^ 

Letters,  in  1860;  in  the  two  theseTwhichhe  wrote  he  '^J^.^  ^Si'Z^'^  ^°V^  ^^"i'     .  p 

treated  of  the  o^gy  of  Plato  and  of  Theodulphus.  U^^Wv:4J^.1&^i^,  t  ^i-S^SiS^t'sSS^ 

Bishop  of  Orleans  m  the  time  of  Charlemagne;  both  thiqu»  delae.de  J.,  I,  ool.  1068. 

works  which  marked  the  beginning  of  a  literary  activ>  T>  B-  Basbett. 

ity  surpassed  by  few.     As  hagiographer  he  wrote  on        »._.._*    t„^=  ■!?_.«, , i?       u      _j-    i 

St.  Jolin  the  Apostle  (1869)^cr8t.*^Ambroee  (1871).  JS!?"«*S  ^^I^e*'tn"^',r«^i?''p   T^"^' 

He  wrote  the  biogrephies  of  Louise  de  MariUic,  the  Z^' Ai^^^S^lrT' a'^-  w^****  Pondich^ty, 

foundress  of  the  Daughters  of  Charity  (1898)    of  Tj^J^Ji^^'''  t'^'^.f^-^"^*'"'^'''^  P^'^""^'  '^1 

Madame  Bamt  (1876)7  foundress  of  ti&e  Udiik  of  ^rlS!^ ^^UVlE-V^^'f^llF^^^^   nt/^""! 

the  Sacred  Heart;  of  Vioomte  Annand  de  Melun  Coll««e  d«  la  Fldche    and  at  St.  Sulp.ce.    Ordboned 

(1880),   Cardinal   i>ie,   Bishop   of    Poitiem    (1886),  f^!^^:J^J^TfM^"f77V^^L^r^  "?   a7?'  '^' 

General  de  Sonis  (1890,  his  moat  successful  work)  f^^  ^laF'^u\uVl'  "P-  «^-^'^'   '» 

Cardinal  Lavigerie  (1896),  M.En>e8tLeli6vPe,  founds  if  !£^^  J!,?*- f  vi^°K^  a  promment  memter 

of  the  Little  Siste^  of  the  Poor  (1906),  and  M.  Irt^J?''*?  **'  Notabfes  of  Larupiedoc  m  1786 

V«u,  the  great  Christian  manufacture  (19b6).    The  ^Z.l^^'.r^^U^X.'^^J^  ^^^  fft 

French  refigioua  history  of  the  nineteenth  ientuiy  ^^KSi"^  ll!?«„^iI?Vh  *Tf      -f  «»«  of  «:'»' 

was  summ^ized  by  him  in  "Un  siAcle  de  I'Eglii  fi«rt  bishops  who  endorsed  the  "Exposition  of  Prw- 

de  France"  (1901).'^  He  contributed  notable  works  Zfe^"fl^«w''jlf^h*,"nI?L'i!4  ♦  ^l*'^   J   ^a 

of  religious  psychology  in  his  celebrated  books,  "Le  4^.^,'^„^  ,^''#i^L°1*'' ,Too  ^^o    •^'''''*^- 

doute  et  ses  •^ctimw"  (1865),  in  which  the  pages  ^^!Tf  ^  ^^"^t  "^^'  ^,  iY*fn *SSf^^**^' 

on  Jouffroy  wero  both  new  an^  surprising,  an<Pla  ^"*  f*  ^"?j:?!"  Robespierre  feU  (9  Tbermidor  . 

foi  et  ses  Victoires"  (1881-83).    Whate^  bis  sub-  S«  then  "stiwd  to  ViUemoison,  where  be  began  hi^ 

ject,  Mgr.  Baunard  was  always  an  "awakener  of  I'terary  career.    After  the  Concordat  of  1801  fiaiBset 

k)uk'^y  reason  of  his  delicite  litemry  conscien-  cheerfullv  resigned  his  see  into  the  hands  of  Pius  VI 1. 

tiousness  and  his  admirable  fecundity.      His  "Es-  ™  ¥*r  P'J^*'"**!  h"  appointment  to  one  of  the 

p6«inoe"  (1892)  throws  much  light  on  the  beginnings  "f'S'y-^^^'^n^'s  ''"^Napoleon  made  him  a  canon 

Sf  the  contemporary  religious  revival  an^  i^  ?k  ^tV ^^Z  ^^li"*' */i'^?f^'T?^*''* 5°"S*"^°' 

telligent  FrencfiBoen;  his  ^'L'6vangile  du  pwfvre-  the  Un,v  of  JVance  (1808).    Under  the  Resto- 

(19^)   appeared  op^wrtunely  dun^  a  piriod  of  ration,  he  be<ame  presic^ent  of  the  Umversity  Council 

^ial  unJ^  As  Zvewity  rectorTW-^unard  f^JZr  nf^RV^r^J}nlf^/,^^-l^^,,A  ^^ -^^^^ 

occupies  a  foremost  place  in  the  histciy  6!  the  Catho-  ^*??L,^J*^%.^*J^"£^„  \]^}Ih  '^a   **""«**■:  "^ 

lie  univereity  movement:  as  author,  he  coUected  ^f*R.,  li^/LJten.f.^  ,^^7«"^'°*°'"*^''^' 

much  important  material  for  the  re  igious  history  ©^  Bausset  were  Mueathed  to  8t  Sulpice 
of  modern  France                                              -«»     j        The  career  of  Bausset  as  educator  and  statesman 

nnnnnm  cin-rArr  dcscrves  HO  spccial  noticc;  he  was  guided  by,  more 

U110B0K8  uoTAU.  ^^^  ^^  guided,  the  policy  of  the  two  regim^  under 

Banny,  Etienne,  theologian,  b.  in  1564  at  Mou-  which  he  serv^.    From  his  pen  we  have,  besides 

zon,  Ardennes,  France;  d.  3  December,  1649,  at  Saint  several  minor  writings,  "Expose  des  principee  sur  le 

Pol  de  Lton.    He  was  admitted  into  the  Society  of  serment",  with  a  long  introcluction  by  Emeiy  (Paris, 

Jesus.  20  Julv,  1593,  and  after  teaching  humanities  1796);  "Notices  historioues"  on  Cardinal  Boisgelin 

and  rhetoric  ne  was  promoted  to  the  chair  of  moral  (Paris,  1804),  on  Legris-Duval  (Paris,  1820),  and  on 


and  holiness,  that  he  had  the  confidence  of  the  moet    suet   4v4que  de  Meaux"  (Paris,  1814,  1S19;  Ver 


B4UTAIir  353  BAVABIA 

nilles,  1S21;  Besanoon,  1847).    The  original  doeiH  of  the  province,  and  became  Guardian  of  Tezcuco 

mentfl  concerning  Fi^nelon  he  had  from  the  Abb6  twice  (1595  and  1606),  of  Tlateloloo  (1600),  and  of 

Emery,  Superior  of  Saint-Sulpioe.    Bossuet's  manu-  Tacuba  in  1605.    Although  bom  at  Mexico,  he  did 

seripta,  not  vet  purchased  by  the  National  Library,  not  at  first  care   to   familiarize   himself  with  the 

he  Dorrowecl  from  Lamy,  a  bookseller  into  whose  lanj^uage  of  the  Mexican  Indians  who  formed  the 

hands  thev  had  fallen.    Ine  puritv  of  his  style  won  for  mam  part  of  the  population  among  which  he  had 

Bauaset  the  decennial  prize  awarded  by  the  Institute  been  bom  and  raised.    He  looked  with  indifference 

of  France  to  the  best  biography.    Still,  that  verv  on  the  Nahuatl,  the  languajje  of  the  sb-called  Aztecs, 

purity  often  passes  into  a  tiresome  sameness  which  But   after    joining    the    Franciscans   and    becom- 

ufls  to  suggest  either  the  winning  qualities  of  Ftoe-  ing  acquainted   with  the  educational  work  going 

loo's  character  or  the  elevation  of  the  Eagle  of  on  through  the  Church  among  the  Indians  he  will- 

Meaux.    As  a   historian,   Bausset  fails  in   critical  ingly  listened  to  the  representations  of  older  mem- 

acumen  and  judical  impartiality.    His  "Histoire  de  bers  of  the  order,  and  soon  acquired  a  thorough 

F^nelon''  is  so  much  of  a  panegyric  that,  especially  in  knowledge  of  the  idiom.    A  number  of  his  works  are 

the  delicate  and  intricate  question  of  the  Quietist  known  by  title  only.    Ten  of  these  were  written  in 

uiovement,  it  needs  to  be  supplemented  and  cor-  the  Nahuatl  language,  previoiui  to  1607;  several  were 

rected  by  such  works  as  those  of  Qriveau  and  of  printed  at  Mexico. 

CixhmW.     It  is  said  that  the  "Histoire  de  Bossuet"  ,  Umoimx,  UiaUfria  teMABHca  Indiana  (fimshed  in  1599 

VM  vriftAn  lua  ury  riffoAt  o^mmat  thA  nftrfia litv  whM*h  ^^  ™*'  puhlwhed  by  Yeasbalceta.  Mexico.  1870);  Juan  de 

waa  wntten  as  an  onset  against  tne  pmiallty  wmcn  Tobqubmada.  Lot  veinU  y  uno  Li^ot  RituaUt  y  Monorchia 

BaUBBet  had  shown  to  F^nelon;  if  so,  BaUSSet  bad  a  Indiana  con  H  ongen  y  guemu  de    loa   Indiot  occidentalet 

strange  way  of  rehabilitating  the  subject  of  his  (fint  ejL.  MadnU  1618;  2d  ed.,  ibid.,  1726):  Pineuj.  ^pi^m* 

second  biography,  praising  Bossuet^s  Gafiicamsm  as  ^J^na^^^Ji^^^  ''if^'i^.^r^^n^cfJ't^rll: 

BoBBOet  himself,  tormented  m  his  last  years  h^  the  cbta.  BitiHogralia  mexicana  dd  Siglo  XVI  (Mexico,  1886). 

'"Defensio  cleri  gallicani",  would  not  nave  wished  Ad.  F.  Bandelier. 

it  praised.    Brunetidre  calls  Bausset's  ''Histoire  of 

fiosBuef  "la  phis  franchement  |;allicane  de  toutes".       Bavaria,  Ths  Kingdom  of. — ^I.  Political  ConsH- 

ViLLBXEVTB-BAmoBMONT,  NotUiB  hMtoriqus  WOT  le  Cardinal  tution,  Area.  Population,  etc, — ^The  present  Kingdom 

tefiilsTT^         ^'  DussAULT.  AnnaUB  luUra^,  ^^  Bavaria— named  after  the  German  tribe  called 

*    *      ■  J,T.  SoLLiEB.  Boiarii — has  formed,  since  1871,  a  constituent  part 

of  the  German  Kmpire.    It  is  an  independent  State 

Biatain,  Louis-EuGisNB-MARiE,  philosopher  and  of  the  confederation  with  special  rights;  its  rulers 

theologian,  b.  at  Paris,  17  February,  1796:  d.  there,  belong  to  the  Wittelsbach  dynasty,  Uie  head  of  the 

15  October,  1867.    After  a  course  at  the  Eoole  Nor-  Government  in  1907  being  Prince-Regent  Luitpold. 

msle,  where  he  was  influenced  by  Cousin  and  Jouf-  In  time  of  peace  the  king  or  his  representative  is 

froy,  be  became  (1819)  professor  of  phUoeophy  at  the  head  of  the  army;  in  time  of  war  the  emperor, 

Strasbuii^.    Three  years  later  he  took  up  the  study  as  head  of  all  the  forces,  has,  by  agreement,  the  con- 

ttf  medicme  and  finally  that  of  theology  and  was  trol.    As  the  second  state  (in  size)  of  the  empire 

ordained  priest  (1828).    As  durector  of  the  seminarv  Bavaria   has   six    representatives    in    the    Federal 

it  Strasbuijg,  he  at  first  won  distinction  by  his  work  Council  and  forty-eight  m  the  Imperial  Parliament 

in  spok)^ttc8,  especially  against  atheism  and  materi<>  Reichstag),   the  latter   deputies   being  chosen   by 

alian.    He  was  chiefly  interested,  however,  in  the  direct  vote.    In  its  present  form  Bavaria  consists 

problem  of  the  relations  between  faith  and  reason,  of  two  parts  of  unequal  size,  geographically  some 

^cemin^  which  he  accepted  the  views  of  Fideism  distance  from  each  other,  on  either  side  of  the  Rhine. 

and  Traditionalism,  and  reduced  to  a  minimum  the  It  has  an  area  of  29,283  square  miles,  and  a  popula- 

Wction  of  reason.     Divine  revelation,  he  claimed,  tion    (census  of   1    December,    1905)   of   6,254,372 

B  the  only  source  of  knowledge  and  certitude.    He  persons.    According  to  individual  declaration  of  belief 

tas  consecfuently  obliged  to  sign  (18  November,  1836)  4,608,469  persons,  or  70  per  cent  of  the  population, 

M  propoaitions  contaming  the  Catholic  doctrine  on  bek>ng  to  the  Catholic  Church;  1,843,123  persons,  or 

faiih  and  reason.    After  the  examination  at  Rome  28.3  per  cent  of  the  population,  are  adherents  of  the 

of  his  work,  "Philoeophie  du  christianisme"  (Paris,  Lutheran  and  Calvinist  confessions:  while  other  r^ 

i835),  Bautain  signed  (8  September,  1840)  sue  other  Ikpous  bodies  (Old-Catholics,  Irvingites,  Mennonites, 

propositions  differing  but  slightly  from  those  erf  1836.  ^thodists,  etc.)  have  but  a  small  following.     There 

rmaUjr,  in  obedience  to  the  Congregation  of  Bishops  are  in  Bavaria  56M0  Jews,  living  chiefly  at  Munich. 

tnd  Regulars,  he  promised  (26  April,  1844)  not  to.  Nurembea^,  and  Fttrth,  who  are  engaged  principally 

i€ach  that  the  existence  of  God,  the  spirituality  and  in  commercial  and  industrial  pursuits;  they  form  a 

unmortality  .of  the  soul,  the  principles  of  meta-  large  proportion  of   the  physicians,   lawyers,   and 

phyrics,  and  the  motives  which  make  revelation  uidges  of  the  coimtry.    The  German  population  of 

credible  are  beyond  the  reach  of  unaided  reason.  Bavaria  is  made  up  as  follows:  descendants  of  the 

Bwrtain  waa  appointed  Vicar-Gcjienil  of  Paris  (^860)  Boiarii,  living  in  Upper  and  Lower  Bavaria  and  in 

Palatinate;  Franconi- 
Thurindans,  and 
lain  ana  the  Red- 
province  bearing  their 
i  Palatinate^  a  mixed 

-— •  <MVACH^  ***»  *  «^*wu^»^     \'^*>  AW*'/*     — «-  f^*«*'«ww-  Twco  oi   xvuuuui  nuu   vnsriiiau   blood  havmg  their 

pbie  des  toia"   (ib.,  1860);  "La  Conscience"  (ib.,  home  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine.    The  difference 

^^)*  of  stock  is  evidenced  by  the  variety  of  dialects  and 

B£:5liT^'^;^i^'Sjr  provincial  <^^^^^  ^^^^Y  tbese  distinc 

iHmdmP,  Boaaven  in  BuUeHn  Crlk^,  5  April,  25  June.  1902.  tions  are  not  SO  marked  m  the  Cities. 
(TbeMlettfln  refer  to  Bftutain'sviflit  to  Rome  in  1840.)  Huft-        Outside   the  Rhenish  Palatinate   Bavaria  is  an 

TIB,  NommHaior,  III,  W9,  1?   A   p  /,«  elevated,  hilly  country.    It  is  bounded  on  the  south 

£j,  A.  rACE.  j^y  ^Yte  Alps,  on  the  east  by  the  mountains  called 

Baotistft,  Frat  Juan,  b.  at  Mexico,  1555;   date  the  Bohemian  Forest  (BOhmerwald),  and  on  the  north 

of  death  unknown,  but  probably  between  1606  and  by  the  ranee  called  the  Franconian  Forest  (Franken- 

1615.    He  joined  the  Franciscans  in  his  native  city,  wald),  while  the  various  ranges  called  Fichtelgebi — 


aad  tanriit  tbeolo^nr  and  metaphysics  at  the  convent    Spessart,  and  Rh6nffebirge  represent  isolated  dis- 
of  St.  Francis  of  Mexico.    He  was  also  a  definitor    tricts  of  larger  or  smaller  extent.    The  Rhine  Palati- 


BAVABIA 


354 


fiAVABIA 


nate  is  divided  by  spurs  of  the  Vosges  into  an  easteiiv 
and  a  westerly  half,  both  parts  bavins  a  fruitful  soil. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  Danube  and  tne  Rhine.  The 
former  enters  the  coimtry  at  Ulm  and  leaves  it  at 
Passau.  Under  ordinarv  conditions  it  is  navigable 
for  large  craft  below  Ratisbon.  Its  tributaries  in 
Bavaria  from  the  south  are  the  lUer,  a  stream  rich  in 
fishy  the  Lech,  the  Isar,  and  the  Inn;  from  the  north 
its  tributaries  are  the  W5mitz,  the  Altmtlhl,  the 
Regen,  and  the  Vils.  For  a  distance  of  about  fifty- 
three  miles  the  Rhine  forms  the  boundary  between 
the  Rhenish  Palatinate  and  Baden.  The  three 
Franconian  provinces  lie  in  the  valley  of  the  Main,  a 
stream  boroered  by  vineyards  and  much  used  for 
commerce  beyond  Bamberg.  Three  flourishing  Ba- 
varian cities  are  situated  on  its  banks:  Schwein- 
furt,  WUrzburg,  and  Aschaffenburg.  The  southern 
tributaries  of  the  Main,  which  leave  Bavarian 
territory  near  Ostheim,  are  the  Rc^^nitz  and  the 
Tauber;  the  northern  are  the  Rodach  and  the  Saale. 
Only  a  small  part  of  Lake  Constance  belongs  to 
Bavaria,  but  there  are  nimierous  lakes  in  Swabia  and 
a  still  larger  niunber  in  Upper  Bavaria.  Many  of 
these  bodies  of  water  are  noted  for  their  picturesque 
scenery,  such  as  the  Ammersee,  Alpsee,  WOrmsee, 
Tegemsee,  KOnigssee,  and  en)ecially  Chiemsee, 
known  as  the  ''Lake  of  Bavaria  '.  It  also  contains 
much  mineral  wealth:  iron,  coal,  granite,  basalt,  and 
salt,  of  which  last  there  is  a  large  yield  of  exodlent 
quality.  There  are  numbers  of  mineral  sprines, 
some  of  which  are  known  throughout  the  wond. 
Farming  in  lower  Bavaria  and  cattle-breeding  in 
Swabia,  Upper  Bavaria,  and  Middle  Franconla  are 
the  chief  occu(>ations,  while  the  wines  of  Franconia 
and  the  Palatinate  and  the  fruit  and  vegetables  of 
Bamberg  have  a  high  reputation.  Industrial  life 
centres  m  Nuremberg,  Fttrth,  Au^burg,  and  Lud- 
wigshafen.  As  a  centre  of  art  Mumch  holds,  without 
question,  the  highest  rank  in  Germany.  The  railwav 
hnes  have  a  length  of  about  3,700  miles,  to  which 
additions  are  constantly  being  made. 

No  expense  is  spared  in  advancing  education.  In 
1903-04  the  common  schools  cost  over  $7,500,000. 
The  Bavarian  troops  are  equipped  with  the  same  arms 
as  the  other  divisions  of  the  Impenal  German  army 
but  wear  a  different  uniform.  Tney  are  commanded 
by  native  eenerals  and  consist  of  three  army  corps 
which  are  divided  as  follows:  23  infantry  regiments, 
11  cavalry  regiments,  14  artillery  regiments,  2 
chasseur  regiments,  3  battalions  of  pioneers^  3  trans- 
portation Imttalions,  and  1  railway  battahon.  In- 
eluding  all  the  reserves  the  Bavarian  army  numbers 
over  200,000  men.  The  annual  cost  of  the  army  is 
$20,000,000. 

II.  Early  History. — ^The  early  history  of  Bavma 
varies  according  to  the  p];ovince  in  question:  the  races 
that  now  live  peacefully  together  under  tne  rule  of 
the  Wittelsbach  dynasty  were  once  constantly 
engaged  in  bloody  feuds.  A  thousand  years  ago 
the  Bavarian  domain  included  what  is  now  Upper 
and  Lower  Austria  and  the  Alpine  provinces  of  the 
Tyrol  and  Styria.  (See  AusTRO-HuNaARiAN  Mon- 
archy.) The  Palatinate  was  united  with  Bavaria 
proper  through  its  rulers;  on  the  extinction  (1778)  of 
the  youn^r  (Bavarian)  branch  of  the  Wittelsl^h 
line  the  euler  (Palatinate)  branch  became  the  reign- 
ing house  of  electoral  Bavaria.  Before  the  changes 
caused  by  the  French  Revolution  and  the  disappear- 
ance of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  (1803  and  1819) 
those  parts  of  Franconia  and  Swabia  whidi  now 
belong  to  Bavaria  enjoyed  a  more  or  less  independent 
existence,  such  as  Ansbach-Bayreuth,  the  Arch- 
bishoprics of  WOrzbur^,  Bamberg,  Eichst&tt,  Augs- 
burg, etc.,  the  free  cities  of  Augsbiu^,  Nuremberg. 
Schweinfurt,  Kempten,  etc.,  the  prmcipaiities  of 
CasteU  and  Oettingen,  the  possessions  of  the  Counts 
of  Orttenburg,  Gi€^,  etc.    Only  the  most  important 


pariods  in  the  histoty  of  the  Duchy  and.  later.  Elect- 
orate of  Bavaria  can  be  touched  on  in  this  article. 

The  Boiarii,  apparently,  were  either  relat^  to 
the  Marcomanni  or  else  identical  with  that  people 
who,  after  the  Romans  had  been  driven  out  of  the 
r^on  in  the  fifth  oentunr,  began  to  spread  from  the 
ri^t  bank  of  the  Danube  and  gradually  extended 
their  control  as  far  as  the  River  Lech  and  deep  into 
the  Alpine  region.  The  chiefs  of  the  Boiarii  belonged 
to  the  family  of  the  Af^ilolfings  who  chose  Ratisbon 
at  an  eari^r  date  as  their  papitaL  Duke  Garibald  I, 
who  lived  in  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century,  seems 
to  have  had  the  power  of  a  sovereign.  His  dauffhter, 
Theodelinda,  bebiune  Queen  of  the  Lan«)oaidi. 
Her  brother,  Tassilo  I,  was,  however,  obOged  to 
acknowledge  the  supremacv  of  the  Franks  which 
his  son,  Garibald  II,  was  able  to  throw  off  for  a  time 
(about  680).  But  this  independence  was  of  short 
duration.  The  Franks  under  Charles  Murtel  acain 
subdued  his  descendants.  When  Tassilo  II,  who  had 
done  much  to  further  the  spread  of  Christianity  and 
dvilisation  in  the  direction  of  Eastern  Europe, 
sought  to  regain  his  lost  independence  he  was  deposed 
andsent  to  a  monastery. 

Bavaria  now  became  a  Frankish  province  ruled 
by  representatives  of  the  Frankish  king  (794).  It 
came  into  greater  prominence  when  Louis  the 
German,  who  had  received  the  eastern  part  of  the 
Frankish  kingdom  by  the  Treaty  of  Verdim  (843), 
made  his  resiaence  in  Bavaria.  '  His  grandson  Amulf , 
Duke  of  Carinthia,  was  crowned  emperor  in  896. 
One  of  his  relatives,  Mararave  Luitpold,  who  fell  in  a 
battle  (906)  against  the  Ma^ars,  is  r^arded  as  the 
first  of  the  line  of  Scheyren-Wittelsbacn.  Upon  the 
extinction  of  the  Cariovingian  dynasty  Amulf, 
son  of  Leopold,  claimed  the  position  of  a  sovereign 
prince.  This  involved  him  in  war  with  Henry  I  the 
Saxon,  King  of  Germany,  whose  partlv  successful 
attempt  to  oonc^uer  Amulf  was  completed  by  Otto  1 
After  the  deposition  of  Eberhard  I,  the  elder  son  ot 
Duke  Amult  (939),  Bavaria  no  longer  had  native 
bom  rulers  but  Saxons,  Franconians,  and  membe.5 
of  tihe  Welf  fiunily  who  raled  as  vassals  of  the  king 
with  the  title  of  duke.  Not  until  £mp«x>r  Fred- 
erick I,  in  1180,  rewarded  Otto  of  Wittelsbach  for  his 
coura^  by  granting  him  Bavaria  did  a  genuine 
Bavarian  ascend  the  throne  of  his  fathers.  Otto 
and  his  energetic  successors  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  future  importance  of  Bavaria. 

In  1214  tne  Rhine  Palatinate  was  united  to 
Bavaria.  Louis  II  (1253-94)  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Louis  III  (known  as  Emperor  Louis  IV 
of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire)  who,  by  an  agreement 
in  1329  at  Pavia,  took  Bavaria  proper,  living  to 
Rudolph,  his  brother,  the  Rhine  Palatinate.  The 
l^urge  possessions  which  Louis  III  secured  for  his 
funilv  (Holland,  Brandenbui:^,  the  Tyrol,  etc.) 
were  lost  to  his  suecessors  by  discord  and  successive 
partitions.  Albert  IV,  however,  reunited  the  countTT 
mto  one  dom^n  and  secured  it  against  further 
division  by  his  law  of  150&.  His  son  William  IV 
(1608-60)  and  his  grandson  Albert  V  (1650-79 
prevented  Lutheran  and  Anabaptist  doctrines  fron 
entering  Bavarian  territory.  During  the  reign  of 
William  V  (1579-98)  and  still  more  during  the  reien 
of  MaximiHan  I  (1598-1661),  Bavaria  stood  at  the 
head  of  the  counter-Reformation  and  the  Catholic 
League.  To  these  two  rulers  it  was  due  that  the 
progress  of  the  Reformation  was  checked,  and  that 
some  of  itke  territoiy  which  had  been  affected  by  it 
was  restored  to  the  (jhiu'ch.  The  Emperor  Ferdinand 
II  granted  Duke  Maximilian  of  Bavana  for  his  loyalty 
the  electoral  dignity  (1623).  Bavaria  paid  a  bitter 
price  for  its  newjposition  in  the  devastations  of  the 
Thirty  Years'  War.  Ferdinand  Maria  (1651-79) 
sought  to  restore  the  prosperity  of  the  country,  but 
affam  were  thrown  into  confusion  during  the  reigufi 


BAVABIA  355  BAVABIA 

of  his  Bon,  Maximilian  Emanuel  (1679-1726),  con-  never  dearly  .explained,  in  the  Stambei^gersee.    Ai 

Queror  of  the  Turks,  and  of  his  grandson  Charles  his  brother  Otto  was  mentally  incapable  of  ruling, 

Albert  (1726-45)  by  the  wars  of  the  Spanish  and  Luitpold  (b.  12  March,  1821)  continued  in  his  office 

Austrian  successions.    It  was  not  until  the  reign  of  of  regent.    Bavaria  has  prospered  greatly  imder  his 

the  Elector  Maximilian  (Joseph)  III  (1745-77)  that  wise  rule;  his  great-f;rand8on  Luitpold,  assures  the 

order  was  again  restored.    During  this  reign  the  succession  in  his  line. 

JcBuita  were  suppressed  (1773).  III.  Introduction  of  Christianity, — ^The   CSuistian 
MaYimilian  was  the  last  of  the  younger  branch  of  faith  was  probably  first  introduced  into  Bavaria, 
the  Wittelsbach  line.    After   his  death  the  elder  both  on  the  Danube  and  on  the  Rhine,  Ig^  Roman 
(Palatinate)  branch  of  the  family  succeeded  to  the  soldiers  and   merchants.    [Cf.  Huber,  ''Geschichte 
throne  in  the  person  of  the  art-loving  Charles  Theo-  der  EinfOhnmg  und  Verbreitung  des  Christenthums 
dore  (1778-99),  under  whom  a  papal  nunciature  was  in    Sadosten    Deutschlands"    (Salzburg,    1874-76), 
established  at  Munich  (1785).    The  last  years  of  4    vols.j      Hefele,    "Geschichte     der    EinfOhrung 
Charies  Theodore  were  embittered  by  many  misfor-  des  Christenthums  im  sildwestJichen  Deutschlandr' 
tunes.    The  young  French  Republic  took  from  him  fTabingen,  1837).]    In  the  earliest  ages  of  the  Church 
the  territory  on  the  other  side  of  the  Rhine  and  he  Augusta  Vindeliconun  (Augsburg)   was  famous  on 
had  to  endure  many  humiliations  from  his  subjects,  account  of  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Afra  and  her  com- 
Up  to  this  time  Bavaria  had  been  entirely  a  Catholic  panions;  Ratisbon  had  also  its  confessors  and  the 
countnr.    New  conditions  arose  when  Maximilian  IV  same  may  be  said  of  Speyer.     But  it  was  not  until  the 
(Joeeph)  ascended  the  throne  (1799).    This  ruler  was  ehd  of  the  German  migrations  and  the  establishment 
twice  married    to   Protestants;   non-Catholics  were  of   more   orderly   conditions   in    the   Merovingian- 
zranted  the  same  political  rights  as  Catholics,  and  Carlovingian   Empire    that   Christianity   took   firm 
Lutheran   services    allowed    at    the    capital.    The  root.    As  is  well  known,  at  first  Irisn,  and  later 
Government   proceeded   with   severity   against   all  Prankish  and  Ajiglo-Saxon  missionaries  sowed  tlie 
forms  of  Catholic   religious  life.    The  number  of  seed  of  the  Gospel  in  the  hearts  of  the  rude  warriors 
churches  which  were  dismantled  or  profaned  at  this  whose  life  until  then  had  been  given  to  fighting, 
time  is  hardly  credible;  treasures  of  art  of  earlier  days  hunting,    gambling,    and    drinkine.     Among    these 
were  sold  for  a  mere  pittance  or  shamefully  treated;  missionaries  were:  St.  Kilian  and  his  pupils  Colonat 
whole  wagonloads  ot   books  and  documents  were  (Coloman)  and  Totnan  at  Wilrzburg;  in  the  Alpgau 
burned  or  thrown  into  the  river;  professorial  pod-  region  St.  Magnus;  at  Ratisbon  and  Freising  St. 
tions  filled  by  avowed  opponents  of  all  religions;  and  Rupert^  St.  Emmeram,  and  St.  Corbinian.    Stricter 
an  extravagant  and  fnvolous  luxury  became  the  rej^ulations  were  introduced  by  Winfrid  (St.  Boniface) 
fashion  at  Court.    In  1805  Bavaria  entered  into  an  who  is  in  truth  entitled  to  the  name  of  t^e  "  Apostle 
Alliance  with  Napoleon  against  Austria  and  Russia,  of  the  Germans".    The  Dioceses  of  fSreising,  Katis- 
In  return  for   this  the   victorious   Corsican  made  bon,  Passau,  WOrzbur^,  and  Eichstfttt  were  either 
Bavaria  a  kingdom  (1  January,  1806).    As  a  member  established  or  reorgamzed,  while  the  founding  of 
of  the  Rhenish  Confederation  Maximilian  (Joseph)  IV  monasteries  made  it  possible  to  train  the  priesthood 
foudit  against  Prussia  in  1806,  against  Austria  in  properly  and  to  raise  the  spiritual  and  moral  level 
18C9,  and  against  Russia  in  1812.    Thirty  thousand  of  the  laity.    When  Boniface  was  created  Archbishop 
Bavarian  troops  died  in  Russia,  victims  of  the  climate  of  Mainz  (747)  Augsburg  and  Constance  became  his 
or  of  encounters  with  the  Cossacks.    After  the  battle  suffragans,  having  previously  belonged,  respectively, 
of  Leipzig  Bavaria  joined  the  Allies  at  the  right  mo-  to  Aquileia  and  B^an^on.    After  Charlemagne  had 
uient,  80  that  it  was  able  to  retain  the  greater  part  of  overthrown  the  native  ruUns  family,  the  Aguolfine;s, 
its  territory.    After  the  chancellor.  Count  von  Mont-  Pope  Leo  III  erected  (798)  the  new  province  of  Salz- 
gelas,  had  retired  from  office   (2  February,  1817)  burg  to  which  Ratisbon,  Freising,  Passau,  and  Seben 
efforts  were  made  to  restore  former  conditions  and  (Brixen)  in  what  is  now  the  l^^l,  were  attached, 
that  same  year  a  Concordat,  which  is  still  operative,  But    the    first   mentioned    dioceses   together   with 
was  made  with  the  Roman  Curia;  the  next  year  the  Neuburg,  which  in  a  short  time  disappeared,  were 
king  granted  a  constitution   which  has  produced  left  dependent  on  Mainz.    With  some  changes  of 
9ood  results  in  every  respect.  names  and  boundaries  thes^  are  still  in  existence. 
During  the  reign  of  the  King  Louis  I  (1825-48)  The  Diocese  of  Bamberg,  later  formed  from  the 
the  Church  prospered  greatly;  old  cathedrals  were  existing  provinces,  was  not  a  suffragan  of  Mainz  but 
restored;  new  churches  and  monasteries  founded;  was  directly  dependent  on  the  Apostolic  See.    The 
and  painters  and  sculptors  came  in  large  numbers  small  Diocese  of  Chiemsee,  founded  in  1206,  was 
to  Munich  where  they  found  profitable  employment,  always  dependent  on  Salzburg;  it  was  suppressed  at 
The  colossal  figure  of  Bavaria,  the  Hall  of  Fame,  the  the  be^nnin^  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
Walhalla,  the  Hall  of  Freedom,  and  the  basilica  of        IV.  EcdesuMtical  Divisions — ^The  present  ecclesi- 
Sc  Boniface   keep   alive   the  memoiy  of  Louis  I,  astical  divisions  of  Bavaria  rest  upon  the  Bull  of 
the  gr^test  ruler  in  the  history  of  Bavaria.    The  Circumscription  issued  by  Pope  Pius  VII,  1  Aprfl, 
revolutionary  movement  of  1848  compelled  Louis  1818,  and  made  public,  23  September,  1821.    Accord- 
to  abdicate.     His  son,  Maximilian  II  (1848-64).  a  ing  to  this  Bavaria  is  divided  into  the  two.  church 
well-meaning  but  weak  ruler,  did  much  to  further  provinces  of  Munich-Freising  and  Bamberg;  the  first 
learning,  especially  in  the  domain  of  history;  he  was  archdiocese  has  for  suffragans  Augsburg,  Passau, 
not  fortunate,  however,  in^  the  men  he  selected  to  and  Ratisbon;  the  suffragans  of  the  second  are  Wdrz- 
fiU  professorships  and  on  this  account  lost  popularity  burg,  Speyer,  and  Eichst&tt.    The  Ministry  of  the 
with  his  Catholic  subjects.    His  successor,  the  vision-  Interior  for  Worship  and  Education  has  charge  of 
ary  Louis  II  (1864-86),  ascended  the  throne  at  the  the  interests  of  the  Crown  and  State  in  their  relations 
age  of  eighteen.    The  civil   war  of   1866  obliged  to  the  Catholic  Church  of  the  country;  this  ministry 
Bavaria  to  make  great  sacrifices.    Four  years  later  is  the  chief  State  guardian  of  the  various  religious 
the  Bavarian  army  took  an  honourable  part  in  the  and  charitable  endowments  and  is  aided  therein  by 
FraDoo-Oerman  war,  and  in  1871  Bavaria  became  a  the  civil  authorities  of  the  governmental  districts, 
member  of  the  new  German  Empire.     During  the  A  court  of  administration  has  been  in  existence  since 
le^  of  Louis  n  special  encouragement  was  given  1878  which  has  control  over  various  matters  relating 
to  architecture   and  industrial  art.    The  growing  to  religious  societies   (among  others,  the  religious 
insanity  of  the  king  necessitated  the  appointment  of  training  of  children).     Cf.  Silbernagl,  ''Verfassune 
Prince   Leopold  as  "regent  of  the  ku^dom",  and  und  Verwaltung  s&mmtlicher  Religionsgenossenscha^ 
Qot  long  after  Loub  met  his  death,  m  a  manner  ten  in  Bayem     (4th  ed.  Ratisbon,  1^);  Schlecht| 


BAVABIA  356  BAVABIA 

"B&y&mB   Kirchenprovinzen,   ein   TJeberUick  Qber  bera  in  79  houses  and  1,087  dependencies.    With  a 

Qeechichte  und  gegenwftrtigen  Bestand  der  kathol-  few  exceptions  the  female  religious  devote  themselves 

ischen  Kirche  imICdnigreich  Bayem"  (Munich,  1902).  to  teachmg  and  nursing.    There  are  in  Bavaria  over 

The  boundaries  of  tne  dioceses  do  not  agree  with  1,000  Protestant  parishes  with  1,400  pastors  and 

the  boundaries  of  the  political  divisions  except  in  the  assistant  preachers.    In  1903  the  Catholic  Church 

case  of  Wiirzburg  (Lower  Franconia)  and  of  Speyer  funds,  including  real   estate,   amoimted   to  about 

(Rhine  Palatinate).    The  Archdiocese  of  Bamberg  $42,500,000;  the  funds  of  the  Protestant  denomina- 

extends  across  Bavaria  from  WOrtemberg  to  Bohemia  tions  to  $5,000,000.    As  the  revenues  from  the  church 

and  Saxony;  the  territory  of  the  suffragan  Diocese  of  funds  are  often  not  sufficient  to  keep  the  church 

WOrsburg  stretches  beyond  the  boundaries  of  the  buildings,  etc.,  in  repair,  a  number  of  cities  have 

country.  Eichstfttt  includes  parts  of  Middle  Franconia,  decidedto  impose  a  church  tax,  which  so  far  has  been 

the  Upper  Palatinate,  Upper  Bavaria,  and  Swabia.  moderate.    [Ci.  Geiger.  ''Taschenkalender  fOr  den 

Ratisbon  is  the  largest  diocese;  it  includes  not  only  katholischen  Kierus'"  (Katisbon,  1907),  as  to  thesa^ 

the  greater  part  of  the  Upper  Palatinate  but  also  aries,  pensions,  and  ranking  of  the  cler^.] 
muls  of  Upper  and  Lower  Bavaria,  as  well  as  Upper        VI.  Education  and   Charitable   Institutunu. — ^The 

Franconia.    The  Archdiocese  of  Munich-Freising  em-  school  system  consists  of  public  schools,  continuation 

braces  besides  the  greater  part  of  Upper  Bavaria  a  and    technical    schools,    gvmnasia    with    clasdcal 

part  of  Lower  Bavaria,  chiefly  included  in  the  suf-  courses,  J^eal^r/mna^ia  (no  Greek),  Realschiden  (high- 

fraffan  Diocese  of  Passau.    The  Diocese  of  Augsburg,  schools  without  Latin  and  Greek),  Oberrealschwen 

includes  the  whole  of  Swabia  and  the  western  judicial  (gymnasia   Ivith   no   Latin   or   Greek,    which  pre- 

districts  of  Upper  Bavaria;  in  the  north  it  extends  pare  for  the  technical  schools),  commercial  schools, 

well  into  Middle  Franconia.  seminaries  for  teachers,  lyceums,  3  universities,  a 

V.  Church    Statistics. — According    to    the    "Zeit-  technical  high-school,  etc.     Except  in  rare  cases  the 

schrift    des    kOniglichen    bayerischen    statistischen  primary  schools  are  diiefly  denominational.    The 

Bureau"  (1906,  nos.  2  and  3)  the  Catholic  population  middle  and  highnschools  are  used  by  all  denomina- 

of  the  various  districts  was  as  follows: —  tions.    Religious  instruction  is  provided  for  these 

TT**.x^«  n<..,«»:»  1  OQQ  Q-TO  schools  as  well  as  for  the  primary  ones.    Theimiver- 

L^^r  B^S  a 700  118  ®*^^^  **  Munich  and  WOrzbure  have  Catholic  theo- 

Rhine  Palatinate  '    !    !    .'    .'    !    !     39i;200  logical  faculties.    There  w^^^ 

TTr.,^  P^.fjno*^  «n^  R.f iahnn  A9J.  OM  ^hc  training  of  pneets_  ca  led^  the  Georgianum  and  the 


Upptt-  Palatinate  and  Ratisbon  .    .  525,933  ^^l  n^^"*  "\*lir  ajj^n^  ^ 

Upper  Franconia 316  545  *^®  provinc^  have  similar  ™titutions,  generally  in 

ii!Xii«  V«»J21^  007  110  connexion  with  lyceums.     Following  the  directions  of 

Middle  Franconia 227,119  the  Council  of  Tfent  there  are  in  all  the  dioceses  semi- 


teia^^Neubiiig'    :    ;     :     :    :     6^;2^  naries  for  boys  (pe«ite«^7ntnatre«)whi^^ 

^TTAMio  cMivi  x^cukpui^ ^j^y,,  w  to  prcparc  youtlis  without  mcans  to  study  itt  thc  gyui- 

A  RFA  ARQ  uasia.    In  Munich  the  total  number  of  university 

4,ooo,w»  instructors  is  250;  in  WUrzhurt,  158;  in  Eriang«n, 

In  the  Rhine  Palatinate,  Upper  Franconia,  and  100;  in  the  technical  high-school,  100.    In  the  other 

especially   in    Middle    Franconia   the   non-Catholic  institutions  the  number  of  teachers  is  correspondingly 

population  is  decidedly  in  the  majority,  namely:  smaller. 

Rhine  Palatinate,  479,694;  Upper  Francoma,  362,519;  The  attendance  of  students  at  Munich  is  bef^ween 
Middle  Franconia,  623,546.  In  Upper  Bavaria,  5,000  and  6,000;  at  WOrzburg,  1,400.  The  studenta 
Lower  Franconia,  and  Swabia  the  Protestants  num-  at  the  technical  high-school  number  about  3,000:  the 
ber  over  100,000  persons,  while  in  the  Upper  Palati-  academy  of  fine  arts  and  the  academy  of  music  nave 
nate  the  figiires  are  hardly  half  as  large.  In  Lower  each  300  students.  In  1904  the  lyceums  had  about 
Bavaria  there  are  not  over  lOXMX)  non-CathoUcs.  1,000  matriculated  students.  Some  of  the  gymnasia, 
Rapid  growth  is  reported  in  the  Catholic  parishes  of  such  as  that  of  St.  Stephen  at  Augsburg  and  those  at 
Nuremberg  (90,000),  Au^burg  (70,000),  Eriangen,  Metten  and  MUnnerstadt,  are  in  cha^ee  of  members  of 
Schweinfurt,  and  Memmineen;  the  Protestant  par-  the  regular  orders  (Benedictines  ana  Augustinians). 
ishes  have  increased  in  population  in  Munich  (80,000),  The  majority  of  the  professors  are,  however,  laymen. 
Wtirzburg  (16,000),  Aschaffenburg,  Ingolstadt,  and  In  Bavaria  for  various  reasons  relatively  more  Protes- 
Fordiheim;  while  in  the  Catholic  provinces  Protestant  tants  than  Catholics  study  the  higher  branches,  con- 
churches  and  chapels  are  rapidly  springing  up.  The  sequently  the  non-Catholic  professors  neariy  everr- 
same  can  hardly  oe  said  of  Catholic  churches  in  the  where  equal  in  number  those  of  the  Catholic  Faith. 
Protestant  districts,  although  more  has  been  done  This  condition  of  affairs  has  been  somewhat  changed 
in  this  direction  lately  than  in  former  years  and  a  by  the  labours  of  the  Albertus-Magnus  Verein  as 
few  parishes  like  Wunsiedel,  Hof ,  and  Weissenburg  well  as  by  the  work  of  the  associations  and  leagues 
here  and  there  possess  creditable  churches.  The  of  Catholic  students.  EfforU  have  also  been  made 
establishment  of  the  Boniface  Verein  might  have  to  increase  the  number  of  progj/mnasia  (without 
proved  very  helpful  in  this  respect  and  would  have  higher  classes)  in  certain  OEitholic  districts;  the 
counteracted  the  efforts  of  the  Gustavus-Adolphus  Protestant  districts  are  better  equipped  with  such 
Verein;  but  a  false  respect  for  King  Louis  I  (foimder  schools. 

of  the  Ludwig-Mission  Verein,  which  is  exclusively        Bavaria  is  well  supplied  with  institutions  for  the 

Bavarian)  has,  ih  spite  of  all  efforts,  prevented  its  care  of  the  sick,  the  crippled,  children,  and  old  people 

establishment  in  the  kingdom.  Many  of  these  foundations  are  largely  endowed  and 

Every  diocese  has  a  cathedral  chapter  which,  date  back  to  the  earlier  centuries.  In  the  Catbohc 
according  to  the  Concordat,  besides  choir-service  benevolent  institutions  members  of  the  religious 
acts  as  a  council  for  the  bishop.  These  chapters  orders  of  both  sexes  are  active;  the  Protestant  in- 
include  a  provost,  dean,  a  number  of  canons,  and  stitutions  are  served  by  deaconesses.  There  are 
curates.  In  Munich,  besides  the  chapter  there  is  a  also  institutions  in  which  ooth  faiths  are  represented, 
collegiate  foundation  of  court  preachers  (St.  Cajetan)  as  the  hospital  at  Augsburg,  where  patients  of 
similarly  organized.  At  the  close  of  1904  there  were  both  denominations  are  cared  for  by  Catholic  and 
3,022  parishes  served  by  3,144  parish  priests  or  curates,  Protestant  sisters.  At  Munich  there  are  only  siBters 
and  2,578  vicars  and  chaplains;  there  were  also  1,985  of  the  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  and  at  Nureno- 
regular  cler«r  (Benedictines,  Franciscans,  Carmelites,  berg  deaconesses,  although  in  both  places  the  pep- 
Capuchins)  living  in  86  monasteries  and  hospices,  centage  of  patients  of  other  faiths  is  large.  The 
The  orders  for  women  had  at  that  date  12,586  mem-  clergy  of  the  different  faiths  exercise  their   office 


BAWmV  357 

i 

undisturbed  in^the  hospitals  of  both  cities.  Of  the  Gesohichte  der  Stadt  Speyer''  TStrasbuig)  1885); 
other  humanitarian  associations  mention  should  be  Molitor  ''Urkundebuch  bezOgUch  zur  Geschichte 
made  of  the  Gesellenverein  which  gives  traveillng  der  Stadt  Zweibrticken "  (Zweiorttcken,  1888).  For 
journeymen-mechanics  an  opportunRy  for  further  the  history  of  Franconia:  Stein,  "Geechichte  Frank- 
education.  In  nearly  all  the  larger  towns  it  has  ens"  (Schweinfurt,  1883-86),  2  vols.  For  the 
lod^ng-houses  and  in  a  few  places  large,  wdl-  history  of  Swabia:  Braun,  ''Geschichte  der  BischOfe 
equipi^d  homes.  Woridngmen's  Unions  endeavour  von  Augsbui^"  (Augsburg,  1813),  4  vols.;  Steichele, 
to  counteract  the  tendencies  of  the  Social  Democrats;  ''  Das  Bisthum  Augsburg,  historisch  und  statistisch 
citizens' and  voters'  associations  strive  to  send  to  the  beschrieben"  (Augsburg,  1864-94),  6  vols.,  continua- 
Bavarian  as  well  as  to  the  Imperial  Parliament  tion  by  Schr5der;  Baumann, ''Geschichte  des  Alg&u" 
representatives  of  pronouncedly  Christian  principles.  (Kempten,  1880-94),  3  vols. 

Civil  Status  of  the  Church. — The  relations  of  Church  .  Pros  Wittmann. 

and  State  are  settled  in  ^  important  points  by  the 

Concordat  and  the  Constitution  [cf.  Silbern^,  op.  ,  Bawden    (or    Baldwin),   Wiluam,   an    English 

dt.;  Idem,  "I^ehrbuch  des  katholischen   Kmjhen-  Jesuit,  b.  at  Cornwall,  1663:  d.  at  St.-Omer,  28  Sep- 

rechts"  (Ratisbon,  1903),  4  vols.;  Gir6n  y  Areas,  "La  tember,  1632.    Father  Bawden  studied  for  five  years* 

8ituaci6n  jurfdica  de  la  Iglesia  en  kw  diversos  estados  ^^  Oxford  and  later  spent  some  time  at  Douay  Col- 

deEuropayde  America '^(Madrid,  1905)].     Although  lege,  from  whence  he  went  to  Reims,  arriving  at  the 

the  promises  made  the  Holy  See  were  not  kept  in  all  latter    institution    31    December,    1582.      Leaving 

particulars,  for  instance  in  the  early  seventies  of  the  Reims,  he  went,  13  August,  1583,  to  Rome  and  in  the 

nineteenth  century,  yet,  taken  altogether,  conditions  English  College  at  that  city  he  completed  his  studies 

are  satiefactory;  this  is  owing  largely  to  the  strong  'or  the  priesthood  and  was  ordained  priest  16  April, 

religious  feeling  of  the  reigning  dynasty,  once  more  1586.     After  his  ordination  he  ^rved  one  year  a^ 

thoroughly  Catholic.    The  Catholic  Church  has,  how-  Enghsh  penitentiary  at  St.  Peter's,  when  his  health 

ever,  no  special  privileges.     It  is  on  the  same  foot-  fajled.     He  next  went  to  Belgium  and  in  1590,  on 

ing  as  the  Lutheran,  the  Reformed,  and  the  Greek  joining  the  Jesuits,  be  became  professor  of  theology 

scnismatics.  ^^  Louvam.     His  health  faihng  again,  he  went  to 

Parishes  under  the  jurisdiction  of  monasteries,  as  Brussels,  where  he  resided  for  eleven  years.    His  next 

in  Austria,  are  not  known  in  Bavaria.    Where  mem-  change  was  to  Germany,  where  he  was  arrested  and 

hers  of  the  religious  orders  assume  pastoral  functions,  sent  to  Enriand  for  an  alleged  connexion  with  the 

it  is  only  by  way  of  substitution;  in  these  cases  they  Gunpowder  Plot.    He  was  incarcerated  m  the  Tower 

receive  the  same  governmental  support  as  do  the  ^^^  eight  years  and  was  tortured  in  the  hope  of  ex- 

aecular  clergy.    The  funds  of  the  Church  are  liable  to  tractine  a  confession  from  him     His  innocence  being 

taxation  as  other  funds.    No  concession  or  mitigation  established,  he  was  liberated,  but  at  the  same  time 

is  granted.    Priests  are  not  obliged  to  sit  as  lay  asses-  banished.      In    1621    he   was   appointed   rector   of 

sore,  nor  to  act  as  jurors,  nor  to  be  gi^armans  of  Louvam  and  the  next  year  was  transferred  to  the 

minors.    Military  service  is  not  obligatory  on  thco-  rectorship  of  St.-Omer's  Ck)llege,  where  he  renwuned 

logical  students,  at  least,  if  when  the  army  is  mobil-  until  his  d^h/  ttt  ««  ^  »n^.  r..     r, 

iied,  they  have  been  ordamed  subdeacons.    In  this  Ca???fl66  *^*      '     '  '''  "^* 

case  they  are  employed  as  nurses.    The  civil  code  has  •»  •      •  Thomas  Gaffnby  Taaffe 

limited  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  m  matters  of  mar- 
riage, but  Catholics  still  respect  the  teaching  of  the       Bayer,  AnixE,  n^  Parmentier,  eldest  daughter 

ChUrdh,  especially   that  death   alone  can   dissolve  of  Andrew  Parmentier,  b.  in  Belgium,  4  July,  1814, 

marriage.    A  serious  question  is  the  peat  increase  of  and  d.  in  Brooklyn,  New  York,  22  January,  1892. 

mixed  marriages,  especially  in  the  large  cities,  and  Andrew  Parmentier,  a  horticulturist  and  civil  en- 

the  consequent  Protestant  education  of  children,  gineer,  was  b.  at  Enehien,  Belgium,  3  July,  1780, 

Owing  to  various  considerations,  the  evil  has  not  been  and  d.  in  Brooklyn,  New  York,  26  November,  1830. 

combated   as  vigorously  as  it  should  be.    Prisons  His  father,  Andrew  Joseph  Parmentier,  was  a  wealthy 

and  reformatories  are,  as  a  rule,  yisited  by  clergymen  linen  merchant,  and  his  eldest  brother  Joseph  had  a 

of  aU  faiths,  but  full  provision  is  made  for  the  pastoral  European  repute  as  a  horticulturist  and  landscape 

supervision  of  Catholic  prisoners.     Prisoners  con-  gardener.    Trained  by  the  latter,  Andrew  emigrated 

demned  to  death  are  accompanied  by  priests  to  the  to  New  York  in  1824,  on  his  way  to  the  West  Indies, 

scaffold.     Gifts  and  testamentary  bequests  for  ro-  taking  with  him  his  share  of  the  family  estate.     He 

Kgious  and  benevolent  objects  are  frequent.    They  was  persuaded  by  friends  to  remain  in  New  York 

are  made  under  the  regulations  of  the  civil  code  by  as  a  place  where  his  abiUties  and  scientific  training 

vhich  any  association  that  has  given  proper  notifica-  would  meet  with  recognition.     He  purchased  a  tract 

tion  to  the  authorities  is  re^rded  as  a  person  in  the  of  land  near  Brooklyn  which  he  laid  out  as  a  horti- 

sense  of  the  law.    In  the  cities  the  cemeteries  belong,  cultural  park.     It  became  famous  in  a  short  time  and 

as  a  rule,  to  the  civil  community,  but  nearly  every-  his  services  as  an  expert  in  designing  pleasure  groimds 

where  in  the  country  they  are  part  of  the  parish  and  were  sought  for  in  many  places  North  and  South, 

are  used  in  common  by  the  Christian  confessions.  He  is  said  to  have  exercised  a  more  potent  influence 

Cremation  is  not  permitted  in  Bavaria  although  there  in  landscape  gardening  in  the  United  States  than  any 

is  an  i4^tation  in  its  favour.  other  person  of  his  profession  up  to  that  time.    H!e 

Those  desiring  more  detailed  information  are  referred  was  the  first  to  introduce  into  the  United  States  the 

to  the    following    authorities:    Hopf,   "Bayerische  black  beech  tree  and  several  varieties  of  shrubs, 

Oes^chte  in  Zeittafeln"  (Nurembeiv^  1865);  Denk  vegetables,  and  vines.    He  was  one  of  the  founders 

and  Weiss,    "Unser   Bayerland"    ^unich,    1006);  and  trustees  of  St.  James's,  the  first  Catholic  church 

Rierier,  "Geschichte  Bayerns"  (Gotha.  1878,  1903),  in  the  present  Diocese  of  Brookljm,  and  was  at  the 

6  vols.;  DOberl,  "Entwiokelungsgeschicnte  Bayems"  height  of  his  influence  and  repute  when  he  died  in 

(Munich,  1906),  1  vol.,  extending  to  1648.     A  reliable  Brooklyn,    26    November,    1830.    After   his   death 

authority  on  the  Wittelsbach  dynasty  is:  H&utle,  his  daughter  Adele  and  her  mother  (Sylvia  M.,  b.  at 

"G^ieal<^ie  des  erlauchten  Stanmihauses  Wittels-  Louvain,  Belgium,  1793;  d.  in  Brooklyn,  New  York, 

bach"  (Munich,  1870).     Among  the  authorities  for  27  April,  1882),  carried  on  his  Botanical  and  Horti- 

tbe  Rhine  Palatinate  are:  HAusser,  ''Geschichte  der  cultural  Gardens  imtil  1832,  when  they  were  sold. 

Hioniflchen    Pfalz"    (Heidelberg,    1845),    2    vols.;  Thereafter  they  devoted  most  of  their  time  and  in- 


Remling,    "Geschichte    der    Bisohdfe    zu    Speyer"    come  to  works  of  charity,  aided  substantially  the 
Ihhz,  1852),  4  vols.;  Hilgard>  "Urkundenbuch  zur    Indian 


missions  of  Father  De  Smet,  S.J.,  the  estab- 


BJLYmu  358 

lifihment  in  Indiana  of  the  SiBters  of  Providence  from  the  breviaries  ot  the  fifteenth  century,  makes  St 

Brittany,  the  lattle  Sisters  of  the  Poor  in  Brooklyn,  Exuperius,  first  Bishop  of  Bayeux,  an  immediate 

and  other  stood  works.    Ad^le  was  married,  8  Sept.,  disciple  of  St.  Clement,  and  his  see  a  foimdation  of 

1841,  to  Edward  Bayer,  a  German  Catholic  merchant  the  nrst  oenturv.     St.  Kegnobertus,  the  same  legend 

(d.  3  Feb.,  1894),  at  the  first  nuptial  Mass  celebrated  tells  us,  was  the  successor  of  St.  Exuperius.    But 

in  Brookl^.     During  the  Civil  War  Madame  Bayer  the  Bollandisis  and.  M.  Jules  Lair  have  shown  how 

began  caring  for  the  spiritual  and  teniporal  wants  little  ground  there  is  for  this  legend;  it  was  only  towards 

of  the  sailors  at  the  Brooklyn  Navy  Yard^  a  work  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  that  St  Exuperius 

to  which  she  devoted  the  remainder  of  her  hfe.    For  founded  the  See  of  Bayeux;  after  him  the  priest  St. 

thirty   years   she    toiled    unostentatiously   at   this  Reverendus  did  much  for  the  propagation  of  the 

voluntary  task  and  was  known  and  revered  as  a  Faith  in   these  parts.    A  certam   number  of  the 

guardian  and  friend  by  seamen  all  over  the  world,  successors  of  St.  Exuperius  w»^  saints:  Rufinianus; 

S-TtLm,  HUfory  of  0^  City  o/  BrooWyn  (Brooklyn.  1870);  Lupus  (about  465):  Vigor  (beginning  of  the  sixth 

lilt^l'Jd^e^YSrTw^                                    ^'  century),  who  destroyed  a  pagan  temple,  then  still 

'         '  Thomas  F.  Mbehan.  frequented;  Regnobertus  (about  629),  who  founded 

many  churches,  and  whom  the  legend,  owing  to  an 

Bayeu  y  Subias,  Francisco,  b.  at  Saragossa,  9  anachronism,   made   first  successor   to   Exuperius; 

March,  1734;  d.  Madrid,  4  Au^t,  1795,  a  distinguished  and  Hugues  (d.  730),  simultaneously  bishop  of  two 

religious  and  historical  pamtei.     He  first  studied  other  sees,  Paris  and  Rouen.    We  may  also  mention 

at  Tarragona  with  Jos^  Luz^  Martinez,  and  g;ain-  Odon  of  ConteviUe  (1050-97),  brother  of  William 

ing  the  first  prize  at  the  Academy  there, ^ne  received  the  Conqueror,  who  built  the  cathedral,  was  present 

a  pension  to  go  to  Madrid,  where  he  entered  the  at  the  Battle  of  Hastings,  intrigued  for  the  tiara  on 

San  Fernando  Academy  and  had  for  his  master  thedeathof  Gregory  VII  (1085).  and  died  a  crusader 

Antonio  Gonzales  Velasquez.     While  there  he  at-  in  Sicily;  Cardinal  Trivulce  (1531-48),  papal  legate 

tracted  the  attention  of  Raphael  Men^,  then  court  in  the  Roman  Campagna  durins  the  siege  and  pillage 

painter  to  Carlos  III.     Alter    returning  to  Sarar  of  Rome  bv  the  Constable  oe  Bourbon;  Cardinal 

ffossa,  he  was  recalled,  on  the  suggestion  of  Mengs,  d'Ossat  (1602-04),  an  illustrious  diplomatist  promi- 

by  that  monarch,  who  put  him  to  work  on  the  coun-  nentlv  identified  with  the  conversion  of  Heniy  IV. 

try  palaces  of  El  Pardo  and  Aranjuez  and  on  the  Claude  Fauchet,  who  after  being  court  preacher  to 

new   Royal   Palace   at    Madrid.     He'  alto   painted  Louis  XVI,  became  one  of  the  ^"conquerors"  of  the 

pictures  for  several  churches  in  Madrid.     Painting  Bastille,  was  chosen  Constitutional  Bishop  of  Bayeux 

with,  and  presumably  partly  under  the  direction  in  1791,  and  was  beheaded  31  October,  1793.    Mgr. 

of,  Mengs  ne  became  devoted  to  his  style  and  is  Amette,  coadiutor,  with  rijght  of  succession  to  the 

classed  with  his  school.     Don   Pedro  de  Madrazo  Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Pans  was,  until  1905,  Bishop 

in  the  Prado  catalogue  speaks  of  him  as  a  mannered  of  Bayeux.    In  the  municipal  Mus^  Arch^logique 

painter  only  to  be  appreciated  as  a  frescoist.    In  is  preserved  the  famous  "Bisiyeux  Tapestry'',  one  of 

1765*  Bayeu  y  Subias  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  the  most  remarkable  relics  of  medieval  textile  art. 

San  Fernandk)  Academy,  and  became,  twenty-three  Its  contemporary  embroideries  reproduce  scenes  from 

years  later,  its  director  and  painter  to  the  court,  the  Norman  Conquest  of  Englimd  (1066)  and  are 

In  the  palace  at  Madrid   are    his  frescoes,   "The  valuable  as  illustrations  of  eleventh-century  costume 

Fall  of  the  Giants",  "The  Apotheosis  of  Hercules",  and  life. 

and  "The  Conouest  of  Granada".  He  decorated  The  Sbb  of  Lisisux. — ^The  first  known  Bishop  of 
the  royal  chapel  at  Aranjuez,  and  pictured  scenes  Lisieux  is  Theudibaudee,  mentioned  in  connexion 
from  tne  life  of  St.  Bnmo  at  the  convent  of  the  with  a  council  hdd  in  538.  The  most  celebrated 
Carthusians  in  Madrid.  He  painted  many  frescoes  among  lus  successors  were  Freculfus  (d.  850),  a  pupil 
in  the  churches  of  Toledo  and  Saragossa,  being  of  the  palace  school  founded  by  Charlemagne,  and 
assisted  on  the  latter  by  his  brother  and  pupil,  author  of  a  universal  history;  Amoul  Tl  141-81), 
Ram6n.  b.  Saragossa,  1746;  d.  Aranjuez,  1793.  statesman  and  writerj  Nicole  Oresme  (1378-82), 
His  subjects  at  the  Toledo  cathedral  are  scenes  philosopher,  mathematician,  and  tutor  to  Charles  V; 
from  the  Ufe  of  St.  Eutfenio.  There  are  fifteen  works  Pierre  Cauchon  (1432-42),  concerned  in  the  con- 
by  the  painter  in  the  Museum  of  the  Prado  at  Madrid,  demnation  of  Joan  of  Arc;  Thomas  Basin  (1447-74), 
.^nong  them  are  "The  Coronation  of  the  Virgin",  the  historian  of  Charies  Vll,  and  one  of  the  jmo- 
"The  Ascension",  "The  Evangelist  St.  Matthew",  moters  of  the  rehabilitation  of  Joan  of  Arc;  Quil- 
"The  Evangelist  St.  Mark",  '^The  Evangelist  St.  Uume  du  Vair  (1618-21),  the  well-known  philosojAer 
Luke",  "The  Evangelist  St.  John",  "Olympus"— all  who  left  the  bench  for  the  Church, 
studies  for  more  important  works—-"  St.  Francis  de  In  the  Middle  Ages  both  sees  were  very  important. 
Sales  Founding  the  Order  of  the  Visitation",  the  last  The  Bishop  of  Bayeux  was  senior  amone  the  Norman 
being  attributed  by  some  to  Ram6n  Bayeu  y  Subias,  bishops,  and  Uie  chapter  was  one  of  uie  richest  in 
"View  of  the  Canal  of  Manzanares",  "View  of  the  France.  The  See  of  Lisieux  maintained  the  OoU^ 
Paseo  de  las  Delicias  in  Madrid",  "Luncheon  in  the  de  Lisieux  at  Paris  for  poor  students  of  the  diocese. 
Country",  a  scene  in  a  Manzanares  orchard,  and  four  Important  oouncUs  were  held  within  this  diocese, 
sketches  of  sacred  allegories  for  arch  jmnels  at  the  at  Caen,  in  1042  and  1061:  in  the  latter  was  pio- 
coUege  of  San  Ildefonso.  Don  Francisco  was  an  claimed  "the  Truce  of  Goa".  The  statutes  of  a 
etcher  as  well  as  a  painter,  and  executed  a  small  synod  held  at  Bajreux  about  1300,  furnish  a  very 
number  of  plates.  fair  idea  of  the  discipline  of  the  time. 


both  founded  at  Caen  by  William  the  Conqmror 

Bi^enx  (Bajoc/b),  Diocesb  of,  coextensive  with  (1029-87)  and  his  wife  Matilda,  in  expiation  of  their 

the  Department  of   Calvados,  is   suffragan  to  the  unlawful  marriage.    The  former  of  these  abbeys  was 

Archbisnopric  of  Rouen.     At  the  time  of  the  Con-  governed  by  the  celebrated    Lanfranc,    afterwuds 

cordat  (1802)  the  ancient  Diocese  of   Lisieux  was  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.    Other  abbeys  we»e  those 

united  to  that  of  Bayeux.      A  pontifical  Brief,  in  of  Troam  of  which  Durand,  the  successful  opponent  of 

1854,    authorized    the    Bishop    of    Bayeux    to  call  Berensarius,  was  abbot  in  the  eleventh  century,  and 

himself  Bishop  of  Bayeux  ana  Lisieux.  th«B  Abbaye  du  Val,  of  which  Ranc^  was  abbot  in 

Ths  See  op  Bayeux. — A  local  legend,  found  in  1661,  prior  to  his  reform  of  La  Trappe.    The  Abbey 


I 


BAlTLS  359  BATLEY 

of  St.  Evroul  (Ebrulphus)  in  the  Diocese  of  Lisieux,  studies,  entered  Trinity  College,  Hartford,  Connect 

founded  about  560  bv  St.  Evroul,  a  native  of  Bayeux,  cut,  to  prepare  for  the  Episcopalian  ministry.    He 

is  famous  as  the  home  of  Ordericus  Vitalis,  the  graduated  nere  in  1835  and  siter  receiving  orders 

chronicler    (1075-1141).      Venerable    Jean    Eudes  waa  appointed  rector  of  .St.  Peter's  church,  Harlem, 

founded  in  1641  in  Caen  the  congregation  of  Notre  New  York.    He  resigned  this  charge  in  1841  and  went 

Dame  de  Charity  du  Refuge,  which  is  devoted  to  the  to  Rome^  where  on  28  April,  1842,  he  was  Imptized 

protection  of  girls  and  includes  33  monasteries  in  and  received  into  the  Catholic  church  in  the  room 

France  and  elsewhere.    At  Tilly,  in  the  Diocese  of  of  St.  Ignatius  by  Father  Esmond,  S.J.    He  then 

Bayeux,  Michel  Yin^tras  established,  in  1839,  the  entered  the  seminary  of  St.  Sulpice  at  Paris  for  hii 


by  Gregoiy  XYI.  and  made  a  professor  and  the  vice-president 

Daniel  Huet,  the  famous  savant  (1630-1721)  and  seminary  at  Fordham.     He  wajs  acting    president 

Bishop  of  Avranches,  was  a  native  of  Caen.  there  in  1846  and  was  next  given  charge  of  the  parish 

The  cathedral  of  Bayeux  (twelfth  to  fourteenth  at  the  Quarantine  Station  on  Staten  Island,  so  long 

centuries)  and  of  Lisieux  (twelfth  and  thirteenth  oen->  the  residence  of  his  grandfather.  Dr.  Bayley.    Bishop 

tunes)  are  inferior  in  point  of  interest  to  the  church  of  Hughes  then  appointed  him  nis  private  secretary, 

St  Etienne  at  Caen,  which  is  one  of  the  most  beauti-  an  office  he  held  for  several  years  and  in  which  tus 

ful  architectural  monuments  of  Normandy  (eleventh  administrative  abiUty  was  specially  manifested.    He 

and  twelfth  centuries).   The  church  of  Notre-Dame  de  devoted  some  of  his  leisure  to  the  collection  and 

la  IMlivrande  Tthe  devotion  to  Our  Ladjr  of  Deliver-  preservation  of  local  historical  data,  much  of  which 

ance  dates  back  to  the  seventh  century)  is  visited  b^  would  otherwise  have  beeh  lost.    Part  of  this  material 

the  Bishops  of  Bayeux  even  before  tney  enter  their  he  published  in  a  small  volume  "A  Brief  Sketch  of  the 

own  cathedral.  Early  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  on  the  Island 

At  the  close  of  the  year  1905  the  Diocese  of  Bayeux  of  New  York"  (New  York,  1853;  2nd  ed.,  1870). 
included  a  population  of  410,178,   73   pastorates.        When  the  Diocese  of  Newark  was  established  he  was 

640  mission  churches,  and  120  curacies  remunerated  named  its  first  bishop  and  consecrated  30  October, 

by  the  State.     Accordi^  to  the  latest  statistics  1853,  in  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  New  York,  b^  Arch- 

(1907)  obtainable,  the  Diocese  of  Bayeux  has  2  bishop  Bedini,  the  Apostolic  Nuncio  to  Brazil,  who 

infant   asylums,    16   infant   schools,    1    deaf-mute  was  tnen  eh  route  to  Rome.   The  Bishops  of  Brooklyn 

institute,    1    orphanage   where ^  farming  is   taught,  and  Burlington  were  consecrated  at  the  same  time, 

9  girls'  orphanages,  4  industrial  schools,  2  traces  the    first    occurrence   of    such  an  elaborate  cere- 

scnools,  1  refuge  for  young  women,  6  hospitab  and  mony  in  the  United  States.     Bishop  Ba3dey's  work 

hospices,  1  dispensary,  4  communities  for  the  care  of  organizing  the  new  diocese  wa«  not  easy.     He 

of  the  sick  in  their  liomes,  3  private  hospitals,  1  had  more  than  40^000  Catholics,  mainly  of  Irish 

private  insane  asylum,  0  homes  for  the  aged,  all  and  German  extraction,  with  only  twenty-nve  priests 

conducted  by  sisters;  and  1  orphanage  where  farm-  to  minister  to  them.   There  was  not  a  single  diocesan 

ing  is  taught,  conducted  by  brothers.  institution,  no  funds,  and  poverty  on  all  sides.    He 

In  1900  the  following  congpregations  were  repre-  therefore  applied  for  help  to  the  Association  of  the 

sen  ted  in  the  diocese:  the  Franciscans  at  Caen  and  Propagation  of  the  Faith  of  Lyons,  France,  and  to  the 

the  Premonstratenslans,  who  have  an  abbey  at  Juaye-  Leopoldine  Association  of  Vienna  and  from  both  re- 

Mondaye.    Among  the  local  congregations  are  the  ceived  material  assistance.     In  a  letter  he  wrote 

diocesan  missionaries,  stationed  at  the  basilica  of  10  April,  1865,  reviewing  the  condition  of  the  dio- 

Notre  Dame  de  la  D^livrande,  directors  of  several  cese  after  his  nrst  ten  years  there  he  sajrs:  ''I  find 

educational  institutions  throughout  the  diocese.    In  that  while  the  Catholic  population  has  mcreased  a 

this  diocese  also  was  founded  the  congregation  of  Our  third,  the  churches  ancl  priests  have  doubled  in 

Lady  of  Charity  and  Refuge  established  at  Caen  in  number.    In  1854  there  wa«  no  religious  community. 

1641  by  Venerable  Jean  Eudes  for  the  preservation  Now  we  have  a  monastery  of  Benedictines,  another 

of  young  girls.    This  congregation  has  33  monasteries  of  Passionists,  a  mother-house  of  Sisters  of  Charity, 

in  France  and  other  countries.  conducting  seventeen  different  establishments;  two 

GaUia  chrietiana  {nova)  (1769),  XL  346-405.  762-814,  convents  of  Benedictine  nuns,  two  Others  of  German 

teir^.^^^  '^l\%'',rB^Ji/JhJ!^3^Sii  Sisten,  of  Notre  Dame  and  two  oti^  of  the  Sster, 

Bcoiet  d€»  Charte$  (1861-63);  Farct,  AbbayeB  du  diockte  de  of  the  Poor  of  St.  Francis.    In  1854  there  was  no 

Bnmr  (Laval.  1886-88);  Chevalikr.  TojxhbM.,  327-381,  institution  of  learning;  to-day  we  have  a  flourishing 

i7tf7-08;  CoifTB.  ^^P^^ ^f  ^^veux (PanB^iSTS),  ^H        ^nj  ^  diocesan  seminary,  an  academy  for 

^    ,     „  „     ^  UEORQKS  UOTAU.  ^^        ^^      ^  boarding  school  for  boys,  and  parish 

Bayle,  Pierre.    See  Rationalism.  schools  attached  to  aUnost  all  the  parishes."   In  ad- 

Bayley,  James  Roosevelt,  first  Bishop  of  Newark,  dition  to  these  he  introduced  the  Jesuits  and  the 

New  Jersey.  U.  S.  A.;  eighth  Archbishop  of  Balti«  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  and  of  St.  Dominic  Into  the 

more,  Majyland;  b.  at  Rye,  New  York,  23  August,  diocese,  and  was  one  of  the  strongest  upholders  of  the 

1814j  d.  at  Newark,  3  October,  1877.    His  Dutch  and  temperance  movement  of  the  seventies.    He  made 

English  non-CathoUc  ancestors  were  locally  notable,  several  journeys  to  Rome  and  the  Holy  Land,  attend- 

His  father  was  the  son  of  Dr.  Richard  Bayley,  pro-  ing  the  canonization  of  the  Japanese  martyrs  at  Rome 

fessor  of  anatomy  in  Columbia  College,  New  York,  in  1862;  the  centenary  of  the  Apostles  in  1867;  and 

and  inaugurated  the  New  York  quarantine  system,  the  (Ecumenical  Coimcil  in  1869. 
Mother  Seton,  foundress  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity  in        At  the  death  of  Archbishop  Spdding  of  Bdtimore 


altered  the  wiU  when  Bayley  became  a  Catholic  biretta  on  ArchbishopMcCloskey  of  New  York.    In 

priest,  under  the  mistaken  idea  that  priests  could  not  May,  1876,  he  consecrated  the  Baltimore  cathedral, 

ponees  property.    A  large  part  of  the  money  went  to  having  freed  it  from  debt.    Convening  the  Eighth 

build  the  Roosevelt  Hospital  in  New  York.    Bayley's  Provincial  Synod  of  the  clergy,  August,  1875,  he 

eariy  school  days  were  spent  at  Amherst  College,  enacted  manjr  salutary  relations,  particulariy  with 

where  he  once  thought   of  going  to  sea  and  od-  regard  to  clerical  dress,  mixed  marriages,  and  church 

tained  a  commission  of  midshipman  in  the  nav^.  music.     Illness  obligea  him  to  ask  for  a  coadjutor 

He  abandoned  the  plan,  however,  and  continuing  his  and  Bishop  Gibbons  of  Richmond  was  appointed  to 


BATBEA 


360 


BA70NMX 


thut  posilJon  2&  May.  1877.  The  archbishop  then 
went  abroad  to  seek  for  relief,  but  in  vain.  He  re- 
turned to  his  former  home  in  Newark  in  August, 
1877,  and  after  lingering  for  two  months,  died  in  his 
old  room,  where  &  had  laboured  so  long.  At  his 
own  request  he  was  buried  beside  his  aimt.  Mother 
Seton,  at  the  convent  at  Emmitsbuig.  Maryland. 
He  was  a  noUe  model  of  a  Christian  bishop.  He 
seemed  animated  with  the  spirit  of  St.  Francis  de 
Sales,  full  of  seal  in  the  episcopal  office  and  of  kind* 
nesB  and  charity  to  all  mankind.  In  conversation  he 
once  told  Bishop  Gorrigan  that  before  his  conversion 
he  thought  of  becoming  a  Jesuit,  and  before  his  conse- 
cration a  Redemptorist,  but  from  both  intentions  his 
director  dissuaded  him.  In  addition  to  the  volume 
on  the  Church  in  New  York  he  wrote  the  "  Memoirs 
of  Simon  Gabriel  Brut6,  First  Bishop  of  Vincennes" 
(New  York,  1866). 

Flynn,  TA«  Catholic  Church  in  New  Jersey  (Morrietown, 
1904);  Shea,  History  of  the  Cath,  Ch.  inthe  U.  S.  (New  York, 
1889-92):  Cathedral  Records  (Baltimore,  1906):  Rsuas,  Bioff. 
CycU  of  the  Caih.  Hierardiy  of  the  U.S.  (Milwaukee.  1898). 

Thomas  F.  Meehan. 

^a^nutf  Joseph,  a  Jesuit  mathematician  and  scien- 
tist, b.  in  Piedmont,  Italy ,  9  November,  1816;  d.  at 
Santa  Qara,  California,  U.  S.  A,  7  February,  1892. 
He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  6  February,  1832, 
and  distinguished  himself  in  literature,  mathematics, 
and  physics.  He  was  in  charge  of  the  episcopal 
semiziary  of  Bertinoro  when  the  troubles  of  1860 
forced  him  and  many  of  his  brethren  to  seek  shelter 
in  England.  Hitherto  he  had  given  no  special 
attention  to  philosophy,  but  at  Stonyhurst  he  took 
it  up  and  taught  it  for  some  seven  years.  His  power- 
ful and  original  mind  soon  produced  three  volumes 
of  ''Realis  Philoeophia",  which  were  printed  for 
private  circulation.  No  sooner  were  they  out  than 
he  introduced  numerous  corrections;  thus  the  printed 
volumes  cannot  be  relied  upon  as  evidence  of  his 
mature  opinions.  In  1868  Father  Bayma  left  for 
California,  where  he  was  Rector  of  Saint  Ignatius' 
College,  San  Francisco,  for  three  years,  but  after- 
wards resided  at  Santa  Clara,  teaching  elementary 
mathematics  there  till  his  death.  At  his  death  he 
left  behind,  in  manuscript,  an  elaborate  new  edition 
of  th6  "Realis  Philosophia"  which  never  saw  the 
light.  His  published  works  are  ''Molecular  Me- 
chanics*' (Cambridge,  1866);  "The  Love  of  Reli- 
gious Perfection*',  ori^nally  written  in  Italian,  in 
the  style  of  "The  Imitation  of  Christ"  (published 
in  English,  Dublin,  1863);  articles  in  "The  Catholic 
Worl?',  XVII-XXI  (1873-75),  the  best  printed 
accoimt  of  his  philosophy;  two  articles  in  the  "Am. 
Cath,  Q.  Rev. ",  II  (1877);  and  "  A  Discussion  with  an 
Infidel",  being  a  review  of  Biichner's  "Force  and 
Matter''  (New  York,  London,  and  Leajnington. 
1901).  His  elementary  works  on  mathematics,  all 
published  at  San  Francisco,  are:  "Algebra"  (1890), 
^'Geometry"  (1895),  "Analytical  Geometiy"  (1887), 
"Plane  and  Spherical  Trigonometry"  (1886),  "In- 
finitesimal Calculus"  (1889). 

Father  Bayma  took  the  Venerable  Bede  for  his 
model,  and  loved  to  refer  to  the  old  Breviary  Lesson, 
which  used  to  be  read  in  England  on  St.  Bedels  day. 
It  ran:  "Bede  [and  Bajrma  too]  was  handsome  of 
stature,  grave  of  gait,  rich  and  sonorous  of  voice, 
eloquent  of  speech,  noble  of  countenance,  a  blena 
of  affability  with  severity.  He  was  affable  to  the 
good  and  devout,  formidable  to  the  proud  and  negli- 
gent. He  was  always  reading,  always  writing, 
always  teaching,  always  praying."  Only  the  young 
men  who  sat  under  hun  could  know  his  fascination 
as  a  teacher.  To  posterity  he  must  be  known  by 
his  "Molecular  Mechanics",  a  metaphysical  and 
mathematical  work  treating  of  the  constitution  of 
matter.  With  Roger  Boscovich,  Bayma  reduces  all 
matter  to  unextended  points,  centres  of  force  acting 


in  the  inverse  square  of  the  distance.  Thus  acting 
upon  one  another,  but  of  course  not  touching,  for 
Bi^ma  abhorred  continuous  matter  and  upheld 
actio  in  distana,  these  points  were  hound  up  into 
molecules^  and  molecules  into  bodies.  Boscovich 
made  his  points,  or  elements,  attractive  at  molar 
distances,  repulsive  at  molecular.  Bayma  divides 
elements  into  attractive  and  repulsive,  the  former 
always  attracting,  the  latter  always  repelling;  the 
attractive  elements  preponderating  in  the  nucleus 
of  the  molecule,  the  repulsive  in  the  envelope.  The 
work  drew  attention  at  Cambridge,  and  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin.  The  author  was  advised  to  test 
Ms  theories  by  ten  years  of  experiments  in  chemistry 
and  electricity.  Unhappily,  this  was  never  done. 
One  of  his  proofs  certauuy  lies  open  to  grave  objec- 
tion, but  Bayma's  main  theory  does  not  stand  or 
fall  with  that  proposition.  Tne  gravest  objection 
against  the  theory  is  its  alleged  failure  to  account 
for  inertia.  Father  Bayma  ever  professed  the 
utmost  reverence  for  St.  Thomas.  His  8a3ring  was: 
"the  metaphysics  of  St.  Thomas,  with  modem 
physics".  JoBEPfl  Rickabt. 

Bayonne  (Lapurdum),  Diocesb  of,  comprises 
the  Department  of  Basses-Pyr6n6es.  Keorganized 
in  1802,  it  included,  besides  certain  parishes  of  the 
Dioceses  of  Dax  and  Tarbes,  the  Dioceses  of  Oloron 
and  Lescar.  It  was  suffragan  to  the  Archiepiscopal 
See  of  Toulouse  from  1802  to  1822,  thereafter  to  that 
of  Auch. 

Diocese  of  Bayonne. — Local  tradition  maintains 
that  St.  Leo,  the  martyr,  with  whose  memorv  is  asso- 
ciated a  miraculous  fountain,  was  the  first  Bishop  of 
Bayonne.  No  bishop  is  historically  known  prior  to 
the  sixth  century,  altnoueh  some  think  tiiat  Bayonne, 
designated  as  civitas  in  uie  Treaty  of  Andelot  (587), 
must  have  had  a  bishop  at  that  time,  whilst  others 
couple  the  foundation  of  the  See  of  Bayonne  with  the 
establishment  of  the  Kingdom  of  Aquitaine  (778). 
Until  1566,  the  Diocese  o?  Bayonne  included  much 
Spanish  territoiyj  i.  e.  the  four  Archpresbyteries  of 
Bastan,  L^rin,  Cinco  Villas  in  Navarre,  and  Font- 
arabia  in  Guipuzcoa,  a  remnant  of  CSiariem^ne's 
conquests  beyond  the  PVrenees.  Christophe  de  feau- 
mont,  afterwards  Archbishop  of  Paris,  occupied  the 
See  of  Bayonne  from  1741  to  1745  and  Astros  oc- 
cupied it  from  1820  to  1830. 

Sees  of  Lescar  and  Oloron — ^A  local  legend  re- 
corded in  the  great  "Br^viaire  de  Lescar"  of  1541, 
and  patterned  after  the  Limousin  legend  of  St.  Mar- 
tial, holds  that  St.  Julian,  sent  from  Bordeaux  by 
St.  Leon  tins,  was  the  first  Bishop  of  Lescar;  but 
according  to  history,  St.  Gaiactorius,  martyred  per- 
haps by  the  Visigoths  after  their  defeat  at  VouiU^. 
and  St.  Gratus,  both  mentioned  in  the  Council  of 
Agde  (506),  were  respectively  the  first  incumbents  of 
the  See  of  Lescar  and  th^  See  of  Oloron  known  to 
history.  Until  1789  the  Bishops  of  Lescar  presided 
by  right  over  the  Assembly  of  the  States  of  Bdam. 
.Ajnongst  those  who  occupied  the  See  of  Oloron  was 
Roussel,  the  Dominican  (1536-50),  prot^g^  of  Mar- 
garet of  Navarre  and  a  convert  to  (;alvinism. 

Sponde  (Spondanus,  1568-1643),  Bishop  of  P»- 
miers.  who  carried  on  the  work  of  Baronius;  Duver- 
gier  de  Hauranne  (1581-1643),  Abbd  de  St.  Cyran, 
the  second  founder  of  Jansenism,  and  Cardinal 
Lavigerie  were  bom  in  territory  now  included  in  the 
Diocese  of  Bayonne.  B^tharram  is  celebrated  as  a 
place  of  pilgrimage  as  also  are  Notre  Dame  de  Pi^tat, 
at  Paradies,  and  Notre  Dame  de  Sarrance.  visited  by 
King  Louis  XI.  In  1899  the  following  institutions 
were  to  be  found  in  the  diocese:  1  infant  asylum,  38  in- 
fant schools,  2  orphanages  where  farming  is  taught,  10 
eiris'  orphanages,  5  gratuitous  industrial  schools,  2 
nouses  of  refuge  for  young  girls,  2  patronages,  1  t«n- 
porary  home  for  servants,  4  hospitals  or  hospices, 


B4TSI0  361  BS4DS 

1  insane  a^lum,  6  homes  for  the  aged,  and  1  private  (now  the  Diocese  of  Indianapolis),  b.  at  Dueme, 

iHwpital,  all  conducted  by  Sisters,  and  2  orphanages  near  Lyons,  France,  15  Oct.,  1706;  d.  at  Vincennes. 

where  farming  is  taught,  conducted   by  brothers,  Indiana,  U.  S.  A.,  23  April,  1848.     He  was  ktucatea 

and  4  patronages  for  young  people  conducted  either  in  his  native  country  and  ordained  in  the  Cathedral 

by  priests  or  brothers.    At  the  close  of  1905  the  of  Lyons,  22  Julv,  1^22.    In  1830  he  came  to  America 

Diocese  of  Bayonne  contained  426,347  inhabitants,  and  began  his  labours  among  the  Catholics  of  Mobile. 

43  pastorates,  449  succursaUa  or  mission  churches,  Alabama,    where    for    seventeen    years    he    toiled 

and  91  curacies.  zealously  for  tbie  religious  instruction  of  the  young. 

In  1900  the  following  religious  orders  were  repre*  organizing  the  Sunday  schools  and  establishing  the 

sented  in  the  diocese:  the  Jesuits  and  Franciscans  at  Catholic  Orphan  Asylum  Society.    He  was  also  the 


A.  djocUe  d€  Bai^neCm2);   Ddchiwkb,  Fatta  ipucopaux,     ^  ^  Cathotie  HurarehyWii 
U;  Cbevaueb,  Topobtbhoffraphu,  b.  r. 


aonaiy  work,. founded  at  B^tharram  in  1841.    They  the   College  of   Spring  Hill,  AlabanuL  and   of   the 

have  miasions  at   Bethlehem,   Buenos  Ayree.  and  Brothers  of  the   Christian   Schools  for  the   Bovs' 

Montevideo.    The  Servants  of  Mary,  who  teaon  and  Orphan  Asylum.     In  both  efforts  he  was  successml. 

serve  in  hospitals;  their  mother-house  is  at  Anglet.  When  the  Right  Hev.  C^lestine  de  la  Hailandi^re, 

The  Bemarmnes,  with  mother-house  also  at  Anglet,  Bishop  of  Vincennes,  resided  his  see  in  1847,  Father 

were  founded  in  1846:  they  keep  peipetual  silence  Bazin  was  consecrated  his  successor  on  the  24th  of 

and  divide  their  time  between  prayer  and  the  work  October  of  that  year.     His  episcopal  career,  which 

of  sewing  and  embroidery.  promised  to  be  one  of  great  usefulness  to  the  Church, 

GoiKa  diri^i4xna  (nova)  (1715).  I,  1261-1324;  in9trwn9nta,  was  CUt  short  by  his  untimely  death. 

)£"^icwPj?^.^^'^'    ^fJ^  ^-  f'**^^   '^^  *i^7?*???^  Clarke,  Live*  of  the  Deceased  Bithone  (New  York,  1888), 

,n...  ,«cw»  ««..   T^-..    r.  .._z. J-      J.  -ir..   /n...       _  ...  .  ^  CothoUc  Chtwdi  wi  U.  i.  (New 

RevBS.  Biographical  Cvehpcddia 
waukee,  Wis..  1808). 

Georges  Gotau.  ^"^^^^  P-  Spillane. 

BiyBio  (Baiwo),  Guido  db,  an  Italian  canonist,  Be^dB,  Use  of,  at  pRAYBRS.--Beads  variously 

b.  about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  of  a  strung  together,  according  to  the  kind   order,  and 

noWe  Ghibelline  family:  d.  at  Avignon,  10  August,  number  of  prayers  m  certam  forms  of  devotion,  are 

1313.    The  probable  -place  of  his  birth  is  Reggio,  >n  common  use  among  Catholics  as  an  expedient  to 

where  he  also  studied  law  under  Guido  de  Suaaria.  ensure  a  right  count  of  the  narts  obcurringj  in  more 

Here  he  became,  successively,  doctor  and  professor  o*"  less  frequent  repetition.    Made  of  materials  rang- 

of  eanon  law  and  also  obtained  an  ecdesiastioal  ing  ^jom  wmmon  wood  or  natural  berries  to  costly 

benefice    as    canon.    Gerhard,  Bishop    of    Panna,  njetals  and  precious  stones,  they  may  be  blessed,  as 

attached  him  to  himself  and  remained  his  patron  they  are  m  most  cases,  with  prayer  and  holy  water, 

also  as  Cardinal-Archbishop  of    Sabina  (d.   1302).  thereby  becoming  sacramentals.     In  this  character 

To  this  patran  Baysio  dedicated  his  chief  work,  a  *t^ey  are  prescnbed  by  the  rules  of  most  religious 

commentary  on  the  "Decretum"  of  Gratian,  which  orders,  both  of  men  and  women,  to  be  kept  for  per- 

he  wrote  about  the  year  1300  and  entitled  "Rosar-  «pal  use  or  to  be  worn  as  part  of  the  reUgious  garb, 

ium''.    It  is  an  excellent  coUection  of  older  rfossaries,  They  are  now  mostly  found  m  the  form  of  the 

not  contained  in  the  "Glossa  Ordinaria",  and  princi-  Dominican  Rosary,  or  Manan  Psalter  (see  Rosary); 

pally  compUed  from  Huguccio.    Many  additions  to  but  Catholics  are  also  familiar  with  the  Bngittme 

the  glossary  which  are  found  in  the  editions  pub-  *>eads,  the  Dolour  beads,  the  ImmaciUate  Concep- 

lishcdsince  1606  (Paris),  are  taken  from  the  "Rosa-  tion  beads,  the  Crown  of  Our  Saviour,  the  Chaplet  of 

Hum"  of  Baysio  and  appear  over  his  name.  ^'^^  Five  Wounds,  the  Crosier  beads,  and  others.    In 

In  1296  Pope  Boniface  VIII   appointed  Baysio  aU  these  devotions,  due  to  individual  zeal  or  fostered 

Archdeacon  of  Bologna  and  chancellor  of  the  oele-  by  pwrUcular  religious  bodies,  the  beads  serve  one 

brated  university  m  that  city.     Here  he  at  first  J^d  the  same   purpose  of  distmguishing  and  num- 

taiM^t  canon  law  privat^  and  later  on  became  a  ^^.  the  constituent  prayers, 

puflic  professor,  which  position  he  held  for  three  lUtionalistic  criticism  generaUy  ascnbes  an  Onen- 

yeare.    CaUed  to  Avignon  in  1304  he  retained  the  tal  ongm  to  prayer  bea<fe;  but  man's  natural  tend- 

dignity  of  archdeacon,  held  the  office  of  papal  chap-  ency  to   iteration,  ^peciaUy  of  prajrers,  and   the 

lam,  and  also  served  in  the  ApostoUc  chancery  untU  spin^  wid  trammg  of  the  early  Christiajis  may  still      ^ 

his  death.     His  stay  at  Avignon  was  marked  by  ^^e^y  be  assumed  to  have  spontaneously  suggested 

several   literary    productions.     Here    he   wrote    an  fingers,  pebbles,  knotted  cords,  and  stnngs  of  bewls 

accurate  and  complete,  but  rather  diffuse,  commen-  or  hemes  as  a  m^ns  of  countmg,  when  it  was  de- 

tary  on  the  liber  Sextus  and  also  a  "Tractatus  sired  to  say  a  specific  number  of  prayers.   The  earliest 

super  bsresi  et  aliis  criminibus  in  causA  Templario-  historical  mdications  of  the  use  of  beads  at  prayer 

nim  et  D.  Bonifacii".    This  latter  work  was  written  oy  Christians  show,  m  this  as  m  other  thmgs,  a 

in  connexion  with  the  condemnation  of  the  Templars  natui^   growth   and   development.      Beads  strung 

at  the  Council  of  Vienne.    The  second  part  of  the  together  or  ranged  on  chains  are  an  obvious  improve- 

work  constitutes  a  defence  of  the  orthodoxy  of  Boni-  naent   over  the   well-known   primitive   method   in- 

face  Vm,  and  is  published  in  Mansi,  "Coll.  Sacr.  8^^i,^<^f  wcample,  m  the  hfe  of  the  Egyptian 

Conca.*',   XXV  (Venice,   1782),  416-426.    Having  Abbot  Paul  (d.  a.  d.  341),  who  used  to  t^e  three 

held  the  position  of  archdeacon,  Baysio  is  often  known  hundred  pebbles  into  his  Ian  as  counters  and  to  drop 

by  the  name  of  Archidiaoonus  and  thus  quoted  (see  one  as  he  finished  each  of  the  corresponding  number 

Ferraris,  Bibliotheca,  Rome,  1802),  VIU,  271.     His  o(  prayers  it  was  his  wont  to  say  daily.    In  the  eighth 

thief  woric.the  "Rosarium",  has  gone  through  many  century  the  pemtentials,  or  rule  books  relating  to 

editions:   Strasbuig,    1472:    Rome,    1477;    Venice,  penitents,  prescribed  vanous  penances  of  twenty, 

1480;  1513;  1601,  etc.    The  "Apparatus  ad  Sextum",  fifty,  or  more,  paters.    The  stnngs  of  beads,  with  the 

Mfiftp  1480'  Venice  1677.  ^"  ®^  which  such  penances  were  accurately  said, 

SorowB,  efesckiehie  der  Qv^hm  u,  Uturatw  des  kan.  Rechu  gradually  came  to  be  known  as  paternosters.    Archae- 

(8«Btttart.  1875),  II,  18^190;  Hurtkr,  NomenclaUfr  (Inns-  ological  records  mention  fragments  of  prayer  beads 

brock.  1899).  IV.  413;  ScuM.R  m  ^i^^^^^^^^J];^'^'^  found  in  the  tomb  of  the  holy  abbess  Gertrude  of 

1.EO  uan»w  Nivelles  (d.  659):  also  similar  devices  discovered  in 

BiiftB,  John  S^tmPBSN,  third  Bishop  of.  Vinitimngi  the  tombs,  of  St..  ^orbevt  and  of  St.  Rosalia,  both  ol 


BEA&D  362  BSABD 

the  twelfth  century.    The  Bollandists  quote  William  made  of  the  wood  of  the  sacred  TuLd  shrub,  to  tdl 

of  Malmesbury  (De  Gest.  Pont.  Angl.,  iV,  4)  as  stat-  the  names  of  Vishnu;  another  accomplishea  its  in- 

ing  that  the  Countess  Godiva,  who  foimded  a  religious  vocations  of  Siva  by  means  of  a  string  of  thirty-two 

house  at  Coventrjr  in  1040,  donated,  when  she  was  or  sixty-four  berries  of  the  Rudraksha  tree.    These 

about  to  die,  a  circlet  or  string  of  costly  precious  or  other  species  of  seeds  and  berries  were  chosen  as 

stones  on  whSch  she  used  to  say  her  prayers,  to  be  the  matenaJ  for  these  chaplets  on  account  of  some 

placed  on  a  statue  of  the  Blessed  Vir^n.     In  the  traditional  association  with  the  deities,  as  recorded 

course  of  the  eleventh,  twelfth,  and  thirteenth  cen-  in  sacred  legends.     Some  of  the  ascetics  had  their 

turies,  such  paternosters  came  into  extensive  use  beads  made  of  the  teeth  of  dead  bodies.    Among 

especially  in  the  religious  orders.    At  certain  times  some  sects,  especidly  the  votaries  of  Vishnu,  a  string 

corresponding  to  the  canonical  hours,  la^  brothers  of  beads  is  placed  on  the  neck  of  children  when,  at 

and  lay  sisters  were  oblif;ed  to  say  a  certain  number  the  age  of  six  or  seven,  they  are  about  to  be  initiated 

of  Our  Fathers  as  an  eqmvalent  of  the  clericd  obliga-  and  to  be  instructed  in  the  use  of  the  sacred  formu- 

tion  of  the  Divine  Office.    The  military  orders  like-  laries.      Most  Hindus  continue  to  wear  the  beads 

wise,  notably  the  Knights  of  St.  John^  adopted  the  both  for  ornament  and  for  use  at  prayers.    Amon^the 

paternoster  beads  as  a  part  of  the  equipment  of  lay  Buddhists,  whose  religion  is  of  Brahminic  origin, 

members.     In  the  fifteenth  century,  wearing  the  various  prayer-formulas  are  said  or  repeated  with  the 

beads  at  one's  drdle  was  a  distinctive  sign  of  mem-  aid  of  beads  made  of  wood,  berries,  coztd,  amber,  or 

bership  in  a  religious  confraternity  or  third  order,  precious  metals  and  stones.    A  string  of  beads  cut 

If  a  certain  worldliness  in  the  use  of  beads  as  oma-  from  the  bones    of   some  holy  lama  is  especiidly 

ments  in  those  days  had  to  be  checked,  as  it  was  by  valued.    The  number  of  beads  is  usually  one  hundred 

various  capitulary  ordinances  prohibiting  monks  and  and  eight;  but  strings,  of  thirty  or  forty  are  in  use 

friars,  for  instance,  from  having  beads  of   coral,  among  the  poorer  classes.     Buddhism  in  Burma, 

crjrstal,  amber,  eto.^  and  nuns  from  wearing  beads  Tibet,  China,  and  Japan  dike  employs  a  ntimber  of 

around  the  neck,  evidence  is  not  wanting  that  pater-  more  or  less  complicated  forms  of  devotion,  but  the 

nosters  were  also  openly  carried  as  a  sign  of  penance,  frequently  recurring  conclusion,  a  form  of  sdutation, 

especially  by  bands  of  pilerims  processionally  visiting  is  mostly  the  same,  and  contains  the  mystic  word 

the  shrines,  churches,  and  other  holy  places  of  Rome.  OM^  supposed  to  have  reference  to  th'  Buddhistic 

From  their  purpose,  too,  it  is  natural  that  prayer  trinitv.    ft  is  not  uncommon  to  find  keys  and  trinkets 

beads  were  prized  as  gifts  of  friendship.    They  were  attached  to  a  Buddhist's  prayer  beads,  and  generally 

especially  valued  if  they  had  been  worn  by  a  person  each  string  is  provided  with  two  little  cords  of  special 

of  known  sanctity  or  if  they  had  touched  the  relics  countors.  ten  in  number,  in  the  form  of  beads  or  metal 

of  any  saint,  in  which  cases  they  were  often  piously  disks.    At  the  end  of  one  of  these  cords  is  found  a 

believed  to  be  the  instruments  of  miraculous  power  miniature  thunderbolt:  the  other  terminates  in  a 

and  healing  virtue.  tiny  bell.    With  the  aid  of  this  device  the  devotee 

Beads  were  generally  strung  either  on  a  straight  can  count  a  hundred  repetitions  of  his  beads  or 

thread,  of  cord,  or  so  as  to  form  a  circlet,  or  loop.  108x10x10  formulas  in  all.     Among  the  Japanese, 

At  the  present  time  chained  beads  have  almost  en-  especially  elaborate  systoms  of  coimting  exist.    One 

tirely  talcen  the  place  of  t*-    corded  ones.    To  facili-  apparatus   is   descril)ed   as   capable   of  registering 

tate  the  counting  or  to  mairk  off  certain  divisions  of  36,736  prayers  or  repetitions, 
a  devotion,  sets  of  beads,  usually  decades,  are  sepa-        The  Mohammedans  use  a  string  of  ninety-nine 

rated  from  each  other  by  a  larger  bead  or  sometimes  (or  one  hundred)  beads  called  the  sitbha  or  toMh,  on 

by  a  medal  or  metal  cross.    The  number  of  beads  on  which  they  recite  the  "beautiful"  names  or  attributes 

a  chaplet,  or  Rosary,  depends  on  the  number  of  of  Allah.    It  is  divided  into  three  equal  parts  either 

prayers  making  up  each  particular  form  of  devotion,  by  a  bead  of  specid  shape  or  size,  or  by  a  tassel  of 

A  full  Rosary  consists  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  Hail  gold  or  silk  thread.    The  use  of  these  Islamic  beads 

Marys,  fifteen  Our  Fathers,  and  three  or  four  beadi«  appears  to  have  been  established  as  early  as  the 

corresponding    to    introductoiy   versicles    and    the  mnth  century  independently  of  Buddhistic   influ- 

" Glory  be  to  the  Father",  etc.     Such  a  "pair  of  ences.    Some  critics  nave  thought  the  Mohammedan 

beads  '  is  generally  worn  by  religious.    Lay  people  chaplet  is  kindred  to  a  Jewish  form  of  one  himdred 

commonly  have  beads  representing  a  third  part  of  the  blessings.    The  beads  in  general  use  are  said  to  be 

Rosary.    The  Brigittine  beads  number  seven  paters  often  made  of  the  sacred  clay  of  Mecca  or  Medina, 

in  honour  of  the  sorrows  and  joys  of  the  Blessed  Among  travelers'  records  oi  prayer  beads  is  the 

Virgin,  and  sixty-three  aves  to  commemorate  the  famous  instance,  by  Marco  Polo,  of  the  King  of 

years  of  her  life.    Another  Crown  of  Our  Lady,  in  Malabar,  who  wore  a  fime  silk  thread  strung  with 

use  among  the  Franciscans,  has  seventy-two  aves,  one  hundred  and  four  large  pearls  and  rubies,  on 

based  on  another  tradition  of  the  Blessed  Virgin's  which  he  was  wont  to  pray  to  his  idols.    Alexander 

SL^e.    The  devotion  of  the  Crown  of  Our  Lord  con-  Von  Humboldt  is  also  quoted  as  finding  prayer  beads, 

sists  of  thirty-three  paters  in  honour  of  the  years  of  called  Quipos.  amon^  the  native  Peruvians. 
Our  Lord  on  earth  and  five  aves  in  honour  of  His       Esscr,  Zw  Archaologje  der  P<iUmotUr  Sdmtur  in  Compit 

sacred  wounds.    In  the  church  Latin  of  the  Middle  ^^^^i^i^^^t  ,f%,5rrA.3£o^''J/"2£  & 

Ages,  many  names  were  applied  to  prayer  beads  as:  Beadt  in  The  Month,  No.  442,  April,  1901;  Esser,  Unaerer 

devotioneSf  signacidaj  oracuuif  precana,  patrUoqinum.  lieben  Frauen  Ratenkratu  (Paderbom,  1889). 
sertCy   preculoB,   numeralia,   compiUum,   calculi j   ana  John  R.  Voijb. 

others.    An  old  English  form,  hides ^  or  hedys.  meant 

primarily  prayers.     From  the  end  of  the  fifteenth       Beard. — Among  the  Jews,  as  among  most  Oriental 

centuiy  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth,  the  peoples,  the  beara  was  especially  cherished   as  a 

name  paternoster  beads  fell  into  disuse  and  was  re-  symbol  of  virility:  to  cut  off  another  man's  beard 

placed  by  the  names  ave  beads  and  Rosary,  chaplet,  was  an  outrage  (ll  Kings,  x,  4);  to  shave  or  to 

or  crown.  pluck  one's  own  beard  was  a  sign    of   mourning 

The  use  of  besuis  among  pagans  is  undoubtedlv  of  (Jer.,  xli,  5;  xlviii,  37);  to  allow  the  beard  to  be  de- 
bater antiquity  than  their  Christian  use;  but  tnere  filed  constituted  a  presumption  of  madness  (I  Kings, 
IS  no  evidence  to  show  that  the  latter  is  derived  from  xxi,  13).  Certain  ceremonial  cuttings  of  the  beard 
the  former,  any  more  than  there  is  to  establish  a  which  probably  imitated  pagan  suFjerstition  were 
relation  between  Christian  devotions  and  pa^an  strictly  forbidden  (Lev.,  xix,  27;  xxi,  5).  On  the 
forms  of  prayer.  One  sect  in  India  used  a  chaplet  other  hand,  the  leper  was  commanded  to  shave 
consisting  generally  of  one  himdred  and  eight  beads  (Lev.,  xiv,  9).    These  usages  which  we  leain  from 


BSABBBUR                            36S  BiAEDBLXY 

0 

the  Bible  are  oonfirmed  by  the  teBtipoony  of  the  be  like  the  angels  who  remain  always  in  the  bloom 

iDonuments,  both  Egyptian  and  Assjrrian,  in  which  of  youth/'     (Rationale,  II,  lib.  XXXII.) 

the  Jews  are  invariably  depicted  as  bearded.    The  In  spite  of  this,  the  phrase  harham  nutrire  which 

^S^tians  themselves   oommonlv  shaved,   and  we  was  classical  in  the  matter,  and  was  still  used  by 

are  told  that  Joseph,  on  being  taken  from  nis  prison,  the  Fifth  Goimcil  of  Lateran  (1512),  always  remained 

His  made  to  shave  before  appearing  in  the  presence  somewhat  ambiguous.    Consequently  usage  in  the 

of  the  king  (Gen.,  xll,  14).  sixteenth  century  began  to  interpret  the  prohibition 

Similarly  in  Greece  and  in  Rome,  shortly  before  as  not  inconsistent  with  a  short  beard.    There  are 

the  time  of  Christ,  it  was  the  fashion  to  shave,  but  still  many  ordinances  of  ^iscopai  synods  which 

from  the  accession  of  Hadrian  onwards,  as  we  may  deal  with  the  subject,  but  the  point  upon  which 

eee  from  the  existing  statues  of  the  Roman  emperors^  stress  is  laid  is  that  the  cler^  ''should  not  seem 

beards  once  more  became  the  order  of  the  day.  to  be  i^ing  the  fashions  of  mihtary  folk"  or  wear- 

With  re^ud  to  the  Christian  clergy,  no  cl^  evidence  ing  flowing  beards  like  goats  {hircorum  et  caprarum 

is  available  for  the  early  centuries.    The  Apostles,  in  more),  or  allowing  the  hair  on  their  upper  lip  to  im- 

our  most  ancient  monuments,  are  for  the  most  part  pede  their  drinkmg  of  the  chalice.    This  last  has 

represented    as    bearded,    but    not    uniformly    so.  always  been  accounted  a  solid  reason  in  favour  of 

^ee  Weiss-Liebersdorff,  Christus-  und  Apost^lbilder,  the  practice  of  shaving.    To  judge  bv  the  portraits 

Freiburg,  1902.)    St.  Jerome  seems  to  censure  the  of  the  popes,  it  was  with  Clement  VU  (1523)  that 

practice  of  wearing  long  beards,  but  no  very  definite  a  distinct  beard  began  to  be  worn,  and  many  among 

conclusion  can  be  drawn  from  his  allusions  or  from  his  successors,  for  example  Paul  III,  allowed  the 

those  of   his    contemporary,    St.    Augustine.    The  beard  to  grow  to  considerable  length.    St.  Charles 

earliest  positive  legislation  on  the  subject  for  clerics  Borromeo  attempted  to  check  the  spread  of  the  new 

appears  to  be  Canon  zliv  of  the  so-called   Fourth  fashion,  and  in  1576  he  addressed  to  his  clergy  a 

CSsuncil  of  Carthage,  which  in  realitjr  represents  the  pastoral  "  De  barb&  radendA "  exhorting  them  to 

svnodal  decrees  of  some  ooimcil  in  Southern  Gaul  in  observe  the   canons.    Still,   though   the   length   of 

the  time  of  St.  Csesarius  of  Aries  (c.  503).    There  it  clerical   beards   decreased    during   the   seventeenth 

is  enjoined  that  a  cleric  is  to  allow  neither  hair  nor  century,  it  was  not  until  its  close  that  the  example 

beard  to  grow  freely   (Clerictia  nee  comam  ntUriat  of  the  French  court  and  the  influence  of  Cardinid 

n^  barbam),  though  this  prohibition  is  very  prob-  Orsini,  Archbishop  of  Beneventum,  contributed  to 

ably  directed    only    against    beards    of    excessive  bring  about  a  return  to  the  earlier  usage.    For  the 

length.    Still  this  canon,  which  was  widely  quoted  last  200  years  there  has  been  no  change,  and  an 

and  is  included  in  the  "Cbrpus  juris",  had  great  in-  attempt  made  by  some  of  the  clergy  of  Bavaria  in 

fluence  in  creating  a  precedent.     (See  for  example  1865  to  introduce  the  wearing  of  beards  was  re- 

the  "  Penitential "  of  Ilali^ar  and  the  so-called  "  Ex-  buked  by  the  Holy  See. 

ceiptions"  attributed  to  Egbert  of  York.)  So  far  As  already  noted,  in  Eastern  lands  a  smooth  face 
as  concern^  England  in  particular  it  was  certainly  carries  with  it  the  suggestion  of  effeminacy.  For 
regarded  throughout  the  Middle  Ages  as  uncanoniccu  this  reason  the  clergy,  whether  Uniat  or  Schieonatic, 
to  allow  the  beard  to  grow.  A  cleric  was  known  as  of  the  Oriental  churehes  have  always  worn  their 
a  shorn  man  (bescoren  man,  Laws  of  Wihtred,  a.  d.  beards.  The  same  consideration,  together  with  a 
696),  and  if  it  should  seem  that  this  might  refer  to  regard  for  practical  difficulties,  has  mfluenced  the 
the  tonsure,  we  have  a  law  of  King  Alfred:  ''If  a  Roman  authorities  in  according  a. similar  privilege 
man  shave  off  another's  beard  let  him  make  amends  to  missionaries,  not  only  in  the  East  but  m  other 
with  XX  shillings.  If  he  bind  him  first  and  then  barbarous  countries  where  the  conveniences  of 
shave  him  like  a  priest  {hine  to  preoste  bescire)  let  civilization  cannot  be  found.  In  the  case  of  re- 
him  make  amends  with  Ix  shillings.''  And  under  ligious  orders  like  the  Capuchins  and  the  Carnal- 
King  Edgar  we  find  the  canon:  "Let  no  man  in  holy  dolese  Hermits  the  wearing  of  a  beard  is  prescribed 
orders  conceal  his  tonsure,  nor  let  himself  be  mis-  in  their  constitutions  as  a  mark  of  austerity  and  pen- 
shaven  nor  keep  his  beard  for  any  time,  if  he  will  ance.  Individual  priests  who  for  medical  or  other 
have  God's  blessing  and  St.  Peter's  and  ours."  reasons  deisire  to  exempt  themselves  from  the  law 
A  similar  practice  obtained   generally  throughout  require  the  permission  of  their  bishop. 

the  West  and  it  was  one  of  the  great  subjects  of  .  Barbier  de  Moi*tault.  Ueoatume  et  lea  uBooefecdSfiof- 

repH>ach  on  the  part  of  the  Greek  thurch,  from  the  JKiSLL^^lSSil'rl-ciffsil?;:^^.^^^^  iitS'ciLSS: 

tmae  of   PhotlUS  onwards,    that   the. Roman   clergy  t    2049-61;  Seohrrb,  The  Practice  of  Shaving  in  the  LaHn 

systematically  cut  off  their  beards.     But  as  Ratram-  Church  in.  Am,  Cath,QuarL  Rev.{l882\  27S:W mvz,  Jue 

nu.  of  C^ie  protested,  it  wag  foolish  to  make  an  ^^Z'SJ^r^'^S'S:]^.  r^^S^'^itf^JlTS 

outcry  about  a  matter  which  concerned  salvation  Hast.,  Diet  cf  the  Bible,  a.  v.  Beard. 

80  little  as  this  barbcB  detonsio  avt  conaervatio.  Herbert  Thurston. 

The  legislation  requiring  the  beard  to  be  shaved 

seems  to  nave  remained  in  force  throughout  the  Mid-  Beardsley,  Aubrey,  English  artist,  b.  at  Brighton, 

die  Ages.    Thus  an  ordinance  of  the  Gouncil  of  Tou-  1872;  d.  at  Men  tone,  France,  16  March,  1898.    It  has 

louse,  in  1119.  threatened  with  excommimication  the  been  cleverly  said  that  Beardsley  was  ''a  bov  who 

dene  who  "Ukc  a  layman  allowed  hair  and  beard  to  never  grew  up",  and  the  statement  has  a  considerable 

grow",  and  Pope  Alexander  III  ordained  that  clerics  amount  of  trutn  in  it.     He  was  a  wonderfully  pre- 

who  nourished  their  hair  and  beard  were  to  be  shorn  cocious  boy  all  his  life,  with  the  frank  memment, 

l^  their  archdeacon,  by  force  if  necessary.    This  last  enthusiasm,  and  exuberance  of  a  lad.     He  was  imable 

decree  was  incorporated  in  the  text  of  the  canon  to  withstand  the  desire  to  do  clever,  mischievous 

law  (Decretals  of  Gregory  IX,  III,  tit.  i,  cap.  vii).  things  and  to  shock  people  of  narrow  opinions,  and 

Durandus,  finding  mystical  reasons  for  everything,  his  i^oble  and  vicious  works  were  more  the  result 

aeoording  to  his  wont,  tells  us  that  "length  of  hair  of  his  Puck-like  mischief  and  eccentricity  of  habit 

is  sjrmTOlical    of    the    multitude    of    sins.    Hence  than  of  any  evil  disposition.     His  eariiest  pubhshed 

dericB  are  directed  to  shave  their  beards;  for  the  work  was  a  programme  for  an  entertainment  in  1888 

cutting  of  the  hair  of  the  beard,  which  is  said  to  at  Brighton  Grammar  School,  where  he  was  a  pupil, 

be  nourished  by  the  superfluous  humours  of  the  imdhisnext  in  the ''Bee  Magazine",  Blackburn,  1891. 

stomach,  denot^  that  we  ought  to  cut  away  the  Young  Beardsley  commenced  work  as  a  clerk  in 

vices  and  sins  which  are  a  superfluous  growth  in  the  Guardian  Fire  Office,  but  at  the  earnest  persua- 

itt.    Hence  we  shave  our  beards  that  we  may  seem  sions  of  Aymer  Vallance   and   Pennell   he  entered 

•  purified  Yyy  innocence  and  humility  and  that  we  may  Fred  Brown's  studio  at  Westminster  and  devoted  his 


BSATZnO  364  BSATIFZOATION 

attention  to  illustration.     While  still  a  lad  he  at-  members  of  the  imperial  family,  of  which  family 

tracted  the  attention  of  Sir  E.   Bume-Jones  and  it  was  the  exclusive  privilege,    ino  regard  was  had 

Puvis  de  Chavannes,  and  it  said  much  for  his  jB[^[iius  to  virtues  or  remarkable  achievements.     Recourse 

thai  it  received  encouragement  from  men  so  different  was  frequently  had  to  this  form  of  deification  to 

in  their  aims  and  practice.    When  nineteen  he  ao-  escape  popular  hatred  bv  distracting  attention  from 

cepted  the  tremendous  task  of  illustrating  the  "  Morte  the  cruelty  of  imperial  rulers.    It  is  said  that  Romulus 

D  Arthur  ",  and  carried  it  through.    The  famous  arti-  was  deified  by  the  senators  who  slew  him;    Poppsea 

ele  upon  him  in  the  "Studio "  appeared  in  April,  1893,  owed  her  apotheosis  to  her  imperial  paramour,  Nero, 

and  from  that  moment  his  work  was  in  great  demand,  after  he  had  kicked  her  to  deatn;  Greta  had  the  honour 

In  April,  1894,  he  became  art  editor  ol  the  '' Ydlow  from  his  brother  Caracalla,  who  had  got  rid  of  him 

Book",  the  first  numbers  of  which  caused  a  great  through   jealousy.     Canonisation   in    the   Gathdio 

sensation.     He  was  responsible  for  the  first  four  Church  is  quite  another  thing.    The  Catholic  Church 

volumes  and  then,  with  Arthur  Symons,  started  the  canonizes  or  beatifies  only  those  whose  lives  have 

"Savoy**,  to  which  he  contributed  a  series  of  draw-  been  marked  by  the  exercise  of  heroic  virtue,  and 

ings.     During  his  short  life  he  carried  the  art  of  only  after  this  nas  been  proved  by  common  repute 

black  and  white  further  than  any  man  since  Albrecht  for  sanctity  and   by  conclusive  argiunents.     The 

DUrer.     His    special    qualities    were    described    by  chief  difference,  however,  lies  in  the  meaning  of 

Hammerton  as  of  "extreme  economy  of  means  the  the  term  canonization,  tne  Church  seeing  in  the 

perfection  of  disci];^ne,  of  self-control,  and  of  thought-  saints  nothing  more  tnan  friends  and  servuits  of 

ful  deliberation  at  the  very  moment  of  invention  .  God  whose  holy  lives  have  made  them  worthy  of 

Beardsley  had   a  marvellous  knowledge  of   the  His  special  love.    She  does  not  pretend  to  make  gods 

quality  of  line,  a  real  and  powerful  sense  of  beauty,  (cf.  Eusebius  Emisenus,  Serm.  de  S.  Rom.  M.;  Au- 

coupled  with  a  constant  desire  to  be  quaint,  fanciful,  gustine,  £>e  Civitate  Dei,  XXII,  x*  CVrill.  Alexandr., 

or  Bizarre.     He  possesse<^  a  vigour,  inventiveness.  Contra  Jul.,  lib.  VI;  Cyprian,  De  Exhortat.  martyr.; 

and  daintiness  almost  unapproachable  in  the  work  Cone.  Nic,  11,  act.  3). 

of    any   other    man.     Hammerton    speaks    of    the        The  true  origin  of  canonization  and  beatification 

"serene  surety  of    his  drawing",  of    his  "superb  must  be  sought  in  the  Catholic  doctrine  of  the  wor- 

sense  of  style";  but  Beardsle^r's  love  of  mischief,  ship   (ctiftux),   invocation,  and  intercession  of  the 

which  he  deeply  regretted,  led  mm  into  serious  faults  saints.     As  was  taught  by  St.  Ai^ustine  (Quaest. 

and  caused  mm  to  be  often  misunderstood.     By  in  Heptateuch.,  lib.  II,  n.  94;  contra  Faustum,  lib. 

those  who  knew  him  he  was  regarded  as  the  most  XX,  xxi).  Catholics,  while  giving  to  Cod  alone  adorar 

original,  brilliant,  witty,  and  lovable  man  they  ever  tion  strictly  so-called,  honour  the  saints  because  of 

met.     His  illustrations  of  "  Salome ",  "The  Rape  of  the  Divine  supernatural  gifts  which  have  earned 

the  Lock",  ''Mademoiselle  de  Maupin"  and  "Vol-  them  eternal  life,  and  through  which  they  reign  with 

pone  "  are  amonest  his  greatest  works.     From  boy-  God  in  the  heavenly  fatherland  as  His  chosen  friends 

nood  he  had  bad  health  and  suffered  from  frequent  and  faithful  servants.     In  other  words,  Oithoiics 

attacks  of  hemorrhage.     He  was  always  a  man  of  honour  Grod  in  His  saints  as  the  loving  distributor 

deep  religious  feelinr  and  became  a  Catholic  at  the  of  supernatural  ^fts.    The  worship  of  lairia  (Xarpcia), 

close  of  his  life  (31  March,  1895).  or  strict  adoration,  is  given  to  Crod  alone;  the  wor- 

Symonb,   Lif«  of    BeardMeu  (London,   1^);    T^  Studw  ghip  of  dltlia  (aoi/Xete),  or  honour  and   humble  reV- 

y^J^  tertlldtS!  il^^i:.^i>^  ^  ^<^«  P^W  t»^.t"*'i  *»»«  ^"WP  of  hyperduli* 

his  drawings  and  of  macazine  articles  (New  York,  1900).  (hrepdov^eta) ,  a   higher  form   of   dvlta,  belongs,  on 

Georqe  Charles  Wiluambon.  account  of   her   greater   excellence,  to  the  Blessed 

Beatific   Vigion,    the   immediate   knowledge    of  ^IjP"  ¥^7*  /he  Church  (Aug    Cbntr  Fat^tuin, 

the  human  mind  may  attain  in  the  present  life.    And  r??^  ^^r  such  worship  m  the  passa^  where  we  are 

since  Tteholding  ^od  face  to  facS  the  creaied  in-  ^*^^|^,„^  y^^^^Ji^f^  ^n'^'^4'^n  ^i/kflr 

teUigence  finds^ect  happiness,  the  vision  is  termed  J'  ^^  fq^jj>^:,  viU,  15  sqq^  x,  4  «qc,^  Luke   ii 

"^"tJI^^:;.''"'  '^*^''  explanation  of  the  subject,  ^!^^ftit?iwii;  10  Ttc'),^m  hol^^^^ 

see  Heaven.  E.  A.  Pace.  ^j^^  ^  ^y^^^^  ^^'^j^  friendship  of  God.    And  if 

Beatiflcation  and  Oanonlzation. — 1.  History. —  St.  Paul  beseeches  the  brethren  (Rom.,  xv,  30;  II  Cor.^ 

According  to  some  writers  the  origin  of  beatification  i,  11;  Col.,  iv,  3;  Ephes.,  vi,  18,  19)  to  help  him  by 

and  canonization  in  the  Catholic  Church  is  to  be  their  prayers  for  him  to  God,  we  must  with  even 

traced  back  to  the  ancient  pagan  apotheosis.     (See  greater  reason  maintain  that  we  can  be  helped  by 

Apotheosis.)     In  his  classic  work  on  the  subject  the  prayers  of  the  saints,  and  ask  their  intercession 

(De  Servorum  Dei  Beatificatione  et  B«ttorum  Canon-  wHh  humility.    If  we  may  beseech  those  who  still 

izatione)  Benedict  XIV  examines  at  the  very  outset  live  on  eiirth,  why  not  those  who  live  in  heaven?    It 

and  refutes  this  view.     He  shows  so  well  the  sub-  it  objected  that  the  invocation  of  saints  is  opposed 

stantial   differences   between   them   that  no  right-  to  the  unique  mediatorship  of  Christ  Jesus.     There 

thinking  person  need  henceforth  confound  the  two  is  indeed  "one  mediator  of  God  and  man,  the  man 

institutions  or  derive  one  from  the  other.     It  is  a  Christ  Jesus*'.    But  He  is  our  mediator  in  His  quality 

matter  of  history  who  were  elevated  to  the  honour  of  our  common  Redeemer;  He  is  not  our  sole  inter- 

of  apotheosis,  on  what  grounds,  and  by  whose  au-  oessor  nor  advocate,  nor  our  sole  mediator  by  way 

thonty;  no  less  clear  is  the  meaning  that  was  attached  of  supplication.    In  the  eleventh  session  of  the  Coun- 

to  it.    Often  the  decree  was  due  to  the  statement  cilof(;halcedon  (451)  we  find  the  Fathers  exclaiming, 

of  a  sin^e  person  (possibly  bribed  or  enticed  by  "Flavianus  lives  after  death  I    May  the  Martyr  pray 

promises,  ana  with  a  view  to  fix  the  fraud  more  se-  for  us!"    If  we  ac'^pt  this  doctrine  of  the  worship 

curely  in  the  minds  of  an  already  superstitious  people)  of  the  saints,  of  which  there  are  innumerable  evi- 

that  while  the  body  of  the  new  god  was  being  burned,  dences  in  the  writings  of  the  Fathers  and  the  litur- 

an  eacle,  in  the  case  of  the  emperors,  or  a  peacock  gies  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches,  we  shall 

(Juno  s  sacr^  bird),  in  the  case  of  their  consorts,  not  wonder  at  the  loving  care  with  which  the  Churcb 

was  seen  to  carry  heavenward  the  spirit  of  the  de-  committed  to  writing  the  sufferings  of  the  early 

parted  (JAvv,  Hist.  Rome,  I,  xvi;  Herodian,  Hist,  martyrs,  sent  these  accounts  from  one  gathering  ol 

Home,  iV,  ii,  iii).    Apotheosis  was  awarded  to  most  the  faithful  to  another,  and  promoted  the  veneratkna  ^ 


BEATinOATIOir  365  BXATmOATION 

of  the  martyrs.     Let  one  instance  suffice.    In  the  died  peacefully  after  a  life  of  heroic  virtue^^is  not  as 
circular  epistle  of  the  Church  of  Smyrna  (Eus.,  Hist:  ancient  as  ttuBit  of  the  martvrs.     The  word  itself 
Ecd.,  IV,  xxiii)  we  find  mention  of  the  religious  cele-  takes  on  a  different  meaning  after  the  early  Christian 
bration  of  the  dav  on  which  St.  Polycarp  suffered  periods.    In  the  beginning  it  was  ^iven  to  those  who 
martyrdom  (23  February,  155);  and  the  words  of  confessed  Christ  when  examined  m  the  presence  of 
the  passage  exactly  express  the  main  purpose  which  enemies  of  the  Faith  (Baronius,  in  his  notes  to  Ro. 
the  Church  has  in  the  celebration  of  sucti  anniver*  Mart.,  2  January,  D),  or,  as  Benedict  XIV  explains 
saries:  "We  have  at  last  gathered  his  bones,  which  (op.  cit.,  II,  c.  ii,  n.  6),  to  those  who  died  peacefully 
are  dearer  to  us  than  priceless  eems  and  purer  than  after  having  confessed  the  Faith  before  tyrants  or 
gold,  and  laid  them  to  r^t  where  it  was  beating  other  enemies  of  the  Christian  religion,  and  under- 
they  should  lie.    And  if  it  be  possible  for  us  to  as-  gone  tortures  or  suffered  other  punishments  of  what- 
semble  again,  may  God  grant  us  to  celebrate  the  ever  nature.     Later  on,  confessors  were,  those  who 
birthday  of  his  martyrdom  with  dadness,  thus  to  had  lived  a  holy  life  ana  closed  it  by  a  holy  death  in 
recall  the  memory  of  those  who  fought  in  the  glorious  Christian  peace.    It  is  in  this  sense  that  we  now  treat 
combat,  and  to  teach  and  strengthen,  by  his  example,  of  the  worship  paid  to  confessors, 
those  who  shall  come  after  us."    This  anniversary        It  was  in  the  fourth  century,  as  is  commonly  held, 
celebration  and  veneration  of  the  martyrs  was  a  that  confessors  were  first  given  public  ecclesiastical 
8er\nce  of  thanksgiving  and  congratulation,  a  token  honour,  though  occasionally  praised  in  ardent  terms 
and  an  evidence  of  the  joy  of  those  who  engaged  by  earlier  Fathers,  and  though  an  abundant  reward 
in  it  (Muratori,  de  Paradiso,  x),  and  its  general  (mtdtiplex  corona)  is  declared  by  St.  Cyprian  to  be 
diffusion  explains  why  Tertullian,  though  asserting  theirs  (De  Zelo  et  Livore,  col.  609;  cf.  Innoc.  Ill, 
with  the  C^iasts  that  the  departed  just  would  ob-  De  Myst.  Miss.,  Ill,  x;  Benedict  XIV,  op.  cit.,  I, 
tain  eternal  glory  only  after  the  general  resurrection  v,  n**  3  sqq;   Bellarmine,  De   Missd,  II,  xx,  n?  5). 
of  the  body,  admitted  an  exception  for  the  martyrs  Still   Bellarmine  thinks  it  uncertain  when  confess- 
(de  Resurrectione  Camis,  xliii).  ors  began  to  be  objects  of  cultus,  and  asserts  that 
It  must  be  obvious,  however,  that,  while  private  it  was  not  before  800,  when  the  feasts  of  Sts.  Martin 
moral  certainty  of  their  sanctity  ana  possession  of  and  Remigius  are  found  in  the  catalogue  of  feasts 
heavenly  glory  may  suffice  for  private  veneration  drawn  up  by  the  Council  of  Maine.    This  opinion  of 
of  the  saints,  it  cannot  suffice  for  public  and  common  Innocent  III  and  Benedict  XIV  is  confirmed  by  the 
acts  of  that  kind.    No  member  of  a  social  body  may,  implicit  approval  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great  (Dial.,  I, 
independently  of  its  authority,  perform  an  act  proper  xiv,  and  111,  xv)  and  by  well  attested  facts:  in  the 
to  that  body.    It  follows  naturally  that  for  the  public  East,  for  example,  Hilarion  (Sozomen,  III,  xiv,  and 
veneration  of  the  saints  the  ecclesiastical  authority  of  VIII,  xix),  Epnrem  (Grec.  Nyss..  Orat.  in  laud.  S. 
the  pastors  and  rulers  of  the  Church  was  constantly  PB-  Ephrem),  ana  other  confe^ors  were  publicly  hon- 
quired.    The  Church  had  at  heart,  indeed,  the  honour  oured  in  the  fourth  century;  and,  in  the  West,  St. 
of  the  martyrs,  but  she  did  not  therefore  grant  Martinof  Tours,  as  is  gathered  plainly  from  the  oldest 
liturdcal  honours  indiscriminately  to  all  those  who  Breviaries  and  the  Mozarabic  Missal   (Bona,  Rer. 
had  died  for  the  Faith.    St.  Optatus  of  Mileve,  writ-  Lit.,  II,  xii,  n*»  3),  and  St.  Hilary  of  Poitiers,  as  can 
ing  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  century,  tells  us  (De  be  shown  from  the  very  ancient  Mass-book  known  as 
Schism.  Donat.,  I,  xvi,  in  P.  L.,  XI,  916-917)  of  a  "Missale    Francorum"     (Thomassin,    "Traits    des 
certain  noble  lady.  Lucilla,  who  was  reprehended  f^tesdeTdglise'*,  in  the  second  volume  of  his  "Ti;ait^ 
oj  CtBcilisLBm,  Arcndeacon  of  Carthage,  for  having  historiques  et  dogmatiques",  Paris,  1683),  were  ob- 
kissed  before  Holy  Communion  the  bones  of  one  who  jects  of  a  like  cultus  in  the  same  century  (Martigny, 
either  was  not  a  martyr  or  whose  right  to  the  title  Dictionnaire  des  antiquity  chr^tiennes,  s.  v.  Confess- 
was  unproved.    The  decision  as  to  the  martyr  having  eurs).    The  reason  of  this  veneration  lies,  doubtless,  in 
died  for  his  faith  in  Christ,  and  the  consequent  per-  the  resemblance  of  the  confessors'  self-denying  and 
mission  of  worship,  lay  originally  with  xhe  bishop  of  heroically   virtuous  lives  to   the  sufferings  of  the 
the  place  in  ^hich  he  had  borne  his  testimony.    The  martjrrs;  such  lives  could  truly  be  called  prolonged 
bishop  inquired  into  the  motive  of  his  death  and,  martyrdoms.      Naturally,    therefore,    such    honour 
^ding  he  nad  died  a  martyr,  sent  his  name  with  an  was  first  paid  to  ascetics  (Duchesne,  op.  cit.,  284) 
account  of  his  martyrdom  to  other  churches,  es-  and  only  afterwards  to  those  who  resembled  in  their 
pecially  neighbouring  ones,  so  that,  in  the  event  of  lives   the   very   penitential   and   extpaordinary  ex- 
approval  by  their  respective  bishops,  the  cultus  of  istence  of  the  ascetics.    So  true  is  this  that  the  con- 
the  mar^  might  extend  to  their  churches  also,  and  lessors   themselves   are   frequently   called   martyrs, 
that  the  faithnil,  as  we  read  of  St.  Ignatius  in  the  1^.  Qr^ory  Nazianzen  calls  St.  Basil  a  martyr  (Orat. 
"Acta"  of  his  martyrdom   (Ruinart,  Acta  Smcera  de  laud.,  r.  L.,  XXXVI,  602);  St.  Chrysostom  ap- 
Blartyrum,  19),  "might  hold  communion  with  the  plies  the  same  title  to  Eustachius  of  Antioch  (Opp.  Ii, 
generous  martyr  of  Christ"  {generoso  Ckrisli  mariyri  606);  St.  Paulinus  of  Nola  writes  of  St.  Felix  of  Nola 
commvnicarem).    Martyrs  whose  cause,  so  to  speak,  that  he  won  heavenly  honours,  sine  sanguine  martifr 
had  been  discussed,  and  the  fame  of  whose  martyr-  ("a   bloodless  martyr" — Poem.,   XIV,   Carm.    lU, 
dom  had  been  confirmed,  were  known  as  proved  v,  4);  St.  Gregory  the  Great  styles  Zeno  of  Verona  a 
(vindicatt)  martyrs.    As  far  as  the  word  is  concerned  martjrr  (Dial.  Ill,  xix),  and  Metronius  gives  to  St. 
it  may  probably  not  antedate  the  fourth  century,  Roterius  (Acta  SS.,  II,  May  11,  306)  the  same  title. 
when  it  was  introduced  in  the  Church  of  Carthage;  Later  on,  the  names  of  confessors  were  inserted  in 
but  the^  fact  is  certainly  older.    In  the  earlier  ages,  the  diptychs,  and  due  reverence  was  paid  them, 
therefore,  this  worship  of  the  saints  was  entirely  Their  tombs  were  honoured  (Martigny,  loc.  cit.)  with 
local  and  passed  from  one  church  to  another  with  the  the  same  title  {martyria)  as  those  of  the  martyrs.     It 
'permission  of  their  bishops.    This  is  clear  from  the  remained  true,  however,  at  all  times  that  it  was 
lact  that  in  none  of  the  ancient  Christian  cemeteries  unlawful  to  venerate  confessors  without  permission 
are  there  found  paintings  of  martyrs  other  than  those  of  the  ecclesiastical  authority  as  it  had  been  so  to 
who  had  suffered  in  that  neighbourhood.     It  ex-  venerate  martyrs  (Bened.  XIV,  loc.  cit.,  vi). 
plains,  idso,  the  almost  universal  veneration  veiy        We  have  seen  that  for  several  centuries  the  bishops, 
quiekly  paid  to  some  martyrs,  e.  g.  St.  Lawrence,  in  some  places  only  the  primates  and  patriarchs 
St.  Cypnan  of  Carthage,  Pope  St.  Sixtus  of  Rome  (August.,  Brevic.  Collat.  cirai  Donatistis,  III,  xiii 
[Duchesne,  Grigines  du  culte  chr^tien  (Paris,  1903),  n<>  25  in  P.  L.,  XLIII,  628),  could  grant  to  martyrs 
2841  and    confessors   public   ecclesiastical    honour;    such 
Tike  worship  of  confessors — of  those,  that  is,  who  honour,  however,  was  always  decreed  only  for  the  local 


.    BXATIFIOATION  366  BXATXnOATXOH 

territory  over  which  the  grantors  held  jurisdiction,  veneration  to  be  paid  an  individual  b3r  the  tTniversai 
Stilly  it  was  only  the  Bishop  of  Rome's  acceptance  Church.    To  sum  up,  beatification,  in  the  present 
of  the  cultus  that  made  it  universal,  since  he  alone  discipline,  differs  from  canonization  in  this:  that 
could  permit  or  command  in  the  Universal  Church  the  former  implies  (1)  a  locally  restricted^  not  a  uni- 
[Gonzalez  Tellez,  Comm.  Perpet.  in  sin^los  textus  versal,  permission  to  venerate,  which  is  (2)  a  mere 
libr.  Deer.  (Ill,  xlv),  in  cap.  i,  De  reliquiis  et  vener.  permission,  and  no  precept:  while  canonization  im- 
Sanct.].    Abuses,  ho^^ver,  crept  into  this  form  of  plies  a  imiversal  precept.    In  exceptional  cases  one 
discipline,  due  as  well  to  indiscretions  of  popular  or  other  element  of  this  distinction  may  be  lacking: 
fervour  as  to  the  carelessness  of  some  bishops  m  in-  thus,  Alexander  III  not  only  allowed  but  ordered  tne 
quirinff  into  the  lives  of  those  whom  they,  permitted  public  cultus  of  Bl.  William  of  Malavalle  in  the  Dio- 
to  be  honoured  as  saints.    Towards  the  close  of  the  cese  of  Grosseto,  and  his  action  was  confirmed  by 
eleventh  century  the  popes  found  it  necessary  to  Innocent  III;  Leo  X  acted  similarly  with  re^d  to 
restrict  episcopal  authoritv  on  this  point,  and  de-  Bl.  Hosanna  for  the  city  and  district  of  Mantua; 
creed  that  the  virtues  and  miracles  of  persons  pro-  Clement  IX  with  regard  to  Bl.  Rose  of  Lima,  when 
posed   for  public  veneration  should   be  exammed  he  selected  her  as  principal  patron  of  Lima  and  of 
m  councils,  more  particularly  in  ^neral  coimcils.  Peru;  and  Clement  X,  by  making  her  patron  of  all 
Urban  II,  Calixtus  II,  and  Eugemus  III  followed  America,  the  Philippines,  and  the  Indies.    Clement  X 
this  line  of  action.     It  happened,  even  after  these  also  chose  Bl.  Stanislaus  Kostka  as  patron  of  Poland, 
decrees,  that  "some,  fallowing  the  ways  of  the  pagans  Lithuania,  and  the  allied  provinces.     A^ain,  in  re- 
«md  deceived  by  the  fraud  of  the  evil  one.  venerated  spect  to  imiversality,  Sixtus  IV  permitted  the  cultus 
as  a  saint  a  man  who  had  been  killed  wnile  intoxi-  of  Bl.  John  Boni  for  the  Universal  Church.    In  all 
cated".    Alexander  III  (1169-81)  took  occasion  to  these  instances  there  was  only  beatification.    The 
prohibit  his  veneration  in  these  words:  "For  the  cultus  of  Bl.  Rose  of  Lima,  it  is  true,  was  general 
future  you  will  not  presume  to  pay  him  reverence,  and  obligatorjr  for  America,  but,  lacking  complete 
as,  even  though  miracles  were  worked  through  him,  preceptive  universality,  was  not  strictly  speaking 
it  would  not  allow  ^rou  to  revere  him  as  a  saint  un-  canonization   (Benedict  XIV,   op.   cit.,   I,  xxxix). 
less  with  the  authority  of  the  Roman  Church"  (c.  i.        Canonization,  therefore,  creates  a  cultus  w^hich  is 
tit.  cit.,  X,  III,  xlv).    Theologians  do  not  agree  as  to  universal   and   obligatory.      But   in   imposing   this 
the  full  import  of  this  decretal.    Either  a  new  law  obligation  the  pope  may,  and  does,  use  one  of  two 
was   made    TBellarmine,    De    Ecdes.   Triumph.,   I,  methods,  each  constituting  a  new  species  of  canon- 
viii),  in  which  case  the  pope  then  for  the  first  time  ization,  i.   e.   formal  canonization  and  equivalent 
reserved  the  right  of  beatification,  or  a  pre-existing  canonization.      Formd    canonization    occurs    when 
law  was  confirmed.    As  the  decretal  did  not  put  an  the  cultus  is  prescribed  in  an  explicit  and  definitive 
end  to  all  controversy,  and  some  bishops  did  not  obey  decision,  after  due  iudicial  process  and  the  cere- 
it  in  as  far  as  it  regarded  beatification  (which  risht  monies  usual  in  sucn  cases.     Equivalent  canoniza- 
they  had  certainlv  possessed  hitherto),  Urban  VII  tion  occurs  when  the  pope,  omitting  the  judicial 
published,  in  1634,  a  Bull  which  put  an  end  to  all  process  and  the  ceren^omes,  orders  some  servant 
discussion  by  reserving  to  the  Holy  See  exclusively  of  God  to  be  venerated  in  the  Universal  Church; 
not  only  its  immemorial  right  of  canonization,  but  this  happens  when  such  a  saint  has  been  from  a 
also  that  of  beatification.  remote  period  the  object  of  veneration,  when  his 
Nature  of  Beatification  and  Canonization. —  heroic  virtues  (or  martyrdom)  and  miracles  are  re- 
Before  dealing  with  the  actual  procedure  in  causes  lated  by  reliable  historians,  and  the  fame   of  his 
of  beatification  and  canonization,  it  is  proper  to  de-  miraculous  intercession  is  uninterrupted.    Many  ex- 
fine  these  terms  precisely  and  briefly  in  view  of  the  amples  of  such  canonization  are  to  b^  found  in  Bene- 
preceding   considerations.      Canonization,   generally  diet  XIV:  e.  g.  Saints  Romuald,  Norbert,  Bnmo, 
speaking,  is  a  decree  regarding  the  public  ecclesias-  Peter  Nolasco^  Raymond  Nonnatus.  John  of  Mat  ha, 
tical  veneration  of  an  individual.    Such  veneration,  Felix  of  Valois,  Queen  Margaret  of  Scotland.  King 
however,  may  be  permissive  or  preceptive,  may  be  Stephen  of  Hungary,  Wenceslaus  Duke  of  Bonemia, 
universal  or  local.    If  the  decree  contains  a  precept,  and  Gregory  Vll.     Such  instances  afford   a   good 
and  ief  universal  in  the  sense  that  it  binds  the  whole  proof  of  the  caution  with  which  the  Roman  Church 
Church,  it  is  a  decree  of  canonization;  if  it  only  per-  proceeds    in    these   equivalent    canonizations.      St. 
mits  such  worship,  or  if  it  binds  under  precept,  out  Romuald  was  not  canonized  until  439  years  after 
not  with  regard  to  the  whole  Church,  it  is  a  decree  his  death,  and  the  honour  came  to  him  sooner  than 
of  beatification.     In  the  ancient  discipline  of  the  to  any  of  the  others  mentioned.    We  may  add  that 
Church,  probably  even  as  late  as  Alexander  III,  this  equivalent  canonization  consists  usually  in  the 
bishops  could  in  their  several  dioceses  allow  public  ordering  of  an  Office  and  Mass  by  the  pope  in  honour 
veneration  to  be  paid  to  saints,  and  such  episcopal  of  the  saint,  and  that  mere  enrolment  in  the  Roman 
decrees  were  not  merely  permissive,  but,  in  my  Martjrrology  does  not  by  any  means  imply  this  honour 
opinion,  preceptive.     Such  decrees,  however,  could  (Bened.  XJV,  1.  c,  xliii,  n®  14). 

not  prescribe  imiversal  honour;  the  effect  of  an  epis-        Papal  Infallibility  and  Canonization. — Is  the 

copal  act  of  this  kind,  was  equivalent  to  our  mooem  pope  infallible  in  issuing  a  decree  of  canonization? 

beatification.     In  such   cases   there  was,   properly  Most  theologians  answer  in  the  affirmative.     It  is 

speaking,  no  canonization,  unless  with  the  consent  the  opinion  of  St.  Antoninus,  Melchior  Cano,  Suarez, 

of  the  pope  extending  the  cultus  in  question,  im-  Bellarmine,  Bafiez,  Vasquez,  and,  among  the  canon- 

plicitly  or  explicitly,  and  imposing  it  by  way  of  pre-  ists,  of  Gonzales  Tellez,  Fagnanus,  SchmalzgrQber, 

cept  upon  the  Church  at  large.    In  the  more  recent  Barbosa,  Reiffenstill,  Covarruvias  (Variar.  resol.,  I, 

disciplme  beatification  is  a  permission  to  venerate,  x,  n®  13),  Albitius  (De  Inconstantid  in  fide,  xl,  n° 

granted  by  the  Roman  Pontics  with  restriction  to  205),  Petra  (CJomm.  in  Const.  Apost.,  I,  in  notes  to 

certain  places   and   to   certain   liturgical  exercises.  Const.  I,  Alex.,  Ill,  n^  17  sqq.),  Joannes  a  S.  Thom& 

Thus  it  IS  unlawful  to  p^  to  the  person  known  as  (on  II-II,  Q.  I,  disp.  9,  a.  2),  Silvester  (Summa,  s.  v. 

Blessed  (i.  e.  the  Beaius,  Beatified),  public  reverence  Canonizatio),  Del  Bene  (De  Officio  Inquisit.  II,  dub. 

outside  of  the  place  for  which  the  permission  is  253),  and  manv  others.    In  Quodlib.  IX,  a.  16,  St. 

granted,  or  to  recite  an  office  in  his  honour,  or  to  Thomas  sa}rs:  ^' Since  the  honour  we  pa^  the  saints 

celebrate  Mass  with  prayers  referring  to  him,  unless  is  in  a  certain  sense  a  profession  of  faitn,  i.  e.  a  belief 

special  indult  be  had;  similarly,  other  methods  of  in  the  glory  of  the  Saints  [ipiA  sanctorum  glariam 

honour  have  been  interdicted.     Canonization  is  a  credimuSl  we  must  piously  believe  that  in  this  mattei 

precept  of  the  Roman  pontiff  commanding  public  alsothe  judgment  of  the  Church  is  not  liable  to  error" 


BBATmOAnON                          367  BSATIFIOATION 

Theee  words  of  St.  Thomas,  as  is  evident  trom  the  .  secure  beatification  (the  most  important  and  diffi- 

authorities  just  cited,  all  favouring  a  positive  in-  cult  step  in  the  process  of  canonization)  the  regular 

fallibility,  have  been  interpreted  by  his  school  in  procedure  is  as  follows: 

favour  of  papal  infallibility  in  the  matter  of  canoniza-  (1 )  Choosing  of  a  vice-postulator  by  the  postulator- 
tion,  and  this  interpretation  is  supported  by  several  general  of  the  cause,  to  promote  all  the  judicial  in- 
other  passages  in  the  same  Quodlibet.  This  infaHi"*  quiries  necessary  in  places  outside  of  Rome.  Such 
bility,  however,  according  to  the  holy  doctor,  is  inquiries  are  instituted  by  the  local  episcopal  au- 
only  a  point  of  pious  belief.    Theologians  f^enerally  thority. 

aoeeas  to  the  fact  of  papal  infallibilty  in  this  matter  (2)  The  preparation  of  the  inquiries  (processus)  ^ 
of  canonization,  but  disagree  as  to  the  quality  of  all  of  which  are  carried  on  by  the  ordinary  episcopal 
certitude  due  to  a  papal  decree  in  such  matter.    In  authority.     They  are  of    three  kinds:    Informative 
the  opinion  of  some  it  is  of  faith  (Arriaga,  De  fide,  inquiries  regard  the  reputation   for   sanctity   and 
disp.  9,  §  5,  n*»  27);  others  hold  that  to  refuse  assent  miracles  of  the  servants  of  God,  not  only  in  general, 
to  such  a  judgment  of  the  Holy  See  would  be  both  but  also  in  particular  instances;  there  may  be  sev- 
impious  and  lash.  as  Suarez  (De  fide,  disp.  5,  §  8,  n®  eral  such  inquiries  if  the  witnesses  to  be  examined 
8);  many  more  (and  this  is  the  general  view)  hold  belong  to  different  dioceses.    Processes  de  non  cuUu 
such  a  pronouncement  to  be  theologically  certain,  are  instituted  to  prove  that  the  decrees  of  Urban  VIII 
not  being  of  Divine  Faith  as  its  purport  has  not  been  regarding  the  prohibition  of  pubUc  worship  pi  ser- 
immediately   revealed,   nor  of    ecclesiastical   Faith  vants  of  God  oefore  their  beatification  have  been 
as  having  thus  far  not  been  defined  by  the  Church,  obeyed;  they  are  generally  conducted  by  the  bishop 
What  18  the  object  of  this  infallible  judgment  of  of  the  place  where  the  relics  of  the  servant  of  God  are 
the  pope?   Does  he  define  that  the  person  canonized  preserved.    Other  inquiries  are  known  as  Processictdi 
\&  in  heaven  or  only  that  he  has  practised  Christian  diligenttarum  and  have  for  their  object  the  writing 
virtues  in  an  heroic  degree?    I  have  never  seen  this  attributed  to  the  person  whose  beatification  is  in 
question  discussed;  my  own  opinion  is  that  nothing  question;  they  vary  in  number  according  to  the  dio- 
else  is  defined  than  that  the  person  canonized  is  in  ceses  where  such  writings  are  found,  or  are  thought 
heaven.  The  formula  used  in  the  act  of  canonization  likely  to  be  found,  and  ma^r  not  be  judicially  executed 
has  nothing  more  than  this:  "In  honour  of  ...  we  before  an  "Instruction"  is  obtained  from  the  pro- 
decree  and  define  that  Blessed  N.  is  a  Saint,  and  we  motor  of  the  Faith  by  the  postulator-general  ana  by 
inscribe  his  name  in  the  catalogue  of  saints,  and  him  sent  to  the  bishop  in  auestion. 
order  that  his  memory  be  devout^  and  piously  cele-  (3)  The  results  of  all  these  inquiries  are  sent  to 
brated  yearly  on  the  .  .  .  day  of  ...  his  feast.       (Ad  Rome,  to  the  Congregation  of  Rites,  in  charge  of  a 
honorem  .  .  .  beatum  N.  Sanctum  esse  decemimus  messenger  (portiior)  chosen  by  the  judges,  or  by  some 
et  definimus   ac   sanctorum    catalogo    adscribimus  other  secure  way,  in  case  a  rescript  of  the  congrega^ 
statuentes  ab  ecclesi&  universali   iluus   memoriam  tion  dispenses  from  the  obligation  of  sending  a  mes- 
quolibet  anno,  die  ejus  natah  <.  .  .  pi&  devotione  senger. 

recoli  debere.)  There  is  no  question  of  heroic  virtue  (4)  They  are  opened,  translated  if  necessary;  into 
m  this  formula;  on  the  other  hand,  sanctity  does  not  Italian,  a  public  copy  is  made,  and  a  cardinal  is  de- 
necessarily  imply  the  exercise  of  heroic  virtue,  since  puted  by  the  pope  as  relator  or  ponens  of  the  cause, 
one  who  had  not  hitherto  practised  heroic  virtue  for  all  which  steps  rescripts  of  the  congregation,  con- 
would,  by  the  one  transient  neroic  act  in  which  he  firmed  by  the  pope,  must  be  obtained, 
yielded  up  his  life  for  Christ,  have  justly  deserved  (5)  The  writings  of  the  servant  of  God  are  next 
to  be  considered  a  saint.  This  view  seems  all  the  re\nsed  by  theologians  appointed  by  the  cardinal 
more  certain  if  we  reflect  that  all  the  arguments  of  relator  himself^  authorized  to  so  act  by  a  special  re- 
theologians  for  papal  infallibility  in  the  canonization  script.  Meantime,  the  advocate  and  the  procurator 
of  saints  are  ba^d  on  the  fact  that  on  such  occasions  of  tne  cause,  chosen  by  the  postulator-general,  have 
the  popes  believe  and  assert  that  the  decision  which  prepared  all  the  documents  that  concern  the  intro- 
they  publish  is  infallible  (Pesch,  Prsel.  Dogm.,  I,  auction  of  the  cause  {positio  super  irUroductume 
552).  causa).  These  consist  of  (a)  a  summary  of  the  in- 
ThiB  general  agreement  of  theologians  as  to  papal  formative  processes,  (ft)  an  information, '(7)  answers 
infallibility  in  canonization  must  not  be  extended  to  to  the  observations  or  difficulties  of  the  promoter  of 
beatifi<»tion,  notwithstanding  the  contrary  teaching  the  Faith  sent  by  him  to  the  postulator. 
of  the  canonical  commentary  known  as  "Glossa^  (6)  This  collection  of  documents  (pon^io)  is  printed 
fin  cap.  un.  de  reliciuiis  et  venerat.  SS.  (Ill,  22)  in  6;  and  distributed  to  the  cardinals  of  the  Congregation 
hinocent.^  Comm.  in  quinque  Decretalium  Libros,  tit.  of  Rites  forty  days  before  the  date  assigned  for  their 
de  reliquiis,  etc.,  n^  4;  Ostiensis  in  eumd.  tit.  n^  10;  discussion. 

Felini,  cap.  lii,  De  testibus,etc.,X  (II,  20);  Caietani,  (7)  If  nothing  contrary  to  faith  and  morals  is 

tract.  De  indulgentiis  adversus  Lutherum  ad  Julium  found  in  the  writings  of  the  servant  of  God,  a  decree 

Mediceum;  Augustini  de  Ancona,  sen  Triumphi.  De  is   published  authorizing  further  action    (<pwd  in 

potestate  eccl.,  Q.  xiv,  a.  4].    Canonists  and  tneologi-  causd  procedi  possU  ad  tuteriora),  i.  e.  the  discussion 

ans  generally  deny  the  infallible  character  of  decrees  of  the  matter   (dubium)  of  appointment  or  non- 

of  b^tification,  whether  formal  or  equivalent,  since  appointment  of  a  commission  for  the  introduction 

it  is  alwajTs  a  permission,  not  a  command;  while  it  of  the  causG. 

leads  Ui  canonization,  it  is  not  the  last  step.    More-  (8)  At  the  time  fixed  by  the  Congelation  of  Rites 

over,  in  most  cases,  the  cultus  permitted  by  beatifica-  an  ordinary  meeting  (congregatio)  is  held  in  which 

tion  is  restricted  to  a  determmed  province,  city,  or  this  appointment  is  debated  by  the  cardinals  of  the 

religious  body   (Benedict   XIV,   op.   cit.,   I,  xlii).  aforesaid  congre^tion  and  its  officials,  but  without 

8ome,  however,  have  thought  otherwise  (Arriaga,  the  vote  or  participation  of  the  consiiltors,  though 

IheoL,  V,  disp.  7,  §  6;  Amicus,  TheoL,  IV,  disp.  7,  this  privilege  is  always  granted  them  by  rescript. 

1 4,  n*  88;  Turrianus  on  II-II,  V,  disp.  17,  n'*  6;  (9)  If  in  this  meeting  the  cardinals  favour  the  ap- 

Del  Bene,  De  S.  Inquiait.  II,  dub.  254).  pointment  of  the  aforesaid   commission,  a  decree 

Pbesent  Procedure  in  Causes  of  Beatification  to  that  effect  is  promulgated,  and  the  pope  signs  it, 

A.NT)   Canonization. — We    must    first    distinguish  but,  according  to  custom,  with  his  baptismal  name, 

causes  of  maii^rs  from  those  of  confessors  or  virgins,  not  with  that  of  his  pontificate.    Thenceforward  the 

since  the  method  followed  is  not  entirely  identical  servantof  God  is  judicially  given  the  title  of  Venerable, 

in  both  casoi.  (10)  A  petition  is  then  presented  asking  remis* 

(a)  The  Beatification  of  Confessors, — In  order  to  sonal  letters  for  bishops  in  parti6w«  (outside  of  Roine)» 


BSATIFIOATION  368  BXATIFIOATIOH 

authorizing  them  to  set  on  foot  by  Apostolic  au-  final  report,  concerning  the  virtues,  etc., — positio, 
thority.  the  inquiry  (processus)  witn  regard  to  the  posiHo  nova,  positio  rurvissima,  super  virhdibus.  In 
fame  of  sanctity  and  miracles  m  general.  This  per-  each  case^  before  proceeding  to  the  subsecjuent  meet- 
mission  is  granted  by  rescript,  and  such  remissorial  ing,  a  majority  of  the  consuitors  must  decide  that  the 
letters  are  prepared  and  sent  to  the  bishops  by  the  -difficulties  of  the  protaiotor  of  the  Faith  have  been 
postulator-general.     In  case  the  eyewitnesses  be  of  satisfactorily  solved. 

advanced  age,  other  remissorial  letters  are  usually        (17)  When  the  Congregation  of  Rites  in  the  above 

granted  for  the  purpose  of  opening  a  i)rocess  known  described  general  meeting  has  decided  favourably, 

as  "inchoative     concerning  the  particular  virtues  the  pope  is  asked  to  sign  the  solemn  decree  which 

and  miracles  of  the  person  in  question.    This  is  done  asserts  that  there  exists  evidence  of  the  heroic  vir- 

in  order  that  the  proofs  may  not  be  lost  (ne  pereant  tues  of  the  servant  of  God.    This  decree  is  not  pub 

proba(iones),  and  such  inchoative  process  precedes  lished  until  after  the  pope,  having  commendea  th# 

that  upon  the  miracles  and  virtues  m  general.  matter  to  God  in  prayer,  gives  a  final  consent  apa 

(11)  While  the  Apostolic  process  concerning  the  confirms  by  his  supreme  sentence  the  decision  of  the 

reputation  of  sanctity  is  under  way  outside  of  Rome,  congregation. 

documents  are  being  prepared  by  the  procurator  oi        ^18)  The  miracles  now  remain  to  be  proved,  of 

the  cause  for  the  discussion  de  non  cuUu,  or  absence  which  two  of  the  first  class  are  required  in  case  the 

of  cultus,  and  at  the  appointed  time  an  ordinal^  practrce  of  virtues  in  the  heroic  decree  has  been 

meeting  (congregatio)  is  held  in  w^hich  the  matter  is  proved,  in  both  ordinary  and  Apostolic  inquiries  or 

investigated;  if  it  be  found  that  the  decree  of  Ur-  processes,  by  e3rewitnesses — three,  if  the  eyewitnesses 

ban  VlII  has  been  complied  with,  another  decree  were  found   only  in  the  ordinary  processes;   four, 

provides  that  further  steps  may  be  taken.  if  the  virtues  were  proven  only  by  hearsay  (de  audilu) 

(\2)  When  the  inquiry  concerning  the  reputation  witnesses.  If  the  miracles  have  been  sufficiently 
of  sanctity  (super  famd)  has  arrived  in  Rome,  it  is  proven  in  the  Apostolic  processes  (super  virtuiibus) 
opened  (as  already  described  in  speaking  of  the  or-  already  declared  valid,  steps  are  taken  at  once  to 
dinary  processes,  and  with  the  same  formalities  prepare  the  documents  with  regard  to  miracles 
in  regard  to  rescripts),  then  translated  into  Italian,  (super  miraculis).  If  in  the  Apostolic  processes  only 
summarized^  and  declared  valid.  The  documents  general  mention  has  been  made  of  the  miracles,  new 
super  famd  m  general  are  prepared  by  the  advocate.  Apostolic  processes  must  be  opened,  and  conducted 
and  at  the  proper  time,  in  an  ordinary  meeting  of  after  the  manner  already  described  for  proving  the 
the  cardinals  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites,  the  ques-  practice  of  virtues  in  an  heroic  decree, 
tion  is  discussed:  whether  there  is  evidence  of  a  (19)  The  discussion  of*the  particular  miracles  pro- 
general  repute  for  sanctity  and  miracles  of  this  ser-  ceeds  in  exactl^r  the  same  way  and  in  the  same  order 
vant  of  God.  If  the  answer  is  favourable,  a  decree  as  that  of  the  virtues.  If  the  decisions  be  favourable, 
embodying  this  result  is  published.  the  general  meeting  of  the  congregation  is  followed 

(13)  New  remissorial  letters  are  then  sent  to  the  by  a  decree,  confiraied  by  the  pope,  in  which  it  is 
bishops  in  partibus  for  Apostolical  processes  with  re-  announced  that  th^re  is  proof  of  miracles.  It  mxist 
gard  to  the  reputation  for  sanctity  and  miracles  in  be  noted  here  that  in  the  positio  for  the  ante-pre- 
particular.  These 'processes  must  be  finished  within  paratory  con^egation  there  are  required,  and  are 
eighteen  months  and  when  they  are  received  in  Rome  printed,  opinions  of  two  physicians,  one  of  whom 
are  opened,  as  above  described,  and  by  virtue  of  an  nas  been  chosen  by  the  postulator,  the  other  by  the 
equal  numoer  of  rescripts,  by  the  cardinal  prefect,  Congregation  of  Kites.  Of  the  three  reports  (po- 
translated  into  Italian,  and  their  summary  authen-  sUiones)  above  mentioned,  and  which  are  now  also 
ticated  by  the  Chancellor  of  the  Congregation  of  required,  the  first  is  prepared  in  the  usual  way;  the 
Rites.  second  consists  of  an  exposition  of  the  heroic  virtues 

(14)  The  advocate  of  the  cause  next  prepares  the  of  the  servant  of  God,  an  information,  and  a  reply  to 
documents  (positio)  which  have  reference  to  the  dis-  later  observations  of  the  promotor  of  the  Faith;  the 
cussion  of  the  validity  of  all  the  preceding  processes,  last  consists  only  of  an  answer  to  his  final  observations, 
informative  and  Apostolic.  (20)  When  tne  miracles  have  been  proved,  another 

(15)  This  discussion  is  held  in  the  meeting  called  meeting  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites  is  held  in  which 
congregatio  rotali^  from  the  fact  that  it  is  only  judges  it  is  debated  once,  and  only  once,  whether  or  not, 
of  the  Rota  who  vote.  If  the  difficulties  of  the  pro-  ^ven  the  approbation  of  the  virtues  and  miracles, 
motor  of  the  Faith  are  satisfactorily  answered,  the  it  be  safe  to  proceed  with  the  solemnities  of  beatifi- 
decree  establishing  the  validity  of  the  inquiries  or  cation.  If  a  majority  of  the  consuitors  be  favour- 
processes  is  published.  able,  a  decree  to  this  effect  is  issued  by  the  pope,  and 

(16)  Meanwhile  all  necessary  preparation  is  made  at  the  time  appointed  by  him  the  solemn  beatification 
for  the  discussion  of  the  Question  (aubium):  Is  there  of  the  servant  of  God  takes  place  in  the  Vatican 
evidence  that  the  venerable  servant  of  God  practised  Basilica,  on  which  occasion  a  pontifical  Brief  is  issued 
virtuesboth  theological  and  cardinal,  and  in  an  heroic  permitting  the  public  cultus  and  veneration  of  the 
degree?  (An  constet  de  virtuiibus  Ven.  servi  Dei,  tarn  beatified  person  now  known  as  Blessed  (BecUtu). 
theohgids  quam  cardinalibus,  in  heroico  graduf)    In         (b)  The  Beatifi/xUion  of  Martyrs. 

the  causes  of  confessors  this  step  is  of  primary  im-        (1)  The  causes  of  martyrs  are  conducted  in  the 

portance.    The  point  is  discussed  in  three  meetings  same  way  as  those  of  confessors  as  far  as  the  in- 

or  congregations  called  respectively,  ante-preparatory,  formative  processes  and  those  de  non  cuUu  and  ad 

preparatory,  and  general.    The  firet  of  these  meetings  introductionem  causae  are  concerned.    But  when  onoe 

is  held  in  the  palace  of  the  cardinal  relator  (reporter)  the  commission  of  introduction  has  been  appointed 

of  the  cause,  and  in  it  only  consuitors  of  the  Congre-  they  advance  much  more  rapidly, 
gation  of  Sacred  Rites  are  allowed  to  vote;  the  second        (2)  No  remissorial  letters  are  granted  for  Apostolic 

takes  place  in  the  Vatican,  and  again  only  the  afore-  processes    concerning    the    general    reputation    for 

said  consuitors   vote,   though  on   this  occasion  in  martyrdom  and  miraclesj  the  letters  sent  call  for  an 

Sresence  of   the  Cardinals  of    the  Congregation  of  immediate  investigation  into  the  fact  of  martyrdom, 

Jtes.  and  with  their  chairman,  or  prefect,  presiding;  its  motive,  and  the  particular  miracles  alleged.   There 

the  third  is  also  held  in  the  Vatican,  and  at  it  the  is  no  longer  a  discussion  of  the  general  reputation 

pope  presides,  and   both  cardinals  and  consuitors  for  martyrdom  or  miracles. 

vote.    For  each  of  these  congregations  the  advocate        (3)  The  miracles  are  not  discussed,  as  formeriy. 

of  the   cause   prepares  and   pnnts  official   reports  in  separate  meetings,  but  in  the  same  meetings  that 

(positiones) ,  callea  respectively  report,   new   report,  deal  with  the  fact  and  the  motive  of  the  martyrdom. 


BBATITUDK8  369  BSATITUDBI 

(4)  The  minuses  (signa)  required  are  not  thoee  congre^tion  in  which  onl^^  the  cardinal  prefect  and 
of  the  first  class;  those  of  the  second  class  suffice,  nor  the  major  offiicials  vote;  in  it  less  important  and  prac- 
is  their  mmiber  determined.  On  some  occasions  the  tical  questions  are  settled  regarding  rites  as  well  as 
dedfiion  as  to  miracles  has  been  entirely  dispensed  causes,  and  answers  are  given,  and  rescripts  which 
with,  the  pope  afterwards  verbally  approves.    The  other 

(5)  The  disciisfdon  as  to  martyrdom  and  miracles,  meetings  of  the  congregation  (ordinary,  rotal,  and 
fomieriy  held  in  three  meetings  or  congregations,  "upon  virtues  and  nuracles")  may  be  as  few  as  six- 
Tii.  the  ante-prepckratory,  preparatory,  and  general,  teen  in  the  course  of  the  vear.  Some  other  cause 
is  now  usually  conducteo.  through  a  dispensation  to  must  therefore  be  found  for  the  slow  progress  of 
be  had  in  each  instance  from  the  sovereign  pontiff,  causes  of  beatification  or  canonization  than  a  lack 
in  a  single  congregation  kno^^^  as  part&tilaris,  or  of  good  will  or  activity  ph  the  part  of  the  Congrega- 
special.    It  consists  of  six  or  seven  cardinals  of  the  tion  of  Rites. 

congregation  of  Rites  and  four  or  five  prelates  es-        Expenses. — ^It  will  not  be  out  of  place  to  ^ive 

peciaDy  deputed  by  the  pope.     There  is  but  one  succinctly  the  ordinary  actual  expenses  of  canoniza- 

poaitio  prepared  in  the  iisual  way;  if  there  be  an  tion  and  beatification.    Of  these  expenses  some  are 

affirmative  majority  a  decree  is  issued  concerning  the  necessary  others  merely  discretionary,  i.  e.  some  are 

proof  of  martyrdom,  the  cause  v»f  martyrdom,  and  specified  (e.  g.  the  expenses  incurred  in  obtaining 

miracles.     (Conatare  de  Martyrio,  caiLsd  Martyrii  et  tne  different  rescripts)  others,  though  necessary,  are 

agnis.)  not  specified.    Such  are  the  expenses  of  the  solemnity 

(6)  The  final  stage  is  a  discussion  of  the  security  in  the  Vatican  Basilica,  and  for  paintings  representing 

(ntper  tiUo)  with  which  advance  to  beatification  may  the  newly  beatified  which  are  afterwards  presented 

be  made,  as  in  the  case  of  confessors;  the  solemn  to  the  pope,  the  cardinals,  officials,  and  consultors 

beatification  then  follows.    This  procedure  is  fol-  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites.    The  limits  of  this  class 

kywed  in  all  cases  of  formal  beatification  in  causes  of  of  expenses  depend  on  the  postulator  of  the  cause. 

both  ocmfessors  and  martyrsproposed  in  the  ordinary  If  he  chooses  to  spend  a  moderate  sum  the  entire 

way  (per  viamnoncuUua),    Those  proposed  as  coming  cause  from  the  first  process  to  the  solemn  beatifica- 

under  the  definition  of  cases  excepted  (casus  exceplt)  tion  will  not  cost  him  less  than  $20,000.    The  ex- 

by  Urban  VIll  are  treated  in  another  way.    In  such  penses  of  the  process  from  beatification  to  canoniza- 

cases  it  must  be  proved  that  an  immemorial  public  tion  will  easily  exceed  $30,000.     In  illustration  of 

veneration  (at  least  for  100  years  before  the  pro-  this  we  subjoin  the  filial  account  of  the  expenses  of 

mulgation,  in  1640,  of  the  decrees  of  Urban  VIII)  the  public  solemnities  in  the  Vatican  Basilica  for 

huB  been  paid  the  servant  of  God,  whether  confessor  the  canonization,  by  Leo  XIII,  of  Saints  Anthony 

or  martyr.    Such  cause  is  proposed  under  the  title  Maria  Zaccaria  and  Peter  Fourier,  as  published  by 

of  ''oonfiomation  of  veneration"    (de  confirmalione  the  Most  Rev.  Diomede  Panici,  titular  Archbishop  of 

eulius);  it  is  dealt  with  in  an  ordinary  meeting  ^of  Laodicea,thenSecretaryof  the  Congregation  of  Rites. 

the  Congregation  of  Rites.    When  the  difficulties  of  rp^  j«««««+:^^  «r  ♦u^  Tt»<,n*i:»«  i;«.v»*«  «««u; 

the  pTom(^  of  the  Faith  have  been  satisfied,  a  pon-  To  decoration  of  the  Basilica,  lights,  archi- 

tificS  decree  confirming  the  cultus  is  promulgat^.         !^'ji^l,^^'«^'  ^^^"'•'  ^^  '""^P^,  ..osuci  ^ 

^cation  of  this  kind  is  caUed  eauivalent  or  p^^To"' PontificalMass,' pre^^^  ' 

Th^^^Jil^ni^Xf^XS^rSaS^  CosIofTft^'p^n^^dioHo^  Hl^fl 

*^ J^J?^  i^.  L^^^iL^L^^rJ^Z  ^  Hanging,  Sacred  Vestments,  etc,. ......     12  990.60 

^^  ^'^.^li'l.Xe^^  ^rvLs^rendered  and  different  offerings,      3,525.07 

*j«Tc  w^   »tv«n.cvt  a,v  i/*xv.i*,  j*jw^  ^.«»»w«J  «*v«    «**«  Recompcnse    for    services    and    money 
pontifical   permission   of   pubhc   veneration   as   de-        loan^  oc    *        «^  v.  ^j       3  535  00 

scribed  iJx)ve.    At  this  stage  it  is  only  required  that  rp^  .i  ^  Vo* j«o«  nv.^^*!^  oo  '^^r^iLiV^L  V^^  ' 

thA  twft  mir«plft«  wnrkfld  afipr  thp  npmii^on  award-  ^o  the  Vatican  Chapter  as  perquisites  for 

tne  two  miracles  worKea  alter  ine  permission  awara-        decorat  ons  and  cand  es, 18,000.00 

mg  a  pubhc  odtus  be  ^|fcu^.ed  m Jiree  mee^  p      .^^  ^^^  Competenza, ! 16  936.00 

I'tl^^yT'if  ThI  ^="be"^^m^  ^-^-^  -<^  -^— ^  ^^^^> <^'^ 

another  meeting  (^per  tuto)  is  held.    The  pope  then  ^^-^  221  849  10 

Msuee  a  BuU  of  Canonization  in  whidi  he  not  only  ^^^      ^^   ^^  ^  equivalent  to  $.193  in  tjnited 

permits  but  commands,  the  public  cultus,  or  venera-  g^^^  ^^„|y)  $42,816.87^^    (See  also  Blessbd.) 

won,  Ot  tne  saint.  .,  ,     ,  .,     ^  ▼  i  Benkdict  XIV,  D»  aervorum  Dei  baatifieatione  et  beaUfrwn 

It  IS  With  the  utmost  possible  brevity  thai  I  hav»  eantmiMotume   (the  cUwio   text  on  this  subject);  Schmalz- 

described  the  elements  of  a  process  of  beatification  or  «»?.?«"•  JusEectMiaeticum  Umvereum,  III,  tit.  46:  FERRARra. 

j^^^^i^^*i.r,^       T*  «»«,r  K«.  <^<ia;i-ir  a#^«%;a^4iii.<^  fko*  *»/\*i  BuHwtheca  Canontea,   ».   v.    Veneratio  Sanctorum;  Fornari, 

<»nomiatlOn.     It  may  be  easdy  conjectured  tJiat  con-  ^odex  pro  poahdatoribuMr  Gardellini,  Decreta  authentica  S.  C. 

SUierable  time  must  elapse  before  any  cause  of  beatin-  Congr.   Rituum;   ReiffenstOl,   Ju»   Canonicum    Univereum, 

cation  or  canonization  can  be  conducted,  from  the  HI.  tit.  45;  von  Mot,  b.  v.  in  KirchenUx, — Other  writers  of 

first  steps  of  the  information,  inquiry,  or  proce«,  «»««''-« •»"  <-»  <•»»»«»  »  '^"HJ^vs  Bbccaki. 
to  the  issuing  of  the  decree  super  tuto.    This  is  es-  yy^M^^^Jo  j.,*A^v.a*vx. 

pecially  true  at  present,  when  a  great  number  of       Beatitudes,    Mount    of. — ^This    name    is   given 

causes,  new  and  old,  are  proposed  for  discussion  to  the  place  where  Our  Saviour  delivered  the     Ser- 

before  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Rites  (see  "Cata-  mon  on  the  Mount",  beginning  with  the  Beatitudes, 

logus  ac  Status  Causarum  Beatificationis",  Rome,  The  scene  of  this  discourse  is  traditionally  located 

IWl).    According  to  the  constitution  of  this  Congre-  on  Kam  Hattin  (or  Kurun  Hattln),  the  Horns  of 

gation,  more  than  one  important  discussion  (dubia  Hattin,  a  mountam  which  receives  its  name  from 

majora)  cannot  be  proposed  at  the  same  time.     It  the  httle  village  at  its  northern  base  and  from  the 

most  be  remembered   (a)   that  the  same  cardinals  two  cones  or  horns  which  crown  its  summit.     Kam 

and  consultors  must  vote  in  ail  discussions;  (b)  that  Hattin  is  in  Galilee,  within  easy  distance  of  Nazareth, 

there  is  but  one  promoter  of  the  Faith  and  one  sub-  Cana^  and  Mt.  Tabor  to  the  south-west,  of  Tiberias 

pfomotor,  who  alone  have  charge  of  all  observations  and  Lake  Gennesaret  (the  Sea  of  Galilee)  to  the  east, 

to  be  made  with  regard  to  the  dubia;  (c)  that  these  and  of  Caphamaum  to  the  north-east,  in  the  centre, 

cardinals  and  consultors  have  to  treat  questions  of  therefore,  of  much  of  the  ministry  of  Jesus.    It  lies 

ntual  as  well  as  processes  of  canonisation  and  beati-  1,816  feet  above  the  lake  and  1,135  feet  above  the 

fiemtion.     To  execute  all  this  business  there  is  but  sea  level  (according  to  Bsedeker,  Palestine  and  Syria, 

weekly  meeting  (congressus),  a  kind  of  minor  Leipzig,  1898,  pp.  285,  288,  which  has  the  high  au- 


BEATITUDE8  370  BBATITUDK8 

thoiit^  of  Socin  and  Benzinger).    This  mountain,  ris-        According  to  another  opinion  recently  put  forth 
in^  above  the  hills  that  skirt  the  lake,  is  the  only  by  certain  critics,  the  nK)untain  is  purely  ideal  in 
height  to  the  west  that  can  be  seen  from  its  shores.  Matthew,  while  in  Luke  a  plain  is  the  place  on  which 
It  consists  of  a  low  ridge  about  one-quarter  of  a  the  Beatitudes  were  spoKen.     The  author  of  the 
mile  long,  extending  east  and  west,  and  rising  at  First  Gospel,  in  the  opinion  of  Loisy  (Le  Discoun 
each  extremity  into  a  cone  or  horn.    The  eastern  sur  la  Montagne)  "desires  to  have  for  the  publication 
horn,  which  is  the  taller,  is  only  sixty  feet  above  of  the  New  Law,  a  setting  tmalogous  to  that  which  is 
the  ridge.    Between  the  noms  lies  an  imeven  plat-  described  in  Exodus  fxx,  18~22)  for  the  Old  Law. 
form  which  could  easily  accommodate  the  crowd  The  mountain  of  Mattnew  is  the  Sinai  of  the  Gospel 
that  followed  Jesus;  but  it  is  believed  that  the  spot  where  Jesus  speaks  as  prince  of  the  kingdom  of 
on  which  the  discourse  was  given  is  lower  down,  God  and  shows  Himself  greater  than  Moses.  .  .  . 
on  a  level  place  on  the  southern  side  of  the  moimtain,  To  seek  an  exact  geographical  determination  here  is 
corresponoing    with    St.   Luke's  description   (tot6v  no  more  expedient  than  in  the  case  of  the  moimtain 
TcSivov),  vi,   17,  which  may    mean    a    level    place,  of  the  temptation",  which  was  purely  ideal,  being 
as  well  as  a  "plain''.     From  the  eastern  slope  of  represented  as  high  enough  to  afford  a  view  of  aO 
the  hill  there  is  a  beautiful  view,  to  the  east,  of  the  the  kingdoms  of  the  world.    There  is  most  probably 
lake   with    the    J61an   (Gaulanitis)    mountains  be-  an  element  of  truth  in  this  opinion;  nearly  all  the 
yond,  to  the  south  the  plateau  of  Ard  el-Hammc  Fathers  seek  a  symboUc  meaning  in  the  mountain 
and  Mt.  Tabor,  and  to  the  north  the  snowy  height  (v.  St.  Thomas  A(]iuinas,  Catena  Aurea,loc.  cit.)  and 
of  Mt.  Hermon.     The  tradition  that  there  was  a  are  probably  right  m  attributing  it  to  Matthew.    But 
village  on  the  mountain  top,  if  true  (the  only  proof  his  account  and  that  of  St.  Luke  have  too  matter-of- 
being  the  remains  of  a  wall  which  served  as  defence  fact  an  air  to  allow  us  to  believe  that  either  intended 
to  a  camp),  might  lend  point  to  the  reference  in  the  the  moimtain  to  be  regarded  as  purely  ideaL    Mat- 
sermon  to  the  city  which  was  seated  on  a  hill  and  thew  believed,  then,  that  the  New  Law,  just  as 
could  not  be  hid  (Matt.,  v,  14);  and  the  beautiful  the   Old,   was  really  given   on  a    mountain.    We 
flowers  that  abound  there  might  include  the  im-  are  assuming  here,  of   course,  that  the  Sennon  on 
identified  "lilies  of  the  field"  Yyi,  28).    Bishop  Le  the  Mount  was  a  genuine  discourse  by  Our  Lord, 
Camus    (Notre    Voyage    aux    Pays    Bibliques,    II,  not  a  mere  rearrangement  of  His  sayings  made  by 
pp.  220-222)  thought  he  never  saw  elsewhere  and  Matthew. 

never  imagined  so  lovely  a  variety  and  harmony  in        If  we  seek  to  determine  the  particular  mountain 
the  beauty  of  flowers;  other  travellers  are  scarcely  to  which  the  Evangelists  allude,  we  cannot  advance 
so  enthusiastic,  but  all  agree  the  spot  has  a  charm  with  anything  like  certainty  bevond   the   ancient 
of  its  own.     The  Horns  of  Hattin  are  mentioned  opinion  of  St.  Jerome  (Comm.  in  £v.  Matt.)  that  the 
by  a  feeble  and  late  tradition  as  the  site  of  the  second  events  before  and  after  the  discourse, show  that  it 
multiplication  of  loaves.     The  Jews  of  the  locality  was  given  on  some  moimtain  of  Galilee.     It  is  not 
point  out  here  also  the  tomb  of  Jethro,  father-in-law  unlikely  that  the  localitv  was  not  far  distant  from 
of  Moses.     During  the  Crusades  the  plain  below  Caphamaum,   into  whicn  Our  Lord  entered  after 
was  the  scene  of  the  battle  in  which  Saladin  dealt  finishing  His  discourse  (Matt.,  viii,  5;  Luke,  vii,  1); 
the  death-blow  to  French  power  in  Palestine  (3-1  July,  but  the  Evangelists  do  not  say  how  soon  after  the 
1187).  discourse  He  entered  Caphamaum.    We  know  from 
The  tradition  regarding  the  scene  of  the  Sermon  their  literary  methods  that  it  may  have  been  a  da^, 
on  the  Mount,  though  usually  received  with  a  certain  a  week,  or  even  more,  for  they  had  little  interest  m 
degree  of  favour  by  Scriptural  scholars,  apparently  the  chronological  sequence  of  events,  and  the  attempt 
does  not  ^o  back  beyond  the  crusaders.    St.  Jerome,  to  press  details  of  tnis  sort  only  results  in  intermi- 
the  best  mformed  man  of  his  day  on  points  of  this  nable    contradictions.      Besides,    the   site    of    Cap- 
nature,  knew  of  no  such  tradition  ana  merely  con-  hamaum   itself   is   uncertain.     Neither  Evangelist 
jectured  that  the  scene  was  on  Mt.  Tabor  or  some  gives  us  a  hint  as  to  what  vicinity  Jesus  set  out  from 
other  high  mountain  of  GaUlee  (Comm.  in  Ev.  S.  to  ascend  the  mountain,  except  that  it  was  some- 
Matt,  in  Cap.  v).    The  Gospels,  in  fact,  afford  but  where  in  Galilee;  how  then  can  the  mountain  be 
little  help  in  determining  the  site.    Matt.,  v,  1,  lo-  determined?    It  is  true  many  (e.  g.  Stanley)  assume 
cates  the  sermon  on  U^    mountain   (r6  6pos),  and  it  must  have  been  from  the  lakeside  or  its  neighbour- 
Luke,  vi,  12,  uses  the  same  expression  for  the  spot  hood;  but  no  word  in  the  Gospels  warrants  the 
from  which  Our  Lord  descended  before  He  preached  assumption,  though  it  is  the  most  likely  one. 
on  the  "level  place",  vi,  17.    The  expression  most        In  favour  of  Kam  Hattin,  it  is  said,  is  the  fact  that 
naturally  "  su^ests  that  the  sermon  had  long  been  it  is  accessible  from  all  sides,  which  is  thought  to  be 
traditionally  connected  with  a  mountain  and  seems  demanded  by  the  narratives  of  Matthew    (iv,  25, 
to  mean  the  mountain  on  which  the   sermon  was  v,  1)  and  Luke  (vi,  17).     But  this  argument,  al- 
delivered"  (Allen,  St.  Matthew,  New  York,  1907).  though  it  is  accepted  bv  Dean  Stanley  (Sinai  and 
Some  scholars  even  see  in  the  definite  article  the  Palestine,   London,   I88d,   p.  369)  who   is    usually 
indication    of    a    particular    mountain    which    the  qpite  rigorous  in  reauiring  proof,  has  little   force, 
Evangelists  suppose  known  to  the  reader;  but  pop-  smoe  the  multitude  aid  not  flock  to  the  mountain 
ular   curiosity   concerning  the   scene  of  particular  from  all  sides,  but,  according  to  Matthew »  at  least. 
Gospel  events  is  a  growth  of  later  date.    Some  in-  first  gathered  toarether  and  followed  Jesus   up  the 
terpret  it  as  "the  mountain  that  was  at  hand",  mountainside.     (Cf.  iv,  25,  v»  1>  with  vii,  28,  where 
Others  refuse  to  see  in  the  mountain  a  reference  to  the  multitude,  not  merely  the  disciples,  are  found 
any  particular  mountain  at  all,  but  interpret  the  on  the  spot  where  the  sermon  was  delivered.)    There 
word  as  meaning  "the  tableland,  the  mountainous  is  little  but  negative  evidence  in  favour   of    Kam 
district ''.     Tb  6pos  is  used  in  this  sense  in  the  Sep-  Hattin;  Edersheim  (Life  and  Times  of  Jesus,  New 
tuagint  translation  of  Gen.,  xix,  17,  19,  30,  xxxi,  23,  York,  1896)  says  there  are  several  reasons  which 
25,  xxxvi,  8,  9.  and  appears  to  have  the  same  meaning  make  it  unsuitable,  but  gives  none.     It  is  near  the 
in  Matt.,  xiv,  23,  xv,  29,  Mark,  vi,  46.  Luke,  ix,  28,  scenes  of  Our  Lord's  greatest  activity  and  fulfils  all 
John,  vi,  3.    Possibly  the  word  is  to  be  thus  inter-  the  requirements  of  the  narrative.      We  must  add, 
preted  here  also,  but  St.  Luke  more  probably  refers  however,  that  so  great  an  authority  as    Robinson 
(vi,  12)  to  a  particular  mountain  on  which  Our  Lord  (Biblical   Researches   in   Palestine,  III,    487)    says 
spent  the  night  in  prayer  and  from  which  He  de-  there  are  a  number  of  hills  to  the  west  of  the  lake 
scended  to  the  level  plaice  or  tableland  to  preach  the  equall;^  as  suitable  as  Kam  Hattin;  but  this  hardly 
discourse*  gives  its  proper  force  to  the  word,  the   mountain 


BSATITUDK8  371  BEATltUDEB 

.fbich  seems  to  mark  the  place  as  distinct  from  the    external  condition  of  such  poverty.    The  blessed 
hills  of  almost  uniform  height  in  the  vicinity.  ones  are  the  poor  "in  spirit",  who  by  their  free  will 


Mont 
TheL 

VoTAw  in  Hast.,  I>ie<.  0/ <A«  Btbttf,  Extra 'Volimie,~8.  V.' iSfrmofi  the  reallv  Door  man'mav  fall  short  of  this /Poverty 

«mrte  Ar<nml,LE  Camus,  rA«Lt/«o/CArirt<tr.  New  York),  II;  *t\Zl^rt*»                                                           fuw/pv       vjr 

Mils,  Th€  Go9pd  aceording  to  SU  Matthew  (St.  Louis,  1898).  in  spim    .                                                        _.     .          ^  ^ 

57,  sL  Second  Beattiuae. — ^Inasmuch  as  poverty  is  ^  state 

John  F.  Fbnlon.  of  humble  subjection,  the  "poor  in  spirit"  come 

Beatitades,  The    Eight,  the    solemn  blessings  near  to  the  "meek",  the  subject  of  the  second  bless- 

(f)eatUvdirm,  henedictianes)  which  mark  the  opening  jng-    The  *anawtm,  they  who  humbly  and  meekly 

of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  the  very  first  of  Our  5«nd  themselves  down  before  God  and  man,  shaU 

Loid's  sermons  in  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew  (v,  "mhent  the  land"  and  possess  their  inheritance  m 

^10),    Four  of  them  occur  again  m  a  slightly  differ-  peace.    This  is  a  phrase  taken  from  Ps.,   xxxvi 

ent  form  in  the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke  (vi,  22),  likewise  (Hebr.,  xxxvii),  11,  where  it  refers  to  the  Promised 

at  the  beginning  of  a  sermon,  and  running  parallel  Land  of  Israel,  but  here,  in  the  wonb  of  Christ,  it  is 

to  Matthew,  5-7,  if  not  another  version  of  the  same,  of  course  but  a  symbol  of  the  Kingdom  of  Ileaven, 

And  here  they  are  illustrated  by  the  opposition  of  ^^e  spiritual  realm  of  the  Messiah.    Not  a  few  in- 

the  four  curses  (24-26).    The  fuller  account  and  the  terpreters,  however,  understand  "the  earth".     But 

more  prominent  place  given  the  Beatitudes  in  St.  ^^^J  overlook  the  original  meaning  of  Ps.,  xxxvi,  11, 

Matthew  are  quite  in  accordance  with  the  scope  and  and  unless,  by  a  far-fetched  expe^ent,  they  take  the 

the  tendency  ol  the  First  Gospel,  in  which  the  spiritual  f  arth  also  to  be  a  symbol  of  the  Messiamc  langdom, 

character  of  the  Messianic  langdom — the  paramoimt  *^  will  be  hard  to  explam  the  possession  of  the  earth 

idea  of  the  Beatitudes— is  consistentli\  put  forward,  "^  *  ^^"^Ij^^^^y.^*?!,      ,,            ....      ,     «^  .  , 

in  sharp  contrast  with  Jewish  prejudic^.    The  very  ^  rftirdBeafiiurfe.— The  "mourning"  in  the  Third 

peculiar  form   in  which   Our   Lord   proposed   His  Beatitude  is  in  Luke  (vi,  26)  opposed  to  laughter  and 

bleasingB  makes  them,  perhaps,  the  only  example  of  similar  fnvolous  worldly  joy.    Motives  of  moummg 

His  sayings  that  may  be  styled  poetical — the  parallel-  ^^  °ot  to  be  drawn  from  the  miseries  of  a  hfe  of 

ism  of  thought  and  expression,  which  is  the  most  poverty,  abiection,  and  subjeption,  which  are  the  very 

striking  feature  of   Biblical  poetry,   being  unmis-  blessings  of  verse  3,  but  rather  from  those  miseries 

takahly  clear.  from  which  the  pious  man  is  suffering  in  himself  and 

The  text  of  St.  Matthew  runs  as  follows:—  in  others,  and  most  of  all  the  tremendous  might  of 

1  pi^o«^  «««  *u^  ...v^,  :«  -^:«-*.  *«•  ♦K-;«-  ;-  *u^  ©vil  throughout  the  world.     To  such  mourners  the 

Mj^.f^J^        ^  Lord  Jesus  carries  the  comfort  of  the  heavenly  king- 

4  BlS^thTS- for  thev  shall  Dossess  the  ^^'"^    "^^«   consolation   of   Israel".    (Luke,  ii,   26) 

S^  foretold  by  the  prophets,  and  especially  by  the  Book 

«:  Ricioo^  «w*  4U^^r  fKo*  r^r.^^^.  t^^  *k««.  -k«ii  u^  of  Cousolatton  of  Isaias  (xl-lxvi).    Even  the  later 

6.  Blessed  are 'they  that  hunger  and  thiret  after  Consoler,    These  three  blessing,  poverty,  abjection, 

justice:  for  they  shall  have  their  fill.  S^l'"^^'^iUi  ^Z  "l^T^^f^^  l,JJ^nc^Tn^ 

7.  BL^ai.  the  Lrciful:  for  they  shaU  obtain  l^J^^t^Tth^'^^^^^^                t^T^l^ 

8.  Bl^kre  the  clean  of  heart:  for  they  shaU  see  ^#^^«^^fl|?;^^^^^                      demand  a 

9.  Blessed  are  the  peacemakers:  for  they  shaU  be  ???^,,?^47®  behaviour.    First  of  all,  "hunger  and 

called  the  childKf  God.                 ^            ^  ^^^l^L^^^r^^K^i.^^f  ^^^^^^  mnlTnS'i^^  X 

'''  ^Se'^^kfU'ttir^^  S^VaS^wlSch'^^llX  Thf  v^riuC^of  ffi 

mrtit^  sake,  for  theirs  is  the  kingdom  of  ^^^^  ^^^  continuous  growth  in  fioUness. 

^^  Fifth    Beatitude, — From    this    interior    desire    a 

TEXTUAii  Criticism. — As  reeetrds  textual  criticism,  further  step  should  be  taken  to  acting*  to  the  works 

the  passage  offers  no  serious  difficulty.    Only  in  verse  of  "  mercy  ,  corporal  and  spiritual.    Through  these 

9,  the  Vulgate  and  many  other  ancient  authorities  the  merciful  will  obtain  the  Divine  mercy  of  the 

omit  the  pronoim  a^ol,  tpsi;  probably  a  merely  ac-  Messianic  kingdom,  in  this  life  and  in  the  final  judg- 

ddental  oniission.    There  is  room,  too,  for  serious  ment.    The  wonderful  fertility  of  the  Church  m 

critical  doubt,  whether  verse  6  should  not  be  placed  works   and   institutions   of   corporal  and   spiritual 

before  verse  4.    Only  the  etymological  connexion,  mercy  of  every  kind  shows  the  prophetical  sense,  not 

which  in  the  original  is  supposed  to  have  existea  to  say  the  creative  power,  of  this  simple  word  of  the 

between   the   "poor"  and  the  "meek",  makes  us  Divine  Teacher. 

prefer  the  order  of  the  Vulgate.  Sixth  Beatitude. — According  to  Biblical  terminology 

First  Beatitude. — The  word  "poor"  seems  to  repre-  "cleanness  of  heart"  (verse  8)  cannot  exclusively  be 

sent  an   Aramaic   *dnyd  (Hebr.  *Ani)f  bent   down,  found  in  interior  chastity,  nor  even,  as  many  scholars 

afflicted,  miserable,  pobr;  while  "meek"  is  rather  a  propose,  in  a  jgeneral  purity  of  conscience,  as  opposed 

synonym  from  the  same  root,  'dnwGn  (Hebr.  'dn&w),  to  the  Levitical,  or  legal,  purity  required  by  the 

landing  oneself  down,  humble,  meek,  gentle.    Some  Scribes  and  Pharisees     At  least  the  proper  place  of 

scholars  would  attach  to  the  former  word  also  the  such  a  blessing  does  not  seem  to  be  between  mercy 
sense  of  humility 
God"  humbl 
help.    But  t 


low  estate,  their  social  dependence,  their  defenceless  vi,  22,  and  thus  opposed  to  the  unavowed  by-ends 

ezposmne  to  iniustioe  from  the  rich  and  the  mighty,  of  the  Pharisees   (Matt.,   vi,   1-6,   16-18;  vii,   15: 

Besides   the    Lord's  blessing,   the   promise   of  the  xxiii,  6-7,  14).    This  "single  eye"  or  "pure  heart" 

Evenly  kingdom  is  not  bestowed  on  the  actual  is  most  of  all  required  in  the  works  of  men^  (verse  7) 

n.— 24 


BSATOV  372  BEATON 

and  zeal  (verse  9)  in  behalf  of  one's  neighbour.    And  to  her  brother,  Henry  VIII.  mentioning  that  he  wm 

it  stands  to  reason  that  the  blessing,  promised  to  thia  "gret  wyth  the  Kyng"  (ot  Scots).    A  few  months 

continuous  looking  for  God's  glory,  should  consist  of  later  he  was  again  in  Paris,  arranging  for  the  mar- 

the  supernatural  ^'seeing"  of  God  Himself,  the  last  riage  of  his  widowed  king  with  Mary  of  Guise.    After 

aim  and  end  of  the  heavenly  kingdom  in  its  com-  the  ceremony   (by  proxy)   in  the  French  capital, 

pletion.  Beaton  conducted  the  bride  to  Scotland,  assisted 

Seventh  Beatitude. — ^The  "  peacemakers "  Averse  9)  at  the  soiemniza- 
are  those  who  not  only  live  in  peace  with  others  but  tion  of  the  marri- 
moreover  do  their  best  to  preserve  peace  and  friend-  age  in  St.  An- 
ship  among  mankind  ana  between  God  and  man,  direws  Cathedral, 
ana  to  restore  it  when  it  has  been  disturbed.  It  is  on  and  was  after- 
account  of  this  godly  work,  "an  imitating  of  God's  wards  sponsor 
love  of  man"  as  St.  Gregory  of  Nyssa  styles  it,  that  (together  with  the 
they  shall  be  called  the  sons  of  God,  "children  of  Archbishop  of 
your  Father  who  is  in  heaven"  (Matt.,  v,  45).  Glasgow)  to   the 

Eighth  Beatitude. — When  after  all  this  the  pious  first  child  that 

disciples  of  Christ  are  repaid  with  ingratitude  and  was  bom  of  the 

even  "persecution"  ^verse  10)  it  will  be  but  a  new  union.   Hiseleva- 

blessing,  "for  theirs  is  the  kmgdom  of  heaven".  tion  to  the  epis- 

^    So  by  an  inclusion,   not  imcommon  in  Biblical  copate  took  place 

poetry,  the  last  blessing  goes  back  to  the  first  and  during  thissecond 

the  second.     The  pious,  whose  sentiments  and  de-  embassy   to    the 

sires,  whose  works  and  sufferings  are  held  up  before  French' court, 

us,  shall  be  blessed  and  happy  by  their  share  in  the  King    Francis 

Messianic  kingdom,  here  and  hereafter.    And  viewed  nominated  him  to 

in  this  light  the  different  kinds  of  blessing  enumerated  the  Bishopric  of     

in  the  intermediate  verses  seem  to  express,  in  partial  Mirepoix  (a  suf-  Dayid  CAfti>mAL  Bba'tok 

images  of  the  one  endless  beatitude,  the  same  posses-  fragan  see  of  Tou-  (Oriciiud  in  Holyrood  Palace) 

sion  of  the  Messianic  salvation.    The  eight  conditions  louse,  with  an 

required  constitute  the  fundamental  law  of  the  king-  annual  revenue  of  10,000  livres),  and  he  received  the 

dom,  the  very  pith  and  marrow  of  Christian  perfeo-  papal    confirmation    on    fi    December,    1537.    Two 

tion.     For  its  depth  and  breadth  of  thought,  and  it^  months  later  he  assisted  at  the  coronation  of  James 

practical  bearing  on  Christian  life,  the  passage  may  and  Mary  at  Holyrood,  himself  crowning  the  queen, 

be  put  on  a  level  with  the  Decalogue  in  the  Old,  and  In  1538  the  Kings  of  France  and  Scotland  showed 

the  Lord's  Prayer  in  the  New.  Testament,  and  it  their  appreciation  of  Beaton's  services  by  petitioning 

surpasses  both  in  its  poetical  beauty  of  structure.  Pope  Paul  III  to  advance  him  to  the  cardinalate. 

Beeidei  the  commentaries  on  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Luke,  James   in    making    this    request    (15    AugUSt,    1538) 

VlL''i,S^:SS^Z.?'l>^^Vir]*'S^^Tr^l^X  protested  his  own  firm  atti«,hment  to  the  Holy  See. 

P.O..  XUV,  1183-1302.  and  in  one  Other  of  St.  Chromatids,  and  urged  the  necessity  of  some  ecclesiastic  bemg 

P.  L.,  XX,  323-328.  ,  Different  patristical  uermons  on  single  invested  with  a  dignity  which  would  enable  him  U> 

beatitudes  are  noticed  m  p.  L..CXXI  (Index  IV)^^^^  represent  the  majesty  of  the  Church  in  Scotland. 

JOHN  r.  VAN  1S.A8TBRBN.  ^^  y^^^  withstand  the  "insane  errors"  of  the  time. 
Beaton    (or   BbthuneV  David,  Cardinal,  Arch-  The  king  repeated  his  request  a  month  later,  and  on 
bishop  of  St.  Andrews,  d.  1494;  d.  29  May,  1546.  20  December,  1538.  Beaton  was  created  Cardinal- 
He  was  of  an  honourable  Scottish  family  on  both  Priest  of  the  Title  ot  St.  Stephen  on  the  Coelian  Hill, 
sides,  bein^  a  younger  son  of  John  Beaton  of  Balfour.  This  had  been  the  title  of  Ciirdinal  John  de  Salerno, 
Fife,  by  Isabel,  daughter  of  David  Monypenny  ot  who  had  presided  at  the  meeting  of  Scottish  bishops 
Pitmilly,  also  in  Fife.     Educated  first  at  St.  Andrews,  at  Perth  m  the  reign  of  William  the  Lion:  but  the 
he  went  in  his  seventeenth  year  to  Glasgow,  where  only  Scottish  cardinal  before  Beaton  had  been  Wil- 
his  uncle,  James  Beaton,  was  then  archbishop,  and  liam  Wardlaw,  Bishop  of  Glasgow,  who  died  in  1387. 
where  his  name  appears  in  the  list  of  students  of  Early  in    1539   Arcnbishop   James   Beaton    of   St 
the  university,  in  1511.     He  completed  his  education  Andrews  died,  and  his  nephew  the  cardinal   (w^ho 
in  Paris,  and  in  1519  was  appointed  by  James  V  had  six  months  before  been  appointed  his  coadjutor 
Scottish   resident  at  the   French  court.     His  first  wnth  risht  of  succession)  was  promoted  to  the  p«njnacy 
ecclesiastical  preferment  was  to  the  rectories  of  Camp-  of  Scouand.     A  year  later,  at  his  request,  William 
sie  and  Cambuslang^  to  which  he  was  presented  by  Gibson,  Titular  Bishop  of  Libaria,  was  nominated 
his  uncle,  the  Archbishop  of  Glasgow,  and  when  the  his  coadjutor,  with  an  annual  income  of  £200,  paid 
latter  was  translated  to  the  primatial  see  in  1522,  he  out  of  the  revenues  of  the  archiepiscopal  see. 
resigned  to  his  nephew  the  commendatonr  Abbacy        Beaton,  whose  coinmanding  ability  nad  now  raised 
of  Arbroathj  obtaining  for  him  from  Pope  Adrian  I V  him  to  the  highest  position  attainable  in  Scotland 
a  dispensation  from  wearing  the  monastic  habit,  by  a  subject,  waa  to  have  that  ability  fully  tested 
Beaton  returned  from  France  in  1525,  took  his  seat  in  the  srowing  unrest  of  the  times,  and  in  the  rda* 
in  Parliament  as  Abbot  of  Arbroath,  and  was  soon  tions,  becoming  rapidlv  more  and  more   strained, 
created  by  the  young  king  Lord  Privy  Seal,  in  sue-  between    James  V  ana  his   uncle,  Henry  VIII  ot 
cession    to    Bishop    Crichton    of    Dunkeld.    James  England.    The  latter,  in  his  designs  to  detach  Scot- 
dispatched  him  to  Paris  in   1533,  with  Sir  Thomas  land  from  its  allegiance  to  the  Holy  See  and  bring 
Erskine,   in  order   to  renew  the  Scottish  alliance  it  into  subjection  to  himself,  was  supported  by  the 
with  Francis  I,  and  to  negotiate  for  the  marriage  of  Douglases   and   other  powenul  nobles,  and  by  tlie 
James  with  Magdalen,  only  daughter  of  the  French  sympathy  of  his  sister,  the  Queen-Motner  Margaret 
king.     Beaton  was  present  at  the  marriage  of  the  James,  on  the  other  hand,  was  backed  by  the  leal, 
royal  pair  at  Notre-Dame  on  1  Januanr,  1537,  and  wealth,  influence,  and  talent  of  the  whole  clergy  of 
returned  with  them  to  Scptland  in  May;  but  the  the  realm,  and  by  many  loyal  Scottish  lords;  hehad 
young  queen  died  of  consumption  two  months  later,  the  sympathy  of  France  and  of  the  Emperor  of 
We  next  find  Beaton  on  a  mission  in  England,  nego-  Germany,  the  strong  support  of  the  Holy  §ee,  and 
tiating  about  certain  difficulties  which  had  arisen  tlie  warm  adherence  of  the  great  mass  of  his  subiects. 
on    the     Border.    The    Queen-Mother     (Margaret)  Henry  in  vain  tried  to  shake  his  nephew's  oonfidenoe 
wrote  specifdly  commending  the  Abbot  of  Arbroath  in  Beaton  by  sending  two  successive  etnbassiefi  tc 


BBATOV  an  WITON      ^ 

Scotland,  in  order  to  urge  James  to  fdlow  his  example  and  dUigienoe  in  the  performance  of  his  hieh  functions. 
in  usurping  the  supremacy  of  the  Church  in  nis  He  summoned  another  convention  of  the  clercy  in 
dotainions.    The  Kin^  of  Scots  refused  to  be  drawn  Edinburgh  in  January,   1546,   when  further  large 
into  Henry's  net,  mamtained  his  unshaken  trust  in  sums  were  voted  in  support  of  the  defence  of  the 
Beaton's  statesmanship  and  patriotism,  and  declined  realm    against   the    invading    armies    of    England* 
to  leave  his  kingdom  for  a  personal  interview  with  and  two  months  later  he  convoked  a  provincial 
his  uncle.     His  mtrigues  being  baffled,  Heniy  had  council  at  St.  Andrews.    The  great  general  council 
recourse  to  force;  ana  hostilities  broke  out  between  was  already  sitting  at  Trent,  but  no  Scottish  prelate 
the  two  kingdoms  in  1542.    The  Scotch,  success-  was  able  to  attend  it,  the  cardinal  himself  seeking 
fui  in  the  first  engagement,  were  hopelessly  defeated  dispensation  from  Pope  Paul  III,  on  the  ground  of 
bjr  the  English  forces  on  Sol  way  Moss,  and  James  the  overwhelming  nature  of  his  duties  in  Scotland, 
died  broken-hearted  at  Falkland   soon  iafterwards,  The  council  at  St.  Andrews  was  interrupted  by  the 
leaving  a  daughter  (Mary^  a  week  old,  to  inherit  the  ai>prehension  and  trial,  for  preaching  heretical  doc- 
crown.    Beaton  produced  a  document  in  which  he,  trines,  of  George  Wishart.    The  triju  took  place  in 
with  three  nobles,  was  appointed  regent  by  the  late  St.  Andrews  Cathedral,  in  presence  of  the  two  arch- 
monarch's  vW;  but  the  nobles  assembled  in  Edin-  bishops  and  other  prelates:  the  articles  of  accusation 
buigh  refused  to  act  on  this,  declared  the  Earl  of  were  read  and  duly  provea;  and  Wishart,  remaining 
Ajran  (heir-presumptive  to  the  throne)  regent  during  obdurate  in  his  errors,  was  condemned  to  death,  and 
the  queen's  minority,  and  imprisoned  the  cardinal  suffered  (being  first  strangled  and  afterwards  burned) 
on  a  fajse  charge  of  conspiring  with  the  Duke  of  at  St.  Andrews  on  28  March,  1546. 
Guise  against  Arran's  authority.     Henry  now  com-        The  profound  impression  caused  throughout  Scot- 
menoed  negotiations  with  the  Scottish  regent  and  land  by  Wishart's  execution  induced  Beaton's  ene- 
Pariiament  with  the  object  of  arranging  a  marriage  mies  to  hurry  on  their  murderous  designs;  and  two 
between  the  infant  queen  and  his  own  heir  (after-  months  later  a  pretext  was  found  for  the  consumma- 
wards  Edward  VI),  of  getting  the  Scottish  fortresses  tion  of  the  long-cherished  plot  in  a  dispute  which  had 
and  the  government  of  the  country  committed  into  arisen,  on  a  question  of  property,  between  the  cardinal 
his  hands,  and  the  person  of  Mary  entrusted  to  his  and  Norman  Leslie,  Master  of  Rothes.    The  latter, 
custody.    Arran  and  the  Parliament  iigreed  to  the  with  his  uncle  John  Leslie,  Kirkaldy  of    Grange, 
project  of  marriage,  but  were  resolute  against  the  and  James  Melville,  undertook  the  work  of  butchery; 
rest  of  Henry's   schemes.     Meanwhile    the   unjust  and  at  daybreak  on  29  May,  1546,  they  obtained 
imprisonment    of    the  ^cardinal-primate    had    been  admission  into  the  castle  of  St.  Andrews,  and  dis- 
followed  by  the  proclam'atiou  of  an  interdict  through-  patched  the  cardinal  with  repeated  blows  of  their 
out  the  kingdom;  and  so  deep  was  the  feeling  aroused  swords.    Thus  perished,  in  the  forty-fifth  year  of 
wnonc  the  still  Catholic  people  by  the  closing  of  his  age,  one  to  whom  (as  his  most  recent,  and  far 
the  churches  and  the  suspension  oi  the  sacraments  from  paj^ial,  biographer.  Professor  Herkless,  declares) 
that  it  was  thought  prudent  at  once  to  release  Bea-  "historic  truth  must  give  a  place  among  Scotland's 
ton.    The  undaunted  primate  instantly  summoned  greatest  statesmen  and  patriots".     No  student  of 
the  bishops  and  clergy   to  St.   Andrews;   and  the  his  life  and  of  the  history  of  his  times  can  deny  the 
assembly,  fully  alive  to  the  imminent  danger  (menao-  justice  of  this  tribute;  and  it  may  fairly  be  added  that 
ing  both  Church   and    State)    of   Henry's  insolent  he  proved  himself  not  less  vigilant  in  the  discharge  of 
demands,  spontaneously  voted  a  large  sum,  taxed  the  spiritual  functions  of  his  office,  in  watching  over 
on  their  own  benefices,  in  defence  of  the  national  the  interests  of  the  Scottish  Church,  and  protecting 
rights.     Beaton  by  his   patriotic  ardour  awakened  her  by  every  means  at  his  command  from  tne  inroads 
amilar  sentiments  in  the  people  at  large;  the  person  of  heresy  and  schism.     As  to  the  charge  of  persecu- 
of  the  baby  queen  was  safeguarded,  and  a  number  of  tion  brought  a|gainst  him.  account  must  be  taken  of 
the  nobles,  including  the  regent  himself  (who  about  the  age  in  which  he  livea,  and  the  prevailing  senti- 
tiiis  time  abiured  the  new  doctrines  and  submitted  ments  of  the  time.  •  Seven  persons  in  all  are  said  to 
to  the  Catholic  Church),  abandoned  their  unnatural  have  suffered  death  under  him;  and  Hosack,  com- 
alliance  with  the  enemies  of  Scotland,  and  ranged  paring  this  number  with  the  hundreds  of  lives  sacri- 
themselves  on  the  cardinal's  side.  need  under  some  of  his  contemporaries,  concludes 
In  October,    1543,  Marco   Grimani,  Patriarch  of  that  Beaton  deserves  rather  to  be  commended  for 
AquOeia,  came  from  Rome  as  nuncio  to  the  Scottish  his  moderation  than  denounced  for  his  barbarity, 
court;  and  it  was  during  his  sojourn  in  Scotland  that  With  regard  to  his  moral  character,  it  has  been  vio- 
the  high  dignity  of  legate  a  latere  was  (in  January,  lently  attacked  by  his  enemies,  and  no  less  warmly 
1544)  bestowed  on  Beaton  by  the  pope.     About  the  defended  by  his  friends.     The  charges  of  immorality 
same  time  the  cardinal  was  mvested  with  the  office  against  him,  never  raised  until  after  his  death,  are 
of  chancellor  of  the  kingdom;  the  Parliament  annulled  in  many  cases  absurd  and  contradictory;  and  Leslie, 
the  treaty  of  marriage  oet ween  the  queen  and  Prince  Winzet,  and  others  who  strenuously  denied  them, 
Edward,  on  the  CTound  of  the  duplicity  and  bad  are  fully  as  worthy  of  credit  as  those  who  maintained 
faith  of  Hennr  Vfll;  vigorous  measures  were  taken  them.     The    evidence    from    contemporary    history 
against  the   ''^English   party"    among  the  Scottish  is  indeed  insufficient  to  decide  the  truth  or  fdsity 
nobles;  and  the  bishops  were  desired  to  take  equally  of  these  charges;  and  Lyon,  the  historian  of  St. 
stern   measures    for    the    suppression    of    heretical  Andrews,  pruaently  concludes  that  the  accusations 
doctrines.     Furious  at  the  frustration  of  his  schemes,  and  the  denials  may  be  considered  as  neutralizing 
Henry  now  connived  at,  and  indeed  openly  encour-  one  another. 

aged,  a  plot  for  the  removal  from  his  path  of  the  able        There  are  two  well-known  portraits  of  Beaton, 

and  imtriotic  man  who  had  been  tne  chief  instru-  one  (formerly  in  the  Scots  College  at  Rome,  now  at 

ment  in  foiling  his  ambitious  plans.     George  Wishart  Blairs  CJoUege,  Aberdeenshire),  depicting  him  in  his 

(whose  identity,    long  disputed,  with  the  Wishart  doctor's    cap,    with    slightly    silvered    orown    hair, 

afterwards   put  to  death  as  a  heretic  has  been  con-  clear-cut  features,  and  a  noble  and  commanding  air. 

flusively  proved   by  the  published  State  Papers  of  In   the  other   portrait,   which   hangs   in   Holyrood 

the  time)  was  employed  to  negotiate  between  Crich-  Palace,  he  is  represented  in  a  black  dress,  with  white 

Km  of  Bnuiston  ^a  Beaton's  English  enemies,  on  bands,  and  wearing  the  red  skull-cap  of  a  cardinal. 
Ae   subject    of     the    assassination    of    the    cardinal.         Leslst.  HUL  of  ScoOand  (Bannatyne  Club,  1830),  149,  155. 

N'eariy  tnree  years  were  devoted  to  the  intrigues  ancj  158;  Sfale  Papern,  Henry  VJII  (Foreign  and  Domestic),  y, 

Mmi«w>n/lAnXo    /-nnnpptpd    with    this    dark    srhpmft'  ^1'  Theinbr,  MtmuwierUa.  60»^  611,  613;  Lton,  HxtU  of  St, 

eoijespondence    conneciea   wiin   inis   oarK  scneme.  xmirytw.  Ancunu  and  Modern  (Edinburgh,  1838);  Hbbklms, 

and,  meanwhile,  the  prunate  never  relaxed  his  zeal  Cardmat  Beaton,  PHett  and  Politician  (Edinburgh.  1891); 


BEATON  374  BBATOH 

Diurnal  of  Oeewrenta  in  Scotland  to  jffu  Vjoar  1876;  KxiTB,    predeoessoTS  had  been  in  safeguarding  the  ancient 
""^^^ Sl^^^tS'^J^^'^- hlSTIl   Priyilegee  of  the  archiepiscop^  seeHSn  his  t»n<. 


dr«wM'(London,'l64Sr^PM«S<rfii.  sSir^T  aSo^siTTHAT^  lation  to  St.  Andrews  he  proved  himself  a  constant 

Ad  Cardinalem  D,  Betoun  OrtUulaioriua  Panegyriau.  benefactor   tO   the   university  of   that   city,  and  he 

D.  O,  Hxjntbr-Blair.  founded  there  a  new  college  ^t.  Mary's)  for  the  study 

Beaton  (or  Bethune).  James,  a  Scottish  Arch«  of  divinity,  civil  and  canon  law,  medicine,  and  other 

bishop;  b.  c.  1473;  d.  at  St.  Andrews,  ^1539,  was  the  subjects.    The  new  college  was  confirmed  hv  Pope 

sixth  and  youngest  son  of  John  Beaton  of  Balfour,  in  Paid  III  in  February,  1^8,  and  was  extended  and 

Fife.    He  graduated  as  Master  of  Arts  at  St.  Andrews  completed  by  Beaton's  successor,  Archbishop  Hamii- 

University  in  1493.  four  years  later  was  Precentor  of  ton,  sixteen  years  later.    It  still  exists  aa  the  divinity 

Dornoch  Cathedral  (Diocese  of  Caithness),  and  in  college  of  the  university.     Finally,  Beaton  showed 

1503  Provost  of  the  Collegiate  Church  of  Bothwell.  himsikf  ever  zealous  for  the  preservation  of  the  umty 

Next  year  he  became  Prior  of  Whithorn  and  Abbot  of  the  Faith  in  Scotland,     under  the  direct  orders 

of  Dunfermline,  and  in  1505  was  made  Treasurer  of  of  the  pope  (Clement  VTI)  and  unhesitatingly  sup- 

the  Kingdom.    In  1508  he  was  elected  to  the  See  of  ported  by  the  kin^,  he  caused  many  of  those  engaged 

Galloway,  in  succession  to  George  Vans,  but  before  m  propagating  the  new  doctrines  to  be  arrested, 

his  consecration  he  was  chosen  to  succeed  Robert  prosecuted,  and  in  some  cases  put  to  death.     Modem 

Blackader  (who  had  died,  whilst  on  a  pilgrimage  to  humanity  condemns  the  cruel  manner  of  their  execu- 

the  Holy  Land,  in   July,   1508)   as  Archbishop  of  tion*  but  such  severities  were  the  result  of  the  spirit 

Glasgow,  and  was  consecrated  at  Stirling,  15  April,  of  tne  age,  for  which  Archbishop  Beaton  cannot  be 

1509.     With  the  archbishopric  he  held  the  commend-  held  responsible.    There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that 

atory  Abbeys  of  Arbroath  and  Kilwinning,  and  in  his  motive  in  sanctioning   the  capital   punishment 

1515  he  became  Chancellor  of  Scotland.  ^  King  James  of  notorious  heretics  was  simply  to  avert  the  miseries 

V,  whose  father  had  fallen  at  Flodden  in  1513,  was  which  religious  schism  could  not  but  entail  on  a 

at  this  time  a  child  of  three,  and  Beaton,  as  one  of  hitherto  imited  people. 

the  Council  of  Regency,  without  whose  consent  the       j?«e*^  Emacoo,  0^.,  II,  547  aqq.;  TnKmmB.Monummia, 

jiueen-mother  couTd  not  act,  wm  one  of  the  meet  ^^'t^^{^;^:^,'^-^^^iS^"^£SL^^^^ 

imfjortant  personages  m  the  realm  durmg  the  mi-  191 ;  Teulet,  Papiera  d'Hat,  III. 
nority  of  the  young  king.    The  coimtry  was  at  this  D.  O.  Hunteb-Blahl 

time  distracted  by  the  feuds  between  two  of  the 

regents,  An^^  and  Arran,  and  Beaton,  who  was       Beaton    (or   Bethune),  James,   Archbishop  of 
connected  with  the  latter  (for  Arran  had  married  Glasgow,  b.  1517;  d.  24  April,  1603;  the  son  of  James 
as  his  third  wife  a  daughter  of  Sir  James  Beaton  of  Beaton  of  Balfarg  (a  yoimger  son  of  John  Beaton 
Creich),  naturally  espoused  his  kinsman's  side.    A  of  Balfour)  and  nephew  to  Cardinal  David  Beaton, 
well-known  story  teUs  how  Bishop  Gavin  Douglas  He  was  elected  to  the  archbishopric  in  1651,  on  the 
of  Dunkeld  came  to  Glasgow  to  urge  the  archbishop  resignation  of  the  archbishop-elect  Andrew  Gordon, 
to  allay  the  strife  within  the  coimcil,  and  how  Beaton,  and  not  bein^  yet  in  priest's  orders  was  ordained 
striking  his  breast  as  he  declared  upon  his  conscience  in  Rome,  and  consecrated   there  on   the   28th  of 
that  he  was  powerless  in  the  matter,  caused  the  coat  Aug[ust,   1552.     For  eight  troublous  years   he  ad- 
of  mail  which  he  wore  imder  his  ecclesiastical  habit  ministered  the  affairs  of  his  diocese  and  stood  faith- 
to  rattle.    "Alas,  my  Lord",  said  his  brother  bishop  fully  by  the  queen-regent,  Mary  of  Guise,  in  her 
at  this  strange  sound,  "I  fear  your  conscience  clat-  dealings  with  the  disaffected  Scottish' nobles,  who 
tersl"    In  1522  Beaton  was  translated  to  St.  An-  were  plotting  the  destruction  of  the  ancient  Church 
chews^  vacant  by  the  death  of  Archbishop  Foreman,  in  oraer  to  enrich  themselves  with  the  spoils.    In 
As  pnmate  he  threw  all  his  powerful  influence  into  March.  1539,  we  find  him  assisting  at  the  provincial 
the  scale  against  the  intrigues  of^  Henry  VIII  to  ob-  council  at  Edinburgh  summoned  by  the  primate, 
tain  predominance  in  Scotland;  and  it  was  greatlv  Archbishop    Hamilton — the    last    assembly    of    the 
owing  to  his  statesmanship  that  the  old  league  with  kind  which  was  to  meet  in  Scotland  for  three  hun- 
France  was  maintained,  and  that  the  young  kiuR  dred  and  twenty-six  years.    The  events   of  1560, 
chose  for  his  bride  Magdalen  of  France  instead  of  the  treaty  of  alliance  with  England  against  France, 
Mary  of  England.    Albanjr's  jealousy  had  deprived  the  commencement  of  the  work  of  destruction  of 
Beaton  of  the  chancellorship  some  years  previously,  cathedrals  and  monasteries,  and,  finally,  the  death 
and  he  was  never   reappointed,  though  he  enjoyed  of  the  queen-regent,  no  doubt  actuatc^l  Beaton  in 
the  full  favour  of  the  king.     A  few  months  after  the  his  resolve  to  quit  the  distracted  kingdom.     He  re- 
second  marriage  of  James  (to  Mary  of  Guise)  the  paired  to  Paris,  taking '  with  him  a  great  mass  of 
primate    got  his  nephew,  David  Cfardinal  Beaton,  the  muniments  and  r^^sters  of  his  diocese,   and 
appointed  his  coadjutor  with  right  of  succession  ana  much  church  plate  ana  other  treasures,  which  he 
he  died  in  the  autumn  of  1539  in  his  castle  at  St.  deposited  in  the  Scots  College. 

Andrews.  Queen  Mary  immediately  appointed  him  her  am- 

The  stormy  period  in  which  Beaton's  public  life  bassador  at  the  French  Court,  and  he   remained, 

was  cast,  with  France  and  England  both  intriguing  both  up  to  her  forced  abdication  in  1567,  and  during 

for  the  alliance  of  Scotland,  and  the  indepenaence  the  rest  of  her  life,  her  most  faithful  friend  and  ad- 

of  the  kingdom  trembling  in  the  balance,  has  made  viser.    He  did  not  hesitate,   after  the   murder  of 

him,  perhaps  inevitably,  appear  to  posterity  more  Damley,  to  inform  her  frankly  of  the  dark  suspicions 

prominent  as  a  statesman  (in  which  ouality  there  is  attaching  to  her,  and  the  necessity  of  the  assassins 

no  room  for  doubt  as  to  his  ability  or  nis  patriotism)  being  punished.     On  the  15th  of   February,    1574, 

than  as  a  churchman  and  a  prelate.    There  is,  how-  Beaten  s  name  appears  at  the  head  of  the  list  of  the 

ever,  evidence  that  during  both  his  thirteen  years'  Catholic  prelates  and  clergy  declared  outlaws  and 

tenure  of  the  See  of  Glasgow  and  the  seventeen  years  rebels  by  the  Scottish  Privy  Council;  but  he  never- 

during  which  he  held  the  primac^r,  he  concerned  theless  continued  to  enjoy  in  his  exile   the  favour 

himself  closely  with  both  the  material  and  spiritual  of    the  young  king  (James  VI)  who,  about   1586, 

interests  of  the  two  dioceses,  and  in  particular  with  appointed    him,  as  the  late  sovereign    had    done, 

the  advancement  of  learning.     In  Glaisgow  he  added  ambassador  at  Paris.     Beaton  held  several   bene- 

and  endowed  altars  in  his  cathedral,  made  additions  fices  in  France,  including  the  income  of  the  Abbey 

also  to  the  episcopal  palace,  which  he  encircled  with  De  la  Sie,  in  roitou,  and  the  treasiu'ership  of  St. 

a  wall,  and  he  erected  stone  bridges  in  various  parts  Hilary  of  Poitiers.     His  intimate  association   with 

of  the  diocese.    He  was,  moreover,  as  sedulous  as  his  the  House  of  Guise  had  naturally  led  him  to  j<»o 


375  BIATBIX 

vHh  the  League  against  Henry  IV.  and  on  its  di»-  Benedictine    xtule,    at    San    Laszaro  Just    outside 

solution  he  wslb  threatened  with  oanishment;  but  Ferrara.    Her  cultus  was  approved  by  Clement  XIV, 

by  the  intervention  of  Cardinal  Bourbon  and  Sully  and  Pius  VI  allowed  her  festival  to  be  kept  on  19 

and  of  the  king  himself,  he  was  allowed  to  remain  January. 

in  France,  where  he  was  regarded  with  the  greatest  III.  Bbatrix  seems  also  to  have  been  accepted  as 

esteem.    Ferhaps  the  most  remarkable    testimony  the  Latin  name  of  a  noble  lady  of  Bohemia,  called  in 

to  the  respect  felt  for  his  character  in  Scotland  is  Bohemian   Bozena,  who  lived  at  the  end  of   the 

to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  in  15d8,  nearly  forty  twelfth  century  aoa  became  a  nun.    Her  brother  was 

years  after  the  overthrow  of  the  ancient  Church,  the  famous  St.  Hrosnata,  one  of  the  patrons  of  the 

the  archbiBhop  was.  formally  restored,  by  an  act  Kingdom  of  Bohemia.     From  the  Botlandist  life  of 

of  the  Scottish  Parliament,  to  all  his  ''neritagee,  Hrosnata  (Acta  SS.,  4  July)  it  would  seem  that  his 

honours,  dignities,  and   benefices,  notwithstanding  sistet*  Beatrix  was  honoured  on  13  November. 

that  he  has  never  acknowledged  the  religioii  pro-  IV.  Beatrix  d'Estb,  aunt  of  the  saint  of  that 

feased  within  the  realm '\     He  survived  to  witness,  name,  whp  is  generally  known  as  Blessed  Beatrix, 

a  month  before  his  death,  the  union  of  the  English  seems  to  have  died  in  1226  or  perhaps  in  1246.    She 

and  Scottish  crowns  under  King  James.     On  the  was  bom  in  the  castle  of  Este,  became  a  nun  in  the 

24th  of  April,  1603,  when  James  was  actually  on  convent  of  Santa  Margherita  at  Solarolo,  but  not 

his  way  to  London  to  tdUce  possession  of  his  new  finding  herself  sufficiently  secluded  from  the  world. 

idnsdom,  the  archbishop  died  m  Paris,  in  the  eighty-  she  founded  another  religious  house  in  a  deaertca 

sixth  year  of  his  ape,  and  half  a  century  after  his  monasterv  at  Gemmola.    Her  body  after  death  was 

episcopal  consecration.  translatea  to  the  church  of  Santa  Sophia  at  Padua 

Beaton  had  lived  in  Paris  for  forty-three  years,  and  it  was  a  tradition  that  when  anything  important 

and  had  been  Scottish  ambassador  to  nve  successive  was  about  to  befall  the  family  of  'EjBie  8&  turned  in 

kin^  of  France.     He  was  buried  in  the  church  of  her  erave  so  that  the  noise  was  audible  throughout 

St.  John  Lateran  at  Paris,  his  funeral  being  attended  the  cnurch.   An  account  of  her  is  given  in  the  Acta  SS. 

by  a  great  ^therin^  of  prelates,  nobles,  and  common  under  10  May. 

people.    The    poetical    inscription    on    his    tomb  V.  Beatrix,    Blessed,    a   Cistercian    nun,    first 

eulogizes  him,  in  the  exaggerated  language  of  the  prioress  of  the  convent  called  Nazareth  near  Lier 

times,  as  the  greatest  bishop  and  preacher  of  his  age  m  Brabant;  d.  1269.    She  came  of  a  wealthy  family, 

in  the  whole  world.    A  sounder  estimate  of  his  worth  but  wishing  to  consecrate  herself  to  God,  at  the  age 

is  that  of  his  Protestant  successor  in  the  See  of  of  seven  she  went  to  live  with  the  B^^ines.     She 

Gla^w,  Spottiswoode,  who  describes  him  as  ''a  afterwards  joined  the  Cistercian  nuns  at  Vallis  Florida 

man  honourably  disposed,  faithful  to  his  queen  while  whence  she  was  sent  to  commence  the  new  founda- 

she  lived  and*  to  the  kinf  her  son;  a  lover  of  his  tion  at  Nazareth.     She  practised  very  severe  aus- 

oountiy,  and  liberal  to  Si  his  countrymen".     No  terities,  wearing  a  girdle  of  thorns  and  compressing 

breath  of  scandal,  in  a  scandalous  a^,  ever  attached  her  body  with  corcU.    Our  Lord  is  said  to  have  ap- 

to  the  honour  of  his  name  or  the  punty  of  his  private  peared  to  her  and  to  have  pierced  her  heart  with  a 

life.    Beaton  left  his  property,  including  the  archives  fiery  dart.    After  Nazareth  was  abandoned  in  a  time 

of  the  Diocese  of  Glasgow,  and  a  great  mass  of  of  disturbance,  the  body  of  Blessed  Beatrix  is  be- 

important  correspondence,  to  the  Scots  College  in  lieved  to  have  been  translated  by  angels  to  Lier. 

Paris.    Some  of  these  documents  had  already  oeen  Her  day  is  29  Julv,  and  a  short  life  of  her  is  included 

deposited  by  him  in  the  Carthusian  monastery  in  by  Henriquez  in  his  "Lilia". 

the  same  city.     In  the  stress  of  the  French  Rev-  VI.  Beatrix  of  Ornacieux,  Blessed,  d.  about 

ohition  many  of  these  valuable  manuscripts  were  1306,  a  Carthusian  nun  who  founded. a  settlement  of 

packed  in  barrels  and  sent  to  St.  Omers.     These  have  the  order  at  Eymieux  in  the  department  of  Drome, 

unfortimately  disappeared,  but  the  papers  left  in  She  was  speciaUv  devout  to  the  Passion  of  Christ  and 

the  college  were  afterwards  brought  safely  to  Scot-  is  said  to  nave  driven  a  nail  through  her  left  hand  to 

land,  and  are  now  preserved  at  Blairs  College,  the  help  herself  to  realize  the  suffermgs  of  the  Cruci- 

Catholic  seminary  near  Aberdeen.  fixion.     Her  cultus  was  confirmed  by  Pius  IX  in 

^^S^^Episc  Qlofo..  pp.  i-ix,  liii-  Gedb.  ^od«^  HUt,  of  1869.     (See  "Anal.   jur.   pont.",   1869,  XI,  264.) 

&SJL^*I^Vo8%^iiJ^J^P^T^tt  There  are  modem  lives  by  Bellaneer  and  Chapuis 

hiv.  Counl  Scoh.,  if,  334;  Keith,  CaU  of  Scoti  Suhops\  163.  and  a  full  accoimt  in  Lecoulteux,  "Ann.  Ord.  Cath." 

IM.                                           T^  rx  XT             Ti  (Yi  5).    Her  feast  is  on  13  February. 

D.  O.  Hunter-Blaib.  VII.  Beatrix  da  Silva,  Blessed,  a  Portuguese 

Beatris  (or  Beatrice). — ^The  name  Beatrix  has  nun,  d.  1  September,  1490.     In  Portuguese  £e  is 

been  borne  by  a  certain  number  of  holy  persons,  but  known  as  Blessed  Brites.    She  was  a  member  of  the 

no  one  of  them  has  attained  to  any  very  eminent  house  of  Portalegre  and  descended  from  the  royal 

renown  of  sanctity.  family  of  Porti^al.     She  accompam'ed  the  Portu- 

I.  Beatrix,  Saint,  a  Roman  vir^  and  martyr,  euese  Princess  Sabel  to  Spain,  when  she  married 

inscribed  in  the  Roman  Martyrologium  on  29  Jiuy.  .John  II  of  Castile.     There  Beatrix  seems  to  have 

She  is  believed  to  have  been  the  sister  of  the  martyrs  aroused  the  jealousy  of  her  royal  mistress  and  was 

Simplicius  and  Faustinus  whom  she  buried  in  the  imprisoned  for  three  days  without  food.     After  a 

\la  Portuensi.    The  legend  says  that  she  was  then  vision  of  Our  Blessed  Lady,  whom  she  saw  attired  in 

denounced  as  a  Christian  by  Lucretius  to  whom  she  the  blue  mantle  and  white  dress  of  the  Conception 

was  betrothed,  and  was  strangled  ly  her  own  serv-  Order  which  she  was  afterwards  to  found,  Beatrix 

ants.    Lucretius  shortfy  afterwards  died  suddenly  by  was  allowed  to  retire  to  Toledo  where  she  entered 

the  visitation  of  God.  the  Dominican  Order.    There  she  lived  forty  years, 

n.  Beatrix   d'Este,   Saint,   d.    1262.     Custom  being  specially  honoured  and  frequently  visited  by 

seems  to  warrant  the  givingthe  title  Saint  to  one  of  Queen  Isabel  the  Catholic.    The  latter  aided  her  t<> 

the  two  holy  nuns  named  Beatrix  d'Este.    She  be-  found  an  order  in  honour  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 

loneed  to  the  famihr  of  the  Norman  Dukes  of  Apulia  ception,  which  adopted  the  Franciscan  Rule.    It  was 

and  was  herself  the  daughter  of  the  Marquess  of  approved  by  Innocent  VIH  in  1489  and  with  some 

Ferrara.    She  was  betrothed  to  Galeazzo  Manfredi  of  modifications  by  Julius  II  in  1511.     Beatrix  died 

Vicenza,  but  he  died  of  his  wounds,  after  a  battle,  ten  days  before  the  solemn  inauguration  of  her  new 

just  before  the  wedding  day.  and  his  bride  refused  to  order.     She  is  much  honoured  in  Spain,  and  there 

return  home,  but  attendea  by  some  of  her  maidens,  is  a  life  of  her  by  Bivar.     (See  also  the  "Anal.  jur. 

devoted  herself  to  the  service  of  God,  following  the  pont.'',  Ill,  549.) 


JOtkVWn  376  BIAUHX 

A  feOer  noUM  pf  ,all^e  •bore  wffl  be  tomid  la  ItoMaui.  tlon  of  St.  John's  Hocpital,  by  provirion  made  in  her 

£52Sraf  •Lf^taJf'are^SSJCei^^Si.i'S^U'fXi'S  ^l  «  »  «>*«1  ^  which  sL  Btates  her  intention 

the  Acta  SS.  on  their  respective  days.    Cf.  C^evalibr,  R£p,  Of  founding  and  suitably  endowing  a  college  for  a 

des  sources  hiat,,  Bio-BiU,  (2d  ed..  1905).  master  and  fifty  scholars.     She  had  a  tender  devo- 

Hbrbbrt  Thurston.  tion  to  the  Reaf  Presence  and  translated  into  English 

Beaufort,  Lady   Maroarbt,  Oounteas   of    Rich-  and  caused  to  be  printed  the  fourth  book  of  the 

mond  and  Derby,  b.  1441;  d,  1609,  daurfiter  and  "Imitation  of  Christ",  which  treats  of  the  Blessed 

heiress  of  Jolm  Beaufort,  first  Buke  of  Somerset.  Sacrament.    The   "Momynge   Remembraunce"  re- 

Her  father,  the  grandson  of  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of  fere  to  the  burning  faith  with  which  she  received  the 

Lancaster,  and  great-gran4son  of  Edward  III,  having  Body  of  the  Lord  upon  her  death-bed.     She  also  her- 

died  when  she  was  tliree  vears  old,  she  was  brought  self  translated  **  The  Mirroure  erf  Oolde  for  the  sinful 

up  by  her  mother  with  the  greatest  care  and  dcvo-  sotile'*.     Historians    agree    in    extolling    her   many 

tion.    Married  while  a  mere  child  to  John  de  la  Pole,  signal  qualities  and  virtues,  criticizine,  if  anything 

son  of  the  Duke  of  Suffolk,  whose  ward  she  was,  she  the  "devotion  those  days  afforded",  the  "errors  of 

refused  to  ratify  the  union  on  attaining  the  years  of  the  age  she  lived  in".    The  Catholic  sees  the  impor- 

discfetion  and  was  then  given  in  marria^  to  Edmimd  tant  part  she  played  in  the  civil  and  political  history 

ap    Meredith    ap    Tudor,    Eari    of   Richmond    and  of  her  time,  but  perceives  in  her  as  well  a  singularly 

brother  of  Henry  VI,  of  whom,  with  his  brother  high  example  of  a  Christian  life,  in  which  a  robust 

Jasper,  she  became  the  ward  on  Suffolk's  attainder,  and  sturdy  faith  bore  its  natural  and  *  wholesome 

Edmund  died  (1456)  a  few  months  after  the  marriage,  fruits  in  deeds  of  liberality  and  benevolence. 

his     posthumous    son     Henry,     Eari    of     Richmona         Fisher,    The    Funeral    Semum    of    Margaret,    Counieu  of 

(afterwards   Hennr  VII),  beW  tem^  Jan^ry,  ^^S'T&^^^J^  Jf  \'l^,^ ci^JSeV^Ta)^ 

1450.      In  1459  Margaret  married  Lord  Henry  Staf-  and  Derby  (London.  1874};  Hai^ted.  Life  of  Margaret  B«iu- 

ford,  her  cousin  on  both  her  father's  and  mother's  fort,  Countess  of  Richmond  and  Derby  (I^ondon.  1839):  Dublin 

8ide.  who  tr«>ed  his  descent  ftom  Hennr  m.    He  fe2nrBXK''»:'«*i.^'^1JIc±^VM^^ 

died    m    1482.     Her    third    husband    was    Hiomas,  gtlil;  Lodob,  lUuMrvnu  pertonaoeiT^ Great  Britain. 
Lord  Stanley,   afterwards  created   Earl  of  Derby.  Francis  Avbxino. 

She  was  instrumental  in  bringing- to  an  end  the        »«._m«.^     Auk>_   /  tj..*.-  -,  .       on 

disaatrous  Wars  of  the  Roses;  her  0on,  the  head  of  ,  B'WU'a    ^bbey   (alAatta   qu^  vociiafur  Bdlu» 

the  Lancastrian  party,  who,  as  a  result  of  the  victory  J*«">  *««  »  Cistercian  house  m  Hampshire  oneof 

of  Bosworth  (1485)  became  King  Henry  VII,  took  ^^•'^J^ST^^Il^J'*""'^'*^^''^'"^,^.^  ^*'-  ^^^ 

in  marriage  EUzabeth  of  York,  daughter  of  Ed-  »nd  peopled  ^  thirty  monks  from  ateaux.    The 

waid  IV  '         o  founder  granted  it  a  nch,  if  miscellaneous,  endow- 

Lady  ■  Margaret    Beaufort    was    an    exceedingly  «ncnt,  including  laiid  in  the  New  Forest  corn,  money, 

reUgiois  woni^-''to  God  and  to  the  ChuniheTlft  TJ^'''^  t^^^Z^?^.?:^^',  ^I^^  ^^^^..^^ 
obedient  and   tractable  sechyng 

plesure  full  bewly"    (Momynge  1 ,, 

and  a  model  of  piety  and  devotion.     Blessed  John 


nobleness  of  her  character  both  as  her  spiritual  "^""^Z'  "Tw  •  i.  »k  ^'  "'  V"  "f  "-""  '^ 
director  and  as  the  instrument  of  her  princely  bene-  r"*'*^  k^'L^^TI?''  '^*  King-maker,  tlie  day  b.^ 
factions,  beare  testimony  to  her  virtues  anB  good  &1.*''*J'*ii^K''!,  JT^'L  Twenty-six  years  lat?r 
works  in  the  funeral  oration  preached  at  her  MoiwK  f **^  ^?f'^''^f?  *%i^^^t  ^"'Tk  *'^''  P"«»M»8 
Mind.  All  England,  he  sajS,  had  cause  to  mourn  »J^  '^  ^""F  "' ,  SS'lfc^-?  *^  suppression 
'  her  death.  Thi  poo;  would  miss  her  bounteous  alms:  ?^  *^  'f^T^^-  "  ♦  ^*'  ^.  ^""**"  "^^^  "^ 
the  students  of  fcth  universities,  "to  whom  she  was  J^"*^  that  "thirty-two  saiictuary-men,  who  were 
as  a  moder",  and  the  learned  lier  patronage.  The  ^  ^«'  <*«>'•  ^e»ony.  o""  ™"«ler  '.  were  Lx-mg  wnthu. 
virtuous  and  devout  lost  in  her  a  lovinf  sister;  ^'^l^l^'i'^i'^^'if^l''''^  S^'',^*'^''' '""'t?  "^/^  ^"^Ht^ 
religious  and  priesU  and  clerks  a  powerfulXfender  i^^u^i^L  Jj^Ll  ^^i!i"i„TJ^"*i;  "Xt  W 
Dix^ne  service  "dayly  was  kept  in^her  chappel  with  ^^T^  *t  ^.k^'  *H^-.'"  ^*i  *"  ****'  ^°^ 
grate  nombre  of  pi^^ts  clercfces  and  chilcbSTto  her  '"^"K  y««"  ^^'^.'^^'tT  ""w  "*Ik  'i^'*""?^  "^ 
grate  charge  and'cost ".  She  was  used  to  recit*  the  £326  was  grated  to  Thomas  J^thesley  after- 
Divine  (Mce,  as  well  as  the  Office  of  Our  Lady,  and  JL  "ll^  t  ^^Y^P*^^-J^J?^  'f^r  tlu«uri» 
to  assist  at.  many  Masses  daily.  She  made  a  public  *^  ^^  ulJtj^^  ^ALr'tf  n^.iS"*^T^ 
vow  of  chastity  i)efore  Fisher  and  was  eniollea  as  a  "f^  ^?«*  Montagu  of  Beaulieu,  the  I^e  of  Buc- 

« sister"  in  many  monastic  houses,  among  others  in  f^*'^!''  »?P^'''  "'i'^K^'TtL**''"? 'V  i^^^i!:^**^  *" 

those  of  the  Charterhouse,  Croyland,  Durham,  and  *^«  "•*•  gatehouse  of  the  abbey,  xyhich  hw  been  wire- 

Westminster.    In  her  owi  estkbUshment  she  pro-  fjil.»y,.'*8tored.     LitUe  dse  remains  of  the  domertic 

vided  for  the  education  of  numbem  of  young  men-  ^"''fl  """^Pi  ''^  ^  4^^,  ^"^^^  refectory, 

at  her  own  cost,  for  many  of  whom  she  dsed  fier  in-  ^Jf  **'«'  P?'?*  «*'T^-  .^^  *V?n '^^JT'  "*  TT*' 

fluence  with  groat  wisdoL  and  discemment  in  the  fcL^tS^rS'-'Not  tZ^^Z  l^tX'b^t^ 


and  Cambridge  (Royal  Li^nses,  1496,  1497:  Char-  '»"»«'"«>'»  oi  fne  cnurcn,  wunevery  wiumn  ano 

ters,  8  September,  1503);  and,  in  1504,  she  made  fei'^ir'AS^J"*!^  ^/T^.^^  "^  Tif**.!,"*  ^ 

predion  for  a  preicher  to  deliver  six  yearly  sermons  Kj  i^^f^.    H^^^f  °"'^'i^"*V**^  SoutWpton 

•^to  the  praise  and  honour  of  the  Holy  Name  of  Water,   was   founded  from   Beauheu   m   1239,    by 

Jesus  „and  the  Annunciation  of  the  Blessed  Virgin       SSoa..W  Uanau.  AnaUc..  V.  680  mq-;  Reaitr.  Can.  U«^ 

Mary".    By  her  bberahty  God's  House  at  Cam-  <fc  B»«o  tow  (Cott.  MSS..  Brit.  Mu».,  Niro.  ATxii,  i);  Tankkr, 

bridge    was    refounded    as    (Christ's    College    (Royal  NoHtia  MontuHca  (Hampshire,  vi):  HampAire  and  the  ItUal 

License,  1506)  for  a  master,  twelve  fellows,  and  forty-  '*''***  (Victoria  County  Hi.toriesi  I^  1«-14«. 

seven  scholars.    St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  was  "■  "■  H«NTBa-BtAiH. 

also  established,  in  the  place  of  the  ancient  founda-       BMHine,  Renaud  de,  a  French  Bishop,  b.  in  lSfi7, 


BBAtmSCMkBD                           377  B2AUVAI8 

at  Tonrs;  d.   1606  in  Paris.    Before  entering  the  graduated  in  1838.    Assinied  first  to  an  artillery 

ecciesiaBticai  state  he  held  secular  positions  such  as  regiment,  he  passed  to  tne  engineers  and  served 

Oouncillor  of  Parliament  and  Chancellor  of  Francis  thereafter  in  that  corps.    During  tne  war  with  Mexico 

of  Valois,   Duke    of   Touraine.    The   royal   court  he  was  engaged  in  the  siege  operations  at  Vera  Oruz. 

greatly  favoured  him  and  appointed  him  to  numerous  Cerro  Gorao,  Contreras.  (£apultepec,  and  the  city  of 

ecclesiastical  offices.^   In  15o8,  he  became  Bishop  of  Mexico,  being  wounded  twice  in  the  last-mentioned 

Mende  and  in  1581,  Archbishop  of  Bourges.    King  battle  (13.  14  September,  1847),  and  was  brevetted 

Heniy  IV  of  France  named  him  his  grand  almoner  in  major.    After  fourteen  years  of  continuous  service  he 

1591  and  appointed  him  to  the  Archbishopric  *of  was  made  Captain  of  Engineers,  3  March,  1853.    The 

Sens  in  1595;  but  the  pope  did  not  confirm  the  ath  war  over,  he  was  given  supervision  of  the  construe- 

pointment  imtil  1602.    He  was  a  member  of  tne  tion  work  along  the  Gulf  coast,  and  on  23  January, 

commission  instituted  by  Henry  IV  in  1600  to  re-  1861.  was  detailed  as  superintendent  of  the  Military 

form  the   University   of   Paris.    By   his   contem-  Acaaemy  at  West  Point.     He  almost  immediately 

poraries,  Renaud  de  Beaune  was  considered  one  of  resided,  however,  on  20  February,  1861,  and  threw 

the  greatest  orators  of  the  time.    Posterity  rated  in  his  lot  with  the  secedine  States  of  the  Southern  Con- 

his  woik  for  the  pacification  of  France  higher  than  his  federacy.    He  was  placea  in  command  at  Charleston, 

oratorical  talent.    It  was  his  influence  that  led  to  South  Carolina,  and  began  the  Civil  War  by  the  at- 

the  successful  issue  of  the  conference  of  Suresnes,  tack  on  Fort  Sumter.    When  the  fort  was  evacuated 

near  Paris,  in  1593.     He  promised  the  conversion  of  he  was  sent  to  Virginia  and  was  in  charge  of  the 

Hemy  IV  and  brought  about  peace  between  the  Confederate  forces  in  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  21  July. 

latter  and   the   "League".    He   received   the   ab-  He  was  then  sent  to  Teimessee.  was  second  in  com- 

juration  of  the  king,  and,  although  the  absolution  of  mand  to  A.  S.  Johnson  at  the  oattle  of  Shiloh;  suc- 

an  excommunicated  prince  was  reserved  to  the  pope,  ceeding  Johnson,   when  the  latter  was  killed,   he 

absolved  him,  July,  1593,  on  condition,  however,  that  nearly  routed  the  Union  army  in  the  first  day's  fight. 

the  approval  of  the  Roman  authorities  should  be  Reinforcements    arriving    for    his    adversary.    Gen. 

obtained.    In  spite  of  this  condition  the  absolution  Grant,  he  was  forced  to. retreat  on  the  next  day. 

was  invalid,  and  the  action  of  the  archbishop  caused,  Beauregard's  failing  health  compelled  him  to  take  a 

at  least  partly,  the  dela^r  in  obtaining  the  papal  con-  leave  of  absence  Tor  three  months,  when,  with  a 

finnation  of  his  nomination  to  the  S^  of  Dens.    Th«  promotion  to  a  general's  rank,  he  was  again  placed 

principal  works  of  de  Beaune  are:    (1)  Some  dia-  m  command  at  Charleston,  where  he  successfully 

courses,  among  them  funeral  orations  on  Mary,  Queen  resisted  for  a  ye^  and  a  half  the  siege  operations 

of  Scots  (1587),  and  on  Queen  Catharine  de  Medici  of  Gen.  Gilmore  and  his  naval  assistants.    In  May, 

(1589);  (2)  translation  of  the  Psalms  of  David  into  1864,  he  joined  Lee  in  Virginia  and  held  Petersburg 

French  ^aris,  1575,  1637);   (3)  "La  reformation  de  against  the  Union  advance.    In  October  of  the  same 

runiversite  de  Paris  (1605,  16(37).  year  he  was  made  commander  of  the  military  division 

Chalmbl.  Histove  de  Touraine  (Paris,  1828),  IV,  2^-32;  of  the  West  and  sent  to  Georgia,  and  then  to  North 

GAUTua  in  Orande  Encyc,,  V.  1064.                     Weber  Carolina  where  he  united  with  Gen.  J.  E.  Johnson  to 

WBBBB.  resist  the  march  of  Gen.  Sherman.    The  attempt  was 

Beauregard,    Jeak-Nicolas,   celebrated   French  futile  and  they  surrendered,  Aoril,  1865.    After  the 

pulpit  orator,  b.  at  Met2  in  Lorraine,  4  Dec.,  17^;  warhebecamepresidentof  the  New  Orleans,  Jackson 

d.  at  the  castle  of  GrOningen  in  Southern  Germany,  and  Mississippi  Railroad,  and  Adjutant-General  of 

27  July,  1804.    He  enter^  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  the  State  of  Louisiana.    In  1866  he  refused  the  offer 

Nancy,  30  Sept.,  1749.     After  his  noviceship  and  of  the  chief  command  of  the  Rumanian  army,  and 

higher  studies,  he  taught  classics  and  rhetoric  with  in  1869  that  of  the  army  of  the  Khedive  of  Egypt, 

distinction  for  six  years  at  the  colleges  of  the  Society  He  lent  bis  name  to  the  Louisiana  Lottery  and  as  its ' 

in  Nancy,  Verdun,  Strasburg,  and  Pont-^-Mousson.  salaried  manager  was  for  several  years  one  of  its 

His  theological  studies,  which  followed,  were  made  in  chief  supporters.    He  was  the  author  of  ^'Principles 

Strasburg,  and  after  the  year  of    third  probation  and  Maxims  of  the  Art  of  War''  (Charleston,  1863) 

Father  Beauregard  was  back  at  Nancy  for  the  year  and  '*' Report  of  the  Defence  of  Charleston''  (Rich- 

1766-67  as  peitect  of  studies.    The  next  year  he  was  mond,  1864).  ^ 

aasigned  to  the  task  of  preaching,  which  thenceforth  ^  Roman,  Military  Ot^^xl^mu  of  Om.  Beawnpardin  the  War 

becS^the  work  of  his  life.    Hiving  gained  a  won-  ^g^N^  fS^/  l^jwi:^^  ^^'"^  ^''"^'  ^^^  ^''"^'  "^    '^' 

derful  reputation  in  the  lesser  towns  of  France,  he  *                 *         *              Thomas  F.  Meehan. 
was  summoned  to  Paris,  where  his  success  was  even 

more  phenomenal.     Especially  noteworthy  was  the  B^auvftil  (Bsllovacum),  Diocese  of,  a  suffragan 

course  of  sermons  preached  before  the  Court  durine  of  ^e  arehiepiscopal  See  of  Reims.    The  Dioceses  of 

the  Lent  of  1789,  in  which  Father  Beauregard  is  said  Beauvais,  Noyon,  and  Senlis  4iaving  been  suppressed 

to  have  clearly  foretold  the  evils  that  were  about  to  by  the  Concordat  of  1802  for  the  Benefit  of  Amiens, 

engulf  France.    Father  Beauregard  escaped  the  first  a  see  was  re-established  at  Beauvais  in  1822,  having 

terrors  of  the  Revolution,  but  was  forced  to  flee  to  within  its  jurisdietion  the  former  Diocese  of  Beauvais 

London  in  1794.    Later  on  he  established  himself  at  and  a  lai]ge  portion  of  the  ancient  Dioceses  of  Noyon 

Msstricht,  then  at  Cologne,  while  his  declining  years  and  Senlts.    A  pontifical  Brief  of  1851  authorizes  the 

were  mnt  at  the  cast&  of  the  Princess  Sophie  of  incumbents  of  tne  See  of  Beauvais  to  call  themselves 

Hoheniohe-Bartenstein.      His  works,  which  for  the  BidM>ps  of  Beauvais,  Noyon,  and  Senlis. 

most  part  are  still  only  in  manuscript,  consist  of  ser-  Diocese  of    Beauvais. — ^Tradition   looks  upon  St. 

mons  and  letters.    A  collection  of  nis  sermons,  made  Lucianus,  sent  to  Beauvais  by  Pope  Fabianus  and 

by  one  of  his  hearers,  was  first  printed  at  Paris  in  martyred,  about  275,  with  his  companions  Maxianus 

1820,  often  reprinted,  and  later  embodied  in  Migne's  and  Julianus,  as  the  founder  of  Christianity  in  that 

"Orateurs  Sacr^",  vol.  LXXI.  place.    The  mart3rrdom  of  St.  Romana  under  Dio- 

Dantcl,  Le  P,  Beauregard,  aa  vie  et  eea  Iravaux;  Sommer-  clotian,  of  St.  Just  during  the  atrocious  persecution 

Toott.  BAl.  <fa  to  c  de  J..  I;  ^Mn.Qoimie  iUuMtie  delas^de  ^  ^y^^  legendary  Rictiovarus   (about  410),  of  St. 

*                                John  F.  X.  HIurphy.  Maxentia,  daughter  of  the  Kins  of  Scotland,  who, 

about  450,  preferred  to  die  ratner  than  follow  her 

Beauregard,  Pierre  Gustavb  Toutant,  soldier,  fianc^,   rentfer   the   primitive   Church  of   Beauvais 

b.  near  New  Orieans,  Louisiana,  U.  S.  A.,  28  May.  illustrious.    The  exact  date  of  the  foundation  of  the 

1818;  d.  there  20  February,  1893.    He  was  appointed  episcopal  see  is  obscure,  but  we  know  that  the  bishop 

to  the  U.  S.  Military  A<^emy  at  West  Pomt  imd  who  occupied  it  from  632  to  660  was  the  thirteenth 


fncumbent.  Among  its  tnahops  Bekuvau  counU  Odo  the  hentie  RoMdin  to  retire,  and  one  &t  fienlis  in 
(860-881),  ch&reed  by  Nicholsa  I  in  S67  to  answer  1310,  oondemned  nine  Temfdan.  Being  Count  of 
with  Hincmar  the  erievances  of  Photius;  Qui  (10C3-  Beauvsis  from  1013,  and  Peer  of  France  from  lbs 
85),  who  founded  St.  Quentin  of  Beauvais,  the  ^at  twelfth  centuiy,  the  Bishop  of  Beauvais  bore  tbe 
■chool  of  theology;  Pierre  Cauchon  (1420-33),  iden-  royal  mftatle  at  the  coronation  of  the  Kings  of  France; 
tified  with  the  condemnation  of  Joan  of  Arc;  Jean  it  was  he,  who,  with  the  Bishop  of  Laagrea,  vat 
Juvenal  des  Ursine  (1433-44),  author  of  the  Chroo-  wont  to  raise  the  king  from  his  throne  to  present  him 
icie  of  Charles  VI;  Cardinal  Odet  de  Chiiillon  (1536-  to  his  people.  The  Bishop  of  Noyon  was  both  duke 
62),  nephew  of  (Joligny,  who  turned  Protestant  at  and  peer.  The  monastic  life  was  established  in  this 
region  by  St.  Evrost  in  the  sixth,  and  St.  Germer  io 
the  seventh,  century. 

The  medieval  Cathedrals  of  Beauvais  and  Seolis 
are  inferior  in  point  of  interest  to  that  of  Noyon. 
which  is  one  ot  the  most  beautiful  monuments  ot 
the  twelfth  centunr.  During  the  Middle  Ages,  on 
each  recurring  14th  of  January,  the  Feast  of  Asses 
was  celebratra  in  the  Beauvais  Cathedral,  in  com- 
memoration of  the  flight  of  the  Virgin  into  Ecypt 
Uee  AssEa,  Feast  of),  and  every  year,  on  27  Jiue, 
Utere  is  a  religious  procession  through  the  streets  of 
Beauvais  to  perpetuate  Jeanne  Hachette's  oppositjon 
to  Charies  the  Bold  in  1472.  John  Calvin  was  a 
native  of  Noj^on,  and  Cardinal  Pierre  d'Ailly  wu 
bom  in  Compi^gne.  The  places  of  pilgrimage  are: 
Notre  Dame  de  Bon  Secoura  at  Complice,  a  shrine 
erected  in  1637  as  an  expression  of  gratitude  for  the 
raising  of  the  siege  of  the  city  by  the  Spaniards; 
Notre  Damo  de  Bon  Secours  at  Cannes;  Notre  Dame 
de  Bon  Seoouis  at  Feuquiiiee;  Notre  Dame  du  Hamd 
at  L'Hamel  Notro-Damo;  Notre  Dame  de  Bon  Secouis 
at  Montmdian;  Notre  Dame  de  Senlia  at  Senlis; 
Notre  Dame  dee  Fleurs  at  Ville-en-Braye. 

In  189B  the  following  institutions  were  found  in 
the  diocese:  6  infant  asytums^  44  infant  scfaook,  ' 
14   girla'  orphanages,    1   free  mdustrial   school,  2 

Kronagea,  2  charity  kitchens,  9  hospitals  and 
pices,  1  house  of  retreat,  12  homes  for  the  ased, 
9  communities  devoted  to  care  for  the  sick  in  their 
homes,  all  conducted  ^f  nuns;  and  2  ■patnmage* 
under  the  care  of  the  Brothen  of  the  Christian 
Schools.  In  1900  there  were  the  following  religious 
orders  for  men:  Mariats  at  Senlis,  Redemptorists  at 
ILun  Ektkikci   Catbedbai.  of  Bbadvais  Thury  in  Valois,  and  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost  at 

Beauvais.  Among  the  orders  for  women  there  were 
tlie  Reformation;  Fmngois-Joseph  de  la  Rochefou-  no  congregations  telonging  exclusively  to  the  diocese; 
cauld  (1772-92),  martyred  in  the  Carmelite  prison  At  the  close  of  1905  the  Diocese  of  Beauvais  had 
in  1792;  and  Feutrier  (1825-30),  minister  of  eccle-  407^808  inhabitants,  39  pastorates,  501  succursal 
sisstJcal  affairs  in  the  Martignao  cabinet.  pariahee  (misfiion  cburchee),  and  10  curacies. 

Diocae  of  5eniw.— The  Church  founded  at  Senlis  O^^  '™i»'S  '!""■  ^-  80'-"3:  ;«(rum™ta.  23»- 
Kw  St  TJioiil  fRBcniliiBl  B>v.iil'  IIWl  horl  it.  nlnll,  280;  X.  1378-1465;  /fu«Tim«Ufl,  423-520;  IX,  818-1038;  itf 
to  Bt.  Kieul  (Kegulus)  about  dfX),  had  its  mntL  «™™Brto,  369-394;  D»i,riT««,;^irt«r.rf«rfi«*«  </»  B«it™ 
bishop,  St.  L^vangius,  m  Sll.  Saints  Sanctwus,  Ag-  ifopwt  im  aaUitttmmt  ou  Iroitiim*  tiicU  (Beauvmu.  1842- 
marus,    and    Autbertus    were    bishops    in    the    sixth     18*3)l  Vrm,  MonoarapMc  dt  f/abv  Dame  dt  Novon  (P»ri«, 

and  wventli  centuries.  T^i£°M^iL            'p""'""-  ^-  13-'*=  <^"v*i««. 

Diocese  of  Notion. — The  headquarters  of  the  city  '                                              Gzoho^  Gotac 

of  the  Veromandui,  who  undoubtedly  had  a  tHsfaop  -,            ,     „                                                                '   , 

from  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century,  having  Bmutmi,  Gillbb-Fkancois-de,  Jesuit  writer  and 

been  destroyed  by  the  barbarians,  the  bishops  were  preacher.b.at  Mans, France,7  July,  1693;  d.  probably 

without  a  residence  untU   St.    MSdard    (530-645),  **  P»"b  about  1773.     He  entered  the  Society  of 

fourteenth  bishop,  installed  himself  at  Noyon,     This  J™""    1"   August,   1709,   and   taught   belles-lettres, 

city    counted    among    its    bishops    the    galdsmith  rhetoric,  and  philosophy.     After  ordination   he  was 

St.  Eloi    (EligiuB,   640-669),  Dagobert's  pmno  min-  Bamgnt-d  to  prewh  and  gave  the  Advent  course  at 

ister;  St,  Mummolenua  (second  half  of  seventh  cen-  l-*"^  "^  1774   during  which  year  he  published  his 

tuiy),    and    St.    Eunutius    (eighth   century).    The  "Life  of  the  Yen.  Ignatius  Aievedo,  S:  J."    and  in 

BelgianSeeotToumaiwBscutoff  from  Noyon  in  1146.  ^~'*°  that  of  Ven.  John  de  Bntto,  S.  J.,  the  latter  of 

iTiese  sees  played  an  important  part  in  the  history  wWch  has  been  translated  into  EngilBh  by  Father 

of  France  during  the  Carlovingian,  and  at  the  be-  Faber  of  the  Oratory  (Richardson,  LondoHj  1851). 

gmning   of   the   Capetian,   period.     A   council   con-  "                           "                                    ' 
voked   at   Beauvais   by  Charies   the  Bald,  in   845, 
elected  Hincmar  Archbishop  of  Reims.     At  Com- 
pi^gne  where,  next  to  his  hunting-lodge,  Charies  the 
Bald  had  built  the  great  Abbey  of  Notre  Dame. 


BtftuvaiB,  JKAN-BAra8TB-CBAiu.xs-MARiH 


ilacing  therein    tlie   Dodies  of    Ste.  Cornelius  and  French  bishop,  b.  at  Cherbourg,  17  October,   1731* 

Cyprian,  and  where  Kinrs  Louis  the  Stammerer  and  d.  at  Paris,  4  April,  1790.     The  sermons  he  preached 

Eudee  were  crowned  and  buried,  there  were  held,  in  before  the  court  during  Advent,    1768,   and   Lent, 

the  course  of  the  ninth  century,  numerous  councils  1773,  raised  his  reputation  as  a  pulpit  orator  to  sucb 


BBAX7VAN  379 

votkm  to  the  CSiurch  and  is  considered  one  of  the  best  who  had  already  become  famous  for  his  lectures  at 

preacherB  of  the  eighteenth  oentuiy.    In  1783  he  Avranches^  left  the  scene  of  his  triumphs  and  came 

reogned  iiis   bishopric   and   settled  at   Paris.    In  to  bui^y  hmiself  in  ttiis  humble  home  of  pietjr.    At 

1789  he  was  made  a  member  of  the  States-General,  first  his  retreat  was  unknown  to  the  world  without. 

His  sermons  were  printed  at  Paris  in  1806,  prefaced  while  tiis  hew  brethren  seem  to  have  been  imaware  of 

by  an  interesting  account,  written   by  tlw  Ahb6  his  worth.    But  wittiin  a  few  years  from  his  arrival 

EJoulogne,  of  the  preacher  and  his  discourses.    The  at  Bee,  he  had  opened  a  new  school,  and  scholars 

most  celebrated  of  Ins  fimeral  orations  is  the  one  on  were  flocking  from  all  parts  to  listen  to  his  lectures. 

Louis  XV;  this  discourse,  however,  failed  to  please  The  abbey  grew  and  prospered,  and  the  good  work 

the  courtiers.    The  best  of  his  panegyrics  are  one  begun  bv  the  simple  piety  of  Herluin  was  crowned 

on  St.  Augustine,  delivered  before   the  Assembly  by  the  learning  of  Lanfranc.     Before  long  it  was 

of  the  C\eTgf  of  France,  and  one  on  St.  Louis,  before  necessary  to  build  a  larger  and  more  lasting  monas^ 

the  Acad^mie  Francaise.  teiy.    As  the  site  first  chosen  had  proved  to  be  un- 

DiFEixBR.^offropAieunuw'telfo  (Paris.  1M7):Bbrnabd,  satisfactory,  the  new  foundations  were  laid  in  an- 

Udimfrancaumaudv^uxtUmenMsipAnB^ijoi^^  Other  spot,  higher  up  the  vaUev  of  the  Bee  and 

JOS.  «.  uiowAc  further  away  from  the  water.   This  important  change 

Beraran,  Rbn^-Fran^gis  de.    See  Toulousb.  was  realhr  the  work  of  Lanfranc,  who  was  now  the 

Betyen,  Thomas.    See  SpRiNoniaj),  Dioobsb  of,  pnor  and  the  rijght  hand  of  the  aged  abbo^^^   As  the 

almost 

_       _         glqry  ol 

«'']1i£'f^vSiS'^?^i^'f^!?t^^^  «^«^t°  Bee  in  1060  While  the  work  of  building  was 

J?  ihw  io  J^»^»ifn  'ivhSS^n^l  »i^f  ilSiSS  in  progress,  and  the  year  before  the  monksVere 

fr.  ■^^J"'^!^*'  *'^aJ^}^12^  f  «S^  VSi^f  aWe  to  move  into  their  new  home.    In  1062,  Lan- 

m  the  education  of  de^-mutM^    Af t«-  8  bn^ant  ^                appointed  Abbot  of  Caen,  and  An«?lm,  in 

course  at  the  Lvo^  Charlemaime  m  Pana.  B^bian  ,.      ,  .,    *^-  -   -  he  had  been  such  a  short  time 

take  his  place  as  prior.    In  the 

J .    ,      ..        .        .      • ...  as  »_j  __j  _..«  _»..:.i  school  also  the  famous  master  was  succeeded  by  his 

o^uurtTuction  given  by  Abb6  8M!«d  and gavespeoal  ^           oiustrious  disciple.    When  the  new  abbey 

aKentiontoI^urentCJerc.aderf-mutewt^^^^  J^      l^    4  B^   ^^ich  haS  taken  some  fifteen  yeai 

became  president  of  an  mstitution  for  the  de«rf  and  ^^  ^uad,  was  Liished  in  1077,  it  was  appropriately 

*^'>  »t  Hartford,  Cpnnectacut,  U.  8  ^  JU  prrf  consecrated  by  Lanfranc,  who  was  nowXctbishop 

of  studies  m  the  iMUtution  for  the  deaf  a^^  j  CJanterbury.    Abbot  rferluin,  the  founder,  died  in 

Pans,  he  Arected  aU  his  efforte  to  to<Miw  tto  dm.  ^^^  foUowing  year,  and  Anselm  succeeded  him  aa 

teft  adapted,  in  precwion  and  «tenmon  o7  m^mn^  ^  ^bb?t  of  Bee.    Only  six  years  later  Abbot 

to  the  expression  of  the  ideas  of  the  d«rf  and  dumB  ^^^^^        ^^  ^  ^^  ^^J    l^^'^j  y^  ^, ^  ^^^^^^ 

fi^fc^i,P"'*i^''^  ^^  i!^"^..ij^,f^  ff  ^,JZ  Lanfranc,  a«  Archbishop  of  CMterbuiy.    The  abbey 

fat  book,  "Bm«  «tt  les  wupi^mueto  rt  continued  in  existence  Sown  to  the  Firench  Revolu- 

^^F!E  ^^a»-^^^}J}\-^^ R^^^r^l^  «on.    The  long  list  of  abbots  from  the  eleventh  to 

der  tfe  titles  "Mimographie      (iSM)  and   'M^d  ^j,e  eighteenth  ^century,  given  in  "GaUia  Christiana" 

denseignement  pratique  ^«  '»«^«"«*f  '  (J*?);  OQ,  122-239),  contaiiilnany  of  the  most  illustrious 

hKl  down  the  prmciples  used  m  the  instatufaon  for  ^^  ,^          '      ^  ^„^  ^^^^          .^  jj^  ,^t^, 

^LJ^  '^'^kv'^  ""  £.f";k-^^Jm^J^  Bee  was  a  pla^  of  some  importance.    It  had  suffered 

school,  he  pubhahed  several  other  ^^s   ^  mort  ^  ■    ^^J;  Hundred  Yea^War  with  England,  and 

UDDortant  being  "  L^ucabon  des  sourds-muete  mue  ^^           ■    ^^   Huguenot  troubles.    But  after  these 

i  fa  porWe  des  inrtituteurapnmwKa  et  de  to^  ^       j  desolation  Sk  was  restored  to  something  of  its 

tor?*"  IL  ^T^A  ^^A  'HwX.™  ^A  fo-^er  state  by  the  Congregation  of  St.  Maur.*  Thus 

Kboob  for  tihe  deaf  Md  dumb  of  St.  Petewbunt  and  ^^    ^^  ,,^    (  mediVvaf  learning  was  renewed  by 

.New  York   he  founded  a  similar  institution  at  Pans    ^t..  .  .i , j i,.-.t„.j.„i  ^k„i .u—     tuL 


Z^  W'^Jf^^fc^^  «„%  w.„^^k  restoration  was  too  soon  undone  by  the  forces  of 

Arector  of  the  school  of  Rouen  and  finair^^^nt  ba^  revolution;  but  the  Maurists  rendered  a  more  en- 

121!!^'' 'w^Jf '7^^^^"  'T^„ IR10  .?^^ wf  during  service  to  the  abbey  by  their  admirable 

.T^'U.^^K^l'l?^^.  ^tsL'^'^^'.^^ft;  editioM  of  Lanfranc,  Anselm,  aid  the  "Chronicon 

tonque  de  I'abM  de  l-Epfc  ',  which  was  awarded  the  Beccense".    Of  the  old  abbey  whose  erection  is  re- 

pnze  offered  by  the  Academy  of  Sciencw.  corded  in  that  chronicle,  some  ruins  still  remain. 

u.  M.  OACVAOB.  ,pjj^  jj^jgj.  buji^™  no^  gerve  as  a  miUtary  station. 

Bee,  Abbct  or.— The  Benedictine  Abbev  of  Bee,  This  transformation  is  a  curious  counterpart  to  the 

or  Le  Bee,  in  Normandy,  was  founded  in  the  earlier  happier  change  effected  at  Fort  Augustus, 

part  of  the  eleventh  century  by  Herluin.  a  Norman  In  its  later  years  the  Abbey  of  Bee  was  but  one 

■might,  who  about  1031  left  the  court  of  Coimt  Gil-  among  many  religious  houses  doing  good  work  for 

bert  o(  Brionne  to  devote  himself  to  a  life  of  religion,  learning  and  religion,  but  in  the  golden  age  of  Lan- 

The  abbey  itself  is  now  in  ruins,  but  the  modem  name  franc  and  Ansemi  it  held  a  unique  position,  and 

of  the  place,  Bec-HeUoin,  preserves  the  memory  of  exerted  a  far-reaching  influence  on  the  course^  of 

its  founder.     There  is  some  difference  in  reckoning  church  history  and  the  advancement  of  theological 

the  date  of  the  foundation,  for  Herluin's  religious  learning.     In  its  early  days  the  abbey  gave  three 

family  was  twice  moved  to  new  quarters,  ana  any  archbishops  to  the  See  of  Canterbury:   Lanfranc, 

one  <M  the  three  dates  may  be  regarded  as  the  be-  Anselm,  and  Theobftld  the  fifth  abbot.    Among_  other 

ginning  of  the  famous  abbey.    Herluin's  first  founds-  prelates  who  came  from  this  famous  school,  it  will 

tion  was  at  Bonneville,  or  Bumeville,  where  a  monas-  be  enough  to  mention  Pope  Alexander  11,  William, 

t«iy  was  built  in  VKii,  and  here  in  1037,  Herluin  was  Arehbisnop  of  Rouen,  Amost,  Gundulf.  and  Emulf, 

eooseomted  abbot.    But  in  a  few  years  it  was  decided  Bishops  of  Rochester,  Ivo  of  Chartres.  Fulk  of  Beau- 

to  nx>ve  to  a  more  suitable  site,  two  miles  away,  bv  vais,  and  Gilbert  Crispin,  Abbot  of  Westminster, 

the  banks  of  the  Bee  (Danish.  Bcek,  a  brook)  whien  Of  the  influence  of  Lanfranc's  work  at  Bee  John 

gave  its  name  to  the  abbey.   This  removal  took  place  Richard  Green  says  very  truly:  "His  teaching  raised 

limit  1040.    About  two  years  after  this,  Lanfranc,  Bee  in  a  few  years  into  the  most  famous  school  of 


BXOUr                                 380  BXOOX78 

Christendom.    It  was  in  fact  the  first  wave  of  the  (I  March,  1806;  1  June,  1896),  and  by  J.  BruckerUi 

Intellectual   movement  which  was  spreading  from  the  ''Etudes"  (15  April,  and  15  July,  1896).        * 

Italy  to  the  ruder  countries  of  the  West    The  whole  •8<^"«*»^^*l^',  BHUiotMque  ds  la  e,  de  J.,  I,  1091-1111; 

mental  activity  of  the  time  s^med  concentrated  in  ^S^^^^  ^^^JS^'; ^J;;Ji^Sf^^'' '■' 

the  group  of  scholars  who  gathered  aroimd  jum;  the  Francis  D.  O'Laughlin. 

fabric  of  the  canon  law  and  of  medieval  scholasticism  «•«/<, 

with  the  philosophical  scepticism  which  first  awoke  Beccwalli,  GnTBBPPB.  See  Quibtism. 
under  its  mfiuence,  all  trace  their  ori^  to  Bee"  (A  Bbccos  (Gr.  Be««ot),  John,  Patriarch  of  Con- 
Short  History  of  the  English  People,  I.  ii,  3).  When  stantinople  in  the  second  half  of  the  thirteenth 
we  remember  how  deep  and  far-reacninff  nas  been  century,  one  of  the  few  Greek  ecclesiastics  who  ww* 
the  influence  of  its  greatest  scholar,  Anselm,  on  sincerely  in  favour  of  reunion  with  the  Church  of 
later  theology,  we  cannot  but  feel  that  though  Rome.  He  was  bom  in  the  eariy  part  of  the  thir- 
the  old  Abbey  may  be  in  ruins  the  school  of  Bee  tcenth  century  in  Constantinople,  where  he  joined 
still  lives  on,  and  all  may  sit  at  the  feet  of  its  famous  the  ranks  of  the  clergy.  His  ability,  learning,  and 
masters.  moral  qualities  marked  him  for  advancement, 
Chronicon  Beccenais  a(m-1468),  ed.  d'AchAry  in  lan^  and  he  was  soon  promoted  to  the  office  of  charto- 
/mn«  Cant.  Op,  (Pims,  1648),  app.. 1-32  (an  «xooi5tfw«M  ^„/^^       tk^    Pof^Jow*!,     A««»«;.ia     n9f;K_fifi^    hoW 


6f"13^  fili.'2?d  f.T,rSi"!n!SS  2kd""i^cn„'Sr}%  «UVendimi  a  prieet  who  blessed  a  marriage  in  the 

Ufe  and  TimtM  of  Si.  Antelm  (London.  ISSS);  Raoet.  His-  CAurch  of  an  unperial  palace  Without  permission, 

tow  <fo  5ain(An«riin«  (Pam.  1889).  the  la«t  ^o  TO^  Beceus,   however,   recovered   the   imperial    favour. 

'^^f^^'X^^^^^itli'^^S^^^l^^  «d   .^dually   piined   ^e   confidence   of   JOch^i 

1901).  W.  H.  Kbnt.  Palieolopus  (1259-82).    He  was  selected  repeatedly 

to  eonouct  delicate  or  difficult  negotiations  with 
Becan    (Verbrbctk,  van  der  Brbck),  Martin,  foreign   potentates.    His   sentiments    towards   the 
controversialist,  b.  at  Hilvarenbeek,  Brabant,  Hoi-  Christians  of  Western  Europe,  or  the  Latins,  were 
land,  6  Januaiy,  1563;  d.  at  Vienna,  24  January,  not  at  all  friendly  at  the  banning.    When,  after 
1624.    He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  22  Marcn,  the  destruction  of  the  Latin  Empire'  in  Constanti- 
1583,  taught  theology  for  twenty-two  years  at  Wttrz-  nople,  the  Emperor  Michael  Palseologus  conceived 
burg,  Mainz,  and  Vienna,  and  was  confessor  to  Em-  tihe  ]^lan  of   reuniting   the   Greek   and   the  Latin 
peror  Ferdinand  II  from  1620  until  the  time  of  his  Oiurehes,  the  Patriarch  Joseph   (1268-75)   and  his 
death.     He  possessed  a  style  clear  and  dignified,  and  okaHaphylax,  John  Beccus,  were   strongly   opposed 
noticeably  free  from  the  bitterness  which  marked  to  it.    La  &  meeting  of  the  ecclesiastics  of  Constan- 
the  polemical  literature  of  the  day.    His  writings  tinople  held  about  the  year  1273,  Beccus  declared 
were   directed   principally   against  Calvin,   Luther,  in  the  presence  of  the  emperor  that  the  Latins  were 
ahd  the  Anabaptists;  of  these  his  "Manuale  Contro-  in  reahty  heretics,  although  they  were  not  called 
versiarum'^  Mainz,  1623,  treating  of  predestination,  thus.     His  audacity  was  punished  with  imprison- 
free  will,  the  Eucharist,  and  the  infallibility  of  the  ment.    In   his   enforced   retirement   B«eccus    fotmd 
Church,   passed   through   several   editions.     For   a  l^isuro  to  studv  the  points  of  difference   between 
complete  list  see  Sommervogel,  "Biblioth^ue  de  la  the  Greeks  and  Latins.    The  emperor,  anxious  to 
compagnie  de  J^sus"  ([,  col.  1091-1111),  wherein  are  wia  him  over,  sent  such  writings  to  him  as  were 
mentioned   by  title    forty-six  volumes.     His   chief  favourable  to  the  views  of  the  Latin  Church,  among 
theological  work,   "Summa  Theologite   Scholasticse  them,  the  works  of  Nicephorus  Blemmida  or  Blemr 
(4  vols.  4to,  Mainz,  1612)  is  in  great  part  a  compen-  mydes.     From  the  works  of  Athanaaius,   Cyril  of 
dium  of  Suarez's  Commentary  on  St.  Thomas  Aqui-  Alexanchia,  Maximus  the  Confessor,  and  others  he 
nas.     By  a  decree  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Index,  learned  that  the  Greek  and  the  Latin  Fathers  sub- 
'3  January,  1613,  his  book  ''Controversia  An^icana  stantially   agreed   on    matters   of   CThristian    faith, 
de  potestate  regis  et  pontificis"  was  put  on   the  The  only  dii^rence  was,  that  while  the  Latin  writ- 
Index  donee  corrigaiur,  not  so  much  to  condemn  ers    considered  the   Holy  Ghost   to  proceed   from 
certain  exaggerations  it  contained  as  to  prevent  the  Father  and  Son,  the  Greeks  preferred  to  state  that 
faculty  of  tneology  of   Paris  from   condemninj^  it  He   proceeds   from   the   Father   through    the    Son. 
and   at  the  same   time  adding  some  declarations  Gnce  satisfied  on  this  subject,  he  became  actively 
against  papal  authority.    The  ''Cbntroversia"  was  interested   in   the   work  of  reunion,   and   retained 
corrected  and  published  somewhat  later  with  a  dedi-  these  sentiments  to  the  end.     Meanwhile  the  union 
cation  to  Pope  Paul  V.     Bccan,  in  1608,  published  was  happily  concluded  in  the  council  held  at  Lyons 
at  Mainz,   ''Aphorismi   doctrinse  Calvinistanun  ex  (1274)  and  proclaimed  at  Constantinople  (January, 
eorum  libris,  oictis  et  factis  coUecti",  in  reply  to  1275).    The  Patriarch  Joseph  could  not  be  inducea 
Calvin's  ''Aphorismi  doctrinse  Jesuitarum".     Apho-  to  accept  it,  and  was  removed  from  his  office  accord- 
rismus  XV,  "  Jesuitae  vero  qui  se  maxime  nobis  oppo-  ing  to  a  previous  imderstanding.    John  Beocus  was 
nunt,  aut  necandi  aut  si  id  commode  fieri  non  potest,  elected  in  his  place.    On  the  2a  of  June,  Pentecost 
ejiciendi,  aut  certe  mendaciis  ac  calumniis  oppri-  Sunday,  1276,  ne  received  the  episcopal  consecration. 
mendi  sunt**   (The  Jesuits,  our   chief   adversanes,        After  his  elevation  to  the  patriarchal  see  one  of 
ought  to  be  put  to  death,  or,  if  that  cannot  be  easily  his  main  objects  was  to  oonvince  of  the  la-vfulness 
done,  they  ought  to  be  banished,  or,  at  any  rate,  of  the  union  those  of  the  Greeks  who  were  either 
overwhelmed  with  lies   and   calumnies),   has   been  partisans  of  the  schism  or  else  had  renounced  it 
misconstrued  so  as  to  make  it  appear  that  Becan  only   in    a   half-hearted   way.     In    April,    1277,    a 
wished  to  say  that  Aphorismus  AV  contained  the  synod  was  held  in  Constantinople,  where  the  \inion 
very  words  of  Calvin.    That  such  was  not  Becan's  was  again  approved;  a  letter  was  also  written  to 
intention  is  clear  from  the  title  of  the  book  "Aphor-  Pope  John   XXI    (1276-77),   which  acknowledged 
ismi  ex  eorum  libris  dictis  et  factis  collecti*'  and  the  the  papal  primacy  and  the  orthodoxy  of  tlie  I^tin 
development  shows  that  the  author  was  only  draw-  doctrine  on  the  Procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost.      When 
ing  what  he  considered  a  logical  conclusion  from  the  a  faction  of  the  schismatics  rebelled  against   the 
action  of  the  Calvinists  of  the   time.    A  lengthy  emperor,  John  Beccus  excommunicated  them  (July, 
discussion  about  this  aphorism  was  carried  on  by  1277),    whfle    Michael    Palteologtis    defeaiecl     tbetr 
A.  Sabatier  in  the ''Journal  de  Geneve"  (26  January,  armies.    In    1279,    Beccus   assi^ed   the  le^^tes    of 
1896;  10  May,  1896)  and  the  "Revue  Chr^tienne'^  Pope  Nidiolas  III  (1277-80),  then  in  CJonstajitinople. 


3S1  BKOXXDOKTF 

that  the  Greek  CSiurch  entirely  agreed  with  Rome  fifteen  years  ruled  the  Abbey  of  St.  Werbureh,  Chee- 

in  matters  of  doctrine.    Several  synods  were  held  ter,  his  name  appearin||  as  twenty-sixth  on  tne  roll  of 

shortly  afterwards,  all  with  the  same  object  in  view;  abbots  of  that  foundation.    He  was  elected  Abbot  of 

and  in  one  of  them  it  was  discovered  that  a  certain  St.  John's,  Colchester,  10  Jime,  1530,  and,  with  six- 

Penteclesiota  had  tampered  with  a  passage  of  St.  teen  of  his  monks,  took  Henry  VIII 's  Oath  of  Su- 

GrMory  of  Nyssa,  where  testimony  was  rendeied  premaov,  7  July,  1634.    The  year  1535  brought  the 

to  uie  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost  from  Father  martyraoms  of  the  three  Carthusian  priors  (4  May), 

and  Son.    Finally,  h^  tried  also  to  defend  in  writhig  of  Bl.  John  Fisher  (22  June),  and  of  St.  Thomas 

the  doctrines  of  the  Latin  Church,  although  at  first  More  (6  July),  all  five  for  the  Divine  right  of  the 

he  had  resolved  not  to  notice  the  many  pamphlets  Roman  Church  to  universal  supremacy  in  spirituals. 

of  the  schismatics,  Icfst  he  should  make  tne  cussen-  Beche  was  so  deeply  affected  by  these  examples  that 

sions  even  greater.  his  unguarded  expressions  of  reverence  ana  venera- 

The  intercourse  of  Beccus  with  the  emperor  was  tion  for  the  martyrs,  reported  by  spies,  drew  down 

not  always  pleasant.    The  patriarch  pleaded  much  upon  him  the  resentoient  of  the  scnismatical  king. 

with  his  imperial  master  for  the  needy  and  for  those  In  November,  1538,  the  Abbot  of  St.  John's  further 

unjustly  condemned   by   the   officers   of   the  law.  exasperated  Henry  and  his  ministers  by  denying  the 

But  the  emperor  grew  weary  of  these  importunities  legal  right  of  a  royal  conunission  to  confiscate  his 

and  restricted  the  patriarch's  liberty  of  access  to  amx^.    Within  a  year  of  this  he  was  committed  to 

hint    Matters    were    aggravated    by    the   enemies  the  Tower  on  a  cnarge  of  treason,  was  discharged 

of  the  union,  who  purposely  calumniated  Beccus,  fpx>m  custody,  and  rearrested  some  time  before  the, 

as  if  his  conduct  were  immoral,  as  if  he  misused  the  1st  of  November,  1539.     Witnesses  were  found  to 

treasures  of  the  Church,  and  insulted  or  even  cursed  testify  how  the  abbot  had  said  that  God  would  "  take 

the  emperor.    Such  accusations  were  not  altogether  ven^nce  for  the  putting  down  of  these  houses  of 

tmwelcome;  and  the  emperor,  to  show  his  indigna^  religion'',  that  Fisher  and  More  ^'died  like  Rood  men 

tion,  ctirtailed  the  patriarch's  iurisdiction  over  all  and  it  was  pity  of  their  deaths",  and  that  the  reason 

tbe  sacred  places  that  were  outside  of  Constantinople,  for  the  king's  revolt  from  Catholic  unity  was  the 

Thereupon  Beccus  grew  tired  of  his  office,  resigned,  king's  desire  to  marry  Anne  Boleyn.     In  his  own 

and  withdrew  to  a  monastery  in  March,  1279.    Biit  examination  the  abbot  yielded  to  human  weakness 

as  the  papal  legates  arrived  soon  after,  he  was  in-  and  tried  to  explain  away  his  former  assertions  of 

duced  to  resume  his  duties  and  to  treat  with  the  CathoUc  truth.   In  spite  of  these  lapses  he  eventually 

representatives  of  the  pope,  which  he  did  as  related  received  the  crown  of  martyrdom.    Tried  at  Colches- 

bdfore.    After   the   deatn   of   Michael   Palseoiogus,  ter,  by  a  special  commission,  in  November,  1539,  he 

whidi  occurred  11  December.  1282,  the  imion  with  no  longer  pleaded  against  the  charge  of  contumacy 

Rome  was  at  once  denounced  by  the  new  Emperor  to  the  newly  established  order  of  things.    He  was 

Andronicus  (1282-1328):  and  Beccus  was  forced  to  convicted  and  executed.     An  anonymous  contem- 

resign.    In  a  synod  held  in  1283,  he  was  forced  to  porary  partisan  of  Henry's  schism,  quoted  by  Dom 

sign  his  name  to  a  creed  prepared  by  his  enemies,  Bede  Oamm  in  "Engl.  Martyrs",  1,  400,  says  of 

and  to  abdicate  the  patriarchal  office,  after  which  Abbot  Beehe  and  others  who  died  at  that  time  for  the 

he  was  baiiished  to  tne  city  of  Prusa  in  Bithynia.  same  offences,  "  It  is  not  to  be  as  these  trusty  traitors 

In  1284,  he  was  again  summoned  to  a  synod  in  Con-  have  so  valiantly  jeopardized  a  joint  for  the  Bishop 

stantinople;     but    he    defended    energetically    the  of  Rome's  sake  ...  his  Holiness  will  look  upon 

doctrines  of  the  Western  Church,  for  whidi  he  was  their  pains  as  upon  Thomas  Becket's,  seeing  it  is  for 

confined  to  the  fortress  of  St.  Gregory  on  the  Black  like  matter".     The  decree  of  Pope  Leo  ^UI  by 

Sea,  where  he  underwent  many  privations.    Nothing,  which  Abbot  John  Beche  received  beatification  bears 

however,  could  induce  him  to  sacrifice  his  Qonvie-  date  13  May,  1895. 

lions.    He  still  continued  to  write  in  favour  of  the       CKMu.Liv^tof  the Ewi. Martms (X^^^^ 

Utm  Church      Death  brought  an  end  to  his  suf-.  Sff2id^'/;3^G"lSiiS;r^"Vfer^»il^Ti'-^'iJ^ 

fenngs  about   the  year   1298.  DametHc  (Londoo.  1805);  Mc»ork  ed.  CarUdarium  MonasterU 

The  principal    works   of  John   Beccus    (in    P.    Q.,  S.  Joaatnu  de  Colee^^tria  {London,  1897);  Record  Offi^^^ 

CXU)  are  the  foUowmg:  "Concerning  the  Union  and  «^  Carrespondenee,  VI,  146.  vt^^^j^^n^ 

Peace  of  the  Churches  of  Ancient  and  New  Rome  ";  ^'  ^^cphbR^on. 

"TheEpigraphee",  a  collection  of  passages  from  the        Becktdorff,  Georg  Philipp  Ludolf  von,  b.  at 

Fathers;   **  On  the  Procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost";  Hanover,  14  April,  1778;  d.  at  Grttnhof,  27  February, 

the  polemical   works  against    Photius,   Andronicus  1858.     He  first  studied  theolo^  at  Jena,  then  medi- 

Camateros,    and    Gregory    of    Cyprus;    the    works  cine  at  Gdttingen,  where  he  obtained  the  degree  of 

addressed  to  his  friends  Theodore,  Bishop  of  Sug-  doctor  in  1799.     In  1810  he  rave  up  the  medical 

dsa  in  Moesia,  and  a  certain  Constantine;  a  letter  [u-ofession  and  accepted  the  office  of  tutor  to  the 

to  Agallianos  Alexios,  a  deacon  of  Constantinople;  crown-prinoe  of  Anhalt-Bembui^.     For  seven  years 

several  orations  and  an  "  Apologia ";  his'^Testamen-  he  lived  eX  Ballenstedt.    In  the  movement  for  the 

turn"  written  while  in  prison.     In  all  of  these  writings  reunion  of  the  churches,  then  agitating  the  various 

there  is  a  sincere  conviction  of  the  truth  defend^  rdigious  sects,  he  took  an  active  part  by  able  and 

by  him,  and  great  enthusiasm  for  the  peace  of  the  timely  pubUcations.    An  appeal  ''To  Young  Men  of 

CJiupch  through  union  with  Rome,  among  whose  Germany  over  the  body  of  tne  murdered  Kotzebue*' 

Greek  adherents  Beccus  holds  easily  the  first  place,  brought  him  into  a  wider  field  of  action.    The  Pnis- 

Gboboius  Pachtmerbs.  I1ichabi^aljbolo«u&  aiMl  An-  sian  Go vemment  secured  his  services,  and  he  became 

Rathaldto,  Annale*  ecd.  (Luoca.  1748),  III;  Hbpbub.  Con-  Ministry  of  Pubhc  Worship,  and  later  on,  supervisor 
ni»nQ$9diuAu  (Preibiirg.  1^),  VI;  Krumbacher.  Oe^chi^  of  the  pubUc  school  system.  In  this  capacity  he  con- 
ifer i«arm<.  LiOeratur  (Muiuch,  1897);    HEROENRdTHER  in  iCir-  friKiit^  iRnrpIv   in   rvw>nprAfir>n  with  Nioofnviiis   to 

duiux.,  B.  v.;  HuBTwi,  N&mend4itor  (Iniubniok,  1890)  IV,  tnDuteo  largely,  m  co-operaiion  Wltn  INlCOlOVlUS,  to 

Francis  J.  Sghabfeb.  *"®  uplifting  of  popular  education  and  pubhshed  m 

nine  volumes    the    "Year    Book   of   tne  Prussian 

Baehe,  John  {alias  Thomas  Marshall),  Blesssd,  Schools".    The  State  recognized  his  efficiency  hj  ap- 

En^jsh  Benedictine  abbot  and  martyr;  date  of  birth  pointing  him  attorney-general  for  the  University  of 

unknown;  d.  at  Colchester,  England,  1  December,  berlin.    His  official   duties  and    inclinations   kept 

1*539.    Educated  at  Oxford  (prooably  at  Gloucester  Becl^edorff  in  close  touch  with  the  religious  union 

Hail,  now  Worcester  College),  he  took  his  degree  of  movement  and  while  studying  the  history  and  claims 

Doctor  of  Divinity  in  1616,  and  within  the  next  of  the  various  sects,  his  conviction  became  stronger 


I 


BEOXER  382  BKOQXTERBL 

that   the   Catholic   Church  was   the    true   ApOStoHo  Catholie  Nwa,  fOm  (New  York.  5  Ai^^,  1889);  REms, 
Church.    It  waa  not  an  easy  step  for  one  in  his  posi-  f^K^^JS?!  ^Ki^^4''L^n^^:^r^\^  ^'^''<^y  JIS*''^^!? 
tion  to  follow  up  his  convictfon;  but  the  death  of  STS^  \^\,  c^i^DiM  (Ne^  YorCls^W)^*  ^'''"  '''^ 
loved  child  decided  him  and  he  infonned  the  king  of  Thomas  F.  Meehan. 
his  resolve.    The  kindly  crown-prince  advised  a  con- 
sultation with  Bishop  Saaer  of  Ratisbon,  and  a  few  Backet,  Thomas.    See  Thomas  Becket,  St. 
days  intercourse  with  this  prelate  sufficed  to  prepare  *<^v^    !>.«.«,>,,  i«  ^,    <^       *             j   r»         i    * 
B^kedorfr  for  abjuration.  Holy  Communion,  Wd  .x^^JTi^'^'^'  t^^enty-second  Genend  of 
Confirmation  in  /une,   18^7.     'kia  dismissal  from  i^^i?*  1^5."^^^^^*  f'^iT'V^feT' I  ^u*^ 
pubUc  office  quickly  foUowed  and  he  withdrew  with  2^  "^Li" -^L  „JS!;  \  w'^'u'  }l?o     ^a^ 
his  family  from  the  capital  to  Grflnhof  in  Pomemnia.  ?S^^f  oj:^"«l  P"«*'  7  March,  1819   and  ap- 
Beckedorff  now  devoted  himself  to  the  manage-  P?»TJ^^\L*^P*'S^,'i^lr^'^'i'''8'l*  •^"^ 
ment  of  his  estate  and  the  education  of  bis  childr&i,  S^JS!^  t^.^-P^i  j*'T  •*'®^  ""*  ^"^^^^  ^ 
but  his  abmties  were  too  marked  to  suffer  this  retire^  ,~"J*^  ?L^^*'  Hddesheim.  Gennany.    Having 
ment  for  long.    In  spite  of  repeated  refusals  of  the  ^?*k^  °fT^  language,  he  was  soon  able  to 
Government  to  ratify  his  efection.  his  admiring  ?.^'.^„Tn^     '  ^  a^i^  u'^^^k** '"  ^"""^ 
countrymen  chose  him  again  as  their  deputy.    It  wia  „^^*',S*'nR\^^?fV^?,i^?'^L?°*''i"  1!^%**"^ 
not  unta  the  accession  of  King  Fred«5iclf  William,  T!^.k.^u-^p^k*  ^Slw"  ^^  ""'^  f^.  ^"i" 
however,  that  his  rights  and  merits  were  recognized.  ^!S^*J^^J  F'*^!**^  ?^^*^  appomted  to  this 
In  repaiktion  for  t&  injustice  done,  the  Wng  raised  ^^J^'AIm-    \^^  m  KOthen.    fie  foimd  only 
him  to  the  nobiUty  and  made  him  president  of  the  t^S,^  ?^^fci  ™i»"'/T  ^'^%^''  ^^  ^  ^^ 
state    agricultural    department.    TSfo    volumes   on  vwte.    In  1830  he  went  to  hve  m  Viemia,  where  he 

agricultural  economy  attest  his  competence  in  an  J?"  *^f  ^  ^^^}''^vT''^  ^f^' .  ^~^  *"^*'  *^ 

eStirely  new  office  fid  his  zeal  in  the^ervioe  of  his  ^iiTi^ll^^^'^^  '^^  ^"^  r  ""?«***?* 

country.    With  the  stiU  higher  aim  of  furthering  ^fTSf  ™-^I^^£^' -""^Pi '^'*-  ^"'^^    I? 

religioi  union  and  peace  he  pubUshed  sevend  woriS  JfS%'llTfZ™*„?7.,?Siv«»^  ^'"i  "*  f^^  ^^^ 

on  the  mutual  reUtf^of  fa&iily,  school,  State,  and  ^^  ^l^^^r^L  **  ^*"***^  ***  Innsbruck,  Lmi 

Church.    His  work,  "The  Catholic  Trutll,  Worlls  of  SSfui^^'S.  J'^L"'"'*  ^^^'  °°n  *''*'   ?'^»''»k 

Peace",  went  throiJgh  three  editions  and  StiU  ranks  IS^'ltl  £f?S^ii^t  T?   <=|»o*n   G«'»en»l,of  the 

as    an    excellent   ^pular    manual    of    apoloijetics.  !?2!*y,'iL*^ 'S*°'S?"' ^°*?  ?^  •'*''^**1  ?°"  ^ 

Nowhere  was  BeckSorff's  influence  felt  more  tBan  at  gf^  '^i^.T''^-    ^'^f  "fT  father-general  brought 

GrOnhof  and  in  its  neighbourhood.     Having  learned  JS^^f  fS     t^   ^T'  "L  ^'^^^'  *  P~^o»n<l  l^lf'- 

that  some  Catholics  wire  scattered  throughout  the  ^^.fl  J"^  .}^^^  ^^^'  ,^''f^,,f''^  ^^'^r. 

district,  he    buUt  a    church  for   them   iSd  main-  «««"tyof  mmd  m  extreme  trial;  faultless  manners; 

tained  the  resident  priest  in  his  own  house.    He  ""ItJ!?^^  ♦ll^Sl"?'^^ "/  ^"^i??*S>\».      b^w 

founded  also  a  school  and  home  for  poor  chadren  J^^  *^*  thirty-four  years  that  Father  Bwbc 

and  entrusted  them  to  the  Sisters  of  <5harity;  both  governed  the  society  its  membership  was  doubled, 

of   these  institutions  began  to  flourish  during  his  2^.  P~vinces  were  estabhshed  m  teland,  France, 

lifetime  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Amenca;  new  missions  were 

RosEN^AL,  CmvertUenbOdtr  mu  dem  XIX.  JahHtmdert  ^'fS^  »?  different  parts  of  the  world;  the  education 

(Ratisbon,  1889),  I,  i,  481  aqq.  Of  youtn  was  Continued  with  success;  new  colleges 

Cbarucb  B.  Schramtz.  were  opened  in  every  province.     Durii^  his  term 

Becker,  Thomas  Andrew,  sixth  Bishop  of  Savan-  ?i  ,ft  *'«^*)f  iTJIf^T^  *?!!J*^  *^      ■  ^"""'^ 

nah,  Geor^a,  U.  S.  A.,  b.  at  htteburg,  Pennsylvania,  °1  ^J^'  ^^""L^  °^  ^^  ,TT,  misaonane* 

20  becemller,  1832;  d.  at  WaaWngton,  Georgia,  29  ?LSr?^  s^^  ^'f^^f^^^^  f™".!*^?.^ 

July,  1899.    His  parents  were  GeFmai^  Prot^U^te  }!^' i'l'^J^^  l^^^f^'  f«»n  Germany  mlS73, 

and  te  became  a  convert  in  early  manhood.    He  made  ^^  1^^ 'SIk"'*  ^T",''  ?'*'''"^ '5.  1^-    ^ 

his  theological  course  at  the  Cbllege  of  Propaganda,  ifJi  ^    *1  £f*v^  "^^^  •  fS  ^l-y  *i  ^"T^'f-  ""^ 

Rome,  where  he  was  ordained  lljuly,  1^    Rel  SSZ.**i..T5^!!i  ^"^  remamed  until  the  ^^tion  of 

turning  to  the  United  States,  he  was  gfven  charge  of  f '*^?„t  w^'*^^  p"    »*Ti;5'*T'^'  i?  ^^''  *^ 

a  mismVat  Martinsburg,  West  VirriSa,  when^he  ^LiT^Vfe?  t.^^^utt^'i^A^  f^"iF  "°- 


went  to  Mount  St.  Mark's  CoUege,  TEmiitsbuig,  to  ^^^  ^here,  four  years  Uter,  he  died  at  tEe  ad- 
act  as  one  of  the  profeLrs.  Archbishop  SpaSing  ,'??'^,£«!  °'f '^i^-*J*'  ^f^"  •J.t^'lS?  ^*«'«^,f 
then  made  him  Ws  secretary.  Later  he  was  »nt  tS  ^.  f^*^°L5,^  'i.^'  ^°?«?*  ^'^,.'  Vienna,  1838, 
St.  Peter's  Church,.  Richmond,  Virginia,  and  while  :h'^,J^^.t^t'}^L^''°SLJ^u  ^r'lT^J 


the  new  Diocese  of  Wilmin^n,  Delaware,  for  which       sommkrvooel'.  BM.de  la  L<u  J.;  Woodstodc  LeUerM,  XV; 

he    was    consecrated    by    Archbishop    Spalding   at  Menenoer  of  the  Saered  Heart  (New  York,  1887);  /VfeM  Hit- 

Baltimore,  16  August,  1868.     He  ruled  this  diocese  A»w«  (April.  1887). 

until,  on  the  promotion  (1  February.  1885)  of  Bishop  Patrick  H.  Kbu^t. 

William   H.   Gross   from   Savannan   to   the   Areh- 

bishopric  of  Oregon  City,  Bishop  Becker  was  trans-        Beequerel,    ANTOiNu-CisAR,    French    physicist, 

ferred  to  the  See  of  Savannah,  26  March,  1886.    He  b.  at  Chatillon-sur-Loing  (Ix>iret),  7  March,    1788: 

was  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  accomplished  bishops  d.  at  Paris,  18  Januarv,  1878.     In  1806  he  enter^ 

of  his  day,  and  was  noted  for  his  ability  as  a  linguist,  the  Polytechnic  School  after  having  studied  at  the 

He  was  one  of  the  secretaries  of  the  Fourth  Plenary  Central  School  of  Fontainebleau  imder  Billy,  and 

Cbuncil  of  Baltimore,  and  contributed  frequently  to  later  at  the  College   Henri   IV  with  Cauchy.     In 

current  reviews  and  periodicals.    A  series  of  articles  1808  he  was  sent  to  the  military  school' {fVapplioaium) 

in  the  "American  Catholic  Quarterly  Review  "  on  the  at  Metz,  which  he  left  the  following  year  with  the 

idea  of  a  true  university  attracted  wide  attention,  rank  of  second  lieutenant.    During  two  and  a  half 

He  was  devoted  always  to  the  cause  of  temperance,  years,  he  fought  under  CJeneral  Suchet  in  the  Spanish - 

and  by  a  clause  in  his  will  left  $15,000  in  trust  for  campaign,  distinguishing  himself  at  several  of  the 

twentjr-five  years  for  the  education  of  worthy  and  important  sieges.     Ill  health  obliged  him  to  aak  fot 

deserving  young  men,  on  condition  that  they  be  a  leave  of  absence.     He  was  rai««d  to  the  rank  of 

American  bom,  total  abstainers,  and  willing  to  de-  captain,  made  Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honour, 

vote  their  energies  to  the  service  of  the  Diocese  of  and  nominated  to  the  new  position  of  assistant  in-* 

$avannah«  Ipector  of  studies  at  the  Polytechnic  School.     DurinU 


BXDABD 


383 


mnpiB 


the  mvasion  of  1814  he  resumed  milHaiy  servioe 

for  a  time,  but  was  soon  retired  with  the  raiik  of 

diil  de  bataiUon. 

A  change  of  career  then  became  neoessanr.    After 

some  hesitation,  he  settled  down  to  the  real  work  of 

his  life,  the  study  and  advancement  of  the  science  <^ 

electricity.    Becquerel's  achievements  are  numerous 

and    important. 

£1     \l  •  ;.  .  [,.  uu,|||iiiM|||[iiBj|    ^®   combated 

*J    •::    .'■  ^   ^,.  vJk-v.v.  .tfiEiMB    Volta's    contact 

theory  of  the 
electromotive 
force  in  a  oeU 
and  showed  that 
the  real  source 
of  voltaic  elec- 
tricitv  is  to  be 
found  in  chemi-* 
cal  action.  That 
in  fact,  the  gen- 
eration of  eleN&* 
tricity  in  any 
case  is  possible 
only  where  there 
is  chemical  ao* 
tion,  frictional 
work,  or  differ- 
ence of  tempera- 
ture. He  ob- 
served the  dia- 
magnetic  prop- 
erties of  the 
metal  antimonv 
before  Faraday,  and  constructed  a  constant  ceU- 
with  two  liquids  which  was  the  forerunner  of  the 
well-known  ^  Daniell  cell ".  His  differential  galvano- 
meter increased  the  accuracy  to  be  attained  in  the 
measurement  of  electrical  resistances.  He  applied 
the  results  of  his  study  of  thermo-electricity  to 
the  construction  of  an  electric  thermometer  and 
measured  with  it  the  temperature  of  the  interior  of 
mimalsy  of  the  soil  at.  different  depths,  of  the 
atmosphere  at  different  heights.  He  was  also  ver^r 
muct^  interested  in  questions  of  meteorology,  ch- 
mate,  and  agriculture. 

Beoquerd^  work  in  dectro-chemistry  brought  him. 
in  1837,  the  award  of  the  Copley  medal  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  London.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  (1829),  professor-administrator 
of  the  Museum  of  Natural  History,  and  Commander 
of  the  Legion  of  Honour.    His  character  seems  best 


AmoiNB-CteAR  BsoqtvHMb 


the  serenity  of  a  sage  and  the  tranquillity  of  a  good 
Qoan,  with  confidence  in  God  and  the  inmiortal  l^pes 
of  a  Christian". 

More  than  500  papers  were  published  in  the 
"Comptes  Rendus"  in  Vols.  I-LXiXXV,  and  in  the 
"Annales  de  Chimie et  Physique",  series  II- V.  The 
following  are  some  of  his  more  important  works:  (1) 
Traits  ^p^rimental  de  T^lectricite  et  du  magn^tisme 
et  de  leurs  ph^om^nes  natureb  (Paris,  1834-40,  7 
vols.;  1855,  2  vols.^;  (2)  La  physique  consic^r^  dans 
see  rapports  avec  la  clumie  et  les  sciences  naturelles 
(1844,  2  vols.);  (3)  Elements  de  physique  terrestre 
et  de  m^ttorologie  (1847,  with  his  son  Edmond); 
(4)  R^umd  de  Phistoire  de  I'^lectricit^  et  du  ma^ 

rtisme  (1858);  (5)  Des  forces  physico-chimiques, 
leur  intervention  dans  la  production  des  ph^no- 
natees  naturels  (with  plates,  Paris,  1873).  The  title 
of  this  book  "On  the  Physico-chemical  forces  and 
their  intervention  in  the  production  of  natural  phe- 
nomena" would  appear  to  indicate  a  materialistic 
philoeophy.  This  impression  is  entirely  removed  by 
his  explicit  statement  that  ''we  must  admit  the  er- 
Istence  of  a  creative  Power  which  manitots  itsetf  at 


certain  timeb  %  espeoialty  in  order  to  explain  the 
appearance  of  organic  life. 

Barbai*,  Bloge  kStoriqu9  d'A.CM.  (Pftris).  1870. 

WlLIilAM  Fox. 

Bfdaid,  PiBRRB,  a  French-Canadian  lawyer  and 
member  of  the  Assembly  of  Lower  Canada,  b.  at 
Charlesbouig  near  Quebec,  18  November,  1762;  d.  at 
Three  Rivers,  26  April,  1829.  He  was  the  son  of 
Pierre-Stanislas  B^diuxl  and  Marie-Josephine  Thibault 
After  he  had  completed  the  course  of  studies  at  the 
seminary  of  Ouebeo,  where  he  proved  himself  an  ex- 
cellent pupil,  he  studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar.  In  1792  B^dard  was  elected  member  of  the 
Assembly  for  Ncnrthumberland  and  continued  a  mem^ 
ber  of  the  Assembly  imtil  1812.  During  these  years 
he  represented  successivdy  Northumberland,  the 
lower  town  of  Quebec,  and  Surrey,  and  gave  proof  of 
his  sterling  qualities.  He  devoted  himself,  however, 
chiefly  to  the  study  of  constitutional  questions  or 
which  many  of  the  government  officials  seemed  to 
have  but  an  imperfect  conception.  When  the  news- 
paper, ''Le  Canadien"  was  founded  in  1806^  he  be- 
came a  regular  contributor  and  expressed  his  views 
concerning  the  constitutional  government  of  the 
province  of  Quebec  with  such  warmth  that  the 
governor,  Sir  James  Craig,  in  the  sprine  of  1810 
suppressed  ''Le  Canadien'^  and  threw  B&lard  ihto 
prison.  Here  B^dard  remained  some  twelve  months, 
although  the  governor  offered  him  his  freedom  sev- 
eral times,  so  that  he  could  take  the  seat  in  the 
Assembly  to  which  he  had  been  elected  during  his 
imprisonment.  B^dard,  however,  demanded  a  regu- 
lar trial,  which  the  authorities  were  not  willing  to 
grant.  Finally  for  the  sake  of  peace  B^dard  left  the 
prison.  After  Craig  had  resigned  his  position  and 
gone  to  England,  the  new  ^vernor,  Sir  George 
Prevost,  ajppointed  B^dard  a  judge  of  the  superior 
court  at  Tnrce  Rivers  as  compensation  for  what  he 
had  endured.  B^dard  filled  this  position  from  11  De- 
cember, 1813,  until  March,  1827.  when  illness  obliged 
him  to  abs^t  himself  mm  nis  duties  for  some 
months.  After  this  his  health  failed  steadily  imtil  his 
death.  He  was  buried  in  the  parish  church  at  Three 
Rivers.  B^dard  had  four  children  one  of  whom, 
EUevir,  became  a  distinguished  judse. 

N.  E.  DioNNS. 

Bede  (or  Bead,  whence  Bedehouse,  Bedesman^ 
BederoU), — The  old  English  word  bede  (An^lo-Saxon 
bid)  means  a  prayer,  thouf^h  the  derivative  form, 
aebid,  was  noore  common  m  this  sense  in  Anglo- 
Saxon  literature.  When,  in  the  course  of  the  tweuth 
and  thirteenth  centuries,  the  use  of  little  perforated 
^bes  of  bone,  wood,  or  amber,  threaded  upon  a 
string,  came  into  fashion  for  the  purpose  of  coimting 
the  repetitions  of  the  Our  Fatner  or  Hail  Mary, 
these  objects  themselves  became  known  as  bedes 
(i.  e.  prayers),  and  our  modem  word  bead,  as  applied 
to  small  globular  ornaments  of  glass,  coral,  etc.. 
has  no  other  derivation.  In  middle  English  the  wora 
bedee  was  used  both  in  the  sense  of  prayer  and 
rosary.  Thus  Shake«>eare  could  still  write  (Rich. 
Ill^iu,    7) 

Wh^i  holy  and  devout  religious  men 

Are  at  their  beads  [prayersj,  'tis  much  to  draw 
them  thence. 

So  sweet  is  sealous  contemplation. 
While  of  Chaucer's  Prioress  we  are  told 
Of  smal  cfMral  aboute  hire  arm  she  bar 
A  peire  of  bedes,  gauded  al  with  grene. 
The  gauds,  or  gaudys,  were  the  ornaments  or  larger 
beads  \!sea  to  divide  the  decades.    The  phrase  pair 
of  beade  (i.  e.  set  of  beads— cf.  pair  of  stairs),  wnich 
mav  still  be  heard  on  the  hps  of  old-fashioned  English 
and  Irish  Catholics,  is  consequently  of  venerable 
antiquity.    With  such  speakers  a  pair  of   beads 
means  toe  round  of  the  oeada,  L  a  the  chai^t  of 


five  decades  as  opposed  to  the  wbc^  rosM7  of  fifteen. 
Again,  to  "bid  beads"  oriK!naU]r  meant  only  to  aay 
prayers,  but  the  phraae  "biddinK  the  beads",  by  a 
seriea  of  miscanceptioiis  explained  in  the  "Historical 
EWiih  Dictionary",  came  to  be  attached  te  oertain 
puQic  devotions  anBlfwoua  to  the  prayers  which 
preoede  the  kjasing  of  toe  Croaa  m  the  Good  Friday 
Service.  The  prayen  referred  to  used  to  be  recited 
in  the  vemaciuu'  at  the  Sunday  Maw  in  medteval 
England,  and  the  distinctive  feature  of  them  was 
that  the  subject  of  each  was  announced  in  a  formula 
read  t«  the  congregation  beforehand.  This  vaa 
called  "bidding  the  bedea".  From  this  the  idea  was 
derived  that  the  word  "bidding"  meant  «mnniandinx 
or  giving  out,  and  hence  a.  certain  survival  of  these 
prayers,  still  retained  in  the  Anglican  "Book  of 
Canons  ,  and  recitfid  before  the  sermon,  is  known 
as  the  "bidding  prayer". 

The  words  bediiman  and  beiUsuMmuut,  which  date 
ba^ck  to  Anglo-^oxon  times,  also  recall  the  orjgiiud 
meaning  of  the  word.  Bedetmmt  was  at  first  ths 
term  applied  to  one  whose  dutv  it  was  to  pray  for 
others,  and  thus  it  sometimee  denoted  the  chajdain 
of  a  guild.  But  in  later  F.ngUjii  ^  bedesman  ia 
aim|dy  the  redpient  of  anv  form  of  bounty;  for  es< 
ample,  a  poor  man  who  ootains  free  quartwa  in  an 
abnshouse,  and  who  is  supposed  to  be  bound  in  grati- 
tude to  pray  for  his  benefaoton.  3inuUrly,  bede- 
hotue,  which  originally  meant  a  tdoce  of  prayer  or  an 
oratory,  came  at  a  later  date  to  be  used  of  any  chari- 
table institution  like  an  almshouse.  It  has  now 
practic^y  disappeared  from  literary  Ei^lish,  but 
survives  provincially  and  in  a  number  of  Welsh 

f lace-names  in  the  form  bMtcs,  e.  g,  B«tws  y  Coed. 
inatlv,  bede-roU,  as  its  etymology  suggeats,  meant 
the  roll  of  those  to  be  prayed  for,  and  m  some  sense 
corresponded  to  the  diptvchs  of  the  early  Church, 
The  word  is  of  tolerably  frequent  occurrence  in  cod- 
with  the  eariy  En^ish  guilda.  In  these 
ions  a  list  was  invanably  Kept  of  d^iarted 
membwe  who  had  a  claim  on  their  prtqrers.  TUi 
was  the  bede-rdL 
For  beads  in  the  sense  of  roaaiy,  see  Robart. 

UmnAT  AND  Bbadlbt.  aiU.,  Tlu  BnMM  H-Mmail  Di^ 

Hormru  lOxtoti.  ISSi),  I;  Rock,  Chvroh  ^  ixir  Falhrri  l2deiL, 
London,  IBM).  II.  330-  III,  107;  Simann.  The  Lay  FM? 
Ma**~Bi>ok  (Early  Enc  Text  Soc.  London,  1879)  315,  345. 

Herbbbt  Tbubaton. 

Beds,  Thb  VsNBRABLii,  historian  and  Doctor  of  the 
Church,  b.  672  or  673;  d.  736.  In  the  last  chapter  of 
his  great  worii  on  the  "  EoclasiaHtJcal  Histoiy  of  the 
English  Peonle''  Bede  has  told  us  something  of  bis 
own  life,  and  it  is,  practioally  roeaking,  all  that  we 
know.  His  words,  written  in  731,  when  death  was 
not  far  off,  not  only  show  a  simnlicity  and  piety 
characteristic  of  the  man,  but  they  tnrow  a  li^t  upon 
the  composition  of  the  work  through  whioh  he  is  beat 
remembered  by  the  worid  at  large. 

"Thus  much",  he  says,  "conoeming  the  eooleaias- 
tjcal  history  of  Britain,  and  especially  of  the  race  of 
the  English,  I,  B%da,  a  servant  of  Chnst  and  priest  of 
the  monastery  of  the  blessed  ftpostlee  8t.  Peter  uid 
St.  Paul,  which  is  at  Wearmouth  and  at  Jarrow  (ia 
Northumberland),  have  with  tbe  Lord's  he^  com- 
posed BO  far  as  I  could  gather  it  eiUier  from  ancient 
documents  or  from  the  traditions  of  the  elders,  or 
from  my  own  knowledge.  I  was  bom  in  the  territory 
of  the  said  monastery,  and  at  the  age  of  seven  I  was, 
by  the  care  of  my  relatiana,  gjven  to  the  most  rev- 
erend Abbot  Benedict  [St.  Benedict  Biscop],  and 
afterwards  (o  Ceolfrid,  to  be  educated.  From  that 
time  I  have  spent  the  whole  of  my  life  withto  that 
monsstery,  devoting  all  my  pains  to  the  study  of  the 
Bcriptures,  and  amid  the  observance  of  monastic  dis- 
cipline and  the  daily  charge  of  singing  in  the  Church, 
it  nas  been  ever  my  delight  to  learn  or  teach  or  write. 
In  my  nineteenth  year  I  waa  admitted  to  tlie  dUo- 


piiat«,  m  my  thirtieth  to  the  priesthood,  both  b; 
the  hands  of  the  most  reverend  Bishop  John  [St.  John 
of  Beverlej;],  and  at  the  bidding  of  Abbot  CeolfriA 
From  the  time  of  my  admissicm  to  the  priesthood  lo 
Biy  present  fifty-ninth  year,  I  have  emtearoiuBd  for 
my  own  use  and  that  of  my  brethren,  to  make  brid 
notes  npon  the  hol^  Scripture,  either  out  of  the  woriu 
of  the  venerable  fathers  or  in  conformity  witli  Iheir 
Meaning  and  interpretation."  Aft«r  this  Bede  in- 
serts a  list  or  Indiculus,  of  his  previous  writinos  and 
finally  ooncludes  his  great  work  with  the  foUcuring 
words:  "And  I  pray  thee,  loving  Jeeus,  that  as  Thou 
hart  gracioudy  ^ven  me  to  drink  in  with  deUght  the 
word*  of  Thy  knowledge,  so  Thou  wouldst  mercifully 
grant  me  to  attain  one  day  to  Thee,  the  fountain  of 
all  wisdom  and  to  appear  for  ever  before  Thy  face." 
It  is  plain  from  Bede'e  letter  to  Bishop  Egbert 
that  the  historian  occasionally  visited  his  frientfi  for 
a  few  daya,  away  from  his  own  monastery  of  Jarrow, 
but  with  such  rare  exceptions  his  life  seems  to  have 
been  one  peocefid  round  of  study  and  prayer  passed  in 
the  midat  of  his  own  community.  How  much  he 
was  bdoved  1^  them  is  made  manifest  1^  the  touc^ 


ing  account  of  the  saint's  last  sickneae  and  death 
left  us  by  Cuthbert,  one  of  his  disciples.  Tlieir 
studious  pursuits  were  not  given  up  on  account  of  liis 
illness  and  they  read  aloud  by  liis  bedside,  but  con- 
stantly the  reading  was  interrupted  by  their  tears. 
"I  can  with  truth  declare",  writes  Cuthbcrt  of  lus 
beloved  master,  "that  I  never  saw  with  my  eyee  or 
heard  with  my  ears  anyone  return  thanks  bo  im- 
ceaslngly  to  the  living  God."  Even  on  the  day  of 
bis  death  (the  vigil  oi  the  Ascension,  7,'^)  the  saint 
was  still  busy  dictating  a  translation  of  the  Gfiepel 
of  St.  John.  In  the  evening  the  boy  Wilbert,  who 
was  writing  it,  said  to  him:  "There  is  still  one  een- 
(eDoe,dear  mMter,  which  is  not  written  down. "  And 
when  this  had  been  sumilied,  Aud  the  boy  bad  told 
him  it  waa  finished,  "'Thou  hast  spoken  truth',  Bede 


386  BKDK 


maj;«dl  upon  my  Father.'    And  thus  upon^e  flpor  chiefly  remembered.    His  great  work,  the  "Historia 
*of  his  cell  sincin^' Glory  be  to  the  Father  and  to  the  Ecclesiastica  Gentis  Angionun",  giving  an  account 
Son  and  to  the  Holy  Ghost*  and  the  rest,  he  peace^  of  Christianity  in  England  from  the  beginning  until 
fulh  breathed  his  last  breath. "  his  own  day,  is  the  foundation  of  all  our  knowledge 
The  title  VenerabUis  seems  to  have  been  associated  of  early  British  history  and  a  masterpiece  eulogized 
with  the  name  of  Bede  within  two  generations  after  by  the  scholars  of  every  age.    Of  this  work,  together 
his  death.    There  is  of  course  no  early  authority  for  with  the  "  Historia  Abbatum  ",  and  the  "  Letter  to  Eg- 
the  legend  repeated  by  Fuller  of  the  "dunce  monk"  bert",  Hummer  has  producedf  an  edition  which  may 
who  in  composing  an  epitaph  on  Bede  was  at  a  loss  fairly  be  called  final  (2  vols.,  Oxford,  1896).     Bede^ 
to  complete  the  line:  Hoc  aunt  in  fossd  Bedm  ....  remarkable  industry  in  collecting  materials  and  his 
aaa  and  who  next  morning  found  that  the  angels  critical  use  of  them  have  been  admirably  illustrated 
bad  filled  the  gap  with  the  word  venerahUis,    The  in   Rummer's   Introduction    (pp.  xliii-xlvii).    The 
title  is  used  by  Alcuin,  Amalarius,  and  seemingly  "History  of  the  Abbots"  (of  the  twin  monasteries 
Paul  the  Deacon,  and   the  important  Council   of  of  Wearmouth  and  Jarrow),  the  "Letter  to  Egbert", 
Aachen   in    835    describes    him    as    venerabUis    H  the  metrical  and  prose  lives  of  St.  Cuthbert,  and  the 
fMderms  temporibus  doctor  admirabUts  Beda.     This  other  smaDer  pieces  are  also  of  great  value  for  the 
decree  was  spJecially  referred  to  in  the  petition  which  Ught  they  shed   upon  the  state  of  Christianity  in 
Cardinal  Wiseman  and  the  English  bishops  addressed  Northumbria  in  Bede's  own  day.    The  "  Ecclesiastical 
to  the  Holy  See  in  1869  praying  that  Bede  might  be  History  "  was  translated  into  Anglo-Saxon  at  the  in- 
declared  a  Doctor  of  the  Church,    llie  Question  had  stance  of  King  Alfred.    It  has  often  been  translated 
already  been  debated  even  before  the  time  of  Bene-  since,  notably  by  T.  Stapleton  who  printed  it  (1565) 
diet  XI V,  but  it  was  only  on  13  November,''  1899,  at  Antwerp  as  a  controversial  weapon  against  the 
that  Leo  XIII  decreed  that  the  feast  of  Venerable  Reformation  divines  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.    The 
Bede  with  the  title  of  Doctor  Ecclesia  should  be  Latin  text  first  appeared  in  Germany  in  1475;  it  is 
eelebrated  throughout   the  Church   each   year   on  noteworthy  that  no  edition  even  of  the  Latin  was 
27  May.    A  local  cultus  of  St.  Bede  had  been  main*  printed   in  England    before    1643.      Smith's   more 
tained  at  York  and  in  the  North  of  England  through-  accurate  text  saw  the  light  in  1742. 
out  the  Ifiddle  Ages,  but  his  feast  was  not  so  ireneraily  Bede's    chronological    treatises    '^De    temporibus 
observed  in  the  South,  where  the  Sarom  Kite  was  liber"  and  ''De  temporum  ratione"  also  contain 
followed.  summaries  of  the  general  history  of  the  world  from 
Bede's  influence  both  upon  English  and  foreign  the  Creation  to  725  and  703,  respectively.     These 
scholarship  was  very  great,  and  it  would  probably  historical  portions  have  been  satishuitonly  edited 
have  been  greater  stiU  but  for  the  devastation  in^  by  Mommsen  in  the  "Monumenta  Germanise  his- 
flicted  UDon  the  northern  monasteries  by  the  inroads  torica"  (4 to  series,  1898).     They  may  be  counted 
of  the  Danes  less  than  a  century  after  his  death,  amon^  the  earliest  specimens  of  this  type  of  general 
In  numberiess  ways,  but  est>ecially  in  his  moderation,  dhronide  and  were  largely  copied  and  unitated.    The 
xentleness,  and  breadth  of  view,  Bede  stMids  out  from  topographical  work  ''De  loeis  Sanctis"  is  a  descrip- 
nis  contemporaries.    In  point  of  scholarship  he  was  tion  of  Jerusalem  and  the  holy  ipdaces  based  upon 
undoubtedly  the  most  learned  man  of  his  time.    A  Adamnan  and  Aroolfus.    Bede^  work  was  edited  in 
veiy  remarkable  trait,  noticed  by  Hummer  (I,  p.  1898  by  Qeyer  in  the  "Itinera  Hierosolymitana" 
npiiXis  his  sense  of  literary  property,  an  extraor-  for  the  Vienna  "Corpus  Scriptorum".    Tliat  Bede^ 
dijanr  thing  in  that  age.    He  himsen  serupuk>usly  compiled  a  Martyrologium  we  know  from  his  own 
noted  in  his  writings  the  passages  he  had  borrowed  statement.    But  &e  work  attributed  to  him  in  extant 
&om  others  and  he  even  begs  the  copyists  of  his  manuscripts  has   been   so   much   interpolated  and 
works  to  preserve  the  references,  a  recommendation  siroplemented  that  his  share  in  it  is  quite  uncertain, 
to  which  they,  alas,  have  paid  but  Httle  attention.  Bede's  exegetical  writings  both  in  his  own  idea 
Hid),  however,  as  was  the  general  level  of  Bede's  and  in  that  (3  his  contemporaries  stood  supreme  in 
culture,'  he  repeatedly  makes  it  clear  that  all  his  importance  amonest  his  works,  but  the  list  is  long 
studies  were  subordinated  to  the  interpretation  of  and  cannot  be  fiuly  nven  here.    They  included  a 
Scripture.    In  his  "De  Schematibus"  he  says  in  so  commentairy  upon  tne  Pentateuch  as  a  whole  as  well 
ouury  words:  "Holy  Scripture  is  above  aU  oth^  as  on  setected  portions,  and  there  are  also  commen- 
hooks  not  only  by  its  authority  because  it  is  Di\'ine,  taries  on  the  feooks  of  Kings,  Esdras,  Tobias,  the 
or  by  its  utility  because  it  leads  to  eternal  life,  but  Canticles,  etc.     In  the  New  Testament  he  has  cer- 
also  by  its  antiquity  and  by  its  literary  form"  (po-  tatnly  interpreted  St.  Mark,  St.  Luke,  the  Acts,  the 
iitione  dicendi).    It  is  perhaps  the  highest  tribute  to  Canonical  Epistles,  and  the  Apocalypse.     But  the 
Bede's  ^nius  that  witn  so  uncompromising  and  evi-  authenticity  of  the  conunentajy  on  St.   Matthew 
dently  sincere  a  conviction  of  the  inferiority  of  human  printed  under  his  name  is  more  than  doubtful.    (Plaine 
ieamuuz,  he  should  have  acquired  so  much  real  cul-  m  "Revue  Anglo-Ronftaine",  1896,  III,  61.)     The 
ture.   Thoiigh  Latin  was  to  him  a  still  living  tongue,  homilies  of  Bede  take  the  form  of  commentaries  upon 
&nd  though  he  does  not  seem  to  have  consciously  the  Gospel.    The  collection  of  fifty,  divided  into  two 
looked  back  to  the  Augustan  Age  of  Roman  Lit-  books,  which  are  attributed  to  him  by  Giles   (and  in 
erature  as  preserving  purer  models  of  style  than  the  Migne)  are  for  the  most  part  authentic,  but  the  gen- 
time  of  Fortunatus  or  St.  Augustine,  still  whether  uineness  of  a  few  is  open  to  suspicion.     (Morin  in 
through  native  genius  or  through  contact  with  the  "Revue  B^n^ctine",  IX,  1892,  316.) 
cLaasics,  he  is  remarkable  for  the  relative  parity  of  Various  didactic  works  are  mentioned  by  Bede  in 
his  language,  as  also  for  his  lucidity  and  his  sobriety,  the  list  which  he  has  left  us  of  his  own  writings, 
more  especially  in  matters  of  historical  criticism.  Most  of  these  are  still  preserved  and  there  is  no  reason 
In  all  these  respects  he  presents  a  marked  contrast  to  doubt  that  the  texts  we  possess  are  authentic, 
to  St.  Aldhelm  who  approaches  more  nearly  to  the  The  grammatical  treatises  "De  arte  metric^"  and 
Celtic  type.  "De  orthoptkphiA'*   have   been   adeqiiately  edited 
WamNos   AND  Editions. — No  adequate  edition  in  mod^n  ttnies  by^Keil  in  his  "Grammatici  Latini'* 
founded  upon  a  careful  collation  of  manuscripts  has 
«vcr  been  published  of  Bede's  works  as  a  whole.    The 
tttt  printed  by  Giles  in  1844  and  reproduced  in 


BEDDrantLD 

s  and  after  ordination 

.  ..   _       .._  „ ..._p_  __  ..  I  in  IxMtdon  where  he 

— r ,    ~, J n  tha    became  noted  in  High  Church  circles  as  a  popular 

unsatisfftctory  teiU  of  the  earlier  editors  and  Giles,    writer  and  preacher.    A  vei^  advanced  "Piueyite" 

Beyond  the  metrical  life  of  St.  Cuthbert  and  some    sermon  during  the  Tractanan  excitement  broiu;ht 

verses  incorporated  in  the  "Ecclesiastical  HiaUiry"    him  in  confiict  with  the  Bishop  of  London  and  lea  to 

we  do  not  poeseaa  much  poetry  that  can  be  assigned    his  conversion  to  Catholicism  in  1851.    He  wished  to 

to  Bede  with  confidence,  but,  like  other  scholars  of    take  Holy  orders,  but  a,  natural  defect  in  his  rig^t 

his  age,  he  certainly  wrote  a  good  deal  of  veiae.     He    hand  was  a.  canonical  obstacle   to  ordination.     In 

himself  mentions  hu  "book  of  hymns"  composed  in    1S52  he  accepted  an  invitation  to  join  the  staff  of 

different  metres  or  rhythms.    3o  Alctiin  says  of  him:    All  Hallows  Miiisionary  College,  Dnimcondra,  near 

Plurima  verrijico  cednit  quoqva  carmina  pUctro.     It     Dublin,  Ireland,  and  there  lived  a  long  life  of  active, 

is  possible  that  the  shorter  of  the  two  metrical  c«l~    effective  work  as  professor  of  natural  science,  trea*- 

endars  printed  among  his  works  is  genuine.     Tha    urer,  and  one  of  the  ooUege  directors.     He  also  did 

Penitential  ascribed  to  Bede,  thoiun  accepted  aa    mucn  in  furtherance  of  the  Catholic  movement  then 

genuine  by  Haddan  and  Stubba  and  Wasserschleben,     at  its  beiglit  in  Kngland  and  was  a  constant  contribu* 

IS  proluibfy  not  his  (Plummer,  I,  157).  tor  to  Catholic  periodicals  and  a  public  lecturer  on 

Venerable  Bede  is  the  earliest  witness  of  pure  Gre-    Catholic  topics.     His  writings  on  a  variety  of  sub> 

gorian  tradition   in  England.      His  works  "Husica     jects,  embracing   travels,   arclueoIoRy,   art,   science, 

theoretica"  and  "Dc  arte  Metridl"  (Migne,  XC)  are    music  and  the  general  treatment  ofpast  periods  of 

found   especially   valuable   by  present-day  scholars     Bnglish  literatiue   were   frequent   features  of   "The 

en^ged  m  the  study  of  the  primitive  form  of  the     Month",    "The   Irish    Hontuly",   and    "The   Irish 

chant.  Ecclesiastical  Record".     Some  of  them  were  later 

reprinted  for  private  circulation  in  pamphlet  form, 

notably  his  "Vacation  Rambles",  which  were  issued 

in  a  series  (1874-75-7&-78-79>  subsequent  to  their 

appearance  in  "The  Month". 

All  HMm,  Amual  (Dublin.  IWM):  Tlu  Fnnum'i  Jmnul 
flliB  (Dublin);  Tlu  IrM  UontUy  fll«  (Dublin). 

Tbomab  F.  Mebban. 
Badinftald,  Fhancbs  (aliat  Lono)  superioress  of 
the  En^sb  Institute  of  Harv,  b.  1616  of  a  gentle 
family  of  Norfolk,  England;  d.  at  Munich.  Germany, 
1704.  She  and  her  eleven  sisters  entered  religious  life. 
Sent  abroad  to  finish  her  education,  she  entered  the 

En^ish  Institute  of  Mary  at  Munich  and  was  pro- 

UERBEST  i-HURBTON.  feased  in  1633.    This  society,  founded  at  St.  Omer 

Bedford,  GuNNiNa  S.,  medical  writer  and  teacher,  ">  ,1603,  had  beeri  transferred   in    1629    to  lift™ 

b.  at  Baltimore,  Maryland,  U.S.  A.,  of  a  distinguished  w»d  then  to  Mimich.      Frances  s  BislerWrnefrid. 

famUyin  1806;  d.  in  New  York,6  Septombor,  1870.  Hie   firat    supenoiess,    died    26th    Decemter     1666. 

He  was  a  nephew  and  namesake  of  Gunning  Bedford,  ">  l"W.  Frances,  who  had  become  head  of  the  Mu- 

first  Attorney-General  of  Delaware  and  one  of  the  »«''  l»°"»e.  "^  induced  by  Catherine  of  Bragania, 

framers  of  the  Constitution  of  the   United  States,  wjfe  of  Charles  II,  to  eetaWish  a  house  in  London, 

who  was  wde-de-camp  to  General  Washington  and  With  a  group  of  the  En^ish  members  she  act  up  a 

was  appointed  by  him  U.  8.  Judge  for  the  District  "^^^ool  for  young  women,  first  B.t  St.  Martms  Lane, 

of  Delaware.     Dr.   Bedford  Kraduated  in   1825  at  then  at  Hammersmith.    In  England,  she  wore  a  bcc- 

MouDt  St.   Mary's  College,  ^unitaburg,  Maryland,  ulw  garb,  and  was  known  aa  Mre.  Long.     Summoned 

and  took  hU  degree  in  medicine  from  Rutgers  CoU«e,  before  a  magistrate,  she  was  Uberated  through  family 

New  York,     He  spent  two  years  in  foreign  study  influence,  but  warned  against  harbouring  priesta  or 

and  in   1833,  when  only  twenty-sir  ycara  of  age,  instructing  youth.     Though  disregarding  this  iniuno- 

became  professor  of  obstetrics  m  Charierton  Medical  t«>n.  »he  was  not  again  molested.    In  1677,  with  the 

College.      From    here    he  accepted   a  professorship  »•«  "f  Sir  Thomas  Gascoigne,  she  established  a  com- 

in  the  Albany  Medical  College.     He  went  to  New  munlty  in  the  north,  inahouseon  tJiesiteof  the  orea- 

York  in  1836  and  four  years  later  founded  the  Uni-  en*  convent,  outside  Micklegate  Bar,  York.     From 

versity  Medical  CoUege,  which  became  a  great  sue-  W77  to  1686  she  divided  her  time  between  Jier  two 

ce«.     In  connexion  with  it  he  estatdished  an  obstefr-  English  communitiea,  but  after  1686,  having  trans- 

rieal  clinic  for  those  too  poor  to  pay  a  doctor's  fee  ferred  the  care  of  the  Hammersmith  house  to  Mrs.  Cio- 

TMs  wss  the  first  of  its  kind  in  the  country  and  was  ely  Oomwallis,  she  remained  at  York.   In  her  seventy- 

of  great  service  to  the  poor  and  to  medical  science,  eighth  year,  after  her   house   had   been  repeattdlv 

Dr.    Bedford   continued   to   teach   until   his   health  MMched  and  threatened  with  destruction,  alie,  \nth 

broke   down   in    1862   and   he   died    in    1870.     His  !>"  nieoe.  Mother   Dorothy  Paston   Bedingfeld,  was 

funeral    pan^yric    was    preached    by   Archbishop  summoned  before  the  Mayor  of  York  and  committed  to 

McCloskey  who  had  been  his  fellow  student  at  Mount  Ousebndge  Gaol.     Released  soon  afterwards,  she  was 

St.  Mary's.     Two  books  written  by  Wm,  "Diseases  again  attacked,  and  in  1695  her  house  barely  escaped 

of  Women"   and    "Practice   of  Obstetrios"   went  destruction.     In   1699,  resigmng  in  favour  of  Tier 

through  many  editions,  were  translated  into  French  ""oce,   Mother   Bedingfeld    returned  to  Munich    and 

and  German,  and  were  adopted  as  textbooks  in  died  there,  one  year  after  the  rule  of  her  inslitut*  bad 

American    schools.  been  approved  by  aement  XL 

Jam^sJ.Wax^h.  '"™-'-                                      J.  Vincent  Crown.. 
Bedford,  Hknkt,  writer,  educator,  b.  in  London 

lOctober,  1810;  d.  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  21  May,  1003.  Bedinffrid,    Sir    Hbnrt,    Knight     b.    150Q:     d. 

With  the  intention  of  becoming  a  clernman  of  the  1583,    He  was  the  nandson  of  Sir  Edmund  Bedui^ 

Church  of  England,  to  which  nia  family  belonged,  feld  who  had  servBcT in  the  Wan  of  the  Roses,  and  to 

be  entered  Cambridge  Univeraity  in  1835  and  after  a  whom  were  granted  by  Edward  IV  for  his  faithful  aer- 

difltinguiebed  course  received  toe  degree  of  M.  A,  vioe  letters  patent  authorising  him  "to  build  towers- 


BIDINOFIELD                           387  BlDUUff 

walk,  and  such  other  fortifications  as  he  pleased  in  through  a  wamij^  given  bv  one  of  the  oonspirators, 
iuQ  manors  of  Oxburgh,  together  with  a  market  there  Sassi,  who  himself  was  stabbed  to  death  by  one  of  his 
weekly  and  a  court  of  pye-powder".  Sir  Henry  was  associates  in  New  York  City  a  day  or  two  after, 
mainly  instrumental,  together  with  Sir  Heniy  Jeming-  Monsignor  Bedini  travelled  extensively  throu^out 
ham,  in  placing  Mary  'fiidor  on  the  throne.  He  pro-  the  country  and  participated  in  many  pubhc  re- 
claimed ner  at  Norwich,  and  for  his  loyalty  received  limous  ceremonies.  In  many  of  the  larger  cities,  not- 
an  annual  pension  of  £100  out  of  the  forfeited  estates  ably  Pittsburg,  Louisville,  and  Cincinnati,  his  visit  ex- 
of  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt.  Ultimately  he  became  Lieu-  cited  hostile  comment  and  demonstration,  chiefly  by 
tenant  of  the  Tower  of  London  and  Captain  of  the  the  adherents  of  Know-nothin^m,  which  was  then 
Teomen  of  the  Guard.  As  ''jailer"  of  the  PrLnoess  rampant.  In  Cincinnati,  particularly,  this  element, 
Elizabeth,  who  was  suspected  of  complicity  in  Wyatt's  co-operating  with  some  German  infidel  revolutionary 
rebdlion,  he  has  been  persistentlv  misrepresented  by  exiles,  plotted  to  do  violence  to  him  and  to  attack  the 
Foxe  and  others,  but  the  whole  nistory  of  his  custo-  cathedral  where  he  was  to  officiate,  but  this  design 
dianship  of  Elizabeth  is  contained  in  a  series  of  letters  was  frustrated  by  the  vi^ance  of  the  city  authorities, 
addressed  to  the  Queen  and  the  Privy  Council,  and  in  not,  however,  without  bloodshed  and  rioting  in  which 
their  replies.  This  correspondence^  which  has  been  a  number  of  the  rioters  lost  their  lives.  He  remained 
pubUshed  by  the  Norfolk  and  Norwich  Archaeolo^cal  in  this  country  until  January,  1854,  when  he  returned 
Society,  completely  exonerates  Sir  Henry  from  either  to  Rome.  So  apprehensive  of  personal  violence  had 
cruelty  or  want  of  courtesy  in  his  treatment  of  the  he  become,  that  when  about  to  depart  from  New 
royal  captive.  On  Elizabeth's  accession  he  retired  York,  he  left  the  city  secretly  and  journeyed  to 
to  Qzburgh  and  was  called  upon  in  a  letter,  in  which  Staten  Island,  five  miles  distant,  where  a  tug  car- 
the  Queen  addressed  him  as  "trusty  and  well-be-  ried  him  to  the  outgoing  steamer.  Later,  he  was 
loved",  to  furnish  a  horse  and  man  armed,  as  his  con-  elevated  to  the  rank  of  cardinal  and  received  the  ap- 
tribution  to  the  defence  of  the  country  against  an  pointment  to  the  See  of  Viterbo  and  Toscanella. 
expected  invasion  of  the  French.  Shba. /Tirt. of  CaUi  Ch,in  U. -S.  (New  York.  1892). IV:  Hxa- 

When  however   the  penal  lawB  adjust  Catholics  IfSf/iS^r^^'r^^jS^^'^t^^^^^ 

were  enforced  with  extreme  seventy,  Sir  Henry  Bed-  Peter  Condon. 
ingfeld  was  not  spared.     He  was  required  to  pay 

heavy  monthly  fines  for  non-attendance  at  the  parish  Bedlam  (an  English  abbreviation  of  Bethlehem), 
church,  while  his  house  was  searched  for  priests  and  a  London  hospital  originally  intended  for  the  poor 
chureh-fumiture,  and  his  servants  dismissed  for  re-  suffering  from  any  aiunent  and  for  such  as  might 
fusins;  to  conform  to  the  new  state  religion.  Together  have  no  other  lodging,  hence  its  name,  Bethleheniy 
with  nis  fellow-Catholics ,  he  was  a  prisoner  within  five  in  Hebrew,  the  "  house  of  bread."  During  the  four- 
miles  of  his  own  house  and  might  pass  that  boundary  teenth  century  it  began  to  be  used  partly  as  an 
only  by  a  written  authorization  of  the  Privy  Council,  asylum  for  the  insane,  for  there  is  a  report  of  a 
He  was  buried  in  the  Bedingfeld  chantry  at  Oxburgh.  Royal  Commission,  in  1405,  as  to  the  state  of  lunatics 
He  married  Katharine,  daughter  of  Sir  Roger  Towns-  confined  there.      The  word  Bethlehem  became  short- 


hand, ancestor  of  the  present  Marquess  Tbwnshend,    ened  to  Bedlam  in  popular  speech,  and  the  confine- 
by  whom  he  had  numerous  issue.  ment  of  lunatics  there  gave  rise  to  the  use  of  this 


letters  in  the  Oxburgh  archives.  Fitz  Mary,  an  Alderman  and  Sheriff  of  London. 

J.  M.  Stone.  This  site  is  now  occupied  by  the  Liverpool  Street  rail- 
way station.  In  the  next  century  it  is  mentioned 
Bedingfield,  Thomas.  See  Downes,  Thomas.  as  a  hospital  in  a  license  granted  (1330)  to  collect 
Bedini,  Cajetan,  Italian  Cardinal  and  diplomat,  alms  in  England,  Ireland,  and  Wales.  In  1375 
b.  at  Siniga^a.  Italy,  15  May,  1806;  d.  at  Viterbo,  6  Bedlam  became  a  royal  hospital,  taken  by  the 
Sept.,  1864.  He  was  appointed  in  1849,  by  Pope  Pius  crown  on  the  pretext  that  it  was  an  alien  priory. 
IX.  Commissary  Extraordmary  at  Bologna,  one  of  the  It  seems  afterwards  to  have  reverted  to  the  city, 
four  Papal  Provinces  then  recently  in  revolt  and  in  At  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  word 
which  the  GovCTument  of  the  Holy  See  was  being  Bedlam  was  used  by  Tyndale  to  mean  a  madman,  so 
maintained  with  the  aid  of  the  military  power  of  that  it  would  seem  as  though  the  hospital  were  now 
Austria.  He  retired  from  this  office  in  1852  and  after  used  as  a  lunatic  asylum  exclusively.  In  January, 
serving  in  various  diplomatic  posts  was  promoted  to  1547,  King  Henry  VIII  formally  granted  St.  Bar- 
be  titiuar  Archbishop  of  Thebes.  In  1853,  upon  his  tholomew's  hospital  and  Bedlam,  or  Bethlehem,  to 
tppointment  as  ApostoHc  Nuncio  to  the  Court  of  the  city  of  London,  on  condition  that  the  city  spend 
waxil.  he  was  commissioned  by  the  Holy  Father  to  a  certain  amount  on  new  buildings  in  connexion 
visit  the  United  States  to  examine  into  the  state  of  with  St.  Bartholomew's.  In  1674,  the  old  premises 
ecdesiastical  affairs  and,  incidentally,  to  call  on  the  having  become  untenaWe,  it  was  decided  to  build 
President  and  present  to  him  the  compliments  and  another  hospital,  and  this  was  erected  in  what  is  now 
food  wishes  of  me  pope.  Arriving  in  New  York  in  Finsbury  Circus.  This  came  to  be  known  as  old 
W,  1853,  he  at  once  visited  Washington  and  called  Bedlam,  after  the  erection  of  a  new  building  in  St. 
upon  President  Franklin  Pierce,  by  whom  he  was  Geor^'s  Fields,  which  was  opened  August,  1816,  on 
received  with  great  courtesy  and  to  whom  he  pre-  the  site  of  the  notorious  tavern  cfdled  the  Dog  and 
sented  an  autograph  letter  of  the  Holy  Father.    This  the  Duck. 

visit,  purely  one  of  courtesy,  was  afterwards  distorted  The  attitude  of  successive  generations  of  En^lish- 
into  an  attempt  to  gain  official  recognition  of  himself  men  towards  the  insane  can  be  traced  interestingly 
as  the  diplomatic  representative  of  the  pope  in  the  at  Bedlam.  Originally,  it  was  founded  and  kept  by 
Imted  States.  His  arrival  in  this  country  was  the  religious.  Every  effort  seems  to  have  been  made  to 
signal  for  a  scries  of  anti-Catholic  demonstrations  bring  patients  to  such  a  state  of  mental  health  as 
against  him  lasting  throughout  his  tour.  In  New  would  enable  them  to  leave  the  asylum.  An  old 
lorkthe  colony  ofltalian  revolutionists  who  had  fled  English  word,  "a  Bedlam"  signifies  one  discharged 
to  this  country,  urged  on  by  the  apostate  priest  andf  licensed  to  beg.  Such  persons  wore  a  tin  ^ate 
Gavaxzi,  and  aided  by  the  luiow-notning  element,  on  their  arm  as  a  badffe  and  were  known  as  Bed- 
rid a  mass  meeting  and  denounced  the  nuncio.  A  lamers,  Bedlamites,  or  Bedlam  Beggars.  Whenever 
pbt  to  assassinate  mm  was  formed,  but  was  defeated  outside  inspection  wa6  not  regularly  maintained, 

XL— 25 


388  BEELZEBUB 

abuses  crept  into  the  management  of  Bedlam,  and  in  (Lagrange,  Religions  S^mitiquee,  83,  84);  so  Beel^ 

every  century  there  were  several  commissions  of  phegor  was  the  Moabite  divinity  who  ruled  over 

investigation.     Evelyn  in  his  Diary,  21  April,  1656,  I'hogor.    Some  identify  him  with  Chamos  (Chemosh), 

notes  Uiat  he  saw  several  poor  creatures  in  Bedlam  the  national  sod  of  Moab,  but  this  is  not  at  all  certain, 

in  chains.    In  the  next  century  it  became  the  custom  as  many  localities  had  their  local  deities,  apparently 

for  the  idle  classes  to  visit  Bedlam  and  observe  the  distinct  to  the  popular  mind.    To  the  baal  was  gener< 

antics  of  the  insane  patients  as  a  novel  form  of  ally  ascribed  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  the  increase 

amusement.    This  was  done  even  bv  the  nobilitv  of  flocks;  he  was  worshipped  by  offerings  of  the 

and  their  friends.    One  penny  was  charged  for  ad-  products  he  gave  and  often  by  unchaste  practices 

mission  into  the  hospital,  and  there  is  a  tradition  done  in  his  honour  at  his  sanctuary.     One  of  tho 

that  an  annual  income  of  four  hundred  pounds  was  ^reat  works  of  the  prophets  was  to  stamp  out  this 

thus  realized.    This  would  mean  that  nearly  100,000  munoral  cult  on  the  soil  of  Palestine, 

persons  visited  the  hospital  in  the  course  of  a  year.  Israel  came  in  contact  with  Beelphegor  at  Settim, 

Hogarth's  famous  picture  represents  two  fashionable  on  the  plains  of  Moab,  their  last  station  before  enter- 

ladies  visiting  the  hospital  as  a  show  place,  while  his  ing  the  land  of  Canaan.    Here  many  men  of  Israel, 

" Rake",  at  the  end  of  the  "Process",  is  being  fet-  as  a  sequel  to  their  immoral  intercourse  with  the 

tered  by  a  keeper.    After  an  investigation  in  1851,  the  women  of  Moab,  took  part  in  the  sacrificial  banquets 

hospital  came  under  regular  government  inspection  in  honour  of  Beelpheffor,  for  which  crimes  they  were 

and  has  since  been  noted  for  its  model  care  of  the  punished  by  death  (Nimi.,  xxv).     It  is  commonly 

insane.    It  acconunodates  about  three  hundred,  with  neld,  in  view  of  the  occurrences  at  Settim  and  of  the 

over  sixty  attendants.    Its  convalescent  home  at  general  nature  of  baal-worship,  that  immoral  rites 

Witley  is  an  important  feature.    The  management  is  were  part  of  the  worship  of  this  god;  while  the  text 

so  good  that  each  year  more  than  one-half  of  the  does  not  make  this  certain,  the  large  number  of  per- 

patients  are  returned  as  cured.  sons  involved  and  the  fact  that  "  the  affair  of  Phogor" 

TuKE.  BeMehemRoyal  HnspM  in  Britiah  Journal  of  Men-  is  ascribed  to  the  instigation  of  the  seer  Balaam, 

Ann^iios     '  ^''^^'^'^'  ^"^^  HospuaU  and  charxHea  g^^^  ^  indicate  that  it  had  relation  to  the  cult  of 

j^^sfEg  J  Walsh  Beelphegor  (xxxi,  16).     Marucchi  believes  the  sur- 

Be6l«n,  lAN  Thbodor,  exegete  and  Orientaliirt.b,  y^™/'^*i?  l"^*  **"  ^^"^  °!4^*®  ""l^^  "I^V^^ 

at  Amste^am,  12  Januarytl^TTd.  at  Lo^^  is  attested  by  an  mscnption   dedicated  by  s^ne 

31  March,  1884:    After  a  bSliant  dvL  of  studieTat  ^trJ?Z.f^'^fPl^\JhJ^^   T?fi*  n^l 

Rome,  c^wned  by  the  Doctorate  of  Theology,  he  T^J^  he  identifies  with  Beelphegor     The  proof  is 

.  » ,000          •  X  '^*'L^y^'^****^  ^*     "To  ''^1  slieht,  nothinir  more  than  the  resemblance  m  name. 

WM  m  1836  aopointed  P^fessor  of  Sacred  Scnptiu*  ^he  tenible  cWfaement  Micted  on  Israel  for  the 

and  Oriental  language,  in  the  recently  reorganised  ^j^  ^^  g^^y^  j,  mentioned  several  times  in  the  Bible, 

S^M?'!?  iF,«''T*^i,''^  ^"!?i"i:.    V'"'  r?*'*"'   M*  and  St.  Paul  (I  Cor.,  x,  8)  uses  it  to  point  a  moral, 

hdd  tai  1876,  when  he  resigned  his  place  to  his  pupil,  q,      C<»»«.^onAruU;r,  V«w  York.'i908):  Ma«ucchi  ta 

Prof.  T.  J.  Lamy.    He  was  the  author  of  the  following  Vio.,  Diet.  <l»  la  BibU  (Pans,   1804);   LAOBANap.,   Rdieumt 

Biblical  works,  among  which  his  commentary  on  the  ^*iwri»uM  (Paris,  1906),  M  wg.;  Skith,  ^igion  ofAe  Semiut 

Epistle  to  the  Romans  is  especially  esteemed:  "Dis-  {Jg"'*rSkT^  bSS.'         "    "^                    '" 

sertatio    theoloj^ca    qu&    sententiam  .  .  .  esse    S.  '                         *                      John  F  Fenlon 

Scripturaj  multipUcem  interdum  swisum  litteralem,  BeeU.bub    (3131  hV2).  or   Baalzeb6b,    (1)   the 

nullo  fundamento^tis  firmo  niti  demonstrwe  con-  phj  ~ttoe  gS  of  Accaron(Ekron),  scarcely  25  miles 

^  Phi  !^"  «h '  \m^-' 23°^Th'*'?M§-  Lfff^.  *«»*  ot  Je^lem,  whose  oracle  King  Ochozias  (Aha- 

^ie^tarii^'n  e'p  1.'  PaW'PUlip.Pc^^^:  '^^  «*»«??*??  .*«  «>,-"'*  -  ^is  laft  illne^   IV(1I) 

tarius  in  Acta  Ap^t.",  with  Greek  i£i  Latin  tSt  ^^'  \'  ^-    "  "^  S^^^  ^  "^  oracle  that  the  god  is 

(2  vols.,  ib.,  1855-55;  2nd  ed.,  without  Greek  and  ^TrJLI^tJT  Tht' r^^Z^J!" ^Jl'^^^^^nVh 

Latin  t4xt«,  ib.,  1864);  "Commentarius  in  ep.  S.  9\iJ^^^t  m!^''  Ta  Z>  ^^^L^^^^ 

Pauli  ad  Rom."  (ib.,  1854);  "Grammatica  graJtatis  uf''^'"!^^'  «^„^?l„k,!^  i  !  f^  ^  S^n™ 

N.  T."  (ib.,  1857):  knd  in  Dutch,  "Rules  for  a  new  I^  *fl:^  *  2^^Ji^X  t^  ^h^^  w  J^ 

Translation  of  the  k.  T."  (Louvaik,  1868);  a  transla.  *^  ^f '  *irSw»W  J^lnL T  P-^n^l^^^  A^ 

tion  of  the  N.  T.  made  in  liccordani  with  these  rules  f2f '  "/K^flSLS  ifcft^-fi^  lil^^h^^-J^.  1^ 

(3  voh..,  ib..  185?:«9);."The  Epistles.and  Gospels  of  ^J.Z.'^^^l'^^.^^ll^^'^i^r.^J^^.^ 


in  Accaron;  there 
existence  of  such  a 


^a;^'Trf8^TnXttai%te,lS£    K,^n."'^^^1hKtfo^^1ot^  ^t^ 

sr of  t^'^  twUter"'BSe'iS'S'dS^"X  rrK*" »«''»»%''  ",r  '°i  i?t5'.'T°"  a "' 

»~wii*  ,^f  «..n-.,jn»  n..:..../.!  IjTTjTiI  ^r^nli!!^.™    oTj  Mgn  house,  which  would  refer  to  the  god's  tenaple  or 

or^f,^.^T^^?^.i^?h-t  J^n^o^wif  ^'nf^^  to  the  moiiitain  on  which  the  gods  dwelt,  or  iwAer, 

hi  m^»  ^^«  ^,«nuiirf^f  te^  ^^^  ^  his  opinion,  to  both.    But  thi  textual  evideiM 

ALw"TnH°Ll.~?^n'±  ^^^  A  "^.^:^r.'^r„'  LagranI,  objects,  isentii^ly  in  favour  of    2 


1106,88 


temple 

considered  <^en* 
to  change 
!*he  tradition 
F.  Bechtel.        of  the  true  name,  lingering  on,  accoimts  for  its  pres- 
ence in  the  Gospels  (zfeboiu).    This  conjecture,  which 
Beelphegor  ("^lyD  pya,  P^^<f»^f^p),  or  Baalpbor,    has  a  certain  plausibility,  leaves  unexplaincxl  why 
was  the  baal  of  Mt.  Phogor,  or  Peor,  a  moimtain  of    the  contempt  should  lead  to  the  particular  fonn, 
Moab.    The  exact  idea  of  baal  s^ms  to  be  ''  the  pos-    Baal    2j€bubf   a  name  without  parallel  in    Semitic 
ie80or'\  the  one  who  holds  the  real  domination    religions.    It  seems  more  reasonable,  then,  to  regard 


389  BXGUINE8 

BadlxbtA  as  the  original  fonn  and  to  interpret  it  as  in  the  Jewish  literatui^  of  the  period;  there  we  usually 

"lord  of  l!he  flies".  find  Beliar  (Belial)  as  an  alternative  name  for  Satan. 

(2)  In  the  New  Testament,  there  is  question  of  an  „  Laoranob,  Reliffums  sSmitiques  (Paris,  1906):  Cheynb  in 

evUsijirit    Beel«,boul      On  acooimt  of  tto  great  f ll^S.  ?^»fc l^li.  Jl^SLf-^i^iw^^^^'tgo?)?^ 

BUnilanty   of  names,    he   is   usually   identified   with  trb  in  Vio.,  Diet,  de  la  Bible  (Pans,  1895),  s.  v.  BSeUibub; 

Baalzebub,  bed  being  the  Aramaic  form  of  bcuxl,  and  Holtzmann.  Life  of  Jesua  (lx)ndon,  1904). 
the  change  from  the  final  6  to  i  such  as  might  easily  John  F.  Fenlon. 
occur.  But  there  were  nimiberless  names  for  demons  Beesley  (or  Bisley)  ,  George,  Venerable,  martyr, 
at  that  time,  and  this  one  may  have  been  newly  b.  at  The  Hill  in  Goosnargh  parish,  Lancaster,  Eng- 
invented,  having  no  relation  to  the  other;  the  fact  land,  of  an  ancient  CathoRc  family;  d.  2  July,  1591. 
that  one  element  of  the  compound  is  Aramaic  and  He  was  ordained  priest  at  the  English  College  at 
the  other  Hebrew  would  not  disprove  this.  The  Reims,  14  March,  1587,  and  left  for  England,  2  No- 
meaning  of  the  term  is  "lord  of  the  mansion"  or  vember,  1588.  A  man  of  singular  courage,  young, 
dwelling,  and  it  would  be  supposed  by  the  Jews  of  strong,  and  robust,  he  was  captured  by  Topcliffe  late 
this  time  to  refer  to  the  nether  regions,  and  so  be  an  in  1590,  and  was  by  his  tortures  reducm  to  a  skeleton, 
appropriate  name  for  the  prince  of  that  realm.  Beel-  He  endured  all  with  invincible  cours^e  and  could  not 
leooul  (Beelrobub)  is  used,  then,  merely  as  another  be  induced  to  betray  his  fellow  Cathofics.  He  sufifered 
name  for  Satan  (Matt.,  xii,  24-29;  Luke,  xi,  15-22),  by  the  statute  of  27  Eliz. ,  merely  for  being  a  priest, 
by  whom  the  enemies  of  Our  Lord  accused  Him  of  in  Fleet  Street,  London.  His  last  words  were  **  Absit 
being  possessed  and  by  whom  they  claimed  He  cast  mihi  gloriari  nisi  in  Cruce  Domini  Nostri  Jesu  Christi" 
out  demons.  Their  charge  seems  to  have  been  that  and,  after  a  pause,  ''Good  people,  I  beseech  God  to 
the  good  Our  Lord  did  was  wrought  by  the  Evil  One  send  all  felicity". 

m  order  to  deceive,  which  Jesus  showed  to  be  absurd  ^  Gillow.  B*W.  Diet,  (London,  1885);  Challoner,  Memoirs: 

and  a  wilful  blindness.    If  the  New  Testament  name  ^^^^'^»  ^*^  ^  ^"^^^  ^"^^  (London.  I89i ) 

be  considered  a  transformation  of  the  old,  the  qaes-  u  de  i^  mm. 


tion  arises  as  to  how  the  god  of  the  little  town  of       Begging  Friars.    See  Mendicant  Friars. 
Accaron  came  to  give  a  name  to  the  Prince  of  Dark-        Begin,  Louis  Nazaire.    See  Quebec,  Archdio- 

nesa.    The  mission  on  which  Ochozias  sent  his  fol-  cese  of. 

k)wers  seems  to  show  that  Beelzebub  already  had  a  Begnudelli-Basso,  Francesco  Antonio,  a  canon- 
wide  renown  m  Palestine.  The  narrative  (I V  Kings,  igt  who  lived  at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
i)  was  a  very  striking  one,  well  known  to  the  contem-  d.  at  Freising,  9  October.  1713.  From  1675  he  was 
poraries  of  Our  Lord  (Luke,  ix,  54);  from  it  might  Vicar-General  of  Trent,  his. native  place.  In  1679, 
easily  be  derived  the  idea  of  Beelzebub  as  the  special  however,  he  held  a  canonry  in  the  Cathedral  of 
adversary  of  God.  and  the  change  in  the  final  letter  Freising,  where  also  he  became  in  1696  vicar-general 
of  the  name  which  took  place  (ex  hypoihesi)  would  of  the  diocese,  and  where  he  died.  His  "Bibliotheca 
lead  the  Jews  to  regard  it  as  designating  the  prince  of  juris  canonico-civilis  practica  seu  repertoriuin  quaes- 
the  lower  regions.  With  him  was  naturally  connected  tionum  magis  practicarum  in  utroque  foro"  ranked 
the  idea  of  demoniacal  possession;  and  there  is  no  hun  among  the  best  canonists  of  his  day.  His 
need  of  Cheyne's  conjecture  that  Beelzebub's  "name  canonical  acumen  is  especially  noteworthy,  while  he 
naturally  rose  to  Jewish  lips  when  demoniacal  pos-  speaks  in  the  clearest  terms  of  papal  infallibility. 
session  was  spoken  of,  because  of  the  demoniacal  The  work  was  published  in  Freising  in  1712,  four 
origin  assumed  for  heathen  oracles".  How  can  we  vols,  in  folio;  Geneva,  1747;  Modena  and  Venice,  1768. 
account  for  the  idea  of  Beelzeboul  exorcizing  the  it  has,  however,  lost  its  practical  usefulness  owing  to 
demons?  On  the  assumption  that  he  is  to  be  ideur  ^he  later  editions  of  Lucius  Ferraris's  "Bibliotheca", 
tified  with  the  Philistine  god,  Lagrange  thinks,  the  which  is  vastly  superior  to  the  work  of  Begnudelli. 
idea  is  derived  from  the  special  prerogative  of  Beel-  Krautzwald  m  KvxhenUx;  Wkrnz,  Jub  Decretalium  (Rome, 
lebub  as  fly-chaser  (chasse-mouche).  In  the  Baby-  1898).  I.  no.  324,  p.  418;  Hurter,  Nomenclator,  II  867. 
bnian  epic  of  the  deluge,  "the  gods  gather  over  the  Andrew  B.  Meehan. 
sacrificer  like  flies"  (see  Driver,  Genesis,  105).  It  Begoines;  Beghards.— The  etymology  of  the 
was  easy  for  the  heathen  Semites,  according  to  names  Beahard  and  Beguine  can  only  be  conjectured. 
Lagrange,  to  come  to  conceive  of  the  flies  troubling  Most  likely  they  are  derived  from  the  old  Flemish 
the  sacrifice  as  images  of  spirits  hovering  around  word  6co^,  in  the  sense  of  "to  pray",  not  "to  b^", 
with  no  right  to  be  there;  ana  so  Beelzebub,  the  god  for  neither  of  these  communities  were  at  any  time 
who  drove  away  the  flies,  became  the  prince  of  de-  mendicant  orders;  maybe  from  Bega,  the  patron  saint 
moDS  in  whose  name  the  devils  were  exorcized  from  of  Nivelles,  where,  according  to  a  doubtful  tradition 
the  bodies  of  the  possessed.  Others  think  the  idea  the  first  Beguinage  was  established;  maybe,  again, 
naturally  arose  that  the  lord  of  the  demons  had  from  Lambert  le  Bdgue,  a  priest  of  Lidge  who  died  in 
power  to  oonmiand  them  to  leave  the  possessed.  It  1180,  after  having  expended  a  fortune  in  founding 
seems  much  more  reasonable,  however,  to  regard  in  his  native  town  a  cloister  and  church  for  the  widows 
this  faculty  of  Beelzebub  not  as  a  tradition,  but  and  orphans  of  crusaders. 

simply  as  a  charge  invented  by  Our  Lord's  enemies  As  early  as  the  commencement  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
to throw  discredit  on  His  exorcisms.  His  other  tury  there  were  women  in  the  Netherlands  who  lived 
miracles  "were  probably  accoimted  for  by  ascribing  alone,  and  without  taking  vows  devoted  themselves 
them  to  Beelzebub  and  so  these  likewise.  Allen  to  prayer  and  good  works.  At  first  there  were  not 
(Comm.  on  Matt.,  107,  134)  has  endeavoured  to  many  of  them,  but  as  the  century  grew  older  their 
simplify  the  problem  by  the  use  of  higher  criticism,  numbers  increased;  it  was  the  age  of  the  Crusades, 
According  to  him,  the  rdle  of  Beelzebub  as  arch-  and  the  land  teemed  with  desolate  women — the  raw 
demon  and  exorcist  was  not  a  Palestinian  belief;  in  material  for  a  host  of  neophytes.  These  solitaries 
Mark's  Gospel,  Beelzebub  is  simply  the  demon  said  made  their  homes  not  in  the  forest^  where  the  true 
to  possess  Our  Lord.  Matthew  and  Luke  by  mistake  hermit  loves  to  dwell,  but  on  the  frinee  of  the  town, 
fuse  together  two  independent  clauses  of  Mark,  iii,  22  where  their  work  lay^  for  they  served  Christ  in  His 
and  identify  Beelzebub  with  Satan,  to  whom  the  poor.  About  the  banning  of  the  thirteenth  century 
faculty  of  exorcism  is  ascribed.  The  fusion,  however,  some  of  them  groupwi  their  cabins  together,  and  the 
teems  to  be  justified  by  the  next  verse  of  Mark,  which  conununity  thus  formed  was  the  first  Beguinace. 
is  more  natiuully  interpreted  in  the  sense  of  Matthew  Tne  Beguine  could  hardly  be  called  a  nun;  she  took 
and  Luke,  though  Allen's  interpretation  may  be  no  vows,  could  return  to  the  world  and  wed  if  she 
admitted  as  possible.    Beelzebub  does  not  appear  would,  and  did  not  renoimce  her  property.    If  she 


BEQUINE8  390  BBOimm 

was  without  means  she  neither  asked  nor  acc^ted  th^  had  banded  together  in  the  first  place  to  boild 

ahns,  but  supported  herself  by  manual  labour,  or  by  up  the  inner  man.     Nor  whilst  working  out  their 

teaching' the  children  of  burghers.     During  the  time  own  salvation  were  they  unmindful  of  tneir  ndgh- 

of  her  novitiate  she  lived  with  "the  Grand  Mistress"  hours  in  the  world,  and  thanks  to  their  intimate 

of  her  cloister,   but  afterwards  she  had  her  own  connexion  with  the  craft-^ilds,  they  were  able  to 

dwelling,  and,  if  she  could  afford  it,  was  attended  by  largely  influence  the  religious  life,  and  to  a  great 

her  own  servants.    The  same  aim  in  life,  kindred  pur-  extent  to  mould  the  religious  opinion  of  the  cities 

suits,  and  community  of  worship  were  the  ties  which  and  towns  of  the  Nethemuids,  at  ail  events  in  the 

bound  her  to  her  companions.    There  was  no  mother-  case  of  the  proletariat,  during  mOire  tbau  two  hundred 

house,  nor  common  rule,  nor  common  general  of  the  years. 

order;  every  commimity  was  complete  in  itself  and        Bearing  in  mind  the  wretched  and  down-trodden 
fixed  its  own  order  of  Uving,  though  later  on  many  class  from  which  the  Beghards  were  generally  re- 
adopted  the  ride  of  the  Third  Order  of  Saint  Francis,  cruited,  and  the  fact  that  they  were  so  little  tram- 
These  communities  were  no  less  varied  as  to  the  melled  by  ecclesiaatical  control,  it  is  not  surprising 
social  status  of  their  members;  some  of  them  only  that  the  mysticism  of  some  of  them  presently  became 
admitted  ladies  of  high  degree;  others  were  exdu-  a  sort  of  mystical  pantheism,  or  that  some  of  them 
sively  reserved  for  persons  in  humble  circumstances;  gradually  developed  opinions  not  in  harmony  with 
others  again  opened  their  doors  wide  to  women  of  the  Catholic  Faitn,  opinions,  indetxi,  if  we  may  trust 
every  condition,  and  these  were  the  most  densely  John  Ruysbroek,  which  seem  to  have  differed  little 
peopled.     Several,  like  the  Great  Beguinage  of  Ghent,  from  the  religious  and  political  opinions  professed 
numbered  their  inhabitants  by  thousands.     Such  was  by  anarchists  to-day.     The  heretical  tendencies  of 
this  semi-monastic  institution.     Admirably  adapted  the  Beghards  and  Beguines  necessitated  disciplinary 
to  the  spiritual  and  social^needs  of  the  age  which  pro-  measures,  sometimes  severe,  on  th(;  part  of  ecclesias- 
duced  it,  it  spread  rapidly  throughout  the  land  and  ticsal   authority.     Various    restrictions   were    placed 
soon  began  to  exercise  a  profound  influence  on  the  upon  them  by  the  Svnods  of  Fritalar  (1259),  Mainz 
religious  life  of  the  people.     Each  of  these  institutions  (1261),  Eichstfttt  (1282);   and  they  were  forbidden 
was  an  ardent  centre  of  mysticism,  and  it  was  not  the  as  "having  no  approbation"  by  the  Synod  of  B^ziers 
monks,  who  mostlv  dwelt  on  the  country  side,  nor  (1299).    They  were  condenmed  by  the  Council  of 
even  tne  secular  clergy,  but  the  Beguines,  the  Beg-  Vienne  (1312),  but  this  sentence  was  mitigated  by 
hards,  and  the  sons  of  Saint  Francis  who  moulded  the  John  XXII  (1321),  who  permitted  the  Begiiines,  as 
thought  of  the  urban  population  of  the  Netherlands,  they  had  mended  their  ways,  to  reuume  their  mode 
There  was  a  Beguinage  at  Mechlin  as  early  as  1207,  of  life.    The  Beghards  were  more  obstinate.     During 
at  Brussels  in  1245,  at  Louvain  in  1234,  at  Bruges  in  the  fourteenth  century  they  were  repeatedly  con- 
1244,  and  by  the  close  of  the  century  there  was  hardly  demned  by  the  Holy  See,  the  bishops  (notably  in 
a  commune  in  the  Netherlands  without  its  Beguinage,  Germany),  and  the  Inquisition.     It  should  be  noted, 
whilst  several  of  the  great  cities  had  two  or  three  or  on  the  other  hand,  that  in  spite  of  widespread  abuses, 
even  more.     Most  of  these  institutions  were  sup-  men  of  faith  and  piety  were  found  among  the  Beg- 
pressed  during  the  religious  troubles  of  the  fifteen-  liards.     In  their  behalf  Gregory  XI  (1374-77)  and 
hundreds  or  during  the  stormy  years  which  closed  Boniface  IX  (1394)  addressed  Bulls  to  the  bishop 
the  eighteenth  century,  but  a  few  convents  of  Be-  of  Germany  and  the  Netherlands.     An  echo  of  tne 
guines  still  exist  in  various  parts  of  Belgium.     The  theok>^cal  errors  into   which   the   Beghards  fell  is 
mast  notable  are  those  of  Bruges,  Mechlin,  Louvain,  found  m  the  doctrine  of  Quietism, 
and  Ghent,  which  last  numbers  nearly  a  thousand        Nor  did  the  Beghard  communities  of  the  Nether- 
members,  lands  escape  the  fate  which  sooner  or  later  overtakes 
The   widespread   religious   revival   of   which    the  all  human  institutions:  before  the  close  of  the  Middle 
Beguinage  was  the  outcome  brought  forth  also  about  Ages  most  of  them  were  in   full   decadence.     Not, 
the  same  time  several  kindred  societies  for  men.  as  so  often  happens,  that  their  life  was  crushed  out 
Of  these  the  Beghards  were  the  most  widespread  and  by  the  weight  of  gold;  though,  as  time  went  on,  thej' 
the  most  important.     The  Beghards  were  all  of  them  acquired  endowments,  they  were  never  rich;  they 
laymen,  and^  like  the  Beguines,  they  were  not  bound  waned  with  the  waning  of  the  cloth  trade,  and,  when 
by  vows,  the  rule  of  life  which  they  observed  was  that  industry  died,  gradually  dwindled  away.     Their 
not  uniform,  and  the  members  of  each  community  crazy  ships  were  sorely  tned  by  the  storm  of  the 
were  subject  only  to  their  own  local  superiors;  but,  fifteen-hundreds;  some  of  them  went  to  the  bottom, 
unlike  them,  they  had  no  private  property;  the  breth-  some  weathered  its  fury,  but  were  so  battered  that 
ren  of  each  cloister  had  a  common  purse,  dwelt  to-  they  afterwards  sank  in  still  water;  a  few,  somehow 

f ether  under  one  roof,  and  ate  at  the  same  board,  or  other,  managed  to  keep  afloat  till  the  hurricane  of 

'hey  were  for  the  most  part,  though  not  always,  the  French  Revolution  at  last  dashed  them  to  pieces, 

men  of  humble  origin — weavers,  dyers,  fullers,  and  The  liighest  number  of   these  medieval  founoations 

so  forth — and  thus  they  were  intimately  connected  in  Belgium  was  94.    They  were  reduced  (1734)  to 

with  the  city  craft-guilds.     Indeed,  no  man  could  be  34  and  (1856)  to  20.     Their  membership  in  1631  was 

admitted  to  the  Beghards'  convent  at  Brussels  unless  2,487;  m  1828,  1,010;  in  1856,  about  1.600. 
he  were  a  member  of  the  Weavers*  Company,  and        Geldulpitus  a  Ryckkl,  V'ito  S.  Begga  etHutoHaBeoowi- 

♦u:.,  „.««  :«  «ii   «>^^KnK:ii'f^  T»«f  o   iir^:/^iiA  Xq^^      TV»a  riorum  Belgii  (Louvain,   1G30);   Helyot,  Hutotre  de9  ordrt* 

this  wa^  m  all  probabdity  not  a  unique  case.     Ihe  ^nanattiquri  (Paris.  1719).  VIIl;  Thomas  de  CAxxiMPHi.  Ih 

lieghards  were  often  men  to  whom  fortune  had  not  Apibtu  (Douai.  1627);  Thomassin,  DUHv.  E<x.  Frt.   II,  IV; 

been  kind— men  who  had  outlived  their  friends,  or  Coen»,  pittmia.  HUtor.  de  orig  Bcgh.  (Li^e,  1629);  pouTRE- 

whose  family  ties  had  been  broken  by  some  untowanl  lTb",l^!-^'ll'^t"c^rJ^H^il^^  wT^^n. 

event,  and   who,  by  reason  of  failing  health   or  ad-  HUtoire  dea  mrirona  de  Bruxelles   (Brussels,   1855),  contains 

vancinff  years,  or  perhaps  on    acount  of   some  acci-  much  curious  information  about  the  numerous  Beeuine  con- 

^««f     «.«t«  ...AolJa  f/^   ofo*ir)   o1/^r.»       Tf    no   a   ynne^nt  vcnts  m  the  neighbourhood  of  BriuaeU.     oee  Table  Alphab. 

dent,  were  unable  to  stand  a^one.     If,  as  a  recent  j^  j  ^„^  „   gocp-sos;  Pirknne,  Hist,  de  Bdgique  (BruS^ 

writer  has  it,  ''the  medieval  towns  of   the  Nether-  1903).  1,  337-340;  Mohler,  Kirt^tenaefcA.:  Von  Grubk,  Ger- 

lands  found  in  the  Beguinage  a  solution  of  their  hart  Oroot  u.  $eineStiftunom  {Bonn,  ip3)i  DK^nkT,  Ve^ 

fAmmin*^     niiocf inn  "       thA     PfttiiKliRVimPnt     nf     fhpiw*  over  de  Broederachap  van  Q.  O.  (VirechU  1822)]  Gerardt  Magm 

Jeminme    question    ,    tne    estaDlisnment    oi    tnese  Epiatola-   XIV   (Amsterdam.    1867);    Burchicos.    Chromiam 

communities  afforded  them  at  least  a  partial  solution  Canon.  Reg.  (1621);   The  Chronidea  of  the  Canons  regular  ci 

of  another  problem  which  pressed  for  an  answer:  the  Mount  Agnea  (London,  1906);  Ketoewkll,  rfcoma«  d  Kimpia 

difficult  problem  of  how  to  deal  with  the  worn-out  I'^J^fS^^^^'i!!  ^^^^''.J^'^l'^^  L^^ 

workmgman.      Albeit  the  mam  object  of  all  these  b.  v. 
institutions  was  not  a  temporal  but  a  spiritual  one:  Ebnest  Giluat-Smith. 


B1S4ZH  391  BKHAIH 

_, r  VON  (known  also  as  Albertus  came  to  an  end  in  1253.     From  that  time  he  lived  ta 

b);  b.  c  1180,  probably  at  Boheiming,  in  the  Passau,  where  he  had  been  dean  of  the  chapto'  siiiM 

uaeeae  of  Paasau;  d.  at  Fawau,  1260;  a  pamaon  of  1246.    He  laboured  with  seal  and  credit  to  himself, 

the  popea  in  their  strunle  with  the  Emperor  Fred-  but  not  without  many  conflicts,  until  his  death.     Ha 

crick  II  (1215-50).     'a  m)5  he  went  to  Rome,  where  left  two  diaries,  known  as  the  firat  and  second  Mi^ 

be  WIS  emtric^red  at  ^he  papal  court  as  an  expert  in  mvbuA.     Fragments  of  the  fiist  were  edited  by  O^ 

1»T.    Jn  1237  he  went  to  Germany,  ajid  throuih  his  fele,  in  "Rerum  Boicanun  Scriptores'',  voL  I;  the 

effort!  a  lea^e  was  formed  against  Frederick  II  be-  second   by  HOfler   in  "Bibliothek  des  Utterariachen 

(ireen  Otto  of  Bavaria,  Wencealaus  of  Bohemia,  and  Vereins"  (Stuttgart,  1847). 


peried' to  th^"  bishops  oif  'GenA^ny"(1240),'^d7whS»    H^""^  J*"^i«»«tato-.  IV. 


HlBTUt   BlBAIU'S    GU>BK 

Frederick  jf  Austria.      When  excommunication  was  LencHiamiLp-AMAU,  AOtrt  Bthaim  IMunich.  187*);  Rat. 

pmounced  against  the  emperor  in  1239,  Behaim  was  f3^l,^1^l87t*IS^):  "n-JllSr^i^S^.^ 

made  a  permanent  delegate  and  commissionea  to  bun.  iJSe),  V;  Hauce,  Kirdienottrh.  DaOtM.  (Ldpiic, 

make  the  sentence  effective.     For  that  purpose  he  ai>-  iWe).   IV:    Sddl  in  JItnAmJu.  (Fnabuic.   1S86).   I,  411; 

»_I-J    -_    -l__    Lr^L^. -»    r-\ y^rt.n^'^.       1        1    '^.  HnBTU.  JVoHftMb^Litor.  IV. 

Francis  J.  Schaefeb. 

number  of  ecclesiastics  anJ  laymen  of  prominence.  B«h^m,    HARTiif    (MARTiinrs    de    Boheuia),   a 

U  the  same  time,  he  worked  for  the  election  of  a  new  German  cartographer  and  navigator,  b.  at  Nurem< 

kin*.     However,  his  excessive  severity  had  no  effect,  be:«  in  1459;  d.  at  the  German  hospice  of  St.  Bar* 

and  be  was  forced  to  leave  the  country.     In  1245  he  thofomew  in  LisboD,  Portugal,  20  July,  1507.     Bo* 

*■■  at  the  Council  of   Lyons,  where   Frederick   was  haim  came  from  a  wealthy  merchant  family  which 

■ptin   excommunicated,  and   he   worked   as   before  settled  in  Nuremberg  about  1300  and  which  is  still 

•Cainst  the  emperor.     His  office  of  papal  del^ate  in  existence.    He  received  the  usual  education  buU 


BXIDEBLIirDEN                           392  BXIBX7T 

according  to  his  own  statement^  had  among  his  Beroth(nKings,  viii,8)orBerotha(Ezech.,xlvii,l(0, 

teacheiB  the  celebrated  mathematician  and  astrono-  probably  situated  near  Baalbek  in  CoBle-Syria.    It  is 

mer  Regiomontanus.     Behaim  entered  business  life  difficult  to  explain  the  more  usual  form,  Beryios,  but 

at  an  early  age  and  became  an  agent  at  Antwerp,  it  probably  comes  from  BeriUi,  the  Phoenician  name 

In  1481  or  14^  he  went  to  Lisbon  on  business.    Here  of  a  fish-goddess  related  to  the  god  of  Qebal  or  BrUos, 

his  reputation  as  a  pupil  of  Regiomontanus  led  to  two  towns  of  the  GibUtes,  a  Clumaanite  tribe.     bc»y* 

his  appointment  by  Kins  John  (Joflo)  II  as  a  member  toe  was  the  birthplace  of  Sanchoniathon,  an  eaily 

of  a  commission,  the  "junta  dos  mathematicos",  Phcenician  author,  and  seems  to  have  been  unim- 

which  was  to  find  some  improved  method  for  de-  portant  in  remote  times.    It  is  mentioned  by  ^e 

termining  latitude.     Behaim  furnished  them  with  Greeks  before  Alexander,  but  is  not  spoken  of  in 

the  so-csJled  Jacob's-staff ,  or  cross-staff,  and  the  as-  connexion  with  the  expeditions  of  this  conqueror, 

tronomical  tables  necessary  for  ascertaining  the  decli-  After  the  time  of  Antiochus  IV,  Epiphanes  (175- 

nation  of  the  sun.     Having  in  this  way  become  fa^  164   b.  c),   Bersrtos  was  known   as    Laodioea  of 

vourably  known,  Behaim  was  offered  the  opportunity  Chanaan,  a  name  which  it  kept  until  the  reign  of 

of  accompanying  Diego  Cam  (Cfio)  on  a  voyage  of  disK  Alexander  11.  Zabinas  (129-123  b.  c.)  ;  see  J.  Rouvier, 

covery  along  the  west  coast  of  Africa.    In  the  course  in  "Revue  ae  numismatique"  (ISfiNS),  and  "Revue 

of  his  explorations  Cam  discovered  the  mouth  of  biUique",    VII,    272-275.    According    to    Strabo 

the  Congo  and  went  as  far  as  Walfisch  Bav.    After  CXVI,  ii,  9)  it  was  destroyed  by  King  Tryphon 

his  return  Behaim  was  made  a  Knight  of  the  Portu-  (137-134  b.  c).    If  this  be  true,  it  must  have  oeen 

guese  Order  of  Christ  in  1486,  and  married  a  dau^ter  rebuilt  after  a  short  time,  for  there  are  records  for 

of  Jobet  vcm  Hurter,  her^tary  governor  of  the  the  complete  series  of  the  coins  of  Betytos  from  123 

islands  of  Fayal  and  Pico  of  the  Azores  (,roup.     In  to  14  b.  c.    It  is  certain  that  the  Romans  enlarged 

1492,while  he  was  at  Nuremberg,  Behaim  maide  the  and  embellished  it;  that  it  was  garrisoned  by  two 

well-known  fflobe,  probably  with  the  scientific  help  of  legions,   the   Leg.    V   Macedonica   and   Leg.    VIII 

Hartmann  ^hedel,  the  Nuremberg  humanist.  Augusta,  and  that  in  the  year  14  B.  c.  it  became  a 

His  influence  on  the  great  discoverers  of  his  time  Roman  colony  with  the  name  Cohnia  Julia  Augusta 

was  formerly  much  overestimated^  at  present  it  is  Felix  Beryius,  so  called  after  Julia,  the  daughter  of 

?[ue8tioned  whether  he  had  any  sucn  influence  at  all.  Augustus  (Monmisen,  Res  eestse  divi  Augusti,  II , 

t  cannot  be  proved  either  that  0>lumbus  was  stim«  119).     The  Jewish  kings   Herod  the  Great,  Herod 

ulated  1^  him  or  that  Magellan  (Magalhftes)  in  his  Agrippa  I,  and  Herod  Anrippa  II  built  sumptuous 

search  for  a  southern  passage  made  use  of  a  chart  monuments  at  Berytos  and  g^ve  gladiatorial  combats 

of  the  world  drawn  by  Behaim,  as  was  once  believed,  there  (Josephus,  Bell.  Jud.Tl)  xxi,  11;  Antiq.,  XVI, 

It  has  even  been  questioned  of  late  years  whether  xi,  2;  XVII,  x,  9:  XIX,  vii,  5;  XX,  ix,  4);  Titus  also, 

Behaim  had  any  right  to  call  himself  a  pupil  of  after  the  sie^  of  Jerusalem,  gave  gjadiatorial  games 

R^omontanus  or  whether  he  had  taken  part  in  at  Berytos,  in  which  the  combatants  were  Jew& 

the  discoveries  of  Cam.     Nevertheless  his  "apple",  (Josephus,  BelL  Jud.,  VII,  iii,  1.)    From  that  time 

the  oldest  of  all  existing  globes,  ensures  his  lasting  dates  the  magnificent  aqueduct,  the  remains  of  which 

fame.     The  globe  is  about  twenty-one  inches  in  are  vet  visible,  which  carried  to  the  city  the  waters 

diameter  ana  has  no  network  to  mark    longitudes  of  the  River  Magoras.  now  Nahr  Beiruth.     About 

and  latitudes.   It  is  provided  merely  with  the  equator,  the  middle  of  the  third  century  Berytos  became  the 

one  meridian,  the  tropics  and  the  constellations  ol  seat  of  the  most  renowned  law  school  in  the  E^astem 

the  sodiac,  and  is  a  unique  example  of  miniature  Roman    Empire.    Many    celebrated    jurisconsults 

painting.     There  is  an  unmistakalne  connexion  be-  were  amonff  its  teachers  (Montreuil,  Hist,  du  droit 

tween  Behaim's  manner  of  representing  the  world  byzantin,  1,  264-273,  279-283).    This  school   was 

and  the  geographical  views  of  Toscanelli  whose  chart  spared  by  Justinian  when  he  closed  all  similar  schooU 

is  usuallv  reconstructed  with  the  aid  of  Behaim 's  in  favour  of  Constantinople.    The  town  had  suffered 

globe.    Unfortunately  the  reproductions  of  Behaim's  much  from  an  earthquake  in  529,  and  when  taken  by 

globe,  so  far  made,  are  not  satisfactory.    The  first  the  Arabs  about  635  it  had  fallen  into  decay, 

copy  was  published  bv  Doppelmajrr  in  his  "Historic  Berytos  became  a  Christian  see  at  an  earijr  date, 

von  den  NOmberger  Mathematicis"  (1730)  and  was  and  was  a  suffrasan  of  Tyre  in  Phcenida  Prima,  a 

reproduced  by  NordenskjOld  in  his  "Facsimile  Atlas  province  of  the  Patriarchate  of  Antioclu     In  antiq- 

to    the    Eariy    History    of    (Cartography"    (1889).  Uity  its  most  famous  bishop  was  Eusebius,  aftei^ 

Another  was  drawn  in  1847  for  Jomard  b^  Jean  wfurds  Bishop  of  Nicomedia,  the  courtier-prelate  and 

MMer  who  gave  Dr.  GhiUany  a  copy  which  the  strong;  supporter  of  Arianism  in  the  fourth  century, 

latter  used  in  his  biography  of  Behaim.    This  draw-  Leqmen  (II,  815-820)  gives  a  list  of  thirte^i  Greek 

ing  is  also  to  be  found  in  Ruse,  ''Geschichte  des  bishops  reaching  to  1673,  rectified  and  completed  by 

Zeitalters  der  Entdeckungen "  (1^1  )f  ^  Gdnther's  Cyril  Charon,  a  Greek  Catholic  priest  (in  Al-Mashriq. 

biography  of  Behaim,   and   in   Kretschmer,   ''Die  Beirut,  1   March,   1905).    In  450  Beirut  obtained 

EnMeckung  Amerikas"  (1892).  from  Theodosius  II  the  title  of  metropolis,  with  juris- 

VoN  MuRR,  JHplomaiUehe  Oefchichu  des  jMrtuaienschen  dlction  over  six  sees  taken  from  Tyre;  but  in  451  the 

^SZ^Tli^^'^^^^'^SS'^^^  Counca  of  CJ^cedon  restore!  these  to  Tyre,  l««vin«, 

Jokann  Schdner  vom  Jahrt  16tO  (Nurembirf.  1842);   Idem,  however,  tO  Beirut  its    rank    of    metropohs  (Manm, 

0€9chichle  deM  Seefahren  Ritter  Martin  Behatm  (Nurembers,  VII,  85-98).     Thus,  from  451  Beirut  was  an  exempt 

'JS'L.''/P^JS:-t^'^^^i:Si,Z'^^d'S!?^  metropolk  depending  directly  on  the  P.-triarch  of 

Martin  Behaim.  vol  XIII  of  the  Baveriiche  BMiothek  (Bam-  Antioch.     The  City  was  captured  on  27  Apnl,   1111, 

b«rg,  1890);   WAONEm  Die  Rektmetruktion  der   To^caneUi-  by  Baldwin  I,  King  of  Jerusalem,  and  with  the  ex- 

faS.3/»'^frf.l"«XSKS;^SSX*?.  ^S.^^  ?eption  of  short  intervals  ^  held  by  the  FnjnkB  till 

Wieeenech.  zu  (?<5ttmae».  philol.-hi«tor.  division.  1804  (Gottin-  1241.    At  an  early  date  they  established  there  a 

ten.  1899),  208  aqq.;  Ravknstein,  Martin  de  Bohemia  in  Latin  see  subject  to  Tyre  and,  with  the  provinces  of 

?^^f^..'S^S:^J5::Sn^  Arabia  and  ^haenicia  Prima  erroneously  compri^ 

aut  (Urn  QetMU  der  Oeach,  (Freiburg  iin  Br.  1907).  VI.  m  the  Patnarchate  of  Jerusalem.     Lists  of  its  Latm 

Otto  Hartio.  bishops  are  available  (Lequien,  III,  1325-27:  Gam^ 

^     ^           _  434;  Eubel,  I,  137;  II,    117;  Revue   bte^cUne^ 

Beiderlinden,  Bernard.     See  Poona,  Diocese  of.  1 904 ^  1 33-34) . 

Bainit,  in  Phoenicia,  a  titular  Latin  see,  and  the  Owing  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  the  security 

residential  see  of  several  prelates  of  Oriental  rites,  of  the  harbour,  Beirut  soon  became  one  of  the  most 

The  earliest  form  was  likely  Beeroth  "springs",  not  active  commercial  cities  in  the  East.    The  Druae 


BEJA  393  BEJA 

Ameer  Fakhr  ed-Din  (1595-1634)  improved  the  city        The  Catholic  opposition  to  their  propaganda  is  sup- 

and  made  it  better  known  in  Europe.     He  was  a  ruler  ported  chiefly  by  French  missionaries.    The  Capu- 

of  genius,  and  succeeded  in  creating  a  principality  all  chins,  Franciscans ,  and  Lazarists  each  have  a  monas- 

but  independent  of  the    Porte.     Beirut    was    his  tery  and  a  school;  the  Christian  Brothers,  schools 

residence,  and  the  environs  his  gardens.     He  planted  and  a  college :  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  priory  schools, 

near  the  citv  the  beautiful  pine  wood  which  is  still  a  boarding-school,  an  orphan  asylum,  and  an  indus- 

its  finest  walk.     He  had  relations  with  the  Venetians  trial  school  for  orphan  girls;  they  also  have  charge 

and  with  the  Medici  at  Florence*  in  1633  he  embraced  of  the  hospital   at  the  Catholic   University.    The 

Catholicism,    and    in    the    following   year   suffered  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  and  the  Dames  de  Nazareth  have 

martyrdom  for  his  faith.    The  fact  is  undeniable,  a  boarding-school;  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family,  a 

for  the  letters  of  the  Capuchin  who  was  the  means  of  school;  the  Mariamets,  native  nuns,  their  principal 

his  conversion  have  just  been  published  (de  Baren ton,  house.     The  most  imposing  institutions  are  those 

0.  M.  C,  "La  France  catholique  en  Orient",  158-  of  the  Jesuits.    They  maintain  and  direct  outside 

164).    In  the  course  of  the  seventeenth  and  eight-  of  Beirut  192  schools  for  boys  and  girls,  with  294 

eenth  centuries  the  Turkish  Government  succeeded  teachers  and  12,000  pupils.    There  is  in  the  city  a 

in  reducing  the  power  of  several  native  families  that  faculty  of  medicine  (120  students)  founded  in  1881 

had  forced  themselves  upon  Beirut;  at  the  present  with  the  help  of  the  French  Government;  its  exami- 

time  Turkish  authority  is  supreme.    The  city  was  nations  are  conducted  before  French  and  Ottoman 

shelled  in  1840  by  the  English  and  in  1860  occupied  physicians,  and  its  diplomas  are  recognized  by  both 

by  the  French  after  the  frightful  slaughter  of  Chris-  France  and  Turkey.    They  conduct,  moreover,  St. 

tians  in  Syria;  since  that  date  it  has  been  steadily  Joseph's  Catholic  University,  the  title  of  which  was 

thriving.    Ships  of  the  heaviest  tonnage  visit   its  granted   by  Leo  XIII,   25    February,   1881.    This 

harbour;  railroads  connect  it  ^ith  Damascus  by  way  university  includes:    (1)  a  seminary    (60  students) 

of  Lebanon,  and  with  Tripoli;  carriage-roads  connect  for  natives  of  all  rites,  whi^h  up  to  1902  had  sent 

it  with  the  inland  and  seaooard  towns.     The  country  out  228  students,  including  3  patriarchs,  15  bishops, 

is  well  watered  and  cultivated,  and  the  view  from  115  priests,  and  83  friars;  (2)  a  faculty  of  philosophy 

the  city  is   beautifuL     Beirut   is   the  capital  of  a  and  theology  (30  students),  which  grants  the  same 

homonymous    vilayet.     The    population,  which    is  decrees  as  the  Gregorian  University  in  Rome;  (3) 

about  150,000,  shows  a  steady  increase.    There  are  a  faculty  of  Oriental  languages  and  sciences,  founded 

40,000   Mussulmans,    besides    the    small    garrison;  in  1902.  which  teaches  the  literaiy  and  conversational 

40,000  Maronites,  35,000  Greeks,  12,000  Catholic  or  use  of  Arabic,  Hebrew,  Syriac,  doptic,  and  Ethiopic; 

Melchite  Greeks,   2,000   Latins,   2,000   Protestants,  the  comparative  grammar  of  Semitic  languages,  the 

2,000  Jews,  Druses,  and  Gregorian  Armenians,  1,000  history  and  geography  of  the  Orient;  Oriental  archse- 

CathoUc  Syrians  and  Armemans.  ology;    Graeco-Koman    epigraphy    and    antiquities; 

Apart  from  its  interest  as  a  Latin  titular  bishopric,  (4)  a  classical  and  modem  tuition  college  (400  pupils); 
it  may  be  noted  that  Beirut  is:  (1)  a  Greek  metro-  (5)  3  primary  schools  (600  pupils).  A  printing- 
politan  see  with  about  70,000  believers  and  many  house,  inaugurated  in  1853,  is  now  famous  as  the 
elementary  schools;  in  the  city  of  Beirut  are  5  foremost  Arabic  printing-house.  Since  1871  the 
schools  for  ^Is  conducted  by  23  teachers  in  the  pay  Jesuits  have  published  "Al-Bashir",  a  weekly  Arabic 
of  the  Russian  Government;  (2)  a  metropolitan  see  newspaper,  and  since  1898  a  fortnightly  Arabic 
for  Cathohc  Greeks  or  Melchites,  who  number  about  review,  "Al-Mashriq".  the  editors  of  which  took 
15,000  and  have  a  large  coUe^  at  Beirut;  (3)  a  rank  at  once  among  tne  best  Orientalists.  In  1906 
Maronite  see,  with  50 ,00^  subjects;  50  churches  they  began  a  collection  of  philolo^cal  papers,  "M6- 
and  chapels,  30  priests,  and  a  seminary  and  college  langes  de  la  Faculty  orientale  de  I'Universit^  Saint- 
located  in  the  city;  (4)  a  Syrian  Catholic  see,  with  Joseph".  Finally,  they  contribute  to  many  scientific 
about  1,000  faithful,  the  residence  of  the  Syrian  periodicals  and  publish,  chiefly  in  Arabic,  works  of 
patriarch  having  been  transferred  from  Mardm  to  great  value.  We  may  mention  here  another  precious 
Beirut.  The  I^tin  Vicar-Apostolic  of  Syria,  who  collection:  "Documents  in^dits  pour  servir  k  This- 
is  also  the  Apostolic  delegate  for  Oriental  rites,  has  toire  du  christianisme  en  Orient  ',  the  first  volume 
been  stationed  since  1890  at  Beirut  (previously  at  of  which  appeared  at  Paris  in  1W5.  These  mis- 
Aleppo),  with  about  6,000  under  his  spiritual  rule.  sionaries  are  the  strongest  bulwark  of  Catholicism 

In  Beirut  are  many  Maronite  and  Ureek  Catholic  in  Syria, 

monasteries  of  Baladites,  Aleppines,  and  Salvatorianrf,  ^^?P?>n»on,  PalMiM,  III,  725  aqq.-,  Renan.  Miaticm  de 

«rK«  i.»o:<io^  «>^«ii^  K^  \^-rxaU\L  ♦-n.  V./Ar»*vAfA  ™i*k  ♦ki  PkSnicte  (Pans,  1864),  342-353:  Pietschmann,  Oeachtchte  der 

Who  unaided  would  be  unable  to  compete  with  the  ph^uner)  50;  SchOrbr,  Oe^chickte  des  judischeil  Volkes,  1. 340; 

rrotestant    propaganda  which   has  taken    Beirut  as  de  Barenton.  La  France  catholique  en  Orient  (Paris,  1902), 

a  centre  whence  it  spreads  over  the  whole  of  Syria.  Vottim;  Jvia.iir^x,  La  nouyeUe  mUnon  de  la  c.  de  J.  en  Syria 

Since  1866  the  German  mission  has  had  charg\of  i^'SSJif^J/Jl^SS'Tg^iL^I^^Sf  l^^^^'SoTl 

the  Hospital  of  the  Knights  of   St.  John,  an  orphan  M.  Chariot  in  Etudes  .  .  .  de  la  c.  de  J.  (Paris,  5  December, 

asylum,  and   a   school   for   girls   conducted    by   dea-  1906),  577-590;  Milangeade  I'UnivcrsiUde  St.  Joseph  (B^mt, 

coneases.    The   Jewish   mission    of   the   Church   of  ^^^^-  g  Vailhe 

Scotland  since  1864  has  conducted  two  schools  for  * 

boys  and  girls.     Miss  Taylor's  "St.  George's  Insti-        Beja(BEiEN8is),  Diocese  op, in  Portugal, suffragan 

tute'*  has   charge   of   Mussulman   or   Dnise   girls.  ofEvora.     It  was  created  10  June,  1770,  and  numbers 

Since  1860  the  -British  Syrian  Mission  has  had  a  175,000  Catholics,  with    115  parishes,  120  priests, 

parish,  10  schools,  and  a  normal  school  for  women,  and  197  churches.     It  is  the  capital  of  the  district 

feinoe  1825  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  New  York  of  Baixo  Alemtejo.    The  city  is  supposed  to  be  the 

has   maintained  at  Beirut  a    church,  a    printing-  Pax  Julian  or  Pacay  of  the  Romans,  and  is  still  sur- 

bouse,  its  Bible  agency,  and  a  school  for  girls.     At  a  rounded  by  remains  of  old  Roman  walls,  which, 

later  period  it  buUt  there  the  American  university,  however,  were  partly  restored  during  the  Middle 

which  includes  an  intermediate  college,  a  medical  Ages.     Beia  was  taken  from  the  Moors  in  1162  by 

school,  and  a  theological  school  for  the  training  of  Affonso  Henriques.     It  stands  on  the  summit  of  a 

native  preachers  and  clergymen.     It  also  publishes  high  hill  surrounded  by  beautiful  and  fertile  valleys 

a  newspaper  and  a  review;  and  maintains  outside  of  under  cultivation,  as  the  district  is  rich  in  a^cultural 

Beirut  1^   primary  schools  with  109  teachers  and  products,  mainly  cereals,  olive  oil,  and  wine.    The 

8,000  pupils.    In  spite  of  so  much  effort  and  expense  best  example  of  medieval  architecture  still  extant  in 

the  Protestant  missions  have  gained  in  the  last  80  Portugd  is  the  castle  built  in  Beja  by  King  Dom 

ye»»«  only  about  5,000  adherents  in  all  Syria.  Diniz.   It  is  a  square,  massive  structure  120  feet  high, 


BEJAKNO 


394 


BELFBT 


from  the  top  of  which  the  whole  of  the  Alemtejo 
country  ana  the  Cintra  mountains  may  be  seen. 
The  walls  of  the  castle  are  covered  with  hieroglyphics. 
Beja  was  in  its  early  days  an  episcopal  city,  but  at 
the  time  of  the  invasion  by  the  Moors  lost  its  dignity. 
The  Cathedral  of  Beja  is  an  old  temple,  though  so 
much  modernized  as  to  make  it'imjjossible  to  oeter- 
mine  with  any  degree  of  certainty  its  original  date. 
Other  famous  churches  are  those  of  Our  Lady  of  the 
Conception,  St.  lago,  or  Santiago,  and  Santa  Maria 
de  la  Feira,  said  to  nave  been  an  old  Moorish  mosque. 
The  College  of  St.  Sissenando,  which  belonged  to  the 
Jesuits,  and  was  built  principally  at  the  expense  of 
Donna  Maria  Sophia,  in  1695,  stands  in  the  street 
where  the  saint  was  bom.  Part  of  this  buildine  is 
now  occupied  by  the  episcopal  palace.  The  city  nas 
about  8.000  inhabitants,  modern  improvements, 
schools,  bajiks,  libraries,  etc.  It  is  said  to  be  the 
richest  in  Roman  remains  of  all  the  cities  in  Portugal, 
except  Evora,  which  now  possesses  a  large  collection 
of  Roman  antiquities  collected  in  Beja. 

Gerarchia  Cattolica  (Rome,  1907);  Fl<5rez,  EspaHa  Sagrada 
(1786),  XIV.  230-276;  CoU,  de  /tWea  inMiU  tur  Vhist,  du 
Portugal  (1824).  V.  486-545.  FraNCISCO  J.  YaNBS. 

Bejarano,  Fernando.    See  Mijes. 

Belasyse,  John,  Bahon  Belastse,  b.  about 
1614;  d.  1689,  a  loyal  Catholic  English  nobleman, 
second  son  of  Thomas  first  Lord  Fauconberg.  His 
mother  was  Barbara,  daughter  of  Sir  Henry  Chol- 
mondeley  of  Roxby,  Yorkshire.  John  Belasyse,  who 
represented  Thirsk  in  both  the  Short  and  Long 
Parliaments,  but  was  "disabled"  as  a  Royalist 
to  sit,  played  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  civil  war, 
commanding  a  "Tertia"  on  the  Royalist  side. 
He  raised  six  regiments  of  horse  and  foot  at  his 
own  expense,  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Eki^hill, 
Newbury,  and  Naseby,  as  well  as  the  sieges  of  Read- 
ing and  Bristol,  and  was  subsequently  made  Lieu- 
tenant-General  of  the  King's  forces  in  the  North 
of  England  and  Governor  of  York.  He  was  wounded 
several  times  and  in  January,  1645,  was  raised  to 
the  peerage  by  the  King  at  Oxford  under  the  title 
of  Baron  Belasyse  of  Worlaby,  Lincolnshire.  Dur- 
ing the  Commonwealth  Lord  Bela«rjrse  acted  as 
a  sort  of  Royalist  a^ent  in  England  and  was  in 
frequent  communication  with  Cnarles  II  and  his 
supporters  in  the  Netherlands.  After  the  Restora- 
tion he  was  made  Lord-Lieutenant  of  the  East 
Riding  of  Yorkshire  (1661-73)  and  Governor  of 
Hull,  while  from  1664  to  1666  he  held  the  post  of 
Captain-General  of  the  forces  in  Africa  and  Gover- 
nor of  Tangier.  Somewhat  later,  however,  upon 
the  passing  of  the  Test  Act  (1673)  he  found  him- 
self as  a  Catholic  unable  to  take  the  necessary  oath 
and  resigned  all  his  appointments.  At  the  time 
of  the  Gates  plot.  Belasyse,  along  with  four  other 
Catholic  peers,  tne  Lords  Arundell  of  Wardour, 
Stafford,  ro\\y8,  and  Petre,  was  denounced  as  a 
conspirator  and  formally  imp^eached  in  Parliament. 
Belasyse  in  particular  was  said  to  have  been  desig- 
nated Commander-in-Chief  of  the  Popish  army, 
but  Charles  II,  according  to  Von  Ranke,  ridiculed 
the  idea  on  the  ground  that  the  man  could  then 
hardly  stand  on  his  feet  with  gout.  Nevertheless, 
Lord  Belasyse  lived  on  for  another  ten  years.  The 
impeached  Catholic  peers,  though  they  endured 
a  long  imprisonment  in  the  Tower,  were  never 
brought  to  trial,  and  at  the  accession  of  James  II 
Belasyse  was  again  received  into  high  favour. 
His  appointment  in  1687  as  First  Lord  Commis- 
sioner of  the  Treasury  was  a  step  which  roused 
strong  religious  feeling  against  James's  government. 
Lord  Belasyse  died  m  1689,  the  year  of  the  ac- 
cession of  William  of  Orange.  He  was  three  times 
married,  and  left  five  children,  but  the  title  became 
extinct  upon  the  death  of  his  grandson  Henry, 
third  Baron  Belasyse  of  Worlaby. 


DoDD,  Church  Hxttorvcf  England  (Bniaseb.  1742\  III; 
QiLLOW,  BM.  Diet  of  Eng,  Cath,,  I;  Keabt  in  Diet.  Not 
Biog.,  IV,  142;  Clarendon,  HiaUfryof  the  Great  RebeUum,  and 
the  (Jlarendon  Stale  Papere  in  the  Bodleian  Library. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Belchiam,  Thomas,  Venerable,  a  Franciscan 
martyr  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII,  date  of  birth  un- 
certam;  d.  3  August,  1537.  He  boldly  opposed  the 
king's  first  divorce,  and  denounced  the  tyrant  as  a 
heretic.  He  wrote  a  book  addressed  to  his  brethren, 
begiiming  with  the  text:  "They  that  wear  soft 
clothing  are  in  kings'  houses",  in  which  he  rebuked 
the  faitdless  bishops,  who  were  afraid  to  tell  the  king 
the  truth.  The  book  ^eems  to  be  lost,  but  one  copy 
got  into  Henry's  hands,  and  he  is  said  to  have  bc^ 
moved  to  tears  by  reading  it,  though  he  soon  repented 
of  this  weakness.  Belchiam  and  some  thirty  of  the 
Observant  Franciscans  were  thrown  into  prison, 
where  they  perished  of  hunger. 

DoDD,  Chwdi  Hietory  (BniBeeLB,  1739);  Boukchier,  Hie- 
toria  Ecdenattica  de  Martyrio  Fratrum  Ord,  D.  Francied 
(Paris,  1681);  Waddino,  Annalee  Minorum  (Anoona,  1736). 
torn.  XVI;  Stonb,  Faithful  unto  Death  (London,  1892). 

Bede  Camm. 

Belem  do  PiJnC  Archdiocese  of,  in  South 
America,  formerly  (after  4  llarch,  1719)  a  sufiFragan 
diocese  of  Bahia  (San  Salvador),  but  raised  to  metro- 
politan rank  3  May,  1906.  The  city  of  Belem  is  tho 
capital  of  the  Brasilian  State  of  Par^,  and  is  situaU^i 
on  the  Bay  of  Guajara,  in  the  richest  rubber  and 
oofifee  section  of  the  Republic.  Santa  Maria  de 
Naxareth  do  Pard,  to  give  the  city  its  full  name,  was 
founded  in  1615.  but  has  reached  its  present  importr 
ance  as  one  of  tne  largest  shipping  ports  of  northern 
Braiil  only  during  the  last  twenty  years.  Not  only 
is  it  the  most  northerly  port  of  any  importance  in 
South  America,  and  as  such  the  nearest  to  the  great 
shipping  centres  of  North  America  and  Europe,  but 
it  is  also  the  great  outlet  for  the  natural  proaucts  of 
the  State  of  Pcurd.  It  has  a  population  of  lOOfiQO, 
an  export  trade  of  about  $25,000,000,  and  an  import 
trade  of  about  $12,000,000  annually.  The  mean 
temperature  is  about  80°  Fahrenheit. 

Among  the  churches  of  this  cathedral  city  is  that 
of  Santa  Maria  de  Nazareth  in  the  pretty  suburb  of 
Nazareth.  The  old  convent  and  chapel  of  the  Car- 
melite Order  have  been  converted  into  a  seminary, 
while  the  old  Jesuit  College  is  now  occupied  by  the 
episcopal  palace  and  another  seminary.  The  city  has 
all  mod^n  improvements,  and  what  are  considered 
the  best  museum  and  botanical  gardens  in  Brazil. 
The  Amparo  Orphan  Asylum  is  ranked  among  the 
leading  charitable  institutions  of  the  State  and  the 
city. 

In  1903  the  Prtslatura  NvJlius  of  Santarem  was 
made  from  the  Diocese  of  Belem;  and  again,  in  1904, 
a  new  delimitation  of  the  same  quasi-episcopal  terri- 
tory took  place.  The  Catholic  population  of  the 
Archdioceee  of  Belem  is  now  about  480,000.  There 
are  about  500  Protestants.  In  this  vast  territory, 
which  befcM^  the  above-mentioned  division  includea 
1,176,100  square  miles,  the  parishes  are  77  in  num- 
ber, with  29  filial  churches.  There  are  47  secular, 
ana  13  religious,  priests,  and  21  Brothers. 

Gerarchia  Cattolica  (Rome.  1907);  Wkrner,  Orbie  Terr. 
Cath,  (Freiburg,  1890);  SoDRk,  The  State  of  Pard  (London. 
1893);  Bureau  op  American  Republics,  Handbook  of  BraxA 
(Wai!ihinj|ton.  1001);  (jIrobsi,  Storia  deUa  ColoniMmzume  £»- 
ropca  al  BraeUe  (Rome,  1906). 

Francisco  J.  Yanks. 

Belfast.    See  Down  and  Connor. 

Belfry.— The  upper  part  of  the  tower  or  steeple 
of  a  church,  for  tne  reception  of  the  bells;  or  a  de- 
tached tower  containing  bells,  as  the  campanile  of 
the  Italians.  The  term  is  sometimes  applied  to  the 
timber  frame  by  which  the  bells  are  supported;  also 
to  the  room  or  loft  in  the  tower  of  a  courch,  from 
which  the  bells  are  rung.  OriginaUv  it  denoted  a 
tower  in  which  sentinels  were  placed  to  rinjc  beV" 


BILOIUM 


395 


BXLOHJM 


and  thus  give  notice  of  the  approach  of  the  enemy, 
or  a  tower  used  in  besieging  a  fortified  place:  it  was 
of  wood  and  movable.  In  England  the  bell-tower 
usually  forms  a  part  of  the  church,  but  it  is  some- 
times detached  from  it,  aa  at  Evesham,  Worcester- 
shire, and  Berkeley,  Gloucestershire;  Chichester 
cathedral,  Sussex,  etc.  At  Pembridge,  in  Hereford- 
shire, there  is  a  detached  belfnr  built  oitirely  of 
wood,  the  frame  in  which  the  bells  are  hung  ansing 
from  the  ground,  with  merely  a  casing  of  boards. 

In  Belgium,  one  of  the  earliest  architectural 
expressions  of  the  newly  acquired  independence  (12th 
century)  was  the  erection  of  a  belfry.  The  right 
of  possessing  a  bell  was  one  of  the  nrst  privile^^ 
in  aQ  old  carters,  not  only  as  a  symbol  of  power, 
but  as  a  means  of  calling  the  community  together. 
The  tower,  too,  in  which  the  belL  was  hung  was  a 
symbol  of  power  in  the  Middle  Ages;  the  first  care  of 
every  enfranchised  community  was  to  erect  a  "  tower 
of  pride"  proportionate  to  its  importance.  The 
tower  was  generally  the  record-office  of  the  city. 
All  these  uses  have  passed  away,  and  most  of  the 
belfries  have  either  fallen  into  neglect  or  been  appro- 
priated to  other  purposes.  Of  those  remaining  the 
oldest  seevQs  to  be  that  of  Toumay,  a  fine  tower, 
though  it  is  a  good  deal  altered  and  its  effect  de- 
stroyed by  modem  additions.  The  belfry  at  Ghent 
was  commenced  in  1183,  but  the  stone-work  was  only 
completed  in  1337.  In  1376  a  wooden  spire  was 
placed  upon  it,  making  the  height  237  feet.    This 

r're  was  recently  taken  down  in  order  to  complete 
tower  according  to  the  original  design,  which, 
like  that  of  most  of  the  unfinished  buildings  of  Bel- 
gium, has  been  carefully  preserved.  When  finished 
It  will  be  about  300  feet  in  height,  and  one  of  the 
finest 'belfries  in  the  country. 

Ferousison,  Hiatorv  of  Architecture,  I,  600,  601;  II,  101; 
Parker,  Olouarj/  of  A.r<^Uecture.  I,  53:  Nicholson,  QtoBaary 
9l  ArdtUecture,  It  35',  Britton.  Dictionary  of  Architecture  and 
Ardutology,  82;  IHctiowtrv  of  Architecture,  Architectural  PxMir- 
tation  Society,  I,  57;  Sturqis,  Dictionary  of  Architecture,  I, 
268,272.  J. 

THOMAS  H.  Pools. 

Belgium. — ^I.  The  Napoleonic  Era. — The  vic- 
tory of  Fleurus,  gained  by  the  French  army  over  the 
Austrian  forces,  26  June,  1794,  gave  to  revolutionary 
France  all  the  territories  which  constitute  Bel^pum  of 
to-day:  the  Austrian  Netherlands,  the  ecclesiastical 
principality  of  Li^e,  the  little  monastic  principiality 
of  Stavelot-Malmray,  and  the  Duchy  of  Bouillon. 
The  French,  who  professed  to  have  entered  the  coun- 
try to  deliver  the  Bel^ans  from  the  yoke  of  tyranny 
and  to  liberate  them,  in  reality  gave  themselves  up  to 
such  piUa^ng  and  extortion  that,  as  a  Brussels  mag- 
istrate said,  they  left  the  inhabitants  nothing  but 
their  eyes  to  weep  with.  After  this,  in  alleged  com- 
pliance with  the  express  wish  of  the  Belgians,  who 
aa  a  matter  of  fact  had  not  been  consulted,  a  decree 
of  the  Convention,  dated  1  October,  1795,  proclaimed 
the  annexation  of  the  Belgian  provinces  to  France. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  Frencn  rule,  which  was  to 
last  twenty  years  (1794-1814),  religious  conditions 
were  not  identical  in  the  annexed  countries.  Re- 
ligion was  deeoly  rooted  in  what  had  formerly  been 
the  Austrian  Netherlands.  They  had  revolted  in 
1789  aeainst  the  reforms  of  Joseph  II,  which  were 
inspired  by  the  spirit  of  sophistry.  Jansenism, 
Febronianism,  and  Josephinism  had  gained  but 
few  partisans  there;  the  University  of  liuvain  was 
a  bulwftfk  of  Catholic  orthodoxy;  even  the  Vonck- 
ist  party,  which  in  1789  had  been  clamouring  for 
pditi(»l  reforms,  showed  great  respect  for  rehgion 
and  had  taken  as  its  motto  Pro  oris  et  focis.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  the  ancient  principalitv  of  Li^e,  which, 
since  the  fourteenth  century  had  shown  the  deepest 
svmpathy  ¥nth  France,  public  sentiment  was  gallo- 
pnile,  revolutionary,  and  even  somewhat  Voltairean* 
the  predominant  desire  was  to  throw  off  the  yoke  ot 


the  priests,  and  the  principality  had  literally  cast  it- 
self mto  the  arms  of  France  through  hatred  of  the 
theocracy.  But  the  French  Government  soon  caused 
these  local  differences  to  be  lost  sight  of  in  the  com- 
mon hatred  of  the  foreign  oppressor. 

The  Directory  began  by  enforcing,  one  after  an- 
other, the  Fr^ich  revolutionary  laws  concerning  mo- 
nastic orders  and  public  worship  in  Belgium.  Re- 
ligious houses,  except  those  devoted  to  teaching  or  to 
the  care  of  the  sick,  were  suppressed;  it  was  forbid- 
den to  wear  an  ecdesiastical  garb;  the  clergy  were 
fOTced  to  publish  a  declaration  recognizing  the  people 
of  France  as  the  sovereign  authority,  and  promismg 
submission  and  obedience  to  the  laws  of  the  Republic;  ^ 
the  oonmiunes  were  forbidden  to  contribute  to  the 
expenses  of  public  worship  and  every  external  83rm- 
bol  of  reliffion  was  prohibited.  The  Belgians  stood 
firm,  and  tne  elections  of  the  fifth  year  havm^  shown 
an  undeniable  reaction  of  public  opinion  against  the 
revolutionary  sphrit,  the  clergy  appealed  to  the  Five 
Hundred  (Cinq  Cents)  to  demand  a  suspension  of  the 
declaration  until  a  papal  decision  should  be  received 
settling  the  question  of  its  licitness.  In  the  mean- 
while, the  priests  who  had  not  made  the  declaration 
continued  to  exercise  their  priestly  functions  in  the 
Belgian  provinces,  and  the  tribunal  of  La  Dyle  ac- 
quitted ttiose  who  were  brought  before  it.  At  this 
juncture,  C^mille  Jordan  made  a  favourable  report  to 
the  Cinq  Cents  on  the  cleric's  request,  and  thus  the 
Belgians  had  the  honour  of  changing  the  current  of 
French  le^£^tion  for  the  better. 

The  coup  d*itat  of  the  fifth  Fructidor,  however, 
carried  out  by  tJie  revolutionary  members  of  the 
Directory,  destroyed  all  hope.  The  victorious  con- 
spirators dismissed  many  Belgians  who  had  been 
elected,  and  the  elections  of  the  sixth  year,  con- 
ducted under  the  violent  pressure  of  republican  dep- 
uties, gave  the  Government  the  wished-for  results. 
Then  persecution  began  again.  The  observance  of 
the  decadi,  or  ihe  last  day  of  the  republican  decade 
(week  of  ten  days),  was  made  obligatoiy  and  the  Sun- 
day rest  was  forbidden;  for  the  second  time,  the 
wearing  of  any  ecclesiastical  garb  was  prohibited;  in 
the  suppression  of  religious  orders  no  exception  was 
made  for  nursing  and  teaching  orders;  seminaries  and 
secular  chapters  were  likewise  abolisned.  The  Uni- 
versity of  Louvain  was  closed  on  the  ground  of  not 
having  ''the  kind  of  public  instruction  conformable 
to  Republican  principles".  As  if  the  "declaration" 
had  not  sufficiently  overtaxed  consciences,  priests 
were  compelled  to  take  an  oath  of  hatred  for  royalty. 
On  the  refusal  of  the  great  majority,  they  were  ban- 
ished en  masse  and  a  decree  issued,  closing  all  churches 
served  by  recalcitrant  priests.  The  officials  of  many 
communes  ignored  this  order,  and  in  more  than  one 
respect,  it  became  a  source  of  trouble.  The  inter- 
dicted priests  continued  to  exercise  their  functions  in 
the  woods,  or  in  private  houses  which  afforded  them 
places  of  retreat;  iii  many  places  the  faithful,  de- 
prived of  the  clergy,  assembled  in  churches  or  in 
barns,  to  odebrate  '' blind  Masses",  as  they  were 
called,  via.  Masses  without  consecration,  or  any  ser- 
vices at  the  altar.  The  French  deputies  daily  de- 
vised new  methods  of  persecution  in  revenge  for  the 
opposition  of  public  opinion,  all  the  more  uncon- 
querable by  reason  of  its  silence  and  its  tranquillity. 

Iliiiigs  cud  not  rest  here.  The  spark  that  started 
the  conflagration  was  the  enforcing  (1798)  in  the 
Bel^an  provinces  of  the  French  conscription  laws  re- 

auiring  uie  enlistment  of  young  men  in  the  armies  of 
tie  Republic.  Rather  than  shed  their  blood  for  mas- 
ters whom  they  hated,  they  rose  in  revolt,  first  in 
Waesland  and  m  Campine,  then  in  Flanders  and  in 
G^man  Luxemburg.  The  Walloon  provinces  took 
part  in  the  movement,  but  with  much  less  energy. 
This  was  "the  peasants'  war'.'  called  in  Luxemburg, 
"the  war  of  the  cudgels"  (Kldppdkrieg).    There  was 


BELGIUM  396  BXLQIUM 

no  lack  of  courage  and  devotion  amonff  the  com-  the  "little  church*'  (la  petite  SglieeY  which,  thou^ 
batants,  and  some  among  them  afforded  admirable  continually  falling  off  in  numbers,  has  preserved  its 
examples  of  heroism.  However,  they  were  poorly  existence,  until  very  recent  times.  Tne  members 
armea,  had  inefficient  commanders,  and  were  totally  have  often  been  erroneously  designated  as  Steven- 
lacking  in  discipline  and  military  organisation;  they  ists.  Stevens  did  not  oppose  the  Concordat.  The 
were  deprived  of  the  support  of  the  nobility  and  of  champion  of  a  rigorous  and  imcompromising  ortho- 
the  middle  class,  who  remained  absolutely  inactive,  doxy,  he  recognized  the  authority  of  the  bishops  of 
and  they  were  abandoned  even  by  the  Austrian  Gov-  the  Concordat,  but  mercilessly  condemned  their 
emment  which  had  every  reason  to  stir  up  a  Belgian  cringing  attitude  towards  the  civil  authorities,  ag^nst 
insiurection.  Cons^uently  they  could  offer  no  senous  whose  religious  policy  he  never  ceased  prot^ting. 
resistance  to  the  French  troops.  They  fell  back  From  the  recesses  of  his  retreat  he  sent  forth  bro- 
every  time  they  met  the  enemy  in  open  field;  those  chures,  training  his  guns  upon  ''Saint  Napoleon", 
who  did  not  die  in  battle  were  later  shot.  whose  feast  day  had  oeen  fixed  by  the  Government 

After  this  rising  had  been  quelled,  the  persecution  as  the  15th  of  August.     He  also  attacked  bitterly  the 

of  the  clergy  was  resumed;  7,500  priests  were  illegally  imperial  catechism  of  1806  already  adopted  by  the 

condemned  to  be  deported.     The  great  majority  es-  greater  part  of  the  French  clergy,  which  contained  a 

caped,  only  four  or  five  hundred  being  arrested.    Of  special  chapter  upon  the  duties  of  the  faithful  toward 

this  number,  the  oldest  and  those  who  wei*e  ill  were  tne  emperor.    This  uninterrupted  )>ropa^anda  struck 

detained  in  Belgium  and  in  France;  about  three  a  responsive  chord  in  the  national  consciousness  and 

hundred  were  sent  to  Rochefort  with  Guiana  as  their  was  doubtless  responsible  for  the  courage  displayed 

ultimate  destination,  and,  in  the  interval,  were  held  by  the  Belgian  episcopacy  in  refusing  to  accept  the 

at  the  lie  de  R^  and  the  He  d'OMron  where  they  Imd  imperial  catechism,  which  was  adopted  only  m  the 

much  to  undergo  from  ill  treatment.     It  was  the  Diocese  of  Mechlin.     Stevens  was  perhaps  the  most 

darkest  hour  during  the  French  domination,  and  was  unbending  adversary  Napoleon  ever  encountered,  and 

terminated  by  the  coup  d^Hat  of  18  Brumaire,  1799,  their  contest  was  extremely  interesting.    Although 

The  new  Government  aid  not  persecute  on  principle,  the  emperor  offered  thirty  tnousand  francs  to  anyone 

but  only  in  so  far  as  it  was  believed  necessary  to  en-  who  would  deliver  Father  Stevens  into  his  hands,  the 

force  the  revolutionary  laws,  to  maintain  the  interests  priest  was  never  seized:  nor  was  he  silenced  as  long  as 

of  the  party  in  power.    A  solution  of  difficulties  was  the  Empire  lasted.     When  Napoleon  fell  (1814)  he 

supposed  to  have  been  discovered  when  the  clergy  came  out  of  his  retreat,  entered  the  jurisdiction  of 

were  required  to  take  merely  an  oath  of  "fidelity  to  the  Bishop  of  Namur,  and  submitted  aU  his  writings 

the  Republic  as  resting  on  the  sovereignty  of  the  to  the  judgment  of  the  Holy  See,  which,  however, 

PjBople  .    The  Belgian  bishops  who  were  refugees  in  never  pronounced  upon  them. 

£n^and  condemned  this  oath  because  the  doctrine  of  The  Belgian  bishops  were  wearied  with  the  exac- 
the  sovereignty  of  the  people  seemed  to  them  hereti-  tions  of  the  Government,  which  went  so  far  as  to  re- 
cal.  They  also  refused  to  sanction  the  promise  of  quire  every  year  special  pastoral  letters  impressing 
fidelity  to  the  Constitution  of  the  seventh  year,  which  upon  the  people  their  mihtary  duty  on*  the  occasion 
the  Grovemment  exacted  of  the  clergy  before  per-  ot  each  call  for  conscripts,  and  they,  as  well  as  the 
mltting  them  to  exercise  the  duties  of  their  ministry,  body  of  £he  people,  had  already  lost  confidence  in 
b^^use  the  Constitution  rested  on  false  bases  ana  Napoleon,  when,  in  1809,  he  made  the  tremendous 
contained  articles  deserving  of  condemnation.  The  mistake  of  suppressing  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope 
l€»ader  of  this  opposition  was  a  priest  named  Corneille  and  of  annexing  the  States  of  the  Church  to  the  Km- 
Stevens  (1747-1828),  who,  appointed  administrator  pire.  From  tlmt  day,  he  was  regarded  by  the  Bel- 
of  the  Diocese  of  Namur  (1799)  by  Cardinal  Frank-  gians  as  a  persecutor.  Count  de  M^rode-Westerloo, 
enberg,  Archbishop  of  Mechlin,  forbade  the  clergy  to  a  Belgian,  and  Prince  Corsini,  an  Italism^  alone  dared 
promise  fidelity  to  the  Constitution,  and  who,  in  a  to  express  pubUcly  in  the  Senate  their  disapproval  of 
series  of  pamphlets  appearing  under  the  pseudonym  this  usurpation,  and  thus  prevented  it  from  receiving 
of  Lemaigre,  continuea  to  advocate  resistance.  Fi-  a  unanimous  ratification.  The  more  anti-religious 
nally,  the  Concordat  of  15  August,  1801,  brought,  if  the  policy  of  the  emperor,. the  more  energetic  became 
not  final  peace,  at  least  a  truce.  At  the  pope's  re-  the  resistance  of  the  Belgians,  and  the  more  spirited 
quest,  the  four  Belgian  bishops  who  Imd  survived  the  the  conduct  of  their  bishops,  who  discarded  the  Ian- 
persecutions  -tendered  their  resignations  and  of  the  guage  of  the  courtier  for  that  of  the  pastor.  While 
nine  episcopal  sees  into  which  Belgium  had  been  di-  the  Bishops  of  Mechlin  and  Li^,  recently  appointed 
vided  since  1559,  five  only  were  retained:  Mechlin  by  the  emperor,  denounced  their  own  clergy,  at  Ghent, 
Toumai,  Ghent,  Namur,  and  Li^.  The  bishoprics  Toumai.  and  Namur,  Bishops  de  Broglie,  Him,  and 
of  Antwerp,  Bruges,  Ypres,  and  Ruremonde  were  sup-  Pisani  de  la  Gaude,  respectively  gave  examples  of 
pressed.  This  organization  of  1801  is  still  effective  noble  firmness.  Named  Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of 
with  this  difference,  however,  that  the  See  of  Bruges  Honour,  Bishop  de  Broglie  declined  on  the  plea  of 
was  re-established  in  1834,  and  that  of  Ruremonde  being  unable  in  conscience  to  take  the  oath  to  main- 
in  1840.  tain  the  territori^  inte^ty  of  the  Empire  which 

Great  was  the  rejoicing  in  the  Belgian  provinces  thenceforth  would  comprise  the  States  of  tne  CThurch. 
when, on  Pentecost  day,  1802  (6  June), Catholic  wor-  "Your  conscience  is  a  tool",  said  the  Emperor,  turn- 
ship  was  solemnly  re-«stablished  throughout  the  coun-  ing  his  back.  At  the  famous  council  of  1811,  con- 
tiy.  For  some  years,  the  name  of  Bonaparte,  the  voked  by  Napoleon  without  the  authorization  of  the 
First  Consul,  was  most  popular,  and  it  even  seemed  imprisoned  pope,  the  attitude  of  de  Broglie  and  of 
as  if  the  "new  Cyrus",  by  the  ^reat  boon  which  Him  was  no  less  courageous;  they,  together  with 
he  had  granted  Belgium,  had  gained  the  support  the  Bishop  of  Troyes,  succeeded  in  inducing  the  coun- 
of  the  Belgians  for  a  foreign  government.  The  cil  to  defeat  the  imperial  decree  limiting  the  pope's 
bishops  appointed  by  Napoleon  fostered  in  the  right  of  institution.  The  very  next  day,  the  council 
people  sentiments  of  personal  devotion  to  him,  and  to  was  dissolved  by  imperial  command,  and  the  three 
such  an  extent  that  to-day  they  cannot  be  acquitted  bishops  were  arrested  and  thrown  into  prison,  not 
of  the  charge  of  exceeding  all  bounds  in  their  adula-  to  be  released  until  they  had  been  forcea  to  tender 
tion  and  servility.  There  were,  it  is  true,  protests  their  resignations.  Their  successors  appointed  by 
against  the  new  regime.  The  "non-communicants".  Napoleon  were  not  recognized  in  their  respective  dio- 
as  they  were  styled,  refused  to  recognize  the  Con-  ceses,  in  which  the  clergy  and  the  faithful  were  a  unit 
oordat,  contending  that  it  had  been  forced  upon  the  in  their  resistance.  More  and  more  incensed,  the  em- 
p(^,  and  they  formed  a  schismatical  group,  termed  peror  fell  to  striking  blindly;  numbera  of  priests  were 


BELOnXM                                397  BELGIUM 

# 

unprisoned,  and  all  the  seminarists  of  Ghent  were  that  had  ou^mwn  them;  nor  did  they  grasp  the  fact 

diifted  into  the  army  and  dispatched  to  Wesel  on  that  as  the  Treaty  of  London  established  freedom  of 

the  Rhine,  where  forty-nine  of  them  succumbed  to  worship  in  the  Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  they  were 

contagious  diseases  (1813).     Such  was  the  end  of  a  imder  an  international  obligation  which  could  not  be 

r^me  which  had  been  acclaimed  by  the  Belgians  put  aside.    They  calmly  demanded,  first  of  the  Allied 

with  universal  joy.    The  fall  of  Napoleon  was  greeted  Sovereigns,  then  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  not  only 

with  no  less  satisfaction,  and  many  JBelgian  volunteers  the  restoration  of  the  former  rights  of  the  Church,  but 

took  up  arms  against  him  in  the  campaigns  of  1814  the  re-establishment  of  their  old  constitution  in  its 

and  1815.     In  tnis  nation  of  loyid  Catholics,  it  was  entirety.    Their    disappointment    was    ereat    when 

Napoleon's  blundering  religious  policy  which  alienated  their  sovereign,  obeying  the  provisions  of  the  Treaty 

his  subjects.  of  London,  submitted  for  their  acceptance  the  "Fun- 

II.  The  Kingdom  op  the  Netherlands  (1814-  damental  Law  of  Holland '^  with  some  modifications. 

30). — Soon  aftei*  the  victory  of  the  Allied  Powers,  who  Leaving  out  of  the  question  the  initial  injustice  in 

became  masters  of  Belgium,  thev  established  there  a  granting  each  countrv  the  same  numerical  represen- 

provisional  goveiflment  under  the  Duke  of  Beaufort  tation  in  the  States-General,  despite  the  fact  toat  the 

(llJune,  1814).   The  new  governing  powers  promptly  population  of  Belgium  was  almost  twice  that  of  Hol- 

proclaimed  to  the  Belgians  that,  m  conformity  with  land,  it  entirely  overthrew  the  old  order  of  thin^, 

the  intentions  of  the  Allied  Powers,  "they  would  suppressed  the  clergy  as  an  order,  abolished  the pnv- 

maintain  inviolable  the  spiritual  and  the  civil  au-  il^es  of  the  Catholic  Church,  and  guaranteed  the 

thority  in  their  respective  spheres,  as  determined  by  enjoyment  of  the  same  civil  and  poCtical  rights  to 

the  canonical  laws  of  the  Church  and  by  the  old  con-  every  subject  of  the  king,  and  equal  protection  to 

fititutional  laws  of  the  country".    These  declarfitions  every  religious  creed.    The  Belgian  bishops  promptly 

roused  hopes  which,  however,  were  destined  to  be  di&-  made  respectful  appeals  to  the  king.     William  having 

appointed;  for  by  the  secret  treaty  of  Chaumont  disregarded  these,  they  issued  a  "  Pastoral  Instruc- 

(1  March,  1814),  confirmed  by  Article  6  of  the  Treaty  tion'°  for  the  use  of  the  prominent  Belgians  sum- 

of  Paris  (30  May,  1814),  it  had  even  then  been  decided  moned  to  present  their  views  on  the  revised  Funda- 

that  Holland  should  receive  an  addition  of  territory,  mental  Law.    This  condemned  the  Law  as  contrary  to 

and  that  this  addition  should  be  Belgium.    The  se-  religion  and  forbade  its  acceptance.     The  high-handed 

cret  Treaty  of  London  (23  June,  1814)  furthermore  course  taken  by  the  Government  to  hinder  the  ef- 

provided  that  the  union  of  the  two  countries  was  to  fectiveness  of  these  measures  proved  unavailing;  of  the 

be  internal  and  thorough,  so  that  they  "would  form  1,603  prominent  Belgians  comiulted,  280  did  not  vote, 

one  and  the  same  State  governed  by  the  constitu-  796  voted  against  the  Fundamental  Law,  and  only 

tion  already  established  in  Holland,  which  would  be  527  declared  themselves  in  favour  of  it.    The  Funda- 

modified  by  mdtual   consent  to  accord  with  new  mental  Law  was  therefore  rejected  by  the  nation;  for, 

conditions*  .    The  new  State  took  the  name  of  the  adding  to  the  527  favourable  votes  the  110  unanimous 

Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  and  was  placed  under  votes  of  the  States  of  Holland,  there  was  a  total  of 

the  sovereignty  of  William  I  of  Oranjge-Nassau.  only  637  votes.     Nevertheless,  the  king  declared  the 

The  object  of  the  Powers  in  creating  the  Kingdom  Fundamental  Law  adopted,  because,  according  to  him, 
of  ^he  Netheriands  was  to  give  France  on  her  north-  those  who  did  not  vote  were  to  be  regarded  as  favour- 
em  frontier  a  neighbour  strong  enoiigh  to  serve  as  ing  it,  while  of  the  796  who  opposed  it,  126  did  so 
a  barrier  against  her^  and  with  this  aim  in  view  they  omy  because  they  misunderstooa  its  meaning.  Ow- 
disposed  of  the  Belgian  provinces  without  consulting  ing  to  this  "Dutch  arithmetic "^  as  King  William's 
them.  The  State  resultmg  from  this  union  seemed  computations  were  terj;ned,  Belgium  found  itself  im- 
to  oflFer  numerous  guarantees  of  prosperity  from  the  der  a  constitution  which  it  had  legally  repudiated,  a 
standpoint  of  economics.  Unfortunately,  however,  constitution  too  which  proved  to  the  Kingdom  of  the 
the  two  peoples,  after  being  separated  for  more  than  Netherlands  a  heavy  burden  during  its  brief,  stormy 
two  centun^  had   conflicting  temperaments;   the  existence. 

Dutch  were  CJalvinists,  the  Belgians  Catholics,  and  The  adoption  of  the  Fimdamental  Law,  by  the  king's 
the  former,  although  greatly  in  the  minority,  2,000,000  decision,  aid  not  end  the  conflict  between  the  civil 
as  a^nst  3.500,000  Belgians,  expected  to  rule  the  authority  and  the  Belgian  conscience.  Besieged  witn 
Belgians  ana  to  treat  them  as  subjects.  These  dif-  questions  as  to  whether  it  was  permissible  to  take  the 
ferences  could  have  been  lessened  by  a  sovereign  who  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  Fundamental  Law,  the  bishops 
would  take  the  duty  on  himself;  they  were,  however,  published  their  "Doctrinal  Decision",  which  con- 
aggravated  by  the  policy  adopted  by  William  I.  demned  it  (1815).  In  consequence,  many  Catholics 
Arbitrary,  narrow-mmdea,  obstinate,  and  moreover  in  obedience  to  their  reli^ous  superiors,  refused  to 
an  intolerant  Calvinist,  he  surroundea  himself  almost  take  the  oath,  resigned  their  offices  and  tneir  seats  in 
exclusively  with  Dutchmen,  who  were  totally  ig-  the  legislature.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Prince  de 
norant  of  Catholic  matters  and  of  the  Belgian  char-  M^n,  former  Prince-Bishop  of   Lidge,  took  the  re* 


to  the  needs  of  his  kingdom,  and  thus  he  was  un-  for  his  side  in  his  stru^le  with  the  Belgian  episcopacy, 

equal  to  his  task  from  the  very  outset.     While  still  by  practically  demanffiig  of  it  Bulls  of  canonical  in ves- 

Prince  of  Fulda,  he  had  persecuted  his  Catholic  sub-  titure  for  his  candidate  as  well  as  a  formal  censure  of 

jects  until  the  Diet  was  forced  to  check  him.     As  the  "Doctrinal  Decision".    The  pope  replied  gentlv 

King  of  the  Netherlands,  he  showed  that  he  had  but  firmly,  condemning  the  words  of  the  oath  of  al- 

leamed  nothing  by  experience,  and  imagined  that  he  legiance  to  the  Fundamental  Law,  sending  a  Brief  of 

could  effect  the  fusion  of  the  two  peoples  bv  trans-  commendation  to  the  bishops,  and  refusing  investi- 

forming  Bel»um  into  Holland  as  far  as  possible.  ture  to  the  Prince  de  M^n  until  he  should  have 

Oh  Uie  other  hand,  the  Belgians,  passionately  at-  publicly  declared  that  his  oath  had  not  boimd  him  to 

tached  to  their  national  traditions,  and  even  more  anything  "contrary  to  the  dogmas  and  laws  of  the 

to  their  religious  unity,  did  not  take  sufficiently  into  Catholic  Church,  and  that  in  swearing  to  protect  all 

account  the  profound  cnanges  which  had  taken  place  religious  communions,  he  understood  this  protection 

in  the  conditions  of  the  two  peoples.     Forgetful  of  the  onlv  in  its  civil  sense".    The  condescension  of  the 

French  Revolution  and  the  consequent  upheaval  of  Holy  See  in  this  matter,  instead  of  winning  the  king 

Western  Europe  they  were  convinced  that  past  con-  to  moderation,  seemed  to  make  him  bolder.     Reviv- 

ditions  could  be  restored  even  in  the  midst  of  a  society  ing  the  obsolete  claims  of  the  old  Galilean  and  Jo- 


ULQIUM  398  BXIiQIUM 

sephinist  eovemments,  and  determined  to  overcome    establishing  the  General  Seminars,  a  State  institution 
the  opposition  of  the  Bishop  of  Ghent,  he  had  the    was  erected  under  the  name  of  Philosophical  College 


papal  Bulls  without  approbation.  The  Brussels  grand  siminaire. 
Court  of  Assizes  condemned  the  bishop  to  be  de-  On  this  occasion,  the  Archbishop  of  Mechlin,  whose 
ported  for  contumacy  (1817),  and  the  Government,  servility  toward  the  king  had  till  then  known  no 
carrying  the  sentence  even  farther,  had  the  bishop's  limit,  did  not  hesitate  to  make  some  respectful  re- 
name written  on  the  pillory,  between  two  profes-  monstrances  to  the  Government,  declaring  that  he 
sional  thieves  sentenced  to  be  pilloried  and  branded,  could  not  in  conscience  accept  these  decrees.  Gou- 
The  clergy  of  the  Diocese  of  Ghent  who  remained  bau,  in  answering,  repeated  m  substance  Napoleon's 
faithful  to  the  bishop  were  also  persecuted  by  the  gibe  to  the  Prince  de  Broglie,  "  Your  conscience  will 
State.  The  conflict  would  have  continued  indefi-  be  regarded  as  a  mere  pretext  and  for  good  reasons", 
nitely  had  not  the  prelate  died  in  exile,  in  1821,  The  other  bishops,  however,  the  capitular  vicars  of 
after  having  twice  confessed  the  Faith  in  the  face  vacant  sees,  and  the  rest  of  the  clergy,  unanimously 
of  persecution.  After  his  death,  the  Government  took  sides  with  the  Archbishop  of  Mecmin  and  joined 
conceded  that  the  oath  should  be  binding  only  from  in  his  protest.  The  Catholic  Belgian  deputies  to  the 
the  civil  point  of  view,  which  set  at  rest  the  Catho-  Stated-General  protested;  the  H^  See  protested  in 
lie  conscience  and  enaed  the  difficulties  which  had  its  turn.  Nothing  availed;  the  Government  closed 
beset  the  first  six  years  of  the  Kingdom  of  the  the  free  coU^es  one  after  another,  thereby  ruining 
Netherlands.  a  flourishing  educational  system  in  which  Be^ian 

If  there  had  been  any  real  desire  on  the  part  of  families  had  absolute  confidence;  the  Philosophical 

King  William  to  r^pect  the  conscience  of  Catholics,  College  was  opened  with  great  pomp,  with  a  corps  of 

who  constituted  the  greater  part  of  the  nation,  he  instructors  little  thought  of,  either  from  a  scientific 

would  now  have  inaugurated  a  policy,  which  would  or  a  moral  point    of    view;   students    were    drawn 

have  set  aside  religious  differences,  and  started  the  thither  by  bursaries  or  scholarships,  and  by  exemp- 

kingdom  along  lines  leading  to  the  frank  and  cordial  tion  from  military  service.    The  Govermnent  be- 

f uslon  of  the  two  peoples.    This  was  not  done.    On  the  coming  more  radical  than  ever,  then  undertook  to 

contrary,  in  his  obstinate  determination  to  treat  the  create  a  schism  in  the  Belgian  Church  by  elaborating 

sovereign   pontiff  as  an  outsider,  and  to  brine  the  a  plan,  whereby  the  authority  of  the  Holy  See  woula 

Catholic  Church  under  the  omnipotence  of  the  State,  be  abolished  and  the  bishops  placed  inmiediately  un- 

William  in  his  blind  fury  continued  his  policy  of  op-  der  the  Government. 

pression.     Before  the  above-mentioned  conflict,  the        But  all  these  measures  only  increased  the  discon- 

kin^  had  created  a  State  commission  for  Catnolic  tent  of  the   Belgians  and  their  passive  resistance, 

affairs  and  had  declared  in  the  decree  that  "no  church  To  get  the  mastery,  the  Government  conceived  the 

ordinance  coming  from  a  foreign  authority — [i.  e.  the  idea  of   having  recourse  a  second  time  to  the  sov- 

pope]  could  be  published  without  the  approval  of  the  ereign  pontiff,  and  broaching  again  the  project  of  a 

Government".    This  was  equivalent  to  re-establish*  Concordat,  which  had  failed  in  1823,  on  account  of 

ing  in  the  full  dawn  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  the  king's  inadmissible  claims.    The  king  counted, 

placet  of  the  despK)tic  governments  of  the  former  re-  on  the  one  hand,  on  wresting  as  many  concessions  as 

gime.     Going  farther,  he  instructed  this  commission  possible  from  the  Holy  See,  and  on  the  other,  on 

"to  be  on  their  guard  in  maintaining  the  liberties  of  gaining  popularity  among  the  Belgians  through  the 

the  Belgian  Church",  an  ex<A^ vacant  formula  bor-  arrangement  he  would  make  with  the  pope.-   These 

rowed  from  defunct  GaUicanism,  implying  that  the  calcuGitions  failed,  and  once  more  the  superiority  of 

commission  should  take  care  to  withdraw  tne  Belgian  papal  diplomacy  was  made  manifest  in  tne  difficult 

Church  from  the  legitimate  authority  of  the  pope,  negotiations  which  finally  resulted  in  the  Concordat 

The  men  he  had  chosen  to  help  him  pushed  their  of  1827.    The  Philosophical  College  ceased  to  be  ob- 

distrust  and  hatred  of  the  Catholic  hierarchy  farther  ligatory  for  clerics  and  became  a  matter  of  choice; 

than  he  did.     Baron  Goubau,  the  head  of  the  board  of  in  place  of  having  the  right  of  designating  the  bishops. 

Catholic  worship,  and  his  superior,  Van  Maanen  the  the  king  was  obfiged  to  content  himself  with  that  of 

minister  of  justice,  by  a  system  of  petty  persecu-  vetoing  the  choice  made  by  the  Chapters,     The  Con- 

tions  soon  made  theu:  names  the  most  hated  in  Bel-  cordat,  which  filled  the  Catholics  with  joy,  excited 

gium,  and  largely  increased  the  unpopularity  of  the  the  ire  of  the  Calvinists  and  the  Liberals,  and  the 

Government.  Government  tried  hard  to  quiet  the  latter  by  showing 

In  1821  the  Government  began  to  be  chiefly  oc-  the  worst  possible  will  in  the  application  of  the  treaty 

cupied  with  the  suppression  of  liberty  in  the  matter  which  it  had  just  concluded  with  the  Vatican.    The 

of  education.     Since  the  foundation,  in  1817,  of  the  Philosophical  College  was  not  declared  optional  until 

three  State  universities,  Li^ge,  Ghent,  and  Louvain,  20  June,  1829:  vacant  episcopal  sees  were  provided 

higher  education  had  been  entirely  imder  the  control  with  titulars  elected  according  to  the  conditions  laid 

of  the  State,  which  now  assumed  control  of  middle  down  in,  the  Concordat,  but  a  royal  decree  rendered 

inferior  education  (20  May,  1821)  by  a  ministerial  or-  the  recruiting  of  the  clergy  almost  impossible  save 

dinance  which  allowed  no  free  school  to  exist  without  from  the  ranks  of  the  old  pupils  of  the  Philosophical 

the  express  consent  of  the  Government.     Lastly,  a  College.    The  Catholic  opposition,  headed  by  Bishop 

decree  of  14  June,  1825.  suppressed  free  middle  su-  Van  Bommel,  the  new  Bishop  of  Lidge,  was  so  vig- 

perior  instruction   by  aetermining  that  no  college  orous,  and  political  complications  so  grave,  that  t& 

could  exist  without  being  expressfy  authorized,  and  king  at  last  consented  to  permit  the  bishops  to  re- 

that  no  one  could  teach  the  children  of  more  than  one  organize  their  seminaries  as  they  wished  (20  October, 

family  without  an  official  diploma.    A  second  decree  18z9).    Then,  as  the  crisis  became  more  serious,  he 

of  the  same  date  declared  anyone  who  had  made  his  went  farther,  and  on  9  June,  1830,  entirely  suppressed 

studies  abroad  ineligible  for  any  public  office  in  the  the  Philosophical  College,  which  had  been  deserted 

kingdom.    The  State  having  monopolized  all  lay  ed-  from  the  time  attendance  had  become  optionaL    Gn 

ucation,   there  still   remained   the   training  of  the  27  May  of  the  same  year,  the  king  even  revoked  his 

clergy,  which  by  the  general  canons  of  the  Church,  decrees  regarding  freedom  in  education;  he  thanked 

and  those  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  in  particular,  be-  Goubau  and  committed  to  Catholic  zeal  the  direction 

longed  exclusively  to  the  bishops.     By  a  third  decree,  of  matters  concerning  Catholic  worship,  and  would 

14  June,  1825,  said  to  be  a  revival  of  that  of  Joseph  II,  have  left  no  ground  for  grievance  on  the  part  of 


BELGIUM  399  BELGIUM 

Catholics  had  he  not,  at  the  last  moment,  seen  fit,  that  the  conduct  of  the  petitioners  wajs  infamous 

in  the  negotiations  with  the  Holy  See,  to  demand  the  (1829). 

right  of  approving  appointments  to  canonries.     But        This  false  step  was  his  undoing.     In  the  face  of  his 

aff  the  king's  concessions,  which  were  really  extorted  refusal  to  initiate  any  reforms,  the  country  became 

from  him  by  the  force  of  circumstances,  and  despite  incensed,  and  the  direction  of  the  national  movement 

his  dogged  reluctance,  came  too  late,  and  the  nego-  passed  from  the  hands  of  the  peaceful  Catholics  into 

tiations  in  regard  to  the  question  of  canons  were  still  those  of  the  impatient  Liberals.     The  resistance  soon 

in  progress  wnen  the  Belgian  Revolution  broke  out.  took  on  a  revolutionary  character.     The  ecclesiasti- 

As  to  the  causes  of  an  event  so  decisive  for  the  cal  authorities  had  foreseen  this,  and  had  for  a  long 
future  of  the  Belgian  people,  it  is  highly  improbable  time  opposed  both  the  "Union",  and  the  petitions 
that  if   King  William  had  given  them  grounds  for  which  were  its  first  manifestation.     The  Bishops  of 
complaint  only  in  religious  matters,  the  public  dis-  Ghent  and  Lidge  had  come  forward  to  remind  the  • 
content  would  have  culminated  in  a  revolution.     The  faithful  of  their  duties  to  the  sovereign;  the  Arch- 
Catholics,  faithful  to  the  teachings  of  the  Church  and  bishop  of  Mechlin  had  assured  the  Government  of  the 
to  the  counsels  of  their  pastors,  had  no  wish  to  exceed  neutrality  of  the  clergy;  the  nuncio  had  shown  his 
what  was  la^^ul  and  knew  that  they  should  confine  disapproval  of  the  "Union'',  and  the  Cardinal-Secre- 
themselves  to  peaceful  protests.     But  the  Govern-  tary  of  State  had  sti^atized  it  as  monstrous.     But 
ment  had  injured  many  other  interests  to  which  a  the  religious  authorities  soon  found  themselves  pow- 
great  number  were  more  sensitive  than  they  were  to  erless  to  control  the  movement.    The  Catholics,  imi- 
the  oppression  of  the  Catholic  Church,  at  which  they  tating  the  Liberals,  had  recourse  to  violent  language; 
would  have  been  wholly  indifferent  iif,  indeed,  they  their  most  important  periodical  refused  to  print  tne 
would  not  have  rejoiced.    It  will  suffice  to  recall  the  conciliatory  letter  of  tne  Bishop  of  Li^ge,  which  one 
principal  grievances.     Although   Holland's  popula-  of  the  Liberal  leaders  styled  an  episcopal-ministerial 
tion  was  less  than  Belgium  by  almost  half,  each  nation  document;  the  lower  clergy,  in  turn,  allowed  itself  to 
was  allowed  the  same  number  of  deputies  in  the  be  drawn  into  the  current;  the  Government,  wilfully 
Stat^-General.     Acquaintance  with  the  Dutch  Ian-  blind,  continued  wantonly,  in  its  imprudence,  to  pile 
guage  was  at  once  made  obligatory  for  all  officials,  up  tne  materials  for  a  great  conflsun'ation;  at  last. 
The  greater  number  of  institutions  of  the  central  nothing  was  lacking    but  a  fuse.    This  came  from 
Government   were  located  in  Holland,  and  the  ma-  France.    The  revolution  of  July,  1830,  lasting  from 
jority  of  the  offices  were  reserved  for  the  Dutch,  the  27th  to   the  29th,  overthrew  the  government 
Taxes  on  com  and  on  slaughtering  weighed  most  of  Charles  X;  on  25  August,  of  the  same  year,  a  riot 
heavily  on  the  southern  provinces.     The  press  was  broke  out  in,  Brussels  and  brought  on  the  revolution 
under  the  arbitrary  control  of  the  Government  and  which  culminated  in  the  conflicts  between  (24-26  Sep- 
the  courts,  and  they  vigorously  prohibited  any  criti-  tember)  the  Dutch  troops  and  the  people  of  Brussels 
cism  of  the  Government  and  its  deputies.    The  Gov-  assisted  by  re-enforcements  of  volunteers  from  the 
eminent  stubbornly  opposed  the  introduction  of  the  provinces.    The  whole  country  rose  up;  at  the?  end  of 
jury  sjrstem,  the  verdicts  of  which,  inspired  by  a  saner  some  weeks  the  Dutch  army  nad  evacuated  the  soil 
appreciation   of  public   feeling,   would   often   have  of  the  southern  provinces,  and  Belgium  was  free. 
c»lmed  opinion  instead  of  inflaming  it.     Lastly,  as        III.  Independent  Belgium  (1830-1905). — As  has 
if  wishing  to  fill  the  measure  of  its   blunders,  the  been  shown,  not  only  was  the  revolution  the  work 
Government  shamelessly  hired  an  infamous  forger  of  two  parties  but  the  chief  r6le  in  it  had  been  played 
condemned  by  the  French  tribunals,  a  certain  Libri-  by  the  Liberals,  and  for  a  long  time,  althougn  a 
Bagnano,    whose   journal,    the    "National",    never  minority  in  the  nation,  their  ranks  supplied  the  prin- 
ceased  insulting  and  taimting  eveiy  Belgian  who  cipal  leaders  in  national  life.     The  Catnolics  dia  not 
had  the  misfortune  of  incurring  the  displeasure  of  the  close  their  eyes  to  this  state  of  things.     Sincerely  at- 
Govemment.    There  came  a  time  when  the  Liberals,  tached  to  the  Union  of  1828,  they  wanted  a  unionist 
who,  as  late  as  1825,  had  applauded  the  Government  policy  without  laying  too  much  stress  on  party  names, 
in  its  persecution  of  the  Church,  found  themselves  The  provisional  government  which  assumed  the  di- 
attacked  in  their  turn,  and  began  to  protest  with  rection  of  affairs  after  the  revolution  had  but  one' 
more  violence  than  the  Catholics  had  ever  done.  Catholic  among  its  ten  members,  and  had  as  head 

Then  the  inevitable  happened.  Equally  op-  and  inspiration,  Charles  Rogier,  who,  in  September, 
premed,  the  two  parties  for^t  their  differences,  and  1830,  had  come,  at  the  head  of  the  Lidge  volunteers, 
joined  forces.  The  fiery  anti-clerical  Louis  de  Potter,  to  lend  a  strong  helping  hand  to  the  combatants  in 
author  of  various  historical  works  extremely  irre-  Brussels.  The  constituent  Congress,  convoked  by 
ligious  in  tone,  was  one  of  the  first  to  advocate,  from  the  provisional  government,  was  in  great  majority 
the  prison  in  which  he  was  confined  for  some  violation  composed  of  Catholics;  partisans  of  fiberty  "m  all 
of  laws  concerning  the  press,  the  union  of  the  Catho-  and  for  all",  in  conformity  with  the  teachings  of 
lies  and  the  Liberals.  This  union  was  made  the  more  Lamennais.  The  Liberal  minority  was  spUt  into  two 
easy  because  the  greater  part  of  the  Catholics,  imder  groups;  the  stronger  professed  the  same  ideas  of 
the  influence  of  the  teacnings  of  Lamennais  and  the  fiberty  as  the  Catnolics;  the  other  was  made  up  of 
pressure  of  events,  had  abandoned  their  stand  of  a  small  number  of  sectarians  and  of  State  idolaters 
1815  and  had  rallied  to  the  doctrine  of  "liberty  in  all  who  had  dreams  of  bringing  the  Catholic  Church  into 
and  for  all".  Once  effected,  the  imion  of  Catholics  subjection  to  the  civil  power.  The  leaders  of  the 
and  LibercJs  soon  bore  fruit.  Their  first  step,  pro-  Catholic  group  were  Count  F^lix  de  M^rode,  a  member 
posed  by  the  Catholics  who  wished  to  employ  lawful  of  the  provisionalgovemment,  and  Baron  de  Gerlache, 
means  only,  was  the  presentation  of  petitions  by  President  of  the  (ingress;  the  most  prominent  among 
every  class  of  society  in  turn.  Hundreds  of  petitions  the  Liberals  were  Charles  Rogier,  Joseph  Lebeau, 
pilea  up  in  the  offices  of  the  States-General,  demand-  Paul  Devaux,  J.  B.  Nothomb,  and  Sylvan  Van  de 
ing  liberty  of  education,  freedom  of  the  press^  and  Weyer;  the  CTOup  of  sectarians  followed  the  orders 
the  righting  of  other  wrongs.  While  these  petitions  of  Eugene  Defacqz.  The  O)n8titution  which  re- 
were  being  circulated  the  perfect  order  that  was  suited  from  the  deliberations  of  the  Congress  reflected 
maintainea  deceived  the  king.  Gn  a  tour  which  the  dispositions  of  the  great  majority  of  the  assembly 
he  made  through  the  southern  provinces,  to  convince  and  showed  at  the  same  time  a  reaction  against  the 
himself  personally  as  to  the  state  of  the  public  mind,  tyrannical  regime  of  King  William.  It  proclaimed 
he  received  such  demonstrations  of  loyalty  that  he  the  absolute  freedom  of  worship  and  of  the  press, 
persuaded  himself  that  the  petitioning  was  a  factitious  which  the  Liberals  put  first,  and  also  freedom  of  ed- 
moveraent,  and  went  so  far  as  to  aeclare,  at  Lidge,  ucation  and  association,  two  things  especially  dear 


BELaiUM 


400 


BILQIUM 


to  the  Catholics;  concessions  were  even  made  to  the 
prejudices  of  some,  by  rendering  obligatory  the  pri- 
ority of  civil  marriage  over  the  religious  ceremony  and 
commanding  that  no  one  should  be  forced  to  obJserve 
the  religious  holidays  of  any  denomination.  The 
Congress  showed  the  same  broad-mindedness  in  the 
choice  of  a  sovereign.  The  first  selection  fell  on 
the  Duke  de  Nemours,  son  of  Louis  Philippe,  but  the 
French  king,  fearing  the  jealousy  of  the  EuropefiLn 
powers,  dared  not  accept  the  throne  for  his  son. 
Then,  after  having  given  the  regency  for  some  months 
to  Baron  Surlet  de  Chokier,  the  Congress  declared  in 
favour  of  Prince  Ijcopold  de  Saxe-Coburg  Gotha^ 
widower  of  the  Princess  Charlotte,  heir  presumptive 
to  the  Crown  of  England.  Though  a  Protestant 
prince,  Leopold  I  (1831-65)  showed  himself  worthy 
of  the  confidence  of  a  Catholic  people;  during  his  en- 
tire reign  he  maintained  an  even  balance  between  the 
two  parties,  and  never  lost  his  solicitude  for  the  moral 
and  religious  interests  of  the  nation.  Owing  largely 
to  Leopold's  wise  policy,  Belgium  successfully  in- 
augurated free  institutions,  and  showed  the  world  that 
a  Catholic  people  ia  capable  of  progress  in  every  field. 

During  tne  early  years  of  tne  new  kingdom  both 
sides  remained  faithful  to  the  union  of  1828,  the  ad- 
ministration bein£  divided  between  the  Cathohcs  and 
Liberals.  The  dominant  thought  was  to  defend 
affainst  Holland  the  patrimony  of  independence  and 
of  liberty  won  by  the  revolution,  patriotism  inspiring 
unanimous  opposition  to  the  foreigner.  The  ten- 
dency towards  mutual  conciliation  was  evident  in 
the  organic  laws  perfected  during  these  early  years, 
especidly  in  that  of  1842  on  primary  education  which 
was  passed  unanimously  by  the  Chamber,  save  for 
three  blank  votes,  and  received  the  unanimous  vote 
of  the  senate.  This  law,  the  work  of  J.  B.  Nothomb, 
the  minister,  made  religious  teaching  oblijgatory,  but 
dispensed  dissidents  from  attendance.  Kin^  Leopold 
expressed  his  gratification  on  signing  it.  For  thurty- 
seven  years  this  remained  the  fundamental  charter 
of  public  education.  At  this  time,  everyone  of  what- 
ever party  was  convinced  of  the  necessity  of  religion 
in  the  education  of  the  p>eople.  The  clergy  readily 
rallied  to  the  support  of  the  bill  and  even  suffered  a 
Kreat  number  of  the  2,284  private  schools  which  they 
had  opened  to  be  closed  tnat  they  might  co-operate 
in  the  establishment  of  the  public  schools.     " 

The  law  of  1842  was,  in  a  way,  the  last  product  of 
Unionist  principles.  Since  the  treaty  of  1839  had 
definitely  regulated  Belgium's  position  in  regard  to 
Holland,  the  fear  of  an  outside  enemy  had  been  re- 
moved, and  the  Liberal  party  was  convinced  that 
there  was  no  longer  anything  to  hinder  its  political 
doctrines  from  prevailing  in  the  national  government. 
This  attitude  was  partly  justified  by  tne  state  of 
affairs.  The  Cathohcs  were  weak,  without  organiza- 
tion, without  a  press,  without  consciousness  of  their 
own  strength ;  they  had  no  relish  for  partisan  contests, 
and  they  counted  on  Unionism  to  maintain  public  life 
along  the  fines  of  1830.  In  contrast  to  the  Catholic 
masses  who  lacked  cohesion,  and  consciousness  of 
their  strength,  the  Liberals  formed  a  young,  spirited, 
united  party,  gaining  recruits  from  the  bourgeoisie 
and  the  learned  classes  alike,  commanding  mucn  sym- 
pathetic support  from  official  circles,  in  possession 
of  a  press  with  twenty  times  the  influence  of  the 
Catholic  press,  in  a  word,  master  of  the  Belgian  Gov- 
ernment since  1830.  Paul  Devaux,  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  men  of  this  party  and  one  of  the  orgar 
nizers  of  the  Union  in  1828.  became  the  apostle  of 
Liberalism  in  its  later  development,  which  implied 
the  abolition  of  the  Union  and  the  victory  of  a  policy 
exclusively  Liberal  in  character.  The  articles  which, 
beginning  with  1839,  he  published  in  the  ''National 
Review",  founded  by  him,  exerted  an  enormous  in- 
fluence upon  his  party  and  even  gradually  won  over 
to  his  ideas  a  large  number  of  moderate  Liberals. 


While  the  Union  of  1828  was  being  dissolved 'and 
some  of  its  promoters  were  seeking  to  give  a  partisan 
predominance  to  mixed  ministries,  tne  dissenters, 
who  cherished  an  implacable  hatred  for  the  Catholic 
Church,  wished  to  profit  by  the  new  turn  of  affaire 
in  Liberal  ranks  to  avenge  the  defeat  they  had  met 
with  at  the  hands  of  the  constituent  Congress.  The 
Masonic  lodges  entered  on  the  scene  with  the  avowed 
intention  of  forming  the  "conscience"  of  the  Liberal 

garty  and  of  outlimng  its  programme.  They  estab- 
shed  a  large  society  called  "The  Alliance  ,  which 
soon  numbered  1,000  members,  and  which  was  to 
serve  as  their  agent  and  go-between  with  that  part  of 
the  people  in  wnich  Freemasonry  awakened  distrust- 
fulness.  .  In  1846,  the  Alliance  called  together  a  Lib- 
eral Congress,  presided  over  Iw  Eugene  Defacqz,  the 
dissenter  of  1830,  now  Grand  Master  of  Belgian  Free- 
masonry. The  same  secrecy  was  preserved  in  the 
dehberations  of  the  Congress  as  in  the  Lodges,  from 
which  it  originated,  and  the  only  knowledge  of  its 
proceedings  was  to  be  gained  from  the  programme 
which  it  published.  In  this  document,  side  by 
side  with  political  reforms,  appeared  "the  real  in- 
dependence of  the  civil  power  ,  a  mere  formula  sig- 
nifying systematic  war  on  the  Church,  and  "the 
organization  of  public  instruction  under  tne  exclusive 
direction  of  civU  authority,  which  should  be  granted 
legal  means  to  maintain  a  competition  with  private 
establishments,  without  the  interference  of  the  clergy, 
on  the  ground  of  authority.  At/  the  time  that  tms 
programme  was  being  drawn  up,  the  Congreiss  made 
plans  for  a  general  confederation  of  Liberalism  in 
Belgium,  which  with  the  Alliance  as  centre  and  tjrpe, 
was  to  establish  in  each  district  an  association  of  free 
Liberal  electors,  bound  in  honour  to  vote  for  the 
candidates  chosen  by  the  Congress.  There  were 
also  to  be  electoral  divisions  in  every  one  of  the 
cantons  to  extend  the  influence  of  the  association. 
General  reunions  were  to  be  held  periodically  to  en- 
able the  alliance  to  reach  the  members  of  the  associa^ 
tions  and  imbue  them  with  the  Masonic  spirit.  The 
Liberal  Congress  of  1846  brought  the  session  to  a  dose 
with  "a  resolution  favouring  the  liberation  of  the 
lower  clergy",  whom  they  hoped  to  incite  a^inst  the 
bishops  by  sugjgesting  pNOssibilities  of  bettering  their 
condition.  This  resolution  brought  out  strongly  the 
true  character  of  the  Congress,  as  a  reactionary  move- 
ment against  the  work  of  the  National  Congress  of 
1830.  It  stands  to  reason  that  the  strong  impulse 
stirred  up  by  the  Congress  in  the  ranks  of  the  Liberal 
party,  and  the  ardent  hopes  based  on  it  reacted  on 
the  legislative  elections,  wliile  the  Catholics  re- 
mained buried  in  their  dream  of  Unionism,  then 
merely  an  anachronism.  The  elections  of  1847 
placed  the  Liberals  in  power. 

The  new  Government  brought  together  in  the  same 
ministry  Charles  Rogier,  member  of  the  Congress  of 
1830,  and  Fr^re-Orban,  one  of  the  promoters  of  the 
Congress  of  1846.  Under  the  influence  of  the  latter, 
a  man  of  great  talent  but  extremely  arbitrary,  whose 
imperious  v^-ill  got  the  better  of  the  Unionist  scruples 
of  nis  colleague,  the  Cabinet  declared  that  it  would 
inaugurate  a  "new  policy"  taking  as  its  principle 
the  "independence  of  the  civil  power".  And  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  from  tliis  time  forth,  war  was  made  on 
religious  influence  with  a  bitterness  destined  to  divide 
the  Belgian  nation  into  two  hostile  camps.  De 
Haussy^  the  Minister  of  Justice,  set  about  applying 
to  charitable  foundations  the  most  unheard-of  prin- 
ciples. According  to  him,  only  charitable  (^ate) 
bureaux  could  receive  charitable  bequests,  and  all  en- 
dowments were  to  be  turned  over  to  them,  even 
thoujgh  the  testator  had  made  the  selection  of  an 
admmistrator  for  the  endowment  an  indispensable 
condition.  On  the  other  hand,  the  law  of  1850  on 
middle-superior  education  was  inspired  by  a  s^rit 
diametrically  opposite  to  that  of  the  law  ooncemuqg 


BELGIUM 
THE  BELFRY  OF  BRUGES  CATHEDRAL  OF  MECHLIN 

CITV  HALL  AT  VPRES  CHURCH  OF  ST.  JAMES  (JACQUES)  LifeGB 

CITY  HALL,  OUDENARDB  CHURCH  OF  ST.  GUDULE.  I 


BELGIUM  401  BELGIUM 

primary  education;  it  showed  the  Government's  in-        It  seemed  as  if  the  rule  of  the  Liberal  party  would 

tention  of  using  the  taxp^ayers'  money  to  start  com-  continue  indefinitely,  and  that  Catholics  were  perma- 

petition  with  free  education,  and  if ,  as  a  matter  of  nently  excluded  from  power,  which  their  adversaries 

policy,  the  clei^  were  invited  to  give  religious  in-  declared  they  were  incapable  of  exercising.     However, 

struction  in  pubuc  institutions,  conditions  were  such  the  Catholics  made  use  of  their  long  exclusion  ftom 

as  to  make  their  co-operation  lack  both  dignity  and  a  share  in  governmental  affairs  in  at  last  seriously 

effectiveness.  ,  attempting  to  organize  their  forces.     Jules  Malou  de- 

The  Belgian  nation  was  not  yet  ripe  for  the  adop-  voted  himself  most  energetically  to  this  task,  and 

tion  of  a  policy  so  out  of  harmony  with  the  spirit  of  for  the  first  time,  the  broad  outlines  of  organization 

its  national  traditions,  and  after  five  years,  the  cabinet  were   visible,  an  organization    such  as  the  Liberal 

^i-as  overthrown.     A  more  moderate  Liberal  cabinet  party  had  long  poSessed.     At  the  same  time,  in 

modified  the  law  of  1850  by  adopting  the  "aCTee-  mutation  of  the  German  Catholics,  they  held  impor- 

ment  of  Antwerp"  made  between  the  conununalad-  tant  Congresses  at  Mechlin,  in  1863,  1864,  and  1867, 

ministration  of  that  city  and  the  bishops,  giving  to  which    awakened    Catholic    enthusiasm    and    gave 

the  clergy  the  guarantees  required  for  their  admission  courage  to  the  pessimists.     In   this   way,  Catholics 

to  the  public  institutions  of  secondary  education,  found  themselves  able  to  resume  the  struggle  with 

The  support  given  to  this  agreement,  by  the  Chamber,  new  vigour.     Dissensions  in  the  Liberal  party,  the 

the  vote  being  86  to  7,  showed  that  tne  necessity  of  strenuous  opposition  to  the  Liberals,  or  Doctrinaires, 

religious  instruction  was  still  understood  by  a  large  of  the  Government,  on  the  part  of  men  of  advanced 

number  of  Liberals.     The  elections  of  1855,  which  ideas,  who  claimed  the  double  title  of  Progressists, 

returned  a  Catholic  majority,  resulted  in  a  cabinet  and  of  Radicals,  combined  to  help  the  Catholics  and 

presided  over  by  P.  de  DecKer,  who  may  be  called  in  1870,  they  finally  succeeded  in  overthrowing  the 

the  last  of  the  Unionists.     This  cabinet,  which  its  Liberal  Government. 

friends  might  have  reproached  with  excessive  mod-        The  Liberals  then  had  recourse  to  the  means  which 

eration,  was  destined  to  be  overthrown  as  reactionary,  had  contributed  to  their  success  in  1857.     The  min- 

One  of  ita  members,  A.  Nothomb,  drafted  a  law  con-  istry  had  appointed  as  Governor  of  Limburg  P.  de 

ceming  charitable  bequests  intended  to  protect  the  Decker,  who  had  been  the  head  of  the  ministry  of 

interests  of  testators  and  repair  the  unfortunate  ef-  1855,  and  whose  name  had  been  connected  with  the 

fects  of  De  Haussy's  legislation.     Testators  were  au-  failure  of  a  financial  association.     The  Liberals  af- 

thorized  to  appoint  special  administrators  for  their  fected  to  be  greatly  scandalized  and  organized  riots 

be(^uests,  but  the  powers  of  the  latter  were  circum-  which  so  frightened  Leopold  II  that  he  dismissed  his 

scnbed  and  their  exercise  placed  under  the  strict  ministry  (1871).     He  replaced  it,  it  is  true,  by  another 

supervision  of  the  State  (1857).     Under  the  leader-  Catholic  ministry,  of  which  Jules  Malou  was  president, 

ship  of  Frt^re-Orban.  who  imder  the  pseudonym  of  Though  formed  during  the  disturbances  of  a  popular 

Jean  Van  Damme  nad   just  WTitten  a  sensational  outbreak  in  defiance  of  the  ^\^8hes  of  the  large  cities, 

pamphlet,   the  Liberals   pretended   to  find  in   this  which  were  aU  liiberal  in  their  sympathies,  and  se-' 

scheme  a  roundabout  restoration  of  the  monastic  cretly  impugned  before  the  king  by  Jules  Van  Praet, 

main-marie;  they  called  it  the  law  of  the  convents,  the  royal  secretary,  who  was  nicknamed  the  "  Seventh 

and  when  the  plan  was  brought  up  for  discussion.  Ministry",  this  ministry  managed  to  hold  out  until 

they  or^nizcd  riots  which  intimidated  the  head  of  1878  only  by  dint  of  being  as  unobtrusive  as  possible, 

the  cabmet.     He  took  advantage  of  the  communal  None  of  the  anti-religious  laws  made  by  the  Liberals 

elections,  which  had  been  favourable  to  the  Liberal  v/ere  revised,  not  even  the  one  concerning  bursaries, 

party,  to  tender  the  resignation  of  the  cabinet.     This  which  had  been  passed  by  a  bare  majority.     There 

pusillanimous    conduct    delive^-ed    the    Government  was  no  restoration  of  the  balance  of  power  in  public 

again  into  the  hands  of  the  Liberals,  who  held  power  offices,  which  continued  to  be  held  by  the  Liberals, 

for  thirteen  years  (1857-70).  In  1875,  the  Burgomaster  of  Li^e  having  forbidden 

During  this  long  period  the  new  ministry^  which  the  Jubilee  processions  in  that  city,  in  denance  of  the 
was  merely  the  outcome  of  a  riot,  did  nothing  but  Constitution,  the  Government  dared  not  anniil  his 
emphasize  the  anti-religious  character  of  its  policy,  illegal  order  and  had  the  humiliation  of  seeing  the 
The  real  head  was   Fr^re-Orban,  who  in  the  end  1,500  Liberals  tender   him    a   complimentary   ban- 
forced  his  colleague,  Rogier,  to  retire  (1868),  and  car-  quet.     Catholic  rule  seemed  in  very  truth  what  its 
ried  out  successively  uie  principal  features  in  hi^  adversaries  called  it,  an  "empty  parenthesis",  and, 
programme  of  secularization.     More  prominent  than  towards  the  end  of  his  administration,  Jules  Malou 
ever  was  the  alleged  aim  of  protecting  civil  socjety  in  a  Catholic  meeting,  summed  it  up  in  these  words: 
against  the  "encroachments  of  the  clergy'*.    The  law  "we  have  existed  " — Nous  avons  v^cu, 
of  1859  on  charitable  endowments  was  the  counter-        When  a  turn  in  the  elections  brought  the  Liberals 
part  of  that  of  1857  and  the  despoiling  policy  inau-  back  into  power,  after  the.  Catholic  administration 
gurated  in  1847  by  de  Ilaussy.     A  law  of  1869,  of  had  draggea  out  a  precarious  existence  of  eight  years, 
the  same  animus,  confiscated  all  the  bursaries  for  they  were  able  to  continue  their  anti-Catholic  policy 
free  scholarships,  nine-tenths  of  which  had  been  es-  from  the  point  where  they  had  left  it.     While  out  of 
tablished  to  advance  the  Christian  education  of  the  office  they  had  become  more  irreligious  owing  to  the 
young,  annulling  the  formal  provisions  of  the  testators,  growing  influence  of  Masonry.     Not  only  the  clergy, 
A  law  of  1870  confined  exemption  from  military  ser-  But  the  Church,  and  religion  itself,  became  the  objects 
vice  to  students  of  the  grands  shninaires^  refusing  it  to  of  their  attacks.     They  encouraged  writers  who,  like 
iK)\ice6  of  religious  orders.     In  actual  practice,  the  Professor  Laurent  of  the  University  of  Ghent,  denied 
Government  was  sectarian  and  intolerant  towards  re-  the  necessity  of  granting  liberty  to  the  Church,  or 
ligion  and  the  clemr.     It  countenanced  the  efforts  who,  like  Professor  de  Laveleye  of  the  University  of 
prompted  by  the  Masonic  lodges  to  secularize  ceme-  Li^^,  asserted    the    superiority    of    Protestantism, 
teries,  notwithstanding  the  decree  of  Prairial,  twelfth  Theu"  Antwerp  associations  flooded  the  countiy  with 
year,  that  there  should  be  a  cemetery  for  each  de-  copies  of  a  pamphlet  written  by  the  latter  in  this  vein, 
nomination,  which  left  Catholic  cemeteries  under  the  Besides  this,  the  Liberals  sought  to  make  the  country 
Qiurch's  jurisdiction.    Appointments  to  public  offices,  Protestant  by  supporting  de  Laveleye  and  Goblet 
eq)ecially  to  the  magistracy,  were  noticeably  partisan.  d'Alviella,  who,  taking  advantage  of  a  quarrel  between 
An  example  of  the  petty  prejudice  of  the  Government  the  villagers  of  Sart-Dame-Aveline  and  the  parish 
wasitssuppressionof  the  annual  subsidy  which  the  Bol-  priest,  introduced  Protestant  worship  there  and  tried 
landists  ((^.  v.)  had  hitherto  received  for  the  coptinua-  to  proselytize  the  inhabitants.    They  adopted  the 
Uon of  their  magnificent  work,  the  "Aota  Sanctorum",  name  Queux  (beggars)  which  they  found  in  the  stoiy 


BELGIUM                                402  BELGIUM 

ot  the  religious  troubles  of  the  sixteenth  century.  1884,  the  country  was  called  on  to  pronounce  judg- 

Their  presses  daily  waged  war  on  the  Catholic  re-  ment.    The    result    was    overwhelming.     Half  the 

lifion;  their  carnival  pageants  were  vulgar  parodies  members  of  the  Chamber  had  been  candidates  for  re- 

wnich  exposed  the  most  sacred  things  to  popular  de-  election.  Only  two  Liberal  deputies  were  retmiied,  the 

rision.    Lastly,  the  leaders  of  the  movement  agreed  others  being  defeated  in  the  wnirlwind  which  uprooted 

upKon  a  revision  of  the  law  of  1842  dealing  with  Liberalism.    Amid    great    national    rejoicing,    the 

primary  instruction.     Once  more  in  power  they  set  Catholics  resumed  the  reins  of  power,  which  they 

about  their  work  of  uprooting  Christianity  without  have  held   uninterruptedly  for  twenty-three  years, 

delay,  and  framed  the  famous  school  law  of  1879,  "Weshallsurprise  the  worfd  by  our  moderation 'stud 

which  the  Catholics  called  the  "Law  of  Misfortune"  one  of  their  leaders;  and  in  this  moderation  which  is 

(Lot  de  malheur)f  a  name  it  still  retains.  not  devoid  of  energy,  lies  their  strength.    The  school 

The  work  of  drafting  this  law  was  placed  in  charge  of  law  of  1879  was  repealed  without  delay,  the  first  time 
Van  Humbeck,  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  a  in  the  history  of  Belgium  that  a  Catholic  Government 
Freemason  who  some  years  before  had  declared  in  his  had  courage  to  repeala  law  made  by  the  Liberals.    The 
lodge  that  "Catholicism  was  a  corpse  that  barred  the  legislators  of  1884,  however,  did  not  revive  the  law  of 
way  of  progress  and  would  have  to  be  thrown  into  1842.    Taking  into  consideration  the  change  of  times, 
the  grave".    The  law  did  him  justice,  being  in  every  they  took  the  primary  schools  from  State  control  and 
respect  the  reverse  of  the  law  of  1842;  it  excluded  placed  them  under  the  communes,  leaving  each  com- 
from  the  schools  all  religious  instruction,  and  barred  mune  to  decide  whether  or  not  religious  instruction 
from  the  ranks  of  teachers  all  graduates  of  free  normal,  should  be  given;  the  State  subsidized  these  schools, 
i.  e.  religious  schools.     But  for  once,  Freemasonry  on  condition  that  they  would  accept  the  State  pro- 
had  counted  too  much  on  the  apathy  and  good  gramme  and  would  submit  to  State  inspection;  all 
nature  of  the  Catholic  masses.    The  resistance  was  mws  subversive  of  liberty  were  repealed,  and,  need- 
unanimous.    At  the  call  of  the  bishops  Catholics  rose  less  to  say,  relations  with  the  Vatican  were  resumed, 
in  a  body  and  entered  on  a  campaign  of  petitions;  The  Liberals,  counting  on  the  support  of  the  cities, 
committees  for  resistance  were  everywhere  formed;  thought  that  by  violence  they  could  bring  about  a 
public  prayers  were  offered  in  all  tne  churches  for  reaction  against  the  decision  of  the  electoral  body, 
delivery  from  "teachers  without  faith",  and  "god-  as  they  haS  done  in  1857  and  1871.    With  the  con- 
less  schools".     In  the  Chambers,  the  Catholics  alter  nivance  of  the  Burgomaster  of  Brussels,  they  assailed 
emphatic  protests  refused  to  take  any  part  in  the  dis^  and  scattered  a  peaceful  procession  of  80,000  Oitho- 
cussion  of  the  law  even  of  its  amendment,  which  forced  lies,  who  had  come  to  the  capital  to  make  a  demon- 
the  Liberals  to  do  their  worst  and  to  shoulder  the  stration  in  favour  of  the  Government,  and,  as  in  1857, 
entire  responsibility.     It  was  carried  without  formal  appealed  to  false  statistics  of  the  communal  elections 
opposition.    The  President  of  the  Senate,  Prince  de  of  1884,  to  prove  that  the  voters  had  changed  their 
Ligne,  a  Liberal,  resigned  his  post,  deploring  the  minds.     In  this  way,  they  obtained  from  King  Leo- 
division  of  the  nation  into  Guelphs  and  GhibeUines.  pold  II  the  dismissal  of  Charles  Woeste  and  Victor 
The  Catholics,  co-operating  with  the  bishops  and  the  Jacobs,  the  two  ministers  whom  they  held  in  special 
clergy,  achieved  wonders.    In  one  year  they  erected  aversion.     Jules  Malou,  the  head  of  the  Cabinet,  pro- 
three  or  four  thousand  Catholic  schools;  the  rule  that  tested,  and  followed  his  colleagues  into  retirement, 
there  should  be  one  to  each  commune  was  obeyed  But  the  Catholic  party  remained  in  power  and  M. 
with  few  exceptions.     More  than  2,000  teachers  of  Beemaert,  who  succeeded  Malou,  inaugurated  the 
both  sexes  resigned  their  positions,  the  greater  num-  era  of  prosi>erity  which  has  placed  Belgium  in  the 
ber  to  take  part  in  free  education  often  at  a  very  front  rank  among  nations. 

small  salary.  At  the  end  of  a  year,  the  State  schools  The  situation  confronting  the  Government  bore 
had  lost  filty-five  i>er  cent,  of  their  pupils,  and  re-  no  resemblance  to  that  of  former  years.  Since 
tained  only  thirty-eight  per  cent,  of  the  entire  body  1830.  the  inner  national  energy  had  been  absorbed 
of  school  children,  while  the  Catholic  schools  had  by  tne  struggle  between  the  Sttholics  and  the  Lib- 
sixty-one  per  cent.  Many  of  the  State  schools  were  erals,  both  representing  bourgeois  voters,  who  were 
entirely  deserted,  and  others  had  a  ridiculously  divided  as  to  the  amount  of  influence  to  be  al- 
small  attendance.  Dumbfounded  and  enraged  at  lowed  to  Catholicism  in  public  affairs.  By  1886  a 
such  imexpected  resistance,  the  Government  tried  change  had  come  about.  A  third  party  had  come 
every  resource,  however  contemptible  or  absurd,  into  existeiice  known  as  the  "Workingman's  Party", 
Negotiations  were  begun  with  the  Vatican,  and  a  which,  recruited  entirely  from  the  labouring  classes, 
breach  of  diplomatic  relations  threatened,  in  the  presented  a  dangerous  platform,  comprehending  not 
hope  of  forcing  Leo  XIII  to  condemn  the  action  of  reforms  but  economic  and  social  revolutionary  meas- 
the  Belgian  bishops.  Nothing  came  of  this,  and  in  ures.  This  Socialist  party  had  been  secretly  taking 
consequence  the  Belgian  anibassador  to  the  Holy  shape  since  1867,  ana  continued  in  Belgium  the  tra- 
See  was  recalled.  To  intimidate  the  clergy  and  the  ditions  of  the  "Internationale",  created  by  Karl 
Catholics,  a  decree  was  passed  ordering  an  inquiry  Marx.  Tt  proclaimed  to  the  workingmen  that  they 
as  to  the  execution  of  the  school  law,  and  the  inves-  were  slaves,  promised  to  give  them  liberty  and  pros- 
tigators  journeyed  through  the  country  like  real  perity  and,  as  the  first  means  towards  the  necessary 
judges,  and  cited  people  before  their  tribunal  at  ran-  reforms,  to  secure  for  them  the  right  of  suffrage, 
dom,  exposing  the  most  respectable  people  to  the  In  this  way  the  great  mass  of  the  people  were  won 
insults  01  the  mob.  This  tour  of  investigation  was  over  and  organized  while  the  two  older  parties  were 
scarcely  finished,  when  the  Freemasons,  carrying  wholly  occupied  with  their  traditional  quarrel.  Not 
their  blindness  to  the  limit,  proposed  to  the  Chamber  that  eminent  Catholics,  such  as  Edouard  Ducp^ 
another  inquiry  concerning  the  mainr-morte  measure  tiaux,  to  mention  one  of  the  highest  rank,  had  not 
that  is  to  say,  a  campaign  against  convents.  This  sought  for  a  long  time  a  way  of  bettering  the  condi- 
time,  the  nearness  of  elections  dictated  a  more  pru-  tion  of  the  working  classes,  or  that  many  zealous 
dent  policy  and  the  motion  was  lost  by  a  majority  of  men  had  not  made  disinterested  attempts  to  bring 
two  votes.  about  such  a  result;  but  the  body  of  the  nation  had 

The  country  was  roused  to  great  excitement.  In  not  realized  the  political  r6le  soon  to  be  played  by 
the  face  of  op>en  persecution,  the  Cathohcs  showed  the  dense  ranks  of  the  organized  proletariat,  and 
unexpected  energy.  Foreseeing  their  triumph,  they  hence  had  not  tried  to  find  legislative  means  of  satis- 
established  the  "Union  for  the  Redress  of  Griev-  fying  their  demands.  Moreover,  the  administrative 
ances  ",  to  compel  their  candidates  in  the  event  of  their  classes.  Liberals  as  well  as  Catholics,  were  under  the 
election  to  adopt  a  vigorous  policy.    On  10  June,  influence  of  the  Manchester  school    Tlie  policy  of 


BELOHnik                              403  BXLaiUM 

• 

M)ihiDterference  was  accepted  as  the  guiding  pnn-  a  suffrage,  however,  modified  by  plural  voting  as 

dple,  and  particulariy  when  there  was  any  question  proposed  oy  M.  Nyssens,  a  deputy  of  the  Right. 

of  labour  legislation,  the  words  on  every  tongue  were:  Eacn  Belgian  was  to  have  one  vote;  a  married  man 

"most  liberty,  least- government."  who  could  prove  his  title  to  some  property  had  two: 

MThen,  therefore,  in  1686,  serious  upridngs,  plainly  a  man  able  to  give  certain  proofs  of  education  had 

fevolutionary  in  character,  took  place,  first  at  Li^ge  three.    The  electoral  body  was  increased  tenfold, 

(18  March),  and  soon  afterwards  in  the  industrial  and  henceforth  onlv  the  worthless  and  the  incom- 

districts  of  Hainaut,  the  whole  coimtry  was  thrown  petent  were  excluded  from  the  administration  of 

into  a  ^te  of  consternation  and  alarm.    The  labour  public  affairs  in  Bel^um  (1893). 

party  came  forward  and  put  the  social  question  In  this  way  the  Bdgian  Government,  by  exercising 

before  the  country  in  the  form  of  incendiarism  and  prudence  as  well  as  courage,  succeeded  in  a  few  years 

riots.    The  most  enlightened  Catholics  grasped  the  m  carrying  out  a  splencfifd  reform  programme,  and 

significance  of  these  events  and  saw  that  tne  time  deserved  tne  admirable  eulogy  of  Femand  Payen,  a 

hM  come  for  turning  their  attention  towards  labour  French  jurisconsult:  "We  have  before  us  the  most 

reform.    Under  the  presidency  of  Bishop  Doutreloux  complete  body  of  legislation  which  the  history  of 

of  Li^,  three  Congresses  of  Social  Works  were  held  this  oenturjr  can  show  in  any  country."    A  former 

at  Li^,  in  1886,  1887,  and  1890,  in  which  the  most  liberal  minister  praised  hardly  less  emphatically  the 

vital  questions  were  studied  and  exhaustively  dis-  wise  policy  of  the  Catholic  Government,  by  decfarinflf 

cussed.    Groups    were    formed,    especially    among  that  it  was  difficult  to  combat  it  because  it  offered 

the  younger  men,  to  introduce  the  most  urgent  re-  no  grounds  for  complaint.     For  the  first  time  in  the 

forms  into  the  Catholic  platform;  Canon  rottier,  history  of  Bdgium  Catholics  showed  their  ability  to 

professor  of  moral  theology  in  the  grand  s^inaire  govern,  that  is  to  say,  their  ability  to  comprehend  at 

of  U^ge,  became  the  apostle  of  the  reform  move-  a  ^noe  the  needs  of  the  times  and  to  meet  them 

ment;  the  Catholic  friends  of  reform  established  a  satisfactorily.     Even  the  king,  hitherto  distrustful 

Denaocratic  Christian  League,  which,  encouraged  by  of  Catholics,  gradually  gave  up  his  prejudices,  and 

the  bishops  and  keeping  within  the  bounds  of  the  at  every  election  the  voters  confirmed  their  tenure 

strictest  orthodoxy,  oent  all  its  energies  on  reform,  of  power.    The  party  of    the  Right  showed  their 

The  Bishop  of   Lf^ge   formed    among  the  secular  ingratitude    towards    M.    Beemaert^    by    declining, 

priests  a  new  order,  "The  Almoners  of  Labour",  pwlly  through  motives  of  personal  interest,  to  vote 

whose  zesl  and  devotion  were  entirely  directed  to  lor  the  proportional  representation  of  parties,  and 

bettering  the  lot  of  the  working  people.  this  the  nead  of  the  Caoinet  demanded  as  an  indis- 

As  for  the  Government,  it  proved  equal  to  its  task,  pensable  item  in  the  revision  of  the  Constitution. 

new  and  unforeseen  as  it  was.     A  thorough  investi-  On  this  refusal,  M.  Beernaert  resigned  his  position 

gation  of  the  labour  question  gave  an  understanding  at  the  head  of  the  Cabinet,  in  1894,  depriving  Belgium 

of  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  principal  grievances  of  her  greatest  statesman. 

of  the  working  classes,  after  which  the  necessary  Results  proved  M.  Beemaert's  wisdom.  From 
reforms  were  energetically  entered  upon.  For  sev-  the  time  of  the  revision,  the  Liberal  party,  which 
eral  years,  the  entire  legislative  activity  devoted  it-  had  its  exclusive  support  in  the  bourgeoisie  of  the 
self  to  the  redress  of  the  most  crying  evils.  Councils  cities,  had  been  entirely  shut  out  of  Parliament, 
of  Industry  and  of  Labour  were  formed;  l^islation  where  its  place  had  been  taken  by  a  strong  group  of 
was  pa^ed  on  the  following  subjects:  workingmen's  Socialists.  This  group,  destitute,  for  the  most  part, 
dwellings,  wages,  the  abolition  of  the  truck  system,  of  culture  and  parliamentary  training,  introdiiced 
the  iU^ality  of  attaching  or  assigning  wages,  labour  coarse  and  violent  methods  of  discussion  into  the 
inspection,  child-labour,  and  the  lalx)ur  of  women.  Chamber,  seriously  compromising  the  dignity  of 
Strong  encouragement  was  given  to  mutual  benefit  parliamentary  debate.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
societies  which  had  been  hitherto  in  anything  but  totel  suppression  of  Liberal  representation  was  both 
a  flourishing  condition.  To  these  important  laws  an  injustice,  since  this  party  stiU  retained  the  sym- 
was  added  the  commendable  law  of  conditional  pathies  of  tne  middle  class  in  the  lar^e  cities,  and  a 
condemnation  and  liberation,  the  work  of  M.  Lejeune,  danger, for  the  true  parliamentary  spirit  was  violated 
the  minister  of  justice;  it  has  since  been  imitated  by  by  the  exclusion  from  public  life  of  views  which  had 
many  larger  coimtries.  '  lately  been  all  powertul  and  were  still  very  much 
This  work,  which  extended  over  ten  years,  culmi-  alive.  Proportional  representation  seemed  to  be 
nated  in  a  revision  of  the  Constitution,  which  the  the  only  way  of  restoring  parliamentary  balance, 
advanced  members  of  the  Liberal  party  had  been  and  it  came  about  that  those  who  had  caused  M.  Beer- 
demanding  for  a  long  time,  and  which  the  Socialists  naert's  loss  of  power  to  avoid  this  very  thing  were 
were  now  insisting  on.  This  revision  had  become  won  over  to  his  views.  Proportional  representation 
imperative.  Belgium  was  a  country  which  had  was  therefore  proposed  and  carried,  making  electoral 
very  few  voters;  out  of  a  population  of  more  than  l^islation  in  Belgium  the  most  complete  in  the  world, 
fflx  millions  there  never  were  mote  than  160,000,  The  Liberals  returned  to  the  Chamoers,  the  6atholic8 
and  during  the  last  years  of  the  Liberal  Government  sacrificing  their  overwhelming  majority  in  their 
no  less  tmin  six  laws  had  been  passed  to  diminish  desire  for  the  representation  of  every  shade  of  opinion 
this  number  still  further  by  excluding  entire  classes  to  be  found  in  the  electoral  body,  thus  substituting 
of  Catholic  voters.  In  spite  of  this,  and  though  it  the  three  parties  for  the  two  which  had  divided  the 
was  dear  to  all  that  the  UathoUcs  would  be  the  first  power  previous  to  1893. 

to  profit  by  a  revision,  through  a  spirit  of  conserva-  The  Catholics,  nevertheless,  retained  a  permanent 

tism,  they  shrank  from  taking  the  initiative  in  this  majority.    The  successors  of  M.  Beernaert  continued 

matter.     One  of  their  leaders,  M.  Woeste,  was  its  to  concluct  the  Government  along  his  lines,  even  if 

dedared   adversary.    The   Liberals,   observing   this  with  less  prestige  and  authority.     From  time  to  time 

hesitation  on  the  part  of  their  opponents,  joined  the  the  administration  was  affected  by  reactionary  in- 

Sodahsts  in  demanding  the  revision,  hoping  for  its  fluences.  occasionally  compromised  by  mistakes  in 

pefusaL     Under    these    circumstances,   and   with  a  policy,  but  the  current  of  social  legislation  has  not 

full  appreciation  of  the  necessities  of  the  situation,  changed  its  course.     In  1895,  a  spedal  department 

M.  Beernaert  proposed  the  revision  of  the  Constitu-  of  Labour  was  created^  and  M.  Nyssens,  the  first 

tion,  and  succeeded,  after  many  difficulties,  in  having  minister,  filled  the  position  with  great  distinction, 

the  revision  adopted  by  the     party  of  the  Right.  Laws  were  passed  regulating  workshops^  trade  unions. 

The  revision  was  as  broad  as  possible:  the  motion  for  pensions  for  workmen,  insurance  against  acddents 

oniversal  suffrage  was  passed  without  opposition —  while  working,  and  providing  for  rest  on  Sundaya 


BILOIUM  404  BELGIUM 

The  number  and  importance  of  these  legislative  tive"  was  repudiated  not  only  by  the  advanced 

enactments  was  such  that  a  Socialist  deputy  codified  members  of  the  party,  who  called  themselves  ''Demo- 

and  published  them  in  a  collection,  rendering  thereby  cratic  Christians",  but  even  by  the  Catholics  oppoeed 

tacit   but  significant  homage  to  the  Government  to   reforms,  who   really  aimed   at   preserving  the 

responsible  for  them.  economic  r^;ime  which  nad  caused  all  the  grievances 

But  the  very  stability  of  the  Government,  which  of  the  workmg  class.    The  latter,  rejecting  the  term 

each  successive  election  retained  in  power,  was  the  '^  Conservative  "  as  a  wrong  done  them,  desire  to  be 

despair  of  its  enemies  who  saw  the  imoossibility  of  caUed  simply  '' Catholics".     Of  the  two  groups,  that 

overthrowing  it  by  legal  methods.    Tne  Socialists  of  the  Democratic  Christians  is  at  present  numerically 

decided  that  their  success  would  be  greater  if  they  inferior,  although  more  influential  by  reason  of  its 

obtained  by  threats,  or,  if  necessary,  by  violence,  a  enthusiasm,  its  activity,  its  faculty  for  taking  the 

new  revision  of  the  Constitution,  suppressing  the  initiative,  and  its  propaganda.    To  understand  thb 

plural  vote  and  replacing  it  by  univeraal  suffrage,  it  must  be  recallea'  that  before  the  revision  of  the 

Eure  and  simple:  ''One  man,  one  vote."     Failing  to  Constitution  the  Catholic,  like  the  Liberal,  party 
ring  about  this  reform  by  intimidating  the  Chamber,  was  exclusively  a  bourgeois  party,  as  its  members 
they  sent  revolutionary  bands  into  the  streets.     ''I  had  to  pay  a  large  poll  t^  for  tne  privilege  of  suffrage, 
have  always  tried  to  dissuade  you  from  violence".  Its  leaders  for  the  most  ps^  were  drawn  from  the 
said  Vandervelde,  their  leader,  to  his  audience  of  upper  bourgeoisie,  and  those  whose  ability  and  energy 
workingmen;  ''but  to-day,  I  say  to  you:  The  pear  is  called  them  to  a  share  in  the  direction  of  affairs  had 
ripe,    and    must    be    plucked."     Another    leader,  no  other  ideals,  or  interests,  than  those  of  the  bour- 
Grimard,  the  Socialist  senator,  and  a  millionaire,  geoisie.    When  the  v  revision  heavily  recruited  their 
even  went  so  far  as  to  declare  that  he  would  turn  ranks,   the   new  voters,  though  lai^  in   number, 
over  his  whole  fortune  to  the  workingmen  and  would  played  the  part  of  mere  privates  ancf  had  no  active 
start   again   with    nothing.    Intoxicated   by    these  part  in  the  management  of  the  parties.    Those  of 
words,  the  workingmen  of  many  large  cities  and  the  new-comers,  who  were  conscious  of  possessing 
industrial  districts  abandoned  themselves  to  excesses,  the  rec^uisite  ability  and  courage  in  order  to  carry 
and  blood  was  shed  in  several  places,  notably  at  out  their  ideas  and  programme  were  obliged  to  oi^gan- 
Louyain.    The  energy  with  which  the  Government  ize  new  groups,  wnich  were  looked  at  askance  by 
applied  repressive  measures,  however,  soon  put  an  the  former  leaders,  often  even  regarded  with  sua- 
end  to  these  attempts.    Then  the  General  Council  picion,  and  accusea  of  socialistic  tendencies, 
of  the  workingmen's  party  declared  a  general  strike.        In  a  large  number  of  arrondissements,  the  rivalry 
the  last  weapon  of  the  revolutionary  party.    This  of  conservative  and  democratic  tendencies  among 
failed  after  a  few  days,  and  the  General  Council  was  Belgian  Catholics  resulted  in  the  establishment  of 
forced  to  advise  the  workmen  to  return  to  work,  two  distinct  political  groups,  and  the  Belgian  bishops. 
The  prestige  of  the  Socialists  with  the  popular  masses  and  the  most  farsighted  leaders,  found  it  a  hard  task 
was  greatly  impaired  by  the  failure  of  so  great  an  to  prevent  an  open  rupture.    At  Ghent,  where  the 
effort  and  the  Catholic  Government  came  out  of  Democratic  Christians  assumed  the  harmless  name 
the  crisis  stronger  than  ever  (1902).  of  Anti-Socialists,  there  was  never  any  real  danger 
There  remained  but  one  way  of  overcoming  the  of  a  break  in  the  ranks.    At  Li^e,  whicn  was  a  centre 
Government:    the   alliance   of   the   two   opposition  of  opposition  to  democratic  ideas,  Catholic  circles 
parties,  the  Socialists  and  the  Liberals.    This  was  bein^  under  the  control  of  employers  and  financiers 
effected  at  the  time  of  the  general  elections  of  1906.  ininucal  to  reform  principles,  a  rupture  was  barely 
Although  from  the  economic  point  of  view  the  two  averted.    At  Alost,  where  the  break  was  beyond 
parties  were  antipodal,  they  were  united  in  their  control,  the  Ahh6  Daens  organized  an  independent 
anticlerical   S3rn^pathies,  and   there  was  reason  to  and  radical  body,  which,  taking  the  name  of  "Chris- 
fear  that  their  success  would  mean  the  downfall  tene  Volksparty"  (Christian  people's  party),  aban- 
of  religion.     In  their  certainty  of  success  they  cir-  doned  by  tne  Anti-Socialists,  opposed  the  Catholics 
culated  the  names  of  their  future  ministers,  and  more  bitterly  than  the  Socialists.     It  made  comnoon 
open  preparations  were  made  for  the  festivities  at-  cause  with  the  latter  in  carrying  on  a  campaign 
tendant  on  their  victory.     But  their  alliance  met  against  the  Government  in  the  elections  of  1906. 
with  a  crushing  defeat  in  the  elections  of  1906,  which  But,  apart  from  the  Daensists,  a  group,  very  small  at 
left  the  Cathohc  Government  as  strong  as  ever.    The  most,  which  in  its  best  days  was  unable  to  send 
fdtes,  conunemorating  the  seventy-fifth  anniversary  of  more  than  two  or  three  representatives  to  the  Cham- 
national  independence,  had  been  celebrated  through-  ber,  the  Democratic  Christians,  in  all  their  electoral 
out  the  country  with  imrestrained  enthusiasm,  under  battles,  have  always  marched  to  the  poUs  side  by  side 
the  patronage  of  the  Catholic  Government,  which,  in  with  the  conservative  Catholics.    They  hold  the  con- 
1909,  will  celebrate  the  twenty-fifth  anniversary  of  trolling  vote  indispensable  for  any  victory,  and  their 
its  own  existence.      In  the  history  of  Belgium  no  leaders  in  Parliament  have  been  m  the  front  ranks  in 
government  has  held  power  so  long,  and  the  Catholic  advocating  the  labour  legislation  which  has  produced 
party  has  come  to  be  more  and  more  of  a  national  the  social  laws.    After  opposing  them  for  a  long  time, 
party,  or,  to  speak  more  correctly,  the  nation  itself,  the  Conservatives  have  gradually  become  accustomed 
This  sununary  would  be  incomplete  if  the  history  to  regard  them  as  an  essential  factor  of  the  Catholic 
of  the  struggles  in  defence  of  religion  and  of  social  army.    In  the  meantime,  the  birth  and  progress  of 
order  were  not  supplemented  by  the  internal  history  this  group  clearly  marked  the  evolution  wnich  is 
of  the  Catholic  people  of  Belgium,  i.  e.  the  develop-  taking  place  in  the  Catholic  party  in  the  direction  of 
ment  of  popular  opinion  during  a  quarter  of  a  century,  a  new  social  ideal,  an  evolution  too  slow  for  somcL 
Generally,  in  the  face  of  adversaries  who  attacked  and  too  rapid  for  others,  but  in  any  case,  evident  ana 
their  most  precious  possession,  the  religion  of  their  undeniable. 

fathers.  Catholics  had  proclaimed  themselves  "con-       IV.  Conclusion. — ^This   politico-religious    history 

servatives";   their  political   associations  were  thus  of  Belmum,  covering  over  a  hundred  years,  contains 

designated  and  it  was  the  name  which  the  leaders  more  Uian  one  lesson.     In  the  first  place,  it  deariy 

of  the  party  were  fond  of  applying  to  themselves  in  establishes  the  fact  that  in  every  generation  tne 

Parliament.     But  the  appearance  of  the  workingmen  Belgian  nation  has  fought  with  vigour  against  every 

on  the  pohtical  scene  and  the  programme  of  their  regime  that  was  inimical  to  its  faith.    It  stnigj^ed 

claims  m  pointed  opposition  to  the  conservatives  against  the  French  Republic,  a^nst  Napoleon  I, 

(1886),  brought  home  to  enlightened  Catholics  the  against  William  I,  against  the  Liberal  Government, 

danger  of  this  name.    Hence  the  name  "Conserva-  against  the  coalition  of  the  Liberals  and  the  Socialista, 


BXLOIUM  405  BBLOIUM 

and  has  come  forth  victorious.  In  the  second  place  it  not  always  easy  to  convince  them  of  the  contraiy. 
must  be  remarked  that  the  war  on  the  reli^on  of  the  The  oontmuation  of  the  Catholic  regime  in  Bel^um 
people  has  daily  assmned  a  more  threatemn^  a^>ect.  seems  to  be  continent  on  a  radical  reform  of  s^ool 
At  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  centmy,  Belgimn  had  legislation,  on  provision  for  the  division  of  State  sub- 
no  enemies  exc^t  its  foreim  oppressors,  abetted  by  ventions  among  all  the  communal  or  private  schools 
a  few  handfuls  01  traitors.  Under  the  Dutch  Govern-  in  proportion  to  the  services  that  they  render,  and 
ment,  it  was  evident  that  the  generation  which  de-  g^ter  boldness  in  the  solution  of  the  labour  ques- 
vdoped  under  the  French  domination  had  been  tions.  Religion  has  in  Belgium  so  strong  a  support 
partly  won  over  to  revolutionary  doctrines,  and  in  popular  loyalty  and  devotion  that  by  judiciously 
that  amonff  the  bourgeoisie  of  the  cities  there  was^  takmg  advantage  of  them  at  the  proper  time,  an 
body  which  no  longer  recognized  the  authority  of  inde&ite  tenure  of  power  will  be  ensur^. 
religion  in  social  matters.  After  1846,  it  was  mani-  V.  Statistics. — ^According  to  the  census  of  31  De- 
fest  that  this  faction  was  under  the  control  of  the  cember,  1905,  the  population  of  Belgium  is  7,160^7. 
Masonic  lodges,  and  had  positively  declared  itself  The  great  majority  of  the  inhabitants  are  Catholic, 
for  war  upon  religion  and  the  Church.  In  1886,  it  but  the  lack  of  religious  statistics  makes  it  difhcult  to 
was  evident  that,  in  the  bourgeois  class,  the  great  give  the  exact  number  of  non-Catholics.  There  are 
mass  of  workinemen  had  been  won  over  to  the  cause  about  30,000  Protestants,  3,000  to  4,000  Jews  and 
of  irreligion  and  that  the  population  of  the  industrial  several  thousand  persons  who,  not  having  been  bap- 
districts  had  been  seriously  affected.  In  addition  to  tized,  do  not  belong  to  any  faith.  The  kingdom  is 
this,  the  four  larger  cities  of  Belgium,  Brussels,  divided  into  six  dioceses,  namely:  The  Archdiocese 
Antwerp,  Li^,  and  Ghent,  and  moBt  of  the  cities  of  Mechlin  and  the  sufTragan  Dioceses  of  Bruges, 
of  the  Walloon  provinces,  had  gone  over  to  the  Ghent,  Li^e,  Namur,  and  Toumai.  Each  diocese 
Anti-Catholic  partv.  The  defenders  of  religion  and  has  a  seminary  and  one  or  several  preparatory  schools 
its  oppressors  tended  to  become  numerically  equal,  for  the  training  of  the  clergy;  there  are,  in  addition, 
a  state  of  thines  that  would  be  apparent  to  all,  were  the  Belgian  CoUege  at  Rome,  a  seminary  to  which  all 
it  not  masked  in  a  way  by  the  systenr  of  plural  the  Belgian  bishops  send  the  best  of  their  pupils,  and 
voting.  In  the  votes  cast  at  the  general  elections  the  College  of  the  Saint^Esprit  at  Louvain,  where  a 
there  is  always  a  Catholic  majority,  but  it  is  a  ques-  superior  theological  course  is  pursued.  The  secular 
tion  whether  the  majoritv  of  voters  are  Catholics,  clergy  number  5,419;  the  regular  clergy,  6,237;  these 
If  it  is  asked  whether  the  Catholics,  namelv,  the  latter  are  distributee!  in  293  houses.  The  religious 
Belgians  who  submit  to  the  teachings  of  the  Church,  orders  in  Belgium  have  29,303  members  living  in 
still  constitute  the  majority  of  the  nation,  the  answer  2,207  houses:  the  members  of  the  orders,  both  male 
would  be  more  or  less  doubtfid.  This  leads  to  a  third  and  female,  aevote  their  time  chiefly  to  teaching  and 
remark.  The  resistance  to  the  enemies  of  religion  nursing  the  sick*  the  male  orders  also  aid  the  secular 
has  not  been  as  effective  as  the  duration  and  intensity  clergy  m  parochial  work. 

of  the  contest  might  lead  one  to  believe.     Whenever         Under  the  guidance  of  this  large  body  of  labourers 

the  Catholics  were  successful,  they  have  been  satisfied  for  the  Church,  the  religious  life  in  Belgium  is  intense, 

with  kteping  the  power  in  their  hands;  they  have  and  the  works  of  piety  and  charity  are  ver^  numerous. 

not  exercised  it  to  carry  out  their  programme.     No  Statistics  of  these  charities  are  given  in  Madame 

Catholic  wrones  have  been  redressed;  every  law  made  Charles  Vloebergh's  ''La  Belgique  charitable",  in 

by  the  Liberus  against  the  Church  and  the  clergy  the  pi^ace  to  which  M.  Beemaert  states  that  no 

has  remained  unrepealed,  and  it  was  only  in  1884  country  has  their  e^ual.     Belgium  also  takes  a  share 

that  the  Government,  supported  by  the  entire  nation,  out  of   all  proportion  to  the  size  of  its  territory 

felt  strong  enough  to  inaugurate  a  bolder  p>olicy.  in  international  works  of  piety  and  in  foreign  mi»- 

Bat  the  revision  of  the  School  Law  of  1879  is  the  sions.    It  is  at  the  head  of  the  work  of  the  Eucnaristic 

solitary  instance  of  this  progress,  and  will  probably  Conjop'ess,  two  of  its  bishops,  Monseigneur  Do^treloux, 

continue  to  be  so  for  some  time  to  come.  of  Li^e,  and  Monseigneur  Heylen,  of  Namur,  having 

The  social  condition  of  the  Catholic  religion  in  been   the   first  two  presidents  of  the  association. 

Belgium,  while  doubtless  favourable,  is  not,  there-  Five  sessions  of  this  congress  have  been  held  in 

fore,  free  from  danj^.    The  School  Law  of  1884,  Belgium;  at  Li^  (1883),  ^twerp,  Brussels,  Namur, 

amended  in  1895,  is  inadequate  to  guarantee  the  and  Toumai.    Equally  distinguisned  are  the  servicer 

Christian  education  of  the  people.     It  is  evaded  by  of  Belgium  in  the  sphere  of  Catholic  missions.    The 

the  mimicipal  government  of  the  capital,  which  man-  congregation  of  secular  priests  of  the  Immaculate 

ages  by  trickery  to  exempt  the  majority  of  the  Heart  of  Mary,  founded  at  Scheutveld  near  Brussels 

children  from  rdigious  instruction,  and  even  in  the  in  1862,  labour  for  the  evangelization  of  Mongolia  and 

Liberal  communes,  where  the  pupils  receive  religious  the  Congo;  several  of  their  members  have  suffered 

instruction,  it  is  neutralized  by  the  lessons  nven  martyrdom  in  these  countries.    The  Belgian  Jesuits 

them  by  tneir  freethinking  teachers.     Many  of  the  have  for  their  mission-field  Calcutta  and  Western 

public  schoob  are  now  developing  generations  of  Bengal.      Their    missionaries    are    trained    in    the 

unbelievers.    This  is  a  matter  tnat  needs  attention.  Apostolic    school    established    at    Tumhout.      The 

It  is  also  imperative  to  re-enforce  the  Catholic  army  American  seminary  at  Louvain  (1857)  aids  in  re- 

by  drawing  recruits  from  the  only  source  open  to  it,  cruiting  the  secular  clergv  of  the  United  States. 

namely,  the  people.    To  do  this  the  Government  Other  religious  orders  alsolabour  for  the  evangeliza- 

must  accentuate  the  character  of  its  social  legislation,  tion  of  foreign  regions.    The  toils  and  heroism  of  a 

which  is  too  often  compromised  by  provisions  which  number  of  the  Belgian  missionaries  have  given  them 

deprive  it  of  a  large  part  of  its  effectiveness.    Th#  a  world-wide  renown;  such  are.  Father  Charles  de 

law  on  trade  unions  deprives  them  of  the  means  Smedt,  the  apostle  to  the  Indians  of  the  Rocky 

most  likdjy  to  make  them  prosper,  which  is  to  make  Mountains,  and  Father  Damien  de  Veuster,  who  de' 

^ade.    The  law  on  labour  accidents  would  be  ex-  voted  himself  to  the  lepers  of  Molokai. 

oeOent,  if  insurance   against   accidents  was  made        The  great  success  of  Catholicism  in  Belgium  is 

oUi^toiy.    The   law  enjoining   the   Simday   rest,  largely  explained  by  the  freedom  it  enjoys  under  the 

earned  with  the  co-operation  m  the  Socialists,  con-  Constitution.     ''The  freedom  of  religions  and  their 

tains  such  a  large  ntmiber  of  exceptions  and  is  en-  public  exercise,  as  well  as  the  right  to  the  expression 

forced  with   such  want  of  earnestness  that  it  is  of  opinions  on  all  subjects  are  guaranteed,  with  the 

almost  a  dead  letter.    The  Socialists  declare,  often  exception  of  misdemeanours  committed  in  exercising 

with  a  amnblanoe  of  truth,  that  the  laws  passed  to  this  liberty''  (art.  14).    The  sole  restriction  to  this 

benefit  the  workingmen  are  mere  blinds,  and  it  is  liberty  is  contained  in  article  16  of  the  Constitution 

XL— 26 


BXLOXUM  406 

which  sa^  that  a  civil  marriage  must  always  precede  obliged  to  have  at  least  one  school,  but  it  may  b% 
the  religious  ceremony,  with  such  exceptions  as  may  relieved  of  this  responsibility  if  it  is  shown  that 
be  established  by  law.  The  priest  who,  in  fulfillii^  private  initiative  has  made  sufficient  provision  for 
his  duty,  blesses  a  marriage  in  extremis  under  this  uistruction.  The  State  intervmes  also  in  primary 
article  is  in  danger  of  prosecution  and  condemnation:  instruction  by  means  of  its  normal  schools  tor  male 
the  law  which  the  Constitution  provided  for,  and  and  female  teachers,  by  employing  school  inspectors 
which  would  have  protected  such  cases,  has  never  whose  business  it  is  to  see  whether  all  the  l^al  re- 
been  passed.  With  the  exception  of  this  and  the  law  quirements  are  observed,  and  by  the  subsidies  granted 
authorizing  divorce,  to  which,  however,  recourse  is  to  communes  which  cany  out  the  law. 
seldom  haS,  it  may  be  said  that  the  legislation  of  -  Compared  with  these  State  institutions  the  schools 
Belgium  conforms  to  the  Catholic  standard  of  established  for  free  education  are  eoual  and  in  several 
morality.  Although  the  Church  is  independent  in  respects  superior.  The  Catholic  University  of  Lou- 
Belgium,  and  the  country  has  no  State  religion,  it  vain,  founded  by  the  bishops,  has  2200  students;  it 
does  not  follow  that  the  governmental  and  the  re-  is  surrounded  by  several  institutes,  one  of  the  most 
ligious  authorities  have  no  connexion  with  each  famous  of  which  is  the  ''Institut  philosophique",  of 
otner.  Tradition  and  custom  have  produced  numer-  which  Monseigneur  Mercier,  now  Caroinal  Arch- 
ous  points  of  contact  and  relations  of  courtesy  be-  bishop  of  Mecmin,  was  the  founder  and  first  president 
tween  Church  and  State.  The  latter  pays  the  stipends  (until  1906).  The  Episcopal  Institute  of  St.  Louis 
of  the  Catholic  clergy  as  well  as  of  the  clergy  of  the  at  Brussels  and  the  Jesuit  CoU^  of  Notre-Dame  at 
Protestant  and  Jewish  religions,  very  moderate  Namur  prepare  pupils  for  the  <^rees  of  philosophy 
salaries  which  have  been  slishtly  increased  by  a  law  and  letters.  There  are  90  free  collies  for  interme- 
passed  in  1900.  The  State  also  assists  in  the  expense  diate  instruction,  most  of  them  cuocesan,  others 
of  erecting  buildings  for  religious  purposes  and  of  carried  on  by  the  different  religious  orders,  among 
keeping  them  in  repair.  The  parishes  have  been  whom  the  Jesuits  take  the  leiiul  with  12  colleges, 
granted  a  civil  existence  and  can  nold  propertjr;  each  having  5500  pupils.  The  free  colleges  have  a  total 
parish  has  a  board  of  administration,  of  which  the  of  1S,000  pupils,  which  is  more  than  three  times  that 
mayor  of  the  town  is  a  member  by  law,  for  the  aid  of  of  corresponding  State  schools.  The  situation  in  the 
the  clergy  in  the  management  of  the  finances  of  the  intermediate  classes  of  the  lower  grade  is  not  so 
Church.  The  Liberal  party,  it  is  true,  has  tried  a  satisfactory  for  Catholics  and  may  be  called  the  dark 
number  of  times  to  get  control  of  the  church  prop-  pase  of  their  school  statistics, 
erty^  but  the  law  of  1870  (a  compromise  law),  con-  Since  1879  the  subject  of  primarv  education  has 
ceming  the  temporalities  of  the  different  religions,  been  the  real  battle-neld;  during  this  struggle  the 
only  requires  the  supervision  of  the  public  authorities  Catholics  almost  attained  the  ideal,  having  at  least 
over  expenses  concerning  which  the  intervention  of  one  school  in  almost  every  commune.  But  this  was 
these  authorities  is  requested.  Students  at  the  the-  done  at  the  cost  of  great  sacrifices,  so  that  since  the 
ological  seminaries,  who  are  to  be  parish  priests,  are  suppression  of  the  '^Law  of  Misfortune''  (Lot  de 
exempted  from  military  duty.  Finally,  the  civil  au-  maOieur)  of  1879,  which  had  taken  the  Christian 
thorities  are  officiallv  present  at  the  "Te  Deum"  character  from  the  primary  schools,  Catholics  have 
which  is  sung  on  the  national  anniversaries;  and  accepted  the  communal  schools  in  their  renewed 
except  during  the  period  of  1880-84  (see  above)  the  Christian  form  and  have  given  up  those  which  they 
Government  has  maintained  diplomatic  relations  .had  founded.  The  State,  moreover,  subsidizes  the 
with  the  Holy  See.  free  schools  when  they  give  the  guarantees  neces- 
VI.  Education. — ^The  most  successful  work  of  the  sary  from  a  pedagogical  point  of  view,  and  it  au- 
Belgian  Church  has  been  done  in  the  field  of  educa-  thorizes  the  communes  to  adopt  them  as  communal 
tion,  in  spite  of  most  violent  opposition  on  the  part  of  schools.  Notwithstanding  this,  the  l^slation  con- 
the  Liberal  party.  Article  17  of  the  Constitution,  ceming  primary  teaching  is  far  from  beine  absolutely 
says,  concerning  instruction:  '^ Teaching  is  free;  all  satisfactory;  the  large  conmiunes  evade  or  even 
preventive  measures  are  forbidden;  the  repression  of  openlv  disregard  the  law,  and  it  is  only  at  long  in- 
ofifences  is  reserved  to  the  law.  Public  instruction  tervafs  that  the  Government  interferes  to  check  the 
given  by  the  State  is  equally  regulated  by  law.^  The  most  scandalous  abuses.  The  law  puts  the  State 
Constitution,  therefore,  supposes  at  the  same  time  a  instruction  and  the  free  teaching  on  an  absolute 
free  instruction  and  an  instruction  by  the  State;  it  equality,  and  this  equality  is  maintained  by  the 
guarantees  complete  liberty  to  the  first  and  sub-  Government;  the  diplomas  granted  by  the  free  uni- 
ordinates  the  latter  to  the  enactments  of  the  law.  versities  open  the  way  to  government  positions  just 
The  Catholics  alone  have  made  use  of  this  article  of  as  do  those  granted  by  the  State  universities;  the 
the  Constitution  to  establish  a  flourishing  series  of  certificates  given  by  the'  free  institutes  are  equal  to 
schools  and  colleges  leading  up  to  a  university.    The  those  of  the  State  schoob. 

Liberals  have  contented  themselves  with  founding  VII.  Cemeteries. — It   is   only   by  the   greatest 

a  university  (subsidized  by  the  city  of  Brussels  ana  exertions  that  the  Catholics  of  Belgium  have  saved 

the  province  of  Brabant)  and  an  insignificant  num-  the  Catholic  schools.     In  regard  to  the  question  of 

ber  of  schools,  and  are  ^nerally  satisfied  with  State  cemeteries  they  have  shown  less  vigour.    The  decree 

instruction  for  their  children*  this  instruction  they  of  Prairial  of   the  year  XII  (1804),  by  which  the 

endeavour  to  make  as  neutral,  that  is,  as  irreligious  cemeteries  of  Belgium  were  reflated,  stipulated  that, 

as  possible.    They  also  favour  in  every  way  State  in-  in  localities  where  several  religions  exist,  each  form 

struction   to   the   detriment   of   the   free   teaching,  of  faith  should  have  its  own  cemetery,  ana  that  where 

There  are  two  State  universities,  Ghent  and  Li^,  there  was  but  one  cemetery  it  should  be  divided  into 

which   have,  respectively,  1000  and  2000  students,  as  many  sections  as  there  were  different  denomina- 

There   are   also   20   State    atheneeums   with    6000  tions.    The  Catholic  cemeteries,  in  conformitv  with 

students,  besides  7  communal  colleges  having  about  the  Ritual,  had  separate  sections  for  those  who  had 

1000  pupils;   these    institutions  are  for    secondary  died  in  conununion  with  the  Church,  for  infants 

education  in  its  upper  classes.    The  lower  classes  are  dying  without  baptism,  for  those  to  whom  the  Church 

taught  in  112  intermediate  schools,  78  of  which  are  had  refused  religious  burial,  and  for  free-thinkers 

for  boys  and  34  for  girls,  with  a  total  of  20,000  pupils,  who  died  outside  of  the  Catholic  communion.    There 

There  are  also  11  intermediate  schools  opened  oy  the  was  no  conflict  until  1862  when,  obedient  to  the  order 

communes,  5  for  boys  and  6  for  girls,  with  a  total  of  of  the  Freemason  lodges,  the  Liberals  declared  the 

4000  pupils.     The  law  of  1895  makes  the  communes  law  of  1804  to  be  unconstitutional.    The  Govem- 

responsible  for  primary  instruction;  each  commune  is  ment,  then  carried  on  by  the  Libert,  left  it  to  the 


BSLOBADE 


407 


BELORADO 


oommiinal  authorities  to  apply  the  law  of  1804  or 
not,  and  for  some  fifteen  years  the  law  was  disre- 
garded or  observed  at  the  pleasure  of  the  mayors  of 
the  towns.  With  the  lapse  of  time  the  enforcement 
of  the  law  declined,  and  a  further  step  was  taken;  in 
1879,  the  year  of  the  Loi  de  mcUheury  the  Court  of 
Gusation  suddenl;^  changed  its  traditional  method 
and  b^gan  to  convict  those  mayors  who  enforced  the 
law  of  1804.  From  this  date  the  enforcement  of  the 
law  became  a  misdemeanour,  and  many  adverse  sen- 
tences fell  on  the  authorities  who  believed  them- 
selves bound  in  conscience  to  maintain  this  decree. 
Owing  to  the  inactivity  of  the  Catholics,  there  has 
been,  since  that  time,  no  freedom  with  regard  to  ceme- 
teries in  Belgium. 

CiAESSENa,  La  Belffigue  dvrHienne  depuia  la  conguHe  fran^ 
poite  puqu'h  not  jowrt,  1794-1880  (Brussels,  1883);  Db  Lanzao 
DB  Laborib,  La  domination  francaiae  en  Belffique,  1796-1814 
(Fkris,  1896);  Van  Caenqhbm,  La  ffuerre  dea  paytana  (Grain- 
mont.  1900):  De  Qsrlache,  Hittoire  du  royaume  de»  Paya- 
Baa  (Brussels.  1875);  Terlinden,  GutUawne  /,  roidea  Paya- 
Ba$,  d  VEgliae  eatholunte  en  Belgtque,  1814-1830  (Brussels, 
1906):  Juste,  La  r^olution  bdge  de  ISSOjCBruneiB,  1872); 
0»LENBRANDER,  De  BelgUche  omwenteling  (The  Hasue,  1905); 
T&ONUSKN,  La  Belgique  aoua  le  rhgne  de  Liopold  I  (Li^, 
1865-*1858);  Balau,  Soixante-dix  ana  d'kiatoire  contemporatne 
de  Bdffimte,  1816-1884  (Brussels.  1889):  Discailles,  CAar2es 
Swer  (Brussels,  1893-95);  Htmans,  rrire-Orban  (Brussels, 
1905);  NT8SEN8.  Eudore  Ptrmet  (Brussels,  1893);  De  Trannot, 
Jvia  Malou  (Brussels.  1893);  Verraeobn.  La  httte  aeolaire 
m  Bfigique  (Ghent,  1905);  Van  Hoorebeke,  HiaUnre  de  la 
voHtique  contemporatne  en  Belgique  depuia  1830  (Brussels, 
1905);  Bertrand.  HiaUnre  de  la  aSmocratie  et  du  aoctaliame  en 
Bdgique  devuia  1830  (Brussels.  1906);  MacDonnel,  King 
Leopold  II:  nia  Rule  in  Belgium  and  the  Congo  (London,  1905); 
Blok,  OeacMedenia  van  ket  nederlandache  voUc  (Leyden,  1907). 
Statistics  of  Belgium  in  the  Cenaua  of  31  December,  \§Q0\ 
Apnmtire  de  atatiatique  (1906);  Annuaire  du  dergi  beige  (1906); 
Vloebebghs,  La  Belgique  charitable  (Bnissels,  1904). 

QODEFROin  KURTH. 

Belgrade  and  Smederevo,  titular  (united)  sees 
of  Servia.  The  history  of  these  sees  is  as  confused  as 
their  present  plight  is  pitiful  from  the  Catholic  stand- 
point. Dalmatia  ana  Illyria  claim  St.  Titus,  Uie 
disciple  of  St.  Paul,  as  their  first  Christian  missionary; 
but  the  first  Bishop  of  Belgrade,  Theodosius,  dates 
only  from  1059.  As  the  ancient  Sineidunum,  how- 
ever, it  was  an  episcopal  see  in  the  K>urth  century, 
but  gradually  declined  during  the  invasions  of  the 
barbarian  Slavs.  The  medieval  see  was  founded  by 
the  Kin£  of  Croatia.  The  Hungarians  and  the  Vene- 
tians (uiBputed  the  possession  of  Belgrade  (Serb 
Beograd,  white  city).  The  latter  having  destroyed 
the  town  (1126),  the  episcopal  see  was  transferred  to 
ihe  neighbouring  Scardona,  so  extensively  embel- 
lished by  them  that  it  received  the  name  of  Scardona 
Nova.  Religion  had  long  flourished  there,  for  one  of 
the  bishops  at  the  Council  of  Salona  (530)  signs  as 
EpUcopus  EcclesuB  ScardonitaruB,  On  the  occasion 
01  the  transfer  to  Scardona  the  title  of  Belgrade  dis- 
am)ear8  for  centuries  from  ecclesiastical  history, 
lii  neighbouring  city  of  Smederevo  (Lat,  Semendria) 
was  also  an  episcopal  see.  Gams  gives  the  names  of 
four  of  its  bishops  from  1544  to  1605,  a  list,  begin- 
niiu;  1334,  of  bishops  whom  he  styles  "of  Belgrade 
and  Semendria''  (Nadoralbenses  et  Belgradenses).  It 
is  certain  that  in  1650  Innocent  X  re-established  the 
title  and  See  of  Belgrade;  for  a  Brief  (4  December, 
1651)  is  extant  addressed  to  Matthew  Benlich, 
Episcapm  BellegradensiSf  EcdesuB  Samadiensis  Ad" 
minutratorj  creating  him  vicar  Apostolic  for  those 
sees  of  the  Church  of  Hungary  which  were  under 
Turkish  domination. 

In  1729  the  two  Dioceses  of  Belgrade  and  Smede- 
revo were  united  by  Benedict  XllI,  and  in  1733 
Vincent  Bagradin  became  the  first  holder  of  the 
double  title.  Thenceforward  the  list  of  bishops  is 
Poular  and  complete.  The  "Notizie  di  Roma"  (the 
omeial  annual  of^the  Holy  See)  gives  the  names  of  all 
the  prelates  of  this  see.  Until  recent  vears  Belgrade 
tnd  Smederevo  were  considered  residential  sees;  it 
is  expressly  90  stated  in  the  consistory  of  1858.     It 


was  added  that  these  two  sees  (ancient  Alba  Grseca 
and  Sinffidunum  respectively)  were  suffrafans  of  the 
metropolitan  See  of  Antivari,  and  that  the  nominar 
tion  to  them  resided  in  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  **  but 
as  thev  are  held  by  the  infidels,  their  actual  state  is 
passed  over  in  silence".  For  many  years  the  title 
was  given  to  the  auxiliary  of  an  Hungarian  bishop 
(at  present  to  the  auxiliary  of  the  ^chbishop  of 
Zagrab)  who  was  bound  to  reside  with  his  superior. 
The  "Gerarchia"  for  1906,  without  giving  any  notice 
of  the  chjE^nge,  has  transferred  this  see  to  the  list  of 
titular  bishoprics,  though  Bishop  Krapac,  who  now 
holds  the  title,  was  named  in  1904  as  a  residential 
bishop. 

The  present  condition  of  this  Church  is  most 
lamentaDle.  The  limits  of  the  diocese  are  those  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Servia,  which  has  an  area  of  18,630 
square  miles  and  a  population  (1905)  of  2,676,989, 
belonging  for  the  most  part  to  the  Greek  schism, 
which  is  the  official  religion  of  the  State.  Since  1851 
the  Bishop  of  Diakovar  acts  as  administrator  Apos- 
tolic; since  1886  the  territory  is  united  to  the  eccle- 
siastical province  of  Scutari  (iCirch.  Handlex.,  1, 533). 
There  are  only  two  or  three  priests,  who  divide  their 
activities  between  the  three  principal  stations  of 
Belgrade  (4,000  Catholics),  Kragujevatz  (200),  and 
Nisn  (1,000).  There  are  also  seven  secondaiy  sta- 
tions, numbering  about  1 ,000  Catholics  all  told.  (It  is 
to  be  noted  that  according  to  the  "Statesman's  Year 
Book"  for  1907.  the  Servian  census  of  1900  gives 
10,243  Catholics.)  One  church,  two  chapels,  and  two 
elementary  schools  (at  Belgrade  and  Nish  respect- 
ively) complete  the  list  of  the  mission's  resources. 

Tne  statistics  say  nothing  of  Uniat  Greeks,  which 
leads  us  to  suppose  that  these  Latin  Catholics  are 
only  western  Europeans  whose  business  obliges  them 
to  reside  in  Servia.  Belgrade  has  (1905)  a  population 
of  80,747.  Situated  on  tne  right  bank  of  the  Danube, 
just  below  the  Save,  it  has  always  been  a  natural 
fortress,  and  as  such  is  famous  in  military  history. 
From  1522  to  1867  it  passed  alternately  from  Turks 
to  Austrians;  in  the  latter  year  the  Turkish  garrison 
was  withdrawn,  and  in  1878,  by  the  Treaty  of  Berlin, 
Belgrade  became  Uie  capital  of  the  new  Christian 
Kii^;dom  of  Servia. 

Mtaaionea  C a^udiea  il906);  Gams.  Sertea  Eviacoporum,  396; 
EuBEL,  I.  371,  II,  219;  Farlati.  Ilyr.  Saer.  (176^1819),  IV, 
1-9,  VIII,  144-151,  260-264;  Kallat,  Oeachichle  dea  Smimi 
(1878);  MoLLAT,  La  Serbia  coniemporaine  (Parui  1902). 

Albert  Battandier. 

Belgrado,  Giacopo,  Italian  Jesuit  and  natural 
philosopher,  b.  at  Udine,  16  November,  1704;  d.  in 
the  same  city,  26  March,  1789.  He  belonged  to  a 
noble  family  and  received  his  early  education  at 
Padua.  He  entered  the  novitiate  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  16  October,  1723,  and  showed  marked  talent, 
studying  mathematics  and  philosophy  at  Bologna 
imder  Father  Luigi  Marchenti,  a  former  pupil  of 
Varignon  at  Paris.  After  completing  his  philosophi- 
cal studies  he  taught  letters  for  several  years  at 
Venice,  where  he  won  the  a£fection  of  his  students 
as  well  as  the  esteem  and  friendship  of  the  scholars 
of  that  city.  He  studied  theology  at  Parma  and 
then  became  professor  of  mathematics  and  physics  at  * 
the  university,  holding  this  position  for  twelve  years. 
While  at  Parma  he  <fid  much  experimental  work  in 
phvsics  with  apparatus  specially  constructed  by  two 
of  his  assistants.  After  pronouncing  his  solemn  vows, 
on  2  February,  1742,  Belgrado  was  summoned  to  the 
court,  where  he  was  appointed  confessor,  first  to  the 
Duchess  and  later  to  the  Duke  Don  Philippo.  The  ti- 
tle of  mathematician  of  the  court  was  also  bestowed  on 
him.  In  1757  he  erected  an  observatory  on  one  of 
the  towers  of  the  college  of  Parma  and  furnished  it 
with  the  necessary  instruments,  In  1773  he  became 
rector  of  the  college  of  Bologna.  He  was  a  member 
of  most  of  the  academies  of  Italy  and  a  corresponding 


BELIAL  408  BELIEF 

'  member  of  the  Acad^mie  des  Sciences  of  Paris.    He  As  the  objects  of  belief,  also,  are -of  a  nature  similai 

was  likewise  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Arcadian  to  those  of  knowledge,  opinion,  and  doubt,  so,  again, 

colony  of  Parma.    He  wrote  on  a  variety  of  subjects,  no  criterion  of  division  can  be  found  in  them  (as  in 

among  his  works   being:   "I   Fenomeni   Elettrici"  the  case  of  the  objects  of  Separate  faculties)  to  dis- 

(1749);  "Delia  riflessione  de' corpi  dair  acqua  e  della  tinguish  it  from  other  mental  states.     St.  Thomas 

diminuzione  della  mole  de'  sassi  ne'  torrenti  e  ne'  Aquinas  qualifies  his  definition  of  faith  with  the  addi- 

fiumi"   (1755);   "De  analyseos  vulgaris  usu  in  re  tion  of  the  note  of  certainty  (Summa,  I-II,  Q.  i, 

physicA"  (1761-62);  "Delle  sensazioni  del  freddo  e  a.  4).     Though  he  treats  of  faith  as  a  theological 

del  calore*'  (1764);    "Theoria  Cochleae  Archimedis"  virtue  in  the  article  cited,  his  words  may  weU  be 

(1767);  "Deir  esistenza  di  Dio  da'  teoremi  geomet-  extended  to  include  belief  as  a  purely  natural  state 

rici"  (1777),  etc.  of  the  mind.    It  vnll  thus  be  seen  to  cover  intellectual 

Mazxuchblli.  Gli  Scrittori  d'ltalia  (Brescia  1760),  II.  ii;  assent  to  truths  accepted  on  authority  either  human 

SoMMBBvoQEL.  BtWu»(A*g«*  deiac.de  J.  (new  edPa^^^).  ^j.  pj^j^g     j^^  ^yie  former  case  belief  may  be  desig- 

nated  by  the  synonjmi  credence;  in  the  latter  the 

Belial,  found  frequently  as  a  personal  name  in  more  usual  term  is  faith.    Often,  also,  belief  is  used 

the  Vulgate  and  vanous  English  translations  of  the  in  the  sense  of  fiducial  or  trust;  and  this  especially 

Bible,  is  commonly  used  as  a  synonym  of  Satan,  or  in  Protestant  theology  as  a  substitute  for  faith.    By 

the  personification  of  evil.    This  sense  is  derived  from  the  definition  given  above  we  are  enabled  to  distin- 

II  (jor.,  vi,  15,  where  Belial  (or  Beliar)  as  prince  of  guish  belief  (1)  from  intelligence,  in  that  the  truth 

darkness  is  contrasted  with  Christ,  the  light.    It  is  of  the  fact  or  proposition  bdieved  is  not  seen  intui- 

clear  in  the  Vulgate  and  Douay  translations  of  III  tively;  (2)  from  science  or  knowledge,  since  there  is 

Kings,  xxi.  10  and  13,  where  the  same  Hebrew  word  no  question  of  resolving  it  into  its  first  principles; 

is  renderea  once  as  Belial  and  twice  as  "the  devil".  (3)  from  doubt,  because  belief  is  an  assent  and  posi- 

In  tJhe  other  instances,  too,  the  translators  understood  tive;  (4)  from  opinion  and  conjecture,  in  which  the 

it  as  a  name  for  the  prince  of  evil,  and  so  it  has  passed  assent  is  not  complete. 

into  English.    Milton,  however,  distinguishes  Belial        Belief,  however,  as  has  already  been  noted,  is 

from  Satan,  regarding  him  as  the  demon  of  impurity,  often  indiscriminatingly  used  for  these  and  for  other 

In  the  Hebrew  Bible,  nevertheless,  the  word  is  not  states  of  mind  from  wmch  for  the  sake  of  accuracy  it 

a  proper  name,  but  a  common  noun  usually  signifying  should  be  as  carefully  distinguished  as  is  possible, 

"wickedness"    or    "extreme    wickedness".      Thus,  Though  we  ma^  know  a  thing  and  at  the  same  time 

Moore  renders  **  sons  of  Behal "  as  "  vile  scoimdrels "  believe  it  (as  m  the  case  of  the  existence  of  God, 

(Judges,  xix,  22);  most  prefer  "worthless  fellows",  which  is  a  natural  verity  as  well  as  a  revealed  truth). 

In  some  cases  belial  seems  to  mean  "destruction",  it  is  in  the  interest  of  clearness  that  we  should  keep 

"ruin";  thus  in  Ps.,  xU,  9  (Heb.),  the  word  is  parallel  to  the  distinction  drawn  and  not  confound  belief 

to  the  thought  of  utter  destruction  and  seems  to  and  knowledge,  because  of  the  fact  that  the  same 

mean  the  same.     In  Ps.,  xviii,  6,  it  is  parallel  to  truth  may  simultaneously  be  the  object  of  both, 

"death"  and  "Sheol";  some  understand  it  as  "de-  But  there  is  another  very  general  use  of  the  term 

struction ", Cheyne  as  "the  abyss".    The  etymology  belief  in  which  it  is  taken  to  designate  assent  com- 

of  the  word  hv'^2  is  doubtful;  it  is  usually  given  as  PJete  enough  to  exclude  any  practical  doubt  and  yet 

^3,  "  not ",  ^'  without ",  and  h)P,  a  verb  which  occure  ^j^^J^'^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

^°^^^l^?''Pt".^nrfit'^^^^^^  mrn^^orviSs^reLri'^^^^^^^^^ 

rpy^  V3,  that  from  which  no  one  comes  up,  nanaely,  to  produce  a  practically  unqualified  assent.     While 

the  abyss,  Sheol.    St.  Jerome's  etymology  "without  this  would  seem  to  fall  under  the  Scholastic  head  of 

yoke",  which  he  has  even  mserted  as  a  gloss  m  the  opinion,  it  is  the  point  about  which  has  turned  the 

text  of  Judges,  xix,  22,  is  contrary  to  Hebrew  philol-  controversy  that  has  been  waged  since  David  Hume 

ogy.      Behal,  from   meaning   wickedness  or  Sheol,  brought  the  question  into  prominence  upon  the  philo- 

could  develop  into  a  name  for  the  pnnce  of  evil  or  of  gophic  issue.     Briefly,  to  select  a  certain  number  of 

darkness;  and  as  such  was  widely  u^  at  the  pegm-  typical  writers  for  examination,  the  issues  involved 

ning  of  our  era.     Under  the  names  Beliar,  Benal,  he  are  these.    How  far  do  we  believe — in  the  sense  of 
plays  a 
m  the 
cles' 

arehs".     He  is  the  prince  of  this  worid  and  will  would  restrict  our  knowledge  to  purely  ideal  truths, 

come  as  Antichrist;  his  name  is  sometimes  given  We  are  capable  of  knowing,  according  to  the  Scotch 

also  to  Nero,  returning  as  Antichrist.  sceptic,  such  ideal  principles  as  those  of  mathemat- 

u^^'''ji^'^-^\^Cl^:lml"^'^'\S''^:^.  [«.  tofifther  with   (he  conclusions  that  are  derived 

Did.   of  Bible   (New   York,    1903);    Deane,   Paeudepiarapha  from    them.      But    our    attribution    of   an    objective 

(Edinburgh,  1891);  LiksferRE  in  Vio..  Diet,  de  la  Bible  (Paris,  reality  to  what  we  imagine  to  be  the  causes  of  sensa- 

'^;iiZTFei/^j7^/<^'^,^:"i^^^  «on«  i«  a.bejif  •    So  also  are  such  judgmente  as  tl«t 

John  F.  Fenlon.  ^'  *^"G  principle  of  causality.    We  cannot  be  said  to 

know,  but  to  believe,  that  there  is  actually  such  a 
Belief  (6c  and  lyiarif  to  hold  dear),  that  state  of  relation  as  that  of  effect  to  cause.  We  believe  this, 
the  mind  by  which  it  assents  to  propositions,  not  by  and  other  similar  truths,  because  of  a  peculiar  char- 
reason  of  their  intrinsic  evidence,  but  because  of  acter  of  vivacity,  solidity,  firmness,  or  steadinesB 
authority.  Though  the  term  is  commonly  used  in  attaching  to  our  conceptions  of  them.  The  division 
ordinary  language,  as  well  as  in  much  philosophical  is  an  arbitrary  one  and  the  explanation  offered  as  to 
writing,  to  cover  a  great  many  states  of  mina,  the  the  nature  of  belief  unsatisfactory  and  insufl^ent. 
quasi-definition  advanced  is  probably  the  best  Similarly,  James  Mill  would  have  the  assent  given  to 
calculated  to  dififerentiate  belief  from  all  other  forms  the  objective  reality  of  beincs  a  belief.  With  him 
of  mental  assent.  In  framing  it,  respect  is  paid  to  the  the  occasion  of  the  belief  is  tlie  association  of  ideas: 
motive  of  the  assent  rather  than  to  its  nature;  for.  or,  rather,  as  he  wrongly  states  it,  the  association  of 
since  intellectufU  assent  is  of  its  nature  simple  ana  ideas  is  the  belief.  If  oelief  is  a  state  of  mind  at  all, 
indivisible,  no  differentia  proximce  can  be  assigned  it  can  scarcely  be  described  as  an  association  of  ideas, 
by  which  it  coula  be  separated  into  various  species.  Such  an  association  could  at  most  be  considered  " 


409 


a  cause  of  the  belief.  John  Stuart  Mill  in  his  note 
to  his  father's  Analysis,  makes  belief  a  primitive 
fact.  It  is  impossible  to  analyze  it.  Locke,  though 
he  deals  at  some  length  with  belief,  does  not  try  to 
analyze  it  or  do  more  than  assign  objects  to  it  and 
investigate  the  grounds  of  credibility.  Alexander 
Bain  originally  held  belief  to  be  a  function  of  the  will 
rather  than  a  state  of  the  intellect.  In  his  opinion  it 
was  the  development  of  the  will  under  the  pursuit  of 
immediate  enos.  Later,  he  modified  this  opinion, 
and,  while  retaining  the  essentially  volitional  and 
emotional  character,  or  tendency,  as  causes,  relegated 
the  act  of  belief  itself  to  the  intellectual  part  of  man's 
nature.  Father  Maher.  S.J.,  whose  admirable  treat- 
ment of  the  whole  subject  ought  to  be  consulted, 
advances  an  acute  criticism  of  Dr.  Bain's  position. 
He  points  out  (1)  that  readiness  to  act  is  a  test  of 
belief,  not  the  belief  itself;  (2)  that  belief  is  generally 
not  active  but  characteristically  passive;  (3)  that 
primitive  credulity,  which  Bain  makes  a  chief  factor 
m  belief,  involves  a  vicious  circle,  explaining,  as  it 
does,  belief  by  credulity  or  believing. 

A  not  inconsiderable  part  of  the  "Grammar  of 
Assent"  is  concerned  with  this  subject,  though 
hardly  dealing  with  the  problem  on  the  foregoing 
lines.  In  his  treatment  of  "Simple  Assent",  and 
especially  in  sections  4  and  5  of  Cnapter  iv,  Par.  1, 
Cardinal  Newman's  view  can  be  found.  He  calls 
the  notional  assent  that  we  give  to  first  principles 
presumption.  We  cannot  be  said  to  trust  our  powers 
of  reasoning  or  memory  as  faculties,  though  we  may 
be  supposed  to  have  a  trust  in  any  one  of  their  par- 
ticular acts.  That  external  nature  exists  is  a  first 
principle  and  is  founded  upon  an  instinct.  The  use 
of  the  term  is  justified  by  the  consideration  that  the 
brute  creation  also  possesses  it.  Further,  "the  belief 
in  causation"  is  one  of  these  presumptions,  and  the 
assent  to  it  notional.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  "we 
believe  without  any  doubt  that  we  exist;  that  we 
have  an  individuality  and  identity  all  our  own; 
.  .  .  that  we  have  a  present  sense  of  good  and  evil, 
of  a  right  and  a  wrong.  ..."  Again:  "Assent  on 
reasonings  not  demonstrative  is  too  widely  recog- 
nized an  act  to  be  irrational,  imless  man's  nature  is 
irrational,  too  familiar  to  the  prudent  and  clear- 
minded  to  be  an  infirmity  or  an  extravagance."  It 
will  be  noted  that  Newman  (1)  justifies  belief  as  an 
assent  because  based  on  a  common  use  of  the  rational 
faculty.  Demonstrative^  grounds  may  be  lacking, 
but  tne  conviction  is  none  the  less  neither  an  in- 
firmity nor  an  extravagance,  but  rational.  (2)  He 
groups  belief  and  knowledge  together  under  the 
heading  of  presumption  without  drawing  any  hard 
and  fast  line  between  them.  And  indeed,  from  the 
point  of  view  of  mere  assent,  there  is  nothing  psycho- 
logical by  which  they  are  to  be  distinguishea:  since 
assent  itself,  as  has  been  noted,  is  a  simple  and  ulti- 
mate fact.  The  difference  lies  elsewhere.  In  this 
broader  sense  of  belief,  it  is  to  be  found  in  the  ante- 
cedent cause  of  the  assent.  For  knowledge  there 
will  be  explicit,  for  belief  implicit,  intuition  or  evi- 
dence. 

Of  German  philosophers  who  have  treated  this 
topic,  Germar,  Fechner,  and  Ulrici  may  be  consulted. 
The  first  limits  belief  to  a  conscious  assent  arising 
from  fact;  that  is,  an  assent  given  without  conscious- 
ness of  its  causes  or  grounds.  In  the  case  where  the 
causes  or  grounds  become  actual  factors  in  the  con- 
sciousness, the  belief  rises  to  the  di^ty  of  knowl- 
edge. Kant's  view  naturally  has  belief  as  the  neces- 
sitated result  of  the  practical  reason.  It  is  to  be 
considered  epistemologically  rather  than  psychologic- 
ally. We  believe  in  such  truths  as  are  necessitated 
by  the  exigencies  of  our  moral  nature.  And  these 
truths  have  necessary  validity  on  account  of  the 
requirements  of  that  moral  nature.  We  need  motives 
<^n  which  to  act.    Such  beliefs  are  practical  and 


lead  to  action.  All  natural  truths  that  we  accept 
on  belief  might  conceivably  be  accepted  as  truths 
of  knowledge.  The  implicit  may  unfold  and  become 
explicit.  This  frequently  happens  in  ordinary  ex- 
pNerience.  Evidence  may  be  adduced  to  prove  asser- 
tions. Similarly,  any  truth  of  knowledge  may  be 
accepted  as  belief.  What  is  said  to  be  known  to  one 
individual  may  be,  and  often  is,  accepted  upon  his 
testimony  by  another. 

A  great  variety  of  factors  may  play  iheir  part  in 
the  genesis  of  belief.  We  are  accustomed  to  assent 
to  propositions  that  we  cannot  be  said  to  know,  on 
account  of  many  different  causes.  Some  of  them  are 
often  inadequate  and  even  frivolous.  We  frequently 
discover  that  our  beliefs  rest  on  no  stable  foundation, 
that  they  must  be  reconstructed  or  done  away  with 
altogether.  The  ordinary  reasons  upon  which  belief 
may  be  based  can  be  reduced  to  two;  testimony  and 
the  partial  evidence  of  reason.  A  third  class  of  causes 
of  belief  is  sometimes  added.  Feeling,  desire,  and 
the  wish  to  believe  have  been  noted  as  antecedent 
causes  of  the  act  of  assent.  But  that  feeling,  desire, 
or  the  wish  to  believe  is  a  direct  antecedent  is  open 
to  discussion.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  many  so- 
called  beliefs,  more  properly  described,  perhaps^  as 
trust  or  hope,  have  their  immediate  origin  in  feelings 
or  wishes;  but,  as  a  rule,  they  seem  not  to  be  capable 
of  bearii^  any  real  strain;  whereas  we  are  accustomed 
to  consider  that  belief  is  one  of  the  most  unchange- 
able of  mental  states.  Where  these  antecedents  work 
indirectly  through  the  election  of  the  will,  to  which 
reference  is  made  below,  belief  may  issue  as  a  firm 
and  certain  assent.  (1)  Testimony  is  a  vsAid  and 
satisfactory  cause  of  assent  provided  ic  possess  the 
necessary  note  of  authority,  which  is  the  sole  direct 
antecedent  of  the  ensuing  belief.  Our  ultimate  wit- 
ness must  know  his  facts  or  truths  and  be  veracious 
in  his  presentation  of  them.  Intermediate  witnesses 
must  nave  accurately  preserved  the  form  of  the 
original  testimony.  In  tne  case  of  human  testimony 
the  ordinary  rules  of  prudence  will  naturally  be  ap- 
plied before  giving  credence  to  its  statements.  Once, 
nowever,  the  question  of  knowledge  and  veracity  is 
settled,  belief  may  validly  issue  and  an  assent  be 

?;iven  as  to  a  certainty.  Oi  course  there  is  room  also 
or  doubt  or  for  opinion,  as  the  credentials  of  the 
authority  itself  may  vary  almost  indefinitely.  But 
there  is  a  further  class  of  truths  believed  upon  testi- 
mony that  does  not  fall  within  the  scope  of  natural 
investigation  and  inquiry.  The  supersensible,  supra- 
intellectual  truths  of  revelation,  at  any  rate  in  the 
E resent  state  of  man's  existence,  cannot  be  said  to 
e  assented  to  either  on  account  of  an  intuition  of 
their  nature  or  because  of  any  strict  process  of  demon- 
stration of  their  validity.  They  are  neither  evident 
in  themselves  nor  in  their  prmciples.  The  assent 
to  such  truths  is  of  the  same  nature  as  that  given  to 
truths  believed  naturally.  Only  here  the  authority 
motiving  it  is  not  human  but  Divine.  Acts  of  assent 
on  such  authority  are  known  as  acts  of  faith  and. 
theologically  speaking,  connote  the  assistance  oi 
grace.  They  are,  none  the  less,  intellectual  acts,  in 
the  eliciting  of  which  the  will  has  its  part  to  play, 
just  as  are  those  in  which  assent  is  given  to  the  au« 
thoritative  utterances  of  credible  human  witnesses. 
With  regard  to  the  nature  of  this  authority  upon 
which  such  supernatural  truths  are  assented  to  in 
faith,  it  is  sufficient  to  indicate  that  God's  knowledge 
is  infinite  and  His  veracity  absolute.  (2)  The  partial 
evidence  of  reason  has  already  been  touched  upon. 
It  may  be  noted,  however,  that  the  evidence  may  be 
relative  either  relatively  or  absolutely.  In  the  first 
case  we  may  have  recourse  to  the  authority  of  those 
who  know  for  our  belief,  or  base  it  for  ourselves  upon 
such  evidence  as  is  forthcoming.  In  the  second,  as 
is  the  case  with  much  of  the  t^ching  of  science  and 
philosophy,  ihe  whole  human  race  can  have  no  more 


BEUR 


410 


BUI. 


chan  a  strictly  so-called  belief  in  it.  Probable  opin- 
ions, conjectures,  obsciu^  or  partially  recalled 
memories,  or  any  truths  or  facts  of  whicn  we  have 
not  a  consciously  evidential  grasp,  are  the  main 
objects  of  a  belief  resultant  upon  partial  evidence. 
In  this  its  distinction  from  knowledge  Ues.  We  are 
said  to  know  intuitional  truths  as  well  as  all  those 
that  are  indirectly  evident  in  their  principles.  We 
know  all  facts  and  truths  of  our  own  personal  ex- 
perience, whether  of  consciousness  or  of  objective 
nature.  Similarly,  we  know  the  truth  of  the  reports 
of  memory  that  come  clearly  and  distinctly  into 
consciousness.  Nor  is  it  necessary,  with  Hamilton, 
to  have  recourse  to  an  initial  belief  or  trust  as  im- 
plied in  all  knowledge.  We  cannot  properly  be  said 
to  trust  our  faculties.  We  do  not  believe  evident 
truth.  (3)  With  the  two  immediate  causes  of  belief 
aJready  noted,  the  action  of  the  will  must  also  be 
alluded  to.  Under  this  head  emotion,  feeling,  and 
desire  may  conveniently  be  grouped,  since  they  play 
an  important,  though  indirect,  part  in  motiving 
assents  througn  the  election  of  the  will  and  so  causing 
belief.  The  action  of  the  will  referred  to  is  observed 
especially  in  a  selection  of  the  data  to  be  examined 
and  approved  by  the  intellect.  Where  there  are  sev- 
eral sets  of  evidences  or  partial  ar^ments,  for  and 
a^inst,  the  will  is  said  to  cause  belief  in  the  sense  of 
directing  the  intellect  to  examine  the  particular  set 
of  evidences  or  arguments  in  favour  of  the  resultant 
assent  and  to  neglect  all  that  mieht  be  ui^ged  against 
it.  In  this  case,  however,  the  oelief  can  easily  be 
referred  to  the  partial  evidence  of  reason,  in  that  as  a 
rational,  rather  than  a  volitional  act^  it  is  due  to 
the  actual  considerations  before  the  mmd.  Whether 
these  are  volimtarily  restricted  or  incomplete  from 
the  very  nature  of  the  case,  does  not  alter  the  fact 
that  the  assent  is  given  because  of  the  partial  evidence 
they  furnish.  In  faith  the  meritorious  nature  of  the 
act  of  belief  is  referred  to  this  elective  action  of  the 

wiU. 

The  effects  of  belief  may  be  summed  up  generally 
under  the  head  of  action  or  movement,  though  aU 
beliefs  are  not  of  their  nature  operative.  Indeed,  it 
would  seem  to  depend  more  on  the  nature  of  the 
content  of  the  belief  than  upon  the  act  of  believing. 
As  with  certain  truths  of  knowledge,  there  are  beliefs 
that  leave  us  unmoved  and  even  tend  to  restrict  and 
prevent  rather  than  instigate  to  action.  The  dis- 
tinction drawn  between  the  assents  of  knowledge 
and  belief  cannot  be  said  to  be  observed  at  all  closehr 
in  practice,  where  they  are  frequently  confused.  It 
is  none  the  less  undoubtedly  felt  to  exist,  and.  upon 
analysis  of  the  antecedents,  the  one  can  reaoily  be 
distinguished  from  the  other.  It  is  found  that  most 
of  the  practical  afifairs  of  ordinary  life  depend  entirely 
upon  beliefs.  In  the  vast  majority  of  cases  in  which 
action  is  called  for  it  is  impossible  to  have  strictly 
so-called  knowledge  upon  which  to  act.  In  such 
cases  belief  readily  supplies  its  place,  growing  stronger 
as  it  is  justified  by  the  event.  Without  it,  as  a  prac- 
tical incentive  to  action  and  a  justification  of  it, 
social  intercourse  would  be  an  impossibility.  Such 
things  as  our  estimates  of  the  character  of  our 
friends,  of  the  probity  of  those  with  whom  we  trans- 
act business,  are  examples  of  the  beliefs  that  play  so 
large  and  so  necessary  a  part  in  our  lives.  In  tneir 
own  subject-matter  they  are  on  a  par  with  the  reason- 
able beliefs  of  science  and  philosophy — founded,  as 
are  hypotheses  and  theories,  upon  practically  suflS- 
cient,  yet  indemonstrative  and  incomplete  data. 

Maher,  Psychology  in  SUmyhurBi  Series  (London,  1800); 
Newman,  An  Eeeay  in  Aid  of  a  Orctmmar  of  Asaent  (London, 
1870);  Bain,  Mental  and  Moral  Science  (London,  1868-72); 
Mill,  Analynt  of  the  Phenomena  of  the  Human  Mind  (London, 
1829);  J.  S.  Mill,  Notes  to  new  eaition  of  Tlie  Analyaie  (Lon- 
don, 1869);  Idku,  Dieaerlatione  and  Diecuaeiona  {London,  1859- 
75);  Sully,  Seneation  and  Intuition:  Studiee  in  Peyt^lomf  and 
JEethetice  (London,  1874);  JAyss,  The  Princiv^  of  Pncholooy 
(New  York,  1890);  Balfoub,  A  Defence  of  PhUoeophtc  DoM 


(London,  1879);  Wabd.  The  With  to  Believe  (London^SSS); 
ULRiqi,  Olauben  umd  Wiaeen,  Spekulation  una  exaeU  iTumii* 
echaft  (Leipxig.  1858);  Fechner,  Die  drei  Motive  und  OrHndt 
dee  Olaubene  (Leipsig,  1863);  Baldwin  J>tcf.  of  PhUoeophy,  i.  v. 

Francis  Ateling. 

Belin,  Albert  (Jean)  French  prelate  and  writer, 
b.  in  BesanQon  early  in  the  seventeenth  century;  d. 
29  April,  1677.  He  made  his  profession  in  the 
Beneoictine  monastery  of  Favemey,  29  December, 
1629,  and  spent  some  time  at  the  monasteries  of 
Charit^ur-Loire,  Nevers,  and  Paris  as  prior  and 
subsequently  aa  abbot.  He  waa  consecrated  Bishop 
of  Bellejr,  14  February,  1666.  His  works,  whicn 
were  written  in  French,  are:  "Pierre  philosophale" 
(Paris.  1653);  "Talismans  justifies"  (ibid.,  1653) 
"Pouare  de  sympathie  myst^rieuse"  ^bid.,  1653) 
"Poudre  de  projection  demontrtSe "  ^id.,  1653), 
"Le  voyage  inconnu"  (ibid.,  1653);  "Principes  de 
la  foi  demon trfe  par  la  raison"  (ibid.,  1667);  "Preu- 
ves  convainquantes  des  v^rit^  du  christianisme" 
(ibid.,  1666):  "Embldmes  eucharistiques,  ou  octave 
du  trte  S.  Sacrement"  (1647,  1660);  "Les  aolidee 
pens^es  de  Tame,  pour  la  porter  k  son  devoir"  (Paris, 
1668).  He  is  probably  identical  with  Alphonsus 
Belin,  O.S.B.,  Prior  of  (5harit6-sur-Loire  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  author  of  "La 
y6nt6  de  la  religion  catholique  et  la  fausset^  de  la 
religion  pr^Stendue  rdform^e"  (Nevers,  1683). 

HuRTEB,  Nomendator  (Innsbruck,  1893);  ZiEOELBAUKm. 
Hietoria  Rei  Literaria  O.  S.  B.  (Augsburg,  1754),  III;  Galmet, 
BUdiotMque  Lorraine  (1751). 

Alexius  Hoffmann. 

Bell,  Arthttr  (jadtas  FRANas),  Venerable,  Friar 
Minor  and  English  martyr,  b.  at  Temple-Broughton 
near  Worcester,  13  January,  1590;  d.  at  LondcHi,  11  De- 
cember, 1643.  When  Arthur  was  ei^ht  his  father  died 
and  his  mother  gave  him  in  charge  of  ner  brother  Fran- 
cis Daniel,  a  man 
of  wealth,  learning, 
and  piety,  who  sent 
him  at  the  age  of 
twenty-four  to  the 
English  college  at 
St.-Omer;  thence 
he  went  to  Spain 
to  continue  and 
complete  his  stud- 
ies. Having  been 
ordained  pnest,  he 
received  the  habit 
of  the  Franciscan 
Order  at  Segovia. 
9AuffU8t,1618,and 
shoruy  after  the 
completion  of  his 
novitiate  was  called 
from  Spain  to  la- 
bour in  the  restor- 
ation of  the  English 

province.  He  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the 
Franciscan  community  at  Douai,  where  he  subse- 
quently fulfiUed  the  offices  of  guardian  and  professor 
of  Hebrew.  In  1632  Bell  was  sent  to  Scotland  as 
first  provincial  of  the  Franciscan  province  there; 
but  his  efforts  to  restore  the  order  in  Scotland  were 
unsuccessful  and  in  1637  he  returned  to  Cngland, 
where  he  laboured  until  November,  1643,  when  he 
was  apprehended  as  a  spy  by  the  parliamentaiy 
troops  at  Stevenage  in  Hertfordshire  and  committed 
to  Newgate  prison. 

The  circumstances  of  his  trial  show  Bell's  singular 
devotedness  to  the  cause  of  relieion  and  his  desire 
to  suffer  for  the  Faith.  When  condemned  to  be  drawn 
and  quartered  it  is  said  that  he  broke  forth  into  a 
solemn  Te  Deum  and  thanked  his  judges  profusely 
for  the  favour  they  were  thus  conferring  upon  him 
in  allowing  him  to  die  for  Christ.  The  cause  cf  his 
beatification  was  introduced  at  Rome  in  1900.     H» 


ABTBua  Bell 


■mte  '"Hw  Hifltoiy,  Ufa,  and  Minuilee  of  Jo«iie  of  faithful,  u  entitled  "Doetrina  d.  Condlii  Tri(leD> 

the  Ores"  (St.-Omer,  1626).       He  also    troiulated  tin!  et  Cathechiomi  Romani  de  Symbalo  Apoatolo- 

fnm  the  Spanish  of  Andrew  a  Soto  "A  brief  Initruo-  rum"  (BreBcia,  1603).    The  parte  of  this  worii  ralat- 

tiwi  how  we  ousht  to  hear  Mass"  (BrusBela,  1624).  ing  to  tiie  decalogue  have  been  puUished  in  French. 

Th»ddi™.  fAj  Franeitcaiu  m  Bnnkatd  (London,  1W8),  V,  The  second   WOrk,    designed    for    the   conversion   of 

9iiiKiHi(Qiuncchi,  IS85I.  I2T~1G7;  Ortolani.  JlJe  (»iu<*  be-  Conoilio  Tridentino  et  Catechiamo  Romano"  (Milan, 
ain«  tt  mntnm  Dti  int.  vm  {Qo«MthL  IBOS),  1*.  1620),  has  psssed  through  several  editions.  Bellarini 
&rBPHEN  M.  Donovan.  ^,0  oompoied  a  number  of  booklets  in  ItaUan  for  con- 
Bell,  Jaues,  priest  and  martyr,  b.  at  Wairinz-  feasora  and  penhente,  and  a  treatiae  on  the  doctrine 
ton  in  Lancashire,  England,  probably  about  1520;  "f  St.  Thomas  on  physical  predetermination  and  on 
i.  20  April,  1584.  For  the  little  known  of  him  we  the  detevmmation  m  general  of  all  things  and  causes 
depend  on  the  account  published  tour  years  after  '"to  active  operation  (Milan,  1606).  He  is  also  the 
his  death  by  Bridgewater  in  his  "  Concertatio "  author  of  a  work  on  method  (Milan,  1606),  which 
(1588),  and  derived  from  a  manuscript  which  was  was  republislied  under  a  slightly  different  title,  alonx 
keptatDouay  when Challoner  wrote  his  "Missionary  with  hw  "Mirror  of  Divine  and  Human  Wisdom" 
Pnesta"  in  1741,  and  is  now  in  the  Westminster  (Milan,  1630). 
Diocesan   Archives.    A    few    further   details    were  „"*"^^'"^°''S^^SS5:R!i5S"i«S?°{^*''^ 

II    .  J  t      /ii_    11                   J      *L                            1'  J   L__  rufli  4  Cong.  Lur,  iugvi,  Js,  t'aiut  (Kome,  1636),  140. 

collected  by  Challoner,  and  others  are  supplied  by  ^                                S  H   FfUSBEZ. 
the  State   Papers.     Having   studied   at   Oxford   he 

*u  ordained  priest  in  Mary's  reira,  but  unfortunately  BrilmBlnt      (Bku,asmino),     Robust     Frahcu 

conformed  to  the  estabUshed  Church  under  Eliia-  Roijni.iJB,  VmraHABLB,  a  distinguirfied  Jesuit  the- 

beth,  and  according  to  the  Douay  MS.  "miniBtred  ol<wian,  writer,  and  cardinal,  b.  at  MouUpuloUno, 

their  bare  few  sacraments  about  20  years  in  diverse  ^  October,  1642;  d.  17  September,  1621.    His  father 

places  of  England".     Finally  deterred  by  conscience  was  Vuioenio  Bellaimino,  his  mother CinthiaCarvini, 

from  the  cure  of  souls  and  reduced  to  destitution,  ^ter   of  (^^dinsl 

be  aought  a  small  readership  as  a  bare  subsistence.  Maroello    Cenfini, 

To  obtain  this  he  approached  the  patron's  wife,  a  wtorwards     Pope 

Catholic  lady,  who  induced  him  to  be  reconciled  to  Maroellua  U.     He 

the  Church.     After  some  time   he   was   allowed   to  was    brought    up 

rtsume  pricBtlv  functions,  and  for  two  years  devoted  ■*    'hj     newly 

himself  to  arauous  missionary  labours.     He  was  at  foimdod    Jesuit 

length  apprehended  (17  January,  1583-84)  and,  hav-  collie  m  his  na- 

bg  confeied  hia  priesthood,  was  arraigned  at  Han-  tive  town,  ^d_en- 

I'bester  Quarter  Sessions  held  during  the  same  month,  tered   the  Society 

and  sent  for  trial   at  Lancaster  Assizes   in   March,  of    Jesus    on    20 

When  condemned  and  sentenced  he  said  to  the  Judge:  September,    1560, 

"I  beg  your  Lordship  would  add  to  the  sentence  ^'*S  admitted  to 

that  my  lips  and  the  tops  of  my  fingers  may  be  cut  m*   "™t  vows  on 

off,  for  having  sworn  and  subscribed  to  the  articles  t™  following  day. 

of  heretics  contrary  both  to  my  conscience  and  to  The     next     three 

God's  Truth".    He  spent  that  night  in  prayer  and  years  he  spent  m 

on  the   following   day   was   hanged   and   quartered  studying    ^loeo- 

together  with  Ven.  John  Finch,  a  layman,  20  April,  Phy  at  tne  Roman 

1534.  Colleae,     after 

BanatWArBai.CtmeeHaliBKicUili*CaAoliiai*AiBHa.lB8»i  which    he    taught 

Ytwtt.  Huuru  iiarliealar  de  la  pvieaiaon  dt  IitobUtrn,  16Wi  the  humanities 

CtuioHiM.  Mittiaaani  Priali,  1741;  Dicl.  Nat.  Bioa.,  IV,  b_,    „,    inn™n«. 

i«3:GtLLOw.Bibl.DuH.Ene.Calli.,i.l73,eitiaKBtalePxBtn  '™-   "    f'orence, 

ia  Pidilu  Itooord  Office.  then  at  Mondovi. 

Edwik  BttBTON.  In  1567   he  b^an 

Bdl»mr.  Jerome,  of  Uxenden  Hall,  near  London,  ^ ,  *'''f^^„  ?Lo  ™.  ™»  t^  ««■  i.  i.  .*  i-.,^ 

Er^ndTd.    1686,   a   member   of   an   old   Catholic  P«iua,  but  m  1569  waa  sent  to  fimah  it  at  Lou- 

1^7^      .1  r^^.    i      .'  vl     .        -    ■       ^•■-■"■"''  vam.  where  he  could  obtain  a  fuller  acauamtanee 

ranu      He  wa.  .warm  ■ympathmr  -".">  "«fy  4j„ri    Ihi,    h,  5„ijHy  obtafatd    a  i«piitation 

t      ,5     nh-„„  .  Sf  tJ TL  M.^  .S^..  both  a.  a  prife«or  an^a  praoher,  m  ifc  latt«- 

aaiuiy  the  H"l'i>>8t»"  Pkt  ^  Iroe  Mary  and  a.-  ^^,     j,;,^™  to  lia  pulpit  both  CatboBc.  and 

sa«unat«EhKabcth  was  expoaed,  and  Babington,  with     Vri!^-«. It  t J1...C ...      i^   ik-jbUI 

..._   t  u-   I  II  „          _- .-_  II .  .11    _  1  r% iToteatanta,  even  from  diatant  parta.     in  1576  he 

two  of  tiia  feffow-conapiratora,  Hamewett  and  fJonne,       _    n  J  .    ..  i_     _j      ._   .^ t.l  .u      u   ■_  _. 

ff  ^^"'^ll'^^ed^   'th"Ti;  m"^  d""-^  ^t^^^'r^Vfor^^^e'^R^m^^ 

^^,^  r  Z^ -^h/n^'f ^  Tl    f.^^r  w™  i.nf.^  le««-    He  proved  hinUf  equal  to  the  aniuous  task, 

of  complicity  in  the  pot.    AH  four  wereindicted  ^^    j^    ,^          ^      del^ered  grew  into  the  votlL 

rf™'  ^^^^^r  i^S^      '^  '     ^'  "■  "De  Controvereiis"  which,  amitfit   so  much  else  of 

^L^w^Di^^C^    I  na  excellence,   forma   the   chief   title   to  his  greatness. 

Thouas  Gappnttt  Taaffb.  This  monumuital  work  was  the  earliest  att^npt  to 

systematiie  the  various  controversies  of  the  time,  and 

Bafluinl,    J<mN,    Bamabite    theobgiao,    b.    at  made  an  immmse  impression  throughout  Europe, 

Cutehiuovo,  Italy,  in  1662;  d.  at  Milan,  27  August,  the  blow  it  dealt  to  Protestantism  being  so  acutely 

1030.     He  was  Visitor  and  twice  Assistant  Qeneral  of  fdt  in  Germany  and  En^^d  that  special  chairs  were 

his  order.     He  taught  theology  at  Padua  and  Rome,  founded  in  order  to  provide  replies  to  it.    Nor  has  it 

and  was  highly  esteemed  by  bishops  and  cardinals,  even  yet  been  superseded  as  the  classical  book  on  ita 

particularly    b^    Gregory    XV.     Best   known    as   a  subject-matter,  thoush,  as  was  to  be  eniectfid,  th« 

moral  theologian,  he  has  left  a  number  of  solid  progress  of  criticism  nas  impaired  the  value  of  some 

theological  treatises,  the  most  valuable  of  whioh  is  of  its  historical  arguments. 

1  eommentarv  on  the  Council  of  Trent  and  the  In  1588  Bellannine  was  made  Spiritual  Father  to 

Roman  Cateonism,  in  two  parts,  forming  two  dis-  the  Roman  College,  but  in  1590  he  went  with  Cardi- 

tiiKt  volmnea.    The  fint,  for  the  itutmction  of  the  nal  Gaetano  aa  thedogiao  to  the  embuqr  Siztua  V 


■    ROBXBT  ClMDIHU. 


BKxxAaHDrc  412  bsllabhute 

was  then  sending  into  France  to  protect  the  interests  Domiiuean  Cardinal  d'Aecoli,  an  afloeaoor  to  Cudi- 

of  the  Church  amidBt  the  troublea  of  the  civil  wan.  nal  Hadruszi,  the  Preaident  of  the  Congregation  di 

Whilst  he  was  there  news  reached  him  that  Sixtus,  Auxiliw,  which  had  been  instituted  shortly  before  to 

who   had   warmly   accepted   the   dedication   of   his  settle   the   controversy   which   had   recently  arisen 

"De  Controversiis",  was  now  proposing  to  put  its  between  the  Thomists  and  the  Molinists  concemisg 

first  volume  on  the  Index.    This  was  because  ne  had  the  nature  of  the  concord  between  efficacious  mce 

discovered  that  it  aaaipied  to  the  Holy  See  not  a  and  human  liberty.     Bellarmine's  advice  was  from 

direct  but  only  an  indirect  power  over  temporals,  the  hrat  that  the  doctrinal  question  should  not  be 

Bellannine,  whose  loyalty  to  the  Holy  See  was  in-  decided  authoritatively,  but  left  over  for  further  di»- 

tense,  took  this  greatly  to  heart;  it  was,  however,  cussion  in  the  schools,  the  disputants  on  either  lide 

averted  by  the  death  of  Sixtus,  and  the  new  pope,  beiJK  strictly  forbiddJen   to   indulge  in   censures  or 

Gregory  XIV,  even  granted  to  Bellarmine's  work  the  condemnations  of  their  adversaries.     Clement  VIII 

distmction  of  a  special  approbation.     Gaetano's  mis-  at  first  iacUned  to  this  view,  but  afterwards  changed 

sion  now  terminating,  Bcllarmine  resumed  his  work  as  completely  and  determined  on  a  doctrinal  definition. 

Spiritual  Father,  and  had  the  consolation  of  guiding  Bellarmine's  presence  then  became  embarrassing,  and 

the  last  years  of  St.  Aloysius  Gonzaga,  who  died  in  he  appointed  him  to  the  Archbishopric  of  Capua  just 

the  Roman  College  in  1^91.    Many  years  later  he  had  then  vacant.     This  is  sometimes  spoken  ol  as  the 

the  further  consolation  of  BuccesBfulIy  promoting  the  cardinal's   disgrace,    but   Clement    consecrated   him 

beatification  of  the  namtly  youth.     Likewise  at  this  with  his  own  hands — an  honour  which   the  popes 

time  he  sat  on  the  final  conimission  for  the  revision  usually  accord  as  a  mark  of  special  regard.    The  new 

of  the  Vulgate  text.     This  revision  had  been  desired  archbuhop  departed  at  once  for  his  see,  and  during 

by  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  subsequent  popes  had  the  next  three  years  set  ^  bright  example  of  pastors! 

laboured  over  the  task  and  had  almost  broueht  it  to  »eal  in  its  administration. 

completion.    But  Sixtus  V,  though  unskilled  in  this        In  1605  Clement  VIII  died,  and  was  succeeded  by 

branch  of  criticism,  bad  introduced  alterations  of  bis  Leo  XI. who  reigned  only  twenty-six  days,  and  then 

He  had  even  gone  so  far  as  by  Paul  V.    In  ooth  conclaves,  especially  the  latter, 

this  vitiated  edition  printed  the  name  of  Bellarmine  was  much  before  the  electors, 

,  together  with  the  proposed  greatly  to  his  own  distress,  but  his  quality  as  a  Jesuit 

le  died,  however,  before  the  stood  against  bim  in  the  judgment  of  many  of  the 

I  hia  immediate  successors  at  c^inals.     The  new  pope  insisted  on  keepmg  him 

ve  the  blunders  and  call  in  at  Rome,  and  the  cardinal,  obediently  complying, 

The  difhculty  was  how  to  demanded  that  at  least  he  should  be  released  from 

:t  edition  without  affixing  a  an  episcopal  charge  the  duties  of  which  be  could  no 

Sixtus,  and  Bellarmine  pro-  '  -*'•■■■  ■  ■        .»  .i. 

^ion  should  continue  in  the 

refatory  explanation  that,  on „ .^ ._. 

e(  lypogmplionim  vel  aliorum  theological  department  of  its  administration.    Of  the 

lis  had  himself  resolved  that  particular  transactions  with  which  hia  rtame  is  most 

a  new  impression  should'  be  undertaken.     The  sug-  generally  associaUd  the  following  were  the  most  im- 

gestion  was  accepted,  and  Bellarmine  himself  wrote  portant:  The  inquiry  de  Auxiliie,  which  afl«r  all 

the  preface,  still  prefixed  to  the  Clementine  edition  Clement  had  not  seen  his  way  to  decide,  was  now 

ever  since  in  use.     On  the  other  hand,  he  has  been  terminated  with  a  settlement  on  the  hnes  of  Bellar- 

accuscd  of  untruthfulness  in  stating  that  Sixtus  had  mine's  original  sugKcstion,     1606  marked  the  begin- 

rcBolved  on  a  new  impression.     But  his  testimony,  ning  of  the  quarrel  between  the  Holy  See  and  the 

as  there  is  no  evidence  to  the  contrary,  shoiJd  be  Republic  of  Venice  which,  without  even  consulting 

accepted  as  decisive,  seeing  how  conscientious  a  man  the  pope,  had  presumed  to  abrogate  the  law  of  clen- 

he  was  in  the  estimation  of  his  contemporaries;  and  cal  exemption  from  civil  jurisdiction  and  to  withdraw 

the  more  so  since  it  cannot  be  impugned  without  the  Church's  right  to  hold  real  property.    The  quarrel 

casting  a  slur  on  the  character  of  bis  fellow-commis-  led  to  a  war  of  pamphlets  in  which  the  part  of  the 

sioners  who   accepted  his  suggestion,  and  of   Clem-  Republic  was  sustained  by  John  Marsiglio  and  an 

'"     '        .'itli  full  knowledge  of  the  facts  gave  apostate  monk  named  Paolo  Sarpi,  and  that  of  the 


ent  VIII  who  with  full  knowledge  of  the  facts  gave  apostate  monk  named  Paolo  Sarpi,  and  that  of  the 

his  sanction  to  Bellarmine's  preface  being  prenxed  Holy  See  by  Bellarmine  and  Boronius.     Contempo- 

to  thenewedition.    BesideR,  Angelo  Rocca,  the  Secre-  raneous  with  this  VeneUan  episode  was  that  of  the 

tary  of  the  revisory  commissions  of  Sixtus  V  and  the  English  Oath  of  Allegiance.     In  1606,  in  addition  to 

succeeding  pontiffs,  himself  wrote  a  draft  preface  for  the  grave  disabilities  which  already  weighed  them 

the  new  Mition  in  which  he  makes  the  same  state-  down,  the  English  Catholics  were  required  under  pain 

ment:    (Sixtus)  "dum   errores  ex  typographic  ortos,  of  pramunire  to  take  an  oath  of  allegiance  craftily 

et  mutationes  omnes,  atque  varias  hominum  opin-  wordedinsuch  wise  that  a  Catholic  in  refusing  to  take 

iones  recognosccre  ctepit,  ut  postea  de  toto  negotio  it  might  appear  to  be  disavowing  an  undoubted  dvil 

deliberare  atque  Vulg^tam  editionem,  prout  debebat,  obligation,  whilst  if  he  should  take  it  he  would  be  not 

publicare   posset,  morte    prjeventus   quod    cceperat  merely  rejecting  but  even  condemning  as  "impiouit 

perficere  non  potuit".     This  draft  preface,  to  which  and  heretical"  the  doctrine  of  the  deposing  power, 

Bellarmine's  was  preferred.  Is  still  extant,  attached  that  is  to  say,  of  a  power,  wliich,  whelier  nghtlv  or 

to  the  copy  of  the  Sixtine  edition  in  which  the  Clem-  wrongly,  the  Holy  See  had  claimed  and  exercised  for 

entine  corrections  are  marked,  and  may  be  seen  in  centuries  with  the  full  approval  of  Christendom,  and 

the    Biblioteca   Angelica   at   Rome    (see   this   ques-  which  even  in  that  age  the  mass  of  the  theologians  of 

tion  well  discussed   by  P^re  Prat    in  the  "Etudes  Europe  defended.     The  Holy  See  having  forbidden 

religieuses"  for  September,  1890).  CathoUcs  to  take  this  oath.  King  James  hiinself  came 

In  1592  Bellarmine  was  made  Rector  of  the  Roman  forward  as  its  defender,  in  a  book  entitled  "Tripiici 

College,  and  in  1595  Provincial  of  Naples.     In  1597  nodo  triplex  cuneus",  to  which  BeUarmine  replied 

Client  VIII  recalled  him  to  Rome  and  made  him  in  his  "Responsio  Mattheei  Torti".    Other  treatises 

his  own  theologian  and  likewise  Examiner  of  Bishops  followed  on  either  side,  and  the  result  of  one,  written 

and  Consultor  of  the  Holy  Office.     Further,  in  1599  in  denial  of  the  deposing  power  by  William  Barclay, 

he  made  him  Cardinal -Priest  of  the  title  of  Santa  on  English  jurist  resident  in  France,  was  that  Bdlar- 

Maria  in  vid,  alleging  as  his  reason  for  this  promotion  mine's    reply   to   it    was   branded  by  the  Regaiisl 

that  "the  Church  oiGod  had  not  his  equal  in  learn-  Parlement  of  Paris.     Thus  it  came  to  pass  that,  for 

ing".      He    was    now   appointed,    along   with    the  following  the  via  media  of  the  indirect  power,  be  was 


BKT.LAIIIII                                413  BILLil8I8 

eondemned  in  1590  as  too  much  of  a  Regalist  and  io  "Judicium  de  Libro  quern  Lutherani  vocant  Con- 

IW5  as  too  much  of  a  Papalist.                                     .  cordiae"  (1585):    four  Risposte  to  the  writings  on 

BeHarmine  did  not  live  to  deal  with  the  later  and  behalf  of  the  Venetian  Republic  of  John  Marsiglio 

mora  serious  stage  of  the  Galileo  case,  but  in  1615  he  and  Paolo  Sarpi  (1606):  ''Kesponsio  Matths&i  Torti 

took  part  in  its  earlier  stage.    He  had  always  shown  ad  librum  inscrii>tum  Triplici  nodo  triplex  cimeus" 

great  interest  in  the  discoveries  of  that  investigator,  1608);  ''Apologia  Bellarmini  pro  responsione  su4 

and  was  on  terms  of  friendly  correspondence  with  ad  librum  Jacob!  Magns  Britannise  Regis''  (1609); 

him.    He  took  up  too — as  is  witnessed  by  his  letter  'Tractatus  de  potestate  Summi  Pontificis  in  rebus 

to  Galileo's  friend  Foscarini — exactly  the  right  at-  temporalibus,  adversus  Gulielmum  Barclay"  (1610). 

titude  towards  scientific  theories  in  seeming  contra-  CcUechetical  and  Spiritual  Works.     ''Dottrina  Oris- 

diction  with  Scripture.    If,  as  was  undoubtedly  the  tiana  breve",  and  ''Dichiarazione  pid  copiosa  della 

case  then  with  Galileo's  heliocentric  theory,  a  scien-  dottrina  cristiana"   (1598),  two  catechetical  works' 

tific  theory  is  insufficiently  proved,  it  should  be  ad-  which  have  more  than  once  received  papal  approba- 

vaoced  only  as  an  hypothesis;  but  if,  as  is  the  case  tion,  and  have  been  translated  into  various  lan- 

with  this  theory  now,  it  is  solidly  demonstrated,  care  guages;  ''Dichiarasione  del  Simbolo"  (1604),  for  the 

must  be  taken  to  interpret  Scriptiu^  only  in  accord-  use  of  priests;  "Admonitio  ad  Episcopum  Theanen- 

ance  with  it.    When  the  Holy  Office  condemned  the  sem  nepotem  suum  qusB  sint  necessaria  episcopo" 

heliocentric  theory,  bv  an  excess  in  the  opposite  di-  (1612);  ''Exhortationgp  domesticse",  published  only 

rection,  it  became  Belfarmine's  official  duty  to  signify  in  1899,  by  P^re  van  Ortroy;  "Conciones  habitce 

the  condemnation  to  Galileo,  and  receive  his  submis-  Lovanii",  the  more  correct  edition  (1615);  ''De  As- 

non.    Bellarmine  lived  to  see  one  more  conclave,  censione  mentis  in   Peum"    (1615);    ''De  ^tem& 

that  which  elected  Gregory  XV  ^February,  1621).  felicitate  sanctorum"  (1616):  "De  gemitu  columbs" 

His  health  was  now  failing,  and  in  the  summer  of  the  (1617);  "De  septem  verbis  Cliristi'^(1618);  "De  arte 

same  year  he  was  permitted  to  retire  to  Sant'  Andr^  bene  moriendi''  (1620).    The  last  five  are  spiritual 

and  prepare  for  the  end.    His  death  was  most  edifying  works  written  during  his  annual  retreats.    Exegetical 

and  was  a  fitting  termination  to  a  life  which  had  been  and  other  works,       "De    Scriptoribus    ecclesiast." 

no  less  remarkable  for  its  virtues  than  for  its  achieve-  (1615);  "De  Editione  LatinA  VulgatA,  quo  sensu  a 

ments.  Uoncilio  Tridentino  definitum  sit  ut  ea  pro  authentic^ 

His  spirit  of  prayer,  his  singular  delicacy  of  con-  habeatur",   not    published    till    1749;    "In    onmes 

science  and  freedom  from  sin,  nis  spirit  of  hiunility  Psalmos  dilucida  expositio"    (1611).     Complete  edi- 

and  poverty,   together   with   the   disinterestedness  tions  of  Bellarmine's  Opera  omnia  have  been  publfshed 

which  he  cusplaved  as  much  under  the  cardinal's  atCologne  (1617);  Vemce  (1721);  Naples  (1856);  Paris 

robes  as  under  the  Jesuit's  sown,  his  lavish  charity  (1870). 

to  the  poor,  and  his  devote£iess  to  work,  had  com-  ^«»».  R*  BeUarmini,  S.R.E.   CardvnaUMtvUa  quam  ipse  acrip- 

\va\pA  in  imntwoB  fhnoA   wlin    IrnAw    him    iniimn.tAlv  •^^  (with  an  Appendix),  written  in  1613.  at  the  request  of 

Dmea  to  impress  tnoee   wno   imew   mm   mtimateiy  YtXhen  Eudsemon  Joannis  and  Mutius  Viteileschi.  first  pub- 

Wlth  the  feeling  that  he  was  of  the  number  of  the  llahed  amon^  the  acta  of  the  Process  of  Beatification,  1675; 

saints.    AccorcUngly,  when  he  died  there  was  a  gen-  republished,  in  1887  bv  P6llinger  and  Reusch.  with  notes 

pnU  nTTiM*tAftnn   thut   Kia  aa^iisa  wnnlH   Ha  nrnmntiv  many  of  which  are  useful  but  the  general  tone  of  which  is  unfair 

era*  expectation  tnat  ms  cause  WOUia  Oe  promouy  ^^  spiteful;  a  multitude  of  unpublished  documents  in  the 

mtrodueed.      And  so   it  was,  under  Urban   YIII   m  archives  of  the  Vatican,  Simancas.  Salamanca,  the  Society  of 

1627,  when  he  became  entitled  to  the  appellation  of  Jesus,  etc.;  ^owtoJo-Zami/tarejaegp);  Edd^mon  Joannis.  De 

VAnAmhlp       Rut  ft  f^^hninftl  nhntAplp    ftrifiinir  out  of  PWobUuCard,  Bellarmtnt  (1621);  Finali.  EMme  fatto  per  me, 

VMeraDle.     UUt  a  tecnnical  ODStacle,  arising  out  OI  ^^^  ^  j^y  ^^^  ,^y  brother  who  attended  him  in  his  last  sickness. 

Urban  VIII's  own  general   legislation   m  regard  to  MS.;  lives  by  Fulioatx  (1624;  translated  into  Latin  with  addi- 

beatifications,  required  its  prorogation  at  that  time.  ti°n»  by  Fbtba  Sancta,  1626)  and  Babtoli.  (1678):  Cervini, 

(lo75,  1714,  1752,  and  1832),  and  though  on  each  OO-  dbrc  (i893).     See  also  le  Bachelet  in  Vacant,  Diet,  de 

aaan  the  great  preponderance  of  votes  was  in  favour  thM,  oath.;  and  for  Bellarmine 's  doctrine  on  papal  authority, 

of  the  beatification^  a  successful  issue  has  never  yet  «»=  """"di^^Z^' moST^  ^'^^'  ^"^^^  "^"^  ^''"'*  ^*  BeUarmine 

been  reached.    This  was  partly  because  of  the  in-  *  *  *                                                Sydney  F.  Smith. 
fluentiiEU  character  of  some  of  those  who  recorded 

adverse  votes,  Barbuigo,  Casanate,  and  Aisolino  in  BeUaais,  Edward,  Serjeant-at-Law,  b.  14  Octo- 
1675,  and  Passionei  in  1752,  but  still  more  for  reasons  ber,  1800;  d.  24  January,  1873;  was  one  of  the  most 
of  political  expediency,  Bellarmine's  name  being  able  and  respected  of  that  little  band  of  English 
doeely  associated  with  a  doctrine  of  papal  authority  converts  who  in  the  later  ^ears  of  the  Tractarian 
meet  obnoxious  to  the  Realist  politicians  of  the  movement  joined  the  Catholic  Church  from  the  ranks 
French  Court.  "We  have  said",  wrote  Benedict  XIV  of  the  legal  profession.  The  distinguished  advocate, 
to  Cardinal  de  Tencin,  "in  confidence  to  the  General  J.  R.  Hope-^cott,  who  married  Sir  Walter  Scott's 
of  the  Jesuits  that  the  delay  of  the  Cause  has  come  ffranddauffhter,  and  the  conveyancer,  Edward  Bade- 
not  from  the  petty  matters  laid  to  his  charge  ley,  to  whom  Cardinal  (then  Doctor)  Newman  in 
by  OEirdinal  Passionei,  but  from  the  sad  circum*  1867  dedicated  his  volume  of  "Verses  on  Various 
stances  of  the  times  "  (Etudes  Religieuses,  15  April,  Occasions",  were  the  Serjeant's  lifelong  friends, 
1896).  and  all  tlu'ee  became  Catholics  about  the  same 
A  full  list  of  Bellarmine's  writings,  and  of  those  time.  Edward  Bellasis  was  the  son  of  the  Rev. 
directed  against  him,  may  be  seen  in  Sommervogel's  George  Bellasis,  D.D.,  a  scion  of  a  youn^  branch 
"Biblioth^ue  de  la  compagnie  de  J^sus".  The  fol-  of  the  Belasvse  family  (see  Belasyse,  John),  and 
lowing  are  the  principal:  Controversial  works,  "Dis-  of  his  second  wife,  Leah  Cooper  Viall,  the  daughter 
putationeB  de  Controversiis  Christian®  Fidei  ad-  and  heiress  of  Emery  Viall  of  Walsingham,  Noriolk. 
verBus  hu jus  temporis  hsBreticos",  of  the  innumerable  His  imde.  General  John  Bellasis,  and  his  half- 
editions  en  which  the  chief  are  those  of  Ingolstadt  brothers,  Joseph  and  George,  won  high  militarv 
(1586-89),  Venice  ri596),  revised  personally  hy  the  honours  in  India  towards  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
author,  but  abounaing  in  printer's  errors,  Paris  or  century.  Edward  was  educated  at  Christ's  Hospi- 
"Triadelphi"  (1608),  Prague  (1721),  Rome  (1832);  tal,  and  after  making  his  legal  studies  at  the  Inner 
^De  Exemptione  clericorum",  and  "De  Indulgentiis  Temple  he  contrived  at  a  relatively  early  age  to 
et  Jubilteo  ,  published  as  moncMzraphs  in  1599,  but  form  an  excellent  practice  at  the  Chancery  bar. 
afterwards  incorporated  in  the  De  Controversiis ";  It  was,  however,  the  period  of  great  railway  de- 
''De  Transitu  Romani  Imperii  a  GrsBcis  ad  Francos"  velopments  in  the  United  Kingdom,  and  Bellasis, 
(1584);  "Responsio  ad  prsecipua  capita  Apologise  turmng  his  attention  to  the  Parliamentary  Com- 
• .  .  pro   succeesione   Henrici   Navarreni"    (1586);  mittees,  was  constantly  retained  as  counsel  for  the 


IBLLSOnrB  414 

^rsrious  oompaniee  in  the  proceeding  to  which  and  often  reprinted.  The  most  noteworthy  of  these 
the  opening  up  of  the  new  lines  gave  nse.  In  1844  are:  ''Christianus  pie  moriens"  (1749);  "VirtutiB 
he  receiv^  the  coif  of  Serjeant^at-Law,  a  dignity    Solidse  pmcipua  impedimenta,  subsidia,  et  indta- 


the  title  and  estates  of  the  last  Catholic  Earl  of  translations  of  the  last  three  have  been  made  and 

Shrewsbury.     In    this,   as   in    all    his   legal    work,  are  still  in  print.    The  first,  entitled ''Solid  Virtue", 

Bellasis  set  an  example  of  great  disinterestedness,  is  translated  from  the  French  (London,  1887);  the 

He  retired  from   the  profession  in   1867,  leaving  second  appeared  under  the  title  "  Spiritual  Exerdses 

behind  him  the  reputation  of  an  excdlent  lawyer  according  to  the  method  of  St.  Ignatius ",  translated 

and  a  careful  and  finished  speaker.  from  the  Italian  version  of  Father  Bresciani,  S.  J.,  b^ 

Althouj^h    brought   up   amid   rather   evangelical  William    Hutch,    D.D.    (London,    1876).    In  this 

surroundmgs,  Serjeant    Bellasis  had  followed  with  translation  Father  Bresciani  slightly  modified  some 

great   interest    the    developments    of    the    Oxford  of  the  opinions  of  Bellecius  which  he  considered  too 

movement.    His    Oatholic    tendencies    were    stim-  rigid.    The  third  translation  was  made  bv  Father 

ulkted   partly  by  the  narrowness  of  anti-Roman  John  Holzer,  S.  J.,  and  was  published  in  New  York 

prejudice  which  he  recognized  in  the  attitude  of  in  1882.    It  is  entitled  "Solid  Virtue:  A  Triduum 

nis  fellow-religionists,  and  partly  by  his  intercourse  and  Spiritual  Conferences".    The  Triduum  is  an 

with  Catholics  whom  he  met  on  his  travels  abroad,  abridgment  of    Bellecius's    lara^r   work  on  "Solid 

His  Approach  towards  the  Church  was  slow  and  Virtue" — an    abridgment  made  by  himself.     The 

characteristically    prudent,     but     the     friendships  three  Spiritual  Conferences  show  practically  in  what 

he   formed    with    many   advanced    An^cans   like  solid  virtue  consists. 

Oakley,  W.  G.  Ward,  and  J.  B.  Morris,  who  before  .  ^^5^*W  f^  K^"*^?"^  ^  -^^^^^  ^'  ^260;  Watbigajtt 

long  passed  over  to  the  Roman  side,  could  not  fail  ^^>^d^tMol.  cath,,  II,  699.  ^   ^   Fribbbb 

to  produce  an  effect.     Eventually  he  was  received 

into  the  Church   by  Father  Brownbill,  S.J.,  27  De-        BeUenden  (Ballendbn,  or  Ballanttne),  John, 

ceraber,    1850.     His    wife    and    children    followed  a  Scotch  poet,  b.  at  Haddington  or  Berwick  in  the 

soon  after.     From  that  time  imtU  his  death  Ser-  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century;  d.  at  Rome,  c. 

jeant  Bellasis  was  amongst  the  most  devoted  and  1587.     He  was  a  (Catholic  and  at  an  eariy  age  ma- 

edifving  of  Catholic  laymen.     His  interest  in  all  triculated  at  the  University  of  St.  Andrews.     Later 

Catholic  projects  was  keen,  his  social  and  intellect-  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  Doctor 

ual  position  was  such  as  commanded  respect,  and  of  Divinity  at  the  Sorbonne.     Returning  to  Scotland, 

his  charity  was  inexhaustible.     From  the  foundmg  he  brought  with  him  from  Paris  the  great  work  by 

of  the  new  school  of  the  Oratorians  under  the  di-  Hector  Boeoe,  the  "Historia  Scotorum",  and  was 

rection  of  Dr.  Newman,  at  Edgbaston,  to  the  pro-  received  with  great  favour  at  the  court  of  James  V. 

viding  of  scientific  apparatus  for  the  Observatory  He  was  subsequently  appointed  by  the  king  to  under- 

at   Stonyhurst:    from   the    collection   of   relics   for  take  the  work  of  translating  the  ^'Historia*' into  the 

churches  to   the  encouragement   of   the   Nazareth  Scotch  vernacular,  which,  together  with  some  poems 

House  Sisters  who  tended  the  aged  poor,  the  Serjeant  that  he  wrote  at  this  period,  occupied  him  about 

was  foremost  in  every  good  work.     His  personal  three  years.     He  waa  also  commissioned  by  the  king 

holiness,  fostered  by  constant  private  retreats,  and  to  translate  Livy  into  English,  a  work  which  hitherto 

his  kindliness  towards  all   won  him  universal  re-  had  not  been  attempted.     Bellenden  was  appointed 

spect  and  lent  additional  effectiveness  to  the  con-  Archdeacon  of  Moray,  and  in  the  succeeding  reign 

cdiatory  pamphlets  which  he  occasionally  nyblished  he  was  vigorous  in  his  opposition  to  Protestantisna. 

in  explanation   of  Catholic   truth.     His  first  wife  This  opposition  subsequently  led  to  his   flight  to 

had  died  as  early  as  1832.     By  his  second  marriage,  escape  persecution.     He  is  supposed  to  be  identical 

in  1835,  with  Miss  Eliza  Gamett,  he  left  ten  chil-  with  one  of  the  same  name  who  was  at  one  time 

dren,  of  whom  two  sons,  the  eldest  and  the  youngest,  secretary  to  Archibald,  Earl  of  Angus, 
are    priests,    and    three    daughters    became    nuns.       Diet,  Nat,  Biog.,  IV,  186. 

In  nothing  is  the  beauty  of  the  Serjeant's  character  Thomas  Gaffnky  Taaffb. 

more  plainly  seen  than  in  those  fragments  of  his 

intercourse  with  his  children  which  have  been  re-        Beltoville,     Diogebe   op,    comprises     that    part 

produced  by  his  biographer.     After  his  death  on  of  southern  Illinois,  U.  S.  A.,  which   lies   south  of 

the    24th     of    January,    1873,    Ciu^inal    Newman  the  northern  limits   of   St.  Clair,  Clinton,    Marion, 

wrote:  "He  was  one  of  the  best  men  I  ever  knew*'.  Clay,  Richland,  aiid  Lawrence  counties,  an  area  of 

Newman's    "Grammar    of    Assent",    published    in  11,678  sauare  miles.    This  territory  was  formeriy 

1870,  bears  a  dedication  to  Bellasis.     Of  the  Ser-  a  part  of  the  Diocese  of  Alton,  but  upon  the  de- 

jeant's    own  publications  the  best  remembered  is  mise  of  Bishop  Baltes,  of  that  see.  a  new  diocese 

a  volume  of  short  dialogues  collected  under  the  was  erected,  7  January,   1887,  with  the  episcopal 

tiUe  "Philotheus  and  Eugenia".  see   at   Belleville,    St.   Qair   Co.     The   Rev.   John 

BKhhASJA,  Memorial  of  Mr.  Serjeant  BellaMgi2ded.,  London,  Janssen,  who  had  held  the  office  of  vicar-general 

i^l5:SSS5r''klSrd'';„Tp:2Sl5C^~^'2o'mf^a^^  suooessively    under    Bishop   Juncker  and  bishop 

biographical    notes.     It    includes    two    excellent    portraits.  Baltes  of  Alton,  was  appointed    first  bishop  Of  the 

Diet.tfNaLBioo„lW,i80;GiLiA>w,BiU.Dui.ofEno.Cath.,l.  newly  erected   diocese  on  28  February,  1888,  and 

Herbbrt  Thurston.  consecrated  on  25  April,   1888.    The  standing  of 

Bellecius,  ALOTsrus,    Jesuit    ascetic    author,  b.  the  new  diocese  at  that  time  is  shown  by  the  fol- 

at  Freiburg  im  Breisgau,  15  February,  1704;  d.  at  lowing  statistics:   secular  priests   fifty-six:    regular 

Augsburg,  27  April,   1757.     He  taught  philosophy  four;    churehes    with    resident    priests    fifty-three; 

one  year  and  thecuogy  seven,  and  spent  four  years  as  a  missions  with  churehes  twenty-nine;  academiee  three; 

missionary  in  South  America  among  the   Indians  parochial    schools    fifty-three;    children    attending 

living  along  the  Amazon.    Recalled  to  Europe,  he  5,395;  orphan  asylum  1;  orphans  30;  hospitals  3. 

was  charged  with  the  spiritual  care  of  his  rehgious  The  Catholic  population    was    about   50gOOO   and 

brethren  and  later  with  the  direction  of  the  seminary  remained  almost  stationary  for  a  number  of  years, 

of  Porrentruy  in  the  Diocese  of  Basle.     He  is  the  The  mining  industries  in  the  southern  part  of  t£e 

author  of  a  number  of  ascetic  works  in  Latin,  most  diocese  are  fast  devdopin^,  so  that,  with  inunigrar 

ol  which  have  been  translated  into  different  languages  tion,  the  population  has  mcreased  to  56,200,  with 


415 

bri^t  prospects  for  the  future.    The  diocese  has  neetown  were  the  only  parishes  in  the  temtoiy 

100  secular   and   two   regular   priests;    eighty-two  now  comprised  by  the  Diocese  of  Belleville, 

churches  with  resident  pnests:  thirty-two  missions  ,8axji^l^.afCJh.Ch.tnU,S.  (New  York.  1904);  Mi^ 

with  churches;  eighteen  chapek;  twenty^our  eccle-  «^^  Caiholxcm  (Propaganda.  Rome.  1907),  639. 
8iaeti(»d  students;  a  high  school  for  boys;  two  acade- 

mies  for  yoimg  ladies;  sixty-seven  parochial  schools  Belloy   (Bbluctuh),    Diocese    of,    coextensive 

with  5,033   pupils;    an   orphan   asylum   with   112  with  the  civil  department  of  Ain  and  a  suffragan 

orphans;  eight  nospitals;  and  a  house  for  the  aged,  of  the  Archbishopric  of  BesanQon.    Although  sup- 

liie   following    religious    communities    are    repre-  pressed  at  the  time  of  the  Concordat,  the  Diocese  of 

Bented  in  the  diocese:  Brothers  of  Mary,  Sisters  of  ^Uey  was  re-established  in  1822  ana  took  from  the 

diiistian  Charity,  Sisters  of  St.  Dominic,  Franciscan  Archdiocese  of  Lyons  the  arrondissements  of  Bellev, 

SLsters,   Hospital    Sisters    of    St.    Francis,    School  Bourg,  Nantua,  and  Tr^voux,  and  from  the  Arcn- 

Sisters  of  St.  Francis,  Sisters  of  the  Poor  Handmaids  diocese  of  Chamb^ry  the  arrondissement  of  Gex. 

of  Christ,  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross,  Sisters  of  St.  Local  tradition  maintains  that  Belley  was  evan- 

Joeeph,  Folish  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  Sisters  of  Lo-  gelized  in  the  second  century  by  the  martyrs  Mar- 

retto,  School  Sisters'  of  Notre  Dame,  Sisters  of  the  cellus  and  Valeriai;i,  companions  of  St.  rothinus. 

F^iadous  Blood,  Servants  of  Mary.  Ursullne  Sisters,  The  first  bishop  of  histonc  certainty  is  Vincentius, 

and  White  Benedictine  Sisters  of  Mt.  Olive.  mentioned  in  662.     Others  who  occupied  the  see 

To  this  diocese  belong  some  of  the  oldest  nussions  were  St.  Hippolytus,  Abbot  of  Condat  (eighth  cen- 

of  the  West.    The  records  of  the  church  of  Kas-  tury);    St.    Antnelm    (1163-78),    seventh    General 

kas^  date  from  the  year  1696  and  give  the  name  of  the  Carthusian  Order;  St.  Arthaud  (1179-00), 

of  the  Rev.  Jac.  Gravier^  S.J.,  as  the  missionary  founder   of   the   Carthusians   at   Arvi^res;   Camus 

priest.    The   Jesuits   contmued   to   attend   to   (he  (1609-29),  a  noted  preacher  and   romancist;   and 

wants  of  the  Indian  tribe  of  the  Kaskaskias  and  Monseigneur     Francois     M.     Richard     (1872-76), 

of  the  French,  and  alternately  the  .Jesuit  Fathers  later   Cardinal   and   Archbishop   of   Paris.    Belley 

De  Beaubois,  Le  Boudlenger,  Tartarin,  Aubert,  and  honours  in  a  special  manner  St.  Amandus,  Bishop  of 

Meurin  had  this  territory  as  the  field  of  their  apos-  Maastricht,  who  founded  the  Abbey  of  Nantua  about 

tob'c  labours.    Father  Meurin  was  the  last  Jesuit  660;  St.  Vulbas,  a  patrician  of  Bourgogne  and  a  wkr 

doing  missionary  work  at  Kaskaskia;  the  order  was  companion    of    King   Dagobert,    treacherously   as- 

suppreased   in   his   time.     He   died   at   Prairie   du  sassinated  in  642;  St.  Rambert,  killed  by  order  of 

Rocher  and  is  buried  at  Florissant,  Missouri.    The  Ebroin  in  the  seventh  century,  whose  name    has 

Rev.  P.  Gibault  who  in  1768  came   from  Quebec  been  given  to  a  city  of  the  diocese;  St.  Trivier,  the 

was  the  first  secular  priest,  who  as  resident  pastor  solitary,  who  died  about  660;  St.  Bsunard  (ninth 

of  Kaskaskia  had  charge  also  of  the  large  surround-  century),  who  founded  the  great  Benedictine  Abbey 

ing  territory,  and  who  became  vicar-general  of  the  of  Ambronay  and  died  Archbishop  of  Vienna;  St. 

temto^    of   Illinois.     He    continued    his    arduous  Lambert  (twelfth  century),  founder  of  the  Cistercian 

labours  until  1791,  the  time  of  his  death.    Until  1820  Abbey  at  Chezery;  St.  Roland  X^^elfth  centuiy), 

the  Lazarist  Fathers  were  in  this  field;  after  that  Abbot  of  Chezery;  St.  Stephen  of  Ch&tillon,  who 

the  work  was  continued  by  secular  priests.    The  founded  the  Carthusian  monastery  at   Portes,   in 

old  town  of    Kaskaskia,  with   its  statehouse    and  1116,  and  died  Bishop  of  Die;  St.  Stephen  of  Bourg, 

church,  has  been  swallowed  up  by  the  Mississippi  who  founded  the  Carthusian  monastery  at  Meyria 

River  and  about  two  miles  farther  inland  a  new  in  1116;  and  St.  Jean-Baptiste  Vianney  (1786-1867), 

town  and  a  new  church  have  been  built  up.  parish  priest  at  Ars. 

The  organization  of  the  congr^ation  of  Prairie  The  Diocese  of  Belley  which,  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
du  Rocher  coincides  with  the  buuding  of  the  first  had  no  less  than  eight  Carthusian  monasteries,  was 
Fort  Chartres  on  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi  in  1720.  the  birthplace  of  the  Jos^phistes,  a  congregation 
The  Rev.  J.  Le  Boullenger,  chaplain  of  the  militia  founded  by  Jacques  Cr6 tenet  (1606-67),  a  lay- 
stationed  at  the  Fort,  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  man  and  surgeon  who  became  a  priest  after  the 
congregation.  The  church,  built  by  the  people,  was  death  of  his  wife;  of  the  teaching  oraer  of  the  Sisters 
pla^  imder  the  protection  of  St.  Anne.  In  of  St.  Charles,  founded  by  Charles  D4mia  of  Bourg 
1743  the  Rev.  J.  Gagnon,  S.J.,  took  change  of  the  (1636-89);  and  of  three  teaching  orders  founded  in 
mission  and  laboured  there  until  his  death  in  1756.  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century:  the  Brothers 
His  remains  were  interred  by  the  side  of  the  altar  of  the  Society  of  the  Cross  of  Jesus;  the  Brothers 
in  the  chapel  in  the  cemetery.  This  chapel  was  of  the  Holy  Family  of  Belley,  and  the  Sisters  of  St. 
built  in  1734,  and  placed  under  the  patronage  of  Joseph  of  Bourg.  In  1868  a  Trappist  monastery 
St.  Joseph.  When  the  river  inundated  one  comer  was  established  in  the  imhealthy  Dombes  district, 
of  the  newly  built  stone  structure  at  Fort  Chartres  Cardinal  Louis  Aleman  (1390-1450)  and  Sceur 
and  threatened  the  village  and  St.  Anne's  church,  Rosalie  (1787-1866),  noted  in  the  history  of  modem 
the  Fort  was  evacuated,  the  village  deserted;  its  Parisian  charities,  were  both  natives  of  the  Diocese 
inhabitants  sought  the  high  ground  at  the  foot  of  Belley.  Blessed  Pierre-Louis-Marie  Chanel  was 
d  the  Uuffs,  and  the  cemetery  chapel  became  the  bom  at  Cuet  near  Boui^.  For  thirty  years  of  its 
parish  church  and  served  as  such  until  1858,  when  existence  (1701-31),  "Le  Journal  de  Tr^voux", 
a  brick  church  was  erected.  Among  the  missionaries  a  valuable  repertory  of  the  literary  and  religious 
who  worked  there,  the  names  of  Gabriel  Richard  history  of  the  period,  was  published  by  the  Jesuits 
(later  Del^^te  to  Congress  from  Michigan);  Doutien  at  Tr^voux,  in  this  diocese.  The  church  at  Brou, 
Olivier  (who  lived  to  be  ninety-five  years  of  age);  near  Bourg,  is  a  marvel  of  architecture  and  contains 
Xavier  Dahmen,  and  John  Timon  (later  Bishop  of  some  wonderful  pieces  of  sculpture.  It  was  built 
Buffalo,  New  York)  deserve  special  mention.  The  between  1611  ana  1636  under  the  direction  of  Mar- 
eariy  records  of  the  old  church  of  Cahokia  have  garet  of  Austria,  widow  of  Philibert  (II)  the  Fair, 
be^i  lost,  and  accurate  data  can  be  found  from  the  Duke  of  Savoy. 

year  1783  only.    At  that  time  the  religious  wants  The  latest  statbtics  for  the  diocese  give  the  fol- 

of  the  Catholics  of  Cahokia  and  the  surrounding  lowing  institutions:  1  maternity  hospital,  66  infant 

territory,  induding  Si.  Louis  across  the  river,  were  schoob,  1  deaf-mute  institute,  3  boys'  orphanages, 

attended  to  by  Father  De  Saintpierre.    When  in  10  girls'  orphanages,  21  hospitals,  or  hospices,  2  dis- 

1843  the  Diocese  of  Chicago  was  erected,  Cahokia,  pensaries,  21  communities  for  the  care  of  the  sick 

I^rie  du  Lons,  Belleville,  Shoal  Creek  (now  Ger-  m  their  homes,  1  home  for  incurables,  and  6  homes 

maotown),  Kaskawkia,  Prairie  du  Rocher,  and  Shaw-  for  the  aged,  all  conducted  by  sisters;  and  1  deaf- 


BiLLnroft  416 

mute  institutey  and  2  insane  asylums  conducted  by  liefs,  drawings  portraying  Biblical  stories  and  Chrifl- 

brothers.  tian  legends,  and  sketches  from  nature  and  life  which 

In  1900  the  following  relidous  orders  were  repre-  are  executed  with  animation  and  show  a  sense  of 

sented  in  the  Diocese  of  Belley:   Carthusians,  at  perspective  in  the  composition.     He  was  a  compet- 

Fortes  and  S^lignac ;  Trappists  at  Notre  Dame  dee  itor  in  art  of  the  painters  of  the   Vivarini   family 

Dombes:  Marists  at  Belley;  Lazarists  at  Musiniens;  who  came  from  the  neighbouring  island  of  Murano; 

and  Fatners  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  at  Tr6voux.  Antonio  and  Bartolommeo  Vivarini  opened  a  studio 

Congregations  local  to  the  diocese  are:  two  teaching  in  Venice  but  they  were  excelled  by  the  Bellinis. 

orders:  the  Brothers  of  the  Society  of  the  Cross  of  Giacomo  Bellini  had  worked  under  Gentile  da  Fabri- 

Jesus  founded  by  M.  Bochard  in  1824,  and  the  Broth-  ano  in  his  native  city  and  at  Florence.     He  had  also 

ers  of  the  Holy  Family^  founded  by  Brother  Taborin  been  employed  at  other  places,  especially  at  Padua, 

in  1835;  and  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  with  mother-  where  he  came  under  the  influence  of  the  classic  and 

house  at  Bourg.  verv  numerous  throughout  the  de-  plastic  tendencies  of  S<]uarcione.     His  sons  at  an 

partment.    At  the  close  of  the  year  1905  the  Diocese  early  age  became  his  assistants  at  Venice, 

of  Belley  contained  350,416  inhabitants,  36  parishes,  Gentile  Bellini,  (b.  about  1427;  d.  1507).    He  was 


404  mission  churches,  and  75  curacies.  the  elder  of  the  brothers.     He  alsoliad  been  in  Padua 


hiatori^ite»  >  . 

duwriw  de  BeUev  in  the  Revue  de  la  •ociiU  VUUraire  de    VAin  somewhat  clumsy.      The  painting  containing  the  four 

RfJvlw™  •  r^ijiS^^i^'r"'^^''"'  ^^^  ^'P'"'^'^^  ^'  ^^'  heroic-sized  figures  of  Saints  Mark,  Theodore,  Jerome. 

Georoes  Goyau.  *^"  Francis,  the  picture  of  the  patriarchs  surrounded 

by  ecclesiastics  and  angels,  a  Madonna  with  the  bene- 
BeUings  (or  Belong),  Sir  Richard,  Irish  hia-  factors  of  a  religious  foundation,  and  a  bust-portrait 
torian,  b.  near  Dublin  early  in  the  seventeenth  cen-  of  the  doge  I>elong  to  this  period.  At  first  Gentile 
tury;  d.  in  1677.  He  was  the  son  of  Sir  Henry  worked  mainly  in  partnership  with  his  father  and 
BeUinra,  a  Catholic  landowner  in  Leinster.  He  was  bi-otlicr,  as  at  Padua  in  the  CappelladiGattamelata. 
trained  to  the  law  and  entered  Lincoln's  lun,  London,  Bu"  after  the  father  retired,  Gentile's  fame  soon  cx- 
and  while  there  wrote  a  supplementaiy  book  (the  ©eeded  that  of  the  elder  Bellini.  He  paints!  eight 
sixth)  to  Sir  Phihp  Sydney's  "  Arcadia  ^,  which  has  pictures  in  the  Scuola  di  San  Giovanni  Evangelista  at 
been  generally  printed  with  that  work.  He  returned  Venice  in  continuation  of  his  father's  work  "The 
to  Ireland^  became  a  member  of  the  Irish  Parliament,  Mii-acle  of  the  Holy  Cross".  Three  of  these  pictures, 
and  mamed  a  daughter  of  Viscount  Mountgarret.  painted  between  1490-1500,  are  preserved  in  a  dam- 
In  1642,  when  the  Irish  Confederation  was  formed,  aged  condition  at  the  Academy  of  Venice.  These 
Bellings  joined,  his  father-in-law  being  president,  pfctures  bear  throughout  the  characteristic  peculiari- 
and  became  secretary  to  the  Supreme  Council.  He  ties  of  the  Venetian  school  of  painting.  They  are 
was  sent  to  the  continent  in  1644  as  a  representative  fiHed  with  figures  from  real  life,  which  are  clearly 
of  this  body.  In  the  following  year  he  returned  modelled,  each  figure  having  its  own  individuality; 
to  Ireland  and  was  active  as  a  royalist  till  1649,  when  the  religious  processions  are  stately,  the  architecture 
he  withdrew  to  France,  most  of  his  property  having  ^hich  appears  is  of  great  splendour,  and  skill  is  shown 
been  confiscated  by  the  Cromwellians.  His  estate  in  the  perspective  of  lines  and  atmosphere, 
was  restored  to  him  after  the  accession  of  Charles  II,  The  ^ Sermon  of  St.  Mark  at  Alexandria",  now  at 
who,  with  Ormonde,  held  him  in  high  regard.  He  Milan,  which  Giovanni  completed  after  the  death  of 
died  m  1677  and  was  buried  near  Dubhn  Perhaps  his  brother,  equals  those  just  mentioned  in  worth, 
his  chief  work  IS  his  defence  of  the  Cathohcs  of  Ire-  it  also  shows  a  large  number  of  figures  skilfully 
land,  "Vmdiciarum  Cathohcorum  HibernuB  hbn  grouped,  an  over-elaborate  architectural  back- 
duo",  which,  under  the  pseudonym  of  "Philopater  ground,  much  pomp  in  the  scene  depicted,  brilKant 
Irtnjeus  ',  was  published  at  Paris  m  1660.  Dunng  gght,  and  great  richness  of  colour.  The  Oriental 
his  later  years  he  also  wrote  an  account  of  Irish  costumes  added  a  new  grace  to  the  painting.  In 
affairs  (1641-48),  an  imperfect  copy  of  which  was  1479  Gentile  had  gone  to  Constantinople  on  the 
printed  m  1772.  The  complete  work  was,  however,  recommendation  of  the  Signory  who  had  been  re- 
'??^.®'^'  ^^  ^^  published  under  the  editorehip  quested  by  the  Sultan  Mohammed  II  to  send  him  a 
of  John  T.  Gilbert,  with  Uie  foUowinctitie:  *  Histonr  portrait-painter.  Gentile  painted  the  Sultan  and 
of  the  Insh  Confederation  «id  the  War  m  Ireland,  other  important  personages.  He  brought  home  a 
1641-48  .  This  edition  publin,  1882-85)  is  en-  great  many  sketches,  including  one  of  the  Sultan  and 
nched  with  many  valuable  documents  and  many  the  Dowager  Sultana  in  sitting  posture.  The  jour- 
illustrative  notes,  and  was  published  from  the  ngy  to  Constantinople  was  not  only  instructive  but 
original  MSS.  The  above-mentioned  "Vindication  g^atiy  increased  the  fame  of  the  painter.  Among 
IS  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  trustworthy  of  the  the  fruits  of  this  trip  are  a  portrait  (in  the  Layard 
many  wi^rks  written  on  that  penod.  However,  the  collection  at  Venice)  giving  the  head  and  shoulders  of 
Irish  Franciscan,  Father  John  Ppnce  controverted  Mohammed,  and  the  canvas  "Reception of  the  Vene- 
nmny  of  its  statements  in  his  "Richardi  Belhngi  tian  Ambassadors  by  the  Grand  Vizier",  now  in  the 
Vindiciffi  Eyersffi  '  (Pans,  1653).  A  "Letter  from  Louvre.  The  visit  to  Constantinople  had,  however, 
Richard  BeUm^  to  M.  CaUa^han'  on  Insh  affauB  interrupted  another  large  undertaking.  In  1474 
(Pans,  c.  1652)  IS  to  be  found  in  a  French  translation  Gentile  had  been  honoured  with  the  commission  \o 
of  the  san^  date  m  the  Gilbert  Librory,  Dubhn.  ^store  the  paintings  in  the  Great  Council  Chamber  of 

Harris.  WnUr.  of  Irdand  ^^^^^^  764)^1^1^^.^  ^1,^  ^^^.^  ^^,^^  ^^^  to  add  to  theu-  number.      Ear- 

lier  artists  had  painted  for  the  hall  a  series  of  pictures 
Bellini,  Giacomo  (Jacopo),  father  of  Gentile  and  on  a  large  scale  representing  scenes  from  the  history 
Giovanni  Bellini,  b.  about  1400;  d.  1471.  Interest  in  of  Vem'ce.  Gentile  after  his  return  from  Constanti- 
him  arises  mainly  from  the  fact  that  he  was  the  teacher  nople,  in  company  with  his  brother,  went  on  with  the 
of  his  sons  who  were  the  chief  founders  of  the  Venetian  work.  The  seven  pictures  they  produced  were  de- 
school  of  painting.  The  paintings  produced  by  Gia-  stroyed  in  the  fire  of  1577.  In  his  middle  and  later 
como  Bellini  which  are  still  in  existence  are  unimpor-  period  Gentile  abandoned  tempera  and  painted  in  oil. 
tant  and  few  in  number.  His  interesting  sketch-book  Giovanni  Bellini  (b.  about  1428;  d.  1516)  car- 
proves,  however,  his  industry  and  power  of  observa-  ried  the  new  form  of  art  to  its  greatest  height.  He 
tion.    It  contains  copies  of  antique  statues  and  re-  was  greatly  influenced  by  the  tendencies  wmch  have 


BELUn  47 

been  mentioned;  of  th^e  the  style  of  his  father  and  which  represent  Bfary  Magdalen  and  St.  Catfaerine, 

of  tiw  Paduan  school  had  the  most  effect  upon  him,  or  St.  Paul  and  St.  George,  in  oompaoj'  with  tte 

ifaolegna  was  his  brotber-ia-law.     Another  painter  Madonna.     Similar  to  these  is  the  fine  picture  "The 

wbostpoQgly  affected  him  was  Antonello  da  Meesiua.  Preeentotion  of  Jesus  in  the  Temple".     Maiy  offers 

Heesina  was  ttio  first  person  in  Italy  to  understand  the  Child  to  the  high-priest  over  a  table  while  the 

the  Fiemish  method  of  painting  in  oil,  and  towards  the  aged  Simeon  and  Joaepa  worship.     Giovanni  did  not 

end  of  his  life  he  spent  several  yeara  (1474-76)  in  Milan  attempt  to  solve,  even  in  his  larger  works,  such  dif- 

uid  Venice.     The  surroundings  of  Venetian  lite  and  ficult  problems  of  perspeoWve  and  of  the  gradation  ot 

the  realistic  direction  which  Venetian  art  had  taken  light  and  shade  as  his  brother  undertook.  ^  He  had, 

pve  the  Venetian  painters  a  keen  perception  of  tiie  however,  learned  from  his  brother  the  entire  art  of 

eharm  of  colour,  so  that  even  the  short  time  during  the  distribution  of  light  and  shade  and  applied  it 

which  Messina  was  with  them  sufSced  to  lead  them  with  more  skill  to  bringing  out  the  inner  feeling  of  a. 

into  a  new  path.     The  genius  of  Giovanni   Bellini  oompodtion.     Unfortunately    we    are   not    able    to 

enabled  him  to  obtain  the  full  benefit  of  the  new  judge  of  hia  stylo  in  historical  work  as  we  are  in  the 

stimulus;  at  the  same  time  other  painters,  Bartolom-  case   of   his   brother.     His   historical   compositions, 

meoandLuip  Vivarini,Genlile  Bellini,  and  other  men,  seven  in  all,  were  painted  for  the  Great  Council  Cham- 

sIbo  look  up  the  new  technic.     The  use  ot  tlie  new  ber  of  the  doge's  palace.     He  worked  on  these  from 

DMdium  produced  a  softnesa  of  outline  and  an  im-  1479  until  hie  death;  at  times  the  work  was  done  in 

Movement   in   the   modeUing   whidi   tempered   the  conjunction  with  his  brother,  at  times  be  had  the  aid 

tardness  of  the  Paduan  style  and  obtained  beautiful  of  other  men.     The  paintings  were  all  destroyed  by 

dTects  in  colour.     Giovanni  had  more  feeling  and  a  fire  in  1577.     Two  duplicates  remain  of  the  portraits 

keener  spiritual  insight  than  his  brother,  and  his  style  of  the  dogea,  painted  in  the  same  place,  and  these 

gradimllv  developed  until  he  atlamed  a  perfect  bu-  sbow  tail  akiU  in    {XHtraitrfwinting.     Hia  msater- 


Thm  Doob  LoBSDuia  Qtovinn  BsLUia   < 

moay  of  drawing,  perspective,  drapery,  light,  and  pieces,  however,  are  hie  great  devotional  and  sltai 

colour.  pictures.  * 

His  two  Pietia,  in  Venice,  produce  a  deep  effect  Giovanni's  artistic  powers  entered  their  period  of 
ea  the  mind,  yet  they  betray  a  striking  harshness  highest  development  m  1479.  In  this  year  he  com- 
which  becomes  at  times  even  ugliness,  showing  that  pleted  tile  first  large  oil  painting  produced  at  Venice, 
the  characteristic  qualities  of  his  style  had  not  In  a  niche  which  nsesinarched  formoverpilasters  is 
fet  developed  into  a  harmonious  beauty.  The  enthroned theMadonnahotdJngwithasolenin,eamest 
Minting  at  Berlin  of  the  "Angels  Mourmng  over  expression  the  Divine  Child.  The  Child  stretches 
Christ"  although  in  the  relief  style,  is  noble,  tender,  out  its  little  hands  towards  the  worshipping  sufferer, 
ud  rich  in  colour.  The  feeling  of  devotion  loses  Job,  who  is  thus  honoured  as  a  patron  of  the  Church, 
nothing  here  through  the  realistic  jjortraya!  of  all  Near  Job  stands  St.  Francis,  farther  back  is  John  the 
tlie  details.  A  peculiarity  of  these  pictures  is  the  Baptist,  to  the  right  are  St.  Sebastian,  St.  Dominic, 
upri^t  position  of  the  dead, body  of  Christ.  The  and  Bishop  Leo.  At  the  foot  of  the  throne  are  angels 
amaller  pictures  of  the  Madonna  appear  at  all  stages  playing  musical  instruments,  above  in  the  curve  of 
in  the  development  of  the  artist.  Notwithstanding  the  arch  are  cherubim  and  the  inscription,  "Ave 
their  large  number  they  show  no  real  repetition;  at  vimnei  flos  intemerat«  pudoris".  The  Virgin  her- 
titoes  the  exprestuon  of  Mother  and  Cliild  is  very  self  seems  to  be  thrilled  by  the  solemn  inspiration 
etmest,  at  times  strange,  then  again  it  is  lovely  and  of  the  moment  and  raises  her  left  hand  as  if  in  warn- 
perfectly  natural.  It  one  of  them  the  Child  listens  ing  not  to  disturb  the  music  of  the  angels.  Deep  de- 
ID  a  most  winninE  way  to  the  song  of  the  angels  and  votion  is  expressed  on  all  the  faces.  A  laKe  picture 
looks  upward  with  open  mouth  in  childlike  astonish-  of  the  vear  148S  at  Murano  in  which  St.  Martin  pre- 
nent,  while  the  Mother  is  absorbed  in  her  Infant.  sents  tne  Doge  Barbarigo  to  the  enthroned  Madonna 

The  carefully  worked  out  details  of  these  pictures  suffers    somewhat    from    a    mechanical    symmetry. 

are  not    too    obtrusive.     Giovanni    preferred   half-  Nevertheless  the  same  musical  tone  prevails  in  it, 

length  6fpirea  even  when  a  number  ot  saints  were  together  with  great  richness  of  colouring  and  costume. 

mnjped  together;  as,  for  example,  in  the  pictures  On  each  side  is  seen  a  beautiful  londs^ipe  in  the  di»- 


BILLOT  418 

tance.    By  means  of  the  action  represented  a  greater  fame,  3rom)ff  BeUov'preferred  an  ecclesiastical  career, 

unity  is  obtained  in  this  canvas  than  in  the  one  just  made  his  dassicaf  and  theological  studies  at  Pans, 

mentioned,  and  much  more  still  than  in  the  Madonna  where  he  was  ordained  priest,  and  received  the  degree 

of  San  Zaccaria,  Venice  (1505).    In  the  latter  the  of  Doctor  in  Theology  in  1737.    In  the  minisi^  he 

enthroned  Madonna  holdine  the  Child  is  siurounded  shone  more  by  his  virtue  than  by  his  learning, 

by  Saints  Catherine,  Peter,  Jerome,  and  Lucia.    Each  Sweetness  of  character,  enlightened  and  moderate 

one  of  the  saints  is  separatehr  absorbed  in  devotion  zeal,  unswerving  fidelity  to  the  principles  and  tradi- 

while  an  angel  at  the  foot  of  tne  throne  softly  touches  tions   of   the   Church,  characterized   him   through 

the  strings  of  his  instrument  in  accompam'ment  to  life,    and    rendered    even    his    early    ministry  re- 

the  spirit  of  adoration.    Here  also  the  feeling  pro-  markaUy  fruitful.     His  bishop.  Cardinal  de  Gdvres, 

ducea  b^  the  music  creates  the  unity  of  the  whole  appoint^  him  vicar-ffeneral  and  archdeacon  of  his 

compNOsinon   and  the  painting  is  a  wonderful  ex-  cathedral.     In  1751  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of 

pression  of  adoring  worship.    The  scene  is  laid  in  a  Glanddves.    At  the  famous  Assembly  of  the  French 

beautiful  renaissance  structure  the  arehes  of  which  Clergy  of  1755,  he  took  sides  with  the  moderate  party 

are  adorned  with  mosaics.  and  contributed  to  the  restoration  of  tranquillity  in 

One  can  perceive^  the  unity  of  composition  attained  the  Chureh  of  France.     Dissensions  occasioned  by 

by  means  of  Mb  spirit  of  devotion  and  music  of  the  the  Bull  ''Unigenitus"  had  become  so  great  in  the 

angels  even  in  those  canvases  where  the  surroimding  Diocese  of  Marseilles  that,  at  the  death  of  the  saintly 

saints  stand  in  separate  niches.    Such,  for  example,  Bishop  de  Belsunce,  there  was  imminent  danger  of 

is  the  picture  where  four  saints  are  represented  on  the  schism.    In  tiiis  emergency  a  chief  pastor  of  consum- 

win^  of  an  altar-piece  in  the  chureh  of  Santa  Maria  mate  prudence  and  tact  was  needed,  and  Bishop  de 

dei  Fran  at  Venice  (1488).    The  Mother  and  Child  Belloy   was    accordingly    transferred    to    that   see. 

are  enthroned  in  the  middle  space;  at  their  feet  two  Without  sacrifice  of  principle  or  duty,  by  gentleness, 

boy-angels  are  playing  cheerfully  on  the  lute  and  tact,  and  justice,  he  gained  the  confidence  of  both 

flute.    A  lighter,  although  by  no  means  a  jarring  im-  parties  and  restored  peace.     In  July,  1790,  the  Na- 

preesion,  is  made  by  this  triptych.    The  separated  tional  Assembly  decreed  the  suppression  of  the  Dio- 

positions  of  the  saints,  to  whom  an  altar  and  a  church  cese  of  Marseilles.    The  bishop  withdrew,  but  sent 

nad  been  consecrated,  recalls  the  practice  of  the  older  to  the  assembly  a  letter  of  protest  against  the  sup 

painters.    By  uniting  the  saints  in  the  same  space  and  pression  of  one  of  the  oldest  episcopal  sees  of  France, 

giving  them  an  outer  as  well  as  an  inner  relation  to  He  retired  to  Chambljr,  a  little  town  near  his  nativv 

one  another  Bellini  created  the  so-called  ''Sacre  Con-  place,  where  he  remained  during  the  most  critical 

versazioni",  or  "the  Societies  of  Saints".     It  was  period  of  the  Revolution.     When,  in  1801,  the  so ver- 

not  necessary  that  the  personages  should  belong  to  eign  pontiff  decided  that  the  French  bishops  should 

the  same  historical  time,  as  they  receive  in  the  altar-  tender  their  resignation  in  order  to  facilitate  the 

piece  a  new,  ideal  life.    The  spirit  of  devotion  in-  conclusion  of  the  Concordat,  he  was  the  first  to  com- 

spired  by  the  Madonna  and  her  Divine  Child  imites  ply,  setting  an  example  which  exercised  great  in- 

tnem  sufiiciently  but  the  more  so  when  a  new  bond  nuence  oyer  the  other  bishops.     Napoleon,  highly 

of  imion  arises  from  the  action  indicated  in  the  com-  pleased  with  this  act  of  devotion  to  Church  and  State, 

position,  such  as,  in  many  cases,  the  beautiful  music  appointed  the  nonagenarian  bishop  to  the  See  of 

or  even  the  effect  produced  by  light  and  shade.  Paris.     Notwithstanding  his  extreme  age  he  governed 

A  couple  of  pictures  should  be  mentioned  in  .which  his  new  diocese  with  astonishing  vigour  and  intelli- 

Giovanm,  whom  time  never  robbed  of  the  freshness  gence,  reorganized  the  parishes,  provided  them  with 

of  his  imagination,  set  for  himself  problems  in  land-;  good  pastors,  and  visited  his  flock  in  person.     He 

Bcape-psLinting.     In  1501  he  painted  a  "Baptism  of  restored  the  (>own  of  Thorns  (10  August,  1806)  to  its 

Christ"  in  wnich  the  art  of  Giorgione  and  Titian  place  of  honour  in  the  Sainte  Chapelle.     Napoleon 

seems  to  be  apparent.     The  scene  is  laid  in  a  roman-  was  so  well  satisfied  that  he  asked  and  readily  ob- 

tic  mountain-valley  lighted  by  the  evening  sunshine,  tained  for  him  the  cardinal's  hat,  which  Pius  VII 

Three  kneeling  angels  are  the  witnesses.    The  in-  placed  on  the  prelate's  venerable  head  in  a  consistory 

fluence  of  younger  painters  is  very  evident  in  a  pict-  held   in   Paris,    1    February,    1805.    At   his   death 

ure  having  the  same  tone  as  the  one  just  mentioned.  Cardinal  de  Belloy  had  spent  seventy-five  years  in 

the  picture  of  St.  Jerome.     Giovanm*  continued  to  the  holy  mim'stiy  to  the  edification  of  all  and  the 

leiim  even  when  he  was  old,  although  he  was  prop-  evident  satisfaction  of  both  Napoleon  and  Pius  VII, 

erly  more  often  the  teacher  and  never  obscured  his  then  engaged  in  deadly  conflict.     He  is  buried  in 

own  individuality  of  style.     St.  Jerome,  in  this  pict-  Notre  Dame,  Paris,  where  the  monument  erected  by 

ure,  is  seated  on  a  great  rock  in  front  of  a  mountain  Napoleon  in  his  honour  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the 

landscape  and  is  absorbed  in  the  study  of  the  Script-  catnedral. 

ures.     In    the   foreground,  on  an  eminence,  stands  Fibquet,  La  France  ponrt/icoia  (Paris),  I,  642-556;  Fwxkr 

St.  Augustine  absorbed  in  thought,  and  on  the  other  ^^'  ^*^-  "»  ^®®-                 Ohaiufm  R  SrwRAi«n^ 

side   is  St.   Christopher   holding   the  Child  Jesus.  Uharles  u.  schrantz. 

These  three  mighty  men  of  Christianity  may  also  Bells. — ^The   subject  will  be  treated   imder   the 

be  considered  as  Dound  together  by  an  inner  spiritual  following  heads:  I.  Origin;  II.  Benediction;  III.  Uses; 

unity.    In  the  "Death  of  Peter  the  Martyr"  there  is  IV.  Archaeology  and  Inscriptions;  V.  Points  of  Law. 

a  prospect  to  right  and  loft  from  the  forest  out  over  I.  Origin. — That  bells,  at  any  rate  hand-bells  of 

a  city  and  mountains.     Such  vistas  are  always  impor-  relatively  small  size,  were  familiar  to  all  the  chief 

tant  features  in  the  genre  pictures  for  which  Giovanni  nations  of  antiquity  is  a  fact  beyond  dispute.    The 

had  a  strong  liking.     Giovanni  had  little  taste  for  arehaeological  evidence  for  this  conclusion  has  been 

mythological  scenes  and  his  few  canvases  of  this  collected  in  the  monograph  of  Abb6  Morillot  and  is 

kind  do  not  need  mention.  quite  overwhelming.     Specimens  are  still  preserved 

Berenson.  The  Venetian  Painters  (New  York  and  London^  of  the  bells  used  in  ancient  Babylonia  and  m  EJgypt, 

1897);.  W?SS'^'^,i2?  ^ffT^^'tlJliErM^ww  ^Smv  as  well  as  by  the  Romans  and  Greeks,  while  the  beU 

(LeipsCf   1879);    Riehl,   Kunalcnaraktere   (J*  rankiort,    lovo);  j      uj.   ji      12          j          1                    •        *.i      •             i_   • 

WoerZ^n.  Getdiicfue  dcr  Kunst  (Leipxiff.  1900).  imdoubtedly  figured  no  less  prommently  m  such  m- 

G.  GiETMANN.  dependent  civihzations  as  those  of  China  and  Hindu- 
stan.   There  is  consequently  no  reason  why  the  bells 

Belloy,  Jean-Baptistb  de,  Cardinal-Archbishop  upon  the  high  priest's  ef)hod  (Ex.,  xxxiii,  33)  should 

of  Paris,  b.  9  October,  1709,  at  Morangles  in  the  not  have  been  tiny  bells  of  normal  shape.    Further. 

Diocese  of  Beauvais;  d.  in  Paris,  10  June,  1808.     Al-  it  may  be  inferred  from  the  purposes  for  which  they 

though  of  an  ancient  family  of  no  mean  military  were  used  that  the  iinHnnabula  of  which  we  read  in 


BXLLS 


419 


BILU 


the  claasics,  must  at  least  in  some  instances  have 
betokened  hand-beUs  of  larger  siae.  See  for  example 
Martial,  "Epig.",  xiv,  161,  where  the  signal  for  the 

riing  of  the  baths  is  made  with  a  Hniinnabulum 
described  as  ass  thermarum.  None  the  less,  the 
Question  whether  anything  oorr^ppnding  in  size  to  a 
church  bell  was  known  in  pre^Onristian  times  does 
not  readily  admit  of  an  answer.  We  are  not  only 
ifflorant  of  the  dimensions  but  also  of  the  shape  of 
the  KihBiap  which  was  used  for  example  to  annoimoe 
the  opening  of  the  public  markets  (Of.  Strabo, 
Geogr.,  IV,  xxi).  We  translate  the  word  as  bell, 
but  it  is  possible  that  it  would  be  more  correctly 
rendered  gong  or  cymbals.  The  officer  who  made 
the  round  of  the  sentries  at  night  carried  a  kMuw 
(Thucyd.,  IV,  cxxxv;  Aristoph.,  Avee,  842  saa.),  and 
it  is  difficult  to  believe  that  anything  resemDling  an 
ordinary  bell  could  have  been  used  for  a  duty  in 
which  the  avoidance  of  accidental  noise  must  often 
have  been  of  the  highest  importance. 

In  coming  to  the  Christian  period  the  same  diffi- 
culty is  encountered.  A  new  set  of  terms  is  intro- 
duced, signuMf  eampanOf  doccay  nola,  which  are  all 
commonly  translated  ''bell",  and  it  is  certain  that 
at  a  later  period  these  were  all  used  to  denote  what 

were  in  the  strict- 
est sense  "  church 
bells  "  of  large  size. 
The  first  Christian 
writer    who    fre- 
quently speaks  of 
bells    (stgna)   is 
Gre£;ory  of  Tours 
(c.585).   We  learn 
that    they     were 
struck  or  shaken, 
and  we  even  find 
mention  of  a  cord 
being  used  for  this 
purpose  (Junem 
illitTn  de   quo  siff- 
num    commovetur, 
"De    Vit&   Mar- 
tini",   I,    xxviii), 
while   as   regards 
the  \ise  of  these 
siffna   it    appears 
that   they    rung 
before    church 
services  and  that 
they    roused   the 
monks  from  their 
beds.    Again,  the 
word  signum  ap- 
pears in  the  almost 
contemporary  "Life  of  St.  Columban"    (615),  for 
when  one  of  his  monks  was  dying  Columban  is  said 
to  have  assembled  the  community  by  ringing  the 
bell   (signo    tcLdo   omnes   adesse   imperavit,    Krusoh, 
"Scrip.  Merov,",  IV,  85).    Similar  expressions,  signo 
iodo,  or  cum  exavditum  fuerit  signum,  are  used  in 
Constitutions   attributed  to  St.   Cspsarius  of  Aries 
(c.  513)  and  in  the  Rule  of    St.  Benedict  (c.  640). 
Sforeover,  if  Dom  Ferotin's  view  of  the  very  early 
date  of  the  Spanish  ordinals  which  he  has  published 
(Monumenta  L<iturgica,  V)  could  be  safely  accepted, 
it  is  possible  that  large  bells  were  in  conmicm  use  in 
Spain  at  the  same  period.    Still  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  signum  primarily  meant  a  si^al  and  we 
most  not  be  too  haaty  in  attributing  to  it  a  specific 
instead  of  a  generic  meaning  when  first  employed 
by  Merovingian  writers. 

Again,  the  word  eampxna,  which  even  in  the  eariy 
Middle  Ages  undoubtedly  meant  a  church  bell  and 
nothing  else,  occurs  first,  if  Reifferscheid's  "Anec- 
dota  Caasinensia"  (p.  6)  may  be  trusted,  in  South- 
em  Italy  (o.  615)  in  a  letter  of  the  deacon  Ferrandus 


Beix  Towbb  op  Pisa 


to  Abbot  Eu^ppius.  It  has  been  suggested  from  a 
Latin  inscription  connected  with  the  Arval  Brethren 
(C.  I.,  L.  VI,  no.  2067)  that  it  was  previously  used 
to  mean  some  kind  of  brazen  vessel.  However  no 
quite  satisfactory  examples  of  cam'pana  in  church 
Latin  .seem  to  be  forthcoming  before  the  latter  part 
of  the  seventh  centiuy,  and  it  is  then  found  in  the 
North.  It  is  used  by  Cummian  at  lona  (c.  665)  and 
by  Bede  in  Northumbria  (c.  7,10),  and  frequently 
elsewhere  after  that  date.  In  Rome  the  ^' Liber 
Pontificalia"  tells  us  that  Pope  Stephen  II  (752-757) 
erected  a  belfry  with  three  bells  ipam'pa'MB)  at  St. 
Peter's.  It  was  probably  this  name  which  led 
Walafrid  Strabo  in  the  first  half  of  the  ninth  century 
to  make  the  assertion  that  bells  were  of  Italian 
origin  and  that  thev  came  from  Campania  and  more 
particularly  from  the  town  of  Nola.  Later  writers 
went  further  and  attributed  the  invention  to  St. 
Paulinus  of  Nola,  but  as  St.  Paulintis  himself  in  the 
minute  description  which  he  has  left  of  his  own 
church  makes  no  mention  of  bells,  this  is  extremely 
improbable. 

The  word  docca  (Fr.  cloche;  Ger.  Glocke;  Eng. 
clock)  is  interesting  because  in  this  case  it  is  definitenr 
known  what  was  meant  by  it.    It  was  certainly  Irish 
in  origin  and  it  occurs  at  an  eariy  date  both  in  Latin 
and  in  the  Irish  form  clog.    Thus  it  is  found  in  the 
Book  of  Armagh  and  is  used  by  Adamnan  in  his  life 
of  St.  Columblall  written  c.  685.    The  Irish  and  Eng- 
lish missionaries  no  doubt  imported  it  into  Germany 
where  it  appears  more  than  once  in  the  Sacramentanr 
of  Gellone.    It  is  plain  that  in  primitive  Celtic  lands 
an  extraordinary  importance  was  attached  to  bells. 
A  very  larpe  number  of  these  ancient  bells,  more 
than  sixty  m  all — the  immense  majority  being  Irish 
— are  still  in  existence.    Many  of  them  are  reputed 
to  have  belonged  to  Irish  saints  and  partake  of  the 
character  of  relics.     The  most  famous  is  that  of 
St.  Patrick,  the  dog-an-edachta  or  "bell-of-the-will" 
now  preserved  in  the  Museum  of  the  Royal  Irish 
Academy,  Dublin.    There  seems  no  serious  reason  to 
doubt  that  this  was  the  bell  which  lay  upon  St. 
Patrick^s  breast  and  was  taken  from  ms  tomb  in 
the  year  552.    Like  most  of  these  bells  it  had  an 
official  and  hereditary  custodian  (in  this  case  named 
Mulholland)  in  whose  possession  it  remained,  being 
handed   down   for   centuries   from   father   to   son. 
Other  similar  eariy  bells  are  those  of  St.  Senan  (c.  540) 
and  St.  Mura:  there  are  several  in  Scotland  and 
Wales,  one  at  St.  Gall  in  Switzerland,  one  known  as 
the  Saufang  at  Cologne,  and  another  at  Noyon  in 
France.    The  evidence  for  the  extraordinary  venera- 
tion with  which  these  bells  were  regarded  in  Celtic 
lands  is  overwhelming.    Even  Giraldus  Cambrensis 
notes  in  the  twelfth  century  that  upon  them  was 
taken  the  most  solenm  form  of  oath.   They  were  also 
carried  into  battle,  and  thouffh  the  earlier  specimens 
are  nothing  but  rude  cow-bells,  wedge-shape  in  form 
and  made  of  iron  plate  heaat  and  roughly  rivetted, 
still  they  were  often  enclosed  at  a  later  date  in  cases 
or  '*  shrmes  "  of  the  richest  workmanship.   The  shrine 
of  St.  Patrick's  bell  bears  an  inscription  of  some  length 
from  which  we  learn  that  this  bcMSiutiful  specimen  of 
the  jeweller's  craft  must  have  been  wrou^t  about 
the  year  1005.    History  tends  to  repeat  itself,  and 
if  we  remCTaber  the  important  part  played  in  the 
missionary  work  of  St.  Francis  Xavier  by  the  hand- 
bell with  which  he  gathered  round  him  the  children, 
the  idle,  or  the  ounous,  we  have  probably  a  clue  to 
the  intimate  association  of  these  early  Celtic  bells 
with  the  work  of  Christianity.    When  in  1683  Father 
Maunoir,  the  great  Breton  missionary,  had  at  last  to  re- 
linquish fmther  expeditions,  the  bell  which  he  handed 
on  to  his  successor  was  regarded  as  a  sort  of  investi- 
ture.  It  may  be  lioted  that  the  famous  round  towers 
of  Ireland,  which  are  now  generally  recognized  to  have 
been  plaoes  of  refuge  against  the  inroads  of  the 


BILLS 


420 


BILLS 


Danes  and  other  marauders,  were  commonly  called 
doc  teach.  The  bells  oecasionally  stored  there  for 
the  sake  of  safety  seem  to  have  been  regarded  as  the 
most  precious  of  their  treasures  and  from  this  cir- 
cumstance the  towers  probably  derived  their  name, 
though  it  is  of  course  possible  that  they  in  some  cases 
served  as  belfries  in  the  more  ordinary  sense. 

The  great  development  in  the  use  of  bells  may  be 
identified  with  the  eighth  century.  It  was  then, 
seemingly,  that  they  oegan  to  be  regarded  as  an 
essential  part  of  the  equipment  of  every  church,  and 
also  that  the  practice  of  blessing  them  by  a  special 
form  of  consecration  became  generally  prevalent.  If 
we  interpreted  literally  a  well-known  passage  in  Bede 
(Hist.  Efccl.,  IV,  xxi)  we  should  have  to  believe  that 
already  in  the  year  680,  the  bell  (campcma)  that  was 
rung  at  Whitby  at  the  passing  away  of  St.  Hilda  wa« 
heanl  at  Hackness  thirteen  miles  on.  But  the  whole 
setting  of  the  story  implies  that  Bede  regarded  the 
occurrence  as  miraculous  and  that  the  distance  might 
as  well  have  been  thirty  miles  as  thirteen.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  clear  that  in  the  eighth  century 
church  towers  began  to  be  built  for  the  express  pur- 
pose of  hanging  bells  in  them,  which  implies  that  the 
beUs  must  have  been  increasing  in  size.  The  case  of 
St.  Peter's  at  Rome  has  already  been  noticed.  So  in 
the  annals  of  St.  Vandrille  (cap.  x,  p.  33)  we  read 
that  in  the  time  of  Ermharius  who  died  in  738,  that 
abbot  had  a  bell  made,  to  be  hung  in  the  little  tower 
(turricula)  "as  ia  the  custom  of  such  churches"; 
while  the  "  Monachus  Sangallensis  "  (De  Carolo  Magno, 
I,  xxxi)  tells  the  story  of  a  monastic  bell-founder 
who  asked  Charlemagne  to  give  him  a  hundred  pounds 
of  silver  with  a  proportionate  amount  of  copper  to 
provide  materials  for  a  single  great  bell.  In  any  case 
it  is  certain  from  Charlemagne's  "Capitularies",  as 
well  as  from  Alcuin,  Amalarius,  and  other  writers 
of  the  early  ninth  century,  that  by  that  time  in  the 
Prankish  dominions  eveiy  parish  church  was  ex- 
pected to  have  at  least  one  bell.  In  the  next  century 
Kegino  of  Priim,  providing  a  programme  of  questions 
to  be  asked  at  an  episcopal  visitation,  puts  in  the 
very  first  place  a  question  about  the  church  bells. 
Seeing  that  the  clearest  evidence  of  the  popularity  of 
church  bells  in  Carlovingian  times  is  encountered  in 
regions  where  the  influence  of  Irish  or  English  mis- 
sionaries had  prevailed,  it  may  perhaps  be  concluded 
that  this  development  should  be  traced  %o  Celtic 
influence.  The  missionary's  hand-bell,  with  wli&h  he 
gathered  his  congregation  together  in  the  open  air, 
would  sooil  become  sacred  as  a  thing  immediately  as- 
sociated with  him  and  his  work.  Moreover,  the  idea 
would  grow  up  that  no  religious  service  could  take 
place  without  some  preliminary  ringing  of  a  bell. 
Although  we  have  traces  of  the  use  of  signa  and 
campancB  in  monasteries  before  the  Irish  became 
missionaries,  there  is  no  evidence  to  show  that  these 
were  bells  rather  than  gongs.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
o'lj/iorrpoi',  used  to  announce  the  beginning  of  serv- 
ice in  Greek  monasteries  was  a  flat  plate  of  metal  and 
its  name  (from  crifuaivtiVy  "  to  make  a  signal ")  is  ob- 
viously the  counterpart  of  aignum.  Further  we  also 
find  in  an  old  glossary  of  the  tenth  century  that  the 
Greek  word  rituiravov  (drum)  is  given  as  the  equiva- 
lent of  campanum  (Corpus  Glossariorum  Latinorum. 
Ill,  24).  At  the  same  time  we  can  trace  in  Ireland 
itself  a  gradual  evolution  of  the  shape  of  the  bell, 
passing  from  the  small  cow-bell  of  nvetted  iron  to 
the  cast  bronze  instrument  of  considerable  size,  nearly 
approximating  the  bell  with  which  we  are  now 
familiar. 

II.  Benediction. — Since  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century  there  has  been  much  purposeless 
controversy  over  the  question  of  the  so-callea  "bap- 
tism "  of  biells.  Protestant  critics,  following  the  lead 
of  Luther  himself,  have  professed  to  find  in  the  rite 
not  only  superstition  but  a  profanation  of  the  sacra- 


ment.   But  one  mi^t  as  well  be  scand^klized  at  the 
ceremonial  usually  followed   in  the  laimchins  and 
christening  of  a  ship.    The  phrase  " baptism  of  bells" 
is  merely  popular  and  metaphorical.     It  has  been 
tolerated,  but  has  never  been  formally  recognised  by 
the   Church    (Benedict,   XIV,   Instit.,   47,  n.  33). 
Every  Cathohc  child  is  aware  that  the  essence  of 
•the  Sacrament  of  Baptism  consists  in  the  fonn: 
''Ibaptbe  thee'',  etc.,  but  no  properly  authorised 
ritual  for  the  blessing  of  bells  is  known  to  have  con- 
tallied  any  phrase  which  can  be  regarded  as  an 
equivalent  or  parody  of  these  words.    Certain  local 
'^agenda"  in  which  something  of  the  sort  is  found, 
for  example  at  Cologne  (see  SchOnfelder,  Liturgische 
Bitdiothdk.  I,  99-100)  appear  never  to  have  received 
anv  official  recognition  (cf.  The  Month,  September, 
1907).     On  the  other  hand,  the  ceremonial  of  the 
Church  is  often  Imitative.    The  rite  for  the  blessing 
of  palms  closely  follows  the  arrangement  of  the 
vanable  portions  of  the  Mass.     The  order  for  the 
coronation  of  a  kins  copies  so  neariy  that  for  the 
consecration  of  a  biSbiop  that  Anglican  writers  have 
recently  contended  that  the  king  is  a  ''spiritual 
person  '  invested  with  episcopal  powers.    Hence  it 
would  not  be  surprising  that  in  the  "Benedictio 
Signi  vel  Campan»    a  certain  resemblance  should  be 
traced  to  details  in  the  ritual  of  baptism.    Exorcisms 
are  used,  and  water  and  salt  and  imctions  with  the 
holy  oils;  the  bell  receives  a  name,  and  formerly,  at 
least,  the  name  was  suggested  by  a  "godfather". 
But  for  all  the  controversy  the  resemblances  are 
really  very  superficial.    The  following  i9  a  ^ummaiy 
of  the  ceremony  now  in  use  from  which  the  medieval 
pontificals  differ  but  slightly.    The  bishop  in  white 
vestments  first  recites  seven  psalms  with  nis  attend- 
ant  clergy  to  implore  the  Divme  assistance.    Then  he 
mixes  ^t  with  water,  reciting  prayers  of  exorcism 
analogous  to  those  always  iised  in  the  preparation 
of  holy  water,  but  making  special  reference  to  the 
bell  and  to  the  evil  influences  of  the  air — the  phan- 
toms, the  storms,  the  lightning — which  threaten  the 
peace  of  devout  Christians  who  come  to  the  church 
to  sing  the  praises  of  God.    Then  the  bishop  and  his 
attendants  '"wash"  (lavant)  the  bell  inside  and  out 
with  the  water  thus  prepared  and  dry  it  with  towels, 
the  Psalm  "Laudate  Dominum  de  coelis"  and  five 
others   of   similar   import   being   simg   meanwhile. 
These  are  followed  by  various  unctions,  thoae  on 
the  outside  of  the  bell  being  made  with  the  oil  of 
the  sick  in  seven  places,  and  those  on  the  inside  with 
chrism  in  four  places.    In  the  accompanying  prayers 
mention  is  made  of  the  silver  trumpets  of  tne  Old 
Law  and  of  the  fall  of  the  walls  oi  Jericho,  while 
protection  is  asked  once  more  against  the  powers  of 
the  air,  and  the  faithful  are  encoura^;ed  to  take  refuge 
under  the  si^  of  the  Holy  Cross.    In  this  respect  the 
prologue  of  Longfellow's  "Golden  Legend"  leaves  a 
generally  correct  impression,  despite  the  inaccurate 
statement: 

For  these  bells  have  been  anointed 
And  baptized  with  holy  water. 

In  making  the  imctions,  and  not,  be  it  noticed,  in 
washing  the  bell,  a  form  is  used  introducing  the 
patron  saint:  "May  this  bell  be  +  hallowed,  O  Lord, 
and  -I-  consecrated  in  the  name  of  the  -4-  Father, 
and  of  the  -h  Son  and  of  the  -h  Holy  Ghost.  In 
honour  of  St.  N.  Peace  be  to  thee".  Finally  the 
thurible  with  incense  {thymiatna)  and  mjrrrti  are 
placed  under  the  bell  so  that  the  smoke  arising  may 
fill  its  concavity.  Then  another  prayer  is  said  of 
similar  purport  to  the  last,  and  the  ceremony  ends 
with  the  reading  of  the  passage  in  the  Gospel  con- 
cerning Martha  and  Mary. 

In  all  essentiab  this  ritual  agrees  with  that  in  use 
in  Carlovingian  times,  found  in  many  manuscripts, 
and  dating  probably  as  far  back  as  the  pontificate  oi 


BKLU  421  BILUI 

Miert  ot  Fork  in  the  middle  of  the  eighth  centuiy.        Some  rude  Hnes  quoted  in  the  eloee  of  the  "Uoipui 

Tta  washing  and  the  unctions  were  prescribed  as  at  Juris",  and  often  found  in  inscnptiona,  describe  the 

pmeot,  but  of  old  we  find  no  tnce  of  the  fonn  of  principal  functions  of  a  bell  (ci.  Longfellow,  The 

worda  or  of  the  name-eiving  which  now  accompanj'  Golden  Legend): 

the  tmirtionB.     That  the  ritual  for  the  blening  of         Laudo  Deum  verum  plebem  voco  congrego  clerum 

belb,  which  luis  thus  been  in  use  in  the  Church  for         Defunctoa  ploro,  nimbum  fugo,  festa  decoro. 

nerfy  twelve  hundred  years,  was  framed  with  any  (I  praise  the  true  God,  I  call  we  people,  I  assemble 

dtsin  of  imitating  the  ceremonies  of  baptiam  seems  the  clergy* 

ti^  improbable  for  many  reasons.    First  there  is  I  bewail  the  dead,  I  diBperee  storm  clouds,  I  do 

DO  triple  immersion  nor  even  strictly  speaking  any  honour  to  feasts.) 

Sluing  of  wat«r.    The  bell  is  "washed"  by  the  Orotherwiae: 
bop  and  his  assistants,  just  as  the  altars  are        Funera  plango    fulmina  frango    sabbata  pango 
wuhed  on  Maundy  Thursday.    Further  there  is  noth-         Excito  lentos    disaipo  ventos   paco  cruentos 

idg  whatever  to  recall  the  epkphOa  ceremony,  ^t  (At  obsequies  I  mourn,  the  thunoerbolts  I  scatter,  I 
this  ia  the  one  detail  in  the  rite  of  baptism  which  ring  in  the  sabbaths; 

"Quld  fleem  in  place  if  the  ritual  were  transferred  I  hustle  the  sluggards,  I  drive  away  storms,  I  pro- 
lo  a  bell.     Against  the  ai^ument  used  by  the  Re-  claim  peace  after  bloodshed.) 

fonnera  that  Charlemagne  in  his  capitularies  decreed  Under  dejimctot  ploro  we  may  reckon  the  "passing 

it  d^eeai  non  baplixenl,  it  may  be  urged  as  a  quite'  bell ",  which  in  its  strict  meaning  is  a  usage  of  very 

Ditiiral  eiplansMon   of   this   ordinance   that   some  early  date.     In  all  monastic  orders  when  any  one  of 

practice  may  have  begun  to  grow  up  which  seemed  the  community  seemed  to  be  at  the  point  of  death  a 

too  ckieely  to  parody  the  rite  of  baptism  and  that  signal  was  given  by  ringing  a  bell  or  striking  a  woodm 

tbe prevalence  of  our  existing  less  objectionable  cere-  board       {labtUa') 

aoBui  was  precisely  the  result  of  Charlemagne's  either  to  summon 

islervention.    It  is  probable  that  a  rubric  found  in  the  monks  to  his 

one  or  two,  but  no  more,  of  the  extant  pontificals,  bedside  or  to  ad- 

"TuDC  sub  trinA  infusione  aqus  sanctie  impone  ei  monish    them    to 

[i.  e.  campanse]  nomen,  si  velis",  preserves  the  trace  pray  {see  Eddius, 

of  the  practice  which  Charlemagne  condemns,     Cer-  VitaWilfridi,  64). 

tain  Spanish  ordinals,  the  original  of  which  must  date  This  was  extended 

Irwn  the  seventh  century  or  earlier,  contain  a  quite  later   to    parish 

different  rite  for  the  blessing  of  bells  (Ferotin,  Monu-  churches,     and    a 

meata  Liturgica,  V,  160).  IJere  there  is  no  mention  bell  was   rung  to 

of  unctions  or  of  any  washing  with  holy  water,  but  announce    that    a 

there  are  exorcisms  and  prayers  of  the  same  general  parishioner  was  in 

pinport  as  those   found   in   the   Roman   Pontifical,  his   agony,  which 

lodiiectly  this  Spanish  ritual,  by  speaking  of  "hoo  Heeminglv-  also 

I'as  ooncretum  ^neribus  metallorum",  proves  that  developed  further 

Irom  an  early  date  a  combination  of  metels  was  used  into  a  bell  tolled 

iQ  founding  bells.  after  his    decease 

III.  UaES.— The  first  ecclesiastical  use  of  bells  was  to  solicit  prayers 

to  announce  the  hour  of  church  services.    It  is  plain  for   his  soul.      So 

ihat  in  the  days  before  watches  and  clocks  some  deeply  rooted  were 

sich  si^tal  must  have  been  a  necessity,  more  es-  these  practices  in 

penally  in  rchgious  communities  which  assembled  England    that    it 

a^sDv  times  a  day  to  sing  the  Divine  praises.    Among  was    found    im- 

'be  Egyptian  cenobites  we  read  that  a  trumpet  was  possible    at    the  bvuntinb  H«.vd-Bei,l  of  Bhonib  m 

<ued  for  the  puipose;  among  the  Greeks  a  wooden  Reformation      to   THECoLLEcnoKurTHiABF.  or  Rntiu 

board  or  sheet  of  metal  was  struck  with  a  hammer;  abolish  them  alto- 

in  the  West  the  use  of  bells  eventually  prevailed,  xether.    Hence  the  "Canons"  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 

In  the  Merovingian  period  there  is  no  trustworthy  knd  prescribe   [Can.  Ixvii):  "When  any  is  passing 

tridence  for  the  existence  of  large  bells  capable  of  out  oi  this  Ufe  a  bell  shall  be  tolled  and  the  minister 

being  heard  at  a  distance,  but,  as  it  became  needful  shall  not  then  slack  to  do  his  last  duty.    And  aft«r 

to  call  to  church  the  inhabitants  of  town  or  hamlet,  the  party's  death,  if  it  so  fall  out,  there  shall  be  rung 

bell  turrets  were  built,  and  bells  increased  in  siw,  and  no  more  than  one  short  peal,  and  one  other  before 

12  early  as   the  eighth  century  we  hear  of  two  or  the  burial  and  one  other  aCter  the  burial",     "Though 

more  bells  in  the  same  church.    Perhaps  these  were  the  tolling  of  this  bell",  says  Ellacombe,  "has  been 

ai  first  tnteoded  to  reinforce  each  other  and  add  to  prescribea  for  four  distinct  occasions,  modem  custom 

the  volume  of  sound.    But  in  any  case  it  became  in  nas  liipited  it  to  two:  first,  after  the  death  of  the 

lime  a  recognized  principle  that  the  dataicum,  the  parishioner,  to  which  the  term  passing-bell  has  been 

cbah  of  several  bells  ringing  at  once,  constituted  an  inoorrectly  tnnaferred;  and  the  second  time  during 

ficiuent  oif  joy  and  solemnity  befitting  great  feasts  the  procession  of  the  funeral  from  the  house  of  the 

(Kupert  of  Deuta,  De  Div.  OSic.,  I,  16).     Medieval  deo^sed  to  the  church-gate  or  entrance".    In  many 

oiQsuetudinaries  show  that  where  there  were  many  places  it  was  formerly  cuafomary  by  some  variation 

belb,  diflTetcnt  bells  were  used  for  different  purposes,  in  the  manner  of  ringing  to  indicate  the  sex,  quality, 

-^ven  in  ordinary  parish  churches  it  was  customary  or   age   of   the   deceased.      Thus   Durondus   m   the 

W  ring  not  only  for  Mass  but  before  both  Matins  and  fourteenth  century  directed  that  when   anyone  was 

Vsipeis  (Hartzheim,  IV,  247;  V,  327)  while  diffei^  tn  extremia  the  passing-bell  should  be  tolled  twice  for 

esees  b  the  manner  of  ringing  and  the  number  of  a  woman,  thnoe  for  a  man,  and  for  a  cleric  a  (greater 

Ms  map[ojvd  indicated  the  grade  of  the  fesst,  the  number  o{  times  according  to  the  orders  which  ha 

BUure  of  the  service,  the  fact  that  a  sermon  would  had   received.      Among  Celtic   peoples   the   ancient 

be  pnaehed,  and  many  other  details.    The  custom  hand-bells  which,  as  already  noted,  were  so  deeply 

sf  TufcTug  such  announcements  by  bell  still  survives  venerated  partly  as  objects  immediately  connected 

ien  ami  tbei«.     Thus  in  Rome  on  the  evening  be-  with  I~lod'B  worship,   partly  as  relics  of  holy  men, 

fcre  a  (ut  day  the  bells  are  rung  for  a  jjuarter  of  an  were  usually  carried  and  rung  at  funerals.    To  tliis 

luir  in  all  the  parish  churches  to  remind  people  of  day  St.   Finnan's  little  bell  hes  exposed  upon  the 

ttar  obG^tions  on  the  morrow.  ftltor  of  a  ruined  chapel  in  one  of  the  Catholic  dis- 

n.— 27 


BIU8  422 

£rictB  of  the  Highlands  of  Scotland.  It  is  used  at  goes  back  to  the  eighth  oentuiy  and  Amaiariui  ii 
funerals,  but  is  otherwise  left  unprotected,  being  re-  authority  for  the  statement  that  then  as  now  a 
warded  with  such  deep  veneration  by  all  that  no  one  wooden  rattle  was  used  in  their  ,  place.  Again  the 
dares  to  interfere  with  it  (see  Macdonald,  Moidart,  idea  of  vox  Domini  in  VirttUe  in  remembrance  of 
Oban,  1889,  120).  In  many  parts  of  France  there  their  special  consecration  has  led  to  the  bells  being 
were  formerly  conlratemities  of  hand-bell-ringers  who  rung  at  times  of  storm  and  apprehended  danger, 
regularly  attended  funerals,  walking  at  the  head  of  The  inscription  ScUva  Terra  often  found  in  the  old 
the  procession.  They  also  paradeid  the  streets  at  bells  of  the  South  of  France  seemis  to  bear  special 
night  and  rang  to  remind  people  to  prav  for  the  reference  to  this  virtue  of  the  bells  as  sacramental, 
holy  souls.  This  hapi)ened  especiallv  on  the  eve  of  IV.  Abchaoloot  and  Inscriptions. — Unoues- 
All  Saints  and  on  Christmas  Eve  (Morillot,  Clochet-    tionably  the  oldest  existing  Christian  bells  are  tnose 

tes,  160  sqq.).  of  Irish,  oi^  at  least  Celtic,  origin,  of  which,  as  already 

In  Rome  the  "De  Profundis''  is  rung  every  even-  stated,  a  surprisingly  large  number  are  preserved, 

ing  by  the  parish  churches  one  hour  aSfter  the  Ave  The  earliest,  made  oi  iron  plate,  bent  ana  rivetted, 

Maria.    Clement  XII  in  1736  granted  an  indulgence  seem  to  have  been  dipped  in  melted  bronze,  a  process 

for  this  practice  and  endeavoured  to  extend  it.    This  which    probably    much    improved    their    sonority, 

custom  IS  observed  in  many  other  places,  particularly  Somewhat  later  hand-bells  b^gan  to  be  cast  in  bronze, 

in  North  America.  and  one  such  specimen  (eight  inches  in  diameter  and 

The  Curfew  (ignitegium),  a  warning  to  extinguish  nearly  a  foot  hieh)  can  be  dated  by  the  aid  of  the 

fires  and  lights,  after  which  all  respectable  char-  inscnption  which   it  bears  Cr  ar  qhumascach  Sic 
acters  went  home  to  bed,  was  possibly  of  eccle-    aililla  FA  prayer  upon  (i.  e.  for)  Chumascach  son  of 

siasticai  origin  but  seems  to  have  been  rung  as  a  rule  Aillil].    Now  as  Chumascach,  steward  of  the  Church 

by  the  town  bell  {campana  communia,  bandoche),  of  Armagh,  died  in  904,  this  bell  probably  belongs  to 

Still  in  many  cases  one  of  the  church  bells  was  used  the  closing  years  of  the  ninth  century.    Another  bell 

for  this  and  similar  purposes.    In  England  this  was  of  early  date,  but  of  small  size  (five  and  one-half  inches 

particularly  freauent,  and  in  many  small  towns  and  high  and  seven  inches  in  diameter),  is  preserved  in 

parishes  the  curfew  is  rung  to  this  day  at  hours  vaiy-  the  Museum  of  Cordova.     It  bears  the  inscription: 
mg  from  8  p.  m.  to  10.  *'  0£Fert  hoc  munus  Sanson   abbatis  J^tcl  in  domum 

The  Angelus  or  Ave  Maria  may  or  may  not  have  sancti  Sebastiani  martvris  Christ!  era  DOuCCLXIII". 

developed  out  of  the  curfew.    There  seems  good  rea^  This  is  the  Spanish  Era  and  corresponds  with  a.  d. 

son  to  believe  that  a  special  bell,  often  called  the  925.    Of  church  bells  properly  so  called,  the  earliest 

Gabriel  bell,  was  devoted  to  this  purpose.    In  the  existing  specimens  seem  to  belong  to  the  eleventh, 

Middle  Ages  the  Angelus  seems  conomonly  to  have  twelfth,  and  thirteenth  centuries.    Thev  are  for  the 

been  rung  with  three  equal  peals,  and  this  arrange-  most  part  of  a  sort  of  beehive,  thimble  or  barrel 

ment  still  obtains  in  many  places.    In  Rome,  where  shape,  sometimes    disproportionately  broad,   some- 

the  Ave  Maria  is  sung  half  an  hour  after  sunset  this  times  narrower,    while   the    sides    are    commonly 

method  obtains:  three  strokes  and  a  pause,  four  straight  or  even  in  some  few  instances  converge  a 

strokes  and  a  pause,  five  strokes  and  a  pause,  a  final  little  toward  the  bottom.    They  are  also  often  per- 

stroke.  forated  with  three  or  four  small  triangular  apertures 

From  the  introduction  of  the  Elevation  of  the  in  the  upper  part  of  the  bell.    The  inscriptions,  when 

Host  in  the  Mass  at  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  they  occur,  are  engraved  and  not  as  a  rule  cast  in 

centurynt  seems  to  have  be^  customary  to  ring  one  relief.     Most  of  them  are  very  short,  but  this  is 

of  the  great  bells  of  the  church,  at  any  rate  during  probably  due  to  the  accident  that  so  very  few  eariv 

the  principal  Mass,  at  the  moment  when  the  Sacred  oeUs  have   survived,  for  we  have  record  of   much 

Host  was  raised  on  hi^.    This  was  to  give  warning  longer  inscriptions  engraved  on  bells  as  far  back  as 

to  the  people  at  work  m  the  fields  in  ordfer  that  they  the  ninth  century.    Thus  Folcuin  who  was  Abbot  of 

might  momentarily  kneel  down  and  make  an  act  of  Lobbes  from  965  to  990,  tells  us  in  his  chronicle  of 

adoration.    It  seems,  however,  not  improbable  that  one  of  his  predecessors  Harbert  (835-864)  who  had 

in  England  the  big  bell  was  not  conunonly  rung  but  a  bell  made  with  this  inscription: — 
that  a  small  hand-bell  was  used  for  the  purpose.        Harberti  imperio  componor  ab  arte  Patemi 
This  was  taken  to  a  small  window  (low  side  window)        Nee  musis  docta  en  cantus  modulabor  amcenos 
ordinarily  closed  by  a  shutter,  thrust  through  the        Nocte  dieque  vigil  depromam  carmina  Christi. 

aperture  and  rung  outside  the   chureh.     Whether  Folcuin  himself  set  up  bells  which  bore  the  words: 

this  was  distinct  from  the  little  bell  which  the  rubrics  **  Jussu  Fulcuini  me  oondidit  artificis  manus  Danielis, 

of  the  Mass  now  order  to  be  rung  by  the  server  is  not  ad  laudem  triadis  ";  and  "  Fulcuinus  Deo  et  patjono 

ouite  clear.    It  nuiy  be  noted  here  that  in  regard  to  suo  S.  Ursmaro.^' 

this  same  tintinnaSulum  usa^  varies  very  much  in        This  last  instance,  perhaps  the  earliest  example  of 

different  countries.    In  Beljgium,  France,  and  some  a  bell  with  a  name,  throws  an  interesting  light  on  the 

other  places,  this  little  bell  is  rung  also  at  the  "  little  origin  of  the  practice  of  assigning  bells  to  a  particular 

elevation"  before  the  Pater  Noster.     In  Ropie  it  is  patron.     Again   we   know  that  the  Cistercians  of 

never  rung  at  the  Domine  non  sum  dignus  and  is  not  Waverley  a^ut  1239  had  a  bell  made  with  the  legend: 
used  at  allat  Masses  said  by  the  pope  or  by  cardinals.        Dicor  nomine  quo  tu  Virgo  domestioa  Christi 

In  the  rite  of  the  blessing  of  bells  the  verse  is  ap-        Sum  Domini  prseco  cuius  tutela  f uisti 

pli^"^  to  them  vox  Domini  in  virtuUf  vox  Domini  %n  And  an  even  longer  inscription  consisting  of  four 

mag.iifUentid  (The  voice  of  the  Lord  is  in  power;  hexameter  lines  was  to  be  read  upon  the  bell  called 

the  voice  of  the  Lord  in  magnificence,  Ps.,  xxviii,  4).  Edmund  at  Bury,  which  dated  irom  about  1 105.    The 

It  is  no  doubt  in  virtue  of  the  solemnity  which  they  oldest  church  bell  im)w  in  existence  is  probably  that 

Vend  to  worship  that  the  "Ceremoniale  EJpiscoporum"  known  as  the  Lullus  bell  at  Hersfeld  which  may  be- 

directs  t\at  they  are  to  be  rung  in  honour  of  the  long  to  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century,  but  the 

bishop  when  he  visits  the  parish.    The  same  mark  of  oldest  which  bears  a  certain  date  (i.  e.  1164)  is  said 

respect  is  observed  in  tm  case  of  secular  princes,  to  be  one  at  Iggensbach  in  Bavaria.     It   may  be 

while  such  occasions  as  processions  of  the  Bleraea  doubted,  however,  whether  certain  ancient   Italian 

Sacrament,  solemn  Te  DeimM,  marriages,  and  days  bells  at  Siena  and  elsewhere  have  yet  been  adeauately 

of  national  rejoicing  are  similarly  distinguished.    On  studied  (see  EUaoombe,  406, 530).    In  Engl  ana  many 

the  other  hand,  in  token  of  mourning  the  bells  are  medieval  bells  still  survive,  but  no  dated  bell  is  older 

dlent  from  the  Gloria  of  the  Mass  on  Maundy  Thurs-  than  that  of  Claughton  in  Lancashire,  1296.     As  re- 

^y  until  the  Gloria  on  Holy  Saturday.    This  rule  gards  the  lettering  of  the  inscriptions,  it  sufl^cee  to  say 


(ype. 

As  reeardB  the  inscri^tiona  themselvefl,  both  pur- 
port ai^  wording  are  infinitely  varied.  Some  are 
MttiarouB  in  syntax  and  metre,  others  ■  have  evi- 
dently been  eubraitted  to  some  sort  of  goholarly 
reviiion.  That  the  practice  of  naming  bells  begaHi 
>a  stated  by  Baronius,  with  the  dedication  of  a  bell 
U>  St.  John  the  Baptist  by  Pope  John  XIII  in  969 
mta  on  unaatisfactory  evidence,  but  moet  existing 
medieval  bells  preserve  some  indication  of  the  name 
by  which  they  were  called.  A  very  large  number 
were  in  one  way  or  other  dedicated  to  the  Blessed 
Vii^,  and  most  of  these  were  probably  used  either 
for  the  Anf^lus  or  at  the  Mary  Mass.  The  inacrip- 
lions  vary  indefinitely.     One  of  the  commonest  was 

Pnite^  prece  pi£l  quos  eonvoco  sancta  Maria 
or  what  i«  metrically  a  Little  more  correct: 

Ora  mente  piA  pro  nobis  Vir^  Maria. 
in  Gennany  a  very  favourite  ioscnptkm  for  Mary 
bdk  was: 

Uaria  vocor.     O  'rex  g^oiis  voii  cum  pace. 
This  almost  certainly  was  meant  as  a  reference  to 
the  locamation,  for  in  many  cases  this  legend  was 
joined  with  the  words;  "Et  homo  factus  eat".    Such 


belli  were  probably  used  for  the  Angelus.  Bells  in 
honour  of  Bt.  Pet«r  were  also  very  common.  In 
Fjigland  we  find  many  suoh  inscriptions  as 

Petrus  ad  ffitamce  ducat  nos  pascua  vitm 
or  again: 

Nomen  Petri  fero  qui  claviger  exstat  in  Bvo. 
Inaniptiond  to  the  sainte,  notably  to  St.  Gabriel  for 
the  Angelus,  were  numerous.    Thus,  lo  take  mi  Eng- 
lish example,  we  have  at  Shapwick,  Dorset, 
1  Kateryne,   Goddes  derlyng,   to   thee  Mari  shal  I 

.^mcog  Trench  bells  allusion  to  protection  against 
the  powers  of  darkness  was  frequent,  and  many 
bdb  were  called  Sauveterre.  Thus  we  have:  "Jhs 
per  medium  illonmi  ibat,     Salva 


terre  m'^tais  nomm£«".  Or  a^n  we  often  find  only: 
"Xtue  vincit;  Xtus  regnat;  Xtun  imperat".  Later 
insoHptions  wer«  oft«ii  chronographia.  Thus  in  a 
belief  1660  wb  have: 

Rupta  bis  ante  fui  nunc  Integra  reddita  cantem 
Magno  I^I  LIqVefaCta  Deo  reparata  benlgno 
— capitals  m  second  line  giving  dal«  MDCLVlfll. 
The  following  inscriptions  are  on  the  firincipal  bell 
of  St.  Peter's  Basilica,  Rome  (shown  in  illustration): 
On  the  upper  part: 

-fin  noadne  Domini   Uatris,   Petrique   Paulique, 
Accipe  devotum,  parvum  licet,  accipe  munus 
Quod  tibi  Christe  datum  Petri  Paulique  triumpbum 
-fExplicat,  et  nostram  petit  populique  salutem 
Ipsonun  pietate  dari  meritisque  refundi. 

£t  Verbum  caro  factum  est. 

-I-Anno  milleno  trecenteno  cum  quinquageno 

Additis  et  tribus,  Septembris  mense.  colatur. 

Ponderat  et  mills  decies  septiesque  librarum. 

+Campanam    banc    longo    usu    confractom    non 

plus  quam  quatuordecim  roille  libras  pendere  com- 

pertum  est;  Benediclus  XIV  addito  usque  ad  vigintj 

mille  libras  metallo,  eonflari  et  denuo  refici  iussit, 

anno   reparatae   salutis   MDCCXLVII. 

-4-Eandem  septimo  vix  exacto  lustro,  rimis  actls 
inutilem,  uno  plus  et  viginti  miilibus  pondo  metalli 
repertam,  Pius  Sextus,  Pont.  Max,  non  mediocri 
metallo  euperaddilo  ad  idem  ponderis  eonflari  fun- 
dique  mandavit,  anno  Domini  MDCCLXXXV, 
Pont.  XI. 

Aloysius  eques  Valadier  construxit. 
For  the  credit  of  eighteenth  century  scholarship, 
it  seems  desirable  to  exolain  that  only  the  latter  part 
of  this  inscription  belongs  to  the  pontificate  of 
Pius  VI.  The  earlier  portion  with  ita  metricid  ir- 
regularities is  simply  a  copy  of  what  was  r^id  upon 
the  great  bell  of  St,  Peter's  at  the  bt^aning  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  Probably  the  metal  came  from 
the  bell  originally  cast  bv  Leo  IV  in  850,  or  even 
earlier,  under  Pope  Stephen  II.  Then,  when  the 
campanile  was  burned  down  in  1303,  Boniface  VIII 
bad  a  new  bell  made  with  the  inscription  which 
stands  first  in  the  above  series.  Only  fifty  years  after- 
wards the  tower  was  struck  by  lightning,  and  a  new 
great  bell  was  founded  (coUUur,  cf.  the  French  couler) 
in  September,  1363.  Then  Benedict  XIV  had  the 
bell  recast  in  larger  size  in  1747,  and  when  this 
cracked  (rimii  axiia),  the  metal  was  once  more  used 
hy  Aloysius  Valadier  to  make  the  present  beautiful 
bell  under  Pius  VI  in  1786.  (See  Cancellieri,  Dt 
Secretariis,  Rome,  1786,  III,  1357,  and  IV,  1B96  sqq.) 
In  point  of  size  any  very  great  development  of 
medieval  bells  was  probably  checked  by  the  mechani- 
cal difficulty  of  ringing  them.  At  Canterbury,  for 
vxample,  we  hear  of  as  many  as  twenty-four  men 
Lioing  required  to  ring  one  bell,  while  sixty-three  men 
were  needed  for  the  whole  pea!  of  five  (Ellacombe, 
443).  In  the  eleventh  century  a  bell  given  by  King 
Robert  to  the  church  at  Orleans  was  thought  to  be 
of  remarkable  size,  but  it  weighed  Uttle  over  a  ton. 
The  "Cantabona"  bell  of  Blessed  Azelin  at  Uitde- 
sheim  (eleventh  century)  is  said  to  have  weighed 
about  four  tons,  a  Rouen  beD  of  1501  sistefen  tons, 
and  the  still  existing  "Maria  Qlorioaa"  of  Eriurt 
Cathedral,  cast  in  1497,  weigiis  thirteen  tons.  Of 
modem  bells  consecrated  with  the  rites  of  the  Catho- 
lic Church,  the  largest  is  that  of  Cologne  Cathedral, 
which  was  made  out  of  captured  French  cannon,  and 
weighs  nearly  twenty-seven  tons.  That  in  tbe 
cfaureh  of  the  Sacred  Heart  at  Montmsrtre  weighs 
over  eighteen,  and  others  at  Vienna  and  Rouen  about 
seventeen.  In  the  Cathohc  cathedral  of  Montreal 
is  a  bell  of  thirteen  and  one-half  tons.  The  very 
beautiful  bell  of  St.  Peter's,  Rome,  weighs  about 
nine  tons.    Tbe  gigantic  bells  cast  in  Russia,  China, 


BKLLUVO-riLTBK  424  BUJ.irV0-7XLTBE 

Japan,  and  Burma  seem  only  to  be  rtnick  with  a  1420  the  inbalntanta  of  their  own  accord  acknoiri- 

h&imner  and  never  properly  "rung".    The  laraeat  edged  the  authority  of  Venice,    fielluno  is  the  B«at 

bell  in  England  is  that  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  Loa-  of  a  blahopric  suffragan  to  the  Patriarchate  <rf  Venice, 

don,  which  weighs  seventeen  and  one-half  tons.  and  is  united  with  the  See  of  Feltre.     ChriRtianity 

V.  Points  of  Law. — In  medieval  England  it  was  is  said   to   have   been   first   preached    there   b^  St. 

diatinctly  laid  down  that  the  church  bcUs  and  ropea  Hemia^nu,  a  disciple  of  St.  Mark  and  Aret  Bishop 

bad  to  be  provided  at  the  cost  of  the  pariHhioners.  of  Aquileia,  and  next  by  ProsdocimuB,  first  Bishop 

The  canon  law  assumed   that  a  cathedral  had  five  of  Padua.    Ughelii  places  the  first  bishop,  Theodorua, 

or  more  bells,  a  parish  church  two  or  three,  while  in  the  reign  of  Emperor  Commodus  and  the  second, 

the  churches  of  the   mendicant  orders,  like  pubUe  St.  Salvator,  as  succeeding  under  Pertinax.     About 

oratories,  were  originally  limited  to  one.    The  eolenin  300  another  TheodoruB  is  thought  to  have  brought 

ceremony  of  JTenediction  provided  in  the  Pontifical  from  Egypt  the  remains  of  St.  Giovata,  patron  of 

can  only  be  carried  out  by  a  bishop  or  by  a  priest  the  city.    The  first  bishop  known  to  history  is  a  cer- 

specially  empowered,  and  it  is  only  to  be  employed  tain  Laurentius,  who.  in  587,  attended  the  schismatic 

in  the  case  of  bells  intended  for  church  use.     For  assembly  convened  by  Severus,  Patriarch  of  Aqui- 

other  bells  a  simpler  blessing  is  provided  in  the  leia,  in  connexion  with  the  dispute  of  the  Three  Chap- 

"Rituale".    Numerous  prohibitions  exist  against  the  I«rs.    The  twelfth  century  was  a  stormy  period  for 


church  bells  being  used  for  "profane"  purposes,  Betluno,  in  both  civil  and  ecclesiaBti^  respects, 
e.  g.  for  summoning  meetings  or  for  merelV  secular  In  1197  Bisliop  Oer&rdo  de  Taccoll  was  murdered  t' 
festivities  and  in  particular  for  executions.    In  Catho-    the  inhabitants  of  Treviso,  after  which  Innocent  1 


lie  ecclesiastical   legislation   the   principle   is   main^     united  the  Diocese  of  Belluno  with  that  of  Feltre. 

tained  that  the  control  of  the  bells  resta  absolutely         Feltre,    the    ancient    Feltria,    is    situated   in   the 

with  the  clergy.     Id  cathedral   churches  according     province  of  Belluno  in  Venetia,  on  the  Riva'Colmeda, 

to  ibe  "Ceremoniale  Episcoporum"  this  jurisdiction     and  contains  13,000  inhabitants.     From  the  year 

is  vested  in  the  Sacritla.     Theoretically,  the  actual     80  B.  c.  it  enjoyed  theTif^ts  of  Roman  citizenship. 

ringing  of  the   bells  should   be   performed   by   the     Jt  was  besieeed  during  the  invasion  of  AttiJa.    Em- 

oeliariiu  and  in  the  conferring  of  this  minor  order     peror  Henry  III  created  the  Bishops  of  Feltre  counts 

the  cleric  is  ^ven  a  bell  to  nng,  but  for  centuries     of   the   city  and  vicinity,  but    their   authority  was 

past  his  functions  have  everywhere  become  obsolete,     almost  constantly  assailed  by  the  Counts  of  Cajnino, 

and  lay   bell-ringers  have  been   almost  exclusively     by  Exzelino  da  Romano,  the  Scaligeri,  the  Carrara, 

employed.     Finally,  we  may  note  a  decision  of  the     and   finallv  by   the   Visconti    themselves.    At   last, 

secular  courts  given  in  an  action  brought  against     in  1404,  tne  city  fell  into  the   power  of   the  Vene- 

the  Redemptonsts  of  Clapham,   England,   in   1851,     tians.     Feltre  also  claims  to  have  received  the  Gos- 

whereby  an  injunction  was  granted  to  restrain  these     pel  from  St.   Proodocimus.     St,  Victor,  a  martyr,  is 

Fathers  from   ringing  their  bells   at  certlain   hours,     said  to  have  lived  'there  about  a.  d.  170.     The   first 

at  which,  as  it  was  complained,  such  ringing  caused     Bishop  of  Feltre  whose  date  can  be  fixed  is  Fonteius, 

unreasonable  annoyance  to  residents  in  the  neigh-     who  in  579  took  part  in  a  council  in  Aquileia  and 

bourhood,  in   591    dedicated   a   book    to   Emperor   Mauritius. 

Drudo  of  Camino  (1174)  was  the  first  bishop  of  the 

united  sees  of  Belluno  and  Feltre,  the  latter  being 

the  residence  of  the  bishop.    The  twelfth,  thirteenth, 

and  fourteenth  centuries  were  filled  with  civil  strife. 

In  1462,  at  the  request  of  the  Venetian  Republic, 

the  two  dioceses  were  separated.     The  first  Bishop 

of  Belluno  was  Ludovic*  Donato.      Bishops  Pietro 

Baroizi,  Mos^  Bujfarello,  and  Bernardo  Rossi  (1499) 

rebuilt  the  cathedral.     One-of  the  most  illustrious 

bishops  was  Luigi  Lollin   (1595)   who  did  much  to 

Eromote  the  love  of  learning  among  the  clergy  and 
ift  large  bequests  to  perpetually  provide  for  a 
number  of  priests  at  tne  University  of  Padua. 
Giulio  Berlendis  (1655)  completed  the  work  of  en- 
forcing tiio  Tridentine  reforms,  and  Gianfranceeco 
BembOt  a  member  of  the  Somaschi  (1695),  wan  very 
lealous  in  the  cause  of  popular  education.  Id  181S 
the  diocese  was  reunited  with  that  of  Feltre.  Among 
the  Bishops  of  Feltre  after  the  separation  mention 
should  be  made  of  Aneclo  Faseolo  (1464},  who  was 
appointed  on  many  legations  in  connexion  with  the 
CruBode  against  the  Turks;  Lorenio  Campegpio 
<1512),  famous  as  the  nuncio  to  England  during  the 
time  of  Henry  VIII,  later  made  cardinal  and  trans- 
Cloehf.  ferred  (1520)  to  Bologna.    He  was  succeeded  by  his 

Herbert  Thubbton.        n^hew  Tommaao  Campeggio,  who  was  nuncio  sev- 
Belluao-reltre,  Diocese  of. — Belluno,  winch  was    eral  times.    Agostino  (jradinigo  (1610)  restored  the 
anciently  called   Bellunum,  the  metropolis  of  the    cathedral;  Zerbino  Lugo  (1640)  built  the  aerainary; 
province  of  that  name  in  Venetia,  Italy,  is  situated    Giovanni   Bortoli    (IT48)   was  a   distinguished    pro- 
on  a  hill  between  the  torrent  of  Ardo  and  the  River     feseor  of  canon  law  at  Padua. 

Piave,  and  has  a  population  of  10,000.  At  the  end  The  most  remarkable  sacred  edifices  ia  B^uno 
of  the  tenth  century  Belluno  was  affected  by  the  are,  in  addition  to  the  cathedral,  the  church  of  San 
political   disturbances   then   agitating   the  Venetian     Pietro,  and  that  of  San  Stephano,  the  latter  in  GoLhk 

g-ovinces.  Bishop  Joannes  II  (969)  obtained  from  style;  all  three  contain  paintings  by  the  most  dia- 
mperor  Otto  I  for  himself  and  his  successors  the  tinguished  Venetian  artists.  In  Feltre  there  are 
title  of  count  and  temporal  sovereignty  over  this  the  cathedral,  dedicated  to  St.  Laurence,  the  oratory 
city  and  the  surrounding  territory.  He  also  fortified  of  San  Giacomo,  the  churches  of  San  Giorgia  in  V3la- 
tbe  city.  In  the  course  of  time  there  were  many  bruna,  and  San  Kocco;  in  the  last  named  the  pmntlng 
disputes  over  the  civil  mastery  of  Belluno,  but  in    over  the  high  altar  is  the  work  of  Palma  U  Vecctua 


BXLMOKT 


425 


BBBKBO 


Outdde  the  <ntf,  on  the  slopes  of  Mount  Misnea  is 
the  church  of  SS.  Vittore  e  Corona,  erected  by  the 
Crusaders  of  Feltre  after  the  Fkst  Crusade. 

The  Diocese  of  Belluno  contains  72  parishes,  280 
churches,  chapels,  and  oratories,  137  secular  priests, 
22  regulars,  2z  seminarists,  5  lav  brothers,  29  sisters, 
and  a  population  of  127,500.  Feltre  has  17  parishes, 
100  churches,  chapels,  and  oratories,  48  secular 
priests,  25  rq^ars,  56  seminarists,  2  schools  for 

boYB  and  2  for  girls,  and  a  population  of  48,000. 
Cappelljetti,  Le  ckiese  d' Italia  (Venice,  1844):  Afknuario 

'^  ^*^)-  U.  Bknigni. 

Behnont,  Fbancois  Vachok  ds,  fifth  superior  of 
the  Sulpicians  at  Montreal,  b.  at  Grenoble,  France, 
1645;  d.  1732.  He  went  to  Canada  in  1680  and  was 
appointed  a  missionary  among  the  Indians  of  La 
MoQtagne;  he  filled  this  position  until  1700,  when  he 
succeeded  DoUier  de  Casson  as  superior  of  the  order. 
He  erected  at  his  own  expense  Fort  de  La  Montague 
on  the  site  of  the  present  Grand  S^minaire,  built  the 
old  seminary  whicn  still  exists  in  tlie  street  of  Notre 
Dame,  and  began  the  construction  of  the  Lachine 
canal.  Among  his  writings  are:  ''Histoire  du  Can- 
ada", printed  in  the  ''CoUection  de  m^moures  et  de 
relations  sur  lliistoire  ancienne  du  Canada",  pub- 
lished by  the  Historical  Society  of  Quebec;  "Histoire 
de  Teau-de-vie  en  Canada",  printed  in  the  above- 
mentioned  ''Collection";  "Oraison  fundbre  de  la M^re 
Bourgeoys",  quoted  by  Faillon  in  "Vie  de  la  Soeur 
Bourgeoys  " t  II » 88-98 j ' '  Eloges  de  quelquee  porsonnes 
mortes  en  oaeur  de  samtet^  a  Montr^  ,  and  a  num- 
ber of  memoirs  still  in  manuscript.  Mmition  should 
also  be  made  of  the  funeral  oration  of  Bishop  Mont- 
morency-Laval,  first  Bishop  of  Quebec,  delivered  at 

Montareal,  June,  1708. 

Bbbtrand,  BibliotfUque  Suljricienne  au  hisi,  UU,  de  la  c  de 
SaifU^ulpu^  (Paris.  iftX)).  ^  FOURNOT. 

Belson,  Thomas,  Venerable,  mart^,  b.  at  Brill 
in  Oxfordshire,  England,  date  uncertain;  d.  5  July. 
1589.  He  was  at  tne  college  at  Reims  in  1584,  ana 
in  1589  was  arrested  at  the  Catherine  Wheel  Inn,  niear 
Balliol  College,  Oxford,  with  his  confessor  George 
Nicols,  Richard  Yaxley,  a  priest,  and  Prichard,  a 
8er\'ant.  They  were  sent  to  London,  whence,  aftw 
examination  before  Walsingham  ana  repeated  tor- 
tures in  Bridewell  and  the  Tower,  they  were  sent  back 
to  Oxford  to  be  tried.  Bfelson  was  found  guilty  of 
felony  for  assisting  the  priests,  and  was  executed  with 
his  companions  at  Oxford,  He  suffered  after  the 
priests  and,  kissing  the  dead  bodies  of  his  pastors, 
begged  the  intercession  of  their  happy  souls  that  he 
mi^t  have  the  grace  to  imitate  theur  courage  and 
constancy. 

Yepes.  Hittoria  Particular  de  la  pereeeueiSn  de  Inolaterra 
(Hadrid.  1699);  Challonbb,  Memoire{  Knox,  D<nkiy  Diariee; 
Stapleton.  PoehRefarmatian  CatKohc  Mieeione  in  Oxford- 
tkirt  (London,  1906). 

Bedb  Camm. 

Balsnnco  do  OMtefanoron,  Henri  Francois 
Xayier  de,  Bidhop  of  Marseilles,  b.  1671  at  the 
Cbiteau  de  la  Force,  in  P^gord;  d.  1755  at  Mar- 
seilles. His  father  was  Armand  de  Belsunce,  Mar- 
auis  de  Castelmoron  and  his  mother  Anne  de  Caumont 
e  Lausun.  He  studied  classics  in  Paris  at  the  Col- 
1^  de  Clermont  or  Louis-le-grand  and  then  entered 
tl^  Society  of  Jesus.  In  1699  he  left  the  Society  to 
become  Vicar-General  of  A^n.  The  "  Vie  de  Suzanne 
de  F<Mx",  his  aunt,  was  wntten  by  him  and  published 
while  at  Agen,  1709.  That  same  year  he  was  made 
Bishop  of  Marseilles.  The  heroic  charity  he  dis- 
playea  durine  the  plague  of  1720  and  1721  has  made 
ms  name  a  housenold  word  and  won  for  him  the 
title  of  "Good  Bishop".  When  the  plague  broke 
out  a  large  fleet  was  taJdng  the  Princess  of  Orleans  to 
Italy  where  she  was  to  marry  the  Duke  of  Modena. 
The  suite  of  the  princess  took  to  flight,  and  with 
than  all  the  notables  of  the  city,  but  Bishop  Bel- 


sunce remained  with  a  few  heroic  friends,  and  to- 
gether they  battled  against  the -plague  with  heroic 
self-sacrifice  and  devotion,  till  they  conquered  it. 
In  his  address  to  the  Assembly  of  the  Clergy  in 
1725,  Belsunce  stated  that  more  than  250  priests 
and  religious  perished  in  their  mission  of  Chris- 
tian charity.  But  he  was  the  soul  of  the  res- 
cuers and  thepraises  bestowed  on  him  by  Pope  and 
Millevoye  ("Essay  on  Man"  and  ''Belsunce  ou  la 
peste  de  Marseille")  are  not  above  his  real  merits. 
The  King  of  France  offered  him,  by  way  of  recogni- 
tion, the  See  of  Laon  to  which  was  attached  the  first 
ecclesiastical  peerage  of  the  realm  and  afterwards 
the  metropohtan  See  of  Bordeaux.  Belsimce  re- 
fused both  and  contented  himself  with  accepting 
the  pallium  sent  him  by  Clement  XII.  During  his 
incumbency  Belsunce  fought  against  another  pUu^e 
called  Jansenism.  He  attended,  1727,  the  Synod  of 
Embrun  where  Soanen  was  condemned.  He  opposed 
with  all  his  power  Colbert  of  Pamiers.  In  spite  of 
the  protest  of  the  Parliament  of  Provence,  he  in- 
structed his  priests  to  refuse  absolution  to  the 
appellants  agamst  the  Bull  ''Unigenitus".  Nearly 
all  his  pastoral  instructions  are  against  Jansenism. 
Belsimce  was  a  writer  of  no  mean  power.  Besides  the 
"Vie  de  Suzanne  de  Foix"  (Agen,  1709),  and  his 
pastoral  instructions,  we  have  from  his  pen  "Le 
combat  chr^tien"  translated  from  St.  Augustins 
"De  Agone  Christiano"  and  "L'art  de  bien  mourir" 
translated  from  Bellarmine's  "De  Arte  Bene  Mori- 
endi",  also  "Antiquity  de  TEglise  de  Marseille" 
(Marseilles,  1747-51).  All  these  writings  have  been 
published  by  Jauffret  under  the  title  of  "(Euvres  de 
Belsunce"  Otfete,  1822). 

Barbet,  Elooe  de  Belevnce  (Paris,  1821);  Rohrbachxr, 
Hi^oire  univereeUe  (Parin.  1886)(  XI;  Berbmgisb,  Vie  de 
Mgr.  de  BeUunce  (Paris.  1887). 

J.  F.  SOLUER. 

Bols.    See  Chelm. 

Belioni,  Giambattista,  an  Egyptian  explorer, 
b.  at  Padua,  Italy,  in  1778;  d.  at  Gato,  Africa,  3  Dec, 
1823.  His  father  was  a  barber,  and  intended  his 
son  to  follow  that  trade,  but  the  boy,  who  was  a  bom 
traveller,  left  home  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  and  after 
some  wanderings  settled  down  at  Rome,  where  he 
b^San  the  studv  of  hydraulics.  Whether  or  not  he 
became  a  monk  is  uncertain,  but,  at  any  rate,  he 
quitted  Rome  in  1798  and  travelled  as  far  as  Holland. 
Having  returned  to  Italy,  he  a^ain  departed  in  1803 
and  travelled  through  the  British  Isles,  being  finally 
obliged,  by  reduced  circumstances,  to  sec^u^  an 
engagement  in  pantomime.  Leaving  England,  he 
went  to  Egypt,  where,  at  the  request  of  the  pasha, 
he  undert<MK  a  scheme  for  raising  the  waters  of  the 
Nile  at  Zubra,  but  the  work  was  later  abandoned  by 
the  authorities,  and  he  turned  his  attention  to  un- 
earthing the  colossal  bust  of  Memnon  now  in  the 
British  Musemn.  Having  accomplished  this  difficult 
task,  he  ascended  the  Nile,  and  besides  many  other 
important  Egyptological  investigations,  made  his 
famous  discovery  of  the  mummy  of  Psammethis. 
A^n  setting  out  from  Cairo,  he  explored  the  pyra- 
mid of  Chephren,  travelled  through  Fay<im,  visited 
Lake  Moeris  and  the  ruins  of  Arsinoe,  penetrated 
into  Libya,  and  reached  the  oasis  of  El-Cassar.  In 
1819  he  went  to  England,  whence,  after  a  stav  of  a 
few  years,  he  set  out  for  further  travels  in  Africa, 
intending  to  explore  Timbuktu  and  the  sources  ot 
the  Niger,  and  to  visit  Benin  and  Abyssinia;  but 
having  landed,  he  was  attacked  by  a  fever,  and  died. 
He  pnnted  a  narrative  of  his  joumejrs  at  London,  in 
1821,  and  his  original  drawings  of  ''The  Tombs  of 
the  Kings"  were  published  by  nis  widow,  at  London, 
in  1829.  Edwin  Ryan. 

Bema.    See  Ambo. 

Bembo,  Pibtro,  a  famous  Italian  scholar  and 
Cardinal,  b.  of  a  noble  family  at  Venice,  20  May 


426 

14TD;  d.  at  Rome,  18  Janu&iy,  1547.    He  was  the  eba  tion  of  Lftttn  poenu:  and  several  volumee  of  letten, 

of  Bernardo  Bembo,  wboee  enthufiaam  for  Italian  written  in  Latin.     Besides  these  original  vioAa  be 

literature  led  him  to  raise  a  monument  to  Dant«  at  edited  the  Italian  poems  of  Fetr&ru^  printed  \n 

Ravenna.     His  early   education   was   received   at  Aldiu  (ISOl),  and  the  "Tene  rime"  of  DanU  {1SD2}. 

Florence.    He  aft«^ards  studied  Greek  under  Las-  His  collected  works  were  published  at  Venice  m  four 

earis  at  Messina  and  philosophy  under  Pomponasso  volumes  in  1729. 

at  Padua.      After  Stuokm,  Senaittance  in  Holy  (New  Yoii.    1800).  II;  TTli 

—                                   .n^xilin..    ..n^^  Bmral  at  LvBTitHa;  OtvitirT,  A  Hutory  nt  IlalimiLitmUtn 

spenaing    aome  f^^  yoik,   1888);  Vob  lUniioirT.  Oach.  dtr  Suit  Kan^ 

time  atthe  court  of  Ti»*bo«ohi,  SInr,  hU.  llai.  (ISOB),  VII.  1,  llO-llt,  23S-251; 

Ferrara,  where  he  1",  828-831,  1120;  IV.  ISflO;  Baitaplia,  Stoqio  del  Corrfmob 

Tr.«t  T  ..^»>i.  Hni-  P-  Bembe  (Vraiiw,  1887);  Beccaielli,  Vita  di  Pietn  Bembe, 

metLucrwiaBor-  eantiM^.  ii  Iior.  a- Vna.  inm.  tl,  xnii-U. 

Ea,  with    wham  Edmund  Bukki. 

!  maintained  a  _        .,      „                      .                         .     .,. 

Platonic     friend-  Banuir,  PREPncrnRE  ApoaroLic  of,  m  Afna, 

ship  for    many  ^i^  between  8°  and  12°  N.  lat.,  and  between  42° 

years   he  went  in  ^^^  ^^°  ^^'  ^-  l^ns-    I^  compnaes  the  whole  territory 

1506  'to    Urbino  °^  Italian  Somali^d,  the  area  of  which  is  a  little 

where  he  became  niore  than  192,SO0  square  miles,  or  nearlv  twic^thsX 

the  leading  figure  °^  Italy;  and  its  boundaries  are  identical  with  those 

among    the    Dril-  "^  l^^  Italian  posseadons  in  East  Africa,  namdy:  on 

liantgroupof  men  ^^^  ^^^i  ^^^  Indian  Ocean;  on  the  north,  the  Gulf 

of  wit  ana  culture  "'  Aden  from  Cape  Quardafui   to  the  boundary  of 

r.-nm..  w«w.n                  gathered      about  British  SomaJiland;  on  the  weat,  the  same  Bntiih 

H«U^tribuud to fi^tnuto Cellini    tbecourt.  In  1512  boundary  as  far  south  as  the  Juba  River;  and  on 

be      accompanied  "'^  south,  the  couise  of  that  nver  from  Lugh  to  the 

his  intimate  friend,  Giuliano  de'  Medici,  to  Rome,  Indian  Ocean.     The  longeet  meridian  within  thij 

where  a   short   time    riterwarda  he   was   appointed  temtory  measures  776  nules,  while  the  greatest  width 

secretary  to   Pope   Leo  X.     He   remained  at  Rome  1=  569  niiles.                                   .....                  _, 

for  eight  yeara,  enjoying  the  society  of  many  dis-  The  commercial  copopany  which  had  been  formed 

tingumhed  men  and  loved  and  admired  by  all  who  for  the  exploitation  of  El  Efenadir  (i.  e.  "The  Porta  ', 

knew  him.     There  he  became  enamoured  of  the  nnw  the  littoral  region  of  Italian  SomaUland)  found 

beautiful  Moroeina.    It  was  at  her  urgent  solicitation  it  to  >*«  own  interest  to  call  the  Church  to  lU  aid,  and 

that  Bembo,  in  1520,  on  the  death  of  Leo  X,  with-  ""ked  for  miBsionmies,  to  whom  it  assigned  a  subsidy 

drew  from  public  affairs  and  retired  with  his  health  of  10,000  lire  »2,000)  per  annum.    Propaganda,  by  a 

impaired  by  severe  sickness  to  Padua,  where  he  lived  decree  of  21  January,  1904,  entrusted  the  aussion  to 

in  ease  and  elegance,   devoting   himself  to  literary  the  Discalced  Trinitarians,  for  which  order  the  re- 

pursuite  and  the  society  of  his  learned  friends.    Here  demption  of  captives  is  a  special  tradition,  and  the 

be  collected  an  extonsive  library  and  formed  a  rich  oist  prefect  ApostoUc,  Father  Leander  of  the  Seven 

museum  of  medals  and  antiquities     His  Paduan  re-  Dolours,  embarked  within  the  same  vear.    However, 

treat  became  the  gathering-place  of  all  the  most  thepresenceof  a  reUrious  who  would  jeakmsly  watch 

cultured  and  most  scholarly  men  in  Italy.    In  1629  the   slave   tradCjand   denounce   infractions   of   the 

>llice  of  historiographer  of  the  Re-    treaties,  might  bccoi       ' 


he  accepted  the  office  .»  ,„.,.^,..j^,^t,,,^,  ».  v....  ^^-  .       »                                             .           . 

public   of   Venice,   and   shortly  afterwards   was   ap-  therefore,  forbade  Father  L«ander  to  enter  uw  wr.i- 

pointed    librarian   of    St.    Mark's.      In    1539    Pope  tory,  and  tha  prefect  Apostolic,  excluded  from  his 

Paul  in  recdled  him  to  Rome  and  conferred  on  him  mission,  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  the  British 

the  cardinsl's  hat.    From  the  time  of  Bembo's  eecle-  territory  to  the  south.     The  governor  a  order  was 

siaatica!  preferment  there  was  a  marked  change  in  rescinded  in  May,  1906,  and  Father  Leander  then 

his  conduct.     Heretofore  his  life  had  been  anyttii^  entered  upon  bis  prefecture;  but  on  the  10th  of  Ju^, 

but  edifying— in  fact  it  had  been  more  pagan  than  1806,  he  died  at  Gelib,  nearly  260  miles  from  the 

Christian.    But  now  he  renounced  the  study  of  the  ">»"t.    Towards  the  end  of  that  year  FatJier  Gu- 

da»ics  and  applied  himself  chiefly  to  the  study  of  the  ghehno  da  San  Felice  was  aent  as  successor  to  Father 

Fathers  and  the  Holy  Scriptures.    Two  years  after  he  Leander,  taking  with  hun  five  religious  of  his  own 

was'raised  to  the  cardinalate,  he  was  made  Bishop  of  order.     At  the  present  writing   (1907)   too  short  a 

Gubbio,  and  still  later  he  received  the  Bishopric  of  time  has,  of  course,  elapsed  to  permit  of  obtaining 

Bergamo.    He  died  more  admired  and  lamented  than  »ny  information  as  to  the  actual  progrem   of  mis- 

any  man  of  letters  of  his  time  and  was  buried  not  far  aionary  work  in  Itahan  Somaliland. 

from  Pope  Leo  in  the  Church  of  the  Minerva.  The  residence  of  the  prefect  Apostolic  is  at  Bfara, 

Bembo  was  a  thorough  master  of  elegant  diction,  while  the  headquarters  of  the  colonial  government 

He  possessed  beyond  any  contemporanr  the  formal  ore  at  Mogadishu  (Mogadoxo,  or  Mukdishu).     The 

perfection  of  style,  both  in  Latin  and  Italian,  de-  population  of  the  whole  territory  is  estimated  at 

manded  by  the  age  in  which  he  lived.     In  his  Latin  3,000,000,   almost   all    Mohammedans.      Slavery   ifl 

writings  it  was  his  aim  to  imitate  as  closely  as  poesi-  practised,  and  the  efforts  of  the  Anti-Slavery  Society 

Ue  the  style  of  Cicero.    His  letters  were  masterpieces  to  suppress  the  dave  trade,  by  representations  to 

of  Latin  style  and  of  the  art  of  letter-writing.    He  is  the  Italian  Government,  have  so  far  had  no  result. 

said  to  have  passed  his  compositions  through  numer-  ^^f^ B^l^-^f^^' "°°"'  ***"''  *""  *"* 

ous  portfolios,  reviBinif  them  in  each  one  of  them.  '             i             n 

Bembo's  works  include  a  history  of  Venice,  poems,  ,                                          Albbrt  BATTAmJira. 

dialogues,  criticisms,  and  letters.   The  most  important  Bsnord,  Laitbent,  chief  founder  of  tho  Haurist 

are;   "Renim  Veneticanim   Libri  XII"    (1551),  a  CongTMation  of  the  Benedictine  Order,  b.  at  Nevers, 

history  of  Venice  coverinK  the  period  from  1487  to  1573;  a,  at  Paris,  1620.    He  joined  the  Cluniac  Bene- 

1513,  onginaUy  publisheo  in  Latin,  but  afterwards  dictines  at  Nevera,  became  a  Doctor  of  the  Sorbonne 

translated  by  the  author  into  Italian;  "Gli  Asolani"  and  later  Prior  of  the  Cluny  College,  Paris,  which  he 

(Venice,  1506),  a  dialogue  in  Italian  on  Platonic  love,  reformed  with  the  help  of  two  monlts  of  the  recently 

composed  in  imitation  of  Cicero's  Tusculan  Disputa-  established  Consregation   of   St.-Vannes.       "Rettisav 

tioas,  and  dedicated  to  Lucrezia  Borgia;  "Le  Prose",  the   abbacy  of  St.   Etienne,  Caen,  and  the   grand- 

a  short  treatise  on  the  Italian  language;  "Le  Rime'  prioiship   of   Cluny,   he   passed   tKrough    a    aecond 

(Venice,  1530);  "Carmina"  (Venice,  1533),  a  collec-  novitiato  at  St-Vannes,  and  renewed  his  profueioa 


butavidsb                    427  bbtidzot 

there  in  1615.    At  his  sugeeBtion  the  Conmgaticm  of  mentioned  in  the  BuUar.  Francisoan.  (VI,  n.  662). 

St-lfaur  was  formecL  tooe  for  France  what  that  of  From    the    seventeenth    centurv    the   see    became 

8t.-VanDe8  was  for  Lorraine.    Roval  letters  patent  titular,  probably  because  the  bishops  had  transferred 

were  obtained  for  it  in  1618  ana  the  protect  was  their  residence  to  Mostar,  on  the  left  bsink  of  the 

warmly  supported  by  Cardinal  de  Retz  and  others.  River  Narenta,  a  see  known  as  Mandairiensia  et 

B^oara's  works  include  "Partedses",  "De  Tesprit  Dumnengis, 

des  ordres  religieux",  "Instructions  Monastiques",  ^FAiu^Ti,/fl;^rtcum«aorim."VlI,  401-406:  EuBBL,i?if^ 

"y^oge  Bto^ictin",  and  "Police  r^gulidre^',  all    C'atfWica  wedu  orw.  I,  488;  11,  286  and  327.  

published  in  Paris  between  1616  and  1619.  ^       ^    ^  ^                     .                      '  rmrr, 

Tassin.  Hist.  LfU,  Cong,  S.  Afaur  (BnuseU.  1770);  Saottb-  BenodOttl,  PlETRO.      See  AlfBARACH,  PeTER. 

Mabtoe.  GaUia  Chrutiana  (Paris.  1744VVriJ  474  Benedict  I-X.  PoPK8.-Of  the  first  Pontiff  who  bore 

„        ..        ,^                ,    u.  ^JYPRIAN  ALSTON.  the  name  of  Benedict  practicaUy  nothing  is  knowu. 

Bana^des    (Benavidbz),   Fray  Alonzo,   Arch-  The  date  of  his  birth  is  unknown:  he  d.  30  July,  579. 

bishop  of  Goa  m  the  Portuguese  Indies.     Although  He  was  a  Roman  and  the  son  of  Boniface,  and  was 

a  prelate  of  high  rank,  the  life  of  Fray  Alomso  caUed  Bonosus  by  the  Greeks  (Evagrius,  Hist.,  V, 

de  Benavides  w  venr  im^rfectly  known.     He  was  ig).    The  ravages  of  the  Lombards  rendered  it  veiy 

torn  on  the  Island  of  San  Miguel,^  P?i^f^  ^'^  difficult  to  communicate  with  the  emperor  at  Con- 

the  Franciscan  convent  of   Mexico  m   1603,  and,  stantinople,  who  claimed  the  privUege  of  confirming 

after  acting  as  master  of  novices  at  the  convent  of  the  election  of  the  popes.     Hence  there  was  a  vacancy 

PueWa,  became  Gustos  of  the  Missions  of  New  Mex-  of  nearly  eleven  months  between  the  death  of  John  III 

ICO,  returned  to  Spain  in  1630  and  there  was  in  com-  and  the  arrival  of  the  imperial  confirmation  of  Bene- 

mumcation  with  the  Venerable  Maria  de  Agreda.  diet's  election,  2  June,  676.    He  reigned  four  years, 

LDon  his  return  to  America  he  was  made  Archbishop  one  month,   and   twenty-eight   days.    Abnost   the 

of  Goa.    The  date  and  place  of  his  death  are  as  yet  only  act  recorded  of  him  i  that  he  granted  an  estate, 

uiJmown.     Fray  Alonzo  de  Benavides  was  mdefati-  the  Massa  Veneris,  in  the  territory  of  Mintum», 

gaWe in  his  efforts  to  promote  the  welfare,  temporal  to  Abbot  Stephen  of  St   Mark's  "near  the  walls  of 

jjidspmtual,  of  New  Mexico.     He  it  was  who,  throujgh  Spoleto  "  (St.  Gregory  I,  Ep.  ix,  87, 1,  al.  30).   Famine 

the  agency  of  Frajr  Esteban  de  Per^,  secured  a  rein-  .  followed  the  devastating  Lombards,  and  from  the 

forcwnent  of  miMionanes  for  the  utterlv  neglected  few  words  the  Liber  Pontificalia  has  about  Benedict, 

provmoe.    In  order  to  excite  interest  in  those  remote  we  gather  that  he  died  in  the  midst  of  his  efforts  to 

repoiis,  he  wrote  and  published  two  booklets,  full  of  eope  with  these  difficulties.    He  was  buried  m  the 

exaggerations  in  r^rd  to  the  number  of  Indians,  but  vestibule  of  the  sacristy  of  the  old  basilica  of  St. 

otherwise  of  the  highest  value  for  the  ethnography  Peter.    In  an  ordination  which  he  held  in  Defeember 

and  ethnology   of    New   Mexico.     They  must   be  he   made   fifteen   priests   and   three   deacons,   and 

judged  as  *' encouraging  gmdes  ',  embodymg  at  the  consecrated  twenty-one  bishops. 

same  time  much  accurate  and  valuable  mformation  Bbnbdict  II,  Saint,  Pope,  dute  of  birth  unknown: 

gthered  from  personal  knowledge.     His  account  of  d.  8  May,  686;  was  a  Roman,  and  the  son  of  John. 

the  numbere  of  people  and  villages  may  have  been  Sent  when  young  to  the  Bchola  carUorum,  he  dis- 

influ^oed  by   data   taken   from  Espejp   but  ^  such  tinguished  himself  by  his  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures 

nustakes  do  not  affect   the  value  of  his  wntings  and  by  his  smging,  and  as  a  priest  was  remarkable 


best  known  through  the  "  Memonal  que  Fray  Juan  the  Holy  See  which  followed  the  deaths  of  the  popes, 

de  Santander  de  la  orden  de  San  Francisco  Ac.  pre-  he  obtained  from  the  Emperor  Constantine  Pogo- 

senta  k  U  Majestad   Cat61ica   del   Rey*'  (Madrid,  ^atus    a   decree   which    dther   abolished    impenal 

1^  translated  mto  various  languages  and  repub-  confirmations  altogether  or  made  them  obtainable 

^^^*  •  f  /%*  J  J  ,no/.x  «^         r.-^.       ,xM  J  J  ,^ox  ^^^  ^^  cxawh  lu  Italy  [cf.  "Liber   DiOmus  RR. 

Team  mexicano    (Mexico,    1698);    especially   Crdnica  de  la  CTltiClsm,  "Le    Liber  Diumus"    (Pans,    1891)].     He 

Jrorwu»o  did  Santo  EvangOio  de  Mixico;  bandelibb.  Final  adopted  Oonstantine's  two  SOUS  by  receiving  locks 

8^  .IC.  I  «.d  II.  BAin.EUEB.  «^  *^«'  ^  «?*"»  \  *^  TP*"'^,  '^°  ^*'P  ^ 

«^.  M.  A^^^M,Mu±AM.i^,  suppress  Monothehsm,  he  endeavoured  to  secure 
Benda,  a  titular  see  of  Albania.  Its  history  is  the  subscriptions  of  the  Spanish  bishops  to  the 
dos^Y  connected  with  that  of  the  Sees  of  Narenta  decrees  of  the  Sixth  Creneral  Council  (see  ep.  in  P.  L., 
and  Mostar.  Narenta,  or  in  Italian  Narona,  rep-  XCVI,  423),  and  to  bring  about  the  submission  to 
resents  the  ancient  (I^lmium.  or  Chulmia,  and  its  them  of  Miacarius,  ex-Bishop  of  Antioch.  He  was 
bishop,  a  suffragan  of  Dyrrhacnium  (Duraszo),  took  one  of  the  popes  who  favoured  the  cause  of  St. 
the  title  of  epiacojme  Stephanensie,  or  SiephamaeeneiSf  Wilfred  of  York  (Eddius,  "  Vita  Wilfridi ",  ed, 
tbe  cathedral  being  dedicated  to  St.  Stephen;  this  is  Raine  in  "Historians  of  York'',  I,  62  sqq.  Cf. 
the  title  of  Cosmas  at  the  coimcil  under  Photius  in  Raine,  **  Lives  of  the  Arehbishopj  of  York ",  I, 
^.  But  as  these  bishops  resided  at  Spalato,  the  66  sqq.).  Many  of  the  churehes  oi  Rome  were  re- 
title  shortly  became  Spalatensis,  About  the  middle  stored  by  him;  and  its  clergy,  its  deaconries  for  the 
of  the  fourteenth  century,  Narenta  became  the  seat  of  care  of  tne  poor,  and  its  lay  sacristanii  all  benefited 
a  Latin  bishopric,  to  which  was  united  the  See  of  by  his  liberality.  He  was  buried  in  St.  Peter's. 
Bendaj  the  chief  town  in  a  district  of  this  name,  near  Benedict  lU,  Pope,  date  of  birth  unknown: 
(^ia,m  the  pashalik  of  Scutari.  Its  bishop  thus  ob-  d.  17  April,  868.  The  election  of  the  learned  ana 
tained  a  double  title,  episcopus  Bendensia  et  Stephar^  ascetic  Roman,  Benedict,  the  son  of  Peter,  was  a 
enits,  to  which,  about  i4(X),  was  added  the  title  PriS'  troubled  one.  On  the  death  of  Leo  IV  (17  July, 
centis,  or  PrisnermSj  from  Prisca,  or  Prisna,  probably  866)  Benedict  was  chosen  to  succeed  him,  and  envova 
identioal  with  the  village  Presa,  or  Press,  in  Albania,  were  despatched  to  secure  the  ratification  of  the 
Be  tiuit  as  it  may,  these  three  titles  were  borne  from  decree  of  election  by  the  Emperors  Lothaire  and 
the  fint  by  only  one  titular;  Gams  separates  them  Louis  II.  But  the  le^tes  betrayed  their  crust  and 
vioni^  (Series  episcop.,  422).  The  first  titular  allowed  themselves  to  l>e  influenoed  in  favour  of  the 
vu  not,  as  is  commonly  said,  the  Dominican  Petrus  ambitious  and  excommunicated  Cardinal  Anastasius. 
^  Anagnia,  but  Demetrius,  probably  identical  The  imperial  tnissi,  gained  over  in  turn  by  them, 
loth  the  FranciBcaD.  Demetriua  de  Scutaro  who  is  endeavoured  to  force  Anastasius  on  the  Romaa 


BEMSOIOT  428 

Church.    Benedict    was    insulted    and    imprisoned,  then  acknowledged  as  pope  by  some  of  the  Geiman 

Most  of  the  clergy  and  people,  however,  remained  clergy.     His  remains,  nrst  laid  to  rest  in  the  cathe- 

true  to  him,  and  the  miaai  had  to  yield.     Benedict  dral   at   Hamburg,    were   afterwards   translated  to 

was  accordingly  consecrated  on  the  29th  of  Septem-  Rome  (Adam  of  Bremen,  Gesta,  II, '10;  IV,  39,  40; 

ber,  or  6th  of  October,  865,  and  though  his  rival  VI,  63). 

was  condemned  by  a  synod,  he  admitted  him  to  lay  Benbdict  VI,  Pope,  date  of  birth  unknown;  d. 
conununion.  Owme  to  oissensions  and  attacks  August,  974  (see  Ricobaldi  of  Ferrara,  Compil. 
from  witlK>ut,  the  Kingdom  of  the  Franks  was  in  Chron.,  in  Rer.  Ital.  SS.  IX).  Benedict,  Cardinal- 
disorder,  and  the  Church  within  its  borders  was  Deacon  of  St.  Theodore,  a  Roman  and  the  son  of 
oppressed.  Benedict  wrote  to  the  Frankish  bishops,  Hildebrand,  was  elected  as  the  successor  of  John  XIII, 
attributing  much  of  the  misery  in  the  empire  to  their  who  died  6  September,  972;  but  the  necessity  of 
silence  (cf.  "Capitularia  regum  Francorum",  ed.  waiting  for  the  ratification  of  the  Emperor  Otho 
Boretius,  II,  424);  and  to  lessen  its  internal  evils  delated  his  consecration  till  19  January,  973.  Noth- 
endeavoured  to  curb  the  powerful  subdeacon  Hubert  ing  is  known  of  his  deeds,  except  that  he  confiraied 
(Ep.  Bened.,  in  Mon.  Germ.  Epp^  V,  612).  who  the  privileges  of  some  churches  and  monasteries, 
was  the  brother-in-law  of  Lothaire  11,  King  of  Lor-  The  most  striking  event  of  his  pontificate  is  it« 
raine,  and  defied  the  laws  of  God  and  man  till  he  tragic  close.  He  was  seized  and  thrown  into  the 
was  slain,  in  864.  In  an  appeal  made  to  Benedict  Castle  of  Sant'  Angelo  by  a  faction  of  the  nobility 
from  the  East,  he  held  the  oalance  fair  between  St.  headed  by  Crescentius  and  the  Deacon  Boniface 
I^atius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  Gregory,  Franco,  who  afterwards  become  the  antipope  Boni- 
Bishop  of  Syracuse.  He  was  visitJed  by  the  Anglo-  face  VII.  There,  after  a  confinement  of  less  than 
Saxon  King  Ethelwulf  with  his  famous  son  Alfred,  two  months,  he  was  strangled  by  their  orders,  to 
and  completed  the  restoration  of  the  Schola  Anglo-  prevent  his  release  by  Sicco,  an  imperial  envoy, 
runiy  destroyed  by  fire  in  847.     He  continued  the  sent  to  Rome  bv  Otho  ll. 

work  of  repairing  the  damage  done  to  the  churches        Benedict  VII,  Pope,  date  of  birth  unknown^  d. 

in  Rome  by  the  Saracen  raid  of  846.     He  was  buried  c.  October,  983.     Acting  under  the  influence  of  Sicoo 

near  the  principal  gate  of  St.  Peter's.    One  of  his  (see  Benedict  VI)^  the  Roman  cler^  and  people 

coins  proves  there  was  no  Pope  Joan  between  Leo  IV*  elected  to  succeed  Benedict  VI  another  Benedict, 

and  himself  [Garampi,  ''De  nummo  argenteo  Bened.  Bishop  of  Sutri,  a  Roman  and  the  son  of  David 

III"  (Rome,  1749)].  (October,    974).     His    authoritv    was    opposed    bv 

Benedict    IV,   Pope,    date  of    birth    unknown;  Boniface   VII,    and,    though   the   antipope    himself 

d.  in  the  summer  of  903.    The  Popes  Benedict  from  was  forced  to  fly,  his  party  followed  neroely  in  his 

the  fourth  to  the  ninth  inclusive  belong  to  the  darkest  footsteps  and  compelled  Benedict  to  call  upon  Otho 

period  of  papal  history.    The  reigns  of  several  of  II  for  help.     Firmly  established  on  his  throne  by 

them  were  very  short,   and  very  little  is  known  the  emperor,  he  showed  himself  both  desirous  of 

about  their  deeds.    The  dates  of  their  accession  to  checking  the  tide  of  simony  which  was  rising  high 

the  See  of  Peter  and  of  their  deaths  are  largely  in  the  (Jnurch,  and  of  advancing  the  cause  of  monas- 

uncertain.     Benedict  IV,  a  Roman  and  the  son  of  ticism,  which  then  meant  that  of  civilization.    In 

Mammalus,  became  pope  in  the  first  half  of   900.  response  to  a  request  of  the  people  of  Carthage  '^to 

His  high  birth,  his  generosity,  his  zeal  for  the  public  help  the  wretchea  province  of  Afnca",  he  consecrated 

good  are  loudly  commended  by  the  contemporary  the  priest  James,  who  had  been  sent  to  him  for  the 

historian    Frodoard,    who    ^ves    him    the   title   of  purpose  (see  the  letter  of  the  papal  lemte,  the  Abbot 

"Great".    The  principal  historic  act  of  his  reim  Leo,  to  the  Kin^  Hugh  Capet  and  Robert).     Though 

was  his  crowning  Loms  the  Blind  as  emperor.     He  he  did  not  die  till  about  October,  983,  our  knowledge 

supported  the  decision  of  Pope  Formosus,  who  had  of  his  undertakings  is  not  in  proportion  to  the  lengui 

ordained  him  priest,  in  favour  of  Argrim's  claim  to  of  his  pontificate. 

the  See  of  Langres  (Jaff6,  "Regesta^',  3627,  3628),        Benedict  VIII,  Pope,  date  of  birth  unknown;  d. 

upheld   the   cause   of   Stephen,    Bishop   of   Naples  9  April,   1024.     The  first  of  the  Tusculan   popes, 

(Auxilius  ap.  Dummler,  "Auxihus  imd  Vulgarius",  being  the  son  of  Gregory,  Count  of  Tusculum,  and 

96   sqq.),    excommunicated    the   assassin  of   Fulk,  Maria,  and  brother  of  John  XIX,  he  was,  though  a 

Archbishop   of    Reims  (Frodoard,  Hist.    Remensis,  layman,  imposed  on  the  chair  of  Peter   by  force 

IV,  10),  and  offered  practical  sympathy  to  Malaoenus,  (18  May,   1012).     Nevertheless,  dislodging  a  rival. 

Bishop  of  Amasia,  who  had  been  driven  from  his  he  became  a  good  and  strong  ruler.     On  the  14th  of 

see  by  the  advances  of  the  Saracens  (Jaff6,  loc.  cit.,  February,    1014,    he    crowned    the    German    king, 

3630).     Fulda  and  other  monasteries  received  privi-  Henry  n,  emperor  (Thietmar,  Chron.,  VI,  61),  and 

leges  from  him.     He  was  buried  in  front  of  St.  Peter's  ever  kept  friendly  with  him.    The  peace  of  Italy 

near  the  gate  of  Guido.  was  promoted   by   his  subjugating  the   Cresoentii, 

Benedict  V,  Pope,  date  of  birth  imknown;  d.  defeating  the  Saracens,  and  allying  himself  with  tiie 

4  July,  966;  was  elected  pope  (May,  964)  in  very  Normans,  who  appeared  in  its  southern  parts  in  his 

critical  circumstances.     The  powerful  emperor,  Otho  time.     Going  to  Grermany,  he  consecratea  the  cathe- 

I,  had   forcibly  deposed  the  unworthy  John  XII,  dralof  Bamberg  (Ann.  Altahen.Majores,  1020;  Chron. 

and  had  replaced  him  by  a  nominee  of  his  own  who  Cass.,  II,  47),  visited  the  monastery  of  Fulda,  and 

took  the  title  of  Leo  VlII.     But  at  the  first  oppor-  obtained  from  Henry  a  charter  confirmatory  of  the 

tunity  the  Romans  expelled  Leo,  and  on  the  death  donations  of  Charlemagne  and  Otho.    To   restrain 

(14  May,  964)  of  the  lawful  pope,  John  XII,  elected  the  vices  of  clerical  incontinence  and  simony,  he 

the    Cardinal-Deacon    Benedict    (known    from    his  held,  with  the  emperor,  an  important  synod  at  f^avia 

learning  as  Grammaticus — see  Benedict  of  Soracte,  (1022 — Labbe,   Concilia,   IX,   819),   and    supported 

xxxvii).     Otho    was    furious,    marched    on    Rome,  the  reformation  which  was  being  efifected  l>y  the 

seized  Benedict,  and  put  an  end  to  his  pontificate  great  monastery  of  Cluny.    To  further  the  interest 

(23    June,    964. — Liutprand,    Hist.    Ottonis,    xxi;  of  peace,  he  encouraged  the  "Truce  of  God"  and 

Thietmar,    Chron.,    II,    18).     It   is   more   probable  countenanced    the    ecclesiastical    advancement    of 

that  Benedict  was  degraded  by  force  than  that  he  Gauzlin,  the  natural  brother  of  Robert  the  Pious, 

voluntarily    declared    himself    an    intruder.     After  King  of  France.    This  he  did  because,  thou^  iUe- 

reinstating  Leo,  Otho  left  Rome  and  carried  Benedict  sitimate,  Gauzlin  was  a  good  man,  and   hia  loyal 

with  him  to  Germany.    Placed  under  the  care  of  Brother  was  very  desirous  of  Us  promotioii   (cL 

Adaldag.    Archbishop    of    Hambiu>g-Bremen,    who  life  of  Gauzlin,  in  "  Neues  Archiv. ",  III).      Benedict 

treated  nim  with  great  conedderation,  he  was  even  Vlllwasoneof  the  many  popes  who  were  called  upon 


42d  ttKBDKtt 

to  intervene  in  the  interminable  strife  for  precedence       Benedict   ZX,  Pope  (Nicholas  Boccasini),  h 
between  the  Patriarchs  of  Grado  and  of  Aquileia  at  Treviso.  Italy,  1240;  d.  at  Perugia,  7  July,  1304. 
(pandolo,  Chron.,»IX,  2,  n.  2).    In  1022  he  deceived  He  entered  the  Dominican  Order  at  the  age  of  four* 
Etheinoth  of  Canterbury  "with  great  worship  and  teen.    After  fourteen  years  of  study,  he   became 
very  honourably  hallowed   him  archbishop",   and  lector  of  theology,  which  office  he  filled  for  several 
reinstated  in  his  position  Leofwine,  Abbot  of  Ely  years.    In  1296  he  was  elect^    - 
(A.  S.  Chron.,  125,  6,  R.  S.).    A  friend  of  St.  OdUo,  Master  General  of  the  Order. 
Abbot  of  Cluny,  and  one  of  the  few  popes  of  the  As  at  this  time    hostility  to 
Middle  Ages  who  was  at  once  poweriul  at  home  Boniface  VIII  was   becoming 
and  ipeat  abroad,  Benedict  VIII  has,  on  seemingly  more    pronounced,    the    new 
iDsufficient  grounds,  been  accused  of  avarice.  general    issued    an  ordinance 
Benedict  IX,  Pope. — ^The  nephew  of  his  two  imme-  forbidding  his  subjects  to  f a- 
diate  predecessors,  Benedict  IX  was  a  man  of  very  vour  in  anyway  the  opponents 
dififerent  character  to  either  of  them.     He  was  a  dis-  of    the    reigning    pontiff;   he 
pace  to  the  Chair  of  Peter.    Regarding  it  as  a  sort  of  also  enjoined  on  them  to  de< 
heirloom,  his  father  Alberic  placed  him  upon  it  when  fend  in  their    sermons,  when 
a  mere  youth,  not;  however,  apparently  of  only  twelve  opportune,  the   le^timacy  of 
years  of  age  (according  to  Raoul  Glaber,  Hist.,  IV,  the  dection  of  Boniface.    This 
5,  n.  17.    Cf.  V,  5,  n.  26),  but  of  about  twenty  loyalty    of    Boccasini,    which   Abmb  op  Biinedict  XI 
(October,    1032).     Of    his    pontifical   acts   little    is  remained  unshaken  to  the  end, 
known,  except  that  he  held  two  or  three  synods  in  was  recognized  by  Boniface,  who  showed  him  many 
Rome  and  granted  a  number  of  privileges  to  various  marks  of  favour  and  confidence.     Thus  with  the  two 
churches  and  monasteries.     He  msisted  that  Bretis-  cardinal-legates,  the  Dominican  General  formed  the 
lar,  Duke  of  Bohemia,  should  found  a  monastery,  important  embassy,  the  purpose  of  which  was  the 
for  having  carried  oft  the  body  of  St.  Adalbert  from  concluding  of  an  armistice   between   Edward  I  of 
Poland.    In  1037  he  went  north  to  meet  the  Emperor  England  and  Philip  IV  of  France,  then  at  war  with 
Conrad  and  exconununicated  Heribert,  Archbishop  each  other.     In  the  year  1298  Boccasini  was  elevated 
of  Hilan,  who  was  at  enmity  with  him  (Ann.  Hildes-  to   the  cardinalate;    he  was   afterwards  appointed 
beimenses,  1038).    Taking  advantage  of   the  disso-  Bishop  of  Ostia  and   Dean    of   the   Sacred  College. 
lute  life  he  was  leading,  one  of  the  factions  in  the  As  at  that  time  Hungary  was  rent  by  civil  war,  the 
city  drove  him  from  it   (1044)  amid  the  greatest  cardinal- bishop  was  sent  thither  by  the  Holy  S^  as 
disorder,  and  elected  an  antipope  (Sylvester  III)  in  legate  a  latere  to  labour  for  the  restoration  of  peace. 
the  'person  of  John,  Bishop  of  Sabina  (1045 — Ann.  At  the  time  of  the  return  of  the  legate  to  Rome,  the 
Ronumi,  init.  Victor,  Dialogi,  III,  init.).     Benedict,  famous  contest  of  Boniface   VIII  with  Philip  the 
however,  succeeded  in  expelling  Sylvester  the  same  Fair  had   reached  its   height.     When,  in  1303,  the 
year;  but,  as  some  say,  that  he  might  marry,  he  enemies  of  the  pope  had  made  themselved  masters 
resigned  his  office  into  the  hands  of  the  Archpriest  of  the  sacred  palace,  of  all  the  cardinals  and  prelates 
John  Gratian  for  a  large  sum.     John  was  then  elected  only  the  two  Cardinal-Bishops  of  Ostia  and  Sabina  re- 
pope  and  became  Gregory  VI  (May,  1045).     Repent-  mained  at  the  side  of  the  venerable  Pontiff  to  defend 
ing  of  his  bargain,  Benedict  endeavoured  to  depose  him  from  the  violence  of  William  of  Nogaret  and 
Gregory.    This    resulted    in    the    intervention    of  Sciarra  Cc^nna. 

Knig  Henry  III.     Benedict,  Sylvester,  and  Gregory        A  month  after  this  scene  of  violence,  Boniface 

were  deposed  at  the  Council  of  Sutri  (1046)  and  a  having   died,    Boccasini    was   unanimously   elected 

German  bishop  (Suidger)  became  Pope  Clement  II.  Pope,  22  October,  taking  the  name  of  Benedict  XI. 

After  his  speedy  demise,  Benedict  agam  seized  Rome  The  principal  event  of  his  pontificate  was  the  restora- 

(November,  1047),  but  was  driven  from  it  to  make  tion  of  peace  with  the  French  court.     Immediately 

way  for  a  second  German  pope,  Damasus  II  (Novem-  after  his  election  Philip  sent  three  ambassadors  to 

ber,  1048).     Of  the  end  of  Benedict  it  is  impossible  the  pope  bearing  the  royal  letter  of  congratulation, 

to  speak   with    certainty.    Some   authors   suppose  The  king,  while  professing  his  obedience  and  devotion, 

him  to  have  been  still  alive  when  St.  Leo  IX  died,  recommended  to  the  b^evolence  of  the  pope  the 

and  never  to  have  ceased  endeavouring  to  seize  the  Kingdom  and  Church  of  France.     Benedict,  judging 

papacy.    But  it  is  more  probable  that  the  truth  lies  a  policy  of  indulgence  to  be  necessary  for  the  restora- 

witb  the  tradition  of  the  Abbey  of  Grottaferrata,  tion  of  peace  with  the  French  court,  absolved  Philip 

first  set  down  by  Abbot  Luke,  who  died  about  1085,  and  his  subjects  from  the  censures  tney  had  incurred 

2Dd  corroborated  by  sepulchral  and  other  menu-  and  restored  the  kine  and  Idngdom  to  the  rights  and 

meats  within  its  walls.    Writing  of  Bartholomew,  privileges  of  which  they  had  been  deprived  by  Boni- 

iu  fourth  abbot  (1065),  Luke  tells  of  the  youthful  laoe.    The  Colonna   cardinals   were   also   absolved 

pon^  turning  from  his  sin  and  coming  to  Bartholo-  from  their  censures,  but  not  reinstated  in  their  former 

niew  for  a  remedy  for  his  disorders.    On  the  saint's  dignities.    This  policy  of  leniencjr  Benedict  carried 

advice,  Benedict  definitely  resigned  the  pontificate  out  without  compromising  the  dignity  of  the  Holy 

and  d^  in  penitence  at  Grottaferrata.    [See  '^  St  See  or  the  memory  of  Boniface  VlII.     Nogaret  and 

Benedict  and  Grottaferrata  "  (Rome,  1895),  a  work  Sciarra  Ck>lonna  and  those  implicated  in  the  outrage 

founded  on  the  more  important  "  De  Sepulcro  Bene-  oi  Anagni  were  declared  excommunicated  and  sum- 

dicti  IX" f  by  Dom  Greg.  Piacentini  (Rome,  1747) J  moned   to   appear   before   the   pontifical    tribunal. 

Bbnedict  X,  Pope.— The  bearer  of  this  name  was  After  a  brief  pontificate  of  eight  months,  Benedict 

tn  antipope  in  the  days  of  Nicholas  II,  1056-61.  died  suddenly  at  Perugia.    It  was  suspected,  not 

The  mo0t  important  source  for  the  historv  of  the  first  nine  altogether    without   reason,  that    his    sudden    death 

P<9is  who  bore  the  name  of  Benedict  is  the  bioj^raphies  in  the  was  caused  by  poisoning,  through  the  agency  of  Wil- 

lAtr  PwHfiealiM.  of  wWch  the  most  useful  ^lUon  is  t^t  of  ^         £  Noearet.     Benedict  XI  was  beatified  in  the 

I^OCHJBNB.  Lt  Liber  Pontificalia  (Pans,   1886-92),  and  the  "*****    ^-io  '^  tt«        *^'^^^«'  -j*-*   "«o  ^^wt^^w  i**  vu« 

Ittotthat  of  MoMMSBN,  OeWa  PonHf,  R<man,  (to  the  end  of  year  1773.     His  feast  IS  celebrated  at  Rome  and 

$t  rebp  of  Constantino  only,  Berlin,  1898).    JaffA,  Repeata  throughout  the  Dominican  Order  on  the  7th  of  July. 

ISLrT-  ^^  '^':J^^''^Jy^^JS^V\.LTTh7r^^^^^  He  is  the  author  of  a  volume  of  sermons  and  com- 
leticii  of  each  pope  *Dd  tells  where  they  may  be  read  at  ,     .  _j.     *  al     /^         \     r  a^.    %t  xau 

Wigth.    Modem  accounts  of  these  popes  will  be  found  in  any  mentanes  on  a  part  of  the  uospel  Of  Dt.  Matthew, 

w  Church  History,  or  history  of  the  City  of  Rome.    The  on  the  Psalms,  the  Book  of  Job,  and  the  Apocalypse. 
"■Hit  seeount  in  Knt^uh  of  most  of  them  is  to  be  read  in 

}Un,  iMf  of  the  PopM  in  the  Early  Middle  Agee  (London.         ^^j^^  L^c,  Hist.  Bed.,  III.  672;   Bernardus  Guidonis. 

QQ^  pttMim).  ,  __  x^    ,,  Vi<.poni.rotn.,  IX,  1010;  iSmp/.Onf.Prarf.,  1. 444;  Granojean. 

Horace  K.  Mann.  Lee  regietrte  de  Benoit  XI  (Paris.  1888);  Funkb.  Papat  Benedikt 


mJv52?'liS>'\*K*.SSi''i'*''r°;i:J*'*^'''**'i^  J"*"*  Bauiian  Archbishop  of  Aries  in  def ueDn to 

M;*87*^:  ^^kli^^Jbiffi^^'^'^aM^.  "«  inai»tence  of  the  cardii^;  be  oompeUed  hi.  only 

M.  A.  Waldbom.    '  niece  to  duoourage  noble  suitora  and  mturr  one  ol 

her  own  humble  rank.     A  legend,  vouched  tor  bf 

Bonodict  Zn  (jACQina  Fouiinier),  third  of  the  .£gidiua  of  Viterbo  (d.  1532),  accredits  him  witb  my- 

Avitcnon  popes,  b.  at  Saverdun  in  the  provinoe  of  ing,  "a  pope  should  be  tike  Melchiaededi.  wtthout 

Toulouse,  France,  elected  20  December,  1334;  d.  at  father,  mother,  or  genealogy".    -  Honastic  reform 

Avignon  24  April,  1342.     Nothing  is  known  of  his  particularly  engaged  his  leal.     Himself  a  Ciiterdan, 

parentage    or   boyhood.      In    youth    he    became    a  he  sought  to  revive  ^istine  monastic  fervour  ana 

Cistercian   monk  in   the  mon-  devotion   to   study.      Pertinent   papal   conEtitutiooi 

astery  of  Boulbonne,  whence  he  and  visitations  of  monasteries  attest  his  solicitude 

moved   to  that  of   Fontfroide,  for  a  monastic  renaiaeance. 

whose  abbot   was   hia  natural  Being  a  learned  theologian,  he  was  aa  bishop,  cardi- 
uncle,  Arnold  Novelli,  by  whose  nal,  and  pope,  keenly  intere8t«d  in  scholastic  discus- 
name  Foumier  was  also  Known,  dons.     He  tcnninaled  the  controversy  on  the  vexed 
He  studied   at  the   University  question  as  to  whether  the  Beatific  Vision  was  en- 
of  Parts,  where  be  received  the  joyed  before  or  only  after  the  General  Judgment. 
doctorate  in  theology.     Mean-  John  XXII  had  advocated  the  latter  view  and  stined 
time  he   was  mode  Abbot  of  up  vigorous  discussion.     Eager  to  solve  the  quee- 
Fontfroide,  succeeding  bis  uncle  tion,  Benedict  heard  the  opinions  of  those  maiatain- 
who   was  created   cardinal   19  infc  the  theory  of  deferred  vision,  and,  with  a  corn- 
December,  1310.    In  December  mission  of  theologians,  gave  four  months  to  patriitic 
ABMsor BcmidictXII    1317,  he  became  Bishop  of  his  research.    Their  bbours  terminated  in  theprodama- 
native  Diocese  of  Palmiers,  was  tion    (29   January,    1336)   of  the   Bull   "Benedictus 
translated  to   Hirepoix   2d  Januaiy,  1327,  and  was  Deus"   defining   the   immediate   intuitive  vision  of 
made   cardinal  by  Pope  John  XXII,  IS  December,  God  by  the  souls  of  tlie  just  having  no  faults  to 
1327.     On  thelatter's  death,  4  December,  1334,  the  expiate.      Zealous   too   for  the   preservation  of  the 
cardinals  in  conclave,  most  of  whom  opposed  a  return  Faith,  he  stimulated  the  bishops  of  infected  districts 
to  Rome,  demanded  of  Cardinal  de  Comminges  whose  to  vigilance  in  the  repression  of  heresy  and  urrad 
election  seemed  assured,  the  promise   to   remain  at  the  use  of  the  preventive  remedies  of  the  Inquisiliao. 
Avignon.      Hia   refiiaal  precipitated   an   imexpect«d  He  combatt«d  energetically  the  anti-papal  doctrioea 
canvass  for  candidates.     On  the  first  ballot,  20  De-  which  the  ecclesiasti co-political  theorists  of  the  dis- 
cember,  1334,  many  electors,  intending  to  sound  the  turbed  Avignon  period  hod  spread,  and  which  weie 
mind  of  the  conclave,  voted  for  the  unlikely  Cardinal  unfortunately   austained   by  a  school  of  misguided 
Foumierj  who,  though  be  was  one  of  the  few  men  of  Franciscans.     (SeeFRATtcELLt,HARBiLiUBOFFAi>ii*, 
real  ment  in  the  college,  was  but  lightly  regarded  Wiluau   op   Occam;  Michaei.   of   Cksena,)     Dis- 
because  of  his  obscure  origin  and  lack  of  wealth  and  tressed  by  disloyalty  in  Ireland,  he  tried  to  persuade 
following.     He    amased   the    conclave  by   receiving  Edward  III  to  establish  the  Inquisition  in  his  lealm 
the  neceaaary  two-thirds  vote.     On  8  January,  1335,  and  urged  him  to  assist  the  Irish  bishops  to  extirpate 
he  was  enthroned  as  Benedict  XII.  heresy.     But,  though  the  moat  ardent  foe  of  heresy, 
Resolved   to   re-establish   the    papacy   at   Rome,  Benedict  was  remarkably  patient  and  loving  in  deal- 
Benedict   df^alised   his   accearaon   by  providing  for  ing  with  heretics.     He  looked  also  to  the  interests  of 
the    restoration    of    St.    Peter's    bssihca    and    the  the  Faith  in  the  East;  negotiated  for  the  union  of  the 
Lateran.    He  waa  prepared  to  acijuiesce  in  the  peti-  Eaaiem  Churcli  with  Rome  through  a  delegate  of  the 
tion  of  a  Roman  deputation  sohciting  his  return.  Emperor  Andronicua,  whose  aincerity,  however, Bese- 
but  hia  cardinala  pictured  the  impossibility  of  living  diet  was  forced  to  question;  manifested  his  ecdicitude 
in   faction-rent   Italy.     They   were   right,   whatever  for  the  Church  in  Armenia  which,  in  the  early  four- 
were   their   motives,   and    Benedict   yielded.      Con-  teenth   century,  suffered   from   Mohammedan  inva- 
science-atricken  during  a  critical  illness,  he  proposed  siona,  succouring  the  unfortunates  in  temporal  mat- 
as  a  compromise  a  transfer  of  bia  court  to  Bologna,  ters  and  heating  doctrinal  differences  which  had  long 
The  carihnala  urged   the  slender   hope   of   securing  rent  Armenia  with  schism. 

obedience,  and  Benedict  decided  to  remain  at  Avig-  In  purely  ecclesiastical  affairs  Benedict's  pontift- 
non,  where  in  1339  he  commenced  to  build  the  mas-  cate  was  creditable  to  himself  and  productive  of  good 
sive  papal  caatle  which  still  exists.  Mindful  always  to  the  Church.  Pious,  prudent,  and  firm,  he  strove 
of  distracted  Italy,  he  often  sent  money  to  succour  conscientioualv  to  meet  the  Church's  needs  st  a 
the  famine-stricken  people  and  to  restore  cburcties.  critical  perioa.  In  political  relations,  however,  he 
Reform  of  abuae  waa  Benedict'a  chief  concern,  was  not  so  Buccessful.  Inexperienced  in  politics,  be 
Immediately  after  his  elevation  he  remanded  to  had  little  taat«  for  diplomacy  and  an  imperfect 
their  benefices  clerica  not  needed  at  Avignon,  and  knowledge  of  men  and  affairs  of  the  worid.  Con- 
menaced  with  summary  chastisement  violaUirs  of  flicting  political  motives  confused  him,  and  heaitaney 
the  law  of  residence.  Be  revoked  tbe  scandalous  and  vacillation  contrasted  painfully  with  his  fiimnea 
"expectancies"    granted    by   hia   predecessors   and  and  decision  in  eccleaiastical  matters.     Though  de- 


forttade   conferring    benefices  in  eommendam.     (See     termined  to  act  independently  of  Philip  tTI  of  ^ance, 
"  .-...>.  .       ji^^  latt«r  generally  succeeded  in  committing  the  pr— 


CouHENDATORT  Abbot,)      He  Condemned  imseemly     the  latt«r  generally  succeeded  in  committing  the  pope 


a  diaerimination  that  several  v. . „  ^ 

vacant,  and  so  gave  colour  to  the  calumny  that  he  the  Emperor  Louia  of  Bavaria  whom  John  XXll 

was    himself    harvesting    their    revenues.      He    in-  had  excommunicated  for  fomenting  sedition  in  Italy, 

veighed   vigorously   gainst   greed   for   gain   amonf  proclaiming  himself  King  of  the  Romans,  and  io- 

eccTesiastics;  regulatacT tbe  taxes  on  documents  issued  truding  an  anti-pope.    Witling  to  absolve  him  should 

by  papal  bureaux;  made  episcopal  visitation  leaa  of  a  he  hut  submit  to  the  Church,  Benedict  exposed  to 

financial  burden  to  the  clergy;  abolished  the  practice  Louis's  dele^tes  his  generous  t«rm8  of  peace  (July. 

of  countersigning  re^juesta  tor  papal  favours,  which  133S).    But  Philip,  aided  by  the  cardinals,  perauaded 

tvas  extremely  lucrative  to  venal  officios;  and  estab-  the  pope  that  hia  generosity  encouraged  heresy  and 

lished  the  Regiatry  of  Supplications  for  the  control  rebellion.      Benedict   yielded,     Ttirice   the   imperial 

of  such  petitions.     Abhorring  nepotism,  he  granted  envoys  came  to  Avignon,  but  French  influence  pic- 

(wefarment  to  but  one  relative,  naming  the  eminent  vailed,  and,  on  11  April,  1337,  Benedict  declared  it 


BEKEDIOT                                431  BCmDIOT 

impoBBiWe  to  absolve  Louis.    The  latter  as  Benedict  strictly  to  the  observance  of  the  rule  of  his  order, 

feared,  allied  himself  with  Edward  III  of  England  and  never  laid  aside  its  habit.    In  1675  having  the 

against  France.     In  vain  the  pope  tried  to  avert  choice  between  the  Archbishopric  of  Salerno  and 

war,  but  he  was  no  match  for  the  kings  and  their  ,that  of  Manfredonia  (Siponto)  he  chose  the  latter 

aUies.    His  good  offices  were  spumed;  and  he  was  because  it  was  a  poor  diocese  and  i:equired  great 

humiliated  ly  Philip's  later  alliance  with  Louis,  who  exercise  of  pastoral  zeal.    His  virtuous  life  rot  only 

had  also  allied  to  nimself  the  pope's  political  and  overcame  the  opposition  made  by  his  relatives  when 

ecclesiastical  enemies,  and  by  the  emperor's  denial  he  became  a  monk,  but  exercised  such  a  salutary 

of  tiie  pope's  authority  over  him,  and,  worst  insult  of  influence  that  in  time  his  mother,  his  sister,  and  two 

all,  by  his  usurpation  of  papal  power  in  declaring  of  his  nieces  embraced  the  religious  life  in  the  Third 

the  nullity  of  the  marriage  of  John  Henry  of  Bohemia  Order  of  St.  Dominic.     During  the  conclave  that 

and  Margaret  Maultasch,  that  the  latter  might  marry  followed  the  death  of  Clement  A  (1676),  he  was  one 

his  son,  Louis  of  Brandenburg.     The   French  king  of  the  band  of  cardinals  known  as  the  zelanti  who 

hindered  Benedict's  projected  crusade  against  the  had  agreed  that  no  considerations  of  worldly  prudence 

infidels,  making  the  war  with  England  an  excuse  to  would  influence  them  in  the  choice  of  a  new  pope. 

fore^  his  promise  to  lead  the  armies,  and  even  di-  In  the  government  of  his  diocese,  Cardinal  Orsini 

verting  the  money  subscribed  for  it  to  financing  his  was  unremitting  in  his  labours  and  zeal.    He  visited 

own  wars,  despite  the  protests  of  the  conscientious  even  the  most  remote  hamlets  and  was  not  less 

pope.    Benedict's  crusading  ardour  found  solace  in  watchful  over  temporal  than  over  spiritual  things 

Spain,  where  he  encouraged  the  campaign  against  He  provided  for  tne  needs  of  the  people,  repaired 

the  Mohammedans  who  in  1339  invaded  the  peninsula,  churches  and  held  a  diocesan  synod,  the  tiecrees  of 

Benedict   XII    ^las   not   escaped   calumny.     Re-  which  he  published.     In  1680,  when  Innocent  XI 

fonner,  foe  of  heresy,  builder  of  the  Avignon  papal  transferred  him  to  Cesena,  he  left  to  the  people  of 

palace,  unwilling  ally  of  France  and  enemy  of  Cfer-  Siponto  a  memorial  of  his  apostolic  activity  in  a 

many,  he  made  many  enemies  whose  misrepresenta-  pastoral  letter  on  the  rules  of  Christian  life  which 

tions  have  inspired  most  non-Catholic  appreciations  ne  had  always  inculcated.    At  Cesena  his  frugality. 

of  his  character.    Much  harm  was  done  to  his  memory  modesty,  and  activity,  his  devotion  to  the  poor  ana 

by  the  satires  of  Petrarch,  who.  though  befriended  his  constant  preaching  brought  about  a  throrough- 

and  honoured  by  Benedict,  yet  oitterly  resented  his  going  reformation  among  both  clergy  and  people. 

failure  to  return  to  Rome.    His  natural  obesity,  too,  Seeing  on  his  frequent  journeys  the  condition  of  the 

stimulated  caricature  and  imdeserved  criticism.    But  churches  in  even  the  poorest  parishes,  he  neglected 

histoiy  offers  a  vindication  and  testifies  that,  though  none  and  by  the  promulgation  of  strict  rules,  he 

hefaOed  to  cope  successfully  with  the  political  dim-  abolished  all  known  abuses. 

culties  to  which  he  fell  heir,  his  piety,  virtue,  and  In  1686,  a  serious  illness,  attributed  by  his  physi- 

pacific  spirit,  his  justice^  rectitude,  and  fimmess  in  cians  to  the  climate,  caused  his  transfer  to  Benevento, 

rulmg,  his  zeal  for  doctrinal  and  moral  reform,  and  where  he  remained  for  thirty-eight  years  or  until 

his  int^rity  of  character  were  above  reproach.  he  was  elected  pope.     During  this  long  period  he 

vvA^A^^"*'  ^'^  Baronius.    AnnaU§   (Bar-le-Duc,    1872),  seldom  left  his  diocese.     Each  year  he  made  an 

AAV,  20-274;    CHRiaTOPns.  Hut.  de  la  papauU  pendant  le  ^nianonal     vkitAtion     trk    ovprv     nari<»li         WhptiAVPr 

A/F'«^cte  (Paris,  1853),  II.  36-79;  Eocquain.  La  Cour  de  episcopal    visitat  on    to    every    parisn.      wnenever 

Some  (Paris.  1895),  II,  437-463;  Pastor- Antrobus.  History  necessary,  he  built  or  renovated  churches.    He  built 

<!f  the  Popes  (St.  Louis   1898).  I,  83-86;  Vidal,  BenokXlf:  hospitals  and  strove  incessantly  for  the  alleviation 

^A^k.S.^^'LiJ'?^^U,^'!^^^i  of.tl^^  fff^rings  of  the  poor      Twice  during- his 

(Paris,  1886),   II,  486,  527;  Muratori.  Rerum  Itdlicarum  episcopate  (5  June,  1688,  and  14  March,  1702)  Bene- 

Scriptoree  (Milan.  1734).  III-XIII;  Le  Bachelet  in  Diet,  vento   was   visited    by  earthquakes   and  on   these 

^s!^hk\i^lht'  ^'^   exhaustive  theological  study  occasions  his  courage,  his  active  charity  in  behalf 

^^                      John  B.  Peterson.  ^^  the  stricken  inhabitants,  and  his  energy  in  the 

^^^                                   '                   "  reconstruction  of  the  city,  won  for  him  the  title  of 

Benedict  Xm,  Pope   (Pietro    Francesco  Or-  the   "Second    Founder"   of   Benevento.      He   held 

8INI),  b.  2  February,  1649;  d.  23  February,  1730.  two  provincial   synods,  the  first  in    1693  attended 

Being  a  son  of  Ferdinando  Orsini  and  Giovanna  by  eighteen  bishops,  the  second  in  1698,  with  an 

Frangipani  of  Tolpha,  he  belonged  to  the  archducal  attendance  of  twenty,  the  act43  of  which  were  ap- 

femily  Orsini-Gravina.     From  early  youth  he  ex-  proved  at  Rome.    The  only  reproach  made  against 

hibited  a  decided  liking  for  the  his  administration  is  that  his  simplicity  and  child- 
Order  of  St.  Dominic,  and  at  like  confidence  exposed  him  to  the  wiles  of  some 
the  age  of  sixteen  during  a  unscrupulous  persons  who  abused  his  confidence, 
visit  to  Venice  he  entered  the  Cardinal  Orsini  had  already  taken  part  in  four 
Dominican  novitiate  against  conclaves,  when  Innocent  XIII  died  in  March,  1724; 
the  will  of  his  parents,  though  and  in  all  he  had  acted  in  the  spirit  of  the  zelanii. 
he  was  the  eldest  son  and  heir  The  conclave  at  which  he  was  himself  chosen  as- 
to  the  title  and  estates  of  his  sembled  on  20  March;  two  months  afterwards 
childless  uncle  the  Duke  of  (25  May)  no  choice  had  been  made.  This  long  delay 
Bracciano.  Their  appeal  to  weighedheavilyonthesoulofOrsim*,  who  commenced 
Clement  IX  was  fruitless;  the  a  novena  of  prayers  to  his  patron^  St.  Philip  Neri, 

pope   not   only  approved    the  that  the  election  of  a  new  pope  might  be  no  longer 

Asia  OF   Benedict     P^H^ose    of  the  young  novice,  delayed.     Before  the  novena  was  finished  he  saw 

XIII                 "^*  ®ven  shortenea  his  novitiate  with  terror  that  he  himself  would  be  chosen,  and, 

by  half  in  order  to  free  him  from  reluctant  to  accept  a  position  which  filled  him  with 

the  importunities  of  his  relatives.     As  student  and  dread,  he  sought  by  all  means  in  his  power  t-o  pre- 

novice,  the  young  prince  was  a  model  of  humility  and  vent  his  election.    Against  his  oft  repeated  protesta- 

»eal,and  devoted  nimself  to  the  acquisition  of  eccle-  tions  he  was  chosen  29  May,  1724,  and  even  after 

siastical  learning.    At  the  age  of  twenty-one  he  was  the  final  vote  was  taken  he  refused  to  yield,  arguing 

promoted  to  a  professorship.     On  22  February,  1672,  that  his  age,  his  physical  weakness,  his  incapacity, 

he  was  elevated  to  the  cardinalate  by  his  relative  and  a  resolution  which  he  made  never  to  become 

Clement  X.     He  protested  strenuously  against  this  pope,  should  exempt  him  from  such  a  grave  responsi- 

honour,  but  was  compelled  to  accept  it  under  the  bility.    He  yielded  only  when  it  was  made  clear  to 

vow  of  obedience  by  tne  General  of  the  Dominicans,  him  that  crave  dangers  were  to  be  feared  if  the 

»^  the  instance  of  the  pope.    As  cardinal  he  adherea  conclave  should  be  reopened.     So  with  tears,  and 


BSVXDIOT                                432  BINBDIOT 

obeying  the  command  of  the,  general  of  his  order,  Sawdiki,  Vitm  vont^,  r<man.  (Rome,  1763):  Gronb,  Panmo^ 

he  allowed  himself  to  be  proclaimed  pope.    In  honour  f^2±;J%aV"iw^«^'.  aSI^ 

of  Benedict  XI,  a  memSer  of  the  rfoiLican  Order,  ^iT^i  pSS^k^^^S^oA'Tl^Yn'^''''^  """^  ^ 

he  took  the  name  of  Benedict  XIV,  which  he  shortly  jPatrick  J.  Hjbalt. 

changed  to  Benedict  XIII  as  Peter  de  Luna  who  had 

previously    borne    the    name    (1394-1423)    was    a  Benedict  XIV  (Prospero  Lorenzo  Laiibkrtini), 

schismatic.  son  of  Marcello  Lsmibertini  and  Lucretia  Bulgarini, 

His  first  concern  as  pope  was  to  enforce  rigidly  b.  at  Bologna  31  Marchj  1675;  d.  3  May,  1758.    His 
ecclesiastical  discipline.     He  issued  several  decrees  earlv  education  was  received  from  tutors.    At  the  a^ 
on  ecclesiastical  dress  and  was  imsparing  in  his  of  thirteen  he  went  to  the  Collegium  Clementinumin 
efforts  to  aooiish  any  semblance  of  luxury  or  worldly  Rome  where  he  studied  rhet- 
pomp  among  the  cardinals.    During  the  Jubilee  of  oric,  philosophy,  and  theology. 
1725,  he  discharged  personally  the  duties  of  Grand  St.  Tnomas   Aquinas  was   his 
Penitentiary,  and  is  said  to  have  seriously  considered  favourite  author,  but  the  bent 
the  revival  of  public  penances  for  certain  grave  of  his  own  mind  was  towards 
offences.    In  order  to  encourage  the  foundation  of  historical  and  legal  studies  in 
diocesan  seminaries,  he  organized  a  special  com-  which    latter    he   excelled,  as 
mission    (C(mgregatio   Seminariorum),      At   a   pro-  well  in  civil  as  in  ecclesiastical 
vincial.  Roman   Lateran  synod   held   in    1725,  he  law.     In    1694,    though  only 
required  an  unqualified  acceptance  of  the  Bull  '' Uni-  nineteen,  he  received  the  degree 
genitus''  and  tm-ou^h  his  efforts  Cardinal  de  Noailles,  of  Doctor  of  Theologv  and  Doc- 
Archbishop  of  Paris,  was  led  to  accept  it  in  1728.  tor  Utriusque  Jum  (canon  and 
During  his  pontificate  Benedict  retained  the  Arch-  civil    law).    On  the   death  of 
bishopric  of  Benevento  which  he  administered  by  a  Innocent  All  he  was  made  conr      armb  of  Bekedic-t 
vicar-^eneral    and   which  he  twice   visited    (1727,  sistorial  advocate  by  Clement                XlV 
1729).  XI,    and    shortly    afterwards 

In  diplomatic  matters  and  in  his  relations  with  Consul  tor  of  the  Holy  Office.  In  1708  he  was  ap- 
foreign  powers  Benedict  did  not  exhibit  the  vigour  pointed  Promoter  of  the  Faith;  in  1712  canon 
and  conservatism  which  marked  his  administration  theologian  at  the  Vatican  and  assessor  of  the  Congre- 
in  religious  matters.  His  love  of  peace  led  him  to  gation  of  Rites;  in  1713  he  was  named  domestic 
attempt  a  settlement  of  the  dispute  in  regard  to  prelate;  in  1718  secretary  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
the  ecclesiastical  privileges  of  the  Kings  of  Naples  Council;  and  in  1725  titular  Bishop  of  Theodosia. 
{Monarchia  Sictda)  bv  a  revocation  of  the  constitu-  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Ancona  in  1727  and  cardinal 
tion  of  Clement  XI  (1715)  and  by  granting  to  the  30  April,  1728.  He  was  transferred  to  the  Arch- 
King  of  Naples  (and  Sicily)  and  his  successors  the  bishopric  of  Bologna  in  April,  1731,  in  succession  to 
right  to  appoint  a  spiritual  judge  in  ecclesiastical  Lorenzo  Corsini  who  had  become  pope  as  Clement 
imairs,  reserving,  however,  the  most  important  cases  XII. 

to  the  Holy  See.    The  quarrel  with  Victor  Amadeus  Benedict  XIV  is  best  known  to  history  as  a  student 

of  Savoy  was  compounded  by  giving  to  the  king  and  a  scholar.    Though  by  no  means  a  genius,  his 

the  right  of  patronage  over  the  churches  and  monas-  enormous  application  coupled  with  more  than  ordi- 

teries  in  his  dominions,  without,  however,  conceding  nary  cleverness  of  mind  made  him  one  of  the  most 

any  claim  to  the  incomes  from  vacant  benefices,  erudite  men  of  his  time  and  gave  him  the  distinction 

Towards  John  V,  Kinf  of  Portugal,  the  pope  ex-  of  \)eing  perhaps  the  greatest  scholar  among    the 

hibited  extraordinary  nrmness  in  refusing  a  claim  poi>es.    His  character  was  many-sided,  and  his  range 

based  on  the  privilege  held  b;^  other  courts  to  pro-  of  interests  large.    His  devotion  to  science  and  tne 

pose  candidates  for  the  carcunalate.     This  was  in  serious  investigation  of  historical  problems  did  not 

consequence  of  the  protests  made  by  the  cardinals  interfere  with  his  purely  literary  studies.     "I  have 

against  the  elevation  of  Vincenzo  Biechi,  Nuncio  to  been  reproached'',  he  once  said,  "because  of   my 

Lisbon.    In  retaliation  John  recalled  all  Portuguese  familiarity  with  Tasso  and  Dante  ana  Ariosto,  but 

residents  in  Rome,  forbade  all  communication  with  they  are  a  necessity  to  me  in  order  to  ^ve  energy  to 

the  Roman  Curia,  and  attempted  to  prevent  the  my  thought  and  life  to  my  style. "    This  devotion  to 

sending  of  the  customary  alms  from  Portugal  to  the  arts  and  sciences  brought  Lambertini  throughout 

Rome;  he  also  interfered  with  applications  for  dis-  his  whole  life  into  close  and  friendly  contact  with  the 

pensations    from    matrimonial    impediments.      At  most   famous   authors   and   scholars   of   his    time. 

many  courts  of  Europe  erave  offence  was  taken  by  Montfaucon,  whom  he  knew  in  Rome,  said  of  him: 

the  extension  (1728)  to  me  Universal  Church  of  the  "Young  as  he  is,  he  has  two  soids:  one  for  science. 

Office  of  Gregory  VII  containing  an  account  of  the  the  other  for  society.''    This  last  characterization  did 

excommunication    and    deposition    of    Henry    IV,  not  interfere  with  his  restless  activity  in  any  of  the 

which  to  Gallicans    and  Irotestants  seemed  offen*  many  important  positions  which  he  was  called  on  to 

sive.  fill,  nor  did  it  diminish  his  marvellous  capacity  for  the 

Although  full  justice  can  scarcely  be  done  to  the  Qiost  arduous  work, 

virtuous  life  and  the  fatherly  zeal  for  the  interests  The  zeal  and  energy  which  Lambertini  carried  to 

of  religion  of  Benedict,  his  pontificate  lost  much  of  this  office  infused  new  life  into  all  his  subjects.      He 

its  lustre  because  of  his  misplaced  confidence  in  himself  explained  his  assiduity  by  saying  that   he 

Cardinal  Nicol6  Coscia,  who  had  been  his  coadjutor  looked  on  the  episcopate  not  as  an  nonour,  out  as  an 

at  Benevento.    The  pope  was  ignorant  of  the  pecula-  opportunity  to  do  sood.    His  administration  w^as  ex- 

tions  and  venality  of  his  favourite,  whose  greed  did  emplary:  he  visited  all  parts  of  his  diocese,  held  syn* 

much  tQ  diminish  the  prestige  of  tne  Holy  See,  and  ods,  incited  the  people  to  piety  b«r  word  and  example, 

against  whom  a  popular  uprising  took  place  on  the  and  supervised  the  affairs  of  ms  oiocese  so  thoroughly 

pope's  death,  resulting  in  a  ten  years'  imprisonment  that  no  thing  needing  change  or  correction  escape<ihini. 

for  this  unworthy  cardinal.     Benedict's  theological  His  humility  and  vast  learning  were  a  source  otinspira- 

writings  were  published  in  three  volumes  (Ravenna,  tion  and  strength  to  his  clergy,  and  his  broad    firm 

1728).  grasp  of  public  affairs  and  public  questions  gave  him  a 

QuiriF-EcHARD,  Seripi.  Ord.  Freed,,  I.  814;  Cavaueki,  position  of  unique  influence  among  rulers  and  peoole. 

?±n^nr'^p1?5J;«^°VS;1tt,-^4f  J2^^  ^5  Wb  opinion  the  foundation  of  socc^  in  epg^ 

dmo  Xiu  (Venice.  1730);  Borgia,  BenedicH  xfii  v4a  (Rome,  adininistration  was  thorough  harmony  between  blsboB 

1762);  QuARNACd,  HitL  pontif.  roman.,  I,  39,  II,  400  aqq.;  and  clergy,  and  this  he  iAicceeded  in  obtaining.     ^ 


BXNEDIOT 


433 


BENEDIOT 


Pope  Bknsdict  XIV 


cause  of  his  wonderful  gifts  and  bis  extraordinary 
success  as  Bishop  of  Ancona,  Pope  Benedict  XIII 
wished  to  transfer  him  to  some  position  of  greater 
responsibility  affording  a  wider  field  for  the  display 
of  nis  powers  and  activfty,  but  be  replied  in  bis  usual 

jocose  vein  that 
no  cbange  of  place 
could  make  bim 
otber  than  be  was, 
cheerful,  joyous, 
and  the  friend  of 
tbe  pope.  Wben 
be  was  transfer- 
red to  Bologna  in 
1731  bis  ener^es 
and  activities 
seemed  to  redou- 
ble. He  became 
all  tbin£s  to  all 
men  and  is  said 
to  have  never  al- 
lowed anyone  to 
leave  bis  pres- 
ence dissatisfied 
or  in  anger,  and 
witbout  bein^ 
strengthened  and 
refreshed  by  bis  wisdom,  advice,  or  admonitions. 
His  eflforts  were  largely  directed  to  tne  improvement  of 
clerical  education  in  bis  diocese.  He  reformed  tbe 
programme  of  studies  in  bis  seminary  and  drew  up  a 
new  curriculum  in  wbicb  special  stress  was  laid  on 
the  study  of  Sacred  Scripture  and  patrology. 

When  Qement  XII  died  (6  February,  1740)  tbe 
fune  of  Lambertini  was  at  its  bigbest.    Througb  in- 
trigues of  various  kinds  the  conclave  wbicb  com- 
menced on  17  February  lasted  for  six  months.    It 
was  composed^  of  fifty-four  cardinals  of  whom  forty- 
six  were  Italians,  three  French,  four  Spanish^  and  one 
German.    These  were  split  into  several  parties.    One 
was  composed  of  those  who  bad  been  appointed  by 
Clement  XI,  Innocent  XIII,  and  Benedict  XIIl; 
another  of  those  appointed  by  Clement  XII  wbo 
were  known  as  the  new  college.    The  long,  tedious 
session  and  tbe  intense  beat  did  not  improve  tbe 
temper  of  tbe  cardinals;  after  six  months  of  fruitless 
effort  and  constant  intrigue,  the  election  seemed  no 
nearer  than  in  the  beginning.     Various  expedients 
were  suggested,  such  as  the  withdrawal  of  tbe  names 
of  the  I^din^  candidates  and  tbe  substitution  of 
others,  but  w^itbout  avail.    After  several  plans  bad 
been  tried  to  end  the  deadlock,  Lambertini,  whose 
name  had  been  proposed  as  a  compromise,  aadressed 
the  conclave,  saying:  "If  you  wisb  to  elect  a  sain*, 
choose  Gotti;  a  statesman,  Aldobrandini;  an  honest 
man,  elect  me."    These  words  spoken  as  much  per- 
haps in  jest  as  in  earnest  helped  to  end  tbe  difBcmty. 
Lambertini  was  cbosen  and  took  the  name  of  Bene- 
dict XIV  in  honour  of  bis  friend  and  patron  Bene- 
dict XIII.     As  pope,  Lambertini  was  no  less  energetic, 
brave,  and    unassuming   than    before  bis  election. 
His  great   learning    placed   bim    in   a  position   to 
deal  successfully  with  ecclesiastical  situations  that 
needed  refoxmation,  and  the  broad  Christian  spirit 
which  aniimated  bis  dealings  with  foreim  powers 
removed  thes  pressure  and  hostility  of  even  Frotestant 
courts  and  rulers.    He  was  undoubtedly  liberal  in  his 
political  dealings,  though  he  never  lost  sight  of  tbe 
Ksential  interests  of  the  Church  and  religion. 

Public  Policy. — ^To  go  to  the  extreme  limit  of 
roncession  and  conciliation  seems  to  bave  been  tbe 
principle  that  dominated  all  Benedict's  actions  in  bis 
negotiations  with  governments  and  rulers,  so  mucb 
so,  indeed,  that  be  has  not  escaped  criticism  even 
tan  those  witbin  tbe  Church  as  bein^  too  prone  to 
lettb  difficulties  by  making  concessions  or  com- 
promises.   However  bis  actions  may  be  judged,  and 


whatever  may  be  thought  of  bis  motives,  it  cannot 
be  denied  that  be  aimed  constantlv  at  peace  and  that 
few  causes  of  friction  remained  after  the  close  of  his 
administration.  Moreover,  in  estimating  the  value 
and  eSeci  of  bis  concessions,  it  is  seen  that  in  nearly 
every  case  he  strengthened  the  moral  influence  of  tbe 
papacy  even  though  some  rights  of  patronage  or  Other 
material  interests  were  abandoned.  Nor  was  bis 
influence  less  pK>tent  among  Protestant  than  Catholic 
rulers;  the  imiversal  esteem  in  which  be  was  held 
throughout  tbe  world  meant  much  in  an  epoch,  the 
close  of  which  was  to  witness  the  disruption  of  many 
time-honoured  institutions,  social  and  political  as 
well  as  religious.  An  enumeration  of  bis  principal 
dealings  with  tbe  heads  of  states  will  show  that 
Benedict  wisely  abandoned,  in  most  cases,  tbe  shadow 
of  temporal  authority  to  maintain  tbe  substance  of 
spiritual  supremacy. 

The  King  of  Portugal  received  the  ri^ht  of  pat- 
ronage over  all  the  sees  and  abbeys  in  his  kin^aom 
(174^  and  was  further  favoured  with  tbe  title  of 
Rex  Pidelissimua  (1748).     In  the  matter  of  church 
revenues  and  the  allotment  of  ecclesiastical  benefices 
Spain  was  also  treated  very  generously.     In  1741 
permission  was  granted  to  tax  tbe  income  of  tbe 
clergy,  and  in  1753  the  Government  received  tbe 
right  of  nomination  to  nearly  all  tbe  Spanish  bene- 
fices; in  1754  an  agreement  was  ratified  by  which 
the  revenues  from  all  the  benefices  in  Spain  and  in 
the  American  colonies  were  paid  into  the  govern- 
ment treasury  to  carry  on  the  war  against  tbe  African 
pirates.    The  King  of  Sardinia  received  the  title  of 
Vicar  of  the  Holy  Bee  which  carried  with  it  the  right 
of  nomination  to  all  ecclesiastical  benefices  in  nis 
dominions  and  the  income  of  the  pontifical  fiefs  in 
lieu  of  which  a  yearly  indemnity  of  one  thousand 
ducats  was  to  be  paid.    Through  the  mediation  of  the 
pope  a  tribunal  was  establish^  in  Naples  consisting 
of  an  equal  number  of  clerical  and  lay  members  pre- 
sided over  by  an  ecclesiastic,  which  formed  tbe  final 
court  for  the  trial  of  ecclesiastical  cases.    As  mediator 
between  the  Knights  of  Malta  and  the  King  of  Naples 
the  pope  brought  a  long  standing  controversy  to  a 
happy  termination.     By  the  Encyclical  "Ex  omnibus 
christiani  orbis"  (16  October,  1766),  the  bitter  con- 
troversy regarding  the  question  of  admitting  to  the  sac- 
raments persons  who  would  not  accept  tbe  Bull  "  Uni- 
genitus'*^  was  brought  to  a  close.    While  insisting  on 
the  authority  of  the  "Unigenitus"  and  pointing  out 
that  it  was  the  duty  of  all  the  faithful  to  accept  it 
with  veneration,  the  pope  decrees  that  only  those  per- 
sons should  be  excluded  from  the'  sacraments  whose 
opposition  to  the  pontifical  constitution  was  public  and 
notorious,  and  wno  therefore  should  be  r^arded  as 
public  enemies.    The  title  of  King  of  Prussia,  taken  in 
1701  by  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  was  recognized 
by  Benedict    against    the    vigorous    opposition    of 
many  members  of  tbe  Curia.     He  was  referred  to  as 
the  sage  par  excellence  by  Maria  Theresa,  and  re- 
ceived many  encomiums  from  the  sultan  to  whom 
he  playfully  referred  in  bis  writings  as  the  "Good 
TurK".    At  tbe  close  of  bis  pontificate  the  only  ques- 
tion of  importance  in  tbe  foreign  relations  of  tbe 
Holy  See  wbicb  had  not  been  successfully  settled  was 
that  concerning  the  Patriarchate  oi  Aquileia  over 
which  the  Republic  of  Venice  and  the  emperor  claimed 
control.     Benedict  decided  that  the  rights  of  the 
patriarchate  should  be  divided   between  the  Arch- 
Dishopric  of  G(5rz,  in  Austria,  and  that  of  Udine  in 
tbe  Venetian  States.    This  decision  was  regarded  as 
unjust  by  Venice,  wbicb  in  retaliation  decreed  that 
no  Bull,  Brief,  or  communication  of  the  Holy  S€« 
should  be  promulgated  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Republic  without  tbe  supervision  and  approval  of 
the  Government. 

Temporal  and  Spiritual  Ruler. — ^As  temporal 
sovereign  Benedict  governed  tbe  States  of  tbe  Church 


BSNSDIOT  434  BXNIDIOT 

with  wisdom  and  moderation  and  introduced  many  that  pagan  ideas  and  pagan  prs^tices  had  been 

reforms  for  the  purpose  of  diminishing  abuses  and  grafted  on  Christianity,  was  terminated  by  Bene- 

promoting  the  happiness  and  prosperity  of  the  peo-  oict  XIV  who  issued  two  Bulls  on  the  subiect,  and 

pie.    With  a  view  to  replenishing  the  treasury  which  required  the  missionaries  to  take  an  oath  tnat  such 

had  been  exhausted  by  the  extravagance  of  some  of  abuses  would  not  be  tolerated  in  the  future.    The 

his  predecessors,  especially  that  of  Benedict  XIII  Bull  "Ex  quo  singulari",  in  regard  to  the  abuses  in 

under  the  influence  of  Cardinal  Coscia,  and  because  of  China,  was  published  11  July,  1742;  that  in  regard  to 

the   enormous   outlay   for   public    buildings   under  Malabar,  "Omnium  sollicitudinum",   12  September, 

Clement  XII,  he  made  no  promotions  to  the  Sacred  1744.     (See  China,  India.)    Because  of  the  maimer 

College  for  four  years.    Measures  were  set  on  foot  to  in  which  church  festivals  had  been  multiplied,  Bene- 

reform  the  nobility,  a  new  regional  division  of  the  diet  strove  to  diminish  them.    This  he  aid  in  Spain 

city  was  introduced  for  the  purpose  of  greater  ad-  in  1742,  in  Sicily  and  Tuscany  in  1748,  and  later  in 

ministrative  efficiency,  agriculture  was  fostered  and  Sardinia,  Austria,  and  the  Papal  States.     Such  a 

encouraged  by  the  introduction  of  new  and  improved  move  met  with  much  opposition  from  many  cardinals, 

methods,  commerce  was  promoted,  and  luxury  re-  Benedict  silenced  their  reproaches  by  saying  that 

strained,  while  the  practice  of  usury,  against  which  fewer  feasts  observed  in  a  more  Christian  manner 

he  published  the  Encyclical  "Vix  Pervenit"  (1745),  would  contribute  more  to  the  glory  of  religion, 
was    almost    entirely    suppressed.      (See    Usurt.)        Liturgical  Reforms. — In  liturgical  matters  Bene- 

Benedict  abandoned  none  of  the  claims  of  his  prede-  diet  XIV  was  extremely  conservative.     He  viewed 

cessors,  but  the  liberal  use  of  his  powers  had  no  other  with  grief  the  profound  changes  which  had  been  in- 

aim  than  the  promotion  of  the  arts  of  peace  and  troduced  into  the  Roman  Calendar  since  the  time  of 

industry.    How  serious  the  problem  was  is  best  seen  Pius  V.    The  increase  in  the  number  of  Feasts  of 

from  his  own  words:  "The  pope  orders,  the  cardinals  Saints  and  the  multiplication  of  offices  with  the  rank 

do  not  obey,  and  the  people  do  as  they  please.  **  of  Duplex  had  superseded  the  old  ferial  and  dominical 

In  purely  spiritual  and  religious  matters  the  in-  offices,  and  throughout  his  entire  pontificate  he  set 

fluence  of  Benedict  left  a  lasting  impress  on  the  himself  determinedly  against  the  introduction  of  aav 

entire  Church  and  its  administration.    His  Bulls  and  new  offices  in  the  Breviary,  a  policy  which  he  ad- 

Encyclicals,  which  have  played  such  an  important  hered  to  so  strictly  that  the  only  change  it  underwent 

part  in  defining  and  clarifying  obscure  and  difficult  during  his  administration  was  that  Leo  the  Great 

points  of  ecclesiastical  law,  were  learned  treatises  full  received  the  title  of  Doctor.  .  So  profoundly  im- 

of  wisdom  and  scholarship.    The  vexed  question  of  pressed  was  he  with  the  necessitv  of  a  thorough 

mixed    marriages,    unions    between    Catholics    and  revision  of  the  Breviary  which  would  eliminate  those 

Protestants,  demanded  settlement  in  consequence  of  portions  with  which  the  critical  sense  of  the  eight- 

the  increasing  frequency  with  which  they  occurred,  eenth  century  found  fault  that  he  comimssionedTUie 

Much  of  the  oittemess  of  the  Reformation  tvme  had  Jesuit,  Fabio  Danzetto,  to  prepare  a  report  on  the 

passed  awa^  and  Protestants  sought  to  have  their  subject.    This  report  in  four  volumes  of  notes  was  of 

marriages  with  Catholics  solemnized  with  ceremonies  such  a  sweeping  character  that  it  is  said  to  have 

equal  to  those  when  both  parties  were  Catholics,  caused  Benedict  to  desist  from  his  project.    The  plan 

Though  the  doctrine  prevailed  in  Rome  that  the  con-  of  reforming  the  Roman  Martyrology.waa,  however, 

tracting  parties  were  the  real  ministers  of  the  Sacra-  carried  to  a  successful  issue,  and  a  new  edition  was 

ment  of  Matrimony,  no  general  unanimity  prevailed  published  by  his  authority  in  Rome  in  1748.    TTie 

among  theologians  on  this  point.    Without  derogat-  same  is  true  of  the  "Caeremoniale  Episcoporum", 

ing  in  the  least  from  this  theory,  Benedict  in  reply  which  Benedict  XIII  undertook  to  reform  and  which 

to  the  (questions  from  bishops  in  many  places,  es-  Benedict  XIV  published  (1752)  in  the  now  \usaai 

pecially  m  Holland  and  Poland,  decreed  by  the  Bull  form.    The  classical  work  of  Benedict  on  liturgical 

"Magnae  nobis  admirationis"  (29  June,  1748)  that  matters  is  his  "De  Servorum  Dei  Beatificatione  et  de 

mixed  marriages  were  allowable  only  under  certain  Beatorum  Canonizatione"  which  still  regulates  tiie 

well-defined  conditions,  the  principsd  of  which  was  process  of  beatification  and  canonization.     Other  im- 

that  children   bom  of  those   marriages  should  be  portant  liturgical  writings  of  Benedict  deal  with  the 

brought  up  in  the  Catholic  Faith,  but  that  such  mar-  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  ana  the  feasts  of  Our  Lord,  tiie 

riages  while  tolerated,  should  never.be  performed  Blessed  Virgin,  and  some  saints.   Besides  these  he  pob- 

witn  the  ceremonies  that  imply  formal  ecclesiastical  lished  numerous  works  on  the  rites  of  the  Greda 

approval.  and  Orientals;  Bulls  and  Briefs  on  the  celebration 

Relations  with  Eastern  Churches. — Under  the  of  the  octave  of  the  Holy  Apostles,  against  the  use  of 

skilful  hand  of  Benedict  a  formal  union  was  con-  superstitious  images,  on  the  blessing  of  the  pallium, 

summated  with  some  of  the  Eastern  Churches.    The  against  profane  music  in  churches,  on  the  golden 

frequent  attempts  of  the  Greek  Melchite  Patriarchs  rose,  etc. 

of  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem  to  obtain        In  order  that  the  clerpr  should  not  be  deficient  in 

recognition  from  the  Holy  See  did  not  for  a  long  time  ecclesiastical  and  historical  science,  and  that  they 

result  in  any  definite  union,  because  of  dissatisfaction  might  not  lack  opportunity  to  profit  by  the  intel- 

on  the  part  of  the  popes  with  the  formulation  of  the  lectual  progress  of  the  period,  he  founded  at  Rome 

Oriental  creeds.     In  1744,  Benedict  XIV  sent  the  four  academies  for  the  study  of  Roman  antiquities, 

pallium  to  Seraphin  Tanas  whom  he  acknowledged  Christian  antiquities,  the  history  of  the  Church  and 

as  Patriarch  of  tne  Greek  Melchites  of  Antioch.    The  the  councils,   and   the   history  of  canon    law   and 

conflicts  in  the  Maronite  Church,  after  the  deposition  liturgy.     He  also  established  a  Christian  museum, 

of  Jacob  II,  which  seriously  threatened  its  unity  were  and  commissioned  Joseph  Assemani  to   prepare  a 

settled  in  a  national  council  (1736),  the  decrees  of  catalogue  of  the  manuscripts  in  the  Vatican  Library 

which  were  approved  by  Benedict.     On  18  March,  which  he  enriched  by  the  purchase  of  the  Ottobonian 

1751,  he  renewed  the  prohibitions  of  Clement  Xll  Library  containing  3,300  MSS.  of  unioue  value  and 

against  the  Freemasons,  and  though  very  few  ^vem-  importance.     He  founded  chairs  of  chemistry  and 

ments  regarded  the  suppression  of  this  society  as  mathematics  in  the  Roman  university  known  as  the 

demanding  decisive  action  on  their  part,  laws  were  Sapienza,  and  many  others  for  painting,  sculpture, 

at  once  passed  by  Spain  and  Naples,  and  in  1757  by  etc.,  at  other  schools.    Over  all  these  foundations  he 

Milan.     The  controversy  in  regard  to  Chinese  and  exercised  the  closest  supervision;  he  also  found  time 

Malabar  customs,  or  the  system  of  accommodation  to  to  carry  out  many  schemes  for  the  building  and  adorn* 

heathenism  which  some  missionaries  had  permitted  ment  of  churches  in  Rome.    The  fact  that  Benedict 

their  converts  to  practice,  and  by  which  it  was  said  never  raised  a  Jesuit  to  the  cardinalate  is  attributed 


BKBTIDIOT  4 

10  big  bo«tilit}>  to  the  Society;  on  the  other  bond,  It 
iDiuC  be  not«d  that  it  waa  to  a  Jeeuit,  Emmanuel 
Awvedo,  that  he  committed  the  complete  edition 
d  bis  works  (1747-51}.  He  had  been  long  urged  by 
bi)  fnenda  Cardinals  FasBioneband  Archinto  to  order 
1  UKHOUgh  reformation  of  tliat  body,  but  it  was  not 
until  the  laflt  year  of  his  life  that  any  decisive  action 
wu  taken.  On  1  April,  175S,  he  issued  a  Brief  t)y 
which  Cardinal  Saldaoha  was  commissioned  to  inspect 
tU  the  collies  and  houses  of  the  Society  in  Portugal, 
and  to  iiD<£rtake  a  reform  of  the  eame,  but  this 


Benedict  XIV  sought  recreation  in  the  Boclety  of 
ituiied  men  and  artists,  amons  whom  he  shone  as  a 
wit  and  a  scholar.  Gay,  lively,  and  talkative,  his 
cODveraation  at  times  amajied,.if  it  did  not  shock, 
the  stiud  Bensibilities  of  some  of  the  dignified  courtiers 
vha  came  in  contact  with  him.    Hild  and  gracious  in 


ToiiB  or  Bbhbdict  XtV 

hia  demeanour  ta  all  who  approached  him,  the  pope 
«3x  at  times  lacking  neither  in  energy  nor  spirit.  On 
■IK  occasion  a  violent  scene  took  pTace  in  which  the 
pope  expressed  in  a  most  decided  manner  his  dis- 
approval of  the  tactics  of  the  French  court.  Choiseul, 
'the  French  ambassador,  called  at  the  Vatican  to  re- 
quest that  the  appointment  of  Cardinal  Archinto  to 
ncceed  Cardinal  Valenti  as  Secretary  of  Stato  be 
Inferred  until  Bft«r  some  matters  in  wluch  the  French 
Ung  was  interested  were  decided.  Choiseul  lumself 
gii'es  an  account  of  this  scene  (Letters,  p.  169),  with- 
W,  however,  relating  all  the  details.  The  conversa- 
■*»  was  more  lively  than  Choiseul  reported,  and 
From  the   "M&noires"  of   the   Bafon   de   Bcsonval 


tired  of  the  i 


(p.  106)  we  learn  that  when  the  pope  had  groi 

■'"""'  "'  the  importunities  of  Choiseul  oe  seized  him 

__  _nn  and  pushing  him  Into  his  own  seat  said: 

"Be  pope  yotu-Belf"  {Fa  el  Papa),    Choiseul  replied: 

"So,  Haiy  Fatfa«r.  let  ui  each  do  hia  part.    You 


omtiinH  to  be  pope  and  I  e 
TUa   bniMnieneee,    however, 

Benedict.    He  could  be  gay  at     ___  ... 

Abba(«  Oalianl  once  presented  him  with  a,  collection 
of  minerals  saying:  Die  ut  lapidet  itti  pane*  ^lU 
(Command  that  tlwee  stones  be  made  bread),  and  the 
hint  was  not  lost.  The  miracle  requested  was  per- 
formed and  the  abbti  received  a  pension. 

To  his  subjects  Benedict  was  an  idol.  If  they  com- 
plained at  times  that  he  nTote  too  much  and  gov- 
erned them  too  little,  they  all  agreed  that  he  spoke 
well  and  wittily,  and  his  jolces  and  bon  mots  were  the 
delight  of  Rome.  Cares  of  state,  after  his  elevation 
to  the  pontificate  prevented  him  from  devoting  him- 
self as  much  as  he  would  have  wished  to  his  studies 
of  former  days;  but  he  never  lacked  intellectual 
stimulus.  He  surrounded  himself  with  such  men  as 
Quirini,  Garampi,  Boi^a,  Muratori,  and  carried  on 
an  active  correspondence  with  scholars  of  many 
shades  of  opinion.  His  intellectual  pre-eminence  was 
not  only  a  source  of  pride  to  Catholics,  but  formed 
a  strong  bond  with  many  not  of  the  Faith.  Voltaire 
dedicated  to  him  his  "Mahomet"  with  the  words: 
"Au  chef  de  la  veritable  religion  un  ^rit  contre  le 
fondateur  d'une  religion  fausse  et  barbare".  On 
another  occasion  he  composed  for  a  portrait  of  the 
pope  the  following  distich: 

Lambertinus  hie  est,  Rooue  decue,  et  pater  orbis. 

Qui  mundum  scriptis  doeuit,  virtutibua  omat, 
fThis  is  Lambertini,  the  pride  of  Rome,  the  father 
of  the  world,  who  teaches  that  world  by  his  writings 
and  honours  by  hia  virtues.)  The  distich  causM 
discuesioD  regarding  the  quantity  of  "hie",  but  the 
pope  defended  the  prosody  of  Voltwre  who  coo- 
DiTDcd  his  opinion  by  a  quotation  from  Virgil  uhich 
be  said  ought  to  be  the  epitaph  of  Benedict. 

Great  as  a  man,  a  scholar,  an  administrator,  and 
a  priest,  Benedict's  claim  to  immortality  r«sta  princi- 
pally on  his  admirable  ecclesiastical  writings.  The 
most  important  of  them,  besides  those,  already  men- 
tioned, are:  "Insti  tut  tones  Ecclesiasticffi''  written  in 
Italian,  but  translated  into  Latin  by  F.  Ildephonsua 
a  S.  Carolo;  it  is  a  collection  of  107  documents, 
principally  pastoral  letters,  letters  to  bishops  ana 
others,  independent  treatises,  instructitijia,  etc.,  all 
of  which  are  really  scientific  dissertations  on  sub- 
iectfl  connected  with  church  law  or  the  care  of  souls; 
the  classical  work  "De  Synodo  DiceeeeanA",  pub- 
lished after  his  elevation  to  the  papacy,  an  adapta- 
tion to  diocesan  administration  of  tfio  general  ecciesi- 
aftical  taw;  this  book  is  called  by  Scbulte,  because  of 
its  influence,  one  of  the  most  important,  if  not  the 
most  important,  modem  work  in  canon  law;  "Casus 
Conscienlis  de  mandate  Frosp.  Lambertini  Archiep. 
Bonon  propositi  et  resotuti",  valuable  for  the  lawyer 
as  well  as  the  confeosor;  "  Bullarium  Benedict!  XIV", 
which  contains  the  legislation  of  bis  pontificate, 
many  of  its  documents  being  scientific  treatises. 
He  also  compiled  a  "Thesaurus  Resolutlonmn  Sacne 
Congregationis  Concilii",  the  first  attempt  at  a  scien- 
tific presentation  of  the  "Praxis"  of  the  Roman  Con- 
gregations. A  complete  edition  of  his  works  appeared 
at  Rome  (1747-51)  in  twelve  folio  volumes,  by  Em- 
manuel Azevedo,  S.J.,  who  also  translated  into  Latin 
the  Italian  documents.  A  better  and  more  complete 
edition  is  that  of  Venice,  1788.  The  latest  and  most 
serviceable  (Prato,  1844)  is  in  seventeen  volumes. 
Some  letters  of  Benedict  were  published  by  Kraus: 
"Briefe  Benedicts  XIV  an  den  Canonicus  Pier 
Francesco  PegKJ  in  Bologna  (1729-1758)  nebet  Bene- 
dicts DiariumdesConclaveavon  1740"  (2d  ed.,  Frei- 
buiv,  1888).  Of.  Batiffol,  "Inventaire  des  lettrea 
inAlites  du  Pape  Binolt  XIV"  (Paris,  18S4);  R.  De 
Martinis,  "Acta  Benedict!  XIV"  (Naples,  1S84,  paa- 
aim).  In  1904  Heiner  edited  three  hitherto  unpub- 
lished treatises  of  Benedict  XIY  on  rites,  the  feasta 
of  the  Apostles,  and  the  Saoramenta. 


On  Benedict  v 
Ltd,  da  can.  R 


towards  the. end  of  the  century,  and  at  his  raquegt 
ft  most  oaieful  tranacript  of  it  was  made  for  bim,  t* 
an  exemplar  of  the  text  to  be  diaeemiuat^  tliroi^b- 
out  the  moDHSt^rieH  of  his  empire.  Several  coptei 
of  the  Rule  were  made  from  it,  oue  of  which  lurvivca 
to  thiH  day;  for  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  preeeal 
Codex  914  of  the  St.  Gait  Library  was  copied  rlsectl; 
from  Charlemagne'fl  copy  for  the  Abbey  of  Reidieiian. 
An  exact  diplomatic  reprint  (not  in  faraimile)  ol 
this  codex  was  published  at  Monte  Caseino  in  1900, 


Saint. — This  work   holds    vidual  text  o 


Benedict,  Rule  o 
the  lirst  place  among 
monastic  legislative 
codes,  and  was  by 
far  the  moat  impor- 
tant factor  in  the 
organization  and 
spread  of  monasti- 
oism  in  the  West. 
For  its  general  char- 
acter and  also  its 
iltustratioii  of  St. 
Benedict's  own  life, 
Bee  the  article  Bene- 
dict, Saint.  Here, 
however.it  is  treated 
more  in  detail,  under 
t^  following  heads: 
I.  The  Text  of  the 
Rule;  11.  Analysiaof 
the  Rule;  III.  Prac- 
tical Working  of  the 
Rule. 

1.  Thb  Text  op 
THE  Ru'.,B.— The  ex- 
act time  and  place 
at  which  St,  Benedict 
wrote  his  Rule  are 
not  known,  nor  can  it 
be  determined  wheth- 
er the  Rule,  as  we 

composed  as  a  sin- 
f;le  whole  »t  whether 
it  gradually  took 
shape  in  responae 
to  the  needs  of  hie 
monks.  Somewhere 
about  530,  however, 
may  be  taken  as  a 
likely  date,  and 
Monte  Caasino  as  a 
more  probable  [dace 
than  Subiaco,  for  the 
Rule  certainly  re- 
flects St.  Benedict's 
matured  monastic 
and  spiritual  wis- 
dom. The  earliest 
chronicler  says  that 
when  Monte  Cassino 
was  destroyed  by 
the  Lombards  in 
581,  the  monks  fled  to  Rome,  carrying  with  them, 
among  other  treasures,  a  copy  of  the  Rule  "which 
the  holy  Father  had  composed";  and  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  eighth  century  there  was  in  the  pope's 
library  a  copy  believed  to  be  St.  Benedict's  auto- 
R^ph.  It  has  i>een  assumed  by  many  scholars 
umt  this  was  the  copy  brought  from  Monte  Cassino; 
but  though  the  supposition  Is  likely  enough,  it  ia 
not  a  certainty.  Be  that  as  it  may,  this  MS.  of  the 
Rule  was  presented  by  Pope  Zachary  to  Monte 
Caasino  in  tne  middle  of  the  eighth  century,  a  short 


RoLB  or  St.  Benedtct.  MS.  j 


without  difficnl^ 
Various  other  MS, 
go  back  to  Charle-  I 
ma^e'sHS.,ortoita  ' 
original  at  Uonte  I 
Cassino,  which  was 
deetroyed  W  fire  in 
896,  and  thus  the 
text  of  the  so-calM 
autograph  may  be 
rflstored  by  approv- 
ed critical  methods 
with  quite  unusual 
eertainty,  and  could 
we  be  certain  that  it 
really  was  the  ftulo- 

Sraph,  there  would 
e  no  more  to  s&y. 
Dut  as  already 
pointed  out,  it  ia  not 
quite  certain  that  it 
was  St.  Benedict's 
autograph,  and  the 
case  ia  complicated 
by  the  circumatauce 
that  there  ia  in  the 
6eld  another  type  of 
text,  represented  by 
the  oldest  known 
MS.,  the  Oxford  Hat^ 
ton  MS.  42,  and  t? 
other  very  early  au- 
thorities, whicfi  c«y 
tainly  was  the  tort 
moat  widely  diffuoed 
in  ilie  seventh  and 
eighth  centuries. 
Wheiber  this  text 
a-as  St.  Benedict's 
first  recension  and 
the  "autograph"  his 

whether  the  former 
is  but  a  corrupted 
form  of  the  latter,  is 

jtill  imder  debute 
though  the  majoT' 
ity  of  critics  lean 
towards  the  second 
alternative.  In  ^ 
ther  case,  however 


f  the  "autograph"  is  the  one  to  be  adoT>l«d. 
.,  from  the  tenth  century  onwards,  and  the 


the  text  of  the  " 
The  MS3., 

ordinary  printed  editions,  give  mixed  texts,  made  up 
out  of  the  two  earliest  types.  Thus  the  text  in  cur- 
rent use  is  critically  a  bad  one,  but  very  few  of  the 
readings  make  any  substantial  difference.  I 

The  Rule  was  written  in  the  Liitgua  Vvigarit  or 
Low  Latin  vernacular  of  the  time,  and  contains  much 
Evntax  and  orthography  not  in  conformance  with 
classical  models.  There  is  aa  yet  no  edition  of  the 
Rule  that  satisfies  the  requirements  of  modern 
criticism,  though  one  is  in  process  of  prepBiation  for 
the  Vienna  "Corpus"  of  Latin  Eccleaiaatical  writciK 


BXVEDIOT  437  BBNEDIOT 

k  sufficiently  goo4  manual  edition  was  published  what  other  ascetical  practices  they  chose.    And,  in 

by  Dom  Edmund  Schmidt,  of  Metten,  at  Ratisbon  in  both,  the  prevailing  iaea  was  that  they  were  spiritual 

1892,  presenting  in  substance  the  text  of  the  St.  Gall  athletes,  and  as  such  they  rivalled  each  other  in 

iSS^  with  the  Low  Latin  element  eliminated.  austerity.    Syrian  and  strictly  Oriental  monasticism 

Tne  number  of  commentators  on  the  Rule  is  l^on.  need  not  be  considered  here,  as  it  had  no  direct  in- 

Calmet  gives  a  list  of  over  one  hundred  and  thirty  such  fluence  on  that  of  Europe.    When  St.  Basil  (fourt)i 

writers,  and  Ziegelbauer  gives  a  similar  list.     The  century)  organized  Greek  monasticism,  he  set  himself 

earliest  commentary,  in  point  of  date,  is  that  which  against  the  eremitical  life  and  insisted  upon  a  com- 

has  been  variously  ascribed  to  Paul  Wamef rid  (a  monk  mimity  life,  with  meals,  work,  and  prayer,  all  in 

of  Monte  Cassino  about  780-799),  Hildemar,  Ruthard  common.    With  him  the  practice  of  austerity,  unlike 

of  Hirsau,  and  others.     Hildemar.  a  Gallic  monk,  that  of  the  Egyptians,  was  to  be  subject  to  the 

brought  to  Italy  by  Angelbert,  Archbishop  of  Milan,  control  of  the  superior,  for  he  considered  that  to 

reformed  the  monastery  of  Sts.  Faustinus  and  Jovita  wear  out  the  body  by  austerities  so  as  to  make  it 

at  Brescia  and  died  in  840.    Mart^ne,  who  considered  unfit  for  work,  was  a  misconception  of  the  Scriptural 

this  commentary   to   be   the   best  ever  produced,  precept  of  penance  and  mortification.     His  iaea  of 

maintained  that  Hildemar  was  its  real  author,  but  the  monastic  life  was  the  result  of  the  contact  of 

modem    critics    attribute    it    to    Paul    Wamefrid.  primitive  ideas,  as  existing  in  Egypt  and  the  East, 

Amongst  other  commentators  the  following  deserve  with  European  culture  ana  modes  of  thought. 

mention:  St.   Hildegarde   (d.   1178),  the  foundress        Monasticism    came    into  Western    Europe    from 

and  first  Abbess  of  Mount  St.  Rupert,  near  Binsen  Egypt.     In  Italy,  as  also  in  Gaul,  it  was  chiefly 

on  the  Rhine,  who  held  that  St.  Benedict's  proni-  Antonian  in  character,  though  both  the  rules  of 

bition  of  flesh-meat  did  not  include  that  of  oirds;  St.  Basil  and  St.  Pachomius  were  translated  into 

Bernard,  Abbot  of  Monte  Cassino,  formerly  of  L^ns  Latin  and  doubtless  made  their  influence  felt.     As 

and  afterwards  a  cardinal  (d.  1282);  Turrecremata  far  as  we  know,  each  monastery  had  practically  its 

(Torquemada)    a    Dominican    (1468):    Trithemius.  own  rule,  and  we  have  examples  of  this  irresponsible 

Abbot  of  Sponheim   (1516);   Perez,  Archbishop  of  form  of  monastic  life  in  the  community  which  St. 

Tarragona  and  Superior-General  of  the  congregation  Benedict  was  called  from  his  cave  to  govern,  and  in 

of  ValladoHd;  Haeften,  Prior  of  Afflighem  (1648);  the  Gyrovagi  and  Sarabaitas  whom  he  mentions  in 

Stengel,  Abbot  of  Anhausen   (1663);  Mdge  (1691)  terms  of  condemnation  in  the  first  chapter  of  his  Rule. 

and  Mart^ne,  (1739),  Maurists*   Calmet,  Abbot  of  A  proof  that  the  pervading  spirit  of  Italian  monach- 

Senones  (1757);  and  Mabillon  (1707),  who  discusses  ism  was  Eg^tian  lies  in  t^  fuct  that  when  St.  Bene- 

at  length  several  portions  of  the  Rule  in  his  Prefaces  diet  determined  to  forsake  the  world  and  become  a 

to  the  different  volumes  of  the  ''Acta  Sanctorum  monk,  he  adopted,  almost  as  a  matter  of  course, 

O.  S.  B."  the  life  of  a  solitary  in  a  cave.    His  familiarity  with 

It  is  impossible  to  gauge  the  comparative  value  the  rules  and  other  documents  bearing  upon  the  life 

of  these  and  other  commentaries,  because  the  dif-  of  the  Egyptian  monks  is  shown  by  his  legislating  for 

ferent  authors  treat  the  Rule  from  different  points  the  daily  reading  of  the  "CJonferences"  of  Cassian, 

of  view.    That  of  Calmet  is  perhaps  the  most  literal  and  by  his  recommendation  (c.  Ixxiii)  of  the  "  In- 

and  is  exhaustive  on  many  important  points;  those  6titut€»"  and  ''Lives"  of  the  Fathers  an(}  the  Rule 

of  Martdne  and  Haeften  are  mines  of  information  of  St.  Basil. 

regarding  monastic  tradition;  Perez  and  M^e  are        When,  therefore,  St.  Benedict  came  to  write  his 

practical   and  pious,   though   the   latter  has   been  own  Rule  for  the  monasteries  he  had  founded,  he 

considered  lax  in  many  of  the  views  maintained;  embodied  in  it  the  result  of  his  own  mature  ex- 

that  of  Tiurecremata  is  useful  as  treating  the  Rule  perience  and  observation.    He  had  himself  lived  the 

from  the  standpoint  of  moral  theology;  and  others  life  of  a  solitary  after  the  most  extreme  Egyptian 

give   mystical   mterpretations  of  its  contents.     It  pattern,  and  in  his  first  communities  he  had  no 

may  here  be  pointed  out  that  in  studjring  the  Rule  doubt    thoroughly    tested    the    prevailing   type   of 

as  a  practical  code  of  monastic  legislation,  it  is  nee-  monastic  rule.     Being  fully  cognizant,  therefore,  of 

essary  to  remember  that  in  order  to  facilitate  uni-  the  unsuitability  of  much  in  tne  Egyptian  S3rstems 

formity  of  observance,  each  congregation  of  the  order  to  the  times  and  circiunstances  in  which  he  lived, 

has  also  its  own  Constitutions,  approved  by  the  Holy  he  now  struck  out  on  a  new  line,  and  instead  of  at- 

See,  by  which  are  regulated  many  matters  of  detail  not  tempting  to  revivify  the  old  forms  of  asceticism,  he 

touched  upon  in  the  Rule  itself.  consolidated   the   cenobitical   life,   emphasized   the 

Before  proceeding  to  analyze  St.  Benedict's  Rule  family  spirit,  and  discouraged  all  private  venture  in 

and  to  discuss  its  leading  characteristics,  something  austerities.     His  Rule  thus  consists  of  a  carefully 

must  be  said  about  the  monasticism  that  preceded  considered  combination  of  old  and  new  ideas;  rivalry 

his  times,  and  out  of  which  his  system  grew,  in  order  in  austerity  was  eliminated,  and  there  was  to  be 

that  some  idea  may  be  gained  as  to  how  much  of  henceforth  a  sinking  of  the  individual  in  the  com- 

the  Rule  was  borrowed  from  his  precursors  and  how  munity.    In  adapting  a  system  essentially  Eastern, 

much  was  due  to  his  own  initiative.    Such  considera-  to  Western  conditions,  St.  Benedict  gave  it  coherence, 

tions  are  important  because  there  is  no  doubt  what-  stability,  and  oi^nization,  and  the  verdict  of  historv 

ever  that  the  introduction  and  propagation  of  St.  is  unanimous   in   applauding  the  results  of  such 

Benedict's  Rule  was  the  turning-point  which  changed  adaptation. 

the  whole  trend  of  monasticism  in  the  West.  II.  Analysis  of  the  Rule. — Of  the  seventy-three 

The  earliest  forms  of  Christian  monachism  'were  chapters  comprising  the  Rule,  nine   treat  of  the 

characterized   by  their  extreme  austerity  and   by  duties  of  the  abbot,  thirteen  regulate  the  worship 

their  more  or  less  eremitical  nature.    In  Egypt  the  of  God,  twenty-nine  are  concerned  with  discipline 

followers   of  St.   Anthony  were  purely  eremitical,  and  the  penal  code,  ten  refer  to  the  internal  admin- 

whilst  those  who  followed  the  Rule  of  St.  Pachomius,  istration  of  the  monastery,  and  the  remaining  twelve 

though    they  more   nearly    approached   the  ceno-  consist  of  miscellaneous  regulations, 
bitical    ideal,   were   yet    without   that   element   of        The   Rule  opens   with  a  prologue  or  hortatory 

stability   insisted  upon  by  St.   Benedict,  viz:  the  preface,  in  which  St.  Benedict  sets  forth  the  main 

'•common  life"  ana  family  spirit.     Under  the  An-  principles  of  the  religious  life,  viz.:  the  renunciation 

Ionian   system  the  austenties  of  the  monks  were  of  one's  own  will  and  the  taking  up  of  arms  under 

left   entirely    to   their   own   discretion;    under   the  the  banner  of  Christ.     He  proposes  to  establish  a 

Pachonuan,  though  there  was  an  obligatory  rule  of  "school"  in  which  the  science  of  salvation  shall  be 

limited  severity,  the  monks  were  free  to  add  to  it  taught,  so  that  by  persevering  in  the  monasteiy  till 

n.--28 


BXNKDIOT  438  BmriDIOT 

death  his  disciples  may  "deserve  to  become  par-  Ch.  xxxviii  prescribes  reading  aloud  during  meals, 
takers  of   Christ's  kingdom".    In  chapter  i  are  de-  which  duty  is  to  be  performed  fysuch  of  the  brethren, 
fined  the  four  principal  Kinds  of  monks:  (1)  Cenobites,  week  by  week,  as  can  do  so  with  edification  to  the 
those  living  m  a  monastery  under  an  abbot;   (2)  rest.     Signs  are  to  be  used  for  whatever  may  be 
Anchorites,  or  hermits,  living  a  solitary  life  after  wanted  at  meals,  so  that  no  voice  shall  interrupt  that 
long  probation  in  the  monastery;    (3)   Sarabaites,  of  the  reader.    The  reader  is  to  have  his  meal  with 
living  by  twos  and  threes  together,  without  any  the  servers  after  the  rest  have  finished,  but  he  is 
fixed   nue   or   lawfully   constituted    superior;    and  allowed  a  little  food  beforehand  in  order  to  lessen 
(4)  Gyrovagi,  a  species  of  monastic  vagrants,  whose  the  fatigue  of  reading.     Ch.  xxxix  and  xl  regulate 
lives,  spent  in  wandering    from  one  monastery  to  the  quantitv  and  quality  of  the  food.    Two  meals 
another,  only  served  to  bring  discredit  on  the  mo-  a  day  are  allowed  and  two  dishes  of  cooked  food  at 
nastic  profession.    It  is  for  the  first  of  these  classy,  each.    A  pound  of  bread  also  and  a  hemina  probably 
as  the  most  stable  kind,  that  this  Rule  is  written,  about  half  a  pint)  of  wine  for  each  monk.    Flesb- 
Ch.  ii  describes  the  necessary  (qualifications  for  an  meat  is  prohibited  except  for  the  sick  and  the  weak, 
abbot  and  forbids  him  to  make  distinction  of  persons  and  it  is  to  be  always  within  the  abbot's  power  to 
in  the  monastery  except  for  particular  merit,  warning  increase  the  daily  allowance  when  he  sees  fit.    Ch.  xli 
him  at  the  same  time  that  he  will  be  answerable  for  prescribes  the  hours  of  the  meals,  which  are  to  vary 
the  salvation  of  the  souls  committed  to  his  care,  according  to  the  time  of  year.    Ch.  xlii  enjoins  im 
Ch.  iii  ordains  the  calling  of  the  brethren  to  council  reading  of  the  "Conferences"  of  Cassian  or  soine 
upon  all  affairs  of  importance  to  the  community,  other  edifying  book  in  the  evening  before  Compline 
ch.  iv  summarizes  the  duties  of  the  Christian  life  and  orders  that  after  Compline  the. strictest  ailenoe 
under  seventy-two  precepts,  which  are  called  the  shall    be    observed    until    the    following    morning. 
"Instnunents    of    good    works"    and    are    mainly  Ch.  xliii-xlvi  relate  to  minor  faults,  such  as  coming 
Scriptural  either  in  letter  or  spirit.    Ch.  v  prescribe  late  to  prayer  or  meals,  and  impose  various  penalties 
prompt,   cheerful,   and   absolute   obedience   to   the  for  such  transgressions.  Ch.  xlvii  enjoins  on  the  abbot 
supenor  in  all  things  lawful,  which  obedience  is  called  the  duty  of  calling  the  brethren  to  the  "work  of 
the  first  d^ee  of  humility.    Ch.  vi  deals  with  silence,  God"  in  choir,  ana  of  appointing  those  who  are  to 
recommending   moderation    in   the   use   of   speech,  chant  or  read.    Ch.  xlviii  emphasizes  the  importance 
but  by  no  means  prohibiting  profitable  or  necessarv  of  manual  labour  and  arranges  the  time  to  be  de- 
conversation.     Ch.    vii    treats   of   humility,    which  voted  to  it  daily.    This  varies  according  to  the  season, 
virtue  is  divided  into  twelve  d^ees  or  steps  in  the  but   is  apparently  to  be  never  less  than  about  five 
ladder  that  leads  to  heaven.    They  are:  (1)  fear  of  hours  a  day.    The  times  at  which  the  lesser  of  the 
God;  (2)  repression  of  self-will;  (3)  submission  of  the  "day-hours"   (Prime,  Terce,  Sext,  and  N^ne)  are 
will  to  superiors;  (4)  obedience  in  hard  and  difficult  to  be  recited  control  the  hours  of  labour  somewhat, 
matters;  (5)  confession  of  faults;  (6)     uotuiuwi^lg-  and  the  abbot  is  instructed  not  only  to  see  that  all 
ment  of  one's  own  worthlessness;  (7)  preference  of  work,  but  also  that  the  employments  of  each  are 
others  to  self;  (8)  avoidance  of  sin^larity;  (9)  speak-  suited  to  their  respective  capacities.    Ch.  xlix  treats 
ing  only  in  due  season;   (10)  stifling  of  unseemly  of  the  observance  of  Lent,  and  recommends  some 
laughter-  (11)  repression,  of  pride;  (l2)  exterior  hu-  voluntary  self-denial  for  that  season,  with  the  abbot's 
raility.    Vh.  ix-xix  are  occupied  with  the  regulation  sanction.    Ch.  1  and  li  contain  rules  for  monks  who 
of  the  Divine  Office,  the  opu8  Dei  to  which  "nothing  are  working  in  the  fields  or  travelling.     They  are 
is  to  be  preferred",  or  Canonical  Hours,  seven  of  directed  to  join  in  spirit,  as  far  as  possible,  with  their 
the  day  and  one  of  the  night.    Detailed  arrangements  brethren  in  the  monastery  at  the  regular  hours  of 
are  made  as  to  the  numto*  of  Psalms,  etc.,  to  be  re-  prayers.    Ch.  Iii  commandis  that  the  oratory  be  used 
cited  in  winter  and  summer,  on   Sundays,   week-  for  purposes  of  devotion  only.    Ch.  liii  is  concerned 
days,  Holy  Days,  and  at  other  times.    Ch.  xix  em-  with  the  treatment  of  guests,  who  are  "never  wanting 
phasizes  tne  reverence  due  to  the  presence  of  God.  in  a  monastery"  and  who  are  to  be  received  "as 
Ch.  XX  directs  that  prayer  in  common  is  to  be  short.  Christ  Himself".    This  Benedictine  hospitality  is  a 
Ch.  xxi  provides  for  the  appointment  of  deans  over  feature  which  has  in  all  ages  been  characteristic  of 
every  ten  monks,  and  prescribes  the  manner  in  which  the  order.   The  guests  are  to  be  met  with  due  courtesy 
they  are  to  be  chosen.    Ch.  xxii  regulates  all  matters  by  the  abbot  or  his  deputy,  and  during  their  stay 
relating  to  the  dormitory,  as,  for  example,  that  each  they  are  to  be  under  the  special  care  of  a  monk  ap- 
monk  IS  to  have  a  separate  bed  and  is  to  sleep  in  pointed  for  the  purpose,  but  they  are  not  to  associate 
his  habit,  so  as  to  be  ready  to  rise  without  delay,  with  the  rest  of  tne  community  except  by  special 
and  that  a  light  shall  bum  in  the  dormitory  through-  permission.     Ch.  liv  forbids  the  monks  to  receive 
out   the  night.     Ch.   xxiii-xxx  deal  with  offences  fetters  or  gifts  without  the  abbot's  leave.     Ch.  Iv 
against  the  Rule  and  a  graduated  scale  of  penalties  regulates  the  clothing  of  the  monks.     It  is  to  be 
is  provided:  first,  private  admonition;  next,  public  sufficient  in  both  quantity  and  quality  and  to  be 
reproof;  then  separation  from  the  brethren  at  meals  suited  to  the  climate  and  locality,  according  to  the 
and  elsewhere;  tnen  scourging;  and  finally  expulsion;  discretion  of  the  abbot,  but  at  the  same  time  it  must 
though  this  last  is  not  to  be  resorted  to  until  every  be  as  plain  and  cheap  as  is  consistent  with   due 
effort  to  reclaim  the  offender  has  failed.    And  even  economy.     Each  monk  is  to  have  a  change  o#  mtf»- 
in  this  last  case,  tlie  outcast  must  be  received  again,  ments,  to  allow  for  washing,  and  when  travelling 
should  he  so  desire,  but  after  the  third  expulsion  shall  be  supplied  with  clothes  pf  rather  better  quality, 
all  return  is  finally  barred.    Ch.  xxxi  and  xxxii  order  The  old  haoits  are  to  be  put  aside  for  the   poor. 
the  appointment  of  a  cellarer  and  other  officials,  to  Ch.  Ivi  directs  that  the  abbot  shall  take  his  meals 
take  charge  of  the  various  goods  of  the  monastery,  with  the  guests.     Ch.  Ivii  enjoins  humility  on  the 
which  are  to  be  treated  with  as  much  care  as  the  craftsmen  of  the  monastery,  and  if  their  work  is  for 
consecrated  vessels  of  the  altar.     Ch.  xxxiii  forbids  sale,  it  shall  be  rather  below  than  above  the  current 
the  private  possession  of  anything  without  the  leave  trade  price.     Ch.  Iviii  lays  down^  rules  for  the  ad- 
of  the  abbot,  who  is,  however,  lx)und  to  supply  all  mission  of  new  members,  which  is  not  to  be  made 
necessaries.    Ch.  xxxiv  prescribes  a  just  distribution  too  easy.    These  matters  have  since  been  r^ulated 
of  such  things.    Ch.  xxxv  arranges  for  the  service  in  by  the  Church,  but  in  the  main  St.  Benedict's  out- 
the  kitchen  By  all  the  monks  in  turn.    Ch.  xxxvi  and  line  is  adhered  to.     The  postulant  first  spends  a 
xxxvii  order  due  care  for  the  sick,  the  old,  and  the  short  time  as  a  guest;  then  he  is  admitted  to  the 
young.      They    are    to    have    certain    dispensations  novitiate,  where,  under  the  care  of  the  novice-master^ 
from  the  strict  Rule,  chiefly  in  the  matter  of  food,  his  vocation  is  severely  tested;  during  this  time  he 


BUnBDIOT  430  bhixdiot 

is  alwa^i  free  to  depart.    If,  after  twelve  montha'  in  P.  G.,  LXV,  369).    In 'the  matter  of  sleep,  whereas 
probation^  he  still  persevere,  he  may  be  admitted  the  solitaries  of  E^ypt  regarded  its  diminution  as  one 
to  thA  vows  of  Stabilitv,  Conversion  of  Life,  and  of  their  most  valuea  forms  of  austerity,  St.  Benedict 
Obedience,  by  which  he  binds  himself  for  life  to  the  ordered  from  six  to  ei^ht  hours  of  imbroken  sleep 
monasteiy  of  his  profession.     Oh.   lix  allows  the  a  day,  with  the  addition  of  a  siesta  in  summer. 
admisBion  of  boys  to  the  monastery  under  certain  The  Egyptian  monks,  moreover,  frequently  slept 
conditions.    Ch.  Ix  reflates  the  position  of  priests  on  the  hsae  ground,  with  stones  or  mats  for  pillows, 
who  may  desire  to  jom  the  community.    Th^  are  and  often  even  sitting  or  merely  reclining,  as  directed 
charged  with  aetting  an  example  of  humility  to  all,  in  the  Pachomian  Kule,  whilst  Abbot  John  was 
and  can  only  exercise  their  priestly  functions  by  unable  to  mention  without  shame  the  finding  of  a 
permission  of  the  abbot.     Ch.  bd  provides  for  the  blanket  in  a  hermit's  cell  (Cassian,  Coll.  xix,  6). 
reception  of  strange  monks  as  guests,  and  for  their  St.  Benedict,  however,  allowed  not  onlv  a  blanket 
adnussion  if  desirous  of   joining   the   community,  but  also  a  coverlet,  a  mattress,  and  a  pillow  to  each 
Ch.  bdi  empowers  the  abbot  to  choose  certain  of  monk.    This  oompiEtrative  liberality  with  regard  to 
his  monks  for  ordination,  which,  however,  shall  not  the  necessaries  oi   life,  though  plain  and  meagre 
give  them  any  higher  rank  in  the  community,  unless  perhaps,  if  tested  by  modem   notions  of  comfort, 
perchance    they    be    promoted    for   special    merit,  was  far  greater  than  amongst  the  Italian  poor  of 
Ch.  bdii  lays  down  that  precedence  in  the  community  the  sixth  century  or  even  amongst  many  of  the 
shall  be  determined  by  the  date  of  admission,  merit  European  peasantry  at  the  present  day.    St.  Bene- 
of  life,  or  the  appointment  of  the  abbot.    Ch.  Ixiv  diet's  aim  seems  to  have  been  to  keep  the  bodies 
orders  that  the  abbot  be  elected  by  his  monks  and  of  his  monks  in  a  healthy  condition  oy  means  of 
that  he  be  chosen  for  his  charity,  zeal,  and  discretion,  proper  clothing,  sufficient  food,  and  ample  sleep. 
Ch.  Ixv  allows  the  appointment  of  a  provost,  or  so  that  they  mi^ht  thereby  be  more  fit  for  the  due 
prior,  if  need  be,  but  warns  such  a  one  that  he  is  periormance  of  uie  Divine  Office  and  be  freed  from 
to  be  entirely  subject  to  the  abbot  and  may  be  ad-  all  that  distracting  rivalry  in  asceticism  which  has 
monished,    deposed,    or    expelled    for    misconduct,  already  been  mentioned.    There  was,  however,  no 
Ch.  ixvi  provides  for  the  appointment  of  a  porter,  desire  to  lower  the  ideal  or  to   minimize  the  self- 
and  recommends  that  each  monastery  should  be.  sacrifice  that  the  adoption  of  the  monastic  life  en- 
if  possible,  self-contained,  so  as  to  avoid  the  need  tailed,  but  rather  the  intention  of  bringing  it  into 
of  intercourse  with  the  outer  world.    Ch.  Ixvii  gives  line  with  the  altered  circumstances  of  Western  en- 
instructions  as  to  the  behaviour  of  a  monk  who  is  vironment,  which   necessarily  differed   much  from 
sent  on  a  journey.    Ch.  Ixviii  orders  that  all  shall  those  of  Egypt  and  the  East.    The  wisdom  and  skill 
cheerfully  attempt  to  do  whatever  js  commanded  with  which  he  did  this  is  evident  in  every  pase  of  the 
them,  however  hard  it  may  sdem.    Oh.  Ixix  forbids  Rule,  so  much  so  that  Bossuet  was  able  to  caU  it  ''an 
the  monks  to  defend  one  another.    Ch.  Ixx  prohibits  epitome  of  Christianity,  a  learned  and  mysterious 
them  from  striking  one  another.    Oh.  Ixxi  encourages  abridgment  of  all  the  doctrines  of  the  Gospel,  all  the 
the  brethren  to  l^  obedient  not  only  to  the  abbot  institutions  of  the  Fathers,  and  all  the  Counsels  of 
and  his  officials,  but  also  to  one  another.    Oh.  Ixxii  is  a  Perfection ' '. 

brief  exhortation  to  zeal  and  fraternal  charitv;  and  St.  Benedict  perceived  the  necessity  for  a  perma- 
Ch.  Ixxiii  is  an  epilogue  declaring  that  this  Rule  is  nent  and  uniform  rule  of  government  in  place  of 
not  offered  as  an  ideal  of  perfection,  but  merely  as  a  the  arbitrary  and  variable  choice  of  models  fur- 
means  towards  godliness  and  is  intended  chiecy  for  nished  by  the  lives  and  maxims  of  the  Fathers  of 
beginners  in  the  spiritual  life.  the  Desert.  And  so  we  have  the  characteristic  of 
Characteristics  of  the  Rule. — In  considering  the  collectivism,  exhibited  in  his  insistence  on  the  corn- 
leading  characteristics  of  this  Holy  Rule,  the  first  mon  life,  as  opposed  to  the  individualism  of  the 
that  must  strike  the  reader  is  its  wonderful  discretion  Egyptian  monks.  One  of  the  objects  he  had  in  view 
and  moderation,  its  extreme  reasonableness,  and  its  in  writing  his  Rule  was  the  extirpation  of  the  Sara- 
keen  insight  into  the  capabilities  as  well  as  the  baites  and  Gyrovagi,  whom  he  so  strongly  condemns 
weaknesses  of  human  nature.  Here  are  no  excesses,  in  his  first  chapter  and  of  whose  evil  lives  he  had 
no  extraordinary  asceticism,  no  narrow-mindedness,  probsibly  had  painful  experience  during  his  early 
but  rather  a  series  of  sober  regulations  based  upon  days  at  Subiaco.  To  further  this  aim  he  introduced 
sound  conunon-sense.  We  see  these  qualities  dis-  the  vow  of  Stability,  which  became  the  guarantee 
played  in  the  deliberate  elimination  of  austerities  of  success  and  permanence.  It  is  only  another 
and  in  concessions  made  with  regard  to  what  the  example  of  the  family  idea  that  pervades  the  entire 
monks  of  Egypt  would  have  lookea  upon  as  luxuries.  Rule,  by  means  of  which  the  members  of  the  com- 
A  few  comparisons  between  the  customs  of  these  munity  are  bound  together  by  a  family  tie,  and  each 
latter  and  the  prescriptions  of  St.  Benedict's  Rule  takes  upon  himself  tne  obligation  of  persevering  in 
will  serve  to  bring  out  more  clearly  the  extent  of  his  monastery  until  death,  unless  sent  elsewhere  by 
his  changes  in  this  direction.  his  superiors.  It  secures  to  the  community  as  a 
With  regard  to  food,  the  E^ptian  ascetics  reduced  whole,  and  to  every  member  of  it  individually,  a 
it  to  a  minimum,  many  of  l^em  eating  only  twice  share  in  all  the  fruits  that  may  arise  from  the  labours 
or  thrice  in  the  week,  whilst  Cassian  describes  a  meal  of  each  monk,  and  it  eives  to  each  of  them  that 
consisting  of  parched  vetches  with  salt  and  oil,  strength  and  vitality  which  necessarily  result  from 
three  olives,  two  primes,  and  a  fig,  as  a  ''sumptuous  being  one  of  a  imited  family,  all  bound  in  a  similar 
repast"  (Coll.  viii,  1).  St.  Benedict,  on  the  other  way  and  all  pursuing  the  same  end.  Thus,  whatever 
hand,  though  he  restricts  the  use  of  flesh-meat  to  the  monk  does,  he  does  it  not  as  an  independent 
the  sick,  orders  a  pound  of  bread  daily  and  two  dishes  individual  but  as  part  of  a  larger  organization,  and 
of  cooked  food  at  each  meal,  of  which  there  were  the  community  itself  thus  becomes  one  imited  whole 
two  in  summer  and  one  in  winter.  And  he  concedes  rather  than  a  mere  agglomeration  of  independent 
also  an  allowance  of  wine,  thoush  admitting  that  it  members.  The  Vow  ofCon  version  of  Life  Indicates 
should  not  properiy  be  the  drink  of  monks  (Oh.  xl).  the  personal  striving  after  perfection  that  must  be 
As  to  clothing,  St.  Benedict's  provision  that  habits  the  aim  of  every  Benedictine  monk.  All  the  legis- 
were  to  fit,  to  be  sufficiently  warm,  and  not  too  old,  lation  of  the  Rule,  the  constant  repressfon  of  self, 
*as  in  great  contrast  to  the  poverty  of  the  Egyptian  the  conforming  of  one's  every  action  to  a  definite 
monks,  whose  clothes.  Abbot  Pambo  laid  aown,  standard,  and  the  continuance  of  this  form  of  life 
should  be  so  poor  that  if  left  on  the  road  no  one  to  the  end  of  one's  days,  is  directed  towards  "putting 
vould  be  tempted  to  take  them  (Apophthegmata,  off  the  old  man  and  putting  on  the  new",  and  thereby 


BiNKDurr  440 


<  I  -ii^ 


accomplishing  that  oonversio    morwn  which  iB  inr  elasticity  its  principles  still  remain  the  same,  and  H 
separable  from  a  life-long  perseverance  in  the  maxinns  has  formed  the  fmidamental  basis  of  a  ^reat  variety 
of  the  Rule.     The  practice  of  obedience  is  a  neo-  of  other  religious  bodies.  "It  has  mented  the  en- 
essar^  feature  in  St.  Benedict's  idea  of  the  religious  comiums  of  councils,  popes,  and  conunentators,  and 
life,  if  not  indeed  its  very  essence.     Not  only  is  a  its  vitality  is  as  vigorous  at  the  present  time  as  it 
special  chapter  of  the  Rule  devoted  to  it,  but  it  is  was  in  the  ages  of  udth.    Though  it  was  no  part  of 
repeatedly  referred  to  as  a  guiding  principle  in  the  St.  Benedict^  design  that  his  spiritual  descendant* 
life  of  the  monk;  so  essential  is  it  that  it  is  the  sub-  should  make  a  figure  m  the  wcn'ld  as  authors  oi 
ject  of  a  special  vow  in  every  religious  institute,  statesmen,   as   preservers   of   pagan   literature,  a& 
Benedictine  or  otherwise.     In  St.  Benedict's  eyes  pioneers  df  civilization,  as  revivers  of  agriculture,  oi 
it  is  one  of  the  positive  works  to  which  the  monk  as  builders  of  castles*  and  cathedrals,  yet  circum* 
binds  himself,  for  tie  calls  it /d&oro&edien^io?  (Prologue),  stances  brought  them  into  all  these  spheres.    His 
It  is  to'  be  cneerful,  unquestioning,  and  prompt;  to  sole  idea  was  the  moral  and  spiritual  training  of  ius 
the  abbot  chiefly,  who  is  to  be  ob^ed  as  nolding  the  disciples,  and  yet  in  carrying  this  out  he  made  the 
place  of  Christ,  and  also  to  all  the  brethren  according  cloister  a  school  of  useful  workers,  a  real  rdfuge  for 
to  the  dictates  of  fraternal  charity,  as  being  "the  society,  and  a  solid  bulwark  of  the  Church  (Dudden. 
path  that  leads  to  God"  (Ch.  Ixxi).    It  is  lOcewise  Gtegory  the  Great.  II,  ix).    The  Rule,  instead  of 
■extended  to  hard  and  even  impossible  things,  the  restricting  the  monk  to  one  particular  form  of  work, 
'attcr  being  at  least  attempted  m  all  humility.    In  makes  it  possible  for  him  to  do  almost  any  kind  of 
connexion  with  the  question  of  obedience  there  is  the  work,  and  that  in  a  manner  spiritualized  and  de- 
further  question  as  to  the  system  of  government  vatea  above  the  labour  of  merely  secular  craftsmen, 
embodied  in  the  Rule.    The  fife  of  the  community  In  this  lies  one  of  the  secrets  of  its  success, 
centres  round  the  abbot  as  the  father  of  the  famili^.        The  results  of  the  fulfilment  of  the  precepts  of 
Much  latitude  with  regard  to  details  is  left  to  ms  the  Rule  are  abundantly  apparent  in  history.    That 
''discretion  and  judgment",  but  this  power,  so  far  of  manual  labour,  for  instance,  which  St.  Benedict 
from  being  absolute  or  unlimited,  is  safeguarded  by  laid  down  as  absolutely  essential  for  his  monks, 
the   obligation   laid   upon   him   of   consulting   the  produced   many   of    those    architectural    triumphs 
brethren — either  the  seniors  only  or  else  the  entire  which  are  the  glory  of  the  Christian  woiid.    Many 
community — upon  all  matters  affecting  their  welfare,  cathedrals    (especially   in    England),    abbeys,   and 
And  on  the  other  hand,  wherever  there  se^ns  to  churches,  scattered  up  and  down  tne  countries  of 
be  a  certain  amount  of  liberty  left  to  the  monks  Western   Europe,   were   the   work   of   Benedictine 
themselves,  this,  in  turn,  is  protected  against  in*  builders  and  architects.    The  cultivation  of  the  soil, 
discretion  by  the  repeated  insistence  on  the  necessity  encouraged  by  St.  Benedict,  was  another  form  of 
for  the  abbot's  sanction  and  approval.     The  vows  labour  U>  which  his  followers  gave  thems^ves  with- 
of  Poverty  and  Chastity,  though  not  explicitly  men-  out  reserve  and  with  conspicuous  success,  so  that 
tioned  by  St.   Benedict,  as  in  the  rules  of  other  many  regions  have  owed  much  of  their  agricultural 
orders,  are  yet  implied  so  clearly  as  to  form  an  indis-  prosperi^  to  the  skilful  husbandry  of  the  sons  of 
putable  and  essential  part  of  the  life  for  which  he  St.  Baiedict.    The  hours  ordered  b^  the  Rule  to  be 
legislates.     Thus  by  means  of  the  vows  and  the  devoted  daily  to  systematic  reading  and  study,  have 
practice  of  the  various  virtues  necessary  to  their  given  to  the  world  many  of  the  foremost  scholars 
proper  observance,  it  will  be  seen  that  St.  Benedict's  and  writers,  so  that  the  term  ''Benedictine  erudition" 
Kule  contains  not  merely  a  series  of  laws  regulation  has  been  for  long  centuries  a  byword  indicative  of 
the  external  details  of  monastic  life,  but  also  au  the  learning  and  laborious  research  fostered  in  the 
the  principles  of  perfection  according  to  the  Evan-  Benedictine  cloister.    The  regulations  regarding  the 
gelical  Counsels.  reception  and  education  of  children,  moreover,  were 

With  regard  to  the  obligation  or  binding  power  the  germ  from  which  sprang  up  a  ^reat  number  of 

of  the  Rule,  we  must  distinguish  between  the  stat-  famous   monastic   schools   and  umversities    which 

utes  or  precepts  and  the  counsels.    By  the  former  flourished  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
would  be  meant  those  laws  which  either  command        It  is  true  that  as  commimities  became  rich  and 

or  prohibit  in  an    absolute    manner,  and  by  the  consequently  less  dependent  upon  their  own  labours 

latter  those  that  are  merely  recommendations.    It  for  support,  the  primitive  fervour  for  the  Rule  di- 

is  generally  held  by  commentators  that  the  precepts  minished,  and  for  this  reason  grave  charges  of  coi^ 

of  the  Rule  bind  only  under  the  penalty  of  venial  ruption  and  absolute  departure  from  monastic  ideals 

sin,  and  the  counsels  not  even  under  that.    Really  have  been  made  against  the  monks.    But,  although 

grave  transgressions  against  the  vows,  on  the  other  it  is  impossible  to  deny  that  the  many  reforms  that 

hand,  would  fall  under  the  category  of  mortal  sins,  were  imtiated  seem  to  give  colour  to  this  view,  it 

It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  in  all  these  cannot  be  admitted  that  the  Benedictine  Institute, 

matters  the  principles  of  moral  theology,  canon  law,  as  a  whole,  ever  became  really  degenerate  or  fell 

the  decisions  of  the  Church,  and  the  regulations  of  away  seriously  from  the  ideal  established   by  its 

the  Constitutions  of  the  different  congregations  must  legislator.    Individual  failures  there  certainly  were, 

be  taken  into  consideration  in  judging  of  any  par-  as  well  as  mitigations  of  rule,  from  time  to  time, 

ticular  case.  but  the  loss  of  fervour  in  one  particular  monastery 

III.  Practical  Working  op  the  Rule. — No  no  more  compromises  all  the  other  monasteries  of 
higher  testimony  as  to  the  inherent  excellencies  of  the  same  country  than  the  faults  of  one  individual 
the  Rule  can  be  adduced  than  the  results  it  has  monk  reflect  necessarily  upon  the  rest  of  the  corn- 
achieved  in  Western  Europe  and  elsewhere;  and  no  munity  to  which  he  belongs.  So,  whilst  admitting 
more  striking  quality  is  exhibited  by  it  than  its  that  the  ri^ur  of  the  Rule  has  varied  at  di£[erent 
adaptability  to  the  ever-changing  reauirements  of  times  and  m  different  places,  we  must,  on  the  other 
time  and  place  since  St.  Benedict's  days.  Its  en-  hsmd,  remember  that  modem  historical  research  has 
during  character  is  the  highest  testimony  to  its  entirely  exonerated  ^e  monastic  body  as  a  whole 
wisdom.  For  fourteen  centuries  it  has  been  the  from  the  charge  of  a  general  departure  from  the 
guiding  light  of  a  numerous  family  of  religious,  men  principles  of  the  Rule  and  a  widespread  eomiptioo 
and  women,  and  it  is  a  living  code  at  the  present  of  either  ideal  or  practice.  Circumstances  have  often 
day,  just  as  it  was  a  thousand  years  a^.  Though  rendered  mitigations  necessary  but  they  have  always 
modined  and  adapted,  from  time  to  time,  to  suit  been  introdu^d  as  such  and  not  as  new  or  better 
the  peculiar  necessities  and  conditions  of  various  interpretations  of  the  Rule  itself.  The  (act  that 
ages  and   countries,   by   reason   of  its   wonderful  the  Benedictines  still  glory  in  their  Rule,  guard  i^ 


BSHHDKITBKUBV 


441 


BlNBDIOn 


with  jealou^.  and  point  to  it  as  the  escemplar  ao* 
oordio^  to  wnich  they  are  endeavouring  to  model 
their  hvee,  is  in  itself  the  strongest  prom  that  they 
are  still  imbued  with  its  spirit,  though  reco^niizing 
its  latitude  of  application  and  its  sSbaptabUity  to 
various  conditions. 

MoNTALEif BERT,  Afotika  of  the  West  (Tr..  London,  1896),  IV; 
TouTi.  Saint  Benedict,  tr.  Woods  (London,  1806);  Dotlk, 
The  Teaching  of  St.  Benedict  (London,  1887);  DtiDDBM,  Or^fory 
tht  Great  (London.  1005):  Butleb  Latmac  Hiatory  of  PaUo' 
diuM,  lotrod.,  XIX  in  Cambridge  Textt  and  Studies  (Cam- 
bridge. 1808)i  Idem,  The  Text  of  SL  Benedict' a  Rule,  in  Down- 
mdeReview,  XVIII,  223;  and  in  Journal  of  Theol.  Studiee,  III. 
458;  Bbssb,  U  Moine  BfnSdictin  (Ucua^,  1808);  Habf-tbn. 
DuquisitioneM  Monaetica  (Antwerp,  1644);  Schmidt,  RegiUa 
StL  Benedicti  (Ratisbon,  1880,  1802);  WOlpflin,  Benedicti 
Regula  Monachorum  (Leipiig,  1805):  Traube,  Textoeechiditts 
der  Regula  S.  Benedicti  (Munich.  1808). 

(ToMMENTARiEs. — Warnefrid  (Monte  Cassino.  1880);  MfeoE 
(Paris.  1687);  MARTfeNE  (Paris.  1600).  also  in  P.  L.,  LXVI; 
CALMifT  (Paris,  1734);  Mabillon,  Prefaoea  to  Acta  Sanctorum 
O.S.  B.  (Venice.  1733). 

English  Transi^tions  of  Rule. — Anontmous  (Rams- 
gate.  1872;  Rome.  1805);  Doyle,  ed.  (London,  1875);  Ver- 
HBTEN  (Atchison.  Kansas,  1006);  Huntbr-Blair  (Fort 
Augustus,  Scotland,   1006). 

G.  Cyprian  Alston. 

Benedictbeum,  Abbey  of,  situated  in  the  Bava- 
nan  Alps,  about  thirt^r  miles  south  of  Munich.     It 
was  formerly  in  the  Diocese  of  Augsburg,  but  some 
writers,    including     MabiUon,    have    wrongly    des- 
cribed it  as  having  been  in  that  of  Freising.     The 
name  has  been  variously  spelt  as  Beuren.  Beuem, 
Huron,  Beweren,  Baiem,  Beym,  etc.,  but  that  given 
above  is  the  officially  accepted  spelling  at  the  present 
time.     Tradition,  as  well  as  manuscripts  dating  aa 
far  back  as  the  tenth  centurv,  ascribe  its  foundation, 
in  the  year  740,  to  three  brothers  of  noble  birth, 
named  Lanfrid,  Wulfram,  and  Miland,  acting  under 
the  influence  of  St.  Boniface,  who  was  then  preaching 
the  Faith  in  Bavaria.    The  three  founders,  ea^h  in 
turn,  ruled  the  monastery,  which  in  955   (or  973 
according  to  some  authorities)   was  destroyed  by 
the  Huns,  who  then  ravaeed  the  country.     Restored 
in  969  by  Wolfold,  a  seciuaf  priest,  it  continued  as  a 
college    of   re^lar   clergy,   or   canons,   until    1031. 
Through  the  mfluence  of  the  Emperor  Henry  III, 
the  Benedictine  rule  was  revived  there  in  1031  by 
Abbot  Ellinger  and  eleven  monks  from  the  neigh- 
bouring Abbey  of  Teeernsee. 

Under  the  next  abbot,  Gothelm,  the  famous 
monastic  school  was  established.  The  abbey  aJso 
became  a  great  place  of  pilgrimage  and  the  scene  of 
many  miracles,  by  reason  of  the  relics  of  St.  Anas- 
tasia  which  were  brought  thither  in  1053.  Through- 
out the  Middle  A^  it  continued  to  flourish  as  a  home 
of  learning  and  piety.  Many  privileges  were  granted 
by  different  popes,  and  several  of  the  emperors 
honoured  it  with  their  favour  and  their  visits.  The 
Abbots  Ortolph  U  (1271-84)  and  Henry  III  (1284- 
89)  were  made  Princes  of  the  Empire  by  Rudolph 
of  HapBburg.  The  abbey  was  foiu-  times  burnt 
down,  vis:  in  1248, 1377, 1378,  and  1490,  and  as  often 
rebuilt.  In  1611  its  numbers  were  depleted  by  a 
plague  which  carried  off  many  of  the  monks,  and  it 
also  sufifered  during  the  Swedish  invasion  imder 
Gustavus  Adolphus  and  the  Thirty  Years'  War  in 
the  seventeenth  century.  In  1803  the  abbey  was 
suppressed  by  the  Government  and  the  monks, 
'*  '  r-four  in  number,  dispersed.  The  conventual 
became  successively  a  barracks,  a  military 
and  a  stud-house.  In  1901  Freiherr  von 
KnuneT'Klett,  the  restoyer  of  several  Bavarian  mon- 
asteries, offered  five  and  one-half  million  marks  for 
the  iHX>perty,  but  was  met  by  a  demand  for  twelve 
milliona,  wmoh  he  refused. 

The  library  and  archives  oontfliDed  many  priceless 
moDUseripts  and  charters.  Zi^lbauer  {Hist.  Lit. 
Ofd.  8.B.,  1, 543)  printed  a  catak>gue  of  the  litoury, 
dated  1250,  in  wbich  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty 
books  and  MSS.  are  enumerated.    Mabillon,  who 


visited  the  abbey  in  1683,  and  Bernard  Fez,  librarian 
of  Melk,  who  was  there  in  1717,  have  both  left  on 
record  their  testimony  as  to  the  ^reat  value  of  the 
codices  there  preserved.  At  the  suppression  the 
library  comprised  40,000  volumes.  A  number  of 
these  were  incorporated  with  the  Court  Library  and 
the  remainder  left  to  be  disposed  of  by  the  subsequent 
occupants  of  the  abbey. 

Amongst  the  illustrious  men  produced  by  Benedict- 
beum  the  following  deserve  mention:  Gothelm, 
abbot  1032-62;  founded  the  monastic  school  in  1033. 
Gotschalk,  who  translated  the  relics  of  St.  Anastasia 
to  Beum  in  1053;  the  first  historian  of  the  abbey 
("Breviwium  Gotschalki"  in  Mon.  Germ.  Hist..  IX, 
221).  Dom  Simon  Speer,  martyr;  tortured  and  put 
to  death  by  the  Sweaes  for  refusing  to  surrender  the 
goods  of  the  abbey,  1632.  Magnus,  abbot  1707-40; 
resuscitated  the  school,  1711.  Dom  Carolus  Meichel- 
beck,  'Hhe  Livy  of  Bavaria",  b.  1669;  took  the  habit, 
1687  and  was  librarian  and  archivist  from  1696  till 
his  death  m  1734.  He  taught  philosophy  and  theol- 
ogy and  wrote  various  historical  works,  including 
the  "  History  of  the  Diocese  of  Freising",  the  "Clrnon- 
icon  Benedicto-Buranum",  and  the  ^'Annals  of  the 
Bavarian    Congregation ' '. 

Various  charters,  etc.,  in  Monumenta  Boica  (Munich): 
Yepbs.  Chronicon  Oenerale  O.S.B.  (Yrache,  1009),  III,  87; 
Mabillon,  AnnaUa  OJS.B.  (Paris,  1703-39),  ed.  1736,  II,  114; 
Meichblbbck,  Chronicon  Benedicto-buranum  (BeDedictbeum, 
1752);  KuEN.  CoUectio  Scriptorum  (Ulm,  1.765);  Pertz,  Mon, 
Germ.  Hist.:  Script.  (Hanover,  1851 ),  IX,  210;  Von  Hefner, 
Leietungen  dee  Kloeters  Benediktbeuem,  in  Oberbaierieches 
Archiv,  III,  337;  Rettberg.  Deuiechl.  Kirchenoeech.,  II,  165; 
Daffner,  Oeech.  dee  Kloatert  Benediktbeuren  (Munich.  1893); 
ScHLEQMANN,  Osech,  dcr  SAkulariaation  im  rechterheinischen 
Bayem  (Regensburg,  1903-06). 

G.  Cyprian  Alston. 

Benedict  Biscop,  Saint,  an  English  monastic 
founder,  b.  of  a  noble  Anglo-Saxon  family,  c.  628; 
d.  12  Januarv,  690.  He  spent  his  youth  at  the  court 
of  the  Northumbrian  King  Oswy.  When  twenty- 
five  years  old,  he  made  the  first  of  his  five  pilgrimages 
to  Rome.  On  his  return  to  England,  Benedict  in- 
troduced, wherever  he  could,  the  rehgious  rites  as 
he  saw  them  practised  in  Rome.  Soon  afterwards 
he  made  a  second  pil^mage  to  Rome,  stopping 
on  his  return  at  L^rins,  in  666,  to  take  the  reli^ous 
habit.  When,  two  vears  later,  he  returned  to  ^me, 
Pope  Vitalian  sent  him  and  the  monk  Adrian  as  ad- 
visers with  Theodore,  the  newly  appointed  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury.  On  their  arrival  in  England, 
Theodore  appointed  Benedict  Abbot  of  St.  ftter's 
at  Canterbury.  After  two  years,  in  671,  he  resigned 
this  office  and  made  another  pilgrima^  to  Rome. 
During  this  and  his  two  succeeding  pSgrimages  to 
the  city  of  the  Apostles  he  collected  numerous 
relics,  books,  and  paintings  for  the  monasteries  of 
Wearmouth  and  Jarrow.  the  former  of  which  he 
founded  in  674,  the  latter  in  682.  He  also  engaged 
Abbot  John,  Arch-cantor  of  St.  Peter's  in  Rome,  to 
teach  Roman  chant  at  these  monasteries.  Benedict 
was  the  first  to  introduce  into  England  the  building 
of  stone  churches  and  the  art  of  making  glass  win- 
dows.   His  festival  is  observed  on  12  February. 

MoNTALEMBERT,Af on^  of  the  West  (Boston),  II,  493;  Hope, 
Conversion  of  the  Teutonic  Race  (London),  I.  400;  Stanton,  A 
Menology  of  England  and  Wales  (London,  1892);  Allies,  Hist, 
of  the  Church  vn  England  (London,  1892),  I,  59;  Mabillon, 
Ada  SS,  O.  S.  B..  •oec.  //.  His  biography  in  Latin  by  St. 
Bede  is  published  m  P.  L.,  XCIV,  711-734. 

Michael  Ott. 

Benedicti,  Jean,  a  Franciscan  theologian  of  the 
sixteenth  century  belonging  to  the  Observantine 
Province  of  Tours  and  Poitiers.  He  became  in  time 
secretary  of  the  order  and  in  this  capacity  accom- 
mmied  the  minister-general,  Christopher  a  Capite 
Fontium,  throughout  the  whole  of  Europe  in  the 
latter's  canonical  visitation  of  Franciscan  houses. 
Afterwards  he  was  made  commissarv-general  of  the 
French  and  visitor  of  many  Italian  Aovinces,  and  in 


BINSDIOT  4412  BIHEDIOT 

order  to  fulfil  a  vow  went  on  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  order  at  Neuville.    There  he  was  told  that  as  he  was 

Land.    Wadding  says  that'  he  was  a  man  of  most  not  yet  twenty  there  was  no  huriy,  and  that  he  must 

distinguished  parts  and  great  culture,  having  thor-  first  learn  plain-chant  and  logic.     During  the  next 

oughly  mastered  the  leamine  of  his  aay  ana  beinf^  two  years  he  applied  twice  unsuccessfully  tcr  be  re- 

especially  conversant  with  the  Hebrew.  Greek,  ana  ceivcd  at  La  Trappe  and  was  for  six  weeks  as  a  postu- 

Latin   tongues.     In   1599    che  first  eaition   of  his  lant  with   the  Carthusians  at  Neuville;   he   niudly 

"  Somme  des  p^h^  et  le  remdde  d'iceux  comprenant  sought  and  obtained  admission  to  the  Cistercian  Abbey 

tous  les  cas  de  conscience"  was  published  in  Paris  of  Sept-Fonts  in  November,  1769.     After  a  short 

and  was  inmiediately  in  great  demand  among  con-  stay  at  Sept-Fonts  during  which  his  exactness  in 

fessors,  for  we  learn  that  after  having  been  revised,  religious  observance  and  humility  endeared  him  to 

corrected,  and  augmented  by  the  Theological  Faculty  the  whole  community,  his  health  gave  way,  and  it 

of  Paris  it  reached  its  fifteenth  edition.     He  also  was  decided  that  his  vocation  lay  elsewhere.     In 

wrote  "La  triomphante  victoire  de  la  Sainte  Vierge"  accordance  with  a  resolve  formed  during  his  con- 

which  tells  of  a  remarkable  exorcism  in  the  church  valescence  he  then  set  out  for  Rome.    From  Chieri 

of  the  Cordeliers  at  Lyons.     His  remains  were  in-  in  Piedmont  he  wrote  to  his  parents  a  letter  which 

terred  in  the  Friary  at  Laval.  proved  to  be  the  last  they  would  ever  receive  from 

Waddinq.  AfimiZej  muior.  ad  ann„  1696,  IV;  Sbaralba.  him.    In  it  he  informed  them  of  his  design  to  enter 

Supp.  ad  •cnpt.  O.  M,  (Rome,  1806).      ^^  „  some  one  of  the  many  monasteries  in  Italy  noted 

for  their  special  rigour  of  life.    A  short  time,  however, 

Benedict  Joseph  Labre,  Saint,  b.  26  Mareh.  1748,  after  the  letter  was  dispatched  he  seems  to  have  had 

at  Amettes  in  tne  Diocese  of   Boulogne,  France:  an  internal  illuminatibn  which  set  at  rest  forever  any 

d.  in  Rome,  16  April,  1783.     He  was  the  eldest  of  doubts  he  might  have  as  to  what  his  method  of  living 

fifteen  children..    His  parents,  Jean-Bap tiste  Labre  was  vo  be.    He  then  understood  "that  it  was  God's 

and  Anne-Barbe  Grandsire,  belonged  to  the  middle  will  that  like  St.  Alexis  he  should  abandon  his  coun- 

dass  and  so  were  able  to  give  to  their  numerous  off-  try,  his  parents,  and  whatever  is  flattering  in  the  world 

spring  considerable  oi>portuni  ties  in  the  wayof  educa-  to  lead  a  ne.v  sort  of  life,  a  life  most  painful,  most 

tion.    His  early  training  he  received  in  his  native  vil-  penitential,  not  in  a  wilderness  nor  in  a  cloister,  but 

lage  in  a  school  conducted  by  the  vicar  of  the  parish,  m  the  midst  of  the  world,  devoutly  visiting  as  a 

Tneaccountof  this  period  furnished  in  the  life  written  pilgrim  the  famous  places  of  Christian  devotion*', 

by  his  confessor,  Marconi,  and  that  contained  in  the  He  repeatedly  submitted  this  extraordinary  inspira- 

one  compiled  from  the  official  pnx;esses  of  his  beatifica-  tior .  to  the  jud^ent  of  experienced  confessors  and 

tion  are  at  one  in  emphasizing  the  fact  that  he  exhib-  was  told  he  might  safely  conform  to  it.     Through 

ited  a  seriousness  of  thought  and  demeanour  far  be-  the  years  that  followed  he  never  wavered  in  the  con- 

yond  his  years.     Even  at  that  tender  age  he  had  begun  viction  that  this  was  the  path  appointed  for  him  by 

to  show  a  marked  predilection  for  the  spirit  of  mortifi-  God.    He  set  forward  on  his  life's  journey  clad  in  an 

cation,  with  an  aversion  for  the  ordinary  childish  old  coat,  a  rosary  about  his  neck,  anotner  between 

amusements,  and  he  seems  from  the  very  dawning  his  fingers,  his  arms  folded  over  a  crucifix  which  lay 

of  reason  to  have  had  the  liveliest  horror  for  even  upon  his  breast.    In  a  small  wallet  he  carried  a  Tes- 

the  smallest  sin.    All  this  we  are  told  was  coexistent  tament,  a  breviary,  which  it  was  his  wont  to  recite 

with  a  frank  and  open  demeanour  and  a  fund  of  daily,  a  copy  of  the  "Imitation  of  Christ",  and  some 

cheerfulness  which  remained  unabated  to  the  end  other  pious  books.    Clothing  other  than  that  which 

of  his  life.    At  the  age  of  twelve  his  education  was  covert  his  person  he  had  none.     He  slept  on  the 

taken  over  by  his  paternal  uncle,  Francois- Joseph  ground  and   for   the   most   part  in  the  open    air. 

Labre,  cur^  of  Erin,  with  whom  he  then  went  to  live.  For  food  he  was  satisfied  with  a  piece  of  bread  or 

During  the  six  following  years  which  he  spent  under  some  herbs,  frequently  taken  but  once  a  day,  and 

his  uncle's  roof,  he  made  considerable  progress  in  the  either  provided   by  charity  or  gotten   from   some 

study  of  Latin,  history,  etc.  but  found  nimself  unable  refuse  heap.    He  never  asked  for  alms  and  was  anxious 

to  conquer  a  constantly  growing  distaste  for  any  to  give  away  to  the  poor  whatever  he  received  in 

form  of  knowledge  which  did  not  make  directly  for  excess  of  his  scanty  wants. 

union  with  God.    A  love  of  solitude,  a  generous  em-        The  first  seven  of  the  thirteen  remaining  years 

ployment  of  austerities,  and  devotedness  to  his  re-  of  his  life  were  spent  in  pilgrimages  to  the  more 

tigious  exercises  were  discernible  as  distinguishing  famOus  shrines  of  Europe.     He  visited  in  this  way 

features  of  his  life  at  this  time  and  constitute  an  Loreto,   Assisi,    Naples,    Bari,    Fabriano    in    Italy; 

intelligible  prelude  to  his  subsequent  career.    At  the  Einsiedeln   in   Switserland;   Corapostella   in    Spain; 

age  of  sixteen  he  resolved  to  embrace  a  religious  life  Paray-le-Monial  in  France.    The  last  six  years  he 

as  a  Trappist,  but  having  on  the  advice  of  his  uncle  spent  in  Rome,  leaving  it  only  once  a  year  to  visit 

returned  to  Amettes  to  submit  his  design  to  his  the  Holy  House  of  Ix)reto.     His  unremitting  and 

parents  for  their  approval  he  was  unable  to  win  their  ruthless    self-denial,    his    unaffected    humility,    un- 

consent.     He  therefore  resumed  his  sojourn  in  the  hesitating  obedience  and  perfect  spirit  of  union  \iith 

rectory  at  Erin,  redoubling  his  penances  and  exer-  Cjiod  in  prayer  disarmed  suspicion  not  unnaturally 

cises  of  piety  and  in  every  wav  striving  to  make  ready  aroused  as  to  the  genuineness  of  a  Divine  call  to  eo  ex- 

for  the  life  of  complete  self-annihilation  to  which  traordinary  a  way  of  existence.    Literally  worn  out 

the  voice  within  his  soul'  seemed  to  be  calling  him.  by  his  sufferings  and  austerities,  on  the  16th  of  April, 

After  the  heroic  death  of  his  uncle  during  an  epi-  1783,  he  sank  down  on  the  steps  of  the  church  of 

demic  in  September,  1766,  Benedict,  who  had  dedi-  Santa  Maria  dei  Monti  in  Rome  and,  utterly  exhausted, 

cated  himself  during  the  scourge  to  the  service  of  was  carried  to  a  neighbouring  house  where  he  died, 

the  sick  and  dying,  returned  to  Amettes  in  November  His  death  was  followed  by  a  multitude  of  unequivocal 

of  the  same  year.     His  absorbing  thought  at  this  miracles   attributed   to   his  intercession.      The   life 

time  was  still  to  become  a  religious  at  La  Trappe,  and  written  by  his  confessor,  Marconi,  an  English  version 

his  parents  fearing  that  further  opposition  would  of  which  bears  the  date  of  1785,  wit-nesaes  to  136 

be  resistance  to  the  will  of  God  fell  in  with  his  pro-  miraculous  cures  as  having  been  certified  to  up  to 

posal  to  enter  the  cloister.    It  was  suggested,  how-  6  July,  1783.    So  remarkable,  indeed,  was  the  <5im^ 

ever,  by  his  maternal  uncle,  the  Abb6  Vincent,  that  acter  of  the  evidence  for  some  of  the  miracles  that 

application  be  made  to  the  Carthusians  at  Val-Sainte-  they  are  said  to  have  had  no  inconsiderable  part  in 

Aldegonde  rather  than  to  La  Trappe.     Benedict's  finally  determining  the  conversion  of  the  celebrated 

Eetition  at  Val-Sainte-Aldegonde  was  unsuccessful,  American  convert,  Father  John  Thayer,  of  Boston, 

ut  he  was  directed  to  another  monastery  of  the  same  who  was  in  Rome  at  the  time  of  the  saint's  death. 


Benedict  ^na  procl^med  Venerable  by  I^us  IX  in 
1359  uid  canonized  by  Leo  XIII  8  December,  1881. 
Hii  feast  u  kept  on  the  16th  of  April,  the  day  of  hu 

Bin.  Univ.  {Pmia,  1811-28}:  Biog.  Xattt.  C«mpUta 
OUdnd.  I85T);  LUe  of  VtntrtMa  Bmtiitt  Joitik  Ijibn, 
Fnoch  tr..  Bashau  (LoDdon,  1785):  LilKi  At  YmtrabU 
SBvatl  of  Oat,  Bntdiet  Jmtipk  LiXn  (Oimtoiua  Ssriei, 
Lomka,  18S0), 

Joseph  F.  Dxlant, 
BenedlctliM  Ord«r,  The,  oompriBea  monks  liv< 
ing  under  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict,  and  commonly 
known  as  "black  monks".  The  order  will  be  con- 
fidered  in  this  article  under  the  following  sections: 
I.  History  of  the  Order:  II.  Lay  brothers,  Oblatee, 
CDoTrateTB,  and  Nuna;  III.  Influence  and  Work  oE 
the  Order;  IV.  Present  Condition  of  the  Order;  V._ 
Benedictines  of  Special  Distinction:  VI.  Other  Foun-' 
datloDs  Originating  from,  or  Based  upon,  the  Order. 

I.  History  or  the 
Oroer,— The. 


in  a  sense  differing 
somewhat  from  that 
is  which  it  is  applied 
to  other  religious  or- 
deiB.  In  its  ordinary 
meaning  the  term  im- 
plies one  complete 
religious  family,  made 
up  of  a  number  of 
monasteries,  all  of 
which  are  subject  to 
a  common  superior  or 
"generfti"  who  usu- 
ally resides  either  in 

mother-house  of  the 
order,  if  there  be  one. 
It  may  be  divided  into 
various  proviaces,  ac- 
cording to  the  coun- 
triee  over  which  it  is 
^read,  each  provin- 
cial head  being  im- 
mediately subject  to 
the  general,  just  ss 
the  superior  of  each 
bouse  is  subject  to  bia 
own  provincial.  ITjia 
system  of  centralised 
authority  has  never 
entered  into  the  ot^ 
ganiiation  of  the 
Benedictine  Order. 
There  is  no  general 
superior 


(^ty  of  Subiaoo  also  owed  their  oii^  to  him,  and 
that  when  he  was  obliged  to  leave  that  neighbourhood 
he  founded  the  celebrated  Abbey  of  Monte  Cassino, 
which  eventually  became  the  centre  whence  i^a  Rule 
and  institute  spread.    Tbese  fourteen  are  the  only 
monasteries  of  which  there  is  anv  reliable  evidence 
of  ha  vine  been  founded  during  St.  Benedict's  lifetime. 
The  tra»fltion  of  St.  Pladd's  mission  to  Sicily  in  534, 
which  first  gained  general  credence  in  the  eleventh 
ine  by  such  writeri 
luaiv,  ID  nun  generally  admitted 
J.     Very  Uttle  more  can  be  said 
in  favour  of  the  supposed  mtroduction  of  the  Bene- 
dictine Rule  into  Gaul  by  St,  Maurus  in  543,  thougb 
it  also  has  been   strenuously   upheld   by  many  re- 
sponsible writers.     At  any  rate,  evidences  for  it  are 
BO  oKtremely  doubtful  that  it  cannot  be  seriously  re- 
garded as  historical.    There  is  reason  for  believing 
that  it  was  the  third 
Abbot  of   Monte  Cas- 
sino   who   began   to 
Srettd  a  knowledge  of 
B  Rule  beyond  the 
circle  of  St.  Benedict's 
own    foundations.     It 
is  at  least  certain  that 
when    Monte   Cassino 
was  sacked  by  the  Lom- 
bards about  the  year 
£80,  the  monks  fled  to 
Rome,     where    they 
were  housed  by  Pope 
Pelagius  11  in  a  mon- 
astery   adjoining   the 
Lateran  Basilica. 
There,     in    the     very 
cenlre  of  the   ecclesi- 
astical world,    they 
remained  for  upwards 
of  a  himilred  and  forty 

highly  probable  that 
thia    residence    in    so 

prominent  a  potiition 
constituted  an  impor- 


It 

generally  agreed  also 
that  when  Gregory 
the  Great  embraced 
the  monastic  state 
and  converted  his 
family  palace  on  the 


over  the  whole  order 
other  than  the  pope  liimself,  and  the  order  consists, 
■o  to  apeak,  of  what  are  practically  a  number  of  or- 
ders, called  "congregations",  each  of  which  ia 
autonomous;  all  are  united,  not  under  the  obedi- 
ence to  one  general  superior,  but  only  by  the  spiritual 
bond  of  allegiance  to  the  same  Rule,  which  may  be 
modified  according  to  the  circumstances  of  each 
particular  house  or  congregation.  It  is  in  this 
latter  sense  that  the  term  Order  is  applied  in  this 
article  to  all  monasteries  profesmng  to  observe  St, 
Benedict's  Rule. 

Btmnningt  o)  Iht  Order. — St.  Benedict  did  not, 
strictly  spwilring,  found  an  order;  we  have  no  evi- 
dence that  he  ever  contemplated  the  spread  of  his 
Rule  to  any  monasteries  besides  those  which  he  had 
hiniaelf  established.  Subisco  was  his  original  founda~ 
tiMi  and  the  cradle  of  the  institute.  FromSt.  Qregoiy 
we  leant  that  twelve  other  monasteries  in  the  vi- 


monastery    dedicated 

>r  Bmuco  to    8l.    Andrew     the 

Apostle,  it  was    the 

Benedictine  form  of  monachlsm   that  be  adopted 

It  was  from  the  monastery  of  St.  Andrew  in  Rome 

that  St.  Augustine,  the  prior,  and  hia  forty  com- 
panions set  forth  in  595  on  their  mission  for  the 
evangelitation  of  England,  and  with  them  St.  Bene- 
dict's idea  of  tlie  monastic  life  first  emerged  from 
Italy.  'The  argumente  and  authorities  for  this  stat^ 
ment  have  been  admirably  marolialled  and  estimated 
by  Reyner  in  his  "Apoatolatus  Benedict inorum  in 
Anglii"  (Douai,  1626),  and  his  proofs  have  been 
adjudged  by  Mabillon  to  amount  to  demonstration. 
[Of.  Butler,  "Was  St.  Augustine  a  Benedictine?" 
In  Downside  Review,  III  (1884).]    At  their  v     ' 


BanmnmrnB  444  BKnosmm 

having  be«D  gTHdu&Uy  introduoed  into  most  of  tha  BenediotinM,  and  no  lees  than  nioe  of  the  old  cathe- 
chief  manast«riea  of  Ga,ul  during  the  seventh  centuiy.  drals  were  served  bj  the  block  monks  of  the  prioriea 
Urins,  for  instance,  one  of  the  oldest,  which  had  beat  attached  to  them.    Even  when  the  bishop  was  not 
founded  by  St.  Honoratus  in  375,  probably  received  himself  a  monk,  he  held  the  place  of  titular  abbc^ 
its  first  knowledge  of  the  Benedictine  Rule  from  the  and  the  community  formed  his  chapter. 
visit  of  St.  Augustine  and  his  companions  in  506.         GermEaty  owed  its  evangelization  to  the  English 
Dismayed  by  the  account*  they  had  heard  of  the  Benedictines,    SU.    Willibrord    and    Boniface,    who 
ferocity  of  the  English,  the  misaionaries  had  sent  preached  the  Faith  there  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
their  leader  back  to  Rome  to  implore  the  pope  to  centuries   and   founded    several   celebrated   abteys. 
allow  them  to  abandon  the  object  of  their  journey.  Fiom  thence  spread,  hand  in  band,  Christianity  and 
Durinff  his  absence  they  lemamed  at  L£rins.     Not  Benedictine  monasticiam,  Ia  Denmark  and  Sca.ndi- 
long  after  their  departure,  A^gulph,  Abbot  of  Fleurv,  navia,  and  from  the  latter  even  to  Iceland.     la  Spain 
was  called  in  to  restore  the  discipline  and  he  probably  monasteries   had    been    founded   by  the   Visigotbic 
introduced  the  full  Benedictine  observance;  lor  wh^  kings  aa  early  as  the  latter  half  of  the  lifth  century, 
St.  Benedict  Biacop  visited  Urins  later  on  in  the  but   it  was  probably  some  two  or   three   hundrM 
seventh  century  he  received  the  Benedictine  habit  years  later  that  St.  Benedict's  Rule  was  adopted, 
and   tonsure   from   the   hands   of   Abbot   Aygulph.  'Mabillon  gives  640  as  the  dat«  of   its   introduction 
LfrioB  continued  through  several  centuricB  to  supply  into  that  country  (Acta  Sanctorum  0.  S.  B.,  siec,  I, 
from  its   monks   bishops  for  the  chief  churches  of  pnef.  74),  but    nis    conclusions  on    this  point   a:c 
Southern  Gaul,  and  to  them  perhaps  may  be  tiaoed  not   now   generally    accepted.     In    Switzerland  the 
the  general  diffusion  disciples  of   Columbanus   had    founded   monasteries 
of  St.  Benedict's  Rule  early  in  the  seventh  ccntuty,  two  of  the  beat  knotm 
throughout     that  being  St.  Gall's,  establiahed    by  the  saint  of  that 
country.      There,   as  name,  and  Diasentis  (61:2),  founded  bv  St.  Sigisbert. 
also  in  Switzerland.  The  Celtic  rule  was  not  entirely  supplanted  Sy  that 
it   had     to    eontena  of  St.  Benedict  until  more  than   a  hundred  ycais 
with  and  supplement  later,  when  the  change  vas  effected  chiefly  through 
the     much     stricter  the  influence  of  Pepm  the  Short,  the  father  of  Charle- 
Irish  or  Celtic  Rule  ma^e.     Br  the  nmth  cent'jry,  however,  the  Bene- 
introduced     by    St.  dictine  haa  become  the  only  form  of  monastic  life 
Columbanus  and  oth-  throughout  the  whole  of  Western  Europe,  excepting 
ers.      In  some  mon-  Scotland,    Wales,    and    Ireland,    where    the    Celtic 
asteriee  the  two  rules  observance   still   prevailed    for  another   century   or 
wer«   amalgamated,  two.     At  the  time  of  the  Reformation  there  were 
or  practised  side  by  nine  Benedictine  houses  in  Ireland  and  sis  in  Scot- 
side.      Gregory    of  land,  besides  numerous  abbeys  of  Cistercians. 
Tours  says    that  at        Benedictine  monasticism  never  took  such  deep 
Ainay,   in  the   aixth  root  in  the  esstem  countries  of  Europe  as  it  had  done 
century,  the    monks  in  the  West.     The  Bohemians  and  the  Poles,  never- 
"  followed    the   rules  theless,  owed  their  conversion  respectively  to  the 
of   Basil,    Cassian,  Benedictine    missionaries    Adalbert    (d.    997)    and 
CKsarius,  and  other  Casimir  (d,  1058),  whilst  Bavaria  and  what  is  notr 
fathers,   taking    and  the  Austrian  Empire  were  evangelized  first  by  monks 
usingwhatever  seem-  from  Gaul  in  the  seventh  century,  and  later  on  by  St. 
A  BDixDicrm  Mohi            ^  proper  to  the  con-  Boniface  and  his  disciples.    A  few  of  the  larger  abtieys 
ditions   of   time  and  founded  in  these  countries  duricg  the  ninth  and  tenth 
I^aoe".  imd  doubtless   the   satne  liberty  was  taken  centuries  Btill  exist,  but  the  iiuniber  of  foundations 
with  the  Benedictine   Rule  when  it  reached  them,  was*  always  small  in  comparison  with  those  fanlier 
In  other  monasteries  it  entirely  displaced  the  earlier  west.    Into  Lithuania  and  'he  Eastern  Empire  the 
codes,   and    had   by   the   en»f   of  the     eighth    cen-  Benedictine  Rule  never  penetrated  in  early   times, 
tury    BO   completely   superseded   them    throughout  and  the  great  schism  between  East  and  West  efTcctu- 
France    that    Cbarlema^e    could    gravely    doubt  ally  prevented  any  possibilities  of  development  in 
whether  monks  of  any  kind  had  been  possible  before  that  direction. 

St.  Benedict's  time.     The  authority  of  Charlemagne        Early  CorustituUon  of  the  Order. — During  the  first 

and  of  his  son,  Iiouia  the  Pious,  did  much,  as  we  shall  four  or  five  centuries  aft«r  the  death  of  St.  Benedict 

presently  see,  towards  propagating  the  principles  of  there  existed  no  organic  bond  of  union  amongst  the 

the  Father  of  western  monachism.  various  abbe^  other  than  the  Rule  itselif  and  obedi- 

St.  Augustine  and  his  monks  established  the  first  enoe  to  the  Holy  See.    According  to  the  holy-  legia- 

Engllsh  Benedictine  monastery  at  Canterbury  soon  lator's   provisions   each   monastery    constituted    an 

after  their  arrival  in  597.     Other  foundations  quickly  independent     family,     self-contained,     autanomous, 

followed  as  the  Benedictine  missionaries  carried  the  managing  its  own  Mfairs,  and  subject  to  no  external 

Ught  of  the  Gkispel  with  them  throughout  the  length  authority  except  that  of  the  local  diocesan  bishop, 

and  breadth  of  the  land.    It  was  said  that  St.  Bme-  whose  powers  of  control  were,  however,  limited  to 

diet  seemed  to  have  taken  possession  of  the  country  certain   specific  occasions.     The  earliest  departures 

as  his  own,  and  the  history  of  his  onier  in  England  from  this  system  occurred  when  several  of  the  greater 

is  the  history  of  the  English  Church.     Nowhere  did  abbeys  began  sending  out  offshools,  under  the  form 

the  order  link  itaelf  so  intimately  with  people  and  in-  of  daughter-houses  retaining  some  sort  of  depeudence 

stilutions,  secular  as  well  as  religious,  as  in  England,  upon   tiie  mother  abbey  m>m  which   they   Eprang. 

Through  the  influence  of  saintly  men,  Wilfrid.  Bene-  "naa  mode  of  propagation,  together  with  the  various 

diet    Kscop,   and    Dunstan,   tha    Benedictine   Rule  reforms  that  began  to  appear  in  the  eleventh   and 

spread    with    extraordinary    rapidity,    and    in    the  succeeding  centuries,  paved  the  way  for  the  system 

Norl-  ■  "         " -.■-...  .-      -  -.:...         .-.„_,__. 


North,  when  once  the  Esster  controvetBV  had  been  of  independent  congregations,  still  a  feature  peculiar 

settled   and   the   Roman   supremacy   acknowledged  to  the  Benedictine  Order. 

(Synod  of  Whitby,  064),  it  was  adopted  in  most  of  Reforms. — A  system  which  comprised  many  hun- 

■     ■athat'     ■  ■-     -   '— -^ --"— "--  "  •■■        '     ■      ' -  ■ - -..-.- 


the  monasteries  that  had  been  founded  by  the  Celtic  dreds  of  monssteries  and  many  thousands  of  monks, 
miaaionaries  from  lona.  Many  of  the  episoopal  sees  qiread  over  a  number  of  different  countries,  without 
of   F.nginnH   were  founded  and  governed  by  ttw    aoy   unity   of   organization;    which   was   exposed, 


BEMBDIOmra  445  BlHMDZOTDn 

moreover,  to  all  the  danffars  and  distuibanoefl  in-  founding  new  hpusM  and  partly  by  inoorporatiilB 
■eparable  from  those  troublous  times  of  kingdom-  those  already  exJetJUK.  ao  that  by  the  twelfth  century 
making;  such  a  system  was  inevitably  unable  to  keep  Clunjr  had  become  the  centre  and  head  of  an  order 
worldhness,  and  even  worse  vices,  wholly  out  of  \te  embracing  some   314    monasteries   in  all    psrts  of 
midst.     Hence  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  monks  Europe,  France,  Italy,  the  Empire,  Lorraine,  Bpsin, 
often  failed  to  live  up  to  the  monastic  ideal  and  some-  England,  Scotland,  and  Poland.     Although  the  ood- 
Umes  even  fell  short  of  the  Christian  and  moral  stand-  gregation   had    it4 
srds.     l^ere  were  failures  and  scandals  in  Benedic-,  own    constitutions 
tine  history,  ju«t  as  there  were  declensions  from  the  and  was  absolutely 
light  path  outside  the  cloister,  for  monks  are,  after  autonomous,  its 
all,  but  men.     But  there  does  not  seem  ever  lo  have  members  always 
been  a  period  of  widespread  and  general  corruption  claimed  to  be  and 
Id  the  order.     Here  and  there  the  members  of  some  were   actually  reo- 
parlicular  house  allowed  abuses  and  relaxations  of  ognized    as   real 
rule  to  creep  in,  so  that  they  seemed  to  be  falling  Benedictines; 
-    away  from  the  true  spirit  of  their  state,  but  when-  hence  it   was   not 
ever  such  did  occur  they  soon  called  forth  efforts  strictly  a  new  order 
for  a  restoration  of  primitive  austerity;  and  these  but    only   a    re- 
constantly   recurring   reform   movements   form   one  formed    congrega- 
of  the  surest  evidences   of   the  vitality  which  has  tion  within  the  or- 
pervaded  the  Benedictine  Institute  throughout  its  der.    (BeeCLCNT.) 
entire  history.     It  is  important  to  nol«,  moreover,         Followinithe 
that  all  sucn  reforms   as  ever  achieved  anj;  meas-  example  o!  Cluny, 
lire  of   success  came  invariably  from  within,  and  several    other   re- 
were  not  the  result  of  pressure  from  outside  the  order,  forms   were    ini- 
The   first   of   the   reforms   directed   towaJds   con-  ttated    from    time 
federating  the  monastic  houses  of  a  single  kingdom  to  time  in  different 
was  set  on  foot  early  in  the  ninth  century  oy  Benedict  parts    during    the 
of  Aniane  under  tne  auspices  of  Charlemagne  and  ncTt     three     cen- 
Louis    the   Pious.     Though   a   Benedictine   nimself,  turies,  which  while 
bom  in  .\quitaine  and  trained  at  Saint-Seine  near  taking  the  Rule  of 
Dijon,  Benedict  was  imbued  with  the  rigid  austerity  St.  Benedict   as  a 
of  the  East,  and  in  his  Abbey  of  Aniane  practised  basis,    aimed    fre- 
a  mode  of  lite  that  was  severe  in  the  extreme.     Over  quently  at    a   greater   austerity   of    life   than    was 
Louie  be  acquired  an  ascendancy  which  grew  stronger  practised  by  the  black  monks  or  contemplated  by 
as  years  went  on.     At  his  instigation  Louis  built  for  the  holy  Rule.     Some  were  even  semi-eremitical  in 
him  a  monastery  adjoining  his  own  palace  at  Aix-Ia-  their  constitution,  and  one— Pontevrault — consisted 
Chapelle,  which  was  intended  to  serve  as  a  model  of  double  monasteries,   the  reli^ous  of  both  sexes 
according  to  which  all  others  were  to  be  reformed,  bang  under  the  rule  of  the  abbess.     In  dealing  with 
and  to  bring  about  this  end  Benedict  was  invested  these  reformed  congregations  a  distinction  must  be 
with  a  general  authority  over  all  the  monasteries  of  made  between  those  which,  like  Cluny,  continued  to 
the  empire.     Absolute  uniformity  of  cUscipline,  ob-  be  considered  as  part  of  the  main  Benedictine  body, 
servance,  and  habit,  after  the  pattern  of  the  royal  and   those   which   constituted   practically  new   and 
monastery,  was  then  the  general  scheme  which  was  independent  orders,  tike  Cfteaux,  and  have  always 
launched  at  an  assembly  of  all  the  abbots  at  Aachen  been  looked  upon  as  outside  the  Benedictine   con- 
(Aix^la-Cbapelle)  in  817  and  embodied   in  a  series  federation,   though  still  professing  the  Rule  of  St. 
of  eighty  capitija  passed  by  the  meeting.     Though  Benedict  in  some  form  or  other.     Those  of  the  former 
by  reason  ol  the  very  minuteness  of  these  capUwa,  category  are  treated  here,  since  they  and  their  suc- 
wbich  made  them  vexatious  and  ultimately  intoler-  cessors  constitute  the  order  as  we  understand  it  at 
able,  this  scheme  of  centralized  authority  lasted  only  the  present  di^.     In  the  latter  claas  the  most  im- 
for   the   lifetime   of   Benedict   himself,    the   raptluta  portant  were  (Haldol!  (1009),  Vallombrosa  (1039), 
(printed  in  full  in  Herrgott,  "  Vetus  Disciplina  Monas-  Grammont     (1076),     Cltcaux     (1098),     Fontevrault 
tica",   Paris,   1726)  were  recognized  as  supplying  a  (1099),    Savigny     (1112),    Monte    Vergine     (1119), 
much  needed  addition  to  St.  Benedict's  Rule  con-  Sylvestrines  (1231),  Celestines  (1254),  and  Olivetans 
eeming  points  not  sufficiently  provided  for  therein,  (1310).    All  of  these  will  be  described  in  detail  under 
and  as  filling  much  the  same  place  then  as  the  ap-  the  respective  titles. 

proved  Constitutions  of  a  monastery  or  congregation         The  mfluence  of  Cluny,  even  in  monasteries  which 

do  now.  did  not  join  its  congregation  or  adopt  any  of  the  other 

A  century  later,  in  910,  the  firet  real  reform  that  reforms  mentioned  above,  was  lai^  and  far-reaching. 

produced    any   widespread    and   general   effect   was  Many   such   abbeys,   including  Subiaco   and   Monte 

commenced  at  the  Abbey  of  Cluny  in   Burgundy,  Cassino,    adopted   ite    customs   and   practices,    and 

under   St.   Bemo,   its  first   abbot.     The  object  was  modelled  their  life  and  spirit  accordmg  to  the  ex- 

an  elaboration   of   the    Benedictine   ideal,  for  the  ample  it  set.    Monasteries  such  as  these  often  be- 

unifonn  preservation  of  which  a  highly  centralized  came  in  turn  the  centres  of  revival  and  reform  in 

lystetn  ot  government,  hitherto  unknown  to  Benedic-  their  respective  neighbourhoods,  so  that  during  the 

tme  monachism,  except  as  suraested  by  St.  Benedict  tenth    and   eleventh    centuries   there   arose   several 

of  Aniane,  was   introduced.     It  was  in  fact  the  es-  free  unions  of  monasteries  based  on  a  uniform  observ- 

tablishment  of  a   veritable   order,   in    the   common  ance  derived  from  a  central  abbey.     These  unions, 

acceptance  of   that   term,  within  the   Benedictine  the  germ  of  the  congregational  system  which  de- 

tbe  abbot  of  Cluny  retaining  an  actual  head-  veloped    later    on,    deserve    a    somewhat    detailed 

„      .,.  J....U...      .  .^^'^^j,      .......      _ I..  ,.       ^  .  ,. 


■hip  over  all  dependent  houses,  the  latter  being  gov-  enumeration  hen;.     In  England  there  had  been  three 

toned   only  by  "priors  as   his  vicars.     For  two  cen-  distinct    efforts    at    systematic    organization.     The 

turies  or  more  Quny  was  prebably  the  chief  reli^oua  various  monasteries  founded  by  St.  Augustine  and 

influence   in   the   Latin  Cnurch,  as  it  was  also  the  his  fellow-monks  had  preserved  some  sort  of  union, 

bat  abbey  to  obtain  exemption  from  episcopal  over-  as  was  only  natural  with  new  foundations  in  a  pagan 

■ght.      Xhrough  the  efforts  of  Bemo's  immediate  country  proceeding  from  a  common  source  of  ori^n. 

■ooeeeaors  the  congregation  grew  apace,  partly  by  A«  Ctmstumity  spread  through  the  land  this  necessity 


BXHXDIOTXira  446  BXmDICTm 

lor  mutual  dependence  diminiehed,  but  when  St.        NotwithatcmdiDg    all    tbeae    reform,   movemmtt 
Benedict  Biacop  came  to  England  with  Archbishop  and  umons  of  monasteries,  a  large  number  of  Bene- 
Theodore  in  669,  it  fell  to  him  to  foster  a,  spirit  of  dictine  abbeys  in  different  counmes  retained  to  the 
uniformity  amongst  the  various  Benedictine  nionas-  end  of  the  twelfth  century,   and  even   later,  their 
teries    then    existing.    In    the    tenth    century    St.  origiiial  independence,  and  this  state  of  thin^  wu 
DuDstan  set  himself  to  reform  the  English  monastic  oo^  terminated  by  the  regulations  of  the  Fourth 
houses  on  the  model  Lateran   Council,   in    1215,   which   were   to   change 
of     Fleury    and      of  materially   the   whole   trend   of   Benedictine   polity 
what     he    had    seen  and  history.     By  the  twelfth  canon  of  this  council  it 
Buccesflfuily      carried  was  decreed  that  all  the  monasteries  of  each  ecclesias- 
out  at  Ghent  during  tical   pmvince  were   to   unite   into   a   congregation. 
his  exile  in  Flanders.  The  abbots  of  each  province  or  con^gation  were  to 
With    hia    co-opera-  meet  in  chapter  eveiy  thErd  year,  with  power  to  put 
tioD    St.    Ethelwold  laws  binding  on  all,  and  to  appoint  from  amonral 
brought     out     hie  their  own   number   "visitors"   who   were   to   make 
"Concordia      Regu-  canonical  visitatLonH  of  the  monasteries  and  to  report 
laris",  which    is    m-  upon  their  condition  to  the  ensuing  chapter.    Id 
tcresting  as  an  early  each  congregation  one  of  the  abbots  was  to  be  elected 
attempt  to  procure  a  president,  arid  the  one  so  chosen  presided  over  the 
uniform     ooservance  triennial    chapter   and   exorcised   a   certain   limited 
in  all  the  monasteriea  and  well-defined  authority  over  the  houses  of  hia 
of  a  nation.     A  ccn-  con^gation,  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  interfere  with 
tury   later    Lanfranc  the  mdependent  authority  of  each  abbot  in  his  own 
continued    the   same  monastery.     England   was   the   first   and   for  some 
idea    by    issuing    a  time  the  only  country  to  give  this  new  arrangement  a 
series   of   statutes  fair  trial.     It  was  not  until  after  the  issue  of  the  Bull 
regulating  the  life  of  "Benedictina"  bv  Benedict  XII,  in  1336,  that  other 
tiMJ     English     Bene-  countries,  somewnat  tardily,  organized  their  national 
dictines.      It   should  congregations  in  oonformity  with  the  designs  of  the 
be  noted  here   that  Lateran  Council.    Some  of  these  have  continued  to 
these    several    at^  the  present  day,  and  this  congregational  system  is 
tempts  were  directed  now,   with  very   few  exceptions   and   some  slight 
only  towards   secur-  variations  in  matters  of  detail,  the  normal  form  of 
ing  outward  uniform-  government  thoughout  the  order. 
A  Behbdictihe  Abbot           ity,  and  that  as  yet        Progress  of  the  Order, — At  the  time  of  this  im- 
there  was  apparently  portant  change  in  the  constitution  of  the  order,  the 
no  idea  of  a  congregation,  properly  so   called,  with  a  black  monks  of  St.   Benedict  were  to  be  found  in 
central  source  of  ail  logislativo  authority.     In  France  almost  every  country  of  Western  Europe,  includii^ 
the    abbeys    of    Flcuiy,   MarmoCitier,   St.    Benignus  Iceland,  where  they  had  two  abbeys,  founded  in  the 
(Dijon),  St.  Denis,  Chaise- Dieu  (Auvergnej,  St.  Victor  twelfth  century,   and  from  which  missionaries  had 
(Marseilles),  St.  Claude,  Urins,  Sauve-Majour,  Tiron,  penetrated  even  into  Greenland  and  the  lands  of  the 
andVal-de8-Choux,wereallcentresof largerorsmaller  Eskimo.      At  the  be^nning  of    the  fourteenth  cen- 
p^ups  of  houses,  in  each  of  which  there  was  uniform-  tury  the  order  is  estimated  to  have  comprised  the 
ity  ol  rule  as  well  as  more  or  less  dependence  upon  the  enormous  number  of  37,000  monasteries.     It  had  up 
cniefhouBe.   Fleuryadopted theCluniacreform.asdid  to  that  time  given  to  the  Church  no  less  than  24 
also  St.  Beni^us  of  Dijon,  though  without  subjection  popes,    200    cardinals,    7,000    archbishops,    15,000 
to thatorgamzation;  andall  wcreeventuallyabsorbed  bishops,  and  over  1,500  canonized  saints.    It  bad 
by  the  congregation  of  St.  Maur  in  the  seventeenth  enrolled  among  its  members   20  emperors,   10   em- 
century,  excepting  St.  Claude,  which  preserved  its  presses,  47  kings,  and. 50  queens.     And  these  num- 
itidepoudence  until   the  Revolution,  Val-dea-Choux,  hers  continued  to  increase  by  reason  of  the  additional 
which  became  Cistercian,  and  L^rins,  which  in  1505  strength  which  accrued  to  the  order  from  its  con- 

i'oined  the  Italian  congregation  ol  St.  Justina  of  solidation  under  the  new  system.  In  the  axt«eitth 
'adua.  In  Italy  the  cmef  groups  had  their  centres  century  the  Reformation  and  the  religious  wan 
at  Cluse  in  Piedmont,  at  Fonte  Avellana,  which  was  uiread  havoc  amongst  its  monasteries  and  reduced 
united  to  the  Camaidolese  congregation  in  1669,  their  number  to  about  5,000.  In  Denmark,  Iceland, 
La  Cava,  which  joined  the  congregation  of  St.  Justina  and  Sweden,  where  several  houses  had  joined  the 
in  the  fifteenth  century,  and  Sasso-Vivo,  which  was  German  (Bursfeld)  Union,  the  order  was  entirety 
suppressed  as  a  separate  federation  in  the  same  obliterated  by  the  Lutherans  about  1551  and  its 
century  and  its  forty  houses  united  to  other  congre-  property  confiscated  by  the  crown.  The  arbitrarr 
gations  of  the  Benedictine  family.  The  monasteries  rule  of  Joatph  II  of  Austria  (1765-flO)  and  the  Prencn 
of  Germany  were  divided  chieQy  between  Fulda  and  Revolution  and  its  consequences  completed  the 
Hirscliau,  both  of  which  eventually  joined  the  work  of  destruction,  so  that  in  the  early  part  of  the 
Bursfeld  Union.  (See  Bursfeld.)  In  Austria  there  nineteenth  century  the  order  numbered  scarcely 
were  two  groups  of  monasteries,  the  abbeys  of  Melk  more  than  fifty  monasteries  all  told.  The  last 
(Moick  or  Meiek)  and  Salzburg  being  the  chief  seventy  years,  however,  have  witnessed  a  remark- 
houses.  They  continued  thus  until  well  into  the  able  series  of  revivals  and  an  accession  of  miamoDaiy 
seventeenth  century,  when  systematic  congregations  enterprise,  with  the  result  that  there  are  now  over 
were  organized  in  compliance  with  the  Tridentine  one  hundred  and  fifty  monasteries  of  black  monks, 
decrees,  as  will  be  described  in  due  course.  Other  or,  including  afFiUated  congregations  and  convents  at 
free  unions,  for  purposes  of  mutual  help  and  similarity  nuns,  a  total  of  nearly  seven  hundred.  These  le- 
of  discipline,  were  to  be  found  also  in  Scotland,  vivala  and  examples  of  expansion  will  now  be  treated 
Scandinavia,  Poland,  Hungary,  and  elsewhere,  in  in  detail  under  the  headings  of  the  various  congre- 
which  the  same  idea  was  carried  out,  viz,,  not  bo  gations,  which  will  bring  the  history  of  the  order 
much  a  congregation  in  its  later  sense,  with  a  cen-  down  to  the  present  day. 

tralized   form   of   government,   as   a  mere   banding         (1)  The  EnglUk  Congregatum, — The  English  wei« 

together  of   houses   for  the  better  maintenauce  of  the   first   to   put   into   practice   the   decrees    of   the 

rule  and  policy.  Lateran  CounciL    Some  time  was  necessarily  spent 


BSnDIOTZNX  447  BSHXDIOTUrS 

m  preliminary  preparations,  and  the  fimt  general  in  prison.  Two  other  monasteries  were  added  to  the 
chapter  was  neid  at  Oxford  in  1218,  from  which  congre^tion,  viz.,  Lamspring  in  Germany  in  1643, 
time  up  to  the  dissolution  under  Henry  VIII  the  and  Saint-Malo  in  Brittany  in  1611,  the  latter,  how- 
triennial  chapters  appear  to  have  been  held  more  or  ever,  bein^;  passed  over  to  the  French  (Maurist)  con- 
less  re^^rly.     (Details  of   these  chapters  will  be  gregation  m  1672, 

found  m  Reyner,  "Apostolatus  Beneaictinorum'\)        In  1795  the  monks  of  Douai  were  expelled  from 
At  first  only  the  monasteries  of  the  southern  province  their  monastery  by  the  Revolution,  and  after  many 
of  Canterbury  were  represented,  but  in  1338,  in  con-  hardships,  including  imprisonment,  escaped  to  Eng- 
sequence  of  the  Bull '' Benedictina '^  the  two  provinces  land,  wnere,  after  a  temporary  residence  at  Acton 
were  united  and  the  English  congregation  definitely  Bumell  (near  Shrewsbury),  they  settled  in  1814  at 
established.    This  s)rstem  of  the  union  of  houses  and  Downside  in  Somerset.    The  monks  of  Dieulouard 
periodical  chapters  interfered  in  the  least  possible  were  also  driven  out  at  the  same  time  and  after  some 
degree  with  the  Benedictine  tradition  of  mutual  in-  years  of  wanderine  established  themselves  in  1802 
dependence  of  monasteries,  though  the  Bull  ''Bene-  at  Ampleforth  in  Yorkshire.    The  monks  of  St.  Ed- 
dictina"  was  intended  to  give  some  further  develop-  mund's,  Paris,  not  successful  in  making  their  escape 
ment  to  it.    In  other  countries  attempts  were  made  from  France,  were  dispersed  for  a  time,  but  when,  m 
from  time  to  time  to  effect  a  greater  degree  of  or-  1818,  the  buildings  ol  St.  Gregory's  at  Douai  were 
ganization,  but  in  England  there  was  never  any  recovered    bv  the    congregation,   the   remnants   of 
further  advance  along  the  path  of  centralisation.  St.  Edmund  s  conmiunity  reassembled  and  resumed 
At  the  time  of  the  dissolution  there  were  in  England  conventual  life  there  in  1823.    For  eighty  years  they 
nearly  three  hundred  houses  of  black  monks,  and  continued  undisturbed,  ^cruited  by  English  sul>- 
though  the  numbers  had  from  one  cause  or  another  jects  and  carrying  on  their  school  for  Endish  boys, 
somewhat  declined,  the  English  congregation  may  until,  in  1903,  the  ''Association  Laws''  of  the  French 
truthfully  be  said  to  have  b^n  in  a  m)uri8hing  con-  government  once  more  expelled  them  from  their 
dition  at  the  time  of  the  attempt  to  suppress  it  in  monastery;  returning  to  England,  they  have  estab- 
the  sixteenth  century.    The  Krave  charg^  brought  llshed  themselves  at  Woolhampton  in  Berkshire.    The 
against  the  monks  by  Henry  YlII's  Visitors,  though  Abbey  of  Lamspring  continued  to  flourish  amongst 
long  believed  in,  are  not  now  credited  by  serious  Lutheran  surroundings  until  it  was  suppressed  by  the 
historians.    This  reversal  of  opinion  has  been  brought  Prussian  Government  in  1802  and  the  community  dis- 
about  mainly  through  the  researches  of  such  writers  persed.    In  182J3  a  restoration  of  conventual  life  in  a 
as  Gasquet  (Henry  VIII  and   the  English  Monas-  small  way  was  attempted  at  Broadway  in  Worcester 
teriee,  London,  new  ed.,   1890;  Eve  of  the  Refer-  shire,  which  lasted  until  1841.    The  monks  then  went 
mation,  London,  1890),  and  Gairdner  (Prefaces  to  to  other  houses  of  the  congregation,  though  the  com- 
''Calendars  of  State  Papers  of  Henry  VIII").  munity  was  never  formally  disbanded.    Continuity 
Throughout  the  period  of  suppression  the  monks  was  preserved  by  the  last  survivors  of  Broadway 
were  the  champions  of  the  old  Faith,  and  when  turned  being  incorporated  in  1876  into  the  newly  founded 
out  of  their  homes  very  few  conformed  to  the  new  ooomiunity  of  Fort  Augustus  in  Scotland.     In  1859 
religion.    Some  sought  refuge   abroad,  t>therB  ao-  St.   Michael's  priory,  at  Belmont,  near  Hereford, 
cepted  pensions  and  lingered  on  in  England  hoping  was   established,   in  compliance  with  a  decree  of 
for  a  restoration  of  the  ^rmer  state  of  tnin^,  wnibt  Pius  IX,  as  a  central  novitiate  and  house  of  studies 
not  a  few  preferred  to  suffer  lifelong  impnsonment  for  the  whole  congregation.    It  was  also  made  the 
rather  than  surrender  their  convictions  imd  claims,  pro-cathedral  of  the  Diocese  of  Newport,  the  bishop 
In  Queen  Mary's  reign  there  was  a  brief  revival  at  and  canons  of  which  are  chosen  from  the  English 
Westminster,  where  some  of  the  surviving  monks  Bepedictines,  the  cathedral-prior  acting  as  provost 
were  brought  together  under  Abbot  Feckc^am  in  of  the  chapter.     Up  to  1901  Belmont  had  no  com- 
1556.    Of  the  monks  professed  there  during  the  three  munity  of  its  own,  out  only  members  from  the  other 
years  of  revived  existence,  Dom  Sigebert  Bucklev  houses  who  were  resident  there  either  as  professors 
alone  survived  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  or  students;  the  general  chapter  of  that  year,  how- 
century;  and  he,  after  forty  years  of  imprisonnient,  ever,  decided  that  novices  might  henceforth  be  re- 
when  niffh  unto  death,  in  1607,  invested  with'  the  ceived  for  St.  Michael's  monastery.    In  1899  Leo  XIII 
English  habit  and  affiliated  to  Westminster  Abbey  raised  the  three  priories  of  St.  Gregory's  (Downside), 
and  to  the  English  congregation  two  English  priests,  St.    Lawrence's    (Ampleforth),   and   St.   Edmund's 
alnead^   Benedictines  of  the   Italian   congregation.  (Douai)  to  the  rank  of  abbeys,  so  that  the  congrega- 
Bj  this  act  he  became  the  link  between  the  old  and  tion  now  consists  ef  three  abbeys  and  one  cathedral- 
tbe  new  lines  of  English  black  monks,  and  through  priory,  each  with  its  own  community,  but  Belmont 
him  the  true  succession  was  perpetuated.     About  the  still  remains  the  central  novitiate  and  tyrocinium 
same  time  a  number  of   English  monks  were   being  for  all  the  houses.     Besides  its  regular  prelates,  the 
trained  abroad,  mostly  in  Spain,  for  the  English  English  congregation  is,  by  virtue  of  the  Bull  **  Plan* 
mission,  and  these  were  in  1619  aggregated  by  papal  tata"  0633),  allowed  to  perpetuate  as  titular  dig- 
authority  to  the  Engli^  congregation,  thougn  the  nities  tne  nine  cathedral-priories  which  belonged  to 
monasteries  founded  by  them  Imd  perforce  to  be  it  before  the  Reformation,  viz.,  Canterbury,  Win- 
situated  abroad.     St.  CTregory's  at  Douai  was  ettab-  cheater,  Durham,  Coventry,  Ely,  Worcester,  Koches- 
lished  in  1605,  St.  Lawrence's  at  Dieulouard  in  Lor-  ter,  Norwich,  and  Bath;  to  these  have  been  added 
raine  in  1606,  and  St.  Edmund's  at  Paris  in  1611.  three  more,  Peterborough,  Gloucester,  and  Chester, 
The  first  two  of  these  communities  remained  on  the  originally  Benedictine  abbeys  but  raised  to  cathedral 
continent  until  driven  to  England  by  the  French  rant  by  Hennr  VIII.    Six  ancient  abbacies  also, 
Revolution,  but  the  third  has  only  recently  returned.  St.  Alban's,   Westminster.   Glastonbury,  Evesham, 
In  1633,  by  the  Bull  "Plantata'S  Pope  Urban  VIII  Buiy    St.    Edmunds,   and   St.   Mary's,    York,  are 
bestowed  upon  the  restored  English  congregation  similarly    perpetuated    by    privilege    granted    in 
"every   privile^,   grant,   indulgence,   facmty,   and  1818. 

other  prerogative  which  had  ever  belonged  to  the  (2)  The  Cciannese  Congregatian, — To  prevent  con- 
ancient  English  congregation "  and  also  approved  fusion  it  is  necessary^  to  point  out  that  there  are  two 
of  its  members  taking  an  oath  by  which  they  bound  congregations  of  this  name.  The  first,  with  Monte 
themselves  to  labour  for  the  reconversion  of  their  Cassino  as  its  chief  house,  was  ori^nally  known  as 
country.  8o  zealous  were  they  in  this  work  that  that  of  St.  Justina  of  Padua,  and  with  one  exception 
during  the  penal  times  no  fewer  than  twenty-seven  has  always  been  confined  to  Italy.  The  other  is  of 
■■offered  martyrdom  for  the  Faith,  whilst  eleven  died  much  later  inatitution  and  is  distinguished  by  the 


BSMBDIOmn  44S  BXNXDIOTZn 

title  of  "Primitive  Observance".    What  follows  re-  federation,     (a)  The  Italian   Province  dates  from 

la  tea  to  the  former  of  these  two.  the  original  rederation  in  1851,  and  comprises  ten 

Most  of  the  Italian  monasteries  had  fallen  under  monasteriee  with  over  two  hundred  religious.    One 
the  influence  of  Climy  in  the  tenth  and  eleventh  of  these  is  the  Abbey  of  Monte  Vergine,  formeriy 
centuries,  and  had  adopted  its  customs,  but  by  the  the  mother-house  of  an  independent  congregation, 
end  of  the  fourteenth  century  they  had  so  greatly  but  which  was  aggr^ated  to  this  province  in  1879. 
declined  that  there  was  then  liardly  one  left  in  which        (b)  The  English  Province  was  formed  in  1858, 
the  Cluniac  observance  was  retained.    The  Abbey  whsn  certain  EneUsh  monks  at  Subiaco  obtained 
of  St.  Justina  at  Padua,  which  had  formerly  been  permission  to  make  a  foundation  in  England.    The 
Cluniac,  was  in  a  very  corrupt  and  ruinous  state  in  Isle  of  Thanet,   hallowed   by  the  memory  of  St. 
1407  when  Gregory  All  bestowed  it  in  commendam  Augustine's  landing  there  twelve  hundred  and  sixty 
on  the  Cardinal  of  Bologna.    That  prelate,  desirous  years  previously,  was  selected  and  a  church  which 
of  reform,  introduced  some  Olivetan  monks,  but  the  Augustus  Welby  Pugin  had  built  at  Ramsgate  was 
three    remaining  Cluniac    monks    appealed   to   the  placed  at  their  disposal.     By  1860  a  monastery  had 
Venetian    Republic   against   this   encroachment  on  been  erected  and  full  conventual  life  established.    It 
their  rights,  with  the  result. that  the  abbey  was  re-  became  a  priory  in  1880  and  in  1896  an  abbey.    In 
stored  to  them  and  the  Olivetans  dismissed.    The  course  of  time,  in  addition  to  serving  several  neigh- 
cardinal  resigned  the  abbey  to  the  pope,  who  there-  bouring  missions,  the  conmiunity  embarked  on  work 
upon  gave  it  to  Ludovico  Barbo,  a  canon  regular  of  St.  in   New    2^land,    where    Dom    Edmund    Luck,  a 
George  in  Alga.     He  took  the  Benedictine  habit  and  Ramsgate  monk,   was  made  Bishop  of  Auckland, 
received  the  abbatial  blessing  in  1409.     With  the  help  They  also  undertook  work  in  Bengal  in  1874,  but 
of  two  Camaldolese  monks  and  two  canons  of  Algi,  this  has  since  been  relin^shed  to  the  secular  clergy, 
he   instituted   a   reformed    observance,   which   was        (c)  The  Belgian  Provmce  began  in  1858  with  the 
quickly  adopted  in  other  monasteries  as  well.     Per-  affiKation  to  Subiaco  of  the  eleventh-century  Abbey 
mission  was  obtained  from  the  pope  for  these  to  unite  of  Termonde.     Afflighem  followed  in  1870,  and  since 
and  form  a  new  congre^tion,  the  first  general  chap-  then  two  new  foimdations  have  been  made  in  Belgium, 
ter  of  which  was  held  m  1421,  when  Abbot  Barbo  and  quite  recently  missionary  work  has  been  under- 
was  elected  the  first  president.     Amongst  those  that  taken  in  the  Transvaal,  South  Africa, 
joined  were  the  celebrated  abbeys  of  Subiaco,  Monte        (d)  The  French  Province,  perhaps  the  most  numer- 
Cassino,  St.  Paul's  in  Rome,  St.  George's  at  Venice,  ous  and  flourishing  in  the  congregation,  dates  from 
La  Cava,  and  Farfa.     In  1504  its  title  was  changed  1859.     Jean-Baptiste    Muard,  a  parish   priest  and 
to  that  of  the  "Cassinese  Congregation''.    It  gradu-  founder  of  a  society  of  diocesan  missioners,  became 
ally  came  to  embrace  all  of  the  chief  Beneaictine  a  monk  at  Subiaco.     After  his  profession  there  in 
houses  of  Italy,  to  the  number  of  nearly  two  hundred,  1849,  he  returned  to  France  with  two  companions 
divided  into  seven  provinces,  Rome,  Naples,  Sicily,  and  settled  at  Pierre-qui-Vire,  a  lonely  spot  amid  the 
Tuscany,  Venice,  Lombardy,  and  Genoa.     In  1505  forests  of  Avallon,  where  a  most  austere  form  of 
the  Abbey  of  Ldrins  in  Provence  together  with  aH  Benedictine  life  wafi  established.    After  his  death 
its  dependent  houses  joined  it.     A  highly  centralized  in  1854,  the  abbey  he  had  founded  was  affiliated  to 
system  of  government  was  developed,  modelled  on  the  Cassinese  P.  O.  congregation  and  became  the 
the  Italian  republics,  by  which  the  autonomy  of  the  mother-house  of  the  French  province.     New  foundar 
individual   houses   was   almost   entirely  destroyed,  tions  were  made  at  B^thisy  (1859),  Saint-Benottr«ur- 
AU  power  was  vested  in  a  committee  of  "definitors",  Loire,  the  ancient  Fleur^r  (1865),  Oklahoma,  Indian 
in  whose  hands  were  all  appointments,  from  that  of  Territory,    U.   S.   A.,   with   an   Apostolic    vicariate 
president  down  to  the  lowest  official  in  the  smallest  attached   (1874),  Belloc  (1875),  Kerbeneat   (1888), 
monastery.     But  in  spite  of  this  obvious  departure  Encalc^t  (1891),  NifSo-Dios,  Argentina  (18R99),  and 
from  the  Benedictine  ideal  and  the  dangers  arising  Jerusalem  (1901).     In  1880  the  French  Government 
from  such  a  system,  the  congregation  continued  in  annexed  Pierre-qui-Vire  and  expelled  the  community 
considerable  prosperity  until  the  wars  of  the  Revohi-  by  force;  some  of  them,  however,  were  able  to  regain 
tion  period;  and  the  later  decrees  of  the  Italian  gov-  possession    a   year  or   two    later.    The    remainder 
emment  put  a  check  to  it«  reception  of  novices  and  sought  refu^  in  England,  where  in  1882  they  ac- 
began  a  series  of  suppressions  which  have  reduced  its  quired  the  site  of  the  old  Cistercian  Abbey  of  Buck- 
numbers  enormously  and  shorn  it  of  much  of  its  fast,  in  Devonshire.     Here  they  are  gradually  re- 
former greatness.    The  formation  of  the  congrega-  building  the  abbey  on  its  original  foundations.     The 
tion  of  Primitive  Observance  from  out  of  its  midst  "Association  Laws"  of   1903  again  dispersed   the 
has  still  further  diminished  the  congregation,  until  congregation,  the  monks  of  Pierre-qui-Vire  finding 
it  now  consists  nominally  of  sixteen   monasteries,  a  temporaiy]  home  in  Belgium,  those  of  Belloc  and 
some  entirely  without  communities,  and  only  three  Encalcat  going  to  Spain,  and  Kerbeneat  to  South 
or  four  with  sufficient  numbers  to  keep  up  full  con-  Wales,  wmlst  those  of   B^thisy  and  Saint-Benoft, 
ventual  observances.  being  engaged  in  parochial  work,  obtained  authoriza- 

(3)  The  Cassinese  Congregation  of  Primitive  Observ-  tion  and  have  remained  in  France. 
ance. — In  the  year  1851  Abbot  Casaretto  of  Subiaco        (e)  The  Spanish  Province  dates  from   1862,  the 

initiated  at  Cienoa  a  return  to  a  stricter  observance  year  in   which   the   ancient  Abbey  of   Montserrat, 

than  wafi  then  in  vogue,  and  several  other  monas-  founded  in  the  ninth  century,  was  affiliated  to  the 

teries    of    the    Cassinese    congregation,    including  Cassinese    P.    O.    congregation.    The    old    Spanish 

Subiaco  itself,  desiring  to  unite  m  this  reforming  congregation,  which  ceased  to  exist  in  1835,  is  dealt 

movement,  Pius  IX  jomed  all  such  abbevs  into  one  with    separately.    Other    old    monasteries     which 

federation,  which  was  called  after  its  chief  house,  had  been  restored,  St.  Clodio  in  1880,  Vilvanelra  in 

the  "  Province  of  Subiaco  ".     Before  long  monasteries  1883,  and  Samos  in  1888,  were,  in  1^3,  joined  with 

in  other  countries  adopted  the  same  reformed  observ-  Montserrat  to  form  the  Spanish  province,     ^nce 

ance  and  became   affiliated   to  Subiaco.    In   1872  then  new  foundations  have  been  made   at  Pueyo 

this  union  of  monasteries  was  separated  altogether  (1890),    Los    Cabos    (1900),    and    Solsona     (1901). 

from  the  original  congregation  and  erected  as  a  new  besides  one  at  Manila  (Philippines)  in  1895.     Th^ 

and  independent  body  under  the  title  of  the  "Casai-  province  also  includes  tne  Abbey  of  New  Nursia  in 

nese  Congregation  of  Primitive  Observance",  which  Western  Australia,  founded  in  1846  by  two  exiled 

was  divided  into  provinces  according  to  the  different  monks  from  St.  Martin's  Abbey,  Compostella,  who 

countries  in  which  its  houses  were  situated,  with  the  after  the  general  suppression  in  1835  tiad  found  a 

Abbot  of  Subiaco  as  abbot-genetal  of  the  whole  home  at  La  Cava  in  Italy.    Seeing  no  hope  of  a  retun 


AM 


BMODIOtlVS 


to  Spain  they  had  volunteered  lor  foreign  miaBi(>n 
work  and  were  sent  to  Australia  in  iS^.    Their 
names  were  Joseph  Serra  and  Rudesind  Salvi^lo. 
Thev  settled  amongst  the  aboriginal  inh^ibitants  at 
a  place  some  seventy  miles  north  of  Perth,  which 
they  called  New  Nursia  in  honour  of  St.  Benedict's 
birthplace,  and  there  worked  as  pioneers  of  civiliza- 
tion and  Christianity  amongst  the  natives.    Their 
labours  were  crowned  with  success  and  their  abbey 
gradual^  became  the  centre  from  which  a  number 
of  outlying  mission  stations  were  established.    Dom 
Serra  became  coadjutor  to  the  Bishop  of  Perth  in 
1848,  and  Dom  Salvado  was  made  Bishop  of  Port 
Victoria  in  1849,  though  he  still  remained  superior 
of  New  Nursia,  which  was  made  an  abbey  in  1867 
with  a  diocese  attached.    It  had  been  aggregated 
to  the  Italian  province  of  the  congregation  m  1864, 
but  was  transferred  to  the  Spanish  province  on  its 
formation  in  1893.    The  monks  own  vast  tracts  of 
bu.shland   around   their  monastery  and  they  rear 
horses,   sheep,  and   cattle   on   a  large  scale.    The 
oonununity  includes,  a  niunber  of  aboriginal  converts 
amongst  its  lay  brethren. 

(4)  The  Bursfeld  Union. — Although  more  fully 
dealt  with  in  a  separate  article,  something  must  be 
said  here  about  this  congregation.  Formed  in  1430, 
it  included  all  the  principal  monasteries  of  Germany, 
and  at  the  height  of  its  prosperity  numbered  one 
hundred  and  thirty-six  houses  of  men  and  sixty-four 
of  women.  It  flourished  imtil  the  Protestant  Kef  or- 
mation,  which  with  the  religious  wars  that  followed 
entirely  obliterated  it,  and  most  of  its  monasteries 
pasaed  into  Lutheran  hands.  In  1628  the  few  re- 
maining representatives  of  the  congregation,  havine 
recovered  a  right  to  some  of  their  possessions,  offered 
seven  monasteries  to  the  newly  resuscitated  English 
congregation,  on  condition  that  the  task  of  getting 
rid  of  the  Lutheran  occupants  should  devolve  upon 
the  BIngUsh  monks,  whilst  the  monasteries  should  be 
restored  to  the  Bursfeld  congregation  in  the  event  of 
its  ever  requiring  them.  No  advantage  was  taken  of 
this  offer  except  with  regard  to  two  houses — Rintelin, 
which  was  used  as  a  seminary  for  a  few  years  by  the 
English  Benedictines,  and  Lamspring,  which  con- 
tinued as  an  abbey  of  English  monks  from  1644  to 
1802.  No  other  monastenes  of  the  Bursfeld  Union 
were  ever  restored  to  Benedictine  uses.    (See  Bubs- 

FELiD.) 

(5)  T?ie  Sfaniah  Congregation, — There  were  origi- 
nally two  distinct  congregations  in  Spain,  that  of 
the  '^Claustrales*'  or  of  Tarra^na,  formed  in  1336, 
and  that  of  ValladoUd,  organised  in  1489.  At  the 
time  of  the  ^neral  suppression  in  1835,  the  former 
comprised  sixteen  abbejrs,  and  the  latter  fifty, 
besides  one  or  two  priories  in  Peru  and  Mexico. 
Belonging  to  the  Claustrales  were  Our  Ladv's  Abbey, 
VUvaneira,  St.  Stephen's,  Rivas  del  Sil,  founded  m 
the  sixth  century,  and  St.  Peter's,  Cardena,  which 
claimed  to  be  the  oldest  in  Spain.  The  Valladolid 
congregation  had  St.  Benedict's,  Valladolid  (founded 
1390),  for  ite  mother-house,  and  amongst  its  houses 
were  St.  Martin's,  Compostella  (ninth  century); 
St.  Benedict's,  Sahagun,  the  largest  in  Spain;  St. 
Vincent's,  Salamanca,  famous  for  its  university; 
Oar  Lady's,  Montserrat;  and  St.  Domingo  at  Silos. 
Of  the  sixty-six  monasteries  suppressed  in  1835, 
five  have  bieen  restored,  viz.,  Montserrat  (1844), 
3t.  Ck)dio  (1880),  Vilvaneira  (1883),  and  Samos 
(1888)  by  the  Cassinese  P.  O.  congregation,  and 
SiloB  (1880)  b^  the  French  monks  from  Ligug^. 
Of  the  rest,  sixteen  remain  as  parish  churches, 
tfaiiteen  are  now  occupied  by  other  religious  orders, 
two  or  three  are  used  as  barracks,  two  as  prisons, 
one  as  a  diocesan  seminary,  a  few  have  been  con- 
verted into  municipal  buildmgs  or  private  residences, 

the  remainder  have  been  destroyed. 
16)  The  Poftufueee  Congregation, — In  the  sixteenth 


century  the  monasteries  of  Portu^l  were  all  held  by 
commendatory  abbots  and  eonsequently  were  in  a 
very  unsatisfactory  state  as  regards  discipline.  A 
reform  was  initiated  in  1558  in  the  Abbev  of  St. 
Thirso,  m(mks  from  Sp^n  being  introduced  for  the 
purpose.  After  much  difficulty  the  leaders  succeeded 
m  spreading  their  reform  to  two  or  three  other 
houses,  and  these  were  formed  into  the  Portuguese 
congregation  by  Hus  V  in  1566.  The  first  general 
chapter  was  held  at  Tibaes  in  1568  and  a  president 
elected.  The  congregation  eventually  comprised 
all  the  monasteries  of  Portugal  and  continuea  in  a 
flourishing  state  until  the  wholesale  suppression  of 
religious  houses  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  when  its  existence  came  to  an  abrupt  end. 
Only  one  Benedictine  monastery  in  Portugal  has 
since  been  restored — that  of  Cucujlles,  onginally 
founded  in  1091.  Its  resuscitation  in  1875  came 
about  in  this  way:  to  evade  the  law  forbidding  their 
reception  of  novices,  the  Brazilian  Benedictines  had 
sent  some  of  their  subjects  to  Rome  for  study  and 
training  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Paul's^  where  they 
were  professed  about  1870.  The  Brazilian  govern- 
ment refusing  them  permission  to  return  to  that 
countr^r,  they  settlea  in  Portugal  and  obtained 
possession  of  the  old  monasterv  of  Cucujftes.  After 
twenty  years  of  somewhat  isolated  existence  there, 
unable  to  re-establish  the  Portuguese  congregation, 
they  were,  in  1895,  affiliated  to  that  of  Beuron. 
Thus  Brazil,  which  had  received  its  first  Benedic- 
tines from  Portugal,  became  in  turn  the  means  of 
restoring  the  Benedictine  life  in  that  country. 

(7)  The  Brazilian  Congregation. — ^The  first  Bene- 
dictines to  settle  in  Brazil  came  from  Portugal  in 
1581.  They  established  the  following  monasteries: 
St.  Sebastian,  Bahia  (1581);  Our  Lady  of  Montserrat, 
Rio  de  Janeiro  (1589);  St.  Benedict,  Olinda  (1640); 
the  Assumption,  S&o  Paulo  (1640);  Our  Lady's, 
Parahyba  (1641  )j  Our  Lady's,  Brotas  (1650);  Our 
Lady's,  near  Bah^a  (1658);  and  four  priories  depend- 
ent on  S9o  Paulo.  All  these  remained  subject  to 
the  Porttigueee  superiors  until  1827,  when  in  conse- 
quence of  the  separation  of  Brazil  from  the  Kingdom 
of  Portugal,  an  independent  Brazilian  congregation 
was  erected  by  Leo  XII.  consisting  of  the  above 
eleven  houses,  with  the  Abbot  of  Bahia  as  its  presi- 
dent. A  dectee  of  the  Brazilian  government  in  1855 
forbade  the  further  reception  of  novices,  and  the 
result  was  that  when  the  empire  came  to  an  end  in 
1889,  the  entire  congregation  numbered  only  about 
twelve  members,  of  whom  eight  were  abbots  of  over 
seventy  years  of  age.  The  abbot-general  appealed 
for  help  to  the  pope,  w^bo  applied  to  the  Beuronese 
congregation  for  volunteers.  In  1895  a  small  colony 
of  J^uronese  monks  having  spent  some  time  in  Portu- 
gal learning  the  language,  set  out  for  Brazil  and  took 
possession  of  the  abandoned  Abbey  of  Olinda.  The 
divine  office  was  resumed,  mission  work  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood commenced,  and  a  school  of  alumni  (pupils 
destined  for  the  monastic  state)  established.  Two 
new  abbeys  have  also  been  added  to  the  congrega- 
tion: Quixadd,  founded  in  1900,  and  St.  Andr^  at 
Bruges  (Belgium)  in  1901,  for  the  reception  and 
training  of  subjects  for  Brazil.  In  1903  Rio  de  Jvi- 
neiro  was  made  the  mother-house  of  the  congregation 
and  the  residence  of  the  abbot-generaL 

^8)  The  Surisa  Congregation. — ^The  earliest  monas- 
tenes in  Switzerland  were  founded  from  Luxeuil  by 
the  disciples  of  0)lumbanus,  amongst  whom  was  St. 
Qall,  who  established  the  celebrated  abbey  after- 
wards known  by  his  name.  By  the  end  of  the  eighth 
century  the  Benedictine  Rule  had  been  accepted 
in  most,  if  not  in  all  of  them.  Some  of  these  monas- 
teries still  exist  and  their  communities  can  boast  of 
an  unbroken  continuity  from  those  early  days. 
The  various  monasteries  of  Switzerland  were  united 
to  ionn  the  Swiss  congregation  in  1602,  through 


BUHDiomnB  450 

the  efforts  of  Augustine,  Abbot  of  Einsiedeln.    The  .  gation  was  also  an  outcome  of  the  reform  instituted 

political  disturbances  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  at  St.-Vannes.    The  Abbey  of  St.  Hubert  in  Ar- 

century  reduced  the  number  of  abbeys  to  six,  of  dennes,   which   had   been  founded  about  706  for 

which  five  still  continue  and  constitute  the  entire  canons  r^ular  but  had  become  Benedictine  in  817, 

congregation    at    the    present    day.    They   are   as  was  the  mst.  in  the  Low  Countries  to  embrace  the 

follows:   (a)  Dissentis,   founded  in  612;  plundered  reform.    To  facilitate  its  introduction,  monks  were 

and  destroyed  by  fire*  in  1799;  restored  1880.     (b)  sent  from  St.-Vannes  in  1618  to  initiate  the  stricter 

Einsiedeln,  founded  934,  the  abbey  from  which  the  observance.     In  spite  of  some  opposition  from  the 

Swiss-American  congregation  has  sprung,     (c)  Muri,  community  as  well  as  from  the  diocesan,  the  Bishop 

founded  1027;  suppressed  1841;  but  restored  at  Cries  of  li^,  the  revival  of  discipline  gradually  gsuned 

(Tyrol)   1845.     (d)   Engelberg,   founded   1082.     (e)  the  supremacy  and  before  lonji  other  noonasteries, 

Maria   Stein,   founded    1085;    the   community  was  including  St.  Denis  in  Hainan] t,  St.  Adrian,  Afi9ighem, 

disbanded  in  1798,  but  reassembled  six  3rearB  later;  St.    Peter's   at   Ghent,    and   others   followed  suit, 

again  suppressed  in  1875,  when  the  members  went  These  were  formed  into  a  new  congregation  (c.  1630) 

to  Delle  m  France;  expelled  thence  in  1902,  they  which  was  approved  by  Pope  Urban  YlII,  ana  existed 

moved  to  Dllmberg  in  Austria,  and  in  1906  settled  at  until  the  Revolution.    Two  abbeys  of  this  congrega- 

Bregenz.    The  sixth  abbe^r  was  Rheinau,  foimded  tion,  Termonde  and  AfHighem,  have  since  been  re- 

778,  which  was  suppHfised  in  1862;  its  monks,  being  stored  and  affiliated  to  the  Belgian  province  of  the 

unable  to  resume  conventual  life,  were  recdved  into  Cassinese  P.  O.  congregation. 
other  monasteries  of  the  congregation.  (12)  The  Austrian  dongregations, — For  many  cen- 

(9)  The  Congregation  of  St. 'Vannea, — To  counteract  turieis  the  monasteries  of  Austria  maintained  their 
the  evils  resulting  from  the  practice  of  bestowing  individual  independence  and  their  abbots  acquired 
ecclesiastical  benences  upon  secular  persons  in  com-  positions  of  much  political  power  and  dignity,  which, 
mendamj    then    rife    throughout    Western    Europe,  though  considerably  diminished  since  meoieval  times, 
Dom  Didier  de  la  Cour,  Prior  of  the  Abbey  of  St.-  are  still  such  as  are  enjoyed  by  no  other  Benedictine 
Vannes  in  Lorraine,  inaugurated  in  1598  a  strict  abbots.    The  example  of  reform  set  by  the  congre- 
disciplinary  reform  with  the  full  approbation  of  the  gation  of  St.  Justina  in  the  fifteenth  century  exer- 
commendatory  abbot,  the  Bishop  of  Verdun.    Other  dsed  an  influence  upon  the  Austrian  monasteries, 
monasteries  soon  followed  suit  and  the  reform  was  Beginning  (1418)  in  the  Abbey  of  Melk  (founded 
introduced  into  all  the  houses  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine,  about   1&9),   the   reform  was  extended  to  other 
as  well  as  many  in  different  parts  of  France.    A  houses,  and  in  1400  a  union  of  those  that  had  adopted 
congregation,  numbering  about  forty  houses  in  all,  it  was  propo6|ed.    Sixteen  abbots  were  present  at  a 
under  the  presidency  of  the  prior  of  St. -Vannes,  meeting  held  in  1470,  but  for  some  reason  this  union 
was  formed,  and  wa^  approved  d^jt  the  pope  in  1604.  of  abbeys  does  not  seem  to  have  been  at  all  lasting, 
On  account  of  the  difficulties  arising  from  the  direc-  for  in  1623  a  new  Austrian  congregation  was  pro- 
tion  of  the  French  monasteries  by  a  superior  residing  jected  to  consist  of  practically  the  same  abbevs  as 
in  another  kingdom,  a  separate  congregation — that  the  former  congregation:  Melk,  Gdttweig,  Lambach, 
of  St.-Maur — ^was  organized  in  1621  for  the  monas-  KremsmOnster,  Vienna,  Garsten,  Altenburg,  Seiten- 
teries  in  France,  whilst  that  of  St.-Vannes  was  re-  stetten,    Mondsee,    Kleinck,    and    Marienbeiig.    In 
stricted  to  those  situated  in  Lorraine.    The  latter  1630  it  was  proposed  to  unite  this  congregation, 
continued  with  undiminished  fervour  until  suppressed  those  of  Burstekl  and  Bavaria,  and  all  tne  bouses 
by  the  French  Revolution,  but  its  privileges  were  that  were  still  independent,  into  one  general  fedeia- 
handed  on  by  Gregory  XVI  in  1837  to  the  newly  tion,  and  a  meeting  was  held  at  Ratisbon  to  discuss 
founded  Galhcan  congregation,  which  was  declared  the  scheme.    The  Swedish  invasion,  however,  put  an 
to  be  its  true  successor,  though  not  enjoying  actual  end  to  the  plan  and  the  onljr  result  was  the  formation 
continuity  with  it.  of  another  small  congregation  of  nine  abbeys,  with 

(10)  The  Congregation  of  St-Maur, — ^The  French  that  of  St.  Peter's,  Salzburg,  at  its  head.  These  two 
monasteries  which  had  embraced  the  reform  of  St.-  congregations,  Melk  and  Salzburg,  lasted  \mtil 
Vannes  were  in  1621  formed  into  a  separate  congrega-  towar£  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  when  the 
tion  named  after  St.  Maur,  the  disciple  of  St.  Benedict,  despotic  rule  of  Joseph  II  (1765-90)  gave  them  their 
which  eventually  numbered  one  hundred  and  eighty  death-blow.  In  1803  many  of  the  abbeys  were  sup- 
houses,  i.  e.  all  in  France  except  those  of  the  Cluniac  pressed  and  those  that  were  suffered  to  remain  were 
congregation.  The  reform  was  introduced  mainly  forbidden  to  receive  fresh  novices.  The  Emperor 
through  the  instrumentality  of  Dom  Laurent  Francis  I,  however,  restored  several  of  them  between 
B^nara  and  quickly  spread  through  France.  Saint-  the  years  1809  and  1816,  and  in  1889  those  that  still 
Germain-des-Pr^  at  Paris  became  the  mother-  survived,  some  twenty  in  number,  were  formed  into 
house,  and  the  superior  of  this  abbey  was  always  the  two  new  congregations  under  the  titles  of  the  Im- 
president.  The  constitution  was  modelled  on  that  maculate  Conception  and  St.  Joseph,  respectively, 
of  the  congregation  of  St.  Justina  of  Padua  and  it  The  former  comprises  ten  houses  imder  the  presi 
was  a  genuine  return  to  the  primitive  austerity  of  dency  of  the  Abbot  of  Gdttweig,  and  the  latter  seven. 
conventual  observance.  It  became  chiefly  cele-  with  the  Abbot  of  Sahburg  at  its  head.  The  eon- 
brated  for  the  literary  achievements  of  its  members,  gregation  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  in  which 
amongst  whom  it  counted  Mabillon,  Montfauoon,  are  KremsmOnster,  dating  from  777,  St,  Paul's  in 
d'Ach^ry,  Mart^ne,  and  many  others  equally  famous  Carinthia,  and  the  Scots  monastery  at  Vienna,  in- 
for  their  erudition  and  industry.  In  1790  the  eludes  none  of  later  date  than  the  twelfth  eentmy; 
Revolution  suppressed  all  its  monasteries  and  the  whilst  in  the  congregation  of  St.  Joseph  there  are 
monks  were  aispersed.  The  superior  general  and  Salzburg  (before  700),  Michaelbeuem  (785),  four 
two  others  suffered  in  the  massacre  at  the  Cannes,  others  of  the  eleventh  century,  and  only  one  of  recent 
2  September,  1792.     Others  sought  safety  in  flight  foundation,  Innsbruck  (1904). 

and  were  received  into  Lamspnng,  and  abbeys  of        (13)  The  Bavarian  Congregation. — A  reform  ini- 

Switzerland,  England,  and  North  America.     A  few  tiated  amongst  the  monasteries  of  Bavaria,  based 

of  the  survivors  endeavoured  to  restore  their  con-  upon  the  Tridentine  decrees,  caused  the  erection  of 

gregation  at  Solesmes  in  1817,  but  the  attempt  was  this   congregation   in    1684.    It  then   consisted  of 

not  successful,  and  the  congregation  died  out,  leaving  eighteen  nouses  which  flourished  until  the  eeneral 

behind  it  a  fame  vmrivallea  in  the  annals  of  monastic  suppression  at  the  begiiming  of  the  nineteentn  oen- 

history.     (See  Maurists.)  tury.    Begiiming  in  1830,  the  pious  King  Ludwig  1 

(11)  The  Congregation  of  St  P^ooid.— This  ocmgre-  restored  utb  abbeys    of    Metten  and  Ottobeuem 


BmnDiomx  451  BiinDioTim 

founded  in  tb«  eia^th  oentuiy),  Sdieyoffl  (1112),  m  poodble,  wing  the  parish  church  for  the  Divine 
ud  Audechs  (1465),  and  founded  new  monaateriea  Office.  Each  time  they  succeeded  in  re-entering 
at  Augsburg  (1834),  Munich  (1835),  Meltenbun  their  abbey,  but  at  the  final  expulmon  in  1903  they 
(1842),  and  SchAftlam  (18fi6).  Hug  IX  restored  were,  in  common  with  all  other  reliKious  of  France, 
tiwcoDfregation  (1858)  comprimng  the  above  houaes,  driven  out  of  the  coiAitry.  The  SolcsmcB  monlia 
c(  wticn  the  Abbot  of  Mett«n  m  presdent.  The  have  settled  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  Engknii,  those  of 
sbbeyiofPlankatetten  (1189)  and  Ettal  (1330)  were  Fontaneile,  Glanfeuil,  Wisque,  and  Kergonan  have 
mtoied  in  1900  and  1904,  respectiveiy  and  added  to  gone  to  Belgium,  those  of  Ligug£  to  Spain,  and  tiioae 
tbe  con^gation. 

(14)  The  Hun^ariim  Conffrefclton.—This  congre- 
ptioD  differs  from  all  othera  in  its  oonatitution.  It 
(omprises  the  four  abbeys  of  Zalav^  (1010),  Bakony- 
bil  (1037),  Hhany  (1065),  and  IX)m6lk  (1252), 
vhicn  are  dependent  on  the  Arcb-Abbey  of  Monte 
PMmonia  (Martinaberg),  and  to  theee  are  added  six 
"  residences "  or  educational  establishments  con- 
ducted by  the  monks.  The  members  of  this  body 
ue  professed  for  the  congregation  and  not  for  any 
particular  monastery,  and  they  can  bo  moved  from 
DOS  house  to  another  at  the  discmtion  of  the  arcb' 
abbot  and  his  sixteen  aasessors.  The  arch-abbey 
"aa  founded  by  Stephen,  the  first  king  of  Himgary, 
in  1001,  and  together  with  the  other  liouses  enjoys 
SD  unbroken  succession  from  the  dal«  of  foundation. 
The  congregation  is  allilLated  to  the  Cassinese, 
thou^  it   enjoys   a  status  of  comparative  inde- 

(15)  TA*   GaUiean   Congregation.— -This,    the    first 

of  the  new  congregations  of  the  nineteenth  century,  ^   Vimcbst's  Ascb-Abbbt   Be*ttt   Penn 

was  eatablishea  in  I83T  at  Solesmes  in  France  by  ' 

pom  Gujranger.  He  had  been  proteeeed  at  St.  of  Marseilles  to  Italy.  The  Fathers  at  Paris  have 
Paul's,  Rome,  and  though  at  one  time  desirous  of  been  allowed  to  remain,  in  consideration  of  the  im- 
ioining  the  community  of  Monte  Cassino,  was  urged  portant  literary  and  historical  work  on  wliich  they 
by  the  Bishop  of  Le  Mans  to  restore  the  Benodictme  are  engaged.  This  congregation  has  endeavoured 
(feder  in  France.  He  acquired  posseflsion  of  the  old  to  cany  on  the  work  of  the  Maurists,  and  numbeis 
Maurist  priory  of  Solesmes,  which  Pope  Gregory  XVI  many  well-kuown  writers  amongst  ita  members. 
made  an  abbey  and  the  mother-house  of  the  new  The  Abbot  of  Solesmes  is  the  superior  general,  to 
congregation.  He  also  declared  it  to  be  the  true  which  position  he  has  been  twice  re-elected. 
successor  to  all  the  privileges  formerly  enjoyed  by  (le)  The  Congregaiion  of  Beuron.— This  congrega- 
tbe  congregations  of  Cluny,  St.-Vannes,  and  St.-  tion  was  founded  by  Dom  Maurus  Wolter,  who, 
Maur.  Gufranger  was  soon  joined  by  numbers  of  whilst  a  seminary  professor,  was  fired  with  the  desire 
leakius  monks,  which  enabled  him  to  send  out  several  of  restoring  the  Benedictine  Order  in  Germany.  He 
mshools.  In  this  way  LigugS,  originally  founded  went  to  St.  Paul's,  Rome,  where  he  was  joined  by 
by  St.  Martin  of  Tours  in  360,  was  restored  in  1853,  his  two  brothere,  and  all  were  professed  in  1856, 
Sikis  (Spain)  in  1880,  Glanfeuil  in  1892,  and  Fonta-  one  dying  soon  after.  The  two  survivors  Maurua 
nelte  (St.  Wandrille),  founded  649,  in  1893.  New  and  Placid,  set  out  in  1860,  with  a  sum  of  £40  and 
foundations  were  hkewise  made  at  Marseilles  in  1865,  the  pope's  blessing,  to  reconquer  Germany  for  St. 
Famborough  (England),  and  Wisque  in  1895,  Paris     Benedict.     In    1863,   through   the   inHuence   ot   the 

ton,    V .on^    ._j   „    ..,f   r o:i PrincesB  Katharina  von  Hohcniollem,  they  obtained 

poaseasion  of  the  old  Abbey  of  Beuron,  near  8ig- 
maringen,  which  had  been  originally  founded  m 
777,  but  WHS  destroyed  in  the  (cnfh  century  by- 
Hungarian  invaders  and  lat«r  restored  as  a  house  of 
canons  regular;  it  had  been  unoccupied  since  1805. 
Dom  Maurus  became  the  first  abbot  of  Beuron  and 
superior  ot  the  congregation.  In  1872  a  colony  was 
sent  to  Belgium  to  found  the  Abbey  of  Marcdsous, 
of  which  Dom  Placid  was  first  abbot.  The  com- 
munity of  Beuron  were  banished  in  1875  by  the 
"May  Laws"  of  the  Prussian  Government  and  found 
a  temxirary  home  in  an  old  Servile  monastery  in 
the  Tyrol.  Whilst  there  their  numbers  increased 
■ufficiently  to  make  new  foundations  at  Erdinglon, 
England,  in  1876,  Prague  in  I8S0,  and  Seckau 
Styiia,  in  18a3.  In  1887  Beuron  was  restored  to  them, 
and  since  then  new  houses  have  been  established  at 
Maria  Laaeh,  Germany  (1892),  Louvain,  and  Biller- 
beck,  Belgium  (1899  and  1901),  and  in  1895  the 
Portuguese  monastery  ot  Cucuifies  whs  added  to  the 
congregation.  The  founder  died  in  1900,  and  his 
Ham*  I.1AC9  Abbkt  brother,  Dom  Racid  Wolter,  succeeded  him  as  Arch- 

abbot  of  Beuron. 
o(  Sokamea  have  been  expelled  from  their  monastery  (17)  The  Amrriatn  Casainege  Congregatifm. — Noth- 
by  the  French  government  no  less  than  four  times,  ing  very  definite  can  be  swd  with  regard  to  the  first 
In  the  years  1880,  1882,  and  1883  they  were  ejected  Benedictines  in  North  America.  There  were  proba- 
cy force,  and,  being  afforded  hospitality  in  the  bly  settlements  amongst  the  Eskimo  from  Iceland, 
wighbourlHwd,  kept  up  their  corporat«  hfe  as  far    by  way  of  Greenland,  but  these  must  have  disap- 


BnfEDiorm  4fi2  jmuuoTDn 

peared  at  an  early  date.    In  1493  a  monk  from  Nemulc,  Ncnr  Jersey,  founded  1S57,  with  a  KboOl 

MontBenat  accompanied  Columbus  on  hie  ^^TfH^  of  100  beys;  Harvhelp  Abbe^,  Belmont,  North  Caro- 

of  discovery  and  became  vicar-Apostolio  of  the  West  lina,  founded  1885.  the  abbot  of  which  is  also  vicai- 

Indiea,  but  his  stay  was  short,  and  he  returned  to  Apoatolic  of  North  Carolina;  attached  to  the  abbejr 

Spain.     During    the    ^vent^enth    and    eighteenth  are  two  colleges  and  a  school,  with  over  200  students; 

centuries  one  or  two  EnKlisb  monks,  and  at  feast  one  6t.  Procopius's  Abbey,  Chicago,  foimdod  1887,  with 

of  the  Maurist  congregation,  worked  on  the  Ameiioan  a  schoot  of  60   boys   and   an   orphanage  attached: 

mission;  and  at  the  time  of  the  French  Revolution  St.   Leo's  Abbey,   Pasco   County,   Florida,   foundea 

negotiations  had  been  commenced  by  Bishop  Carroll,  18S9:  tins  abbey  has  a  dependent  priory  in  Cuba; 

first  Bishop  of  Baltimore,  for  a  settlement  of  English  St.  Bernard's  Abbey,  Cullman  County,  Alabama, 

Benedictines  in  his  diocese,  which,  however,  came  to  founded  1891,  witb  a  school  of  over  10O  boys;  St. 

nothing.     The   Benedictine   Order   was   first   estab-  Peter's  Priory,   established  in  lUinois  in   1892  and 

lished   permanently   in  America  by   Dom  Boniface  transferred   to  Muenster,  Saskatchewan,  N.  W.  T., 

Wimmer,  of  the  Abbey  of  Metten.  in   Bavaria.     A  in   1903;   St.   Martin's   Priory,   Laoey,  the  State  of 

number  of  Bavarians  had  emigrated  to  America,  and  Washington,  founded  1895. 

it  was  suggested   that  their  spiritual  wanta  in  the         (18)   The  Swiaa  AmerUan  Conyegotion. — In  18H 

new   country  should   be   attended   to   by  Bavarian  two  monks  from  Einsiedein  in  SwiiTerland  came  to 

priests.     Dom  Wimmer  and  a  tew  companions  ae-  America  and  founded  the  monastery  of  8t.  Meinrad, 

cordingly  set  out  in  1846,  and  on  their  arrival  in  in  Indiana,  serving  the  mission  and  conducting  i 

America  they  acquired  the  church,  a  bouse,  and  snoaU  scbool  for  boya.    It  became  a  ptiory  in  1865. 


some  land  belonging  to  the  small  mission  of  St.  Vin-  and  in  1870  was  made  an  abbey  and  the  centre  of  the 

cent,  Beatty,  Pennsylvania,  which  had  been  founded  congre^tion  which  was  canonically  erected  at  tbe 

some  time  previously  by  a  Franciscan  missionanr.  same   time.     The   first   abbot,   Dom   Martin   Uarty, 

Here  they  set  to  work,  establishing  conventual  life,  became,  in  1879,  first  Vicar   Apostolic  of  DsJfota, 

as  far  as  was  possible  under  the  circumstances,  and  where  ne  had   some   years   previously   inaueurnted 

applying  themselves  assiduously  to  the  work  of  the  mission  work  amongst  the  Indians.     The   following 

mission.     Reinforced  by  more  monks  from  Bavaria  new   foundations    were    made:   Conception    Abbey, 

and  their  poverty  reUeved  by  some  munificent  dona-  Conception,  Missouri  (187a),  the  abbot  of  this  abbey 

tiona,   they  accepted    additional    outlying   missions  being  president  of  the  congregation;   New   Subiaeo 

and  estabhshed  a  large  college.    In  1855  St.  Vincent's,  Abbey,  Spielerville,  Arkansas   (1878);  St.  Benedict's 

which  had  already  founded  two  dependent  priories,  Abbey,  Mount  Angel,  Oregon   (1882)'    St.   Joseph's 

was  made  an  abbey  and  the  mother-house  of  a  new  Abbey,  Covington,  Louisiana  (1889);  St.  Mary's  Ab- 

congregation,   Dom   Wimmer  being  appointed   first  bey,  Richardton,  North    Dakota   (1899);    St.   Gall^ 

abbot  and  president.     Besides  St.   Vincent's  Arch-  Pnory.  Devil's  I^ke  (1893),  the  last  two  communi- 

Abb<^,  the  following  foundations  have  been  made:  ties  subject  to  the  same  abbot.      To  all  these  mona^ 

St.  John's  Abbey,  Collegeville,  Minnesota,  founded  teries  are  attached  numerous  miasions,  in  which  the 

1858,  mainly  through  the  generosity  of  King  Lud-  monks  exercise  the  cure  of  souls.      They  also   have 

wig  I  of  Bavaria;  connected  with  the  abbey  is  a  large  several  seminaries  and  colleges. 

college  for  boya.  with  an  attendance  of  over  300:         (19)  The  CongregatUm  of  St.  Ott3im.—Thia  con^re- 

fc't.   Benedict's   Abbey,   Atchison,    Kansas,   founded  gallon,  specially  established  for  the  work  of  foreign 

1857,  said  to  pOBsess  the  finest  Benedictine  church  miasions,  was  commenced  in  1884  in  the  Abbey  of  St. 

in  America,  built  in  the  style  of  the  Rhenish  churehes  Ottilien,  in  Bavaria,  under  the  title  of  the  "  Congre- 

of  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries;  there  ia  in  con-  gation  of  the  Sacred  Heart".     It  was  not  then  F 

Buion  a  sch»l  with  150  boya;  St.  Mary's  Abbey,  dictine,  but  in  1897  was  affihated  to  the  C 


BlKXDICnNI  453  BXMKDIOTINI 

eongreeation   and   in    1904   formally   inoorporated  for  any  office  in  the  oommunity,  even  that  of  abbots 

into  tbe   Benedictine  Order.    The    Abbot   of   St.  though  for  purposes  of  convenience  some  of  the 

Ottifien  is  the  superior  general  and  the  Beuronese  monkig  were  usually  ordained  for  the  service  of  the 

Abbot  of  Seckau  the  apostolic  visitor.    This  oongre-  altar*  and  until  literary  and  scholastic  work,  which 

^tion  has  been  largely  recruited  from  the  congre^  ooula  only  be  undertaken  by  men  of  some  education 

don  of  Beuron,  to  which  it  is  bound  by  close  ties,  and  culture,  began  to  take  the  place  of  manual 

In  1901  it  estaolished  a  cell  at  Wi^feld,  in  Bavaria,  labour,  all  shared  alike  in  the  dai^  round  of  agri- 

and  it  has  also  ten  mission  stations  in  Central  Africa,  cultural  and  domestic  duties.    St.  John  Gualbert, 

one  of  its  members  being  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Zanzibar,  the  founder  of  Vallombro^,  was  the  first  to  introduce 

Its  roll  of  honour  was  opened  in  August,  1905,  by  a  the  system  of  lay  brethren,  by  drawing  a  line  of 

bishop,  two  monks,  two  lay  brothers,  and  two  nims,  distinction   between   the   mon^s  who  were   clerics 

who  suffered  martyrdom  for  the  Faith  at  the  hands  and  those  who  were  not.    The  latter  had  no  stalls 

of  the  Central  African  natives.  in  choir  and  no  vote  in  chapter;  neither  were  they 

(20)    Independent    Abbeys, — Besides    the    above  bound  to  the  daily  recitation  of  the  breviary  Office 

coDgr^tions  there  also  are  two  independent  abbeys,  as  were  the  choir  monks.    Lay  brothers  were  en- 

which  belong  to  no  congregation,  but  are  immediately  trusted  with  the  more  menial  work  of  the  monastery, 

subject  to  the  Holy  See:  (a)  The  Abbey  of  Fort  and  all  those  duties  that  involved  intercourse  with 

Au^tus,  Scotland.    Founded  in  1876,  as  a  priory  the  outside  world,  in  order  that  the  cbK)ir  brethren 

of  the  English  conjugation,  mainly  through  the  misht  be  free  to  devote  themselves  entirely  to  prayer 

munificence  of  Lord  Ix> vat,  its  first  commimitv  was  and  other  occupations  proper  to  their  clerical  voca- 

drawn  from  the  other  houses  of  that  body.    It  was  tion.    The  system  spread  rapidly  to  all  branches  of 

intended  partly  to  continue  the  community  of  Sts.  the  order  and  was  imitated  by  almost  every  other 

Denis  ana  Adrian,  originally  of  Lamspring,  which  religious  order.    At  the  i>resent  day  there  is  hardly 

had  been  dispersed  since  1841,  and  of  which  there  a  congregation,  Benedictine  or  otherwise,  that  has 

were  only  one  or  two  surviving  members;  and  partly  not  its  lay  brethren^  and  even  amongst  numerous 

to  preserve  continuity  with  the  Scottish  monasteries  orders  of  nuns  a  similar  distinction  is  observed, 

that  had  from  time  to  time  been  founded  in  different  either  between  the  nuns  that  are  boimd  to  choir 

parte  of  Germany  and  Austria,  and  of  which  there  and  those  that  are  not,  or  between  those  that  keep 

was,  likewise,  only  one  survivor — Father  Anselm  strict  enclosure  and  those  that  are  not  so  enclosea. 

Robertson,   professed  at  St.  James's,   Ratisbon,  in  The  habit  worn  by  the  lay  brethren  is  usually  a 

1845.    These  monks  took  up  residence  with    the  modification  of  that  of  the  choir  monks,  sometimes 

neir  community  and  assisted   in   the  clothing  of  differing  from  it  in  colour  as  well  as  in  shape;  and 

the  first  novice  received   for  Fort  Augustus.    In  the  vows  of  the  lay  brethren  are  in  most  congrega- 

oider  that  its  members  might  be  exempt  from  the  tions  only  simple,  or  renewable  periodically,  in  con- 

external  mission  work  with  which  the  English  Bene-  trast  w^^h  the  solenm  vows  for  life  taken  by  the  choir 

dictines  are  specially  charged,  the  monastery  was,  religious.    In   some    commimities    at    the    present 

in  1883,  separated  from  the  English  con^gation  by  time  the  lay  brothers  equal  and  even  outnumber 

the  Holy  See,  and  in  1888  was  made  an  moependent  the  priests,  especially  in  those,  like  Beuron  or  New 

abbey,  directly  subject  to  the  pope.    A  monk  of  the  Nursia,  where  farming  and  agriculture  are  carried 

Beuron  oongre^tion,  Dom  Leo  Linse,  was  at  the  out  on  a  lai^  scale. 

same  time  appointed  its  first  abbot.    The  Beuronese        (2)  Oblates. — ^This  term  was  formerly  applied  to 

constitutions   were  first   adopted,   but  these   have  chiloren  offered  by  their  parents  in  a  solemn  way  to 

since  been  replaced  by  new  constitutions.    Of  late  a  monastenr,  a  dedication  by  which  they  were  con- 

i  years  the  community  has  undertaken  the  spiritual  sidered  to  have  embraced  the  monastic  state.    The 

I  care  of  three  parishes  in  the  vicinity  of  the  abbey,  custom  led  to  man^'  abuses  in  the  Middle  Ajges,  be- 

(b)  St.  Anselm's  Abbev  and  International  Benedic-  cause  oblates  sometimes  abandoned  the  religious  life 

tine  College,  Home.    This  was  originally  founded  in  and  returned  to  the  world,  whilst  still  looked  upon 

1687  as  a  college  for  Benedictines  of  tne  Cassinese  as  professed  religious.    The  Church,  therefore,  in  the 

cpogregation,  but  later  on  monks  of  other  congre^-  twelfth  century,  forbade  the  dedication  of  children 

tions  were  also  admitted.     Having  ceased  to  exist  in  this  way,  and  the  term  oblate  has  since  been  taken 

in  1846,  it  was  revived  on  a  small  scale  by  the  Abbot  to  mean  persons,  either  lay  or  cleric,  who  voluntarily 

of  St.  Paul's,  and  reconstituted  in  1886  as  a  college  attach   themselves    to    some    monastery   or   order 

and  univenity  for  Benedictines  from  all  parts  of  the  without  taking  the  vows  of  religion.    They  wear  the 

world  by  Leo  XIII,  who  at  his  own  expense  erected  habit  and  share  all  the  privileges  and  exercises  of 

the  present  extensive  buildines.    In  1900  the  abbey  the  community  they  join,  but  tney  retain  dominion 

church  was  consecrated,  in  the  presence  of  a  great  over  their  propertv  and  are  free  to  leave  at  any  time. 

gathering  of  abbots  from  all  over  the  worlcT  by  They  usually  make  a  promise  of  obedience  to  the 

Cardinal  Rampolla,  acting  as  representative  of  the  superior,  wmch  binds  tnem  as  lon^  as  they  remdn 

g>pe.    St.    Anselm's   is   presided  ^  over   by   Abbot  in  the  monastery,  but  it  only  partakes  of  the  nature 

Hildebrand  de  Hemptinne   (who  is  also  Abbot  of  of  a  mutual  agreement  and  has  none  of  the  properties 

Haredsous)  with  the  title  of  "Abbot  Primate"  of  of  a  vow  or  solemn  contract. 

the  whole  order.    It  has  power  to  grant  degrees  in        (3)  Canfraires. — ^A  custom  sprang  up  in  the  Middle 

tbeok>gy,  philosophy,  and  canon  law,  and  both  pro-  A^  of  uniting  lay  people  to  a  reu^ous  conununity 

fessors  ana  students  are  drawn  from  all  congregations  by  formal  aggregation,  through  which  they  partici- 

of  the  order.     There  is  accommodation  fpr  one  hun-  pated  in  all  t^  prayers  and  good  works  of  the  monks, 

dred  students,  but  the  full  nuinber  in  residence  at  and  though  living  in  the  world,  they  could  always 

one  time  has  not  yet  exceeded  sixty.  feel  that  they  were  connected  in  a  special  way  with 

,  II.  Lay  Brothers,  Oblates,  Confraters,  and  some  religious  house  or  order.    There  seem  to  have 

Nuns. — (1)    Lay    Brothers. — Up    to    the    eleventh  Ibeen  Benedictine  confratres  as  early  as  the  ninth 

century  in  Benedictine  houses  no  distinction  of  rank  century.    The  practice  was  widely  taken  up  by  al- 

was  made  betiveen  the  clerical  and  the  lay  brethren,  niost  every  other  order  and  was  developed  by  the 

AH  were  on  an  ec^ual  footing  in  the  community  and  mendicants  in   the   thirteenth   century  into  what 

at  fiiBt  comptaratively  few  seem  to  have  been  ad-  are  now  called  "third  orders".    It  was  peculiar  to 

vanced   to    the    priesthood.    St.    Benedict   himself  Benedictine  confratres  that  they  were  always  agg[re- 

vas  probably  only  a  layman;  at  any  rate  it  is  certain  gated  to  the  particular  monastery  of  their  selection 

that  he  was  not  a  pnest.    A  monk  not  in  sacred  and  not  to  the  whole  order  in  general,  as  is  the  case 

orden  was  always  considered  as  eligible  as  a  priest  with    others.    The    Beofldiotiiies    have    numbered 

n.— 29 


BDriDioTiin  454  BsrasicTDra 


gs  and  emperors  and  many  dtsttneulshed  persona    f713),    Tj^tton    (800),   Ramsey,   Hanb 

DngBt  tlieit*con/r(ilrcc,  and  there  is&ardly  a  monaB-    Am^uiy  (980).    In  Northumbria,  ' 
r  01  the  present  day  which  has  not  some  lay  people    and  ColdingWn  (673)  were  the  chief  bi 


,   Hants    (967),  and 
,    ,     .,  ibrift,  Whitby  (657) 

tery  oi  the  present  day  which  has  not  some  lay  people  and  Coldingluun  (673)  were  the  chief  bouaes  of  aune. 

connected  with  it  \>y  this  spiritual  bond  of  muon.  St,  Hilda  was  the  most  celebrated  of  tbe  abbessM 

(4)  JVuns. — Nothing  votv  definite  can  be  said  as  ot  Whitby,  and  it  was  at  Whitby  that  the  synod 

to  the  fiist  nuns  living  mider  the  Rule  of  St.  Bene-  which  decided  the  paschal  controversy  was  held  in 

diet.     St.  Gregory  the  Great  certainly  t«lk  us  that  664.     Most   of   these   convents   were   destroyed  by 

St.  Benedict's  sieter,  Scholastica,  presided  over  such  Danish  invaders  during  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuhM, 

acoramunityof  religious  women  who  were  established  but   some   were   subsequently    restored    and   many 

in  a  monastery  situated  about  five  miles  from  his  others  were  founded  in  Engiand  after  the  Normso 

Abbey  of  Mont«  Caasino;  but  whether  that  was  merely  conquest. 

an  isolated  instance,  or  whether  it  may  be  legitimately  The  first  nuns  in  Germany  came  from  England  in 
regarded  as  the  foundation  of  the  femSle  department  the  eighth  century,  having  been  brought  over  by 
of  the  order,  is  at  least  an  open  question.  We  do  not  St.  Boniface  ia  assist  him  m  his  work  of  conveisoa 
even  know  what  rule  and  to  provide  a  means  of  education  for  their  own 
these  nuns  followed,  sex  amongst  the  newly  evangelized  Teutonic  races. 
though  we  may  con-  Sta.  lioba,  Thecla,  and  Walburga  were  the  earUest 
jecture  that  they  were  of  these  pioneers,  and  for  them  and  their  corn- 
under  St.  Benedict's  panions,  who  were  chiefly  from  Wimbome,  St 
spiritual  direction  and  Boniface  established  many  canvent«  throughout  the 
that  whatever  rule  he  countries  in  which  he  preached.    In  other  parts  oi 


gave    them    probably    Europe  numicriea  sprang  up  as  rapidly  as  the  abbeys 
differed  but  uttle,  ex-    for  men,  and  in  the  Middle  Ages  they  were  almost, 


cept  pertiapB  in  minor  if  not  quite,  as  numerous.    In  later  medieval  times 
detdls,  from  that  for  the  names  of  St.  Gertrude,  called  the  "Great",  and 
monies  which  has  come  her  sister  St.  Mechtilde,  who  flourished  in  the  thir- 
down  to  us    bearing  teenth  century,  shed  a  lustre  on  the  Benedictine  num 
his  name.      Itt   seems  of  Germany.     In  Italy  the  convents  ^eem  to  have 
tolerably    certain,    at  been   very  numerous  during  the   Middle   A^.    In 
any  rate,  that  as  St,  the  thirteenth  century  several  were  founded  m  which 
Benedict's  Rulebegan  the  reform  of  Vallombrosa  was  adopted,  but  none 
to  be  diflused  abroad,  of  these  now  enst.    There  were  also  convents  be- 
women  as  well  as  men  longing  to  the  reforms  of  Camaldoli  and  Mount  Olivet, 
formed  tbemsetves  into  of  which  a  few  still  survive. 
'                                                   communities  ii^  order        Except  in  the  Bursfeld  Union,  which  included 
to  live  a  reli^ous  life  houses  of  both  sexes,  and  in  the  Cistercian  reform, 
according  to  its  prin-  where  the  nuns  were  always  under  the  Abbot  of 
ciples,    and  wherever  Qteaux,  and  a  few  others  of  minor  importance,  the 
A  Benedictihi  NuH            the  Benedictine  monks  congregational  system  was  never  applied   to  the 
went,  there    also    we  houses  of  women  in  an  organised  way.    The  con- 
find    monasteries  being  established  for  nuns.     Nun-  vents  were  generally  either  under  the  exclusive  di- 
neries  were  founded  in  Gaul  by  Sts.  Gfesarius  and  rection  of  some  particular  abbey,  through  the  in- 
Aurelian  ot  Aries,  St.  Martin  of  Tours,  and  St.  Col-  fluence  of  which  they  had  been  cstablishM,  or  else, 
umbanus  of  Luxeuil,  and  up  to  the  sixth   century  especially  when  founded  "by  lay  people,   tbey  were 
the  rules  tor  nims  in  most  general  use  were  those  of  auDJect  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop  of  tbe  diocese 
St.  Ccsarius  end  St.  Columoanus,  portions  of  which  in  which  they  were  situated.     These  two  conditions 
are  still  extant.     These  were,   however,   eventually  of  existence  have  survived  to  the  present  day;  there 
supplanted   by  that  of  St.   Benedict,   and  amongst  are  nine  belonging  to  the  first  and  over  two  hundred 
the  earliest  nunneries  to  make  thechange  were  Poitiers,  and  fifty  to  the  second  category. 

Chellea,    Remiremont,    and   FaremoQtier.     Mabillon         Early  in  the  twelfth  century  France  waa  the  scene 

assigns  the  banning  of  the  change  to  the  year  G20,  of  a  somewhat  remarkable  phase  in  the  history  of 

though  more  probably  the  Benedictine  Rule  was  not  the  Benedictine  nuns.     Robert  of  Arbrissel,  formerly 

received  in  its  entirety  at  so  early  a  date,bbut  was  chancellor  to  the  Duke  of  Brittany,   embraced  an 

only  combined  with  the  other  rules  then  m  force,  eremitical  life  in  which  he  had  many  disciples,  and 

Remiremont  became  for  women  what  Luxeuil  was  having    founded    a    monastery    of    canons    regular, 

for  men,  the  centre  from  which  sprang  a  numerous  carried  out  a  new  idea  in  1099  when  he  estabSsbed 

spiritual  family,  and  though  later  on  it  was  converted  the  double  Abbey  of  Fontevrault  in  Foitou,  famous 

into  a  convent  of  noble  cannonesses,  instead  of  nuns  in  France  for  many  centuries.     The  monks  and  nuns 

B-operly  so  called,  a  modified  form  of  the  Benedictine  both  kept  the  Benedictine  Rule,  to  which  -were  added 

ule  was  still  observed  there.    St.  Benedict's  Rule  some  additional  austerities.    The  law  of  enclosure 

was  widely  propagated  by  Oharlemagne  and  his  son,  was  very  striolly   observed.     In   1115  the   founder 

Louis  the  Pious,  and  tlie  Council  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  placed  the  entire  community,  monks  as  well  as  nuns, 

in  817  enforced  its  general  observance  in  all  the  imder  the  rule  of  the  abbess,  and  he  further  pio- 

nunncries    of    the    empire.     The    Abbey    of    Notre  vided  that  the  person  elected  to  that  office  should 

Dame  de  Ronceray,  at  Angers,  founded  in  1028  by  always  be  chosen  from  the  outside  world,  as  such  a 

Fulke,  Count  of  Anjou,  was  one  of  the  moat  influen-  one  would  have  more  practical  knowledge  of  afTairs 

'ial  convents  in  France  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  had  and  capacity  for  administration  than  one  trained  u 


pnones. 

The  earliest  convents  for  women  in  England  were  Fontevrault.     (See  Fontevrault. j 
at   Folkestone,    founded   630,   and  St.   Mildred's  in         Excepting  at  Fontevrault  the  nuns  seem   at  first 

Thanet,  estabtiahed  670,  and  it  is  probable  that  under  not  to  have  been  strictly  enclosed,  as  now,  but  were 

the  influence   of   the   succeaaors  ot  Bt.   Augustine's  free  to  leave  the  cloister  whenever  some  special  duty 

monks  at  Canterbury  and  elsewhere,  these  nunneries  or  occasion  might  demand  it,  as  in  the  case  of  the 

observed  the  Benedictine  Rule  from  the  first.     Other  FjigUsh    nuns    already    mentioned     who     went    to 

important  Anglo-Saxon  convents  were:  Ely,  founded  Germany  for  active  miE?sionary  work.     This  fre^lom 

by  St.  Etheldleda  in  673,  Barking  (675),  mmbome  with  regard  to  enclosure  gave  rise,  in  oourse  of  tasM, 


BiKBDionm 


465 


BSMXDIOTm 


^■-^flHfl\ 

^HJ^BP^^s 

*'  ^^^^H 

^■^^^^^^^^^^^^^L^fi^^^H 

<  \  <  _  '^^^^^^^^1 

H^^^^HH 

^^HH 

■  9^^j^^^ki|^^^^^^^^^^^^^| 

A  Benkdictine  Abbbss 


to  grave  soandaLs,  and  the  Gbundfa  of  Ootistaaoe 
(1414),  Basle  (1431),  and  Trent  (1545),  amongst 
others,  regulated  that  all  the  professedly  contem- 
pktiye  oroers  of  nuns  shoiild  observe  strict  enclosure, 
and  this*  has  continued  to  the  present  time  aa  the 
normal  rule  of  a  Benedictine  convent. 
The   Protestant   Reformation   in   the   sixteenth 

century  affected  the 
nuns  as  well  as  the 
monks.  Throughout 
north-western  EuropNS 
the  Benedictine  insti- 
tute was  practically 
obliterated.  In  Eng- 
land the  convents  were 
suppressed  and  the  nuns 
turned  adrift.  In  Ger^ 
many,  Denmark^  and 
Scandinavia  the  Luthe- 
rans acquired  most  of 
the  nunneries  and 
ejected  their  iimiates. 
The  wars  of  religion  in 
France  also  haa  a  dis- 
astrous effect  upon  the 
convents  of  that  ooim- 
try,  already  much  en- 
feebled by  the  evils 
consequent  on  the 
practice  of  commmidam. 
The  last  few  centuries, 
however,  have  wit- 
nessed a  widespread 
revival  of  the  Benedictine  life  for  women  as  well  as 
for  men.  In  France,  especially,  during  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries,  there  sprang  up 
several  new  congregations  of  Benedictine  nuns,  or 
reforms  were  instituted  among  those  already  exist- 
ing. These  were  not  strictly  congregations  in  the 
tedmical  sense,  but  rather  umons  or  groups  of  houses 
which  adopted  a  uniform  observance,  though  the  in- 
dividual convents  still  remained  for  the  most  part 
subject  to  their  respective  bishops.  Mention  may 
be  made  of  the  reforms  of  Montmartre,  Beauvais, 
Val-de-Grace,  and  Douai,  and  those  of  the  Perpetual 
Adoration  founded  at  Paris  in  1654  and  Valdosne  in 
1701.  The  French  Revolution  suppressed  all  these 
convents,  but  manv  have  since  been  restored  and 
fresh  foundations  added  to  their  number. 

The  first  convent  of  English  nuns  ance  the  Refor- 
mation was  founded  at  Brussels  in  1598:  and  another 
was  established  at  Oambrai  in  1623  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  English  Benedictine  Fathers  of  Douai, 
from  which  a  miation  was  made  at  Paris  in  1652. 
At  Ghent  in  1624  a  convent  was  founded  under 
Jesuit  guidance,  and  established  daughter-houses  at 
Boulogne  in  1652,  Ypres  in  1665,  and  Dunkiric  in 
1662.  All  these  commimities,  except  that  of  Ypres. 
were  expelled  at  the  French  Revolution  and  escaped 
to  England.  That  of  Gambrai  is  now  at  Stanbrook 
and  stiU  renuuns  a  member  of  the  English  congrega- 
tion under  the  jurisdiction  of  its  aSbot-president. 
The  Brussels  commimity  is  now  at  East  Bergholt, 
and  the  Paris  nuns  at  Golwich,  whence  an  off-shoot 
has  been  planted  at  Atherstone  (184^).  Those  of 
Ghent  are  now  at  Oulton;  Boulogne  and  Dunkirk, 
having  combined,  are  settled  at  Teignmouth.  The 
convent  of  Ypres  alone  remains  at  the  place  of  its 
original  foundation,  having  survived  the  troublous 
times  of  the  Revolution.  There  are  also  small 
Benedictine  convents  of  more  recent  foimdation  at 
Minster  (Thanet),  Ventnor,  Diunfries,  and  Tenby, 
and  one  at  Princethorpe,  originally  a  French  com- 
munity foimded  at  Montargis  in  1630,  but  driven 
to  England  in  1792,  and  now  almost  exclusively 
EAgBsh.  The  nuns  of  Stanbrook,  Oulton,  Prince- 
thorpe, Ventiior,  and  Dumfries,  conduct  boarding- 


sohoola  for  the  higher  education  of  yo^ung  ladies, 
and  those  of  Teignmouth,  Ck>lwich,  Atherstone,  and 
Dumfries  have  undertaken  the  work  of  perpetual 
adoration. 

In  Austria  many  of  the  medieval  convents  have 
remained  imdisturbed,  and  likewise  a  few  in  Switzer- 
land. In  Belgium  there  are  seven  dating  from  the 
seventeenth  century,  and  in  Germany  fourteen,  es- 
tablished mostly  during  the  last  half  centmy.  In 
Italy,  where  at  one  time  they  were  very  numerous, 
there  stiU  renuun,  in  spite  of  recent  suppressions, 
ei^tv-five  Benedictine  convents  dating  from  the 
Middle  Ages,  with  over  a  thousand  nuns.  Holland 
has  three  convents  of  modem  date,  and  Poland  one, 
at  Warsaw,  foimded  in  1687.  The  convents  of  Spain 
numbered  thirty  at  the  time  of  the  suppressions  of 
1835.  The  nuns  were  then  robbed  of  aU  their  pos- 
sessions, but  managed  to  preserve  their  corporate 
existence,  though  in  great  poverty  and  with  reduced 
niunbers.  Ten  of  the  old  convents  have  since  been 
restored,  and  eleven  new  ones  foimded.  It  is  a  pe- 
culiarity of  the  Spanish  convents  that  their  abbesses, 
who  are  elected  triennially,  receive  no  solemn  bless- 
ing, as  elsewhere,  nor  do  they  make  use  of  any  ab- 
batial  insi^a. 

Benedictme  life  in  America  may  be  said  to  be  in 
a  flourishing  condition.  There  are  thirty-four  con- 
vents with  neariy  two  thousand  nuns,  all  of  which 
have  been  founded  within  the  last  sixty  years.  The 
first  establishment  was  at  St.  Mary's,  Pennsylvania, 
where  Abbot  Wimmer  settled  some  German  nuns 
from  Eichst&tt  in  1852;  this  is  still  one  of  the  most 
important  convents  in  the  United  States,  and  from 
it  many  filiations  have  been  made.  St.  Benedict's 
convent  at  St.  Joseph,  Minnesota,  foimded  in  1857, 
is  the  largest  Benedictine  convent  in  America. 
Other  important  houses  are  at  Allegheny  (Pennsyl- 
vania), Atchison  (Kansas),  Chicago  (2),  Covington 
(Kentucky),  Duluth  (Minnesota),  Erie  (Pennsyl- 
vania), Feidinand  (Indiana),  Mount  Angel  (Oregon), 
Newark  (New  Jersey),  New  Orleans  (Louisiana), 
Sl^al  Creek  (Arkansas),  and  Yankton  (South  Dakota). 
TM  nuns  are  chiefly  occupied  with  the  work  of 
education,  which  comprises  elementary  schools  as 
well  as  boarding  schools  for  secondary  education. 
All  the  American  convents  are  subject  to  the  bishops 
of  their  respective  dioceses. 

III.  Influbncb  and  Work  op  the  Order. — 
The  influence  exercised  by  the  Order  of  St.  Bene- 
dict has  manifested  itself  chiefly  in  three  directions: 
(1)  the  conversion  of  the  Teutonic  races  and  other 
missionary  works;  (2)  the  civilization  of  north- 
western Europe;  (3;  educational  work  and  the 
cultivation  of  Uteratiu^e  and  the  arts,  the  forming 
of  libraries,  etc. 

(1)  MissionaTv  Work  of  the  Order. — At  the  time  of 
St.  Benedict's  death  (c.  543)  the  only  coimtries  of 
Western  Europe  which  had  been  Christianized  were 
Italy,  Spain,  Gaul,  and  parts  of  the  British  Isles. 
The  remaining  countries  sol  received  the  Gospel  dur- 
ing the  next  few  centuries,  either  wholly  or  partially 
through  the  preachii^  of  the  Benedictmes.  Begin- 
ning with  St.  Augustine's  arrival  in  England  in  597, 
the  missionary  work  of  the  order  can  be  easily  traced. 
The  companions  of  St.  Augustine,  who  is  usuallv 
called  the  ''Apostle  of  Engl^Ki",  planted  the  Faith 
anew  throughout  the  country  whence  it  had  been 
driven  out  nearly  two  centtuies  previouslv  by  the 
An^o-Saxon  and  other  heathen  invaders.  St. 
Ai^ustine  and  St.  Lawrence  at  Canterbury,  St. 
Justus  at  Rochester,  St.  Mellitus  at  London,  and 
St.  Paulinus  at  York  were  Benedictine  pioneers,  and 
their  labours  were  afterwards  supplemented  by  other 
nnonks  who,  though  not  strictly  Benedictine,  were 
at  least  assisted  by  the  black  monks  in  estabUshing 
the  Faith.  Thus  St.  BirinUs  evangelized  Wessex, 
St.  Chad  the  Midlands,  and  St.  Feluc  East  Anglia, 


BBNiDionm  450  BiviDioninB 

whilst  the  Celtic  m<»ikB  from  lona  settled  at  Lindis-  have  alieady  been  watered  by  the  blood  of  itg  fint 

fame,  whence  the  work  of  St.  PauUnus  in  North*  martyis. 

umbria  was  continued  by  St.  Aidan,  St.  Cuthbert,        (2)  Civilmng  Influence  of  the  Order, — Christianity 

and  many  others.    In  716  England  sent  forth  Win-  ana  civilization  go  hand  in  hand,  and  hence  we 

frid,  afterwards  called  Boniface,  a  Benedictine  monk  naturally   look  to   North-western   Europe « for  the 

trained  at  Exeter,  who  preached  the  Faith  in  Fries-  effects^  of  the  civilizing  influences  exerted  hv  the 

land,    Alemannia,    Thurin^a,    and    Bavaria,    and  Benedictine  missionaries.    St.  Benedict  himself  oegan 

finally,  being  made  Archbishop  of  Mentz  (Mainz),  by  converting  and  civilizing  the  barbarians  who 

became  the  Apostle  of  central  Germany.    At  Fulda  overran  Italy  m  the  sixth  century,  the  best  of  whom 

he  placed  a  Bavarian  convert  named  Sturm  at  the  came  and  learned  the  Gospel  principles  at  Monte 

head  of  a  monastery  he  founded  there  in  744,  from  Cassino.    Previous  to  the  institution  of  monastidsm 

which   came   many   missionaries   who   carried   the  labour  had  been  leflxtrded  as  the  symbol  of  slaveiy 

Gospel  to  Prussia  and  what  is  now  Austria.    From  and  serfdom,  but  St.   Benedict  and  his  followen 

Corbie,  in  Picardy,  one  of  the  most  famous  monas-  taught  in  the  West  that  lesson  of  free  labour  which 

teries  in  France,  St.  Ansgar  set  out  in  827  for  Den-  had  first  be^i  inculcated  by  the  fathers  of  the  desert, 

mark,  Sweden,  and  Norway,  in  each  oi  which  ooun-  Wherever  the  monks  went,   those  who  were  not 

tries    he    founded    many    monasteries    and    firmly  employed  in  preaching  tilled  the  groimd;  thus  whilst 

planted    the    Benedictine    Rule.      These    in    turn  some  sowed  in  pagan  souls  the  seeds  of  the  Christian 

spread  the  Faith  and  monasticism  through  Iceland  Faith,  others  tra^ormed  barren  wastes  and  virgin 

and  Greenland.    For  a  short  time  Friesland  was  the  forests  into  fruitful   fields  and   verdant  meadows, 

scene  of  the  labours  of  St.  Wilfrid  during  a  tem-  1*1118  principle  of  labour  was  a  powerful  instrument 

porary  banishment  from  England  in  678,  and  the  in  the  hands  of  the  monastic  pioneers,  for  it  attracted 

work  lie  began  there  was  continued  and  extended  to  to  thenv  the  common  people  who  learned  from  the 

Holland  b^  the  English  monks  Willibrord  and  Swith-  monasteries  thus  reared  as  from  object  lessons  the 

bert.    Christianity   was  first   preached  in  Bavaria  secrete  of  organized  work,  agriculture,  the  arts  and 

by  Eustace  and  .^lus,  monks  irom  Luxeuil,  early  in  sciences,   and   the   principles  of  true   government, 

the  seventh  century;  their  work  was  continued  by  Neander  (Eccl.  Hist.)  points  out  that  the  profits 

St.  Rupert,  who  foimded  the  monastery  and  see  of  accruing  from  the  labour  of  the  monks  were  employed 

Salzburg,  and   firmlv  established   bv  St.   Boniface  imgrudgingly  for  the  relief  of  the  distressed,  and 

about  739.    So  rapidly  did  the  Faitn  spread  in  this  that  in  times  of  famine  many  thousands  were  saved 

country  that  between  the  ^rears  740  ana  780  no  less  from  starvation  by  the  charitable  foresight  of  the 

than  twenty-nine  Benedictine  abbeys  were  founded  monks.    The  accounts  of  the  beginning  of  abbey 

there.  after  abbey  present  the  same  features  with  recuning 

Another  phase  of  Benedictine  influence  may  be  regularity.    Not  only   were   the   marshes   drained, 

found  in  the  work  of  those  monks  who,  from  the  sixth  sterile  plains  rendered  fertile,  and  wild  beasts  tamed 

to  the  twelfth  century,  so  frequently  acted  as  the  or  driven  away,  but  the  bandits  and  outlaws  who 

chosen  counsellors  of  kings,  and  whose  wise  advice  infested  many  of  the  great  highways  and  forests 

and  guidance  had  much  to  do  with  the  political  were  either  put  to  flight  or  converted  from  their 

history  of  most  of  the  coimtries  of  Europe  during  evil  ways  by  the  industrious  and  unselfish  monks, 

that  period.  Ait)und  many  of  the  greater  monasteries  towns  grew 

In  more  recent  times  the  missionarv  spirit  has  up  which  have  since  become  famous  in   histonr; 

manifested  itself  anew  amongst  the  Benedict!]^.  Monte  Cassino  in  Italy  and  Peterborough  and  St. 

During  the   penal   times   the  Catholic  Church^in  Albania  in  England  are  examples.    Large-hearted 

England  was  kept  alive  in  great  measure  by  the  abbots,  eager  to  advance  the  interests  of  their  poorer 

Benedictine    missioners    from    abroad,   not   a   few  neighbours,  often  voluntarily  expended  considerable 

of  whom   shed   their   blood  for  the  Faith.     Still  aimual  sums  on  the  building  and  repairing  of  bridges, 

more  recently  Australia  has  been  indebted  to  the  the  making  of  roads,  etc.,  and  everywhere  exercised  a 

order  for  both   its  Catholicity  and  its  hierarchy,  benign  influence  directed  only  towards  improving 

The    English    congregation    supplied    some    of   its  the  social  and  material  condition    of    the  ]>eople 

earliest  missionaries,  as  well  as  its  first  prelates,  in  amongst  whom  they  found  themselves.    This  spirit, 

the    persons    of    Archbishop    Folding,    Archbishop  so  prevalent  during  the  ages  of  faith,  has  been  sue- 

Ullatnome,  and  others  during  the  first  half  of  the  cessfuUy  emulated  by  the  monks  of  later  tinies,  of 

nineteenth  century.    Later  on,  the  Spanish  monks,  which  no  more  striking  instances  in  our  own  day  can 

DD.  Serra  and  Salvado,  arrived  and  successfully  be   cited   than   the   wonderful   influence   for   good 

evangelized  the  western  portion  of  the  continent  amongst    the    aboriginal    inhabitants    of    Western 

from  New  Nursia  as  a  centre.    Mention  must  also  Australia  possessed  by  the  Spanish  Benedictines  of 

be  made  of  the  numerous  missions  amongst  the  New  Nurma.  and  the  great  mdustrial  and  agncui- 

North  American  Indians  by  the  monks  of  the  Swiss-  tural  work  done  amongst  the  native  tribes  of  South 

American  congregation  from  St.  Meinrad's  abbey,  Africa  by  the  Trappists  at  Mariannhill  and  their 

Indiana;  and  those  of  the  American-Cassinese  con-  numerous  mission  stations  in  Natal, 
gregation  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States,        (3)  Eduoatumal  Work  and  the  CuUivation  of  LUera- 

from  St.  Vincent's  Arch-Abbey,  Beatty,   Pennsyl-  ture, — The  work  of  education  and  the  cultivation  of 

vania.    Apostolic  work  was  also  done  by  the  Enghsh  literature  have  always  been  looked  upon  as  belonmng 

Fathers  of  the  Cassinese  P.  O.  congregation  amongst  by  right  to  the  Benedictines.    In  tne  eaiiiest  days 

the  Hindus  in  Western  Bengal,  and  amongst  the  of  the  order  it  was  the  custom  to  receive  children  in 

Maoris  in  New  Zealand;  and  French  monks  of  the  the  monasteries  that  they  might  be  educated  by 

same  co  jgregation  laboured  in  the  Apostolic  vicariate  the   monks.    At   first  such   children   were    always 

of  the  Indian  Territory,  U.  S.  A.,  from  the  head-  destined  for  the  monastic  state,  and  St.   Benedict 

?[uarter8  at  the  Sacred   Heart  Abbey,  Oklahoma,  legislated  in  his  Rule  for  their  solemn  dedication  by 

n  Ceylon  the  Sylvestrine  Benedictines  have  under-  their  parents  to  the  service  of  God.    St.  Placid  and 

taken  (1883)  missionarv  work  amongst  the  natives  St.   Maur  are  examples  from  St.  Benedict's  own 

in  the  Diocese  of  Kanay,  the.  bishop  of  which  is  a  dav  and  amongst  others  may  be  instanced  the  £ng- 

member  of  the  order;  and  still  more  recently  the  lish  saint,  Bede,  who  entered  the  monastery  of  Jarrow 

congregation  of  St.  Ottilien,  expressly  established  in  his  seventh  year.    The  education  of  these  children 

to  provide  workers  for  the  foreign  mission  field,  was  the  germ  out  of  which  afterwards  developed 

has  established  missions  amongst  the  native  tribes  the  great  monastic  schools.    Although  St.  fieneoict 

of  C^tral  Africa,  where   the  seeds  of  the  Faith  umcd  upon  his  monks  the  duty  of  systematic  nftd- 


BEKEDIOTIKl                           457  BBNIDZOTINE 

tag,  it  was  Cassiodorus,  the  quondam  minister  of  the  school  under  Walafrid  Strabo,  who  had  studied  at 
Gothic  kings,  who  about  the  year  538  ^ve  the  first  Fuida  and  on  his  return  became  scholastioM  and 
r^  impetus  to  monastic  learning  at  Viviers  (Yivar-  subsequently  abbot.    In  Saxony  the  monastery  of 
ium)  in  Calabria.    He  made  his  monastery  a  Christian  New  Ck)rbie  also  possessed  a  famous  school,  which  sent 
academy,  collected  a  great  nimiber  of  manuscripts,  forth  many  learned  missionaries  to  diffuse  learning  over 
and  introduced  an  organized  plan  of  study  for  his  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway.    It  was  founded  by 
disciples.    The  libeiral  arts  and  the  study  of  the  Ansgar,  the  apostle  of  Scandinavia,  who  came  from 
Holy  Scriptures  were  given  great  attention,  and  a  Old  Corbie  in  822,  where  he  had  been  the  favourite 
monastic  school  was  establisned  which  became  the  disciple  of  Paschasius  Radb^rtus,  a  theologian,  poet, 
pattern  after  which  many  others  were  subsequently  musician,  and  author  of  Scriptural  commentaries  and 
modelled.  an  exposition  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Holy  Eucharist. 
In  England  St.  Augustine  and  his  monks  opened  After  the  death  of  Chariemagne  the  revival  of 
schools  wherever  they  settled.    Up  to  that  time  the  secular  learning  which  hi  had  begun  waned  some- 
tradition  of  the  cloister  had  been  opposed  to  the  study  what,  except  in  the  Benedictine  abbeys  where  the 
of  profane  literature,  but  St.  Augustine  introduced  study  of  letters  still  remained  the  prerogative  of 
the  classics  into  the  English  schools,  and  St.  Theo-  the  monks.    The  Abbey  of  St.  Gall,  in  particular, 
dore,  who  became  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  668,  during  the  tenth  century  drew  to  its  waUs  numerous 
added   still   further    developments.      St.   Benedict  students  desirous  of  gaining  the  knowledge  that  was 
Biscop,  who  returned  to  England  with  Archbishop  imparted  there,  and  produced  many  celeorated  wri- 
Theodore  after  some  years   abroad,  presided  over  ters.    The  fame  of  Reichenau  also  revived,  and  from 
his  school  at  Canterbury  for  two  years  and  then,  it  was  founded  Einsiedeln  (934),  which  helped  to 
going  north,  transplanted  the  new  educational  system  carry  on  the  traditions  of  the  past.    Nor  was  Italy 
to  Wearmouth  and  Jarrow,  whence  it  spread  to  behindhand,  as  is  shown  by  the  history  of  such  monas- 
Archbishop  Egjbert's  school  at  York,  which  was  one  tic  schools  as  Monte  Cassino,  Pomposia,  and  Bobbio. 
of  the  most  mmous  in  England  in  the  eighth  cen-  Most  of  the  older  universities  of  Europe  have 
tury.^  There  Alcuin  taught  the  seven  sciences  of  the  grown  out  of  monastic  schools.    Paris,  Tours,  and 
"tnvium"  and  "quadrivium",  1.  e.  grammar,  rhet-  Lyons  have  been  mentioned;  amongst  others  were 
oric,  and  logic,   arithmetic,  music,  geometry,  and  Reims  and  Bologna,  and,  in  England,  Cambridge, 
astronomy.      (See    Arts,   The    Ssviaf    Liberal.)  where  the  Benedictines  of  Croyland  first  set  up  a 
Later  on  King  Alfred,  St.  Dunstan,  and  St.  Ethet-  school   in   the   twelfth   century.    At   Oxford,    the 
woid  did  mucn  to  foster  learning  in  England,  sub-  English  Benedictines,  though  they  could  not  claim 
stituting  monks  for  secular  canons  in  several  cathe-  to  oe  the  founders,  took  an  important  part  in  the 
dnds  and  neatly  improving  the  monastic  schools,  university  life  and  development.    Monks  had  from 
Ramsey  Abpey,  foimded  by  St.  Oswald  of  Worcester.  "'       -    -        *             -  "        »•«■       •    *• 
long  enjoyed  the  reputation  of  being  the  most  learned 

of  the  English  monasteries.    Glastonbury,  Abingdon,    ^^ ^_  ._  .„ ^  _  ^^ ^..w^-  —  v .v--*^ 

St.  Alban^s,  and  Westminster  were  also  famous  in  bers,  called  St.  Benedict's,  or  Gloucester,  Hall,  which 
their  day  and  produced  many  illustrious  scholars.  is  now  Worcester  College.    Li  1290  the  cathedral- 
In  France  Ciharlemagne  inaug[urated  a  great  re-  P^oi^  of  Durham  established  for  its  own  monks 
vival  in  the  world  of  letters  and  stimulated  tne  monks  St.  Cuthbert's  College,  which  is  now  Trinity;  and 
of  his  empire  to  study,  as  an  essential  of  their  state,  in  1362  another  couege,  now  Christ  Church,  was 
To  further  this  end  ne  brought  over  from  England  founded  for  the  monks  of  Canterbury.    The  Cister- 
in  782  Alcuin  and  several  of  the  best  scholars  of  York,  cians  had  Rewley  Abbey  just  outside  the   town, 
to  whom  he  entrusted  the  direction  of  the  academy  founded  about  1280,  and  St.  Bernard's  College,  now 
established  at  the  royal  court,  as  well  as  various  St.  John's,  established  in  1436  by  Archbishop  Chichele. 
other  schools  wluch  he  caused  to  be  started  in  different  All  these  colleges  flourished  until  the  Reformation, 
parts  of  the  empire.    Mabillon  gives  a  list  of  twenty-  and  even  after  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries 
seven  important  schools  in  France  established  under  many  of  the  ejected  monks  retired  to  Oxford  on  their 
Charlemagne  ^Acta  Sanctorum  O.  S.  B.,  seec.  IV,  pensions,  to  pass  the  remainder  of  their  days  in  the 
prsef.,   184).     Those  of    Paris,   Tours,   and   Lyons  peace  and  seclusion  of  their  Alma  Mater.    Fecken- 
eventually    developed    into    universities.    Li    Nor-  nam,  afterwards  Abbot  of  Westminster  imder  Queen 
mandy.  Later  on,   Bee  became  a  great  scholastic  Mary,  was  the  last  English  Benedictine  to  graduate 
centre  under  Lanfranc  and  St.  Anselm,  and  through  at  Oxford  (about  1537)  until,  in  1897,  the  community 
them  gave  a  fresh  impetus  to  the  English  schools,  of  Ampleforth  Abbey  opened  a  hall  and  sent  some 
Cluny  also  took  its  share  in  the  work  and  became  in  of  their  monks  there  to  studv  for  degrees, 
turn  the  custodian  and  fosterer  of  learning  in  France.  Besides  being  the  chief  ecfucational  centres  during 
In  Germany  St.  Boniface  opened  a  school  in  every  the  Middle  Ages,  the  monasteries  were,  moreover, 
monastery  he  founded,  not  only  for  the  younger  the   workshops   where   precious   manuscripts   were 
monks,  but  also  for  the  benefit  of  outside  scholars,  collected,  preserved,  and  miiltiplied.    To  the  monas- 
Early  in  the  ninth  century  two  monks  of  Fulda  were  tic  transonbers  the  world  is  indebted  for  most  of  its 
sent  to  Tours  by  their  abbot  to  study  under  Alcuin,  ancient  literature,  not  only  the  Scriptures  and  the 
and  through  them  the  revival  of  learning  gradually  writings  of  the  Fathers,  but  those  of  the  classical 
spread  to  other  houses.    One  of  the  two,  Kabanus  authors   also.     (Numerous   examples   are   cited   in 
Maorus,  returning  to  Fulda  in  813,  became  acholasH-  Newman,  Essay  on  the  Mission  of  St.  Benedict, 
cus  or  head  of  the  school  there,  later  abbot,  and  §  10.)    The    monastic    scriptoria  were    the    book- 
finally  Archbishop  of  Mainz.     He  was  the  author  of  manufactories  before  the  invention  of  printing,  and 
many  books,  one  of  which,  his  "  De  Institutione  rare  MSS.  were  often  circulated  amonest  the  monas- 
Clericorum",  is  a  valuable  treatise  on  the  faith  and  teries,  each  one  transcribing  copies  before  passing 
practice  of  the  Church  in  the  ninth  century.    This  the  original  on  to  another  bouse.    Without  doubt 
work  probably  exercised  a  beneficial  influence  on  all  the  copying  was  often  merely  mechanical  and  no 
the    cloister-schools     of     the     Frankish     Empire,  sign  of  real  scholarship,  and  the  pride  taken  by  a 
Hirschau,  a  colony  sent  out  from  Fulda  in  830.  monastery  in  the  number  and  beauty  of  its  MSS. 
became  a  celebrated  seat  of  learning  and  survivea  sometimes  rather  that  of  the  collector  than  of  the 
till  the  seventeenth  century,  when  both  the  monas-  scholar,  yet  the  result  is  the  same  as  far  as  posterity 
tery  and  its  Ubrary  were  destroyed  durine  the  Thirty  is  concerned.    The  monks  preserved  and  peipetuated 
Years  War.    Reichenau,  which  suffered  a  similar  the  ancient  writings  which,  but  for  their  industry, 
late  at  the  same  time,  owed  its  early  celebrity  to  its  would  imdoubtedly  have  be^  lost  to  us.    The  copy« 


/ 


408 


fBt0  of  Fontanelle,  Reims,  and  Corbie  were  especially 
aoted  for  the  beauty  of  their  penmanship,  and  the 
number  of  different  M86.  transcribed  uy  some  of 
their  monks  was  often  very  large. 

Full  particulars  are  given  by  Ziegelbauer  (Hist. 
Lit.  O.  S.  B.,  I)  of  the  most  im{)ortant  medieval 
Benedictine  libraries.  The  following  are  some  of 
the  chief  amongst  them:  In  En^dand:  Canterbury, 
founded  by  St.  Au^pstine,  enlarge  by  Lanfranc  and 
St.  Anselm,  contaimng,  according  to  a  catalogue  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  698  volumes;  Duriiam,  catalogues 
printed  by  the  Surtees  Society  (VII,  1838);  Whitby, 
catalogjues  still  existing;  Glastonbury,  catalogues 
still  existing;  Wearmoutn;  Croyland,  burnt  in  1091, 
containing  700  volimies;  reterborough.  In  France: 
Fleury,  MSS.  deposited  in  the  town  library  of  Or- 
leans, 1793;  Corbie,  400  of  the  most  valuable  MSS. 
removed  to  Saint-Germain-des-Pr^,  Paris,  1638, 
the  remainder,  partly  to  the  National  Library,  Paris 
(1794),  and  partly  to  the  town  library  of  Amiens; 
Saint-Germain-des-Prds;  Cluny,  MSS.  dispersed  by 
the  Huguenots,  except  a  few  which  were  destroyed 
at  the  Revolution;  Auxerre;  Dijon.  In  Spain: 
Montserrat,  the. majority  of  the  MSS.  still  existing; 
Valladolid:  Salamanca;  Silos,  library  still  existing; 
Madrid.  In  Switzerland:  Reichenau,  destroyed  in 
the  seventeenth  century;  St.  Gall,  dating  from  816, 
still  existing;  Einsiedeln,  still  existing.  In  Germany: 
Fulda,  much  indebted  to  Charlemasne  and  Rabanus 
Maurus,  with  400  copyists  under  Abbot  Sturm,  ^d 
containing,  in  1561,  774  volumes;  New  Corbie,  MSS. 
removed  to  the  University  of  Bfarburg  in  1811; 
Hirsohau,  dating  from  837;  8t.  Blaise,  in  Austria 
and  Bavaria:  Salzburg,  founded  in  the  sixth  century, 
and  containing  60,000  volumes;  KremsmOnster,  of 
the  eleventh  century,  with  50,000  volumes;  Admont, 
the  eleventh  century,  80,000  volumes;  Melk,  the 
eleventh  century,  60,000  volimies;  Lambach,  the 
eleventh  century,  22,()00  volimies;  Garsten;  Metten. 
In-  Italy:  Monte  Cassino,  three  times  destroyed,  by 
the  Lombards  in  the  sixth  century,  by  the  Saracens, 
and  by  fire  in  the  ninth,  but  each  time  restored  and 
still  existing;  Bobbio,  famous  for  its  palimpsests,  of 
which  a  tenth-century  catalogue  is  now  in  the 
Ambrosian  Library,  Milan,  printed  by  Muratori 
(Antiq.  Ital.  Med.  Aev.,  Ill);  Pomposia,  with  an 
eleventh-century  catalogue  printed  by  Montfaucon 
(Diarium   Italicum,   c.   xxii). 

Besides  preserving  the  writings  of  the  ancient 
authors,  the  monks  were  also  the  chroniclers  of 
their  day,  and  much  of  the  history  of  the  Middle 
Ages  was  written  in  the  cloister.  liiUgiish  history  is 
especially  fortunate  in  this  respect,  the  monastic 
chroniclers  including  St.  Bede,  Ordericus  Vitalis, 
William  of  Malmesoury,  Florence  of  Worcester, 
Simeon  of  Durham,  Matthew  Paris,  and  Eadmer  of 
Canterbury.  The  rise  of  the  scholastics,  for  the  most 
part  outside  the  Benedictine  Order,  in  later  medieval 
times,  seems  to  have  checked,  or  at  any  rate  relegated 
to  the  back^und,  both  the  literary  and  the  educa- 
tional activity  of  the  black  monks,  whilst  the  intro- 
duction of  the  art  of  printing  rendered  superfluous 
the  copying  of  MSS.  by  hand;  at  the  same  time  it  is 
worth  noticing  that  many  of  the  earliest  printing 
presses  were  set  up  in  Benedictine  cloisters,  e.  g.  by 
Caxton  at  Westminster,  and  by  some  authorities  tfaie 
invention  of  movable  types  is  also  ascribed  to  the 
sons  of  St.  Benedict. 

The  most  notable  revival  of  learning  in  post- 
Reformation  times  was  that  effected  by  the  con- 
gregation of  St.-Maur  in  France  in  the  seventeenth 
century.  Diligent  and  profoimd  study  in  all  de- 
partments of  ecclesiastical  literature  was  one  of  the 
professed  objects  of  this  reform,  and  a  congregation 
that  produce  such  men  of  letters  as  Mi£illon, 
Montfaucon,  d'Ach^ry,  M^ard,  Lami,  Gamier, 
Ruinart,  Mart^ne,  Sainte-Marthe,  and  Durand  needs 


no  further  eulo^  thi^n  a  reference  to  their  literaiy 
aohievraoents.  Their  ^  editions  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  Fathers  and  their  numerous  historical,  theologi- 
oal,  arohasolo^^cal,  and  critical  works  are  sufficient 
evid^ioe  of  their  industry.  They  were  not  lees  suc- 
cessful in  the  conduct  of  the  schools  they  estab- 
lished, of  which  those  at  Sor^ze,  Saumur,  Auxerre, 
Beaumont,  and  Saint-Jean  d'Ang61y  were  the  most 
important.     (See  Mauristb.) 

The  arts,  sciences,  and  utilitarian  crafts  abo  found 
a  home  in  the  Benedictine  cloister  from  the  earliest 
times.  The  monks  of  St.  Gall  and  Monte  Cassino 
excelled  in  illumination  and  mosaic  work,  and  the 
latter  community  are  credited  with  having  invented 
the  art  of  painting  on  glass.  A  contemporary  life  of 
St.  Dunstan  states  that  he  was  famous  lor  his  "writ- 
ing, painting,  moulding  in  wax,  carving  of  wood  and 
bone,  and  for  work  in  gold,  silver,  iron,  and  brass". 
Richard  of  Wallingford  at  St.  Albania  and  Peter 
Lightfoot  at  Glastonbury  were  well-known  fourteenth- 
century  clockmakers;  a  clock  by  the  latter,  formeriy 
in  Welb  cathedral,  is  still  to  be  seen  in  the  South 
Kensington  Museum,  London. 

In  modem  times  the  monks  of  Beuron  have  estab- 
hshed  a  school  of  art  where  painting  and  design, 
especially  in  the  form  of  polycnromatic  decoration, 
have  been  brought  to  a  nign  stage  of  perfection. 
The  printing  presses  of  Solemes  and  ligug^  (both 
now  confiscated  by  the  French  Government)  have 
produced  much  excellent  typographical  work,  whilst 
the  study  and  restoration  of  the  traditional  plain- 
chant  of  the  Church  in  the  same  monasteries,  un- 
der DD.  Pothier  and  Mocquereau,  is  of  world-wide 
reputation.  Embroidery  and  vestment-making  are 
crafts  in  which  many  commimities  of  nuns  excel, 
and  others,  like  Stanbrook,  maintain  a  printing  office 
with  considerable  success. 

IV.  Pressnt  Condition  op  the  Order. — Dt- 
velopment  of  extenud  organization, — A  brief  sketch 
of  the  constitution  and  government  of  the  order  is 
necessary  for  a  proper  imderstanding  of  its  present 
organization.  According  to  St.  Benedict's  idea,  each 
monastery  constituted  a  separate,  independent,  au- 
tonomous familv,  the  members  of  which  elected  their 
own  superior.  The  abbots,  therefore,  of  the  different 
houses  were  equal  in  rank,  but  each  was  the  actual 
head  of  his  own  community  and  held  his  office  for 
life.  The  necessities  of  the  times,  however,  the  need 
for  mutual  support,  the  establishment  of  daughter- 
houses,  and  possibly  the  ambition  of  individual  su- 
periors, all  combined  in  course  of  time  to  bring  about 
a  modification  of  this  ideal.  Although  foreshadowed 
by  the  Aachen  (Aix-la-Chapelle)  capitula  of  817 
under  St.  Benedict  of  Aniane^  the  actual  results  of 
whidi  died  out  with  their  onginator,  the  first  real 
departure  from  the  Benedictine  ideal,  subjecting  the 
superiors  of  different  houses  to  one  central  au- 
thority, was  made  by  Cluny  in  the  tenth  century 
The  plan  of  the  Clunlac  congregation  was  that  of  one 
grand  centjral  monastery  with  a  number  of  depend- 
encies spread  over  many  lands.  It  was  feudalism 
applied  to  the  monastic  institute.  Every  prior  or 
subordinate  superior  was  the  nominee  of  the  Abbot 
of  Cluny  and  held  office  only  during  his  pleasure;  the 
autonomy  of  the  individual  communities  was  de- 
stroyed so  far,  even,  that  no  monk  could  be  pro- 
fessed in  any  house  except  by  permission  of  the 
Abbot  of  Cluny,  and  all  were  obuged  usually  to  ^)end 
some  years  at  Cluny  itself.  But  notwithstanding 
the  extent  of  this  departure  from  Benedictine  tradi- 
tion, the  Cluniacs  were  never  considered  to  have 
seceded  from  the  main  Benedictine  body  or  to  have 
instituted  a  new  order.  Hirschau,  in  Germany, 
copied  Cluny,  though  with  less  conspicuous  success, 
and  C^teaux  developed  the  system  still  further  and 
constituted  a  new  order  outside  the  Benedictine 
fold^  which  has  ever  since  been  regarded  aa  such. 


BENEDIOnm  450  BBNEDIOTIME 

llie  example  of  Cluny  produced  imitators  sod  many  was  restoi^pd,  whilst  by  means  of  general  chapteti» 

new  unions  of  monasteries    subject  to  a  oentral  at   which   everv   monastery   of   tne   con^^regation 

abbey  resulted.    The  Lateran  Council  of  1215,  per-  was  representea,  and  by  tne  periodical  visitations 

odving  the  good  points  of  the  system  as  well  as  its  made  by  the  presidents  or  others  elected  for  that 

dangers,  set  itself  to  strike  the  mean  between  the  duty,   uniform   observance   and   regular   discipline 

two.    The  risks  of  an  ever-widening  breach  between  were  preserved.    The  presidents  were  elected  by  the 

thoee  which  adhered  to  Benedictine  tradition  and  other  abbots  composing  the  diapter  and  their  office 

those  which  had  adopted  the  Cluniac  ideas,  were  to  was  merely  presidential,   not   that  of  a  superior 

be  minimized,  whilst  at  the  same  time  uniformity  of  general  or  abbaa  ahbatutn, 

observance  and  the  mutual  strength  resulting  there-        Present  System  of  Government, — ^All  the  congrega- 
from,  were  to  be  fostered.    The  council  decreed  that  tions  of  more  recent  formation  have  been  constituted, 
the  monasteries  of  each  coimtry  should  be  banded  with  slight  variations,  on  the  same  plan,  which  repre- 
together  into  a  congregation;  periodical  representa-  sents  tl^  normal  and  traditional  form  of  government 
iiYe  chapters  were  to  ensure  systematic  government  in  the  order.    Uniformity  in  the  various  congrega- 
after  one  pattern;  the  appointment  of  dennitors  and  tions  is  further  secured  by  what  are  called  Consilium 
visitors  was  to  secure  uniformity  and  cohesion;  and  lions.    These  are  a  series  of  declarations  on  the  holy 
at  the  same  time  the  independence  of  the  abbots  and  Rule,  defining  its  interpretation  and  application,  to 
the  autonomy  of  the  individual  monasteries  were  to  which  are  added  other  regulations  on  points  of  dis- 
be  preserved.    The  plan  promised  well,  but  Eng-  dpline  and  practice  not  provided  for  oy  St.  Bene- 
bni  alone  seems  to  nave  given  it  a  fair  trial.    In  diet.    The  constitutions  must  be  approved  at  Rome, 
some  of  the  countries  it  was  not  imtil  the  issue  of  after  which  the^  have  binding  force  upon  the  con- 
the  Bull  "  Benedictina^'  in  1336,  or  even  the  Triden-  gregation  for  which  thev  are  intended.    The  capUtUa 
tine  decrees  of  two  centuries  later,  that  any  serious  of  Aachen  and  the  Concordia  Regularis  were  the 
attempt  was  made  towards  carrying  out  the  pro-  earliest  examples  of  such  constitutions.    Amongst* 
posals  of  1215.    Meanwhile  certain  Italian  reforms  others  may  l>e  mentioned  the  '' Statutes''  of  Laji- 
nad  produced  a  number  of  independent  congrega-  franc,  the  "Discipline  of  Farfa",  the  "Ordo"  of 
tions  outside  the  order,  differing  from  each  other  in  Bernard  of  Cluny,  and  the  "  Constitutions  *'  of  St. 
organization  and  spirit,  and  in  each  of  which  the  William  of  Hirscnau.     (The  three  latter  are  printed 
departure  from  Benedictine  principles  was  carried  by  Herrgott  in  "  Vetus  Disciplina  Monastica'',  Paris, 
a  stage  further.    Even  in  the  Cluniac  congregation  1726.)    Since  the  thirteenth  century  every  congre- 
the  power  of  the  Abbot  of  Cluny  was,  after  the  twelfth  gation  has  had  its  own  set  of  constitutions,  in  wmch 
century,  somewhat  curtailed  by  the  institution  of  the  principles  of  the  Rule  are  adapted  to  the  particu- 
chapters  and   definitors.    The   Sylvestrines    (1231)  lar  work  of  the  congregation  to  which  they  apply, 
preserved  the  perpetuity  of  superiors  and  recognized  Each  congre^tion  is  composed  of  a  certain  number 
the  advantages  of  a  representative  chapter,  though  of  monasteries,   the  abbots  of  which,   with  other 
its  chief  superior  was  something  more  than  a  mere  officials  and  elected  representatives,  form  the  general 
primus  inter  jxxres.    The  Celestines  (1274)  adopted  chapter,  which  exercises  legislative  and  executive 
a  somewhat  similar  system  of  centralized  authority,  authority  over  the  whole  body.    The  power  pos- 
bat  differed  from  it  in  that  their  superior  was  electea  sessed  by  it  is  strictly  limited  and  defined  in  the 
triennially.     The  Olivetans  (1319)  marked  the  fur-  constitutions.    The  meetings  of  the  chapter  are  held 
thest  point  of  development  by  instituting  an  abbot-  usually  every  two,   three,  or  four  years  and  are 
general  with  jurisdiction  over  all  the  other  abbots  as  presided  over  by  one  of  the  members  elected  to  that 
well  as   their   conmiunities.    The   general   chapter  office  by  the  rest.    Whilst  the  office  of  abbot  is 
nominated  the  officials  of  all  the  houses;  the  monks  usually  for  life,  that  of  the  pr^ident  is  generally  only 
bek)nged  to  no  one  monastery  in  particular,  but  to  for  a  term  of  years  and  the  person  holding  it  is  not 
the  whole  congregation;  and  oy  thus  destroying  all  in  all  cases  eligible  for  continuous  re-election.    Each 
community  rights,  and  placing  all  power  in  the  hands  preadent,  either  by  himself  or  in  conjunction  with 
of  a  small  committee,   the  Otivetan  oongn^ation  one  or  more  specially  elected  visitors,  holds  canonical 
approximated  nearest  to  the  later  orders  like  the  visitations  of  all  the  houses  of  his  congregation,  and 
Dominicans  and  Jesuits,  with  their  highly  centralized  by  this  means  the  chapter  is  kept  informed  of  the 
ystems  of  government.    The  congregation  of  St.  spiritual  and  temporal  condition  of  each  monastery, 
Justina  of  Padua  was  modelled  on  similar  lines,  and  discipline  is  maintained  according  to  the  con- 
though  afterwards  considerably  modified,  and  some  stitutions. 

centuries  later  St.-Vannes  and    St.-Maur   followed        The  Abbot  Primate. — In  order  the  better  to  bind 

in  its  wake.    The  Spanish  congregation  of  Valladolid,  together  the  various  congregations  that  constitute 

too,  with  its  abbot-general,  and  with  superiors  who  the  order  at  the  present  day,  Pope  Leo  XIII,  in 

were  not  perpetual  and  chosen  by  the  general  chap-  1893,   appointed  a  nominal  head  over  the  whole 

ter,  must  be  classed  with  those  that  represent  the  federation,  with  the  title  of  Abbot  Primate.    The 

'  line  of  departure  from  earlier  Benedictine  tradition;  traditional  autonomy  of  each  congregation,  and  still 

as  must  also  the  resuscitated  English  congregation  further  of  each  house,  is  interfered  with  in  the  least 

of  the  seventeenth  century,  which  inherited  its  con-  possible  degree  by  this  appointment,  for,  as  the  title 

stitution  from  that  of  Spain.     In  these  two  latter  itself  indicates,  the  office  is  in  its  nature  different 

cpngregaticNQS,  however,  there  were  some  modifica-  from  that  of  the  general  of  an  order.    Apart  from 

tions,  which  made  their  dissent  from  the  original  matters  explicitly  defined,  the  abbot  primate's  posi- 

ideal  less  marked  than  in  those  previously  enumer-  tion  with  regard  to  the  other  abbots  is  to  be  imder- 

ated.     On  the  other   side,  as    representmg   those  stood  rather  from  the  analoey  of  a  primate  in  a 

that  preserved  the  traditional  autonomy  and  family  hierarchy  than  from  that  of  the  general  of  an  order 

Mrit  in  the  individual  houses,  we  have  the  Bursfeld  like  the  Dominicans  or  Jesuits. 
Union  which,   in  the  fifteenth  century,  made  an        Methods    of   Recruiting, — ^The    recruiting   of   the 

honest  attempt  to  carry  out  the  Lateran  decrees  and  various  monasteries  of  the  order  differs  according  to 

the  provisions   of   the   Bull    "Ben^ictina''.    The  the  nature  and  scope  of  the  influence  exerted  by  each 

Austrian,  Bavarian,  and  Swiss  congregations  of  the  individual  house.    Those  t^at  have  schools  attached 

same  period  followed  out  the  same  idea,  as  do  also  to  them  naturally  draw  their  members  more  or  less 

shiiost  all  of  the  more  modem  congregations,  and  by  from  these  schoob.    The  English  congregation  is 

the  legislation  of  Leo  XIII  the  traditional  principles  recruited  very  largely  from  the  schools  attached  to 

of  government  have  been  revived  in  the  English  con-  its  monasteries;  and  other  congregations  are  simi- 

9^egation.    In  this  way  the  true  Benedictine  ideal  2arly  reccuitad.    Some  educate  and  train  in  theii 


BEBnSDIOmfE 


460 


BSNEDXOTIHE 


monasteries  a  number  of  alumni,  or  pupila  provision- 
ally intended  for  the  monastic  state,  wno  tnoujgh  not 
in  any  way  bound  to  do  so,  if  sliowing  any  signs  of 
vocation,  are  encousaged  to  receive  the  habit  on 
reaching  the  canonical  age. 

A  candidate  for  admission  is  usually  kept  as  a 
jHfstulani  for  at  least  some  weeks  in  order  that  the 
oommunitv  he  seeks  to  join  may  judge  whether  he 
is  a  suitable  person  to  be  admitted  to  the  proba- 
tionary stage.  Having  been  accepted  as  such,  he 
is  "  clothed  as  a  novice,  receiving  the  religious  habit 
and  a  religious  name,  and  bein^  placed  under  the  care 
of  the  novice-master.  According  to  the  Rule  he  has 
to  be  trained  and  tested  during  nis  period  of  novice- 
ship,  and  canon  law  requires  that  for  the  most  part 
the  novice  is  to  be  kept  apart  from  the  rest  of  the 
community.  For  this  reason  the  novices'  quarters 
are  generally  placed,  if  possible,  in  a  different  part  of 
the  monastery  from  those  occupied  by  the  professed 
monks.  The  canonical  novitiate  lasts  one  year,  at 
the  end  of  which,  if  satisfactory,  the  novice  may  be 
admitted  to  simple  vows,  and  at  the  conclusion  of 
another  three  years,  unless  rejected  for  grave  reasons, 
he  makes  his  solemn  vows  of  **  Stability,  Conversion 
of  maimers,  and  Obedience  ".     (Rule  of  St.  Benedict.) 

Hctbii. — With  slight  modifications  in  shape  in  some 
con^gations  the  habit  of  the  order  consists  of  a 
tumc,  confined  at  the  waist  by  a  girdle  of  leather 
or  cloth,  a  scapular,  the  width  of  the  shoulders  and 
reaching  to  the  knees  or  ground,  and  a  hood  to  cover 
the  head.  In  choir,  at  chapter,  and  at  certain  other 
ceremonial  times,  a  long  full  gown  with  large  flowing 
sleeves,  called  a  "cowl  ',  is  worn  over  the  ordinary 
habit.  The  colour  is  not  specified  in  the  Rule  but 
it  is  cpnjectured  that  the  earliest  Benedictines  wore 
white  or  grey,  as  being  the  natural  colour  of  undyed 
wool.  For  many  centuries,  however,  black  has  been 
the  prevailing  colour,  hence  the  term  "black  monk" 
has  come  to  signify  a  Benedictine  not  belondng  to 
one  of  those  separate  congregations  which  has 
adopted  a  distinctive  colour,  e.  g.  the  Camaldolese, 
Cistercians,  and  Olivetans,  who  wear  white,  or  the 
Sylvestrines,  whose  habit  is  blue.  The  only  differ- 
ences in  colour  within  the  Benedictine  federation  are 
those  of  the  monks  of  Monte  Vergine,  who  though 
now  belonging  to  the  Cassinese  congre^tion  of 
Primitive  Ob^rvance,  still  retain  the  white  habit 
adopted  by  their  foimder  in  the  twelfth  century, 
and  those  of  the  con^^tion  of  St.  Ottilien,  who 
wear  a  red  girdle  to  sigmfy  their  special  missionary 
character. 

Present  Work  of  the  Order, — Parochial  work  is 
undertaken  by  the  following  congregations:  Cassinese, 
English,  Swiss,  Bavarian,  Galilean,  American-Cassi- 
nese,  Swiss-American,  Beuronese,  Cassinese  P.  O., 
Austrian  (both),  Hungarian,  and  the  Abbey  of  Fort 
Augustus.  In  the  majority  of  these  congregations 
the  missions  are  attached  to  certain  abbeys  and 'the 
monks  serving  them  are  under  the  almost  exclusive 
control  of  their  own  monastic  superiors;  in  others 
the  monks  only  supply  the  place  of  the  secular  cleigjjr 
and  are,  therefore,  for  the  time  being,  under  their 
respective  diocesan  bishops. 

The  work  of  education  is  common  to  all  congrega- 
tions of  the  order.  It  takes  the  form  in  different 
places  of  seminaries  for  ecclesiastical  studies,  schools, 
and  gymnasia  for  secondanr  education  not  strictly 
ecclesiastical,  or  of  colleges  for  a  higher  or  university 
course.  In  Austria  and  Bavaria  many  of  the  govern- 
ment lyc^es  or  ^minasia  are  entrusted  to  the  care  of 
the  monks.  In  England  and  America  the  Benedictine 
schools  rank  high  amongst  the  educational  estab- 
lishments of  those  countries,  and  compete  success- 
fully with  the  non-Catholic  schools  of  a  similar  class. 
Those  of  the  American  Cassinese  congregation  have 
already  been  enumerated;  they  include  three  semi- 
nariesy  fourteen  schools  and  oolleges,  and  an  orphao- 


,  with  a  total  of  neariy  two  thousand  student!- 
e  Swiss  American  congregation  carries  on  seholaftde 
work  at  five  of  its  abbeys.  At  St.  Meinrad's,  besides 
the  seminary,  there  is  a  commercial  college;  at 
Spielerville  (Arkansas)  and  Mount  Angel  (Oreeon) 
are  seminaries;  and  at  Conception,  Spielerville,  Cov- 
ington (Louisiana),  and  Mount  Angel  are  colle^. 
The  English  Benedictines  have  large  and  flourishmg 
oollej^  attached  to  each  of  their  abbeys,  and  be- 
longing to  Downside  are  also  two  other  smaller 
schoob,  one  a  "grammar  school"  at  Ealing,  London, 
and  the  other  a  preparatory  school  recently  estab- 
lished at  Enniscorthy,  Ireland. 

Foreign  Miesionary  Work, — Besides  the  congren- 
tion  of  St.  Ottilien,  which  exists  speciallv  for  toe 
purpose  of  forei^  missionary  work,  and  has  Usa 
mission  stations  m  the  Apostolic  Vicariate  of  Zanii- 
bar,  a  few  others  are  also  represented  in  the  foreign 
mission  field.  Both  Amerieim  congregations  labour 
amongst  the  Indians,  in  Saskatchewan  (N.  W.  T., 
Cana&),  Dakota,  Vancouver's  Island,  and  elsewhoe. 
The  Cassinese  P.  O.  congregation  has  missions  in 
the  Apostolic  Vicariate  of  the  Indian  Territory  (U. 
S.  A.)  and  in  Ai^^ntina,  under  the  monks  of  the 
French  province,  in  New  Zealand  under  the  Enriish 

Srovince,  in  Western  Australia  (Diocese  of  New 
fursia  and  Apostolic  Vicariate  of  Kimberiey)  and  in 
the  Philippines  under  the  Spanish  province,  and  the 
Belffianprovince  has  quite  lately  inade  a  foundation 
in  the  TYansvaal,  South  Africa.  The  Brazilian  con- 
gregation has  several  missions  in  Brazil,  which  are 
under  the  direction  of  the  Abbot  of  Rao  de  Janeiro, 
who  is  also  a  bishop.  In  the  island  of  Mauritius  the 
Bbhop  of  Port  Louis  is  generally  an  English  Bene- 
dictine. Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the 
work  of  the  Sylvestrine  Benedictines  -in  Ceylon  and 
of  the  Cistercians  in  Natal,  South  Africa. 

Statistics  of  the  Order 


Caasin 
En^iflh 

8W188 

Bavarian 
Brasilian 
Galilean 

American  Cassinese 
Beuronese 
Swiss  American 
Cassinese  P.  O. 
Austrian: 

Imm.  Cono. 

St.  Joseph 
Hungarian 
St.  Ottilien 
Fort  Augustus 
St.  Anselm's 


1 


16 

4 
6 

n 

18 

11 

10 
9 
7 

86 

11 
7 

11 
2 
1 
1 


156 


188 

274 

277 

79 

855 

42 

383 

51 

110 

6 

374 

1 

753 

151 

711 

14 

348 

103 

1.002 

90 

647 

367 

293 

61 

198 

145 

163 

10 

47 

8 

1 

5.940 

1.402 

170.540 
87.328 
34.819 
78.422 

550 

110^20 

3312 

85.605 

115.410 

460,832 

55.062 

37.260 

2.885 

430 


1.192.734 


I 


o 


6 
5 
7 

10 
4 
2 

18 
5 

10 

17 

11 

10 

6 

3 


114 


47« 
380 
978 

1,71» 

770 

42 

1.702 
MI 

1.89: 

901 

1,668 

190 


12.392 


Orders  and  congregations  professing  the  Rule  of 
St.  Benedict  but  not  included  in  the  BenediotiDc 
Federation  are  as  follows: — 

MONAB- 
TKBIB8 

Camaldolese 19  

Vallombrosa 3  

Cistercians  (Common  Ob- 
servance) 29  1,040 

"          (Trappists)..  58  3,637 

Sylvestrines 9  9o 

Olivetans 10  122 

Mechitariste 14  152 


No.  or 
Bjeuoioi^ 

241 

60 


142 


6,347 


BxnBDXonm  ^ttl  benediotimx 

Nods,  Benedietine  and  others:''-  St.  Benedict  Biscop  (England),  d.  690;  founder  ol 

CoNYEMTB  No.  tfT  Woannouth  and  Janow.    St.  Filbert  (France),  d, 

Benedictine  Nuns:  iuuoioto  Qg^.  founder  of  Jumi^ges.    St.  Bened^'ct  of  Anian* 

1.  Under  Benedictine  (Prance),  d.  821;  reformer  of  monasteries  under 

Abbots 9     251  Charlemagne;  presided  at  council  of  abbots,  Aachen 

2.  Under  Bishops 253     7,156  (Aix-larChapelle),    817.      St.    Dunstan    (England), 

Camaldolese  Nuns 5     150  a.  988;  Abbot  of  Glastonburv  (c.  945),  and  after- 
Cistercian  Nuns 100     2,965  wards  Archbishop  of  Canteroury    (961);  reformer 

Oiivetan  Nuns 20    200  of  English  monasteries.    St.  Bemo  (France),  d.  927; 

founder  and  first  Abbot  of  Cluny  (909).    St.  Odo  or 

387                             10,722  Eudes  (France),  b.  879,  d.  942;  second  Abbot  of  Clunx. 
The  foregoing  tables,  which  are  taken  from  the  St.  Aymard  (France),  d.  965;  third  Abbot  of  Cluny. 
"Album  Benedictinum'' of  1906,  give  a  grand  aggre-  St.  Majolus  or  Maleul    (France),  b.  906,  d.  994; 
gate  of  684  monasteries,  with  22,009  religious  of  both  fourth  Abbot  of  Quny;  Otto  II  desired  to  make  him 
sexes.    The   statistics   for   missions   and    churches  pope  in  974  but  he  refused.    S4.  OdUo  (France), 
served  include  those  churches  and  missions  over  d.  1048;  fifth  Abbot  of  Cluny.    Bernard  of  Cluny 
which  the  monasteries  exercise  the  right  of  patronage,  (France),  d.  1109;   famous  in  connexion  with  thd 
as  well  as  those  actually  served  by  monks.  eleventh-century  "Ordo  Cluniacensis"  which  bears 
y.  Benedictines  op  Special  Distinction. — ^The  his  name.    Peter  the  Venerable  (France),  d.  1156; 
following  lists  are  not  intended  to  be  in  any  way  ninth  Abbot  of  Cluny;  employed  by  several  popes 
exhaustive;  they  merely  profess  to  include  some  of  in  important  affairs  of  the  Cnurch.    St.  Romualci 
the  more  famous  members  of  the  order.    The  names  (Italy),  b.  956,  d.  1026;  founder  of  the  Camaldolese 
are  classified  according  to  the  particular  sphere  of  congregation   (1009).      Herluin  (France),   d.    ur^ 
work  in  which  they  are  most  celebrated,  but  although  founder  of  Bee   (1040).     St.   Robert  of  Molesme 
many  of  them  might  therefore  have  a  j\ist  claim  to  (France),  b.  1018,^  d.  1110;  foimder  and  Abbot  of 
be  included  in  more  than  one  of  the  different  classes,  Molesme   (1075);  joint-foimder  and  fifst  Abbot  of 
when  the  same  individual  was  distinguished  in  several  Clteaux    (1098).     St.    Alberic    (France),    d.    1109; 
different  departments  of  work,  from  considerations  joint-founder  and   second  Abbot  of   Citeaux.     St. 
of  space  and  for  the  avoidance  of  unnecessary  repeti-  Stephen  Harding  ^ngland),  d.  1134;  joint-foimder 
tion,  his  name  has  been  inserted  only  under  one  and  third  Abbot  of  Clteaux.    St.  Bernard  (France), 
head.    The  lists  are  arranged  more  or  less  chrono-  b.  1091,  d.  1153;  joined  Clteaux  with  thirty  other 
logically,   except  where   some   connecting  features  noblemen  (1113);  founded  Clairvaux  (1115);  wrote 
seem  to  call  for  special  ^roupin^.     To  most  of  the  many  spiritual  and  theological  works;  was  a  states- 
names  the  country  to  which  tne  mdividual  belonged  man  and  adviser  of  kings,  and  a  Doctor  of  the 
is  added  in  parenthesis.                                         ^  Church;  he  preached  the  Second  Crusade  throughout 
Popes, — St.  Gregory  the  Great  ^Rome);  bom  c.  France  and  Germany  at  the  request  of  Eugenius  III 
540,  d.  604;  one  of  the  four  Latin  Doctors;  celebrated  (1146).      St.  William  of   Hirschau   (Germany),   c. 
for  tus  writings  and  for  his  reform  of  ecclesiastical  1090;  author  of  "Constitutions  of  Hirschau".    St. 
chant;  called   the   "Apostle  of  England"   because  John  Gualbert   (Italy),  b.    999,   d.    1073;   founder 
he  sent  St.  Augustine  to  that  coimtry  in  596.    Syl-  of  Vallombrosa  (1039).      St.  Stephen   or  Etienne 
Toter  II  or  Gerbert  (France),  999-1003;  a  monk  of  (France),  d.   1124;  founder  of  Grammont   (1076). 
Fleuiy.    St.    Gregory    VII    or    Hildebrand    Aldo-  Bl.  Robert  of  Arbrissel  (France),  d.  1116;  founder 
brancieschi    (Tuscany),  1073-85;  a  monk  of  Cluny  of  Fontevrault  (1099).    St.  William  (Italy),  d.  1142; 
and  aiterwajxls  Abbot  of  St.   Paurs.  Rome.    Bl.  foimder  of   Monte   Vergine    (1119).    St.   Sylvester 
Victor  III   (Benevento),  1086-87;  Abbot  of  Monte  (Italy),  b.  1177,  d.  1267;  founder  of  the  Sylvestrines 
Cassino.     Paschal  II  (Tuscany),  1099-1118;  a  monk  (1231).    St.  Bernard  Ptolemy  (Italy),  b.  1272,  d. 
of  Cluny.     Grelasius  II  or  Giovanni  da  Gaeta,  John  1348;  foimder  of  the  Olivetans  (1319).    Ludovico 
Cajetan  (Gaeta),  1118-19;  historian.    St.  Celestine  V  Barbo  (Italy),  d.  1443;  first  a  canon  regular,  then 
or  I^io  di  Murrhone  (Apulia),  b.  1221,  d.  1296;  Abbot  of  St.  Justina  of  Padua  and  founder  of  the 
founder  of  the  order  of  Ceiestines;  was  elected  pope  congregation  of  the  same  name  (1409).    Didier  de 
1294,  but  abdicated  after  reigning  only  six  months,  la  Cout  (France),  b.  1550,  d.  1623;  founder  of  the 
Clement  VI   (France),  1342-52;  a  monk  of  Chaise-  congregation  of  St.-Vannes  (1598).    Laurent  B^nard 
Dieu.    Bl.   Urban  V   (France),   1362-70;  Abbot  of  (France),  b.  1573.  d.  1620;  Prior  of  Quny  College, 
St,  Victor,  Marseilles.    Pius  VII  or  Bamaba  Chiara*  Paris,    and   founder  of   the   Maurist   congregation 
monti  (Italy),  1800-23;  was  taken  by  force  from  (1618).    Jos^  Serra  (Spam^,  b.  1811,  died  c.  1880: 
Rome  and  imprisoned  at  Savona  and  Fontainebleau  Coadjutor  Bishop  of  Perth,  Australia  (1848);  and 
(1809-14)  by  Napoleon,  whom  he  had  crowned  in  Rudmnd  Salvado  (Spain),  b.  1814,  d.  1900;  Bishop 
1804;  returned  to  Rome  in  1814.    Gregory  XVI  or  of  Port  Victoria  (1849);  founders  of  New  Nursia, 
Maurus  Cappellari  (Venice),  1831-46,  a  Camaldolese  Australia.    Prosper  Gu6ranger    (France),   b.    1805, 
monk  and  Abbot  of  St.  Andrew's  on  the  Coelian  d.  1875;  founder  of  the  Galilean  congregation  (1837): 
Hill,  Rome.  restored  Solesmes  (1837);  well  known  as  a  liturgical 
Apostles  and  Missioncaries, — St.  Augustine  (Rome),  writer.    Jean-Baptiste  Muard  (France),  b.  1809,  d. 
d.  604;  Prior  of  St.  Andrew's  on  the  Coelian  Hill:  1854:  founder  of  Pierre-qui-Vire  and  of  the  French 
the  Apostle   of  England   (596);  first  Archbishop  ot  provmce  of  the  Cassinese  Congrewttion  of  Primitive 
C^teAury  (597).    St.  Boniface  (England),  b.  680,  Observance   (1850).      Maurus    Wolter    (Germany), 
marked  755;  Apostle  of  Germany  and  Archbishop  b.  1825,  d.  1900;  founder  of  the  BeUronese  congre- 
of  Uuni.     St.  Willibrord  (England),  bom  c.  658,  Mition    (1860);   Abbot   of   Beuron    (1868).    Pietro 
d,  738;   thfiL  Apostle  of  Friesland.    St.  Swithbert  Francesco  Casaretto  (Italy),  b.  1810,  d.  1878;  founder 
(England),    d.    713;   the   Apostle  of  Holland.    St.  and  first  Abbot-General  of  Cassinese  congre^tion  of 
Rupert  (France),  d.  718;  the  Apostle  of  Bavaria  and  Primitive    Observance    (1851).    Boniface    Wimmer 
Biflbop  of  Salzburg.    St.  Sturm  (Bavaria),  d.  779;  (Bavaria),  b.  1809,  d.  1887;  founder  of  American 
first  Abbot  of  Fulda.    St.  Ansgar  (Germany),  b.  801,  Cassinese  congregation  (1855).     Martin  Marty  (Swit- 
d.  865;  monk  of  Corbie  and  Apostle  of  Scandinavia,  zerland),  b.  1834,  d.  1896;  foimder  of  Swiss  American 
St  Adalbert,  d.  997;  the  Apostle  of  Bohemia.  congregation  (1870);  Abbot  of  St.  Meinrad's,  Indiana 
Founders  of  Abbeys  and  Congregations,  Reformers,  (1870);  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Dakota  (1879).    Jerome 
etc.— St.  Erkenwald  (England),  died  c.  693;  Bishop  of  Vaughan  (Eng^d),  b.  1841,  d.  1896;  founder  of 
Loodoa;  founder  of  Chertsey  and  Barking  abbeys.  Fort  Augustus  Abbey  (1878).    Gerard  van  Caloe|! 


BENEDIOTIMC  462  BENXDIOTHIX 

(Belgium),  b.  1853;  restorer  of  Brazilian  congr^a-  dictine    congregation.    Femand    Cabrol    (France), 

tion;  Abbot  of  Bahia  (1896);  titular  Bishop  of  Pno-  b.  1855;  Abbot  of  Famboroogh  (Galilean  congrega- 

cflea  (1906).  tion).    Jean  Besse   (France),  b.   1861;  a  monk  of 

Scholars,    Historians^  Spiritual   Writers,  etc, — St.  Ligug^.     Germain  Morin,  of  the  Beuronese  congr&- 

Bede  (England),  b.  673,  d.  735;  monk  of  Jarrow,  gation,  b.  1861.    John  Chapman,  of  the  Beuronese 

Doctor  of  the  Church,  historian,  and  commentator,  congregation,  b.   1865.      Edward  Cuthbert  Butler 

St.  Aldhehn  (England),  d.  709;  Abbot  of  Mahnesbury  (Eneland),  b.  1858;  Abbot  of  Downside  (1906). 
and   Bishop   of   Sherborne.    Alcuin    (England),   d.        The    Congreaation    of    St.-Maur, — ^The    following 

804,  monk  of  York;  founder  of  schools  m  France  are  some  of  the  chief  writers  of  this  congregation: 

under  Charlemagne.     Rabanus  Maurus  (Germany),  Adrien  Langlois,  d.  1627;  one  of  the  first  irfaurists. 

d.  856;  Archbishop  of  Mainz.     St.  Paschasius  Rad-  Nicolas  Menard,  b.   1585,  d.   1644.    Gr^goire  Tar- 

bertus  (Germany),  d.  860;  Abbot  of  Corbie.    Ratram-  risse,  b,  1575,  d.  1648;  first  Superior  Geneijl  of  the 

nus  (Germany),  d.  866;  a  monk  of  Corbie,  who  took  congregation.      Luc   d'Ach^ry,    b.    1609,   a.    1685. 

gart  in  Sacramentarian  controversy.  Walafrid  Antoine-Joseph  M^ee,  b.  1625,  d.  1691.  Louis 
trabo  (Gem^my),  d.  849;  a  monk  of  Fulda,  and  Bulteau,  b.  1625,  d.  1693.  Michel  Germain,  b. 
afterwards  Abbot  of  Reichenau.  "*  Abbon  of  Fleury  1645,  d.  1694;  a  companion  of  Mabillon.  Claude 
(France),  tenth  century;  at  one  time  a  monk  at  Can-  Martin,  b.  1619,  d.  1696.  Claude  Estenniot,  b.  1639, 
terbury.  Notker  Switzerland),  d.  1022;  a  monk  d.  1699;  a  companion  of  Mabillon.  Jean  Mabillon, 
of  St.  Gall;  theologian,  mathematician,  and  musician,  b.  1632,  d.  1707;  the  greatest  of  the  Maurists.  Thierry 
Guido  d'Arezzo  (Italy),  died  c.  1028;  inventor  of  Ruinart,  b.  1657,  d.  1709;  a  companion  and  biog- 
the  gamut.  Hermannus  Contractus  (Germany),  rapher  of  Mabillon.  Francois  Lamy,  b.  1636,  a. 
eleventh  century;  a  monk  of  St.  Gall;  learned  in  1711.  Pierre  Constant,  b.  1654,  d.  1721.  Denis  de 
Eastern  languages;  author  of  the  "Salve  Regina".  Sainte-Marthe,  b.  1650,  d.  1725.  Julien  Gamier, 
Paul  Wamefrid,  or  Paul  the  Deacon  ataly),  eighth  b.  1670,  d.  1725.  Edmond  Mart^ne,  b.  1654,  d.  1739. 
century'  historian  and  teacher  (scnolasticus)  at  Ursin  Durand,  b.  1682,  d.  1773.  Bernard  de  Mont- 
Monte  Cassino.  Hincmar  (France),  d.  882;  a  monk  faucon,  b.  1655,  d.  1741.  Ren^Prosper  Tassin, 
of  St.  Denis;  Archbishop  of  Reims  (845).    St.  Peter  d.  1777. 

Damian  (Italy),  b.  988,  d.  1072;  a  monk  of  the  Bishops,  Monks,  Martyrs,  etc. — St.  Laurence 
Camaldolese  reform  at  Fonte  Avellano;  Cardinal  (Italy),  d.  619;  came  to  England  with  St.  Auffustine 
Bishop  of  Ostia  (1057).  Lanfranc  (Italy),  b.  1005  (597),  whom  he  succeeded  as  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
in  Lombardy,  d.  at  Canterbury,  1089;  a  monk  at  bury  (604).  St.  Mellitus  (Italy\  d.  624;  a  Roman 
Bee  (1042);  founder  of  the  school  there;  Archbishop  abbot,  sent  to  England  with  otner  monks  to  assist 
of  Canterbury  (1070).  St.  Anselm  (Italy),  b.  1033  St.  Augustine  (601);  founder  of  St.  Paul's,  London, 
in  Piedmont,  d.  1109;  a  monk  at  Bee  (lOiSO);  Abbot  and  firet  Bishop  of  London  (604);  Archbishop  of 
of  Bee  (1078);  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (1093);  Cant^bury  (619).  St.  Justus  (Italy},  d.  627;  came 
usually  considered  the  nrst  scholastic.  Eadmer  to  England  (601):  first  Bishop  of  Rochester  (604) 
(England),  d.  1137;  a  monk  of  Canterbury  and  and  afterwards  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (624). 
disciple  of  St.  Anselm,  whose  life  he  wrote.  The  St.  Paulinus  of  York  (Italy),  d.  644;  came  to  Eng- 
Enghsh  historians:  Florence  of  Worcester,  d.  1118;  land  (601);  first  Bishop  of  York  (625);  Bishop  of 
Simeon  of  Durham,  d.  1130;  Jocelin  de  Brakelonde,  Rochester  (633).  St.  Odo  (Enfflana),  d.  961:  .AjTh- 
d.  1200,  a  monk  and  chronicler  of  Bury  St.  Edmunds;  bishop  of  Canterbury.  St.  Elphege  or  JSlfheah 
Matthew  Paris,  d.  1259,  a  monk  of .  St.  Albans;  (England),  d.  1012*  Archbishop  of  Canterburv 
William  of  Malmesbury,  died  c.  1143:  Gervase  of  (1006);  killed  by  the  Danes.  St.  Oswald  (Enriand), 
Canterbury,  died  c.  1205;  Roger  of  Wendover,  d.  992;  nephew  of  St.  Odo  of  Canterbury;  Bisnap  of 
d.  1237,  a  monk  of  St.  Albans.  Peter  the  Deacon  Worcester '  (959) :  Archbishop  of  York  (972).  St. 
(Italy),  died  c.  1140;  a  monk  of  Monte  Cassino.  Bertin  (France),  b.  597,  d.  709;  Abbot  of  Saint-Omer 
AdamEaston  (England),  d.  1397,  a  monk  of  Norwich:  St.  Botolph  (England),  d.  655;  abbot.  St.  Wilfrid, 
Cardinal   (1380).      John  Lydgate    (England),   died  bom  c.  634,  d.  709;  Bishop  of  Yoric.    St.  Cuthbert, 

c.  1450;  a  monk  of  Bury  St.  Edmunds;  poet.  John  d.  687;  Bishop  of  Lindisfame.  St.  John  of  Beverley, 
Wheathamstead  (England),  d.  1440;  Abbot  of  St.  d.  721;  Bishop  of  Hexham.  St.  Swithin,  d.  862; 
Albans.    Johannes  Trithemius  (Germany),  b.  1462,  Bishop   of    Winchester.      St.    Ethelwold,    d.    984; 

d.  1516;  Abbot  of  Spanheim,  a  volummous  writer  Bishop  of  Winchester.  St.  Wulfstan,  d.  1095; 
and  great  traveller.  Louis  Blosius  (Belgium),  b.  Bishop  of  Worcester.  St.  iEh^,  b.  1109,  d.  1166; 
1506,  d.  1566;  Abbot  of  Liessies  (1530);  author  of  Abbot  of  Rievaulx,  Yorkshire.  St.  Thomas  of 
the  "Mirror  for  Monks".  Juan  de  Castaniza  (Spain),  Canterbury  or  Thomas  Becket,  bom  c.  1117,  mar- 
d.  1599;  a  monk  of  St.  Saviour's,  Onna.  Benedict  tyred  1170;  Chancellor  of  England  (1155);  Arch- 
van  H^ften  (Belgium),  b.  1588,  d.  1648;  Prior  of  bishop  of  Canterbury  (1162).  St.  Edmund  Rich, 
Afiiighem.  Clement  Reyner  (England),  b.  1589,  d.  1240;  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (1234);  died  in 
d.  1651;  a  monk  at  Dieulouard  (1610);  Abbot  of  exile.  Suger  (France),  b.  1081,  d.  1151:  Abbot  of 
Lamspring  (1643).  Augustine  Baker  (England),  St.  Denis  and  Regent  of  France.  Bl.  Richard  Whit- 
b.  1575;  d.  1641;  a  monk  of  Dieulouard  and  author  of  ing,  abbot  of  Glastonbury,  Bl.  Roger  James,  and 
"Sancta  Sophia".  Augustine  Calmet  (France),  Bl.  John  Thorn,  monks  of  Glastonbury;  Bl.  Hugh 
b.  1672,  d.  1757;  Abbot  of  Senones-en-Vosges;  best  Faringdon,  Abbot  of  Reading,  Bl.  William  £}ynon, 
known  for  his  "Dictionary  of  the  Bible".    Carohis  and  Bl.  John  Rugg,  monks  of  Reading;  and  BL 


history  of  the  Order  of  St.  Benedict.     Marquard  Howman),  d.  1585;  last  Abbot  of  WestOMnster;  died 

Herrcott  (Germany),  b.  1694,  d.  1762;  a  monk  of  in  prison.    Sigebert  Buckley,  bom  c.  1517,  d.  1610: 

St.-Blasien.    Suitbert  Bfiumer  (Germany),  b.  1845,  a  monk  of  Westminster;  the  link  between  the  old 

d.  1894;  a  monk  of  Beuron.    Luigi  Tosti  (Italy),  and  new  English  congregations.     Yen.  John  Roberts, 


463  BXNSDIOTDnS 

coDj^regation  and  Prior  of  St.  Gregoiy*s,  Douai.  of  community  Kfe  and  drew  up  for  their  guidance 

Philip  Ellis,  t).  1653,  d.  1726;  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  a  code  of  rules,  based  upon  that  of  St.  Benedict. 

Western  District  (1688);  transferred  to  Segni,  Italy  These  were  the  first  "regular  canons",  and  the  idea 

(1708).    Charles  Walmesley,  b.  1722,  d.  1797;  Vicar  thus  started  spread  very  rapidly  to  almost  every 

Apostolic  of  the  Western  District  (1764):  a  Doctor  of  cathedral  of  France,  Glermany,  and  Italy,  as  well  as 

the  Sorbonne  and  F.  R.  S.  William  Placid  Morris,  to  some  in  £)ngland.     In  the  fatter  coimtry,  however, 

b.  1794.  d.  1872 J  a  monk  of  Downside;  Vicar  Apoe-  it  was  not  an  entirely  new  idea,  for  we  learn  from 

tolic  of    Mauritms    (1832).      John    Bede   Polding,  Bede's  "Ecclesiastical  History"  (I,  xxvii)  that  even 

b.  1794,  d.  1877;  a  monk  of  Downside;  Vicar  Apos-  in  St.  Augustine's  time  some  sort  of  "common  life" 

tolic  in  Australia  (1834);  first  Archbishop  of  Svanev  was  in  vogue  amdngst  the  bishops  and  their  clergy. 

(1851).    William  Bernard   Ullathome,   d.   1806,  a.  St.  Chrodegang's  institute  and  its  imitations  pre- 

1889;  a  monk  of  Downside;  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  vailed  almost  universally  in  the  cathedral  and  col- 

Westem  District  (1846);  transferred  to  Birmingham  legiate  churches  until  ousted  by  the  introduction  of 

(1850);    resigned    (1888).     Roger    Bede    Vaughan,  the  Austin  Canons. 

b.  1834,  d.  1883;  a  monk  of  Downside;  Cathedral        Carthusians, — ^A  word  must  here  be  said  as  to  the 

Prior  of  Belmont  (1863);  coadjutor  to  Archbishop  Carthusian  Order,  which  some  writers  have  clsissed 

Polding  (1872);  succeeded  as  Archbishop  of  Sydn^  amongst  those  foimded  on  the  Benedictine  Rule. 

(1877).    Cardinal    Sanfelice    (Italy),    b.    1834,    d.  This  supposition  is  based  chiefly  on  the  fact  that 

1897;  Archbishop  of  Naples;  formerly  Abbot  of  La  they  have  retained  the  name  of  St.  Benedict  in  their 

Cava.    Joseph  rothier   f France),  b.   1835;  inaugu-  Confiteor,  but  this  was  more  probably  done  out  of 

rator  of  the  Solesmes  school  of  plain-chant;  Abbot  recognition  of  that  saint's  position  as  the  Patriarch 

of  Fontanelle  (1898).     Andr6  Mocquereau  (France),  of  Western  Monasticism  than  from  any  idea  that 

b.  1849;  Prior  of  Solesmes  and  successor  to  Dom  the  order  was  a  filiation  from  the  older  body.    Ck)n- 

Pothier  as   leader  of   the   school.     John   Cuthbert  fusion  may  also  have  arisen  on  account  of  the  founder 

Hedley,  b.  1837;  a  monk  of  Ampleforth;  consecrated  of  the  Carthusians,  St.  Bruno,  being  mistaken  for 

Coadjutor  Bishop  of  Newport  (1873);  succeeded  as  another  of  the  same  name,  who  was  Abbot  of  Monte 

Bishop  (1881).    Benedetto  Bonazzi  (Italy),  b.  1840;  Cassino  in  the  twelfth  centmy  and  therefore  a  Bene- 

Abbot  of  La  Cava  (1894);  Archbishop  of  Benevento  dictine. 

(1902).     Domenico  Serafini  (Italy),  b.  1852;  Abbot        Independent   Benedictine  Congregations. — The   va- 

General  of  the  Cassinese  Congregation  of  Primitive  rious  reforms,  beginning  with  Cluny  in  the  tenth 

Observance   (1886);  Archbishop  of  Spoleto   (1900).  century  and  extending  to  the  Olivetans  of  the  four- 

Hildebrand  de  Hemptinne  (Belgium),  b.  1849;  Abbot  teenth,  have  been  enumerated  in  the  first  part  of 

Primate  of  the  order;  Abbot  of  Maredsous  (1890);  this  article  and  are  described  in  greater  detail  in 

nominated  Abbot  Primate  by  Leo  XIII  (1893).  separate  articles,  under  their  respective  titles.    To 

Nuns. — St.  Scholastica,  died  c.  543;  sister  to  St.  these  must  be  added  the  Order  of  the  Humiliati, 

Benedict.     Among   English   Benedictine   nuns,   the  founded  in  the  twelfth  century  by  certain  nobles 

most  celebrated  are:  St.  Etheldreda,  d.  679;  Abbess  of  Lombardy  who,  having  rebeUed  against  the  Em- 

of  Ely.      St.  Ethelburm,  died  c.  670;   Abbess  of  peror  Henry  V,  were  taken  captive  by  him  into 

Barking.      St.  Hilda,   a.   680;   Abbess  of  Whitby.  Germany.    There    they    commenced    the    practice 

St.  Werburgh,   d.    699;    Abbess   of   Chester.      St.  of  works  of  piety  and  penance,  and  were  for  their 

Mildred,  seventh  century;   Abbess  in  Thanet.     St.  "humility"  allowed  to  return  to  Lombardy.    The 

Walburga,  d.  779;  a  nun  of  Wimbome;  sister  to  order  was  definitely  established  in  1134  under  the 

Sts.  Willibald   and   Winnibald;  went  to   Grermany  guidance    of    St.    Bernard,  who    placed    it    under 

with  Sts.  Lioba  and  Thecla  to  assist  St.  Boniface  c.  the    Benedictine    Rule.      It    flourished    for    some 

740.     St.  Thecla,  eighth  century;  a  nun  of  Wim-  centuries    and    had    ninety-four    monasteries,    but 

borne;  Abbess  of  Kitzingen;  died  in  Grermany.    St.  through  popularity  and  prosperity,  corruption  and 

Lioba,  d.  779;  a  nun  of  Wimbome;  cousin  to    St.  irregularities    crept    in,    and    after    an    meffectual 

Boniface;  Abbess  of  Bischofsheim;  died  in  Germany,  attempt  at  reformation,   Pope   Pius  V  suppressed 

Among  other  Benedictine  saints  are:  St.  Hildegard  the  order  in  1571.     Mention  must  also  be  made  of 

gjennany),  b.  1098,  d.  1178;  Abbess  of  Mount  St.  the  more  modem  Armenian  Benedictine  congrega- 

Rupert;     St.    Gertrude    the    Great    (Grermany),    d.  tion  (known  as  Mechitarists),  founded  by  Mechitar 

1292;   Abbess  of   Eisleben  in  Saxony  (1251).      St.  de  Petro  in  the  eigirteenth  century,  in  communion 

Mechtilde,  sister  to  St.  Grertrude  and  nun  at  Eisleben.  with  the  Holy  See;  this  is  now  reckoned  amongst 

St.  Frances  of  Rome,b.  1384,  d.  1440;  widow;  founded  tl^  non-federated  congregations  of  the  order.     (See 

order  of  Oblates  (G)ollatines)  in  1425.  Humiliati,  Mechftarists.) 

VI.  Foundations  Origin atino  from  or  Based        Qucisi- Benedictine    Foundatums, — 1.   Military   Or- 

rpoN   THE   Benedictine   Order. — It   has   already  ders. — H^lyot    enumerates  several   military  orders 

been  shown  in  the  first  part  of  this  article  how  the  as  having  been  based  upon  that  of  St.  Benedict  or 

reaction  which  followed  the  many  relaxations  and  In  some  way  ori^ating  from  it.    Though  founded 

mitigations   that   had   crept   into   the    Benedictine  especially  for  military  objects,  as  for  instance  the 

Order,  produced,  from  the  tenth  century  onwards,  defence  of  the  holy  places  at  Jerusalem,  when  not 

a  number  of  reforms  and  independent  congregations,  so  engaged,  these  Imights  lived  a  kind  of  a  religious 

m  each  of  which  a  return  to  the  strict  letter  of  St.  life  in  commanderies  or  preceptories,  established  on 

Boiedict's  Rule  was  attempted,  with  certain  varia-  the  estates  belon^ng  to  their  order.    They  were  not 

tions  of  ideal  and  differences  of  external  organiza-  in  any  sense  clerics,  but  they  usually  took  vows  of 

tion.    That  of  Cluny  was  the  first,  and  it  was  fol-  poverty    and    obedience,    and    sometimes    also    of 

bwed,  from  time  to  time,  by  others,  all  of  which  chastity.     In  some  of  the  Spanish  orders,  permission 

are  dealt  with  in  separate  articles.  to  marry  waa  granted  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

St.  Chrodegang. — Besides  those  communities  which  The  knights  practised  many  of  the  customary  monas- 

professedly  adhered  to  the  Benedictine  Rule  in  all  tic  austerities,  such  as  fasting  and  silence,  and  they 

its  strictness,  there  were  others  founded  for  some  adopted  a  religious  habit  with  the  timic  shortened 

special  work  or  purpose,  which,  while  not  claiming  somewhat    for    convenience    on    horseback.     Each 

to  be  Benedictine,  took  that  Rule  as  the  basis  upon  order  was  governed  by  a  Grand  Master  who  had  ju- 

vhich  to   groimd  their  own  particular  legislation,  risdiction  over  the  whole  oi^der,  and  under  him  were 

The  earlieet  example  of  this  was  instituted  by  St.  the  commanders  who  ruled  over  the  various  houses. 

Chrodegang,  Bishop  of  Metz,  who  in  the  year  760  The  following  were  the  military  orders  connected 

brought  together  his  cathedral  clergy  into  a  kind  with  the  Benedictine  Order,  but  for  fuller  detaila 


BSNXDIOTZm  464  BnmuuTuii 

the  reader  is  referred  to  separate  artiolee.     (a)  Tba  town.    There  were  a  doi«i  (Sstercian  bqr  brotbera 

lights  Templars,  founded  m  1118.     St.  Bernard  of  who  aseiBted  the  nuns  in  the  cue  of. the  hospital, 

CUirvauxdrewuptheirrule.Hndthey alwajmregttrded  and  these,  in  1474,  formed  themselves  into  a  new 

the  Cistercians  as  their  brethren.     For  this  reason  order  intended  to  be  independent  of  Ctteaux.     They 

they  adoptad  a  white  dreas,  to  which  they  added  a  met  with  much  opposition,  and,  trregidarities  haiine 

red  cross.     The  order  was  suppresaed  in   1313.     In  crept  in,  they  were  reformed  in   1587  and  placed 

Spain   there   were;    (b)  The   Knights   of   Calatrava  under  the  abbeaa  of  the  convent. 
founded  in  1158  to  assist  in  protecting  Spain  against         (3)  Oblat«a.— The  Oblat«e  of  St.  Frances  of  Rome, 

the   Moorish  invasions.     The   Knights  of  Calatrava  called  also  CoUatines,  were  a  congregation  of  pioua 

owed  their  origin  to  the  abbot  and  monks  of  the  women,  founded  in  1425  and  approved  as  an  order 

Cistercian  monastery  of  Fitero.     The  general  chap-  in  1433.     They  first  observed  tne  rule  of  the  Fran- 

ter  of  Ctteaux  drew  up  a,  rule  of  life  and  exercised  a  ciscan  Tertiaries, 'but  this  was  sooa  changed  for  that 

general   supervision   over   them.    The   black    hood  of  St.  Benedict.    The  order  consisted  chiefly  of  noble 


lifty-six  commanderies,  cbieUy  in  Andalusia.  The  They  made  no  solemn  vows,  neither  were  they 
Nuns  of  Calatrava  were  established  c.  1219.  They  strictly  enclosed,  nor  forbidden  to  enjoy  the  use  of 
were  cloistered,  observing  the  rule  of  the  Cistercian  their  posae«sbns.  They  were  at  first  under  the 
nuns  and  wearing  a  similar  habit,  but  they  were  direction  of  the  Olivetan  Benedictines,  but  after 
.under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Grand  Master  of  the  the  death  of  their  foundress,  in  1440,  they  became 
kni^ta.     (c)  Knights  of  Alcantara,  or  of  San  Julian     independent. 

del  Pereyro,  in  Castille,  founded  about  the  same  time  (4)  Orders  of  Canoneeaes. — Informatiou  is  but 
and  for  the  same  purpose  as  the  Knights  of  Calatrava.  scanty  concerning  the  chapters  of  noble  canonesees. 
They  adopted  a  mitigated  form  of  St.  Benedict's  which  were  fairly  numerous  in  Lorraine,  Flanders, 
Rule,  to  which  certain  observances  borrowed  from  and  Germany  in  medieval  times.  It  seems  cert&iu. 
Calatrava  were  added.  They  also  used  the  black  however,  that  many  of  them  were  oripnally  com- 
hood  and  abbreviated  scapular.     It  was  at  one  time     munities  of  Benedictine  nuns,  which,  for  one  reason 

Eroposed  to  unite  this  order  with  that  of  Calatrava.  or  another,  renounoed  their  solemn  vows  and  sssuined 
ut  the  scheme  failed  of  execution.  They  posseased  the  state  of  canonesaea,  whilst  still  observing  some 
thirty-eeven  commanderies.  (d)  Knights  of  Montesa.  form  of  the  Benedictine  Rule.  The  membership  of 
founded  1316,  an  offshoot  from  Calatrava,  instituled  almost  all  theae  chapters  was  restricted  to  women  of 
by  ten  knights  of  that  order  who  placed  themselves  noble,  and  in  some  cases  of  royal,  descent.  In 
under  the  abbot  of  Cltcaux  instead  of  their  own  many  also,  whilst  the  canoneases  were  merely  seculars. 
Grand  Blaster,  (e)  Knights  of  St.  George  of  Alfama,  that  is,  not  under  vows  of  religion,  and  therefore 
founded  in  1201;  united  to  the  Order  of  Honteea  in  free  to  leave  and  marry,  the  abbesses  retained  the 
13dQ.  character  and  state  of  religious   superiois,   and   as 

In  Portugal  there  were  three  orders,  also  founded  such  were  solemnly  profeasel  as  B^edictine  duns, 
for  purposes  of  defence  against  the  Moors: — (f)  The  The  foliowine  list  of  houses  is  taken  from  Mabillon 
Knights  of  Avb,  founded  1147;  they  observed  the  and  H^lyot,  but  all  had  ceased  to  exist  by  the  end  of 
Benedictine  Rule,  under  the  direction  of  the  abbots  the  eighteenth  century: — In  Lorraine:  Remiremont; 
of  Citeaux  and  Clairvaux,  and  had  forty  command-  founded  620;  members  became  canonesses  in  1515; 
eries.  (g)  The  Knights  of  St.  Michael's  Wing, 
founded  1167;  the  name  was  taken  in  honour  of  the 
archangel  whose  visible  assistance  secured  a  victory 
against  the  Moors  for  King  Alphonso  I  of  Portugal. 
Tne  rule  waa  drawn  up  by  the  Cistercian  Abbot  of 
Alcobaza.  They  were  never  veiy  numerous,  and 
the  order  did  not  long  survive  the  king  in  whose 
reign  it  was  founded,  (h)  The  Order  of  Christ,  reared 
upon  the  ruins  of  the  Templars  about  1317;  it  became 
very  numerous  and  wealthy.  It  adopted  the  Rule 
of  St.  Benedict  and  the  constitutions  of  Qteaux, 
and  possessed  450  commanderies.  In  1550  the  office 
of  gr^nd  master  of  this  order,  as  well  as  that  of  Avii, 
was  united  to  the  crown,  (i)  The  Monks  of  the  Oi^ 
dar  of  Christ.  In  1567  a  stricter  life  was  instituted  in 
the  convent  of  Thomar,  the  principal  house  of  the 
Order  of  Christ,  under  this  title,  where  the  full 
monastic  life  was  observed,  with  a  habit  and  vows 
similar  (o  those  of  the  Cistercians,  though  the  monks 
were  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  grand  master  of 
the  Knights.  Tnis  order  now  exists  aa  one  of  the 
noble  orders  of  knighthood,  similar  to  those  of  the 
Garter,  Bath,  etc.,  in  England.  In  Savoy  there  were 
the  two  orders:  (k)  the  Knights  of  St.  Maurice,  and 
Q)  those  of  St.  Lazarus,  which  were  united  in  1&72. 
Tliey  observed  the  Cistercian  rule  and  the  object  ot 
their  existence  was  the  defence  of  the  Catholic  Faith 
against  the  inroads  of  the  Protestant  Reformation. 
They  had  many  commanderies  and  their  two  principal 
houses  were  at  Turin  and  Nice.  In  SwitzerUmd 
also  the  Abbots  of  St.  Gall  at  one  time  supported 

Si)  the  military  Order  of  the  Bear,  which  Frederick 
had  instituted  m  1213. 

(2)  Uospitallers.— The  Order  of  the  Brothers 
Hospitallers  of  Burgos  originated  m  a  hospital 
attached  to  a,  ooanat,  at  Ostercian  nuns  in  that 


THE  ASCENSION  OF  JESUS  CHRIST 

PSOH  THE  BKNEDICTIONAL   OP   ST.    ETHILWOLD,    ABOUT    A.D.    975-      LIBRARY    OF  THE  DUKE   OE  DEVONSHIKK 


BSHMDIOTIDH 


465 


BSNEDXOnON 


Special  Conqrcoations. — DvcKvrr,  Charten  imd  lUeordt 
tfCluni  (L«we0,  EnsUmd,  1890);  Bacxtjr,  Dis  Cluniacenrnt 
(Halle  a.  S..  1892-94);  Janauschek.  Origtnea  CUtereierunwn 
(Vienna.  1877);  Qaillardin.  Le9  Trapputet  (Paria.  1844); 
GuiBEHT.  Dettruction  de  OrandmorU  (roris.  1877);  Salt  ado, 
Mtmorie  Storidte  (Rome.  1861):  Bkrknoibr.  Lti  Nowfttt^ 
Yurm  (PRrifl.  1878);  BrullAb.  Vie  de  P.  ^uarrf( Paris.  1855), 
tr.  Robot,  1882;  Thompson.  Life  of  P.  Muard  (London,  1886; 
DB  Broolib,  MabiOon  (Paris.  1888) ;  Id.,  Mi>ntfaueon  (Paris, 
1891):  HoDTiN.  Dom  Couturier  T Angers,  1899):  tan  Caxa>bn, 
Dom  Maur  Walter  ei  Um  originee  de  la  conq.  de  Beuron  (Bruges, 
1891);  DoLAN,  Succiea  VireBcit  in  Downmde  Review,  I-lV. 

G.  Cyprian  Alston. 

Benediction,  Nuptial.    See  Mass,  Nuptial. 

Benedictional     {BenedicHonale),    a    book     con- 
taining a  collection  of  benedictions  or  bleeaings  in 
use  in  the  Church.    In  the  ancient  sacramentaries, 
particularly  in  the  Gregorian,  various  early  forms 
of  blessings  are  found.     In  some  manuscripts  these 
benedictions  are  interspersed  throughout  the  book, 
while  in   others   they  are  jriven  separately.    The 
blessings  collected  from  the  Gre^rian  Sacramentaiy 
constitute  the  so-called   Benedidumale.    From  the 
very  ancient  manuscript  of  the  Csesarean  Library, 
Lambecius  edited  this  Benedictionale,  believing  that 
he  was  the  first  to  give  it  to  the  public.    In  this, 
however,    Lambecius   erred,    since   nearly   all   the 
blessings  contained   in  Jbhis  manuscript  had  been 
previously    published,    thoueh    under    a    different 
order,  or  arrangement,  by  Menard  (d.  1644).     Pa- 
melius   (Liturgicon  Ecclesi»  Lat.,   II)   also  edited 
a  benedictional  from  two  manuscripts  of  the  time 
of  Charlemagne  or  a  little  later,  formerly  in  the 
library  of  the  Queen  of  Sweden,  now  in  the  Vatican. 
Many  discrepancies,  nevertheless,  are  to  be  noted 
between   the  work  of  Pamelius  and   the  original 
manuscripts  from  which  it  is  supposed  to  be  drawn. 
The  "Lioer  Sacramentorum"  of  Ratoldus,  of  the 
tenth  century,  likewise  contains  numerous  blessings: 
but  the  most  complete  benedictional  is  that  foimd 
in  two  manuscripts  (Nos.  62,  63)  of  the  monastery 
of  St.  Theodoric,  near  Reims,  written  about  900. 
From  a  manuscript  in  the  Abbey  of  St.   Eligius 
Menard  edited  a  benedictional,  while  Angelo  Rocca 
has  given  us  one  from  a  manuscript  of  tne  Vatican 
Library.     The    pontifical    of    Egoert,    Archbichop 
of  York  (732-766),  published  by  the  Surtees  Society 
in    1853,    contains   numerous    forms   of    blessings. 
The  blessings  in  use  in  the  present  day  are  foimd 
for  the  most  part  in  the  Missal  and  in  the  Ritual. 

Pr<4.  in  librum  Sacram.  S.  Oreo.,  in  P.  L.,  LXXVIII,  601 
Hiq.;  CXXI,  865  sqq.;  Sinkbr  in  Dtet.  of  ChrieL  Antiq. 

Andrew  B.  Mebhan. 

Benediction  of  Abbots.    See  Abbot. 

Benediction  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament. — One 

of  the  most  generally  popular  of  Catholic  services 
is  Benediction  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  known  in 
France  as  Salut  and  in  Germany  as  Segen,  It  is 
ordinarily  an  afternoon  or  evening  devotion  and 
consists  in  the  singing  of  certain  hymns,  or  litanies, 
or  canticles,  before  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  which  is 
exposed  upon  the  altar  in  a  monstr^ce  and  is  sur^ 
roimded  with  lights.  At  the  end,  the  priest,  his 
shoulders  enveloped  in  a  humeral  veil,  takes  the 
monstrance  into  his  hands  and  with  it  makes  the 
sign  of  the  cross  (hence  the  name  Benediction)  in 
silence  over  the  kneeling  congregation.  Benedic- 
tion is  often  employed  as  a  conclusion  to  other  ser- 
vices, e.  g.  Vespers,  Compline,  the  Stations  of  the 
Cross,  etc.,  but  it  is  also  still  more  generally  treated 
as  a  rite  complete  in  itself.  There  is  a  good  deal 
of  diversity  ot  usage  in  different  countries  with  re- 
gard to  details,  but  some  of  the  elements  are  con- 
stant. The  use  of  incense  and  wax  candles,  which 
even  in  the  poorest  churches  must  not  be  less  than 
ten  in  number,  the  singing  of  the  *'  Tantum  ergo  "  with 
its  versicle  and  prayer,  and  the  blessing  given  with 
the  Blessed  Sacrament  are  obUgatoiy  evenrwbere. 


In  Rome  the  principle  obtains  that  the  only  portkm 
of  the  service  which  is  to  be  regarded  as  strictly 
liturgical  is  the  sineing  of  the  "  Tantum  ergo  "  and  the 

f' vin^  of  the  B^iediction  which  immediately  follows, 
his  idea  is  emphasised  by  the  fact  that  in  many 
Roman  churches  the  celebrant,  vested  in  cope  and 
preceded  by  thurifier,  acolytes,  etc..  only  makes  his  en- 
try into  the  sanctuary  just  before  the  **  Tantum  ergo  " 
is  begun.  Previously  to  this  the  Blessed  Sacrament 
is  exposed,  informally  so  to  speak,  by  a  priest  in 
ootta  and  stole;  and  then  choir  and  congregation  are 
left  to  sin^  litanies  and  canticles,  or  to  say  prayers 
and  devotions  as  the  occasion  may  demand,  the 
whole  service  being  of  a  very  popular  character. 

In  English-speaking  countries  the  service  generally 
begins  with  the  entry  of  the  priest  and  his  assistants 
in  procession  and  with  the  singing  of  the  "  O  Salutaris 
Hostia "  as  soon  as  the  Blessed  Sacrament  is  taken 
out  of  the  tabernacle.  Indeed  in  England  the 
singing  of  the  **  O  Salutaris  "  is  enjoined  m  the  **  Ritus 
servandus",  the  code  of  procedure  approved  by  a 
former  83niod  of  the  Provmce  of  Westminster.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  Litany  of  Our  Lady,  though 
usually  printed  aifter  the  *'  O  Salutaris  "  and  very  ^n- 
erally  sung  at  Benediction,  is  nowhere  of  obligation. 
It  may  .be  added  that  further  solemnity  is  often 
given  to  the  service  by  the  presence  of  deacon  and 
subdeaoon  in  dalmatics.  Wnen  the  bishop  of  the 
diocese  officiates  he  uses  mitre  and  crosier  in  the  pro- 
cession to  the  altar,  and  makes  the  sign  of  the  cross 
over  the  people  three  times  in  giving  the  benediction. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  very  informal  sort  of  service 
is  permitted,  where  the  means  for  carrying  out  a 
more  elaborate  rite  are  not  available.  The  priest. 
Wearing  cotta  and  stole,  simply  opens  the  tabernacle 
door.  Prayers  and  devotions  are  said  or  sung,  and 
then  the  priest  blesses  those  present  with  the  veiled 
oiborium  before  the  tabernacle  door  is  again  closed. 
The  permission,  general  or  special,  of  the  bishop  of 
the  diocese  is  necessary  for  services  where  Bene- 
diction is  given  with  the  monstrance. 

History  op  the  Devotion.  It  is  easy  to  recog- 
nize in  our  ordinary  Benediction  service,  the  traces 
of  two  distinct  elements.  There  is  of  course  in  the 
first  place  the  direct  veneration  of  the  Blessed 
Sacrament,  which  appears  in  the  exposition,  blessing, 
**  Tantum  ergp  ",  etc.  But  besides  this  we  note  the 
almost  invariable  presence  of  what  at  first  sight 
seems  an  incongruous  element,  that  of  the  litany 
of  Loreto,  or  of  popular  hymns  in  honour  of  Our 
Lady.  Tracing  our  present  service  back  to  its 
origm  we  find  that  these  two  features  are  deriv^ 
from  different  sources.  The  idea  of  exposing  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  for  veneration  in  a  monstrance 
appears  to  have  been  first  evolv^  at  the  end  of  the 
thirteenth  or  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century. 
When  the  elevation  of  the  Host  at  Mass  was  mtro- 
duced  in  the  early  years  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
probabhr  as  a  form  of  protest  against  the  theolpgical 
views  of  Peter  the  Chanter,  the  idea  by  degrees  took 
firm  hold  of  the  popular  mind  that  special  virtue  and 
merit  were  attached  to  the  act  of  looking  at  the 
Blessed  Sacrament.  To  such  extremes  did  this  pre- 
possession go,  that  the  seeing  of  the  Host  at  the 
moment  of  the  elevation  was  judged  to  be  the  most 
vital  part  of  attendance  at  Mass.  In  certain  churches 
in  Spain  a  screen  of  black  velvet  was  held  up  behind 
the  altar  in  order  that  the  priest's  hands  and  the 
Host  mi^t  be  more  easily  seen  from  afar;  in  othess 
strict  injunctions  were  given  to  the  thurifer  that  he 
should  on  no  account  allow  the  smoke  of  the  thurible 
to  obstruct  the  view  of  the  Host.  Futhermore,  we 
read  that  when  men  were  dying  and  were  unable 
on  account  of  vomiting  or  any  other  cause  to  receive 
Holy  Viaticum,  the  Blessed  Sacrament  was  brought 
to  them  and  held  up  before  them  to  look  at.  In- 
deed, a  virtual  prohibition  of  this  practice  stands 


BiNKDioTis  466  Bnnmior 

to  this  day  amongst  the  nibrica  of  the  'Bitiule 
Romauum  . 

Under  the  influence  of  this  idea,  the  Blened  Saorar- 
ment  id  the  procosaions  which  became  oommon  after 
the  institution  of  the  feast  of  Corpus  Christt  in  1246, 
came  by  degieea  to  be  carried  in  transparent  veaaelB, 
reBembbng  our  present  monstrancee.  Moreover,  a 
cuEtom  grew  up,  especially  in  Germany,  of  keeping 
the  Blessed  Sacrament  continually  exposed  to  view 
in  churehes.  It  was  forbidden  by  many  synods, 
but  a  sort  of  compromise  was  arrived  at  through 
the  construction  of  the  SakrattienUhduschen  of  which 
BO   many   examples   still   exist   in    central    Europe.  Uerbbrt  THUReroN. 

of  the  church,  and  there  the  Blessed  Sacrament  was  BflSftdlct  Levita  (of  Mainz),  or  Benedict  tbi 
reserved  in  a.  monstrance  behind  a  metal  door  of  Deacon,  is  the  name  given  to  himself  by  the  author 
lattice-work  which  allowed  a  more  or  less  free  view  of  a  forced  collection  of  capitularies  which  appeared 
of  the  interior.  It  was  thus  that  the  practice  de-  in  the  ninth  century.  The  collection  belong  to  the 
veloped,  though  partly  kept  in  check  by  synodal  group  of  psetido-lai dorian  forgcriea  that  includes 
decrees,  of  adding  solemnity  to  any  function,  even  the  pseudo-Isidorian  recension  □?  the  Spanish  collec- 
the  Mass  itaelf,  by  exporting  the  Blessed  Sacrament  tion  of  canons,  the  so-called  "capitula  Angilramni", 
during  its  continuance  and  the  collection  of  false  decretals  of  the  pseudo- 
Turning  now  to  our  second  element,  we  find  that  Isidore.  The  name  Benedict  is,  without  doubt,  an 
from   the   beginning   of    the    tliirteenth   century,   a  assumed  one;   the   statement   that   he   had   been  a 


prevailed    among    the    oonfrat«nuties    and     deacon  in  the  Church  of  Mainz  and  that  the  colleo- 
which  were  establianed  at  that  period  in  great     tion  had  been  made  from  the  arc  hi  episcopal  archiTca 
numbers,  of  singing  canticles  in  the  evening  of  the     of  Mainz   at  the  command  of  the  late  Archbishop 


day  before  a  statue  of  Our  Lady.     These  canticles  Autgar  (825-847)  is  clearly  also  untrue.     Nothing  u 

were  called  Laude  and  were  often  composed  in  the  known    concerning   the    real    author.      On   internal 

vulgar  tongue,  beinming  in  the  hands  of  such  poets  evidence    it    may    be    acceplod    that    these    forged 

as  the  Franciscan  Qiocopone   da  Todi,  one  of   the  capitularies  were  composed  in   the  westem  part  of 

great  popular  influences  which  helped  lo  develop  a  the  Prankish  empire  and  not  at  Mainz;  the  grounds 

native  ItaUan  literature.     Confratemi lies  were  formed  for  this  belief  are,  especially,  the  opposition  shown  to 

for  the  express   purpose  of   sinKing   these   canticles  the  institution  of      chorepiscopi    ,  and  further  the 

and   their   members   were   called    Laudai.     It   was  circmnstance  that  the  collection  was  fimt  used  and 

such  a  company  of  Latuien  that  brought  together  found    readiest    acceptance    among    the    Western 

the  seven  holy  founders  who,  in  the  flrat  half  of  the  Franks.    The  close  relationship  between  this  coUec- 

thirteenCh  centuiy,  established  the  Order  of  Servitee,  tion  and  Pseudo-Isidore  lends  some  probability  to  the 

or  Sen'anta  of  Mary.     Although   the  laude  hardly  supposition    that    it    arose    in    the    Archdiocese   of 

flourished  outside   Italy,   whore   both   the   language  Reims.    As  lo  the  time  when  it  appeared  there  is  no 

and   the   character  of   the   people    lent   themselves  reason  to  doubt  the  statement  of  the  author  that 

readily  to  the  composition  of  innumerable  canticles.  Archbishop  Autgar  of  Maim  was  then  dead.    Conse- 

tbe  idea  of  an  evening  service  of  a  popular  character  uuently  the  collection  was  made  after  S47  (Aut^ 

sung  before  the  statue  of  Our  Lady,  spread  through-  died  21  April,  847).    This  is  confirmed  by  a  metrical 

out  Kitrope.     In  particular,  the  "  Salve  Retina '  ,  a  panegyric,  prefixed  to  the  collection,  in  praise  of  the 

special  devotion  of  the  Servll«8,  Dominicans,  Car-  Carlovingian  rulers,  and  in  which  Louis  the  German, 

meiitee,  and  other  orders,  was  consecrated  by  usa^  the  Ejnperor  Lothair,  and  Charles  the  Bald  are  de- 

to   this  rite,  and  we  find   traces  everywhere  of  its  scribed  as  living,  a  fact  which  points  to  the  vears 

beinp  sung,  often  by  choirs  of  boys,  for  whom  a  following  S43.    Another  clue  is  oflcred  by  "Aadita- 

specrnl   endowment   was   provided,    as    a   separate  mentum      IV  in  which  the  forged  pseuao-Isidorian 

evening  service.    In  France,  this  service  was  com-  decretals  have  evidently  been  med.    But  the  way  in 

monly  known  as  a  SaltU,  in  the  Low  Countries  as  which   these   decretals   are   employed   by   Benedict 

the  J!:o/,  in  England  and  Germany,  simply  Bs  the  >Sa^t«.  shows  that  the  Fseudo-Isidorian  coUectJon  had  not 

Now  it  seems  certain  that  our  present  Benediction  yet  reached  its  completed  form.    The  latest  date  for 

service  has  resulted  from   the  general  adoption   of  the   appearance   of   this   coUeclJon   of   canons   may, 

this  evening  singing  of  canticles  before  the  statue  of  therefore,  be  given  as  from  848  to  850.    The  time  of 

Our  Lady,  enhanced  as  it  often  came  to  be  in  the  composition  cannot  be  more  exactly  determined;  it 

J  of  tf        ■ ...  ..  


sixteeDth   and  seventeenth  centuries  was  somewhere  between  the  years  8   .    ._ 

by  the  exposition  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  which         The  author  represents  his  collection  i_ 

was  employed  at  lirat  only  as  an  adjunct  to  lend  it  tinxtation  and  completion  of  the  collection  of  genuine 
additional  solemnity.  The  blessing  at  the  close  capitularies  in  four  books,  "Capitularia  regum  Fran- 
seems  to  have  been  added  simply  because  the  cub-  corum",  produced  in  827  by  Ansegisus,  Abbot  of 
torn  gained  ground  of  making  the  sign  of  the  cross  Fontanelle,  He  divides  it  into  three  books  which  he 
over  the  people  whenever  the  Blessed  Sacrament  designates  as  "hber  quintus",  "sextus",  and  "a«>ti- 
WBS  replaced  m  the  tabernacle  after  a  procession  or  mus  .  Three  other  writing  precede  the  first  book;  a 
after  being  carried  to  the  sick  or  any  kind  of  an  ex-  prologue  in  verse,  a  preface  in  prose  which  treats  of  the 
position.  But  in  the  course  of  the  seventeenth  cen-  origin  sad  contentsof  the  collection,  and  the  aforesaid 
tuiy,  we  find  numberless  bequests  for  SaluU  in  French  metrical  paneg3^c  on  the  rulers  of  the  Carlovingian 
wills,  the  items  to  be  sung,  often  of  a  most  miscel-  line;  beginning  with  Pepin  and  Carioman  and  end- 
laneous  character,  bein^  minutely  specified,  and  ing  with  the  sons  of  Louis  the  Pious,  Four  supple- 
amone  these  the  condition  is  frequently  appended  mantary  writings  (additamenta)  are  annexed  to  the 
that  the  Blessed  Sacrament  should  be  exposed  during  last  book;  (I)  The  Aachen  capitulary  of  817  concem- 
the  whole  time  of  the  Saiitt.  ing  the  monasteries;  (II)  the  report  of  the  bishops 
The  devekipment  which  is  too  intricate  to  be  (August,  829)  to  the  Emperor  Louis  the  Pious; 
civen  here  in  further  detail,  may  be  investigated  (III)  a  few  genuine  capitularies  and  a  large  number 
m  the  works  mentioned  below.  of  forged  ones,  just  a*  m  the  main  body  of  the  coUec- 


BSmBOIOT                               467  BENEDIQT 

tkmj  QY)  a  large  number  (170)  of  extracts  taken  his,  the  monk  Ardo,  wrote  a  biography  of  the  great 

from  yanous  sources,  among  which  are  also  for-  abbot. 

genes  of  the  Pseudo-Isidore.     The  work  of  Abbot  For  Benediot's  writings  see  Codex  regvlarum  numasticamm 

Insegisus  was  taken  as  a  model  for  the  collection.  tf^Y^V!^  u:.^';aP^H'J^^'*  nJhS^TEi^nS- 

A-  *r  *u^ * ^t  *i ^11     a:  ^       u      A           r^   _j.u  "^«  ***•»   x^wtor».   loc.   cit.,   703-1300.     Other  treatises   (loc. 

As-  to  the  sources  of  the  collection,  about  one-fourth  cit.,  1381  sqq.)  ascribed  to  him  are  probably  not  authentic. 

of  it  consists  of  genuine  capitularies  (a  certain  kind  Abdo  Smaraodcs,  Life,  op.  cit.,  CIII,  353  sqq.;  Mon.  Germ. 

of  royal  decrees  customaor  in  the  Prankish  Empire);  g.-^LS^iS-'  ^^h^'^i^^-Al^  'iJ^aS^ 

m  fact,  the  genume  materials  used  by  the  author  mUnater  (CJologne,  1866);  Paulinier.  S,  BenoU  d'Aniane  et  la 

surpass  sometimes  those   used   by  Ansegisus.     Most  fondation  du  moruutire  de  ce  nom  (Montpellier,  1871);  Fobs. 

of  the   pretended    capitularies   are,  however    not  fX!f (S!;>4:^^?  H^A^^clfl^ir^ 

genume.     Among  the  genmne  sources,  from  which  Tpnd  ed.,  l3p««.  1900).  U,  676  sqq.;  Butler,  Livee  of  the 

the  larger  portion  of  them  are  drawn,  are:  the  Holy  SavUe,  12  Feb. 

Scriptures;  the  decrees  of  councils;  papal  decrees;  the  J«  P*  Kirsch. 

collection  of  Irish  canons;  the  ordmances  of  the  Benedict  of  Nursia,  Saint,  founder  of  western 

Roman  law,  the  "leges  Visigothorum "  and  "Baiu-  monasticism,  b.  at  Nursia,  c.  480;  d.  at  Monte  Cassino, 

wariorum";  the  "Libri  Penitentiales'*  or  penitential  543.    The  only  authentic  life  of  Benedict  of  Nursia 

books;   the  writings  of   the  Church   Fathers,  and  is  that  contained  in  the  second  book  of  St.  Gregory's 

letters  of  bishops.     He  repeats  himself  frequently;  "Dialogues".    It  is  rather  a  character  sketch  than 

a  number  of  chapters  are  duplicated  literally  or  nearly  a  biography  and  consists,  for  the  most  part,  of  a 

word  for  word.    The  chief  aim  of  the  forger  was  to  number  of  miraculous  incidents,  which,   although 

enable  the  Church  to  maintain  its  independence  in  they  illustrate  the  life  of  the  saint,  give  little  help 

face  of  the  assaults  of  the  secular  power.    The  author  towards    a    chronological    account    of    his    career, 

stands  for  the  contemporary  movement  in  favour  of  St.  Gregory's  authorities  for  all  that  he  relates  were 

ecclesiastical  reform,  and  in  opposition  to  the  rule  of  apparently  trustworthy,  being,  as  he  says,  four  of 

the  Church  by  the  laity.     The  first  two  editions  the  saint's  own  disciples,  viz. :  Constantinus,  who  suo- 

Cniius,  Paris,  1548,  and  Pithceus,  Paris,  1588)  are  ceeded  him  as  Abbot  of  Monte  Cassino;  Valentinian, 

incomplete;    the   collection    is   found    complete    in  who  for  many  years  was  head  of  the  monastery  at- 

Baluze,  Capitularia  rcKum  Francorum  (Paris,  1677),  tached  to  the  Lateran  Basih'ca;  Simplicius,  who  was 

I,  col.  801-1232,  and  in  Pertz,  Monumenta  Ger-  the  third  Abbot  of  Monte  Cassino;  and  Honoratus, 

maniae  Hist.:  Leges,  II  (Hanover,  1837),  2.  39-158  who  was  Abbot  of  Subiaco  when  St.  Gregory  wrote 

(cf.  Migne,  P.  L.,  XCVII,  col.  699-912).    E.  Seckel  his  "Dialogues". 

is  preparing  a  new  edition  for  the  Monum.  Germ.  Benedict  was  the  son  of  a  Roman  noble  of  Nursia, 

Hist.:  Capitularia,  III).               •  a  small  town  near  Spoleto,  and  a  tradition,  which 

Bmsmtvsj  DeareUdee  peeudoisidoHan^  et  CapUula  AtmO-  St.  Bede  accepte,  makes  him  a  twin  with  his  sister 

::S!i^'^^l&^^fl^7^lT^E^,S!iZ  Scholastica&is  .  boyhood    wa«    spent    in  ^ Rome, 

le  rime  de  Louie  Capet  (Paris,  1903),  361  sqq. ;    Hauck.  where  he  hved  With  his  parents  and  attended  the 

KMienoesdiicfue  DeutscfUaruU  (2nd  ed.,  l^ipzig,  1900),  11,  schools  imtil   he   had   reached   his   higher  studies. 

tUiS^ilKxiu^'^SoiL                      ""  Then   "giving  over   his   books,   and   forsaking  his 

J,  p,  Kirsch.  father's  nouse  and  wealth,  with  a  mind  only  to 

serve  God,  he  sought  for  some  place  where  he  might 

Benedict   of   Aniane,  Saint,  b.  about  745-750;  attain  to  the  desire  of  his  holy  purpose;  and  in  this 

d.  at  ComelimClnster,  11  February,  821.     Benedict,  sort  he  departed  [from  Rome],  mstructed  with  learned 

originally  known  as  Witiza,  son  of  the  Goth,  Aigulf,  i^orance  and  furnished  with  imleamed  wisdom" 

Count  of  M^Kuelone  in  Southern  France,  was  edu-  jpial.  St.  Greg.,  II,  Introd.  in  Migne,  P.  L.,  LXVI). 

cated  at  the  Frankish  court  of  Pepin,  and  entered  the  There  is  much  difiference  of  opinion  as  to  Benedict's 

royal  service.    He  took  part  in  tne  Italian  campaign  age  at  this  time.     It  has  been  very  generally  stated 

of  Charlemagne  (773),  after  which  he  left  his  royal  as  fourteen,  but  a  careful  examination  of  St.  Gregory's 

master  to  enter  the  religious  life,  and  was  received  narrative  makes  it  impossible  to  suppose  him  younger 

into  the  monastery  of  St.  Sequanus  (Saint-Seine),  than  nineteen  or  twenty.     He  was  old  enough  to  be  in 

He  ^ave   himself   most   zealously   to   practices   of  the  midst  of  his  literary  studies,  to  understand  the 

asceticism,  and  learned  to  value  the  Kule  of  St.  real  meaning  and  worth  of  the  dissolute  and  licentious 

Benedict  as  the  best  foundation  for  the  monastic  life,  lives  of  his  compam'ons,  and  to  have  been  deeply 

Returning  home  in  779,  he  established  on  his  own  affected  himself  by  the  love  of  a  woman  (ibid.,  IT,  ii). 

land  near  the  little  river  of  Aniane  a  new  monastic  He  was  capable  of  weighing  all  these  things  iji  com- 

settlement,  which  soon  develoi>ed  into  a  great  mon-  parison  with  the  life  taught  in  the  Gospels,  and  he 

astery,  under  the  name  of  Aniane,  and  bscame  the  chose  the  latter.     He  was  at  the  beginning  of  life, 

model  and  centre  of  the  monastic  reform  in  France,  and  had  at  his  disposal  the  means  to  a  career  as  a 

introduced  by  Louis  the  Pious.    The  emperor's  chief  Roman  noble;  clearly  he  was  not  a  child.     As  St. 

adviser  was  Benedict^  and  the  general  adoption  of  the  Gregory  expresses  it,  "he  was  in  the  world  and  was 

Rule  of  St.  Benedict  m  the  monasteries  of  the  Empire  free  to  enjoy  the  advantages  which  the  world  offers, 

was  the  most  important  step  towards  the  reform,  but  drew  back  his  foot  which  he  had,  as  it  were, 

Benedict  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  synods  held  already  set  forth  in  the  world "  (ibid.,  Introd.).    If 

in  Aachen  in  816  and  817,  the  results  of  which  were  we  accept  the  date  480  for  his  birth,  we  may  fix  the 

embodied  in  the  important   prescriptions  for  the  date  of  his  abandoning  the  schools  and  quitting  home 

restoration  of  monastic  discipline,  dated  10  July,  817;  at  about  a.  d.  500. 

he  was  the  enthusiastic  leader  of  these  assemblies,  Benedict  does  not  seem  to  have  left  Rome  for  the 

and  he  himself  reformed  many  monasteries  on  the  purpose  of  becoming  a  hermit,  but  only  to  find  some 

lines  laid  down  in  the  ordinances  promulgated  there,  place  away  from  the  life  of  the  great  city;  moreover. 

In  order  to  have  him  in  the  vicinity  of    his  royal  ne  took  his  old  nurse  with  him  as  a  servant  and  they 

residence,  Louis  in  814  had  founded  on  the  Inde,  a  settled  down  to  live  at  Enfide,  near  a  church  dedi- 

stream  near  Aachen,  the  Abbey  of  Comelimtinster,  cated  to  St.  Peter,  in  some  kind  of  association  with 

which  was  to  be  an  exemplar  for  all  other  abbeys,  "a  company  of  virtuous  men"^  who  were  in  sym- 

and  to  be  under  the  guidance  of  Benedict.    In  the  pathy  with  his  feelings  and  his  views  of  life.    Ennde, 

dogmatic  controversy  over  Adopt ianism,  under  the  whicn  the  tradition  of  Subiaco  identifies  with  the 

leadeiBhip  of  Felix  of  Urgel,  Benedict  took  the  part  modem  Affile,  is  in  the  Simbrucini  moim tains,  about 

of  orthoooxy.    To  promote  the  monastic  reforms,  he  forty  miles  from  Rome  and  two  from  Subiaco.    It 

compiled  a  collection  of  monastic  rules.    A  pupil  of  stands  on  the  crest  •f  a  ridge  which  rises  rapidly 


BXNSDIOT  468  BflfXDIOT 

from  the  valley  to  the  higher  range  of  mountaiiis,  came  to  Subiaoo  to  be  imder  his  guidance.    For  them 

azKl  seen  from  the  lower  ground  the  village  has  the  he  built  in  the  valley  twelve  monasteries,  in  each  of 

appearance  of  a  fortress.    As  St.  Gregorjrs  account  which  he  placed  a  superior  with  twelve  monks.    In 

indicates,  and  as  is  confirmed  by  remains  of  the  old  a  thirteenUi  he  lived  with  ''  a  few,  such  as  he  thought 

town  and  by  the  inscriptions  found  in  the  neighboiu*-  would  more  profit  and  be  better  instructed  by  his 

hood,  Enfide  was  a  place  of  greater  importance  than  own  presence''  (ibid.,  iii).    He  remained,  however, 

is  the  present  town.    At  Ennde  Benedict  worked  his  the  father  or  abbot  of  alL    With  the  establishment 

first  miracle  by  restoring  to  perfect  condition  an  of  these  monasteries  began  the  schools  for  children: 

earthenware  wheat-sifter  (capiaterittm)  which  his  old  and  amongst  the  first  to  be  brought  were  Maurus  ana 

servant   had    accidentally    broken.    The   notoriety  Placid. 

which  this  miracle  brought  upon  Benedict  drove  him       The  remainder  of  Benedict's  life  was  spent  in 

to  escape  still  farther  from  social  life,  and  ''he  fled  realizing  the  ideal  of  monasticism  which  he  nas  left 

secretly  from  his  nurse  and  sought  the  more  retired  us  drawn  out  in  his  Rule,  and  before  we  follow  tl^ 

district  of  Subiaco ".    His  purpose  of  life  had  also  sliffht  chronological  story  given  by  St.  Gregory,  it 

been  modified.    He  had  left  Rome  to  escape  the  will  be  better  to  examine  the  ideal,  which,  as  St. 

evils  of  a  ereat  city;  he  now  determined  to  be  poor  Gregory  says,  is  Benedict's  real  biography  (ibid., 

and  to  live  Dy  his  own  work.     "  For  God's  sake  he  de-  xxxvi).     "We  deal  here  with  the  Rule  only  so  far  as 

liberately  chose  the  hardships  of  life  and  the  weari-  it  is  an  element  in  St.  Benedict's  life.    For  the  rela- 

ness  of  labour"  (ibid.,  ^^.  tions  which  it  bore  to  the  monasticism  of  previous 

A  short  distance  from  Enfide  is  the  entrance  to  a  centuries,  and  for  its  influence  throughout  tne  West 

narrow,  gloomy  valley,  penetrating  the  moimtains  on  civil  and  reli^ous  government,  and  upon  the  spir- 

and  leading  directly  to  Subiaco.     Cussing  the  Anio  itual  life  of  Christians,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 

and  turning  to  the  richt,  the  path  rises  along  the  left  articles  Monasticism  and  Benedict ^Saint,  Rule  of. 
face  of  the  ravine  and  soon  reaches  the  site  of  Nero's        The    Benedictine    Rule. — 1.  Before    studying 

villa  and  of  the  huge  mole  which  formed  the  lower  St.  Benedict's  Rule  it  is  necessary  to  point  out  that 

end  of  the  middle  lake;  across  the  valley  were  ruins  it  is  written  for  laymen,  not  for  clerics.    The  saint's 

of  the  Roman  baths,  of  which  a  few  great  arches  purpose  was  not  to  institute  an  order  of  clerics  with 

and  detached  masses  of  wall  still  stand.    Rising  clerical  duties  and  offices,  but  an  organization  and  a 

from  the  mole  upon  twenty-five  low  arches,  the  set  of  rules  for  the  domestic  life  of  such  laymen  as 

foimdations  of  which  can  even  vet  be  traced,  was  wished  to  live  as  fully  as  possible  the  type  of  life 

the  bridge  from  the  villa  to  the  oaths,  under  which  presented  in  the  Gospel.     "My  words",    he  says, 

the  waters  of  the  middle  lake  poured  in  a  wide  fall  **are  addressed  to  thee,  whoever  thou  art,  that, 

into  the  lake  below.    The  ruins  of  these  vast  build-  renouncing  thine  own  will,  dost  put  on  the  strong 

ings  and  the  wide  sheet  of  falling  water  closed  up  and  bright  armour  of  obedience  in  order  to  fight  for 

the  entrance  of  the  valley  to  St.  Benedict  as  he  came  the  Lord  Christ,  our  true  King."     ^Prol.  to  Kule.) 

from  Enfide;  to-day  the  narrow  valley  lies  open  be-  Later,  the  Church  imposed  the  clerical  state  upon 

fore  us,  closed  only  by  the  far-off  mountains.    The  Benedictines,  and  with  the  state  came  a  preponder- 

path  continues  to  ascend,  and  the  side  of  the  ravine,  ance  of  clerical  and  sacerdotal  duties,  but  me  impress 

on  which  it  runs,  becomes  steeper,  until  we  reach  a  of  the  lay  origin  of  the  Benedictines  has  remamed, 

cave  above  which  the  mountain  now  rises  almost  and  is  perhaps  the  source  of  some  of  the  characteris- 

perpendicularly;  while  on  the  right  hand  it  strikes  tics  which  mark  them  off  from  later  orders, 
m  a  rapid  descent  down  to  where,  in  St.  Benedict's        2.  Another  characteristic  feature  of  the  saint's  Rule 

day,  five  hundred  feet  below,  lay  the  blue  waters  of  is  its  view  of  work.     His  so-called  order  was  not  estab- 

the  lake.    The  cave  has  a  large  triangular-shaped  lished  to  cany  on  any  particular  work  or  to  meet 

opening  and  is  about  ten  feet  deep.    On  his  way  any  special  crisis  in  the  (Jhurch,  as  has  been  the  case 

from  Enfide,  Benedict  had  met  a  monk,  Romanus,  with  other  orders.     With  Benedict  the  work  of  his 

whose  monastery  was  on  the  mountain  above  the  monks  was  only  a  means  to  goodness  of  life.     The 

cliff  overhanging  the  cave.    Romanus  had  discussed  ^at  disciplinaiy  force  for  human  nature  is  work; 

with  Benedict  the  purpose  which  had  brought  him  idleness  is  its  rum.    The  purpose  of  his  Rule  was  to 

to  Subiaco,  and  had  given  him  the  monk's  habit,  bring  men  **  back  to  (jod  by  the  labour  of  obedience, 

By  his  advice  Benedict  became  a  hermit  and  for  from  whom  they  had  departed  by  the  idleness  of 

three  vears,  unknown  to  men,  lived  in  this  cave  above  disobedience  ".    Work  was  the  first  condition  of  all 

the  lake.    St.  Gregory  tells  us  little  of  these  years,  ^wth  in  goodness.    It  was  in  order  that  his  own 

He  now  speaks  of  Benedict  no  longer  as  a  youth  fife  might  be  "wearied  with  labours  for  CJod's  sake" 

(puer)f  but  as  a  man  (vir)  of  God.    Romanus,  he  that  St.  Benedict  left  Enfide  for  the  cave  at  Subiaoo. 

twice  tells  us,  served  the  saint  in  every  way  he  could.  It  is  necessary,  comments  St.  Gregory,  that  (jod's 

The  monk  apparently  visited  him  frequently,  and  elect  should  at  the  beginning,  when  life  and  tempta- 

on  fixed  davs  brought  him  food.  tions  are  strong  in  them, "  be  wearied  with  labour  and 

During  tnese  three  years  of  solitude,  broken  only  pains".    In  the  regeneration  of  human  nature  in  the 

by  occasional  communications  with  the  outer  world  order  of  discipline,  even  prayer  comes  after  work, 

and  by  the  visits  of  Romanus,  he  matured  both  in  for  grace  meets  with  no  co-operation  in  the  soul  and 

mind  and  character,  in  knowledge  of  himself  and  of  heart  of  an  idler.    When  the  (Joth  "mve  over  the 

his  fellow-man,  and  at  the  same  time  he  became  not  world "  and  went  to  Subiaco,  St.  Bene^ct  ^ave  him 

merely  known  to,  but  secured  the  respect  of,  those  a  bill-hook  and  set  him  to  clear  away  briars  for  the 

about  him;  so  much  so  that  on  the  death  of  the  making  of  a  garden.     **  Ecce!  laboral*'  go  and  work, 

abbot  of  a  monastery  in  the  neighbourhood  (identi-  Work  is  not,  as  the  civilization  of  the  time  taught, 

fied  by  some  with  Vicovaro),  the  community  came  to  the  condition  p)eculiar  to  slaves;  it  is  the  universal 

him  and  begged  him  to  become  its  abbot.    Benedict  lot  of  man,  necessary  for  his  well-being  as  a  man,  and 

was  acquainted  with  the  life  and  discipline  of  the  essential  for  him  as  a  Christian, 
monastery,   and   knew    that   "  their  manners  were        3.  The  religious  life,  as  conceived  by  St.  Benedict, 

diverse  from  his  and  therefore  that  they  would  never  is  essentially  social.    Life  apart  from  one's  fellows, 

agree  together:  yet,  at  length,  overcome  with  their  the  life  of  a  hermit,  if  it  is  to  be  wholesome  and  sane, 

entreaty,   he   gave   his   consent"    (ibid.,   iii).    The  is  possible  only  for  the  few,  and  these  few  must  have 

experiment  failed;  the  monks  tried  to  poison  him,  reached  an  advanced  stage  of  self-discipline  while 

.'uid  he  returned  to  his  cave.    From  this  time  his  living  with  others  (Rule,  i).    The  Rule,  therefore, 


miracles  seem  to  have  become  frequent,  and  many    is  entirely  occupied  with  regulating  the  life  of  a  corn- 
people,  attracted  by  his  sanctity  and  character,    munity  of  men  who  live  and  work  and  pi 


pray  and  eat 


BSHEDIOT                              460  BXmSDXCT 

together,  and  this  not  merely  for  a  ooiirae  of  train-  of  the  oommunity  to  one  another  and  to  the  abbot, 

ing,  but  as  a  permanent  element  of  life  at  its  best,  and  of  the  abbot  to  them,  were  elevated  and  spirit- 

The  Rule  conceives  the  superiors  as  always  present  ualized  by  a  mvsticism  which  set  before  itself  the 

and  in  oonstaiit  touch  with  every  member  of  the  acceptance  of  the  teachings  of  the  Sermon  on  the 

household.    This  explains  its  characteristic  form  of  Moimt  as  real  and  work-a-day  truths. 

government,  which  is  best  described  as  ^patriarchal,  6.    (a)  When  a  Christian  household,  a  community, 

or  paternal  (ibid.,  ii,  iii,  Ixiv).    The  superior  is  the  has  been  organized  by  the  willing  acceptance  of  its 

head  of  a  family;  all  are  the  permanent  members  of  social  duties  and  responsibilities,  by  obedience  to  an 

&  household.    Hence,  too,  much   of   the   spiritual  authority,   and,  further,   is   under   the   continuous 

teaching  of  the  Rule  is  concealed  under  legislation  discipline  of  work  and  self-denial,  the  next  step  in 

which  seems  purely  social  and  domestic  organization  the  regeneration  of  its  members  in  their  return  to 

(ibid.,xxii-xxxii,xxxv-xli).    So  intimately  connected  God  is  prayer.    The  Rule  deals  directly  and  ex- 

with  domestic  life  is  the  whole  framework  and  teach-  plicitly  only  with  public  prayer.    For  this  Benedict 

ing  of  the  Rule  that  a  Benedictine  may  be  more  assigns  the  Psalms  and  Canticles^with  readings  from 

truly  said  to  enter  or  Join  a  particular  household  the   Scriptures   and    Fathers.    He   devotes   eleven 

than  to  join  an  order.    The  social  character  of  Bene-  chapters  out  of  the  seventy-three  of  his  Rule  to 

dictine  life  has  found  expression  in  a  fixed  type  for  regulating  this  public  prayer,  and  it  is  characteristic 

monasteries  and  in  the  kind  of  works  which  JBene-  of  the  fr^om  of  his  Kule  and  of  the  "moderation" 

dictines  undertake,  and  it  is  secured  by  an  absolute  of  the  saint,  that  he  concludes  his  very  careful  di- 

communism  in  possessions  (ibid.,  xxxiii,  xxxiv,  liv,  Iv),  rections  by  saying  that  if  any  superior  does  not  hke 

by  the  rigorous  suppression   of  all  differences  of  his  arrangement  lie  is  free  to  make  another;  this 

worldly  rank — "no  one  of   noble    birth  may  [for  only  he  says  he  will  insist  on,  that  the  whole  Psalter 

that  reasoni  be  put  before  him  that  was  former^  a  shall  be  said  in  the  course  of  a  week.    The  practice  of 

slave"  (ibid.,  ii),  and  by  the  enforced  presence  of  the  holy  Fathers,  he  adds,  was  resolutely  "to  say 

everyone  at  the  routine  duties  of  the  household.  in  a  single  day  what  I  pray  we  tepid  monks  may 

4.  Although   private   ownership  is  most  strictly  get  through  in  a  whole  week"  (ibid.,  xvlii).    On  the 

forbidden  by  the  Rule,  it  was  no  part  of  St.  Bene-  other  hand,  he  checks  indiscreet  zeal  by  laying  down 

diet's  conception  of  monastic  life  that  his  monks,  the  general  rule  "  that  prayer  made  in  common  must 

sfi  a  body,  should  strip  themselves  of  all  wealth  and  always  be  short"  (ibid.,  xx).    It  is  very  difficult  to 

live  upon  the  alms  of  the  charitable;  rather  his  pur-  reduce  St.  Benedict's  teaching  on  prayer  to  a  system, 

pose  was  to  restrict  the  requirements  of  the  in-  for  this  reason,  that  in  his  conception  of  the  Christian 

dividual  to  what  was  necessary  and  simple,  and  to  character,  prayer  is  coextensive  with  the  whole  life, 

secure  that  the  use  and .  administration  of  the  cor-  and  hfe  is  not  complete  at  any  point  unless  penetrated 

porate  possessions  should  be  in  strict  accord  with  the  by  prayer. 

teaching  of  the  Gospel.    The  Benedictine  ideal  of  (b)  The  form  of  prayer  which  thus  covers  the 

poverty  is  quite  different  from  the  Franciscan.    The  whole  of  our  waking  hours,  St.  Benedict  calls  the 

Benedictine  takes  no  exphcit  vow  of  poverty;  he  first  degree  of  humihtv.     It  consists  in  realizing  the 

onlv  vows  obedience  Recording  to  the  Rule.    The  presence  of  God  (ibicf.,  vii).    The  first  step  begins 

Rule  allows  all  that  is  necessary  to  each  individual,  when  the  spiritual  is  joined  to  the  merely  human,  or, 

together  with  sufficient  and  varied  clothing,  abimd-  as  the  saint  expresses  it,  it  is  the  first  step  in  a  ladder, 

ant  food  (excluding  only  the  flesh  of  qusSrupeds),  the  rungs  of  which  rest  at  one  end  in  the  body  ana 

wine,  and  ample  sleep   (ibid.,   xxxix,  xl,  xh,  Iv).  at  the  other  in  the  soul.    The  ability  to  exercise  this 

Possessions  could  be  held  in  common,  they  might  form  of  praver  is  fostered  by  that  care  of  the  "  heart " 

be  large,  but  they  were  to  be  administered  for  the  on  which  the  saint  so  often  insists;  and  the  heart  is 

furtherance  of  the  work  of  the  community  and  for  saved  from  the  dissipation  that  would  result  from 

the  benefit  of  others.     While  the  individual  monk  social  intercourse  by  the  habit  of  mind  which  sees 

was  poor,  the  monastery  was  to  be  in  a  position  to  in  every  one  Christ   Himself.     "Let  the  sick   be 

give  alms,  not  to  be  compelled  to  seek  them.    It  served  in  very  deed  as  Christ  Himself"  (ibid.,  xxxvi). 

was  to  relieve  the  poor,  to  clothe  the  naked,  to  visit  "Let  all  guests  that  come  be  received  as  Christ" 

the  sick,  to  bury  the  dead,  to  help  the  afflicted  (ibid.,  (ibid.,  liii).     "Whether  we  be  slaves  or  freemen,  we 

iy),  to  entertain  all  strangers  (ibid.,  liii).    The  poor  are  all  one  in  Christ  and  bear  an  equal  rank  in  the 

came  to  Benedict  to  get  help  to  pay  their  debts  service  of  Our  Lord"  (ibid.,  ii). 

(Dial.  St.  Greg.,  xxvii);  they  came  for  food  Qbid.,  (c)  Secondly,  there  is  public  prayer.    This  is  short 

a  to  be  said  at  intervals,  at  night  and  at  seven 


a,  xxviii).  an 

5.  St.  Benedict  originated  a  form  of  government  distinct  hours  during  the  day.  so  that,  when  possible, 

which  is  deserviiig  of   study.    It  is  contained  in  there  shall  be  no  f^e&t  interval  without  a  call  to 

chapters  ii,  iii,  xxxi,  bdv,  Ixv  of  the  Rule  and  in  certain  formal,  vocal,  pubhc  prayer  (ibid.,  xvi).    The  posi- 

pregnant  phrases  scattered  through  other  chapters,  tion  which  St.  Benedict  gave  to  public,  common 

As  with  the  Rule  itself,  so  also  his  scheme  of  eovem-  prayer  can  be  best  described  by  saying  that  he  es- 

ment  is  intended  not  for  an  order  but  for  a  sinj^  com-  tablished  it  as  the  centre  of  the  common  life  to  which 

munity.     He  presupposes  that  the  community  have  he  bound  his  monks.     It  was  the  consecration,  not 

bound  themselves,  oy  their  promise  of  stability,  to  only  of  the  individual,  but  of  the  whole  community 

spend   their  hves  together   under  the   Rub.    The  to  God  by  the  oft-repeated  daily  public  acts  of  faith, 

superior   is  then  elected  by.  a  free  and  universal  and  of  praise  and  adoration  of  the  Creator;  and  this 

suffrage.     The  government  may  be  described  as  a  public  worship  of  God,  the  opus  Dei,  was  to  form  the 

momkTchy,  with  the  Rule  as  its  constitution.    Within  chief  work  of  his  monks,  and  to  be  the  source  from 

the  four  comers  of  the  Rule  everything  is  left  to  the  which  aU  other  works  took  their  inspiration,  their 

discretion  of  the  abbot,  the  abuse  of  whose  authoritv  direction,  and  their  strength, 

is  checked  by  religion  (Rule,  ii),  by  open  debate  with  (d)  Lastly,  there  is  private  prayer,  for  which  the 

the  community  on  all  important  matters,  and  with  saint  does  not  legislate.    It  follows  individual  gifts 

its  representative  elders  in  smaller  concerns  (ibid.,  iii).  — "  If  anyone  wishes  to  prav  in  private,  let  him  go 

The  reality  of  these  checks  upon  the  wilfulness  of  quietly  into  the  oratory  and  pray,  not  with  a  loud 

the  ruler  can  be  appreciated  only  wheo:!  it  is  remem-  voice,  but  with  tears  and  fervour  of  heart "  (ibid.,  hi). 

bered   that  ruler  and  community  were  bound  to-  "Our  prayer  ought  to  be  short  and  with  purity  of 

gether  for  life,  that  all  were  inspired  by  the  single  hearty  except  it   be   perchance   prolonged   bv  the 

purpoee  of  canying  out  the  conception  ol  life  tau^  inspiration   of   divine  jp^race"    fibid.,   xx).    But   if 

m  tiie  Gospel,  and  that  the  relations  of  the  members  8i.  Benedict  gives  no  further  durections  on  private 

n.— 30 


ptayer.  i 
of  lire  ae< 


thou  art  that  hasteaest  to  thy  heavenly  countiy,  more  than  a  few  atories  descriptive  of  the  life  of  the 
fulfil  by  the  help  of  Obrist  this  little  Rule  which  we  monks,  and  of  the  character  and  government  of  8t. 
have  written  for  beginners;  and  then  at  length  thou  Benedict.  The  latter  was  making  his  first  attempt  to 
ahalt  arrive,  under  God's  protection,  at  tne  lofty  realize  in  these  twelve  monasteries  hie  conception  of 
eummitB  of  doctrine  and  virtue  of  which  we  have  the  monastic  life.  We  can  fill  in  many  of  the  delaik 
spoken  above"  (ibid.,  Luciii).  For  guidance  in  these  from  the  Rule.  Bf  his  own  experunent  and  \t» 
higher  states  the  saint  refera  to  the  Fathers,  Basil  knowledge  of  the  history  of  mobasticism  tbe  mint 
and  Caaaian.  had  leamt  that  the  Tegeneration  of  the  individual. 
From  this  short  ezamination  of  the  Rule  and  its  except  in  abnormal  cases,  is  not  reached  by  the  path 
svstem  of  prayer,  it  will  be  obvious  that  to  describe  of  solitude,  nor  by  that  of  austerity,  but  by  tlw 
the  Benedictine  aa  a  contemplative  order  is  nualead-  beaten  (rack  of  man's  social  Instinct,  with  its  DM- 
ing.  if  the  word  is  used  in  its  modem  technical  sense  esaary  conditions  of  obedience  and  work;  and  that 
as  excluding  active  work:  the  "contemplative"  is  a  neither  the  body  nor  the  mind  can  be  safely  over- 
form  of  life  framed  for  different  circumstances  and  atraJned  in  the  effort  to  avoid  evil  (ibid.,  Ixlv).  Thus 
with  a  different  object  from  St.  Benedict's.    Tbe  at  Subtwo  w«  find  no  anlitaricfl,  no  conventuiJ  iw 


r  UoNtt  Cummo 


Rule,  including  its  system  of  prayer  and  public  mita,  no  great  austerities,  but  men  living  together  in 
PKalmody,  is  nicant  for  every  class  of  mind  and  every  organiied  communities  for  the  purpose  of  leading 
degree  of  learning.     It  is  framed  not  only  for  the     good  Uvea,  doing  such  work  as  came   to  tbeir  hand 


educated  and  for  souls  advanced  in  f>eriection,  but  — carrying  water  up  the  steep  mountain-side,  doing 

it  organizes  and   directs   a   complete   fife  wiiich  is  the  other  household  work,  raiwng  the  twelve  doisters, 

adapted  for  simple  folk  and  for  sinners,  for  the  ob-  clearing     the     ^und,    making    gardens,    teaching 

servance  of  the  Commandments  and  for  the  be-  ^ildien,  preacmng  to  the  country  people,  reading 

ginninga  of  goodness.     "We  have  written  this  Rule",  and  studying  at  least  four  hours  a  day,  receiving 

writes  St.  Benedict,  "that  by  observing  it  in  mon-  strangers,   accepting   and   training  new-comeis,   a^ 

aateriea,  we  may  shew  ourselves  to  have  some  degree  tending  the  regular  hours  of  prayer,  reciting  and 

of  goodneaa  in  life  and  a  beginning  of  holiness.     But  chanting  tbe  Psalter.     The  fife  at  Subiaco  and  the 

for  him  who  would  hasten  to  the  perfection  of  re-  character  of  St.  Benedict  attracted  many  to  tbe  new 

ligion  there  are  the  teachinra  of  the  holy  Fathers,  the  monasteries,  and  with  their  incasing  numbers  and 

following  whereof  brin^tn  a  man  to  tbe  height  of  growing  influence  came  the  inevitable  jealousy  and 

perfection"  (ibid.,  Inciii).     Before  leaving  the  subject  persecution,  which  culminated  with  a  vile  attempt 

of  prayer  it  will  be  well  to  point  out  again  that  by  of  a  neighbouring  priest  to  scandalize  the  monks  by 

ordering  the   public    recitation   and   singing  of   the  an  exhibition  of  naked  women,  dancing  in  tbe  ooiut- 

Psalter,  St.  Benedict  was  not  puttingupon  tus  monks  yard  of  the  saint's  monastery  (Dial.  St.  Greg.,  viii). 

a  distinctively  clerical  obligation.     The  Psalter  waa  To  save  his  followers  from  further  persecution  Bene- 

the  common  form  of  prayer  of  all  Christians;  we  must  diet  left  Subiaco  and  went  to  Honte  Cassino. 

not  read  into  bia  Rule  characteristics  which  a  later  Upon  the  crest  of  Monte  Cassino  "there  was  an 

age  and  diacipline  have  made  it^eparable  from  the  ancient    chi^>el    in    which    the    foolish    and    aimpla 

public  recitation  of  the  Divine  Omo»  oountry  pec^le,  aooording  lo  the  cuatwu  of  the  old 


471 

Ikntilee,  worshipped  the  god  Apollo.     Round  about  th&t  should  befall  him,  saying:  'Much  wickedneaa  do 
it  likewise  upon  sll  Ridos  there  were  woods  for  the  you  daily  oomniit,  and  many  great  ains  have  you 
MTvice  of  devils,  in  which,  even  to  that  very  time,  done:  now  at  length  give  over  your  sinful  life.     Into 
tbe  mad  multitudes  of  inBdela  did  offer  most  wicked  the  city  of  Rome  atiall  you  enter,  and  over  the  sea 
sacrifice.    The  mao  of  God,  coming  hither,  beat  in  shall  you  paBs;  nine  years  shall  you  reign,  and  in  the 
pieces  the  idol,  overthrew  the  altar,  set  fim  on  the  t«nth  shall  you   leave  this  mortal   life.'     The  king, 
woods,  and  in  the  temple  of  Apollo  built  the  oratory  hearing  these  things,  was  wonderfully  afraid,  and  de- 
af St.  Martin:  and  where  the  altar  of  the  same  Apollo  siring  the  holy  man  to  commend  him  to  God  in  his 
was,  he  made  an  oratory  of  St.  John:  and  by  his  con-  prayers  he  departed:  and  from   that  time  forward 
tinual  preaching  he  brought  the   people  dwelling  in  ne  was  nothing  so  oruel  as  before  he  had  been.     Not 
Ibose  parts  to  embrace  the  faith  of  Christ"  (Rule,  loDg  after  he  went  to  Rome,  sailed  over  into  Sicily, 
viii).    On  this  spot  the  saint   built  his  monastery,  ana  in  the  tenth  year  of  hia  reign  he  lost  his  king- 
H|g  experience  at  Subiaco  had  led  him  to  alter  his  dom  together  with  his  life."  (ibid.,  xv). 
[rians,  and  now,  instead  of  building  severHl  houses         Totila's  visit  hi  Monte  Cassino  in  543  is  the  only 
with  a  small   community  in  each,   ne  kept  all   his  certain  date  we  have  in  the  saint's  life.     It  must 
monks  in  one  monastery  and   provided  for  its  gov-  have  occurred  when  Benedict  was  advanced  in  age, 
onment  hy  appointing   a   prior   and   deans    (Hule,  Abbot  Tosti,  following  others,  puts  the  saint's  death 
liv,  xxi).    We  nnd  no  trace  in  his  Rule,  whicn  was  in  the  some  year.    Juctt  before  hia  death  we  bear 
meet  probably  written  at  Monte  Caasino,  of  the  view 
vhich  guided  him  when  he  built  the  twelve  smell 
monasteries  at  Subiaco.    The  life  which  we  have 
witnessed  at  Subiaco  was  renewed  at  Monte  Cassino, 
but  the  change  in  the  situation  and  local  conditions 
brought  a  corresponding  modification   in  the  work 
undertaken'  by  the  monks.     Subiaco  was  a  retired 
riile^away  in  the  mountaina  and  difficult  of  access; 
/- —   — J  (jf  j|jg  great  highways  t"   '""" 


nuth  of  Italy,  and  at  no  great  distance  from  Capua 
This  brought  thenew  monastery  ir'" ' 


^  c  frequent 
conununication  with  the  outside  world.  It  soon 
became  a  centre  of  influence  in  a  diatrict  in  which 
(bare  was  a  large  population,  with  several  dioceses 
and  other  mooasteries.  Abbots  cume  to  see  and 
advise  with  Benedict.  Men  of  all  classes  wcr*  fre- 
quent \isitor8,  and  he  numbered  nobles  and  bishons 
aaoar  hh  intimate  friends.  Tliero  were  nuns  in  tte 
ndghbourhood  whom  the  monks  went  to  preach  to 
and  to  teach.  There  was  a  village  nearby  in  which 
8t.  Benedict  preached  and  made  many  converts 
(Dial.  St.  Greg.,  xix).  The  monastery  became  the 
pratoetor  of  the  poor,  their  trustee  (ibid.,  :(x:ii),  their  for  the  firat  time  of  his  sister  Scholastica.  "She  had 
nfon  in  sickness,  in  trial,  in  accidents,  in  want.  been  dedicated  from  her  infancy  to  Our  Lord,  and 
Tnua  during  the  life  of  the  saint  we  find  what  has  used  to  come  once  a  year  to  visit  her  brother.  To 
ever  since  remained  a  characteristic  feature  of  Bene-  whom  the  man  of  God  went  not  far  from  the  gate  to  a 
dietine  housee,  i.  e.  the  members  take  up  any  work  place  that  did  belong  to  the  abbey,  there  to  give  her 
"hicb  is  adapted  to  their  peculiar  circumstances,  any  entertainment"  (ibid.,  xxxiii).  They  met  for  the 
work  which  may  be  dictated  by  their  necessities.  last  time  three  days  before  Scholastica's  death,  on  r 
Thus  we  find  Benedictines  teaching  in  poor  schools  day  "  when  the  sky  was  no  clear  that  no  cloud  waa 
and  in  the  universities,  practising  the  arts  and  follow-  to  be  seen  ".  The  sister  begged  her  brother  lo  stay 
:ng  agriculture,  undertaking  the  care  of  souls,  or  the  night,  "but  by  no  persuasion  would  he  agree  unto 
dei-Qtmg  themselves  wholly  to  study.  No  work  is  that,  saying  that  he  might  not  by  any  means  tarty 
Foreirn  to  the  Benedictine,  provided  only  it  is  com-  all  night  out  of  his  abbey.  .  .  .  The  nun  receiving 
patible  with  living  In  community  and  wLth  the  per-  this  denial  of  her  brother,  joining  her  hands  together, 
fomiance  of  the  Divine  Office.  This  freedom  in  the  laid  them  upon  the  table;  and  so,  bowing  down  her 
choice  of  work  was  necessary  in  a  Rule  which  was  head  upon  them,  she  made  her  prayers  to  Almighty 
10  be  suited  to  all  times  and  places,  but  it  waa  God,  and  lifting  her  head  from  the  table,  there  fell 
primarily  the  natural  result  of  the  end  which  St.  suddenly  such  a  tempest  of  lightning  and  thunder- 
Beoedict  had  in  view,  and  in  which  he  differs  from  ing,  and  such  abundance  of  rain,  that  neither  ven- 
the  founders  of  later  orders.  These  latter  had  in  erable  Bennet  nor  his  monks  that  were  with  him, 
riev  some  special  work  to  which  they  wished  their  could  put  their  head  out  of  door"  (ibid.,  xxxiii). 
lisclples  to  devote  themselves;  St.  lienedict's  pur-  Three  days  later,  '■  Benedict  beheld  the  soul  of  his 
pose  was  only  to  provide  a  Rule  by  which  anyone  sister,  which  was  departed  from  her  body,  in  the  like- 
might  follow  the  Gospel  counsels,  and  live,  and  nees  of  a  dove,  to  ascend  into  heaven:  who  rejoicing 
work,  and  pray,  and  save  his  soul.  St.  Gregoiy's  much  to  see  her  great  glory,  with  hymns  and  lauds 
narrative  of  tne  estjiblishmcnt  of  Monte  Cassino  gave  thanks  to  Almighty  God,  and  did  impart  the 
iloes  little  fOore  for  us  than  supply  disconnected  news  of  this  her  death  to  his  monks  whom  also  he 
mcidenta  which  illustrate  the  daily  life  of  the  mon-  sent  presently  to  bring  her  corpse  to  hie  abbey,  tA 
anteiy.  We  gain  only  a  few  biographical  facts,  have  it  buried  in  that  grave  which  he  had  provided 
Trom  Monte  Cassino  St.  Benedict  founded  another  for  himself"   (ibid.,  jouciv). 

monastery  near  Terracina,  on  the  coast,  about  forty  It  would  seem  to  have  been  about  this  time  that 

miles  distant  fibid.,  xxii).    To  the  wisdom  of  long  St.  Benedict  had  that  wonderful  vision  in  which  he 

ocperience  and  to  the  mature  virtues  of  the  saint,  came  as  near  to  seeing  God  as  is  possible  for  n 


__  ,    added  the  gift  of  prophecy,  of  which   St.  in  this  life.     St.  Gregory  and  St.  Bonaventure  soy 

Gregory  gives  many  examples.     Celebrated   among  that   Benedict  saw  God  and  in  that  vision  of  God 

ihese  is  the  story  of  the  visit  of  Totila,  King  of  the  saw  the  whole  world.     St.  Thomas  will  not  allow  that 

Goths,  in  the  year  M3,  when  the  saint  "rebuked  him  this  could  have  been.    Urban  Vlll,  however,  does 

lor  his  wicked  deeds,  and  in  few  words  told  him  nil  Dot  hesitate  to  say  that  "  the  aouit  merited,  whilst 


\ 

BEHXDIOT  472  SKHXDIOT 

etill  in  this  mortal  life,  to  see  Qod  Himself  and  in  himself  may  obtain  mercv.    Let  him  hate  sin  and 

God  all  that  is  below  Him".    If  he  did  not  see  the  love  the  brethren.     And  even  in  his  corrections, 

Creator,  he  saw  that  light  which  is  in  the  Creator,  let  him  act  with  prudence,  and  not  go  too  far,  lest 

and  in  that  light,  as  St.  Gregory  says,  "  saw  the  whole  while  he  seeketh  too  eagerlv  to  scrape  off  the  rust, 

woiid  gathered  together  as  it  were  under  one  beam  the  vessel  be  broken.    I^t  him  keep  his  own  frailty 

of  the  sun.    At  the  same  time  he  saw  the  soul  of  ever  before  his  eyes,  and  remember  that  the  bruised 

Germanus,  Bishop  of  Capua,  in  a  fiery  globe  carried  reed  must  not  be  broken.    And  by  this  we  do  not 

up  b^r  angels  to  heaven^  (ibid.,  xxxv).    Once  more  mean  that  he  should  suffer  vices  to  grow  up;  but 

the  hidden  things  of  God  were  shown  to  him,  and  he  that  prudently  and  with  charity  he  should  cut  them 

warned  his  brethren,  both  "  those  that  lived  daily  off,  in  the  way  he  shall  see  best  for  each,  as  we  have 

with  him  and  those  that  dwelt  far  off  "of  his  approach-  already  said;  and  let  him  study  rather  to  be  loved 

ing  death.    ''Six  days  before  he  left  this  world  he  than  feared.    Let  him  not  be  violent  nor  over  anxious, 

gave  orders  to  have  nis  sepulchre  opened,  and  forth-  not  exacting  nor  obstinate,  not  jealous  nor  prone 

with  falling  into  an  ague,  he  begisui  with  burning  to  suspicion,  or  else  he  will  never  be  at  rest.    In  all 

heat  to  wax  faint;  and  when  as  the  sickness  daily  his  commands,  whether  spiritual  or  temporal,  let 

increased,  upon  the  sixth  day  he  commanded  his  him   be   prudent   and   considerate.    In   the   works 

monks  to  carry  him  into  the  oratory,  where  he  did  which  he  imposeth,  let  him  be  discreet  and  moderate, 

arm  himself  receiving  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Our  bearing  in  mind  the  discretion  of  holv  Jacob,  when 

Saviour  Christ;  and  having  his  weak  body  holden  up  he  said:  'If  I  cause  my  flocks  to  Be  overdriven, 

betwixt  the  hands  of  his  disciples,  he  stood  with  his  the^  will  all  perish  in  one  day'.    Taking,  then,  such 

own  hands  lifted  up  to  heaven;  and  as  he  was  in  that  testimonies  as  are  borne  by  tnese  and  the  like  words 

manner   praying,    he   gave   up   the   ghost"    (ibid.,  to  discretion,  the  mother  of  virtues,  let  him  so  temper 

xxxvii).    He  was  buried  in  the  same  fn*ave  with  his  all  things,  that  the  strong  may  have  something  to 

sister  "  in  the  oratoi^  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  which  strive  after,  and  the  weak  notmng  at  which  to  take 

[he]  himself  had  bmlt  when  he  overthrew  the  altar  alarm." 

of  Apollo"  (ibid.).    There  is  some  doubt  whether       Biographt:— 5f.  (7r«(^»^'«  Z>taZogt*e«,  II Jn  P. L., I^Vl,  tr. 

the  r«Uc8  of  the  saint  are  still  at  Monte  Cassino  or  S^%™S°5.^°ofM&^?SS;&'^  fS^T  ^SJl 

Whether  they  were  moved  m  the  seventh  century  tort  or  the  Pkriod:--Hodgkin,  Italy  and  Her  invadert  (Ox- 

tO  Fleury.      Abbot  Tosti,  in  his  life  of  St.  Benedict,  ford.  1892-99):  Dudden,  Oregon/  the  Great  (London.   1906): 

dUscusses  the  question  at  length  (chap.  «)  and  decides  ^S^^^ii  V^^ri^A^S.^^l^-^Je'^l^lil,^ 

the  controversy  in  favour  of  Monte  Cassmo.  Blair  (London,  1006);  Schmidt,  EdiHo  minor  (RAtisbon,  1891); 

Perhaps  the   most   striking   characteristics   in   St.  Warneprid,  Commentary  in  P.  L.,  LXVI),  new  ed.  (Monte 

Benedict  are  his  deep  and  wide  human  feeling  and  ^^^^^^'iP^^^^fliS'^.!^^^  ^^f T'  ^^^i'  il^^'^fi?'^ 

r.  J      *r.  V^*^    f         »»*^^  "**    «^  »^i*A*6  €^t%*  Commentary  (Pans,  1690);  ZdcKLER,  A8ke9e  und  MOnchtum 

his   moderation.     The    former    reveals   itself   m   the  (1897)#  Butler  in  Dovmaide  Review  (Dec.,  1899);  Idem,  in 

many  anecdotes  recorded  by  St.  Gregory.     We  see  it  Journal  cf   Thed.  Studies   (A\>r.,    1902):    Montalembert. 

m  his  sympathy  and  care  for  the  simpFest  of  his  monks:  ^^  %/^^a^ndot'i'^^)  ^^^  ^^*  '^''*"'  '^''"*'  ^"^ 

his  hastening  to  the  help  of  the  poor  Goth  who  had  "    tt^ „  r?  r:^ 

lost  his  biU-look;  speniing  the  ^urs  of  the  night  ^^^^  Edmund  Ford. 
in  prayer  on  the  moimtain  to  save  his  monks  the  Benedict  of  Peterborough,  abbot  and  writer, 
labour  of  carrying  water,  and  to  remove  from  their  place  and  date  of  birth  unknown;  d.  1193.  He  was 
lives  a  "just  cause  of  grumbling";  staying  three  educated  at  Oxford,  and  was  appointed  in  1174 
dajrs  in  a  monastery  to  help  to  mduce  one  of  the  chancellor  to  Richard,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
monks  to  "remain  quietly  at  his  prayers  as  the  and  in  1175  became  Prior  of  Christ  Church,  Canter- 
other  monks  did",  instead  of  goin^  forth  from  the  bury.  As  Abbot  of  Peterborough  from  1177  to  his 
chapel  and  wandering  about  "busying  himself  with  death  in  1193,  he  was  a  learned  and  able  executive, 
some  earthly  and  transitory  things".  He  lets  the  He  restored  the  abbey  finances  to  a  sound  basis, 
crow  from  the  neighbouring  woods  come  daily  when  and  was  active  till  his  death  in  completing  and  beau- 
all  are  at  dinner  to  be  fed  by  himself.  His  mind  is  tifying  the  buildings.  Through  his  personal  favour 
always  with  those  who  are  absent;  sitting  in  his  with  Richard  I  he  secured  for  his  abbey  various 
cell  he  knows  that  Placid  has  fallen  into  the  lake;  rights  and  privile^.  He  has  been  sometimes  con- 
he  foresees  the  accident  to  the  builders  and  sends  a  fused  with  Benedict  of  Sansetun,  later  Bishop  of 
warning  to  them;  in  spirit  and  some  kind  of  real  Rochester,  vice-chancellor  during  the  absence  of 
presence  he  is  with  the  monks  "eating  and  refresh-  King  Richard.  He  had  the  library  enriched  by 
mg  themselves"  on  their  journey,  with  his  friend  transcriptions  of  standard  works  in  theology,  exe- 
Valentinian  on  his  way  to  the  monastery,  with  the  gesis,  law,  science,  and  poetry.  He  wrote  anistory 
monk  taking  a  present  from  the  n\ms,  with  the  new  of  Becket*s  "  Pas6i9n  ",  preserved  in  part  in  the  work 
community  at  Terracina.  Throughout  St.  Gregory's  on  Becket  known  as  "Quadrilogus",  and  also,  a 
narrative  he  is  always  the  same  quiet,  gentle,  digni-  first-hand  account  of  Becket's  "  Miracles "  (Robert- 
fied,  strong,  peace-loving  man  who  by  the  subtle  son,  "  Materials  for  the  History  of  Thomas  Becket ", 
power  of  sympathy  becomes  the  centre  of  the  lives  RoUs  Series,  1876).  He  was  formerly  regarded  as 
and  interests  of  all  about  him.  We  see  him  with  the  author  of  "Gesta  Henrici  II".  which  Stubbs 
his  monks  in  the  church,  at  their  reading,  some-  would  identify  with  the  lost  "Tricolumnis"  of 
times  in  the  fields,  but  more  commonly  in  his  cell,  Richard  Fitz-Neal,  author  of  the  "Dialogus  de 
where  frequent  messengers  find  him  "  weeping  silently  Scaccario  ". 

in  his  prayers",  and  in  the  night  hours  standing  at  „  Gardiner   and   Mullinqeb.   Introduction   to  the    Study  of 

"thp  window  of  hia  cpII  in  the  tower   offerini?  iin  hia  S,^'  ^"J.  (London.  1894);  Giles.  Life  and  Mva€^^  of  Sl 

ine  winaow  oi  nis  ceii  in  me  wwer,  onenng  up  nis  Thomas  of  Canterbury,  by  Benedict,  etc.  (Caxton  Society,  1850). 
prayers  to  God   ;  and  often,  as  Totila  foimd  him,  j,  y,  Crowne. 

sitting  outside  the  door  of  his  cell,  or  "before  the 

gate  of  the  monastery  reading  u^n  a  book".  He  Benedict  of  San  Philadelphio  (or  Benedict 
has  given  his  own  portrait  in  his  ideal  picture  of  an  the  Moor),  Saint,  b.  at  San  Philadelphio  or  San 
abbot  (Rule,  Ixiv): —  Fradello,  a  village  of  the  Diocese  of  Messma  in  Sicily, 
"It  beseemeth  the  abbot  to  be  ever  doing  some  in  1526;  d.  4  April,  1589.  The  parents  of  St.  Bene- 
good  for  his  brethren  rather  than  to  be  presiding  diet  were  slaves  from  Ethiopia  who  were,  nevertbe- 
over  there.  He  must,  therefore,  be  learned  in  the  less,  pious  Christians.  On  account  of  their  faithful- 
law  of  God,  that  he  may  know  whence  to  bring  forth  ness  their  master  freed  Benedict,  the  first-bom  child, 
things  new  and  old;  he  must  be  chaste,  sober,  and  From  his  eariiest  years  Benedict  was  very  reIig:ious 
merciful,  ever  preferring  mercy  to  justice,  that  he  and  while  still  veiy  yoimg  he  joined  a  newly  formed 


:i   5    i 


473 


aasociation  of  hermits.     Wh^i  Pope  Pius  IV  di»-  thanksgiving  for  the  Redemption  are  specially  in 

solved  this  assodation,  Benedict,  called  from  his  place  as  an  expression  of  Christian  hope, 

origin    i£thiops    or    Niger,    entered    the    Reformed  See  the  oommentaries  on  Saint  Luke:  abo  HAsriNdB,  DicL 

RecoUecte  of  the  Franciscan  Order.     Owing  to  his  '^  ^*^  """^  ^  ^"^^^^  <New  York.  19^).  I,  90-91 

virtues  he  was  made  superior  of  the  monastery  of  oernard  ward. 

Santa  Miuria  de  Jesus  at  Palermo  three  years  after  BenedictOB    PolonoB,  a    medieval    Friar  Minor 

his  entrance,  although  he  was  only  a  lay  brother,  missionary  and  traveller   (c.    1245)   companion   of 

He  reformed  the  monastery  and  nued  it  with  great  Giovanni  da  Piancarpino,  and  author  of  the  brief 

success  until  his  death.    He  was  pronounced  Blessed  chronicle  "De  lUnere  Fratrum  Minorum  ad  Tar- 

io  1743  and  was  canonized  in  1807.    His  feast  is  taroe'',  concerning  the  first  Franciscan  missions  to 

celebrated  3  April.  the  Tatars.      ThS  work  was  unknown  apparently 

Gvt»ni,U  vernier »£raphxqueoum»d^%ai^  to  Wadding  and  Sbaralea,  the  literary  historians  of 

fg/mt?.  S^L^^KD^^^^Mr^rif  ^'".SS  ^  order.^t  WM  first  published  by  D^\ve«ac  in  the 

i(  bienheurmtx  det  troia  ordres  (U  St,  FranfoU  (Paria.  1882).  "Recueil  de  Voyages"    (Paris,   1839,  IV,  774-779). 

".i«qq.                                                 T  «  TT  Of.  the  "Chronicle"  of  Glassberger  in  "Analecta 

J.  F.  KiRSCH.  Franciscana"  (II,  71).    The  report  of  Benedictus  is 

BenddictOB,  (Canticlb  of  Zachart),  The,  givep  in  important  for  the  curious  letter  of  the  Great  Khan  to 

Luke,  i,  68-79,  is  one  of  the  three  great  canticles  in  the  Innocent  IV. 

openinir  chapters  of.  this  Qospel,  the  Oth^  two  being  Goldbovict,  BUblioteca   lio-hibHografica  delta  terra  aanta  e 

iheMagnificatandNvncdimiUia.    The  Benedtduswaa  <fctt' <>rtente  l^«mce«amo  (Quai»cchiji9^ 
the  song  of  thanksgiving  uttered  by  Zachary  on  the  rHOiiAS  J.  ^hahan. 
occasion  of  the  birui  of  nisson,  St.  John  Baptist.    It  Benefice  (Lat.  Beneficiumf&  benefit). — Popularly 
is  Jewish  in  form,  but  CJhristian  in  sentiment.    The  the  term  benefice   is   often   imderstood   to  denote 
Ibcal  coloiuing  and  nationalistic  character  of  the  first  either  certain  property  destined  for  the  support  of 
half  are  so  noticeable  that  Loisy  has  coniectured  tliat  ministers  of  religion,  or  a  spiritual  office  or  function, 
it  existed  previously  as  a  simple  psalm,  which  Zachary  such  as  the  care  of  souls,  out  in  the  strict  sense  it 
adapted,  nis  addilJons  being,  he  contends,  easilv  di»-  signifies  a  ri^t,  i.  e.  the  ri^t  given  permanently 
cemible.      (Revue    d'hist.   et    de  lit.  relig.,  May-  by  the  Church  to  a  cleric  to'  receive  ecclesiastical 
June,  1903,  p.  289.)    There  are,  however,  grave  OD-  revenues  on  accoimt  of  the  performance  of  some 
jections  to  this  view,  and  an  opposite  theory  has  been  spiritual  service.     Four  characteristics  are  essential 
put  forth,  that  the  Benedictus  was  composed  with  to  every  benefice:   (a)  the  right  to  revenue  from 
special  reference  to  the  names  of  Elizabeth,  Zachary,  churdi   property,    the    beneficed   cleric    being   the 
and  John,  for  Elizabeth,  Juejwrandwn  quod  juravU;  usufructuary  and  not  the  proj^rietor  of  the  source 
Zathary^,  Memorari  (testamerUi  aui  ecmcti);  ana  J(^m,  of  his  support;  (b)  a  twofold  perpetuity,  objective 
Adjaciendam  miaericordiam,  and  subjective,  inasmuch  as  tne  source  of  income 
Tne  whole  canticle  naturally  falls  into  two  parts,  must  be  permanently  established  and  at  the  same 
The  first  (verses  68-75)  is  a  song  of  thankagiving  for  time  the  appointment  to  the  benefice  must  be  for 
the  realization  of  the  Messianic  hopes  of  the  Jewish  life,  and  not  subject  to  revocation,  save  for  the  causes 
nation;  but  to  such  realization  is  ^v^i  a  character-  and  in  the  oases  specified  by  law;  (c)  a  formal  decree 
istically  Christian  tone.    As  of  old,  in  the  family  of  of  ecclesiastical  authority  giving  to  certain  fimds  or 
David,  there  was  power  to  defend  the  nation  against  propertv  the  character  or  title  of  a  benefice;  (d)  an' 
theirenemies,  now  again  that  of  which  they  had  been  annexed  office  or  spiritual  function  of  some  kind, 
so  long  deprived,  and  for   which   they  had   been  such  as  the  care  of  souls,  the  exercise  of  jurisdiction, 
yearning,  was  to  be  restored  to  them,  but  in  a  higher  the  celebration  of  Mass  or  the  recitation  of  the  Divine 
and  spiritual  sense.    The  horn  is  a  sign  of  power.  Office.    This  last  mentioned  element  is  fundamental, 
and  tne  "horn  of  salvation"  signified  thepower  ot  since  a  benefice  exists  only  for  the  sake  of  securing 
delivering  or  ''a  mighty  deliverance".    While  the  the  performance  of  duties  connected  with  the  wor- 
Jews  had  impatiently  borne  the  yoke  of  the  Romans,  ship  €d  Cxod,  and  is  based  on  the  Scriptural  teaching 
they  had  continually  sighed  for  the  time  "vidien  the  that  they  who  serve  the  altar  should  live  by  the  altar. 
House  of  David  was  to  oe  their  deliverer.    The  de-  In  fact,  as  Innocent  III  declares,  the  sole  purpose 
tiversnce  was  now  at  hand,  and  was  pointed  to  by  of  the  foundation  of  benefices  was  to  enaole  the 
Zachary  as  the  fulfilment  of  Gk>d's  Oath  to  Abraham;  church  to  have  at  her  command  clerics  who  might 
but  the  fulfilment  is  described  as  a  deliverance  not  devote  themselves  freely  to  works  of  religion, 
for  the  sake  of  worldly  power,  but  that  "we  mav  Histort.— The  need  which  benefices  are  intended 
serve  him  without  fear,  m  holiness  and  justice  au  to  meet  was  in  the  earlier  centuries  of  the  life  of  the 
our  days".  Church  satisfied  in  other  wavs.    From  the  beginning, 
The  second  part  of  the  canticle  is  an  address  by  the  dergy^  was  supported  Dy  the  liberality  of  the 
Zachary  to  his  own  son,  who  was  to  take  so  important  faithful,  out  originally  all  offerings  were  transmitted 
a  part  m  the  scheme  of  the  Redemption;  for  he  was  to  the  bishop^  who  took  charge  of  their  administra- 
te be  a  prophet,  and  to  preach  the  remission  of  sins  tion  and  distribution.    Usually  the  mass  of  donations 
before  the  coming  of  the  Orient,  or  Dawn,  from  on  was  divided  into  four  portions,  of  which  one  went  to 
high.    The  prophecy  thai  he  was  to  "go  before  the  the  support  of  the  bishop,  another  to  the  main- 
face  of  the  Lora  to  prepare  his  ways"  ^,  76)  was  of  tenance  of  the  clergy,  a  thn^d  to  the  repair  and  con- 
course an  allusion  to  the  well-known  words  of  Isaias  struction  of  churches,  and  a  fourth  to  the  relief  of 
(xl,  3)  which  St.  John  himself  afterwards  applied  to  the  needy  and  afflicted.     Under  this  system  even 
his  own  mission  (John,  i,  23);  and  which  all  the  three  those  clerics  who  ministered  in  rural  parishes  were 
Sjrnoptics  adopt  (Matt.,  iii,  3;  Mark,  i,  2;  Luke,  iii,  4).  obliged  to  send  the  oblations  received  in  their  churches 
It  is  probably  due  to  the  first  part  of  the  canticle,  as  to  tne  bishop,  to  swell  the  common  fund  and  to  be 
ason^ofthanksgivingfor  the  coming  of  the  Redeemer,  submitted  to  the  ordinary  rule  of  allotment.    The 
that  it  finds  an  appropriate  place  in  the  office  of  the  inconvenience  attending  this  method,  especially  be- 
Qmrch  every  morning  at  lAuds.    It  is  b^eved  to  cause  the  offerings  were  frequently  in  kind,  increased 
have  been  first  introduced  by  St.  Benedict  (Beaume,  with  the  growth  of  the  C)nurch,  particularly  with 
I,  253).    According  to  Durandus,  the  aUuaon  to  the  multiplication  of  country  parishes.     Moreover 
CSirist's  coming  under  the  figure  of  the  rising  sun  had  the  Church  came  to  possess  considerable  real  property, 
also  some  influence  on  its  adoption.    It  is  also  used  Hence  early  in  the  sixth  century  we  find  in  some 
in  various  other  liturgical  offices,  notably  at  a  fu-  places  the  practice  of  allowing  some  of  the  cleroy 
neraiy  at  the  moment  of  interment,  when  words  of  to  retain  for  thonaelveB  and  lor  their  churches  the 


474 

nfts  which  they  had  received  or  even  the  income  styled  major  benefices.  A  benefice  is  elective  Tvhen 
from  property  which  the  Church  had  acquired.  The  the  appointing  authority  may  collate  only  after 
latter  form  of  grant,  in  connexion  with  lands  or  some  electoral  oody  has  named  the  future  incumbent; 
permanent  endowments,  was  known  as  precaria^  a  presentative  when  such  nomination  belongs  to  a 
name  which  indicates  its  unstable  tenure;  on  the  patron;  oollative  when  the  bishop  or  other  superior 
death  of  the  possessor  the  source  of  his  revenue  appoints  independently  of  any  election  or  presenta- 
reverted  to  the  common  fund  of  church  property,  tion.  The  distinction  between  residential  and  non- 
and  could  not  serve  for  the  support  of  a  cleric  unless  residential  benefices  is  based  upon  the  fact  that  in 
devoted  anew  to  this  purpose  bv  a  formal  act  of  some  cases  the  canons  or  articles  of  foundation  im- 
ecclesiastical  authority.  Thougn  these  precariee  pose  the  obligation  of  residence  in  the  locality  of  the 
were  in  the  beginning  contrary  to  the  canons,  cir-  benefice  while  in  other  cases  no  such  obligation  is 
cimistances  justified  their  increasing  employment,  annexed.  Manual  benefices  are  not  benefices  in 
and  they  paved  the  way  for  the  recognition  of  the  the  strict  sense,  since  their  distinctive  note  is  that 
modem  benefice.  appointments  to  them  are  revocable  at  the  will  of 
All  that  was  needed  to  transform  the  precaricB  into  the  collating  authority.  A  legal  presumption  exists 
benefices,  was  to  do  away  with  the  n^ed  of  a  new  that  all  benefices  are  secular,  out  those  which  exist 
episcopal  decree  assigning  the  income  from  certain  in  churches  or  houses  of  religious  orders  or  which 
lands  or  other  property  to  the  support  of  a  priest  by  custom  or  by  the  will  of  the  foimder  have  been 
on  the  occurrence  of  a  vacancy,  and  to  recognize  appropriated  to  religious  are  known  as  regular  bene- 
in  the  source  of  income  a  perpetual  foundation  for  fices.  This  last  distinction  has  at  times  a  special 
this  specific  purpose.  When  tnis  was  done  and  the  importance  because  of  the  rule  requiring  that  secu- 
incumbent  was  given  permanency  in  office,  the  lar  benefices  be  conferred  only  on  secular  clerics, 
modern  benefice  came  into  being.  It  was  of  gradual  regular  benefices  only  on  regulars, 
growth,  its  beginning  dating  from  the  sixth  century  Crbation. — Benences  can  be  created  only  by 
and  its  universal  adoption  being  delayed  until  the  ecclesiastical  authority,  since  the  right  to  revenue 
eleventh  century.  Since  the  usufruct  allowed  to  which  they  suppose  is  always  nedessarily  connected 
clerics  resembled  the  grants  of  land  which  sovereigns  with  some  spiritual  function,  and  is  therefore  reek- 
were  accustomed  to  make  to  subjects  who  had  ais-  oned  among  the  jvra  spiritualia  controlled  by  the 
tinguished  themselves  by  military  or  political  ser-  Church.  The  competent  authority  may  be  the  pope 
vice,  and  which  the  Church  was  at  times  compelled  or  a  bishop  or  one  possessing  quasi-episcopal  au- 
to concede  to  powerful  lay  lords  in  order  to  secure  thority,  it  oeing  alwavs  understood  that  the  pope 
necessary  protection  in  troubled  times,  it  was  natural  has  exclusive  control  of  all  major  benefices.  A  bene- 
that  the  term  benefice,  which  had  been  applied  to  fice  must  be  erected  in  a  church  or  at  an  altar,  under 
these  grants^  should  oe  employed  to  denote  the  the  title  of  some  saint  or  mystery,  and  with  the  tm- 
similar  practice  in  r^ard  to  ecclesiastics.  Wherever  nexed  obligation  of  rendering  some  spiritual  service, 
the  common  law  of  the  Church  holds  sway  the  Since  the  idea  of  compensation  is  always  implied, 
establishment  of  benefices  is  the  rule.  In  more  a  sufficient  endowment  must  in  every  case  be  guaran- 
than  one  country  a  system  developed  by  centuries  teed,  the  amount  varying  with  the  character  of  the 
of  piety  has  fallen  before  decrees  of  secularization,  benefice,  the  locality  of  tne  foundation,  and  the  na- 
but  if  the  usurping  government  makes  a  pretence  ture  of  the  services  which  are  to  be  rendered.  In 
of  compensation  by  stipends  to  the  clergy,  such  some  countries,  as  in  Austria,  the  consent  of  the 
stipends  are  regarded  by  the  Church  as  beneficiary  civil  authorities  is  a  necessary  preliminary  to  the 
revenue,  and   those  who  receive   them  retain  the  creation  of  a  benefice. 

status  of  beneficed  clerics.     In  the  United  States        Modification. — ^A  benefice  once  erected  is  under- 

benefices  are  almost  unknown.    A  solitary  example  stood  to  be  perpetual,  but  the  law  must  and  does 

in  New  Orleans  figured  as  a  notable  exception  in  the  provide  for  circumstances  which  may  require   an 

decree  of  the  Second  Plenary  Council.     A  few  nar  alteration  of  the  status  of  a  benefice  by  union  or 

rochial  benefices  are  found  in  the  province  of  San  division,  or  even  its  entire  suppression  or  extinction. 

Francisco,  and  there  is  good  groimd  for  the  opinion  Sometimes,  owing  to  changed  conditions,  especially 

which  sees  in  permanent  rectorships  all  the  requisites  to  a  diminution  of  revenue,  it  becomes  necessary  to 

of  a  benefice;  but  these  instances,  with  the  episcopates,  unite  two  or  more  benefices.     This  union  may  be 

are  in  marked  contrast  with  the  general  organization  effected  in  two  wa3rs,  either  so  that  an  entirely  new 

of  the  Church  in  the  United  States.     In  England,  individual  entity  is  brought  into  being,  or  so  that 

also,   benefices  are  the  exception,   but  in   C&iada  the  original  titles  remain,  but  are  oonf^red  on  one 

they   are   more   common    (Gignac,    Compend.   Jur.  cleric  instead  of  several.    In  this  latter  case  a  dis- 

Eccl.,  Quebec,  1906).     The  beneficiary  system  plays  tinction  has  to  be  made  between  a  union  in  which 

an  important  part  in  the  discipline  of  the  evangelical  both  benefices  retain  their  legal  autonomy  and  a 

churcnes  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  of  the  union  in  which  one  benefice  is  nuide  legally  dependent 

State  church  of  En^and.     In  1900,  out  of  22,800  on  the  other.    The  pope  alone  can  umte  major  bene- 

clergymen  at  work  in  the  Anglican  Church,  13,872  fices;  minor  benefices  are  subject  in  this  respect  to 


227;  ibid,  the  Benefices  Act  of  1898.    For  the  Evan-  of  necessity  or  of  advantage,  and  unless  a  bearing 

f[elical  Churches  see  Hinschius,  "  Kirchenrecht ",  Ber-  be  first  granted  to  all  interested  persons.    The  patron, 

m,    1869  sq.;    Friedberg,  "  Ijchrbuch  des  Kirchen-  if  there  be  one,  and  the  cathedral  chapter  are  the 

rechts  ",  4th  ed.,  1895;  Real  Encyk.  f.  Prot.  Theol.  only  parties  whose  consent,  as  distinguished  from 

und  Kirche,  3d  ed.,  1897,  II,  596.)  mere  opinion,  is  required.    The  division  of  benefices, 

Division. — Benefices  are  divided  into  simple  and  which  is  most  frequently  verified  in  connexion  with 

double;  major  and  minor;  elective,  presentative,  and  parishes,  is  authorized  wnen  the  incumbei^  is  unable 

coUative;  residential  and  non-residential;  perpetual  on  account  of  increasing  obligations  to  meet  the  re- 

and  manual;  secular  and  regular.     Simple  benefices  quirements  of  his  office,  even  with  the  help  of  such 

are  those  which  involve  only  the  duty  of  reciting  auxiliaries  as  the   law  allows.    The   formalities  are 

the  Divine  Office  or  of  celebrating  Mass.     Double  generally  the  same  as  for  a  umon.    The  term  "dis^ 

benefices  imply  the  care  of  souls  or  jurisdiction  in  membration"  is  frequently  employed  as  a  synonym 

the  external  forum  or  administrative  functions,  and,  for  division,  but  strictly  speaking  it  denotes  an  act 

if  they  be  episcopal  or  pupra-episcopal  in  rank,  are  by  which  a  part  of  the  goods  or  revenues  of 


BSNxncne                    475  bbwbwoi 

benefice  is  given  perpetually  to  another  benefice  or  to  Apostolic    Chancery    (see    Roman    Curia),    which 
some  other  eeclesiastical  entity.    In  this  case  no  new  provides  that  those  diocesan  benefices  which  fall 
benefice  is  set  up,  and  the  act  in  question  is  in  reality  vacant  during  ci^t  months  of  the  year  are  to  be 
simplv  an  alienation  of  church  property,  and  is  at  the  dispo^  of  the  pope,  but  that  bishops  who 
therefore  governed  by  the  rules  applicable  to  aliena-  observe  the  law  of  residence  may  finely  dj^poee  of 
tion.    Dismembration  is  also  used  at  times  to  signify  all  benefices  vacated  during  the  six  alternate  months 
the  separation  of  a  certain  territory  with  its  in-  *  beginning  with  February.     To-dav  reservations  are 
habitants  from  one  parish  and  its  incorporation  in  in  ^eCt  to  some  extent ,  througnout  the  Church; 
another,  which  may  be  effected  for  sufficient  reason,  for  example,  they  affect  the  first  dignities  in  chap- 
The  extinction  of  benefices  occurs  when  both  the  ters  in  tne  Province  of  Quebec  and  oanonries  m 
benefice  and  the  church  to  which  it  is  attached  are  England;  but  Italy  is  the  only  country  in  which  they 
utterly  destroyed  or  cease  completely  to  have  any  are  in  full  operation.     Apart  from  cases  provided 
connexion  with    Catholic  worship,  as  happened  in  for  in  reservations,  the  pope  rarely,  if  ever,  exercises 
the  past  when  certain  countries  were  overrun  by  his  right  of  extraordinaiy  collation.     A  collation, 
infidels  or  heretics,  and  in  more  recent  times  on  the  whether  made  by  the  pope  or  by  a  bishop,  is  said 
occasion  of  acts  of  usurpation  by  the  civil  power,  to  be  free  when  it  is  not  conditioned  by  any  act  of 
Suppression  differs  from  extinction  in  that  it  amply  an  elector  or  of  a  patron;  necessary  wbuen  it  follows 
terminates  the  existence  of  a  benefice,  leaving  intact  election   or  nomination   by   competent   persons  or 
ihe  church  and  any  other  benefices  which  may  be  presentation  by  patrons.     In  many  countries,  con- 
connected  with  it.    Suppression  involves  a  diminu-  cordats  have  secured  to  the  representatives  of  civil 
tion  of  religious  service,  *and  is  consequently  re-  authority  an   important  part   in   appointments  to 
carded  as  odious  in  law.    Nevertheless  a  bishop  may  benefices.     Thus  in  Bavaria  the  king  nominates  to 
for  good  reasons  and  with  the  consent  of  his  cnapter  all  archiepiscopal  and  episcopal  sees;  and  a  similar 
proved  to  suppresision,  and  at  times  such  action  is  right  has  been  granted  to  the  Emperor  of  Austria 
rendered  necessary  by  a  considerable  depreciation  in  and  to  the  Kinp;  of  Portugal;  in  Hanover  the  chapter, 
the  value  of  the  beneficiary  property  or  by  the  de-  before  proceeding  to  the  election  of  a  bishop,  must 
parture  of  the  population  to  whose  spiritual  needs  the  allow  tne  Government  to  cancel  the  names  of  those 
D^efice  was  intended  to  minister.     Suppression  is  candidates  whom  it  judges  unacceptable.     Secular 
not  iiifrequently  requested   by  patrons.     In  such  intervention  in  the  collation  of  minor  benefices  varies 
eases  the  practice  is  not  to  consent  to  absolute  sup-  from  the  royal  nomination  of  the  King  of  Portu^ 
pression,  at  least  of  the  religious  service  depending  to  the  governmental  exequatur  required  by  Italian 
on  the  benefice,  but  simply  to  the  exoneration  of  law.    Tne  interests  of  religion  are  safeguarded  by 
ihe  patron  and  his  renunciation  of  the  jus  patronatua,  the  canonical  requirement  that  in  every  case  tne 
CoLLATioi!^ . — ^The  collation  or  granting  of  benefices  candidate  must  be  confirmed  by  ecclesiastical  au- 
may  be  ordinary  or  extraordinary,  free  or  necessary,  thority  before  he  can  lawfully  begin  his  incumbency. 
The  distinction  between  ordinary  and  extraordinary  (For  abuses  in  the  collation  of  benefices,  see  Patron- 
collation  is  based  upon  the  fact  that  while  ordinarily  aob,  Commbndatort  Abbots,  Investitures.) 
major  benefices  are  disposed  of  by  the  pope  and  Condition  of  Collation. — In  order  that  benefices 
minor  benefices   by   bisnops,   it   may  occasionally  may  the  more  effectually  fulfill  the  purposes  for 
happen  that  this  rule  suffers  an  exception  in  so  far  which  they  were  instituted,  various  laws  have  been 
as  it  relates  to  bishops,  either  because  of  a  special  enacted  goveminff  the  act  of  collation.     Whether 
provision  of  the  law  in  favour  of  the  pope  or  of  some  the  collation  be  free  or  necessary  it  must  always 
other  authority,  or  because,  on  the  failure  of  the  be  gratuitous,  to  avoid  simony;  free,  that  is  without 
bishop  to  act,  the  right  to  appoint  devolves  on  his  ooaction;  unconditional;  public,  so  that  it  may  be 
supenor.     These  exceptions  are  known  as  extraordi-  readily  proved;  and  granted  within  six  months  from 
naiy  collations.     From  the  eleventh  century,  ex-  the  dat^  of  vacancy.    Moreover  no  benefice  can  be 
traordinary  collations  by  the  pope  became  more  and  conferred  before  it  is  vacant,  nor  can  seculars  re- 
more  common,   usually  taking    the    form  of  man*  ceive  the  benefices  of  regulars,  nor  regulars  those 
data  de  providendOj  litercB  exvedativos,  and  reservations,  which  are  secular  in  character.    Plurality  of  benefices 
The  mandata  de  providenao  were  intended  to  give  also  is  forbidden.     This  last  regulation  was  intro- 
to  the  cleric  named  therein  a  right  to  a  benefice  duced  very  early  in  the  historv  of  benefices  to  assure 
aheady  vacant  in  the  diocese  of  the  bishop  to  whom  the   faithful   execution   of   the   trust   attached   to 
the  mandate  was  directed.    Litera  exvedaHvcB  were  ecclesiastical  foundations,  as  well  as  to  guard  against 
similar  papal  interventions  in  regara  to  diocesan  the  evils  which  follow  luxury;  but  in  the  course  of 
benefices,  but  affected   benefices  not  yet  vacant,  time  its  effectiveness  was  considerably  diminished 
the  recipient  of  the  letter  being  given  a  claim  on  a  by  a  distinction   drawn   between   compatible  and 
benefice  as  soon  as  it  should  be  at  the  disposal  of  incompatible  benefices.    It  was  claimed  that  a  bene- 
the  bishop.     These  two  methods  of  extraordinary  fice  wnich  does  not  require  residence  is  perfectly 
collation   were   not   productive   of   happy   results;  compatible   with  one   which  does,   and   also   that 
they  proved  to  be  prejudicial  to  episcopal  authority;  several  simple  benefices  might  very  properly  be  held 
th^  were  taken  advantage  of  by  unworthy  aspirants  at  the  same  time.    This  view  held  swav  down  to 
for  ecclesiastical  offices;   and  at  times  they  were  the  time  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  which  ordained 
fraudulently  obtained  and  offered  for  sale.     Hence  that  the  possession  of  more  than  one  benefice  is 
their  reprolsAtion  by  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXIV,  lawful  only  when  the  first  benefice  obtained  does 
cap.  xix  De  ref).    This  animadversion  of  Trent  was  not  suffice  for  the  support  of  the  incumbent,  and  that 
not,  it  is  needless  to  say,  a  limitation  of  any  papal  in  no  case  should  both  be  residential.    The  Holy  See 
prerogative;    its    sole    purpose    being    to   forestall  alone  can  dispense  from  the  observance  of  this  law. 
possible  abuses  on  the  part  of  petitioners  for  favours  The  act  of  collation  is  further  conditioned  by  canons 
from  the  Holy  See.    Rieservations  are  still  in  opera-  requiring  certain  qualities  in  the  appointee:  (a)  The 
tion,  and  consist  in  this,  that  the  pope  reserves  to  ckriccd  state  and  celibacy » — Tonsure  is  necessary  for 
himself  in  specified  cases  the  collatioa  of  certain  all  benefices,  and  higher  orders  must  be  received  by 
diocesan  benefices.    After  serving  for  centuries  as  a  aspirants  to  important  chai^B^es;  thus  cardinals  are 
cause  of  much  controversy,  they  were  finally  regu-  obliged  to  receive  within  the  year  the  order  cor- 
lated  by  laws  defining  accurat^y  the  instances  in  responding  to  their  rank  in  the  sacred  college;  arch- 
which  collation  was  to  oe  reserved  to  the  pope.    One  bisnops  and   bishops  must  have  been  subdeacons 
of  the  most  importaht  reservations  which  may  serve  for  at  least  six  months;  parish  priests  must  receive 
•8  an  example  is  contained  in  the  ninth  rule  of  the  the  priesthood  within  a  year,    (b)  Age, — Before  the 


476 

Council  of  Trent  a  simple  benefice  could  lawfully  the  law.    It  is  provided  in  the  law  that  in  the  event 

be  conferred  on  a  cleric  as  early  as  his  sev^ith  year,  of  certain  acts  vacancy  shall  occur  ipso  facto;  as  when 

but  since  that  council  the  recipient  of  a  simple  bene-  the  incumbent  marries  or  attempts  marriage,  when 

fice  must  be  in  his  fourteenth  year,  and  for  double  he  talres  solenm  vows  in  a  religious  order,  when  he 

benefices  the  aire  of  twenty-four  years  completed  is  violates  the  canon  forbidding  plurality,  when  he 

always  required.    A  greater  maturity  is  demanded  fails  to  receive  within  the  prescribed  time  the  nec- 

for  certain  offices,  e.  g.  thirty  years  completed  for  essaiy  ordination,  when  he  obtains  episcopal  conae- 

the  episcopate,  and  forty  years  for  the  post  of  canon  oration,  when  he  is  guilty  of  any  cdme  to  whic^ 

penitentiaiy.     (c)  Character, — ^The  appointee  must  penal^  of  deprivation  is  expressly  attached.    In 

be  of  legitmiate  birth  and  of  eood  reputation,  and  other  cases  deprivation  follows  a  judicial  process, 

free  from   censure   and   irregularity,      (d)   Rdaiive  instituted  in  virtue  of  laws  authorizing  the  bishop  to 

worthi-ness. — ^In  the  case  of  a  choice  between  several  punish  certain  ofifences  in  this  manner.     Moreover 

candidates  for  a  bishopric  or  for  a  parish,  the  col-  a  clmc  has  the  right  to  resign  his  benefice  provided 

lator  must  appoint  the  most  worthy,  i.  e.  the  one  who  the  resignation  be  offered  freely  and  for  just  reasons, 

possesses  in  the  highest  degree  the  qualities  necessary  and  be  accepted  by  a  competent  superior,  and  he 

for  a  successful  discharge  of  the  duties  connected  may\also,  with  certain  conditions,  exchange  bene- 

with  the  benefice  in  question.   The  same  rule  applies  fices  'with  another  incumbent, 
to    prelacies   with   quasiepiscopal    jurisdiction,   to        Rsvia^ES. — ^The  holder  c^  a  benefice  is  not  the 

the  canon  theologian  and  to  the  canon  penitentiary,  owner  of  the  foundation  from  which  ha  derives  his 

As  to  other  benefices  authorities  differ,  tne  preferable  support;  he  occupies  in  reference  to  it  the  position 

opinion  maintaining  that  in  all  cases  the  most  worthy  of  a  tutor  or  guaniian  wh6  must  defend  its  interests, 

is  to  be  chosen,    (e)  Science. — According  to  a  law  of  His  ch^f  duty  is  to  maintain  it  as  a  perpetual  means 

Trent  (Sess.  VII,  c.xiii,Deref.)  no  one  can  be  collated  of  support  for  ministers  of  religion.    Its  fruits  or 

to  a  benefice  unless  his  fitness  has  been  demonstrated  revenues,  however,  belong  to  him,  but  with  the  ob- 

in  an  examination  conducted  by  the  ordinary.    In  ligation  of  devoting  to  pious  causes,  and  especially 

the  case  of  parochial   benefices,  this  examination  to  the  reUef  of  the  poor,  all  that  is  not  needed  for  his 

must  take  the  form  of  a  concursus.    (See  Concursus.)  own  support.     Formerly,  this  superfluous  revenue 

For  some  appointments  the  possession  of  a  degree  could  not  be  disposed  of  by  will,  but  a  universal 

in  theolo^  or  in  canon  law  is  demanded,  as  evidence  custom  has  Ions  since  authorised  such  testamentaiy 

of  req^uisite  learning:  a  bishop  must  be  a  doctor  or  a  disposal,  provided  it  be  made  in  favour  of  pious 

licentiate  in  canon  law  or  in  theology,  or  have  the  causes  or  of  the  poor.    In  fact,  in  most  places  on 

public  testimony  of  a  university  as  to  his  fitness  to  account  of  the  d^iculty  of  distinguishing  a  cleric's 

teach  others;  an  archdeacon  also  must  be  a  doctor  patrimonial  property  from  his  beneficiary  revenue, 

or  a  licentiate  in  canon  law  or  in  theology;  and  the  right  is  recognized  to  dispose  freely  by  will  of 

similar  qualifications  are  demanded  for  other  offices,  all  property.     (See  Jus  SpoLn.) 

The  Holy  See,  is,  at  the  present  time,  insisting  that  ^  Duabbnb,  De^  Sacris  Mini$teriU  et  Benefiais  (Paris.  1664>; 

the  law  concerning  dejjreeB  be  foithfuUy  observed.  ^^^  S!^t?i?i^,i]:SS^'i^^^i^^rj:^ 

(f)  Extraordinary  requirements. ^-These  may  be  im-  (Naples,  16M):  LorncRnis,  De  Re  Benefidarid  (Lyons.  1659); 

posed  by  the  articles  of  foundation  or  by  secular  law.  LiuBBNnni.   Forwm  BenefiaaU  (Oo\o§pae,   1674);   Gohard. 

gunde«  of  benefices  are  given  a  great  deal  of  ^J?r*^^i  f r„^„VJ?ril\,,%*ri  ^^gSe^^ 

liberty  in  attachmg  conditions  to  the  act  of  collation,  eirea  Ecdema  Benelleia  et  Beneficiariot  (Venice,   1766).  the 

provided    that    these    conditions    be    approved    by  classio  historioal  work  on  Benefices;  Gaoliardi.  TracUUus  de 

pcrlftsiflfitinftl  authoritv      In  conseouence    it  h&DDens  fe'**^",  iS?P*^    1842):    Zitelli,   Apparatus  June   Bed. 

ecciesiasucai  aumonLy.     in  consequence,  il  nappens  (Rome,    1907):    Gross,   Dae   Recht   an   der  Pirnnde  ((jtai. 

at  times  that  only  members  of  a  certain  family  or  1887);   Oalanth.  /{  Benefido  BecUeiaetico   (Milan,    18»5); 

citizens  of  some  town  or  city  are  eligible,  or  even,  in  Viawro.  Lehrbtuh  dee  kaOi^vr<^  und  ortentaL  KircherureehU, 

some  few  instances,  persons  of  no&e  birth     More  P^^^tJT^SLi^lii^^  ^k^S^SlSfS^^ 

onerous,  and  not  always  acceptable  to  the  church,  is  Aciidweeene  bie  Alexandef  III  (Berlin,  1806);  Taunton.  The 

the  interference  of  civil  authorities  in  the  matter  Law  of  the  Church  (London,  1906).  t*  rw. 

of  collation.    In  many  places  only  a  person  declared  John  T.  (jreagh. 

acceptable  to  the  Crovemment ,  or  a  citizen,  or  a  native,        Benefit  of  Olergy,  the  exemption  from  the  jiurH 

or  one  who  swears  fidelity  to  the  Qovemment  at  diction  of  the  secular  courts,  which  in  England, 

the  time  of  appointment,  or  who  receives  the  royal  in  the  Middle  Ages,  was  accorded  to  clergymen, 

exequatur,  can  nope  to  be  collated.    In  Portugal  and  This  exemption  included  all  who  had  been  tonsured 

in  Bavaria,  the  permission  of  the  Qovemment  is  and  wore  the  ecclesiastical  dress,  and  was  shared 

necessary  for  ordination,  and  without  this  permission^  in  by  monks  and  nuns.    In  Saxon  da.y8  eccleBiaa- 

which  is  given  after  an  examination  by  secular  au-  tical  and  civil  cases  were  decided  in  shire  aiid  hun- 

then  ties,  a  cleric  is  incapacitated  for  benefices  in  dred  ooiurts  where  the  bishop  sat  side  by  side  with 

these  two  kingdoms.     The  Bavarian  law  also  con-  the  ealdonnan  or  sheriff.    From  the  days  of  the 

tains  the  curious  provision  that  no  subject  is  to  enter  Conqueror  ecclesiastical  courto  were  held  distinct 

the  German  Oollege  at  Rome  so  long  as  it  is  con-  from  the  secular  courts.    Gratian   (cap.  xlvil,  11* 

ducted  bv  the  Fatners  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  or  b^  pars  Dec.,  Causa  XI,  ix  1)  sums  up  tne  privilege 

any  similar  order,  and  that  all  who  contravene  this  of  the  clergy  thus:  "From  the  above  it  is  to  be 

ordinance  are  to  be  considered  as  versonas  non  grata  imderstood  that  a  clergyman  is  not  to  be  brought 

to  the  Government  and  excluded  from  all  benefices  before  the  public  courts  either  in  a  civil  or  crinunal 

and  posts  at  its  disposal.  case,  unless  perhaps  the  bishop   should   not    wish 

Obligations. — All  beneficed  clerics  are  bound  to  to  decide  the  civil  case,  or  unless  he  should,  in  a 

make  a  profession  of  faith  within  two  months  from  criminal  case,  degrade  him''.    William  forbade  his 

the  date  of  taking  possession,  to  perform  faithfully  judges  and  ministers  and  everjr  layman  to  meddle 

the  duties  pertaining  to  their  charge,  to  recite  the  with  the  laws  regarding  the  bishop.    These   privi- 

canonical  hours,  and  if  the  benefice  held  be  double,  leges  of  the  clergy  were  substantially  respected  by 

to  reside  in  the  place  in  which  their  benefice  is  lo-  tl^  Norman  kings,  though  their  tendency  to  arbi- 

cated.    Violation  of  the  law  of  residence  is  punish^  trariness  caused  them  in  special  cases  to  seek  to 

by  loss  of  revenues  during  the  time  of  absence,  and  override  them.    They  were  at  the  root  of  the  oon- 

if  persisted  m,  by  privation.  troversy  between  Henry  II  and  St.  Thomas  Becket. 

Vacancy. — ^The   tenure  of  the   incumbent  of  a  Henry  alleged  Ithat  the  old  customs  of  the  kingdom 

benefice  is  perpetual,  in  the  sense  that  it  can  be  required  that  a  criminous  clerk  should  be  accused 

terminated  only  by  death  or  for  causes  specified  in  in  a  lay  court,  whence  he  was  to  be  transferred  to 


a 


BEMITm                               477  JBKMEVEHTO 

the  ecclesia«tical  court,  and,  if  found  guilty,  to  be  Tnoes  of  it  are  found  in  some  courts  of  different 

degraded  and  returned  for  punishment  to  the  lay  states,   but  it   has  been  practically  outlawed   by 

court.    St.  Thomas  objected,  in  the  name  of  the  statute  or  by  adjudication.    It  is  now  universally 

Church  law,  to  the  first  accusation  in  the  lay  court,  obsolete  in  £!nglish  and  American  law. 

Fitntephen   (Materials    III,  47,  quoted    in    Pollock  Stbphkn,  Hitlary  of  Crvminal  Law,  I.  xiii;  Pollock  and 

andMaitland,  Histojy  of  English  Law )  says  of  the  l^^^rS^SJ^W 

aUeged  customs:  "They  had  never  been  previously  Hutory  of  Chwefi  in  England,  JCb,  ime  (iondon.  1857); 
written,  nor  were  there  any  such  customs  in  the  Cbittt,  Criminal  Low,  s.  v.  BentfU  of  CUrgy:  Dbsmond, 
KiMdom".  The  author  of  the  "Leges  Henrici"  tS^'VX'^  The  Law  (Chio«go.  18W);  Black.  Lau>  Die- 
(ibid)  says  plainly  that  no  accusation,  to  it  for  grave  '  '  *  R.  L.  Burtsell. 
crime,  be  it  for  light  offence,  is  to  be  brought  against  •»  ^^  t  t?  .  »#•  Vi  l*  j 
any  ordained  clerk  save  before  his  bishop.  (Leg.  Benettis,  Jiabviah,  a  Fnar  Mmor  Capuchm  and 
Hen.  I,  57,  J  9.)  When  a  clerk  was  brought  before  historical  writer,  d.  in  1774.  He  belonged  to  the 
a  lay  court,  he  proved  his  claim  to  benefit  of  cleigy  IVovince  of  Piedmont  in  Italy,  and  left  two  valuable 
by  reading,  and  he  was  turned  over  to  the  ecclesias-  historical  treatises.  The  first,  entitled  "Clhronica  et 
tical  court,  as  only  the  clergy  were  generally  able  criticahistori»sacr8Betprofan»*' (Rome,  1766),  deals 
to  read.  This  gave  rise  to  the  extension  of  the  ^^  various  astronomical  questions  and  the  religious 
benefit  of  clergy  to  all  who  could  read.  By  statute  "*«•  "^^  ceremonies  of  ancient  peoples,  and  was  writ- 
in  the  reign  ^  Edward  III  (25  Edw.  Ill,  c.  4)  it  *«*  ^^  »  view  to  facilitate  the  study  of  Sacred 
was  enacted  that  all  manner  of  clerks,  secular  and  Scripture.  In  the  second  work,  entitled  "Privile^o- 
religious,  should  enjoy  the  privilege  of  Holy  Church  ™m  S.  Petri  vin<«cia"  (Rome,  1756-66),  he  gives 
for  all  treasons  and  felonies,  except  those  imme-  *  history  of  the  primacy  of  the  Roman  Pontiff, 
diately  affecting  his  Majesty.  .This  provision  was  Ho*'".  NommoUuor,  IH.  ">•  ^  r»^^^^.„ 
applicable  also  to  aU  who  could  i^.  In  the  Stephen  M.  Donovan. 
re^  of  Henry  VII  a  distinction  was  drawn  between  BeneTento  (Bekeventana)  ,  Archdiocese  of. — 
persons  actually  in  Holy  orders  and  those  who  in  Benevento,  the  ancient  Beneventum,  the  principal 
other  respects  secular,  were  able  to  read,  by  which  cit^  of  the  province  of  the  same  name  in  Campania, 
the  latter  were  allowed  the  benefit  of  the  clergy  is  situated  on  the  River  Galore,  and  contains  a  popu- 
only  once,  and  on  receiving  it  were  to  be  branded  lation  of  25,000.  It  was  founded  at  a  very  early 
on  the  left  thumb  with  a  hot  iron  in  order  to  afford  period  by  the  Samnites,  who  named  it  Maleventiun. 
evidence  against  them  on  a  future  occasion.  Henry  In  275  b.  c.  the  Romans,  having  conquered  Pyrrhus 
VIII  (28  Hen.  VIII,  c.  1,  J  32,  Hen.  VIII,  c.  iii,  I  o)  not  far  from  there,  took  possession  of  the  city  and 
had  even  the  clergy  branded  for  the  first  time,  but  changed  its  name  to  the  preeent  form.  In  268  b.  c.  a  . 
Edward  VI  abolished  this,  and  excepted  atrocious  Roman  colony  was  established  at  Beneventum,  whidi 
crimes,  murder,  poisoning,  burglary,  highway  rob-  was  enlarged  and  beautified  by  Augustus  and  other 
bery,and  sacrilege  from  benefit  of  clergy  (1  Edw.  VI,  emperors.  The  arch  of  Trajan  {porta  cured),  entirely 
c.  xii  {  10),  but  peers  of  the  realm  were  to  be  dis-  of  Parian  marble,  still  bears  eloquent  witness  to  the 
chamd  in  every  case  for  the  first  offence,  except  munificence  of  that  emperor.  In  545  the  city  was 
murder  and  poisoning,  even  though  imable  to  read,  captured  and  destroyed  by  Totila,  Kine  of  the  Goths, 
After  a  layman  was  burnt  on  the  hand,  a  clerk  dis-  but  was  rebuilt  in  589  by  the  Lombard  King  Autharis, 
charged  on  reading,  a  peer  without  either  burning  and  made  the  seat  of  a  duchy.  In  1047  it  tell  into  the 
or  penalty,  they  were  delivered  to  the  ordinary  hands  of  the  Normans,  who,  however,  were  foreed  to 
to  be  dealt  with  according  to  the  ecclesiastical  relinquish  it  by  Emperor  Henry  III  in  1053. 
canons.  The  clerical  authorities  instituted  a  kdnd  The  city,  with  the  surrounding  territorv,  was  then 
of  poreation.  The  party  was  required  to  take  an  turned  over  to  Pope  Leo  IX,  a  relative  of  tne  emperor, 
oatn  of  innocence,  twelve  compiurgators  were  called  in  payment  of  the  annual  tribute  rendered  the  Holy 
to  testify  to  their  belief  in  the  falsehood  of  the  See  l^  the  CJhurch  of  Bamberg;  but  shortly  after- 
charges.  Afterwards  he  brought  forward  witnesses  wards  it  was  reoccupied  by  the  Normans.  The  pope 
to  completely  establish  his  mnocence.  If  foimd  thereupon  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  a  powerful 
guilty,  the  culprit  was  degraded  if  a  clerk,  and  all  army  "ut  saltem  humane  terrore  resipiscerent,  oui. 
were  compelled  to  do  penance.  Many  escaped  by  divina  indicia  minime  formidant"  (that  those  who 
perjury  and  leniency;  nence  steps  were  taken  in  fear  not  the  jud^ents  of  God  may  at  least  repent 
the  more  atrocious  crimes  to  annul  the  privilege,  through  human  dread;  Ep.  VII  ad  Constantin.  Mo- 
Later  this  privilege  was  allowed  only  after  con-  nomach.).  The  opposing  forces  met  at  the  Drago- 
viction  for  men  who  claimed  it  because  able  to  read,  nara,  and  after  a  severe  stru^e  the  papal  troops  were 
and  then  they  knelt  to  the  coiut  praying  for  their  put  to  flight,  and  the  pope  hunself  was  forced  to  retire 
clergy  and  (18  Elizabeth,  c.  vii,  (  2)  the  party  was  to  Gvitdla.  There  Leo  wrought  more  by  word  of 
burnt  On  the  hand,  and  discharged  wiuiout  any  mouth  than  the  arms  of  all  his  soldiers  had  been  able 
interference  of  the  Ghuroh  to  annul  his  conviction,  to  accomplish.  The  Norman  leaders  swore  fealty  to 
The  judges  were  empowered  (18  Elizabeth,  o.  vii)  the  sovereign  pontiff,  conducted  him  back  to  Bene- 
to  direct  the  prisoner  to  be  imprisoned  for  a  year  vento  with  ffreat  honour,  and  continued  from  that 
or  a  shorter  period.  Women  in  the  reign  of  William  time  forward  the  most  devoted  and  lo^  champions 
and  Mary  were  admitted  to  the  privates  of  men  of  the  Holy  See.  This  warlike  expedition  of  L^  IX 
in  clergyable  felonies,  on  praying  the  benefit  of  the  called  forth  the  severe  criticism  of  St.  Peter  Damian. 
statute  (3  and  4  Will,  and  M.  c.  ix,  {  5).  The  idle  Thenceforward  Benevento  was  a  part  of  the  territory 
ceremony  of  reading;  was  abolished  by  5  Anne  c.  vi,  of  the  Holy  See,  which  was  always  represented  there 
and  all  before  entitled  were  now  admitted  to  its  by  a  delc^te.  From  1760  to  1774  it  was  in  the  pos- 
benefit.  Branding  was  abolished  and  the  offenders  session  of  Ferdinand  I  of  Naples,  and  in  1806  Napo- 
.  could  be  committed  to  a  house  of  correction  for  six  leon  made  Talleyrand  Duke  of  Benevento.  In  1814 
I  to  twenty-four  months.  ((3eo.  IV,  c.  xi;  6  (3eo.  I,  it  again  came  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Holy  See; 
c.  xxiii  provides  for  felonious  thefts  the  transporta-  ancTfrom  1838  to  1841  Joachim  Pecci,  later  Leo  XIII, 
tion  of  offenders  to  America  for  seven  years.)  The  was  civil  dele^te  to  this  part  of  the  papal  state  in  the 
privilege  of  benefit  of  clergy  was  entirely  abolished  heart  of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples,  ana  won  great  praise 
in  England  in  1827,  by  Statutes  7  and  8  Geo.  IV,  for  his  wise  admmistration  and  his  stem  repression  of 
c.xxvui,  I  6.  In  the  colonies  it  had  been  reco^ised,  brigandage:  In  1860  Benevento  was  annexed  to  the 
but  by  Act  of  Congress  of  30  April,  1790,  it  was  Kingdom  of  Italy.  Most  noted  among  the  oitieens  of 
taken  away  in  the  federal  courts  of  the  United  States.  Benev^ito  durinii;  ancient  times  are:  rapinianus,  the 


BBNOTSflOM 


478 


BBNOTSBON 


J'urisoonBult,  and  Arbilius,  the  grammarian;  Popes 
i'elix  IV,  Victor  III  (Dauferio),  and  Gregory  VIII 
(Alberto  di  Morra)  who  were  natives  of  &nevento; 
Cardinal  Pietro  Morra,  Giovanni  da  Castrooelo,  Dio- 
nisio  Lorerio,  Nicol6  Coscia,  CamUlo  Domenico, 
Gennaro  de  Simone,  Bartolommeo  Paooa,  and  Cu*Io 
Maria  Pedicini. 

Benevento  is  the  seat  of  an  archdiocese,  which  has 
as  suffragans  the  Dioceses  of  Alife,  Ariano,  Ascoli, 
and  Cerignola,  Avellino,  Boiano,  Bovino,  Larino, 
Lucera,  San  Severo,  Sant'  Agata  de*  Goti,  Telese,  and 
Termoli.  According  to  local  tradition,  the  CfariiBtian 
Faith  was  first  pressed  there  by  St.  Pottnus,  at  the 
command  of  St.  Peter  the  Apostle.  At  a  later  period, 
dmine  the  persecution  of  Diocletian,  we  find  men- 
tioned as  bishop  of  this  citv  St.  Januarius,  who  to* 
gether  with  Proculus,  his  oeaoon,  and  two  laymen, 
was  imprisoned  and  beheaded  at  Possuoli  in  305. 
His  relics  are  preserved  in  the  Cathedral  of  Naples, 
which  also  contains  the  remains  of  St.  Agrippmus 
who  was  Bishop  of  Benevento.  In  929  I^nevento 
was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  metropolitan  see. 

The  cathedral,  founded  at  a  very  eariy  period,  was 
rebuilt  in  1692,  after  being  destroyed  m  the  earth- 
quake of  1688.  The  interior,  divided  into  five  naves, 
has  fifty-four  marble  colunms,  which  furnish  a  mag- 
nificent perspective.  Mention  should  also  be  made  of 
the  two  thrones  near  the  high  altar,  carved  about  131 1 
by  a  sculptor  named  Nicola.  Of  special  historical 
interest  is  the  so-called  ''altar  of  peace'*,  erected  in 
memory  of  the  peace  concluded  at  Benevento  between 
Clement  VII  and  Charles  V,  after  the  famous  sack  of 
Rome  (1527).  The  fa^^de  is  entirely  of  a  yellowish 
marble;  the  great  central  door  is  of  bronze,  of  Byzanr 
tine  workmanship,  brought  from  Constantinople  in 
the  twelfth  century.  In  the  spacious  vestibule  are 
the  tombs  of  the  Lombard  dukes.  The  bell  tower, 
constructed  almost  entirely  of  the  fragments  of 
ancient  monuments,  was  b^im  by  Bishop  Capo  di 
Ferro  (1254).  The  church  of  St.  Sophia,  in  form  a 
ereat  rotunda,  is  also  deserving  of  mention.  It  dates 
back  to  the  Lombard  epoch,  if  mdeed  it  is  not  a  pagan 
temple  converted  into  a  church.  The  cupola  is  par- 
ticularly remarkable,  being  set  upon  six  antique 
Corinthian  columns.  The  church  of  Santa  Maria 
delle  Grazie  is  held  in  great  veneration;  adjoinins  it 
is  a  monastery,  the  abode  first  of  Benedictines,  but 
since  1450  of  monks  of  the  Minor  Observance.  The 
statue  of  the  Madonna  with  the  Child  in  her  arms  is 
said  to  have  been  brought  from  Greece  bv  St.  Arte* 
lais,  niece  of  Narses,  general  of  the  army  of  Justinian. 

A  number  of  councus  were  held  at  Benevento:  those 
of  1059, 1061,  and  1087,  in  the  last  of  which  Victor  III 
excommunicated  Guibert,  the  Antipope;  that  of  1091, 
in  which  the  excommunication  was  renewed,  and  a 
nmnber  of  disciplinary  canons  formulated;  that  of 
1108  against  lay  mvestitures;  those  of  1113  and  1117, 
the  latter  against  the  Antipope  Burdinus:  others  in> 
1119,  1314,  1470,  1545.  as  recorded  by  Harduin,  in 
the  seventh  volume  of  nis  collection  of  the  Councils. 
In  the  following  centuries  the  Archbishops  of  Bene- 
vento frequently  held  provincial  synods.  Gian  Bat* 
tista  Foppa  (1643)  and  Vincenzo  Maria  Orsini,  O.  P. 
(1686),  later  Pope  Benedict  XIU,  did  much  to  restore 
and  beautify  the  churches  of  the  city. 

Among  the  bishops  famous  in  the  history  of  the 
Church  of  Benevento,  passing  over  some  saints  of 
imcertain  date,  are:  St.  Marcianus  (533),  St.  Zenoe 
(543),  St.  Barbatus  (663),  who  had  a  golden  serpent, 
an  obiect  of  idolatrous  worship  of  tne  Lombards, 
melted  and  made  into  a  sacred  paten  which  was  pre- 
served up  to  the  time  of  the  French  invasion  in  1799; 
Amaldo,  a  Franciscan  monk  (1533);  Gaspare  Colonna, 
gjenerous  in  the  decoration  of  churches,  who,  at  the 
time  of  the  Colonna  conspiracy  against  Pope  Euge- 
nius  IV,  was  imprisoned  with  the  others,  but  quickly 
released;  Giovanni  della  Casa,  a  distinguished  whier 


and  Italian  orator  (1544);  Cardinal  Giaoomo  SaveHi 
(1560),  founder  of  the  seminary;  Cardinal  Pompeio 
Arrigoni  (1607);  Cardinal  Sinibaldo  Doria  (1731) 
who  suffered  much  from  the  intrigues  of  Nicol6  Ck}e* 
cia.  administrator  under  the  above-mentioned  Arch- 
bisnop  Orsini.  Doria  founded  aT  great  library,  sub- 
sequently enlarged  by  Cardinal  Francesco  Maria 
Banditi  m  1775;  Cardinal  Domenico  Spinuoci  (1796); 
Cardinal  Camillo  Siciliano  di  Rende  (1879). 

The  Archdiocese  of  Benevento  has  a  population  of 
590,500  Catholics,  with  138  parishes,  460  churches 
and  chapels,  839  secular  priests,  70  priests  belonging 
to  religious  orders,  350  seminarists,  40  lay  brothers, 
and  120  members  of  female  religious  orders. 

Cappelletti,  Le  chieae  d'ltalia  (Venice,  1844),  III,  9;  An- 
nuario  Bed.  (Rome,  1907),  292-297;  Stktfano  Boroia, 
Memorie  Storiehe  deUa  pontifiaa eitth  di  Benevento  (Rome,  1763- 
69);  Mbomartini,  /  Idtmumenii  e  le  opere  d'arte  della  odd  di 
Benevento  (ibid.,  1889-92);  Barbier  db  Montault,  Le  palai$ 
archi^.  de  BinSvent  in  Revue  de  I'art  Chritien  (1875).  Ill,  345- 
385;  ZiOARBLLi,  Storie  di  Benevento  (Naples,  i860). 

U.  Benigni. 

Bengtason,  J6ns  Oxenstjbrna  (Joannes  Bene- 
Dicn),  Archbishop  of.Upsala,  Sweden,  b.  1417;  d.  in 
1467.  He  was  a  member  of  the  illustrious  Oxenai- 
jema  family,  various  representatives  of  which  had 
already  become  prominent  in  the  public  life  oi 
Sweden.  At  the  time  of  his  appointment  to  the 
archbishopric  (1448)  Bengtsson  was  archpriest  of  the 
chapter  of  Upsala.  He  asked  the  Council  of  Basle 
for  a  confirmation  of  his  election,  and  he  had  himself 
consecrated  (30  June,  1448)  by  his  suffragans,  the 
day  after  they  had  crowned  Karl  Knutsson  Bonde 
as  King.  On  1  July,  Archbishop  Bengtsson  crowned 
the  queen.  The  confirmation  of  his  appointment  by 
Pope  Nicholas  V  did  not  reach  him  untu  the  ensuing 
year. 

The    importance    of    Archbishop    Bengtsson    is 
political  rather  than  ecclesiastical,  though  his  pas- 
toral visitations  show  that  he  was  not  unmindful 
of  the  spiritual  welfare  of  those  under  his  care. 
In  1457,  as  Archbishop  of  Upsala.  he  received  from 
the  pope  the  title  of  Primate  of  Sweden;  the  Arch- 
bishops of  Lund,  however,^ were  permitted  to  retain 
their  title  of  Primate  of* the  Church  of    Sweden. 
The  life  of  Archbishop  Bengtsson  fell  in  Sweden's 
most   troublous   days.     By   the   Union   of   Calmar 
(1397)   the  three  kingdoms  of  Sweden,   Denmark, 
and    Norway,    while    preservinff    their    individual 
independence,  were  to  be  rulea  by  one  king,  and 
the  foreign  alfairs  of  aU  three  were  to  be  regulated 
as  those  of  a  united  country.    The  advantages  of 
this  union  were  lost  sight  of  on  the  death  of  its  pio- 
moter,    Queen    Margaret     (1412).     Her     successor. 
Erik  of  Pomerania,  oy  a  change  of  policy,  aroused 
in  Sweden  a  spirit  of  discontent,  which,  after  suc- 
cessive revolutions  and  the  election  of  Karl  Knuts- 
son as  viceroy  (1438),  resulted  in  the  deposing  of 
Erik.    His  successor,  Christopher  of  Bavaria,  died 
in  1448.    In  Sweden,  which  was  torn  by  the  strife 
between  the  p>artisan8  of  a  national  kin^om  and 
those  of  a  government  in  union  with  Denmark  and 
Norway,  tl^  national  t>arty  elected  Karl  Knutsson 
king.     A    few   months   later   Christian    I    became 
King  of  Denmark,  and  two  years  afterwards    also 
King  of  Norway.     Meanwhile,  dissensions  increased 
in  Sweden.     As  King  Karl  Knutsson,  to  escape  from 
monev   troubles,    increased    taxes   and    confiscated 
church     property,     dissatisfaction    spread      amon^ 
clergy  and  people,  and  Archbishop  Bengtsson  placed 
himself  at  tne  head  of  the  opposition  (1457).     JEnter- 
ing  his  cathedral,  he  laid  aside  his  pontifical  insignia, 
took   up  helmet,  breastplate,  ana  sword,  and   an- 
nounced his  int^tion  not  to  resume  his  pontifical 
robes    imtU    Karl    Knutsson    should    be     banished 
from  the  country.     Knutsson  was  forced   to  yidd 
and  fled  to  Germany.    Thereupon  Christian  I  came 
from  Denmark  and  was  formally  recognized    King 


BiHcnr  479  BiNzoNim 

of  Sweden,  and  crowned  at  Stockholm  by  Arehbi/diop  feesor.  but  he  did  not  lox^  enjoy  the  trajiquiUity  of 

BeDgtsBon.  8ohool-life»     At  midnight,  3  April,  a,  battidion  of 

General  discontent  soon  followed,  especially  when  National  Guards  surrounded  the  school  and  placed  all 

Christian  I»  on  becoming  heir  to  his  umde,  Duke  the  Jesuit  inmates  under  arrest  as  hostages  of  the 

Adolph  of  Holsteiuj  found  himself  in  great  finandal  Commune,    De  Bengy  cheered  his  companions  during 

straits.    To  meet  his  obligations,  he  levied  enormous  the  dark  days  of  anticipated  death.     On  Friday, 

taxes,  even  in  Sweden,  without  exempting  eooleei-  36  May,  ^th  two  Jesuit  companions  and  some  forty 

astics,  religious  foundations,  or  the  moneys  collected  other  victims,  he  was  led  to  the  court  of  the  Cite 

by  papal  mandate  to  defray  the  expenses  of  a  oru-  Vincennes,  Hue  Haxo«  where  he  met  his  death  joy« 

sade  against  the  Turks.     During  a  temporary  ab-  fully  amid  the  frenzied  shouts  of  the  maddened  Com- 

sence  of  Christian  I  in  Finland,  the  archbishop  held  munists. 

the  regency  of  Sweden:  seeing  the  people  in  revolt  ^jy^TotuaKvor^ActMdeheapHviUeidelamoridesRR.PP. 

against  him  and  the  heavy  imposts,  hTtook  up  their  f^;^"*"  Ducoudray,  Cavbert,  dW.  de  Benn  (15th  ed..  Pans, 
cause  and  suspended  the  collection  of  taxes.     The  *  n  J  Kavanaoh 

king  showed  his  dts|pieasure  by  arresting  the  arch- 

bishop  and  sending  him  to  Denmark.     A  revolution  ,  Benignufl  (Benen),  Sadjt^  da^  of  birth  unknown; 

broke  out  afresh  in  Sweden,   Karl  Knutsson  was  d.  467,  son  of  Sesenen,  an  Irish  chieftam  m  that  part 

recalled  to  the  throne,  and  Christian  I,  to  recover  of  Ireland  which  is  now  County  Meath.    He  was  bao- 

the  country,  became  reconciled  with  his  prisoner,  ti^ed  by  St.  Patrick,  and  became  his  favourite  disciple 

Bcngtsson  went  at  once  to  Sweden,  where  he  roused  an<i  J^  coadjutor  in  the  See  of  Armagh  (450).    His 

the  people  against  King  Karl  Knutsson,  whom  he  gentle  and  lovable  disposition  suggested  the  name 

excommunicated.    The  archbishop  succeeded  finally  Benen,  which  has  been  Latinized  as  Benignus.    He 

in  bringing  about  Knutsson's  abdication,  and  the  followed  his  master  in  aU  his  travels,  and  assisted  him 

recogniSon  of  Christian  I  once  more  as  King  of  m  his  missionary  labours,  givmg  most  valuable  assist- 

Sweden.    In  reality,  however,  the  archbishop  held  ance  in  the  formation  of  choral  services.     From  his 

the  reins  of  power  and  administered  affairs  as  Wiough  musical  acqmremwite  he  was  known  as  "Patrick's 

he  were  the  actual  sovereign.     He  was  unable  to  psalm-smger  ,  and  he  drew  thousands  of  souls  to 

sustain  this  r61e.     Discontented  factions  combined  Christ  by  his  sweet  voice.     St.  Benignus  is  said  not 

arainst  him  and,  in  1466,  elected  ErikAxelsson  ord^  to  have^assbtedjn  compiling  the  great  IrUh  cod 

was 

and ^. ^, , _ 

more  took  the  place  of  the  ting"  who  represented  which  passed  the  canon  recognizing  "the  See  of  the 
the  union  of  the  three  countries.     The  archbishop  Apostle  Peter"  as  the  final  court  of  appeal  m  difficult 
found  an  asylum  with  his  friend  Magnus  Gren,  on  cases,  which  canon  is  to  be  found  in  the  Book  of  Ar- 
the  island  of  (Hand,  where  he  died  15  December,  naagh.     St.  Benignus  resigned  his  coadjutorship  in  467 
1467,  "poor  and  exiled,  regretted  by  no  one,  hated  and  died  at  the  close  of  the  same  year.     His  feast  is 
by  many,  and  feared  by  all".  celebrated  on  the  9th  of  November.    Most  authorities 
The  key  to  the  political  activity  of  Bengtsson  is  have  identified  St.  Patrick's  psalm-singer  with  the  St. 
to  be  found  m  the  ambition  that  was  a  part  of  his  Benignus  who  founded  Kilbannon^  near  Tuam,  but  it 
character— ambition  for  his  family  and  his  country.  »  certain,  from  Tirechdn's  collections  in  the  Book  of 
There  was  a  strong  antagonism  between  the  great  Armagh,  that  St.  Benignus  of  Annagh  and  St.  Benig- 
Oxenstjema  family,  to  which  the  archbishop  be-  ^^  of  Kalbannon  were  two  distinct  persons.    The 
longed,  and  the  Bonde  family,  of  which  the  king,  former  is  described  as  son  of  Sesenen  of  County 
supported  by  the  national  party,  was  a  member.  Meath,  whilst  the  latter  was  son  of  Li^i  of  Con- 
Moreover,  the  archbishop  was  aware  that  the  nobility  naught,  yet  both  were  contemporaries.     St.  Benignus 
and  the  leading  men  of  Sweden,  before  the  Union  of  of  Kilbannon  had  a  famous  monastery,  where  St. 
Calmar,  had  in  general  failed  to  respect  the  clergy  Jariath  was  educated,  and  he  also  presided  over 
and  the  property  of  the  Church.     In  a  union  of  Drumlease.     His   sister,   Mathona,  was  Abbess   of 
Sweden  with  Denmark  and  Norway,  he  foresaw  a  Tawney,  in  TirerriU.  ..  .^.   . .   ..^   . 
Imutotion  of  the  rower  of  the  Swedist  nobles;  in  his  ^S:SZ'Z'^  ^T^l£'^^"^'S,^i^}SU^^dJ^. 
character  of  archbishop,  it  was  clear  to  him  that  etc..  I.  8»;  Warb-Harmb.  Antiguitiet  of  Ireland,!,  34.  11,  6; 
such  curtailment  would  be  a  safeguard  to  the  tem-  O'Hanlon,  Uvea  of  Irish  Saintai^  Novembo-),  XI;  Whitley 
DAnJitiM  of  thfl  nhiirph  Stokes  (od.),  TrtpartUe  Life  of  SU  Patrick,  Rolls  Senea  (Ix)n- 
porauues  OI  ine  onurcn.             .. ,     .     ,t      ^    tpofi^«»^  don.  1887),  in  index  s.  v.  BenAn,  Benignus;  BibL  hoffioor. 
Reoterdahl,  Sveruka  Kyrkant  hutorta  (Lund.  1838-66);  j^  (ig^y  172.  1324:  Forbes  in  bict.  of  Christ.  Biog.,  ^312. 
Allbn,  De  tre  nordigoe  npere  hMtorte  (Copenhagen,   1870);  xhe  very  ancient  I^har-na-gceart  or  Book  of  Rights,  said  to 
Sii'JL  "^^,^5**^  .^"^'^/n^^^*^''****feo  oil     o^'  Gbubr.  have  beSn  compiled  by  Bentonus  was  edited  by  X)'Donovan 
fr^i"  /?/*l**i/ ^."'?^  IS^'^S'   iS^'^5^'  n^T^^^^i*  for  the  Celtic  Society  (Dublin.  1847).    Benionto  is  also  said 
Sr^  ^S^J^^ir^  ^  ^*«  ^  ^'^^''<''^<i  ^,^^  (Stock-  ^  i^y^  b,^  ^^  original  oompUer  of  the  Paalter  of  Cashd  (see 
houn.    183^54);    Montelids.    Hildbbrand.    AlIn,   Svengee  Cashbl)                    ■•               ■' 

Hiaioria  (1876-81);  Sttffb,  Bidrag  tU  Skandinaviena  HiHoria  ''  •  W    TT    HtJA'm'AXT  V^rr\f\T\ 

(Stockholm,  1870);  MOller,  De  f Orate  Konger  of  del  older^  ^'  ^-  URATTAN  l«LOOD. 

bmteke  hue;  OyKRhAND,mua^.Noroeahiatorie(KrmA,lSS5^         BenlgnOB  of  DijOn,    SaINT,  Martyr,  honoured  as 

96);    NiBSBN.    De   nordxake    Ktrkera    hutorte    (Krnia,    1884);  xu.   naTInn   aaint  <mH   firat   hprftlH  nf    rhriRtiAnitv  nf 

DuKHAM.  Hiatory  of  Denmark,  Sweden  and  Norway  (London,  i{^®  P*^'??  ?^^^  and  Urst  UeraiC  Ot    L/nnstianity  O! 

1840);  Cronbolm.  A  Hiatory  of  Sweden  (Chicago,  1902).  Dijon   (DlVlo),  an  old  City  m  the  territory  of  the 

£.  A.  Wang.  Gallic   tribe   of    the    Lingones    (civUas   Lingonum, 

Laneres).    It  is  an  historic  fact  that  Benignus  suf- 

Bengy,  Anatole  db,  a  martyr  of  the  French  Ck>m-  ferea  martyrdom  in  a  persecution  of  the  third  century 

mune,  b.  at  Bouraes,  19  September,  1824;  d.  in  Paris,  and  was  miblicly  honoured  as  a  martyr.    His  feast 

28  May,  1871.    He  spent  nine  years  in  residence  at  falls  on  1  November;  his  name  stands  under  this  date 

the  Jesuit  CoUeee  of  brugelette,  and  in  1843  entered  in  the  so-called  MartyroloKy  of  St.  Jerome  (ed.  Rossi- 

the  Society  of  Jesus.     IKiring  the  Crimean  War  he  Duchesne;  cf.  Acta  SS.,  November,  U,  138).     Early 

served  as  chaplain  to  the  French  soldiery  and  there-  in  the  sixth  century  no  particulars  concerning  the 

after  until  1570  devoted  his  life  to  college  work,  person  and  life  of  Benignus  were  known  at  Dijon. 

Wlien  the  Franco-Prussian  War  broke  out,  ne  again  According  to  Gregory  of  Tours  the  common  people 

Bought  and  obtained  the  post  of  chaplain.    He  ren-  reverenced  his  grave;  but  Bishop  Gregory  of^  Lan- 

dered  signal  service  to  the  sick  and  wounded  during  gres  (507-539  or  540)  wished  to  put  an  end  to  this 

the  siege  of  Paris.    After  the  war  he  retired  to  the  veneration,  because  he  believed  the  grave  to  belong 

pchool  of  Samte-Genevidve  to  resume  his  work  as  pro-  to  a  heathen.    Having  learned  in  a  vidoo  at  night 


480  BEHJAMIN 

that  the  burial  spot  waa  that  of  the  holy  mar^  chief  stains  are:  Lagos,  situated  on  an  island  at 
Benignus,  he  had  the  tomb  in  which  the  sarcophagus  the  mouth  of  the  Ogun,  and  known  as  the  **  African 
lay  restored,  and  he  built  a  basilica  over  it.  About  Liverpool",  Titolo,  Tocpo,  Abeokuta,  Oyo,  Ibadan, 
tms  date  there  was  a  sudden  appearance  of  Acts  of  Ishure,  Ibowon.  Less  important  and  more  irregulariy 
the  martyrdom  of  the  saint,  which  were  brought  to  served  are  Ebo^te-Meta,  Bada-gri,  Iboak4,  Aw^, 
Dijon  by  a  pilgrim  on  the  way  to  Italy  (Qregpr.  Tur.,  Ishwo.  Tbe  vicariate  has  a  number  of  flourishing 
De  glorb  martynun,  I,  li;  Migne,  P.  L.,  LXXI,  752).  schools  with  2,069  pupils,  of  whom  800  are  in  tbe 
These  accounts  have  no  historical  basis;  according  school  at  Lagos.  Tnere  are  25  catechists.  Orphan- 
to  them  St.  Polycarp  of  Smyrna  had  sent  Benignus  ages  and  hcipitals  have  also  b^n  founded,  and  a 
as  a  missionary  to  Diion,  where  he  had  laboured  as  a  promising  agncultural  school  exists  at  Tocpo.  The 
priest  and  had  finaliv  died  a  martyr.  For  some  principal  hospital  is  the  one  conducted  at  Abeokuta 
unknown  reason  his  cleath  is  placed  m  the  persecu-  by  Father  Coquard,  commonly  called  Dr.  Goquard; 
tion  under  Aurelian  ('270-275).  The  author  nad  not  he  is  consulted  as  a  physician  as  far  as  Lagos,  a  town 
noticed  that  the  senaing  by  Polvcarp  and  the  mar*  where  there  are  Enghdi  physicians.  The  King  of 
trydom  imder  Aurelian  are  chronologicallv  irre-  Aqu6,  the  head  of  the  federation  of^Abeokuta,  grants 
concilable.  Duchesne  has  proved  that  these  "Acts"  a  subsidy  to  the  hospital  and,  althoup;h  a  heaths, 
belong  to  a  whole  group  of  legends  which  arose  in  the  is  present  with  his  followers  at  the  chief  festivals  of 
early  years  of  the  sixth  century  and  were  intended  to  the  Catholic  mission.  The  mission  territory  includes 
descrioe  the  beginnings  of  Christianity  in  the  cities  three  large  cities:  Abeokuta,  Ilorin,  and  Ibadan. 
of  that  region  (Besan^on,  Autun.  Langres,  Valence).  Constrained  to  defend  themselves  against  raids  from 
They  are  all  falsifications  by  tne  same  hand  and  Dahomey,  the  native  blacks  have  gathered  in  Abeo- 
possess  no  historical  value.  kuta,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ogun,  in  large  numbcFB, 
Acta  55..  Nov..  I.  134  eqq.;  Duchbbnb.  PtutetJpUeopaux  variously  estimated  from  150,000  to  200,000,  and  have 
^.iiSSSnS.  ?SS?).  ^lY^is  '4^  '6^  ^Q.rSi  ISSSSSS;  Burrounaed  the  dty ,  or  collection  of  140  jolJa^  with 
Origins  Dijonnaiaea  (Dijon.  1862);  Bouoaud,  Etude  hut.  et  &  wall  twenty-four  miles  m  circmt.    Ibadan  has  a 

erit.  9iir  Hi  mi$$i(m,  lea  actea,  et  le  ctdta  de  S,  Biniffne  (Autun.  reputed  popiuation  of  150,000  and  Ilorin  60,000  tO 

'^!'y^^t:^,l^e!raiS^^^r'  " ''"  ""^  *•  «W?-  ,^  J?*  ««  Cathoh'c  miasionfl  have  been  es- 

j^  p^  KiRSCH.  tabhshed  m  them. 

La  aoeiM  dea  miaaiona  afrtcainea  de  Lyon  et  aea  miaaiena 

Benin,    Vic^miATE.  Apostolic    of   the    Coast  ^^r^JSi^^d^^!^jF^!^S^JSS!^^lSS^ 

OF    (Oltfi    BeNINI),    mcludes    an    extensive     negro  1906);    Binoer.  Du  Niger  au  Oolfe  de  OuinSe  (Paris.  1892); 

country  and  the  former  kingdom  of  Western  Equa-  I?"'*"/ ^^«*^'  ^Vfr^TMiare* (Paris.  1897);  Miw-b.  Lo 
toriallfnca,  in  Upper  oSTon  the  Bight  of  Benin,  ^^^J^Jlf^'i  .lgS'ipSU.''?5f2)^^f^,  KS! 
or  Gulf  of  Gumea.    In  1860  a  mission  was  founded  m  Louykt,  Miaa.  cath.  au  XIX*  aiide  (Paris.  1898),  292. 
the  former  Kingdom  of  Dahomev,  but  as  this  name  Albert  Battandieb. 
was  disliked  by  the  inhabitants  the  title  was  changed        «»     j^     ««•               a     ^r 
to  "Vicariate  of  the  Coast  of  Benin".    The  mission        Benito,  Marcus.    See  Mubs. 
of  Dahomey  was  separated  from  Benin  in  1882  and        Benjamin  (Heb.pD^j3,&in;dmin,''son  of  the  right 
made  a  Prefecture  Apostolic,  in  1901  a  Vicariate  hand").     (1)  The  youngest  son  of  Jacob  bom  of 
Apostolic.    On  10  May,  1894,  the  Niger  mission  was  Rachel.    His  original  name  was  Ben-oni  (Heb.^^K*p, 
also  cut  ofiF.    Since  the  latter  date  the  Vicariate  of  "son  of  my  sorrow"),  given  to  him  by  his  mother 
the  Coast  of  Benin  has  been  bounded  by  Dahomey,  just  before  she  died  in  ^hild-birth,  but  was  changed 
the  Niger,  and  the  Bight  of  Benin;  it  mcludes  the  to  Benjamin  by  Jacob  (Gen.,  xxxv,  18).    The  Sa- 
British  colony  of  Lagos   ^uthem   Nigeria),   the  maritan  reading,  Benjamim^  i.  e.  "son  of  days", 
native  Kingdom  of  Porto  Novo  (imder  French  pro-  would  refer  to  the  advanced  age  of  Jacob  at  the  time 
tection),  and  the  native  kingdoms  of  Yoruba,  Isebou,  of   Benjamin's   birth.     Upon   the  loss   of  Joseph, 
Ibadui,  etc.  Benjamin's    full-brother,    Jacob's    affections    were 
The  region  is  rich  in  vegetable  resources.   Cotton  bestowed  upon  Benjamin,  and  it  was  only  with  great 
is  indigenous  and  is  woven  by  the  women.    Among  reluctance  that  he  permitted  his  beloved  child  to 
the  pag^   blacks  human  sacrifices   are^  frequent;  accompany  his  brethren  to  Esypt  to  purchase  com 
cruelty  in  atrocious  forms  is  characteristic  of  these  (Gen.,  xlii,  36;  xliii,  15).     .Foiaeph,  too,  showed  a 
natives.    The  coast  is  indented  with  estuaries,  some  marked  preference  of  Benjamin  to  his  other  brethren 
of  considerable  breadth  and  studded  with  islands,  and  puts  the  latter's  mind  concerning  him  to  a  rather 
Behind  the  flat  shores  plateaux  rise  to  heights  of  severe  test  (Gen.,  xliv-xlvi).    (2)  The  son  of  Balan 
2000  and  3(X)0  feet.    There  is  an  extensive  traffic  and  grandson  of  Benjamin,  Jacob's  son  (I  Paralip., 
in  salt,  palm  oil,  and  other  staples.    The  area  is  about  vii,  10).     (3)  One  of  the  sons  of  Herem  who  had 
55.985  square  miles,  about  one-half  of  which  belongs  married  a  foreign  wife  in  the  days  of  Esdras  (I  Esdras, 
to  Great  Britain;  the  population  in  1901  number^  x,  32).    (4^  One  of  those  who  took  part  in  the  re- 
1,500,(XX),  and  there  were  in  the  territory  about  308  building  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  at  the  time  of 
Europeans.    The  appointment  of  a  vicar  Apostolic  Nehemias  (II  Esdras.  iii,  23:  cf.  xii.  33).    (5)  The 
dates  from  1891;  the  residence  is  at  Lagos,  which  in  name  of  a  ^ate  in  tne  nortnem  wall  oi  Jerusalem 
1901  had  a  pooulation  of  41,847,  of  whom  233  were  (Jer,,  xxxvii,  12;  Zach.,  xiv,  10).    It  is  not  men- 
Europeans.    Tne  vicar  Apostolic  is  chosen  from  the  tioned  by  Nehemias  in  his  enumeration  of  the  gates 
members  of  the  Society  for  African  missions  of  Lyons  of  Jerusalem  (II  Esdras,  iii).    (6)  The  name  of  the 
to  whom    the  mission    has   been   entrusted.    The  northern  eate  of  the  Temple,  where  Jeremias  was 
development  of  this  mission  has  been  greater  than  Imprisoned  (Jer.,  xx,  2;  xxxviii,  7,  14),  probably  the 
that  ot  Dahomey,  as  the  British  Government  ^nts  same  as  "watch-^ate"  (II  Esdras,  xii,  38)  and  as  the 
the  missionaries  greater  freedom  for  their  spiritual  one  spoken  of  in  Jeremias  (viii,  3,  5,  16;   ix,  2). 
labours  and  gives  subsidies  to  the  mission  schools  fT)  Name  of  eastern  gate  of  the  ideal  Jerusalem  as 
when  this  course  furthers  British  interests.      The  drawn  by  Ezechiel  (Ezech.,  xlviii,  32).     (8)   Nimtke 
first  converts  among  the  blacks  were  exHslaves  re-  of  one  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel  which  during 


sionaries  number  26  regular  clergy  and  1  lav  brother;    five  miles  in  length  and  twelve  in  breadth,  and  was 
they  have  change  of  about  16^400  Catholics.    The    bounded  on  the  nmth  by  E^hraim,  on  tho  east  \^ 


481 

die  Jathn,  oa  ibe  south  by  Juda,  and  on  the  west  Baimo,  Saint,  Buhop  of  Hdssen,  b.,  as  ia  pvea 

by  DoD.    The  nature  of  the  territory  waa  conducivo  in  bioEraphies  written  after  bia  hfetime,  about  lOlO; 

to  breed  a  race  of  hardy  warriors  such  as  the  Ben-  d.,  probably,  16  June,  1106.    He  is  said  to  have  be^ 

jimites  who  ore  depicted  by  Jacob  as  "a  ravenoua  the  son  of  a  Count  fWlerick  von  Woldeab^  (Bul- 

wolf,  iq  the  momioA  [he]  ahall  eat  the  prey,  and  m  t«ntH]rg)  4nd  to  have  been  educated  by  his  relative 

ibe  evening  ahall  divide  thespoil"   (Oen,,  xlix,  27).  St.  Bemward  of  Hildesheitn,     But  these  statements 

During  the   period  of  the  Judges  the  tribe  was  well  and  the  date  of  bis  birth  cannot  be  proved  to  be 

nigh  extenninated  on  account  of  a  crime  committed  hietorioal^  correct.    It  is,  however,  certain  that  he 

•ithin  ite  territoiy  (Jud.,  Tix-xxi).    It  was  from  this  wasacanonofGoBlarabout  the  raiddJe  of  the  eleventh 

tribe  that  Saul,  the  first  king  of  tlie  monarchy,  was  century,  and  that  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Meissen  in 

chosen  d  Sam.,  is,  1,  2, 19;  x,  1, 20  sqq.).    After  the  1066.    At  that  time  the  great  struggle  between  the 

death  of  Saul  the  tnbe  of  Benjamin  remaned  loyal  £mperor  Hentr-  IV  and  the  papacy  over  iavestiture, 

to  his  son,  Isboseth  (II  Sam.,  ii,  9  aqq.),  until  David  which  invotv^the  independence  of  the  Church,  was 

became  king  of  all  Israel  (II  8am.,  v,  1-5).    At  tlie  raging.     Benno  took  part  in  the  revolt  of  the  Saxon 

lime  of  the  revolt   from   Rehoboam  the   tribes  of  nobles  against  Henry  (1073).    In  1075  he  was  t^en 

Benjamin,  Juda,  and  Simeon  remained  true  and  prisoner  by  the  emperor,  who  was  then  victorious, 

lonned  the  Kingdom  of  Juda  (III  Kings,  xii,  21).  and  kept  m  prison  for  a  year.     As,  later,  he  uphela 

wbich  also  constituted  the  nucleus  of  the  restored  iiie  party  of  Pope  Gregory  VII  he  was  deposed  at  the 

nation.    St.  Paul  glories  in  belongiog  to  the  tribe  of  synod  of  Mainx,  1085,  by  the  prelates  belonging  to  tlje 

Benjamin  (Philipp.,  iil,  fi).  F.  X.  E,  Albxbt.  imperial  party  and  Felis,  a  parCiaan  of  the  emperor, 
leodved   the   bishopric.     Three   years   later   Benno 

Btnkert,  Fbakk  Gboho,  a  German  theologian  reoopiiaed  the  Antipope  Wibert  (Clement  III)  and 
and  historical  writer,  b.  26  September,  1790,  at  Nord-  obtamed  his  see  again;  at  a  later  date,  however,  he 
Iieim,  near  the  mountain  district  of  RhOn,  Germany;  separated  himself  from  his  schisraatical  party  and 
i  20  May,  1859,  at  Cobure.  After  finishing  his  recognised  Urban  Ii  (1088-99)  as  the  rightful  pope, 
studies  at  theeymnssium  in  MOnnerstadt  he  studied  The  authoritiea  of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  cen- 
iheology  at  WQr»burg  and  was  ordained  primt  in  tunes  contain  no  further  information  as  to  his  life. 
1816.  He  was  first  a  curate  at  Oauretteraheim  and,  The  Diocese  of  Meissen  extended  towards  the  east 
ia  1821,  was  made  vice-principal  of  ^  theotogicat  as  far  as  the  River  Bober  and  included  Upper  and 
SMnioary  at  WOreburg.  Whifo  holding  these  po«-  Lower  Lausitz,  which  were  inhabited  by  Slavs.  Ac- 
tions Benkert  continued  his  Btudies.  In  1823  he  cording  to  later  tradition  Benno  devoted  the  last 
wteived  a  doctorate,  having  offerad  the  dimertation:  years  of  his  life  to  missions  among  these  heathen 
"De  Duplici  Miae4  C^teohumenorum  et  Fidetium".  tribes.  He  was  reputed  te  be  the  founder  of  the 
From  1823  to  1838  he  had  the  position  of  principal,  cathedral  of  Heissen  and  in  after-ages  was  the  moet 
and  in  1838  he  was  made  a  cathedral  canon  and  venerated  bishop  of  the  diocese.  He  was  canonized 
cathedral  dean.  by  Pope  Adrian  VI  in  1523  (Bull  "Excelsua  Domi- 

At  that  time,  in  common  with  the  eccltsiaatics  of  nus"in  Buliarium  Romanum,Turin  ed.,  VI,  ISsqq.), 


ae,  m  common  witn  xne  eccieBiaacics  or  """     '"  *■""»• '■^u'  »™..,oiiuii.,  luiiu  liu.,  ,  ^,  ju  «|>|-/i 

I,  the  clergy  of  the  Dioceee  of  WOraburg  "^  "^  relics  were,  with  great  solemnity,  exposed 

,ly  from  the  religious  disease  of  the  age,  for  veneration,  16  May,  1524.     Luther  took  this  oo- 

" Josephinism '',   and   were  inclined  to  a  sickly  and  cation  to  publish   his  lampoon   "Wider  den   neuen 

enervating  rationalism.     The   dettructjve  effects  of  Abgott  und  alten  Teufel,  der  lu  Meissen  soil  erhoben 

these   rationalistic    tendencies   jhowed    themselves  werden".    After  Saxony  had  adopted  Protestantism 

everywhere  in  the  hfa  of  the  Church.    Even  when  Duke  Albert  V  of  Bavaria  had  the  relics  of  the 

acting  as  vice-principal  Benkert  showed  himself  de-  saiDtly  bishop  transferred  to  Munich  and  placed  in 

ternng  of  much  praise  in  that  ho  sought  to  i».  the  church  of  Our  Lady  (now  the  cathedral).    Since 

awaken  in  the  younger  clei^y  the  spirit  of  the  Church  this  time  Benno  had  been  the  patron  saint  of  Munich; 

and  to  cultivate  in  them  an  interest  in,  and  aknowl-  nia  feast  is  celebrated  16  June.    He  is  represented 

edge  of,  the  old  theological   schools.     In  1822  ho  "nth  a  fish  and  a  key;  according  to  a  legend  he  gave 

founded  the    periodicaj:   "Der   Rdigionsfreund  fUr  the  key  of  the  cathedral  of  Meissen,  when  starting  on 

Katholiken  mit  Beitrftgen   religiOe  geemnter  MOa-  ^  journey  to  Rome,  to  one  of  the  canons  with  the 

ner".    He  issued  the  periodical  in  t£e  derire  to  in-  command  to  throw  it  into  the  Elbe  as  soon  as  Henry 

erease  the  influence  of  his  fifforta  and  also  to  win  I*    should  bo  excommunicated.     This  was  done; 

over  the  older  ecclesiastics.  after  Benno's  return  a  large  fish  was  caught  in  the 

The  periodical  appeared  in  six  volumes,  1822-28.  Elbe  and  the  kw  wa     "        '  "        ' 

It  attracted  much  attention  and  was  copied  in  France  fins,  so  that  the  bisho 

in  the  "Ami  do  la  Rdigion",     In  connexion  with  ^d^i^by°EiisER' u 

G.J.  Saffenrevter  he  issued,  1828-40,  a  continuo-  isi2,  ■adciii™  tobe  lou 

tion  of  lhia,hisfit3t,  periodical,  entitled:  "Allgemeiner  lo^  but  thi*  ii  dimui«d 

Religions-   und    Kirchentreund    und  Kirchenkorres-  %'^^"£^^ 

Eident,  eine  theologische  imd    kJTchenhiBt«risohe  70-9G;  Idkm,  Bi*ch/Bem 

tschrift".     At  the  same  time  he  published,  IS28-  EP-  i-3S;  (18S6).  Ii.  2.  p 

34,  a   periodical  entitled:    "Athanaaia,   eine   theo-  SS^&Siji  asMTm" 

logiBche    Zeitschrift,     beeonders     filr    die    geeamto  hu  viia  et  'acta  iw^at  (, 

Pastoral,  for   Kirehengeschichte,   auch  fUr  Fftdago-  B™umit  «»  3.  Btnno  1 

gik".    This  appeared  in  sixteen  volumes.     Ho  con-  i884)''wt^'s?flm^r£ 

tbued  the  same  publication  from  1835  to  1840  in  Kleim,  Do-  Ju.  Btnno  {«■ 

connexion  with  J.  M.  DUx,    As  Benkert   was  nior«  J.  F.  Kirsch. 

apt  h>  be  swayed  by  his  leel  for  the  right  than  by  _   ^  ,  ,.^1.1         -r      - 

prudence,  he  made  many  enemies,  especiafly  among       BMmo  II,  Buhop  of  OsnabrOok,  b,  at  LOmngen 

the  older  clergy.     He  therefore  severed  his  oonnex-  ">  Swabia;   d.   27   July,   1088,   in   the   Benedictine 

ioB  with  his  periodicals  in  1840,  and  devoted  himsdf  monastery  of  Iburg  near  Osnabrtlck.    His  parents 

to  the  study  of  the  history  of  his  native  district,  ssnt  hun  at  on  early  age  to  the  monastic  school  of 

His  historical   writings  have  only  a  local  intemt.  Straaburg  where  the  learned  Herman  (Contractus)  of 

A  la^r  and  more  important  work  which  he  under-  Reichenau  was  then   teaching.     Having  completed 

took  on  the  RhOn  was  never  completed.  bis  education  and  made  a  pDgrimage  to  the  Holy 

Keu,  LiotraturfHtaig  <183«),  II,  101  kiq.  Land,  be  taught  for  some  time  at  Speyer  in  Rhenish 

Patsicicb  ScKLAiQiiit.  Bavorio.    On  account  of  hia  sldll  in  architecture  be 


-I 


BEMOtr  483  BntHAMIBM 

was  made  imperial  architect  by  Emperor  Henry  HI  WhSie  spplying  himself  to  his  astronomioal  studieB 

and,  as  suchi  supervised  the  construction  of  numer-  he  taught  the  emperor  the  use  of  the  reflecting  tele- 

ous  castles  and  churches  in  the  empire.    When  the  scope.    Among  his  numerous  works  were:  (1)  A  larm 

Rhine,  which  flowed  close  to  the  Cathedral  of  Speyer,  map  of  the  world  (twelve  and  a  half  by  six  and  a  hiof 

threatened  to  undermine  the  foundation  of  that  feet),  to  which  he  added  valuable  astronomioal  and 

building,  Benno  saved  the  majestic  structure  by  ^ographicai  details. — (2)   A  general  chart  of  the 

changing  the  course  of  the  river.    In  1047  he  became  Empire    and    surrounding    country,    engraved  on 

teacher  at  the  Benedictine  school  of  Goslar  (Hanover)  oopper,  thou^  at  the  outset  he  was  as  httle  versed 

and,  shortly  after,  was  made  head  master  of  the  in  tnis  art  as  were  his  Chinese  collaborators,  whom 

cathedral  school  at  Hildesheim.    In  1051  he  acoom-  he  had  chosen  from  the  best  wood-engravers  in  the 

panied  Azelin,  bishop  of  that  see,  on  the  emperor's  country.    The  work  was  done  on  104  plates  (two  feet 

'Hungarian  campaign  and  upon  his  retiun  was  made  two  inches  by  one  foot  two  inches,  Chinese  measure), 

provost  of  the  Cathedral  of  Hildesheim  and  arch-  Sixteen  designs  of  the  emperor's  battles  had  becsi 

priest  at  Goslar.  engraved  on  copper  in  France,  at  the  expense  of 

In  1069  Benno  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Osnar-  Louis  XV,  and  when  these  were  sent  to  China,  with 

brtlck,  then  vacant  through  the  death  of  Benno  I.  numerous   prints   made    from    them,  the   emperor 

During  the  conflict  between  Gregorjr  VII  and  Henry  immediately  desired  Father  Benott  to  print  further 

IV,  Benno  for  a  long  time  sided  with  the  emperor,  copies.   This  required  new  presses  for  these  delicately 

When,  at  the  Synod  of  Worms,  in  1076,  Gregory  VII  wrought   Frencn  plates,  new  methods  of  wetting 

was  deposed,  Benno,  like,most  other  German  bishops,  paper,  distributinfl;  ink,  etc.     The  r^ult  was  buo- 

signed  the  formula  of  deposition  and  incurred  eccie-  cessful,  even  rivalling  the  work  done  in  Franoe,  but 

siastical  excommunication.    With  some  other  well-  it  was  Fath^  Benott's  last  service.     He  died  of 

meaning  excommunicated  bishops,  Benno  hastened  apoplexy,  ripe  in  i^igious  and  apostolic   virtues, 

to  Italy,  where  the  pope  freed  them  from  the  ban  at  Tne  emperor  said  of  him,  "This  was  a  good  man  and 

Canossa,  before  Henrv  himself  arrived  there  to  feign  ffenerous  in  his  service'';  a  missionary  remarked,  on 

repentance.    After   tne   emperor's    second    excom-  hearing  this,  that,  had  the  words  be^i  said  of  a  Tatar 

munication,  Beimo  tried  to  oring  about  a  reconcilia-  or  Chinese,  they  would  have  rendered  illustrious  a 

tion,  but,  seeing  the  insincerity  of  the  emperor,  gave  Ions  line  of  descendants.     Father  Benott  was  the 

up  in  despair  and  retired  to  the  monasteiy  of  Iburg,  autnor  of  many  letters    preserved  in  the  "Lettres 

which  he  had  founded  in  1070.    In  a  little  house  ^difiantee^";   he  translated  into  Chinese  "The  Imi- 

near  the  monastery  he  lived  according  to  the  rule  of  tation  of  Christ",  while  in  the  "Mtooires  sur  les 

the  monks  during  the  week,  while  on  Sundays  and  Chinois"    are    many    memoirs,    descriptions,    and 

holydays  he  assisted  at  his  cathedral  in  OsnabrQck.  sketches  ascribed  to  nim,  but  unsigned. 

Benno^s  piety  and  justice  made  him  much  beloved  ^  Sommbrvookl,  BM.de  la  c.<U  J.;  Db  FELLEB-PiaKNNfa. 

by  his  flock.  Strunck  (Westphalia  Sancta,  Pader-  ^w^.  umv.  (Pans,  1834).  II,  217.  ^„„^„p.__, 
bom,  1855)  and  Heitemeyer  (Die  Heiligen  Deutsch-  ^  -...^^,^  «t.  ^^^^^  uevmn. 
lands,  Paderbom,  1889)  include  him  in  the  list  of       Benoit  de  OanfleUL    See  Fytchb,  William  Benb- 

saints.    Kerler  (Die  Patronate  der  Heiligen,  Ulm,  ^'ct- 

1905)  savB  that  ne  is  invoked  against  grasshoppers,        Benthftmiim. — Jeremy  Bentham,  an  English  jurist 

because  ne  once  dispersed  them  by  his  prayers.  uid  reformer,  b.  at  Houndsditch,  London,  15  Feb* 

Thyen,  MiuheU,  df  hist.  Vereina  su  OanabrUck,  IX,  1-243;  ruarv,  1748:  d.  m  London  6  June,  1832,  was  of  middle- 

fl^T^-^-^t^SIt^  J^^"T^%'^i:^y  da«  parentage    Ai;«r  pacing  through  W^minst^ 

NoRBERT,  a  contemporary  of  Benno  and  third  Abbot  of  Iburg  SChool  he  went  tO  Oxtord,  where  he  tOOk  his  Bachelor  8 

(1085-1117).    It  is  pubfiBhed  in  Man,  Oerm,  Hitt.:  8cnpL,  degree  in  1763  and  his  Master's  degree  in  1776.     He 

XII.  ^-84.    See  also  Breslad.  Die  ^  xayd  rnu^uru  qualified  for  the  Bar.  but  soon,  disgusted  with  what 

deutache  Geachichtskimde  (Strasburg,  1902),  77-135.  he  called  the  "Demon  of  Chicane   ,  he  abandoned 

Michael  Ott.  the  practice  of  law  and  devoted  himself  to  the  study 

of  pnilosophers  then  in  favour,  chiefly  Locke,  Hume, 

Benoit,  Michel,  b.  at  Autun  (or  Dijon),  France,  Montesauieu,  Helv^tius,  Beccaria,  and  Barrington. 

8  October,  1715;  d.  at  Peking,  23  October,  1774,  a  Under  the  influence  of  these  writers,  he  entered  upon 

Jesuit  scientist,  for  thirtv  years  in  the  service  of  what  proved  to  be  a  lifelong  and  fruitful  <»reer  of 

Kien  Lung,  Emperor  of  China.    He  studied  at  Dijon  speculation  upon  the  princii^es  of  legislation  and 

and  at  St.  Sulpice,  Paris,  and  entered  the  Jesuit  iK>litical  government.     Bentham's  primary  purpose 

Novitiate  at  Nancy,  18  March,  1737.    After  three  was  not  the  construction  of   theones  or  the  estab- 

years  of  renewed  entreaties  he  was  granted  his  de-  lishm^t  of  abstract  principles.     He  first  attacked 

aire  of  thp  Chinese  mission,  but  before  his  departure  specific  abuses  in  the  English  system  of  penal  legie- 

completed  his  astronomical  studies  at  Paris  under  De  lation.    In  tracing  these  abuses  to  theu*  source  he 

risle,  de  la  Caille,  and  Le  Monnier,  who  attached  was  led  to  investigate  the  ultimate  principles  of  law; 

much  importance  to  his  later  correspondence.     On  and  subsequently  he    undertook    to    construct  a 

his  arrival  at  Peking. in  1774  (or  1775),  a  persecution  complete  scienoe  of  legislation.    In  like  manner,  his 

was  raging  against  tne  missionaries  in  the  provinces;  efforts  to  lay  bare  the  evils  existing  in  the  legislative 

still,  as  their  scientific  ability  made  them  indispensa^-  machinery  carried  him  on  to  assail  the  d^ects  oi 

ble  to  the  government.  Father  Benott  was  retained  the  British  Constitution  itself, 
at  court  and  entrustea  with  the  task  of  designing        He   published    anonymously ^  in    1776,   his   first 


European    houses    within    the    enclosure    of   these  greatest  number",  which  he  borrowed  from  Beccana 

gardens  and  in  front  of  one,  in  the  Italian  style  of  or  Priestly.    It  is  the  use  which  he  nmkes  of  this 

architecture,  he  constructed  a  curious  water  clock,  principle  that  characterizes  Bentham  among  philoe- 

The  Manchus  characterize  the  twelve  hdurs  of  their  dphers.    By  it  exclusively  he  would   estimate  the 

day  (twenty-four  hours,  Ehiropean   time)  by  twelve  value  of  juridical,  political,  social,  ethi(»d,  and  re- 

animals  of  different  species.    On  two  sides  of  a  large  ligious  systems  and  institutions;  does  utility  justinr 

triangular   basin    of    water  Father   Benott    placed  t£eir  existence?     In   1779   Bentham's  chief  ^«>"^ 

figures  of  these  animals,  through  the  mouths  of  each  "Introduction    to    the    Principles    of    Morals    and 

of  which  successively,  for  two  hours,  was  forced  a  Legislation ".  appeared.    It  is  tne  only  important  one 

jet  of  water  by  some  ingenious  mechanical  device,  that  wsa  published  by  himself  alone;  all  the  otbeiv 


BnTXTOOLK)  48S  butflkt 

iFere  compiled  with  more  or  lesB  txHVpBntStm  from  beofme  one  erf  die  prominent  faiqiliei  of  Femra. 

hii  followerB.    One  of  these  disciplee,  E.  Dumont,  The  foUowioK  are  the  principal  ecclesiastical  membeie: 

helped  to  secure  for  Beotluun,  at  u>e  opening  of  the  (1)  Goido,  Oaxdinal,  d.  at  Ferrara  lfi79;  d.'St  Rome 

oineteenth  century,  mternational  tame  aa  a  l^al  1644.    He  itudled  at  Padua,  went  to  Rome  and  was 

sndKicial  refonner  by  anaagiogBentham'e  writings  eubsequently  sent  by  Paul  V  as  nuncio  to  Flanders 

ud  publishing  them  in  French.    About  this  period  (1607)  and  France  (1617).     He  successfully  settled 

be  was   «i^a«ed   in   many   philanthropic   scfaemee,  the   diSermcee   that   arose    betweea   Catholics   and 

^  chief  of  wnich  was  one  for  the  reform  of  the  con-  Huguenots,  was  created  cardinal  in  1621,  and  afi- 

TJct  prison  system.    This  undertaking,  though  aided  pointed  by  King   Louis   XIII    protector   of   French 

Iw  the  British  Government,  proved  a  failure.    After  intereeta  ^t  Rome.     He  held  the  latter  position  until 

(he  peace  of  1815,  when  the  codi6catioD  of  laws  was  1641,  the  date  of  his  appointment  to  the  episcopal 

oecuoying  a  large  place  in  the  attrition  of  st^^iunen.  See  of  Paleetrina.     He  was  the  most  truslea  friend 

B^tham°B  writing  were  studied,  and  he  BimBelf  of  Pope  Urban  VIII  and  would  undoubtedly  have 

consulted,   by   junstn   of   Russia,   Spain,   Germany,  become  his  successor,  had  he  not  died  during  tits  con< 

tutd  some  South  American  countries    He  abo  exerted  clave.    He  left  several  historical  worka.  dealing  chiefly 

■D  influence  upon  legislation  in  the  United  States,  with  affairs  in  Flandere  and  France;  they  were  trane- 

Dotsbly  Pennsylvania  and  Louisiana.    In  England  his  lated   into   French,   and   published   as   a   collection 

idws  of  political  reform  were  taken  up  by  the  leaders  (Venice,  1668).    (2)  Cornelio,  Cardinal,  b.  at  Ferrara 

of  the  rising  radicalism,  Cobbett,  George  Grote,  the  1668;  d,  at  Rome  1732.     He  went  at  an  early  age  to 

two  Hills,   and   others.      With   them,   in   IS23,   he  Rome,  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Carthage,  and 

established  the  "Westminster  Review"  as  the  or^an  in  1712  nuncio  to  Paris.    He  showed  more  zeal  than   ■ 

of  the  party.     He  maintained  a  correspondence  with  discretion  in  his  dealings  with  the  Jansenists  and  had 

many  prominent  men  of  his  day,  including  Uadison  to  be  recalled  at  the  death  of  Louis  XIV  (1715).    He 

and  Adams,  Presidents  of  the  United  States.  became  cardinal  in  1719,  and  Spanish  Minister  Pleni- 

Bentham  attacked  the  Established  Church  as  a  potentiary  at  Rome  in  1726,  a  position  which  he  held 

factor  in  the  general  system  of  abuse,  and  from  the  until   bis  death. 

Chureh  he   passed,   characteristically,  to  the  Cate-        K»trtiw  in  Kin*«^    II,  WB,M8;MA.niCBiu.i.S(rioori 

chism,  then  to^e  New  Testament. 'and  finally  to  d'/'-h«  tBr->-.  i7ao)  li.  u.  867-82, 
Religion    itself.     In   the   "Analysis  of  Religion",  "■  *■  "*^™- 

published  by  George-  Grote  under  the  pseudonym       Bantlay,     John     Fbancis,     English      architect, 

ef  Philip  Beauchamp,  he  applies  the  utilitarian  test  b.  at  Doncaster,  Yorkshire,  in  1839;  d.  in  London. 

to  religion,  and  finds  religion  wanting.    True  to  this  Februaryj    1902.     From    eariv    days    he    exhibited 

same  principle  in  ethics,  Bentham  maintained  hapi-  a  strong  mclination  towards  tne  profession  in  which 

piness  to  be  the  sole  end  of  conduct;  pleasure  and  he  was  to  make  so  great  a  mark.     His  parents  were 

pain,  the  discriminating  norm  of  right  and  wrong;  not  in  sympathy 

and  he  reduced  morsJ  obligation  to  the  mere  sanction  with    him,  so,   at 

inherent  in  the  pleasant  or  painful  results  of  action,  the  age  of  sixteen. 

The  patriarch  of  utilitarianism,  as  Bentham  has  he  placed  himself 
been  called,  was  of  upright  character  and  simple  voluntarily  with 
in  his  manner  of  life.  His  bent  of  mind  was  for  the  the  Clerk  of  the 
abstract;  and  he  was  singularly  deficient  in  the  Works  at  Lover- 
irisdom  of  the  practical  man  of  the  world.  Never-  sail  Church.  In 
theless,  circumstances  turned  him  to  grapple  ^th  1S55  he  be^an 
intensely  practical  problems;  and,  with  the  help  of  his  probation  with 
his  followers,  he  has  wielded  on  political  development  Sharpe,  Stewart 
and  philosophic  thought  in  England  a  powerful  A  Co.,  of  Man- 
influence  which  is  far  from  exhausted.  The  spread  Chester,  pring  to 
of  his  ideas  contributed  signally  to  the  carrying  of  London,  m  1858, 
Catholic  Emancipation  in  1820  and  the  beneficent  where  be  was  as- 
parliamentary  reform  of  1832.  At  the  same  time  sociated  witbHol- 
they  helped  to  open  the  way  in  English  ethical  and  land  &.  Hannan 
theological  spoculation  for  the  positivism  and  and  theo^  with 
agnosticism  of  the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth  « 


.    .  Henry     Glutton. 

une  of  his  principal  works,  " Deontolojff,  or  the  He    started    tor 

Science  of  Morality   ,  was  published  after  the  author's  himself   in    1868. 

death  by  his  disciple  Sir  J.  Bowring,  who  also  edited  He    was    a    firm 

Bentham's  collected  works  in  eleven  volumes  (1838-  believer  in  the 

<3).    This  edition  has  not  been  superseded.    A  good  architectural               John  Fbahcb  Bihtlet 

edition    of   the    "Fragment   on   Government"    was  principles   and 

issued  by  the  Clarendon  Press  in  1891.  methods  ot    the  Middle  Ages,  giving  to  every  de- 

Bmrvai.  Tlit  Bigluh  Utilitariant  (Now  York  and  Loadon,  tail    in    his    work,   from     foundation     to    furniture, 

™'wfitw'A^^K'^'3El^Ail*ltf*DS*^'(LS!idS^  *"«  personal   attention.     He   was   an   apt   modeUer 

isofi):  Aldbe,  a  Hiiioryof  Bngiith  VtiiSarimirm  (New  York  and  Dad  tried  his  hand  with  success  at  stone  carving, 

■ad   LoDdon,  1002)1   Hii.tvT.  La  lormatirm  dv  rodualiMM  As  a  draughtsman,  and  especially  as  B  colourist,  he 

5SSSS£SliTL^on*°i«)ev'D.f^?'i^o^  JiJ^S^  w»*  ^"7  successful,  hU  destens  for  marUe  and 

■fcnw  of  Bn^nd  ar^  Ammn.'  (Bostoni  1894):  ADBira^L^  metal   work,  jewellery,  stained  glass,   and  heraldic 

tmt  OK  Jumprudtna  (London.  1865.  Sth  ed.).  decorations  being  of  great  beauty. 

James  J.  Fox.  His  first  important  commission  was  from  Cardinal 

iririnally  from  the  caa-  Maiming,  tor  the  seminaty  at  Hammersmith,  and 

^hbourhood  of  Bologna,  amongst    his    buildings    should    be   mentioned   the 

fromEnzio  (c.  1224-72),  Church  of  the  Holy  Rood,  at  Watford;  the  convent 

,  a  natural  eon  of  Frederick  II.    Dur-  chapel,  at  Bralntree;  the  chapel  of  Beaumont  College, 

ing  file  fourteenth  century  the  family  belonged  to  one  Old  Windsor;  St.  Anne's  Catbodral,  Leeds;  and  St. 

oftbeworkingmen'aguildsatBologna,whereitbecame  Mary's,  Cadogan  Place,  Chelsea.      He  was  also  re- 

aU-powerfid  in  the  nfteenth  century.     It  contracted  roonsiMe  for  the  baptistery,  font,  and  monstrance  at 

alliances  with  the  Kings  of  Aragou,  the  Dukes  erf  St.  Francis,  Notting  Hill;  the  reredos  and  altar  at  St 

WSma  and  other  aoTereigns;  and  in  its  iMer  faktoiy,  C^Mries,  Opt  Street,  Hatylebone,  sedilia  and  Snored 


BUiVHAV  484 

Heart  chapel  in  the  church  d  the  Jesuit  FMJieni  CShaileB  B^iiim,  mm  of  the  founder,  h.  1790, 

at   Farm   Street;   and   the  decoration  at  Carlton  d.  1873,  a  man  ot  unumiii  strength  and  energy, 

Towers.    In  1894,  he  received  his  commission  to  with  a. good  classical  education,  devoted  him^ 

build  the   cathedral  at  Westminster,  and  at  once  especially  to  the  literary  end  of  the  business.    In 

started  for  Italy  to  make  a  careful  study  of  the  l&iO    the    ''Einsiedlw    Kalender"    was    founded; 

various  great   basilicas,   and  the  mosaic  work  at  it  is  still  puUished  and  furnishes  an  interesting  il- 

Ravenna.    He    devoted    himself    with   gre&t   con*  lustration  of  the  development  of  the  art  of  printing, 

centration  to  this,  his  life  memorial,  prcSucing  the  "The  Pilgrim*',  a  popular  Catholic  periodical  es- 

most  remarkable  ecclesiastical  building  erected  in  tabUshed  at  the  same  time,  lasted  only  ten  yean. 

England  since  the  Reformation,  and  receiving  high  Charles,  tbo.  took  an  active  part  in  public  life,  and 

praise  all  over  Europe  on  his  exfaraordinary  success,  showed  moderation  and  enersy  as  President  of  the 

He  was  a  person  of  brusque,  reserved  manner,  Canton  of  Schwys.    His  health  failed  and  in  1860 

but  kind  and  friendly  to  those  who  really  knew  him.  he  retired  from  DUfldness. 

He  had  the  strongest  dislike  to  the  preparation  of  Nicholas  Benziger,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
show  drawings  and  to  the  system  ot  architectural  b.  1808,  d.  1864,  who  took  charge  of  the  technical 
competition  and.  being  a  man  wholly  lacking  in  part  of  the  business,  proved  himself  a  pioneer,  in- 
self-assertion,  and  reticent  in  conversation,  was  nevw  troducing^  to  the  mountain  village  of  ESinsiedem  a 
as  well  known  in  general  circles  as  he  deserved  series  of  miproved  trades  methods  as  they  app^red 
to  be.  His  sreat  characteristics  as  an  architect  from  time  to  tinoe  in  the  great  centres  of  Europe 
were  his  careful  attention  to  detail,  his  solicitude  and  America.  Under  Ids  guidance  the  work  of 
•  that. all  the  fittings  should  be  in  perfect  harmony  book-binding,  which  was  formerly  carried  on  in  the 
with  the  building,  and  the  sparing  use  he  made  of  family  at  home,  was  systematized.  In  1844  the 
iron.  He  was  awarded  the  gold  medal  of  the  In-  old  hand-press  was  superseded  by  the  first  power 
stitute  of  Architects  in  February,  1902,  but  never  press.  Stereotyping  was  introduced  in  1846;  in 
received  it,  as  on  the  Ist  of  March  he  was  seized  1856  steel  and  copper  printing;  and  in  1858  electro- 
with  paralysis  and  died  the  following  morning.  Wpin^  In  1853,  a  house  was  opened  in  New  York. 
He  was  present  at  the  trial  of  acoustic  qualities  By  this  time  the  two  brothers  had  built  up  a  business 
made  in  nis  cathedral,  but  was  not  spared  to  see  in  O&tholic  books  and  prints  that  was  known  the 
its  formal  opening.  He  was  buried  at  Mortlake.  world  over.  They  also  took  an  active  part  in 
ArckUe^al  iJayw.  XI.  XII;  Ths  Builder.  L^Xll;  charitable  work,  and  started  a  fimd  for  a  hospital. 

Journal  of  the  Royal  IruMute  of  Briiuh  ArchUecUt  IX;  Obituary  «,u:«u  Uo-  o:»»«a  »w«»«  A-A/«f<>/1 

Notice  in  The  T^  (London/March,  1902).  wmch  has  Since  been  ^ected.           ,--.,,      „ 

Georob  Charles  Wiluambon.  .  On  the  retirement  of  Charles  and  Nicholas  Ben- 

_,  ,  ziger  (1860)  the  business  was  continued  by  Charles, 
Bentney  (alias  Bennet).  William,  an  English  Martin,  and  J.  N.  Adehich,  sons  of  the  former, 
Jesuit  priest  b.  in  Cheshire,  1609;  d.  30  October,  1692.  ^nd  Nicholas,  Adehich,  and  Louis,  sons  of  the  latter. 
He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  7  September.  1630.  Under  this  tiiird  generation,  the  diflferent  branches 
was  sent  to  the  English  mission  m  1640,  and  laboured  of  i\^  house  were  still  further  developed,  chromoliHi- 
there  with  great  zeal  and  success  for  forty-two  years,  ography  and  other  modem  printing  methods  being 
He  was  then  arrested,  at  the  instigation  of  a  noble-  added.  In  1867,  the  "Alte  und  Neue  Welt",  the 
man  to  whose  sisters  he  was  administering  the  sacra-  fi^t  illustrated  popular  Catholic  German  magazine 
Dients,  and  was  taken  to  Leicester  gaol.  No  one  in  ^n  a  large  scale,  was  begun,  and  then  appeared  a 
those  parts  being  wiUmg  to  bear  witness  against  hun,  number  of  illustrated  family  books  of^  devout 
Bentney  was  at  once  transferred  to  Derby,  where  he  reading  and  a  series  of  school  books, /including  a 
was  tried  and  sentenced  to  death  at  the  spring  assizes  Bible  nistory  in  twelve  languages,  together  with 
of  1682.  His  execution  was  delayed  for  unknown  pcajer  books  by  well-known  authors.  Between  1880 
reasons,  and  on  the  accession  of  James  II  he  was  a^cl  1895  a  fourth  generation  succeeded  to  the 
released.  He  was  rearrested^  however,  tried,  and  business,  and  the  firm  name  was  changed  to  Ben- 
condemned  after  the  Revolution,  but  the  sentence  (jg^f  and  Company, 
remained  suspended,  and  in  1692  he  died  in  Leicester  T'he  house  of  Benziger  Brothers  in  the  United 

^S^'        «      .    ,r   .^      ^  r,  »  ^    ^           «,-..#  r^..  States  was  established  in  New  York  in  1853  by  the 

FoLmr^Reeorde,  V.  400,  and  CoOecL:  Gillow.  B*W.  DtcL  g^,^  ^^^^^^  ^^  j^  development  as  a  publishing 

Stdkbt  F   Bboth  house  did  not  begin  until  18o0  when  J.  N.  Adelrich 

^^            '  Benziger  (d.  1878)  and  Louis  Benziger  (d.   1896) 

Benziger,  Aloysitjs.    See  Quilon,  Diocbsb  of.  took  chaige.    In   1860,   a  house   was  opened   in 

Benziger,  Joseph  Charlbs,  founder  of  the  Cincinnati  and  in  1887  one  in  Chicago.  The  pub- 
Catholic  publishing  house  that  bears  his  name,  lishing  of  Enghsh  Catholic  books  was  vigorously 
b.  at  Einsiedeln,  Switzerland,  1762;  d.  there,  1841.  undertaken,  and  to-day  the  catalogue  covers  ti]« 
In  1792  he  started  a  small  business  in  religious  field  of  devotional,  educational,  and  juvenile  liter- 
articles,  but  he  soon  jfelt  the  effects  of  the  French  ature,  besides  works  of  a  theological  character. 
Revolution.  The  French  invasion  forced  him  to  Since  1864  the  firm  has  manufactured  sacred  vessels 
take  flight  with  his  family,  and  for  about  a  year  Bsad  church  furniture.  The  American  firm  of 
they  resided  at  Feldkirch,  Austria,  where  his  eldest  Benziger  Brothers  is  now  independent  of  the  Swiss 
son,  Charles,  was  bom.  In  1800  they  returned  to  house.  The  Holy  See  conferred  on  the  firm  the 
Einsiedeln,  which  had  been  devastated  by  pillage  title  ''Printers  to  the  Holy  Apostolic  See''  in  1S67. 
and  army  requisitions.  All  Mr.  B^uiger's  modest  and  "The  Pontifical  Institute  of  Christian  Art'^ 
fortune  was  gone,  but  with  redoubled  efforts  he  set  in  1888.  Thomas  F.  Meehan. 
about  repairing  his  losses,  and  started  in  business 

as  a  booKseller.    He  was  made   president  of   tiie  Bemoni,  Qirolamo,  b.  at  Milan  about  1519.    He 

county,  and  his  credit  and  personal  financial  sac-  went  to  America  in  1541  and  successively  visited  the 

rifices  proved  of  great  help,  especially  during  the  AntiUes  and  the  Isthmus,  Guatemala,  and  the  west 

famine  of    1817.     In   1833,  Charles   and   Nicnolaa  coast  of  South  America.    He  returned  to  Spain  and 

Benziger   succeeded    their   father   under   the    firm  thence  to  Italy,  in  1556.    Of  his  subseauent  life 

name  of  ''Charles  and  Nicholas  Benziger  Brothers",  nothinf^  is  known.    Some  hints  in  his  book  suggest 

and  two  years  later,  in  addition  to  their  book  pub-  that  his  main  purpose  in  the  New  World  was  com- 

lishing  business  began  the  Uthographing  of  religious  merce,  which  he  often  had  to  carry  on  with  difficulty, 

oictures,  as  well  as  the  colouring  of  them  by  band,  as  trading  by  foreigners  in  the  Spanish  coloniee 

before  the  introduction  of  chromolithogn^hy,  waa  not  looJDdd  upon  with  favour  by  the  Sput 


485  BIRABDZ 

ards.    Besaond,  while  not  miBucoeesful  in  what  he  15  Februanr,    Ejlbarrack  Church,  County  Dublin, 

ondertook,  conceived  an  inveterate  hatred  of  the  was  also  called  after  this  saint,  as  in  his  early  days 

Spanish  people  and  Government  and  in  return  for  he  spent  some  time  there  and  performed  many  nm> 

tne  protection  given  him  and  for  favours  which  he  acles,  duly  recorded  in  his  life.     His  bell  was  long 

was  compelled  reluctantly  to  acknowledge,  wrote  and  preserved  at  the  Abbey  of  Glendalough,  but  has  dis- 

E'  ^ishea  a  book  of  diatnbes  and  accusations  against  appeared  since  the  sixteenth  century. 

n  in   America.     It   contains   interesting   details  ^  O'Donovan,  Acta  Sar^torum;  AwuUa  of  ffys  Four  MaHtra: 

A  the  «>untrie8  he  visited,  but  abounds  in  ^«  ^r^^f^  ^"^^^^f^^^r^.^^iiTck^  'iJhn"^ 

and    often     m    mtentional     misstatements.       What  land  (1S87);  Colqan,  Acta  Sanet.  Hib,  (16  Febnaury);  HsALT. 

Benzoni  states  about  the  Antilles  is  a  clumsy  rehash  {jji^^'j'  ^n^}^  ScKo^  and  Scholan  (4th  ed.,  19Cg);  Cox, 

of  Las  Casas.     His   reports   on   the    conquests   of  El%^llSMf^'^'          ""•      '^    ''^  ^       ^*^  ** 

Mexico,  and  Peru  bristle  with  errors.  *                        "^^  j^  Ghattan  Flood. 

Thebookof  Ben3soni"HistoriadelMondoNuovo*',  -»        3*^-,^^*             .«            ^*, 

was  published  at  Venice  in  1565.     He  dedicated  it  ,,.«®"^,  ^^  Oarbio  (or  Beraldus),  Saint,  Friar 

to  Pope  Pius  IV.    It  was  at  the  time  when  the  con-  Mmor  and  martyrj  d.  16  January,  1220,   Of  the  noble 

troverey  concerning  the  treatment  of  the  Indians  femily  of  Leopardi,  and  a  native  of  Carbio  m  Umbna, 

was  hottest,  and  a  work,  written  by  one  who  had  just  Berard  was  received  mto  the  Franciscan  Order  by 

returned  from  the  New  World  after  a  stay  of  fifteen  ^^^  Seraphic  Patriarch  himself,  in  1213.     He  was 

years,  could  not  fail  to  attract  attention.     In  writing  well  versed  in  Arabic,  an  eloquent  preacher,  and  was 

It,  no  standard  of  criticism  was  applied;  this  was  not  chosen  by  St.  Francis,  together  with  two  other  priests, 

in  the  spirit  of  the  times.    The  ultra-philanthropists  Peter  and  Otho,  and  two  lay-brothers,  Accursius  and 

found   Benzoni   a  welcome   auxiliary,  and   foreign  Adjutus,  to  evangeliae  the  infidels  of  the  East.    On 

nations,  all  more  or  less  leagued  against  Spain  for  the  the  conclusion  of  the  Second  General  Chapter  in  1219, 

sake  of  supplanting  its  mastery  of  the  Indies,  eagerly  St.  Francis  believed  that  the  time  had  then  come  for 

adopted  h&  extreme  statements  and  sweeping  accusa-  t^e  religious  of  his  order  to  extend  their  apostoUo 

tions.    Several  editions  were  published  in  rapid  sue-  labours  beyond  the  Italian  peninsula  and  Northern 

cession;  translations  were  made  into  English  as  well  as  Europe;  and,  choosing  for  himself  and  twelve  other 

into  several  other  languages.    Intrinsically,  the  book  religioiw  the  greater  yart  of  Syria  and  Egypt,  he 

has  small  merit,  except  m  as  far  as  it  presents  and  allotted  to  Berard  and  his  compamons  the  missions 

describee  facts  witnessed  by  the  author.     Even  these  of  Morocco.    The  five  missionaries  set  sail  from  Italy, 

are  not  always  faithfully  reported.     It  might  be  and  after  sojourning  some  time  m  Spam  and  Portugal 

called  a  controversial  document  because  of  its  violent  finally  arrived  in  the  Kingdom  of  Morocco.    Their 

partiality  and  hostility.    It  does  not  notice  mitigat-  open  preaching  of  the  Gospd  there  and  their  bold 

ing  circumstances,  and  ignores  what  is  good  when  it  denunciation  of  the  relieion  of  Mahomet  soon  caused 

does  not  suit  the  author.     Benzoni  writes  sometimes  them  to  be  apprehended  and  cast  into  prison.    Hav« 

like  a  disappointed  trader,  and  always  as  a  man  of  "^  vainly  endeavoured  to  persuade  them  to  abandon 

limited  education  and  very  narrow  views.     His  "  His-  the  true  religion,  the  Moorish  king  m  a  fit  of  rage 

toria  del  Mondo  Nuovo"  (Venice,  1565)  was  reprinted  opened  their  heads  with  his  scimitar,  and  thus  were 

in  1572,  and  translated  into  French  by  Eustace  Vignon,  offered  to  God  the  first  fruits  of  the  blood  of  the 

1579.     Aside  from  the  annotations  which  are  often  ^nsm   Minor.      Berard   and  hb  companions  were 

trivial  and  as  partial  as  the  book  itself,  the  English  canomzed  by  Sixtus  V,  m  1481.    The  feast  of  the 

translation,  "  History  of  the  New  World  by  Girolamo  martyrs  of  Morocco  is  kept  in  the  order  on  the  16th  of 

Benzoni"  (London,  1857),  by  the  Hakluyt  Society,  Japuanr.     ^  ^   ^  .         ^  ^,      .  ^  .  ^.     ^.     ^„ 

is  certainly  the  best.                  Ad.  F.  Bandbi^er.  pJ^^^^JJ^  f^^  rt^^^^^wl.S^Jo'^ln^'^i^ 

Wh,  Abb^of  Bangor.    See  Lough  Dearg  or  2t  Is^!  u^:  \f.  ^P^SSTh^r^ 

St.  Patrick's  Purgatory.  Beraldi,  etc.,  in  Anal.  Franda,  (Quaracchi.  1897).  III.  67^ 

BAanABtB    RiTTTnTnTTa       Sp<>  Ltswaotum  *®®I  ***>  ^^*^'  Francis.  'Q:aracchi,  1906),  IV,  822-323;  Acta 

seqneBU,  ItELIGIOUS.     Oee  L.EGACIES.  ^^     January.   II,  426-W6;    CataloffUB  SS.  jf'raL  Min„  ed. 

Beracli,  Saint,  of  Termonbarry,  d.  695;  a  disciple  Lemmbnb  (Rome,  1903). 

of  St.  Kevin  and  a  celebrated  Irish  saint,  whose  Stephen  M.  Donovan. 

memory  is  still  fresh  in  County  Roscommon.    He  was  Berardi,   Carlo   SiSbastiano,  a  canonist,  b.  at 

of  the  tribe  of  Cinel  Dobtha,  or  O'Hanley  of  Doohey  One^lia,  Italy,  26  August,  1719;  d.  1768.     Having 

Hanley.  to  which  also  belong  the  MacCoilidh  family,  studied    theology    at    Savona    imder    the    Piarists, 

Mofitof  his  long  life  was  spent  in  the  Diocese  of  Elphin,  he  was  promoted  to  the  priesthood  and  thien  began 

and  he  built  his  church  at  Cluain  Coirpthe  since  known  the  study  of  law  at  Turin,  paying  particular  at- 

as  Termonbarry  or  Kilbarry.     His  sister,  St.  Mida-  tention   to    canonical   jurisprudence.    In    1749    he 

baria,  was  abbess  of  a  nunnery  at  Bumlin  (Strokes-  was  appointed   prefect  of   the   law-faculty  of  the 

town),  of  which  she  is  venerated  as  patroness  on  22  University  of  Tiirin,  while  from  1754  till  his  death 

February.     Her  ancient  conventual  church  and jprave-  he  was  professor  of  canon  law  in  the  same  institution, 

yard  are  still  to  be  seen.     Under  the  title  of  "Berach  Berardi's  works  are:  (1)  ''  Gratiani  canones  genuini 

of  Cluain  Coirpthe"  St.  Berach  is  honoured  in  several  ab  apocryphis  discreti,   corrupti  ad  emendatiorum 

martyrologies,  and  his  holy  life  attracted  pilgrims  to  codicum  ndem  exacti,  difficihores  commodA  inter- 

Kilbarry  from  all  parts  of  Ireland.    The  MsjcCoilidh  pretatione  illustrati"  (4  vols,  quarto,  Turin,  1762- 

family,  whose  name  was  andicized  to  Cox  in  the  57;     Venice,     1777,     1783).    Richter     (in    Proleg. 

early  years  of  the  seventeenth  century,  were  heredi-  ad  Gratiani  Decretum)  says  of  this  work  that  one 

tary  custodians  of  St.   Berach *s  crosier,  and  were  knows  not  whether  to  admire  more  the  knowledge 

coar6s,  or  lay  abbots,  of  Kilbarry.    The  crosier  is  now  or  diligence  evidenced  in  it,  while  all  unanimously 

in  the  Dublin  Museum.    In  1890,  Dr.  M.  F.  Cox,  of  declare  that,  as  a  critical  exposition  of  Gratian's 

Dublin,  the  lineal  representative  of  the  MacCoilidhs,  Decretum,  it  is  surpassed  by  Antonio  Agostino's 

unearthed  St.  Berach's  boat,  and  had  it  placed  beside  work  alone.    The  great  value  of  the  work  lies  in 

the  present  Catholic  church  of  Whitehall,  near  Kil-  this,  that  it  sets  forth  the  original  authorities  of  the 

barry.    St.  Berach's  oratory  at  Cluain  Coirpthe  was  Decretum,  though  carelessness  is  apparent  at  times 

replaced  by  a  fine  damhliag  (stone  church),  built  by  in  the  author's  endeavours  to  distmguish  genuine 

MacCoilidh  and  O'Hanley  in  916,  and  acquired  the  sources    from    those    that    are    spurious.     Berardi, 

name  of  Termon  Barry,  or  Kilbany,  that  is  the  moreover,    is    occasionally    h3rpercritical.     A    com- 

church  of  St.  Berach.    Some  authorities  give  his  feast  pendium  of  this  work  by  an  unlmown  writer,  pub- 

aa  11  February,  but  most  martyrologists  assign  him  lished  at  Venioe,  1778,  is  entitled,  "Ccunpenaium 

n.--3i 


BnUULT  488  BBMBIOLD 

Commentarionim  Caroli  Sebafltiani  Berardi  in  Can-  remains  were  preserved  at  Moutier-en-Der  until  ihe 

ones  Gratiani.     (2)  "De  Variis  Saororum  Oanonum  suppression  of  religious  orders  at  the  cdose  of  the 

Coiieotiombus    ante    Gratianum".    published    to-  eighteenth   century.    The   commemoration   of  hi& 

f  ether  with  his-  first  work.     (3)  ^Oommentar^i  in  name  occurs  in  tne  martyrology  on  the  16th  of 

us  Ecciesiasticum  Universimi",  four  vols,  quarto,  October. 
Turin,  1766;  two  vols,  octavo,  Venice,  1778,1789;       Binun,  XV,  282;  Aoso.  FiCa  5.  B^^-cAotht  Subius.  X,  481. 
1847).— This  is  an  excellent  treatise  from  the  view-  Babnabas  DiBRiNGEa. 

point  both  of  theory  and  practice.     (4)  ''Institu-        i>,^,i.„,„    /t> n      \    ». 

tiones  Juris  Ecclesiastici ''  (2  vols.  Turin,  1760),  a  i  JSSiS^  k^S^-^f?"'  k  ^^?^^i**^^^»/ 

work  that  is  to  be  read  with' caution.  ^^  %^^>A.^'lfH^^  ^'p^     h  *--^!^*^ 

Weuhnz,  Jvl»  Decretalium  (Rome,  1898).  I.  n.  316.  896.  897;  X?5°"^  >  V?*^"^^'  ^  ^^^  ?J  S?™:     P®  joined  the 

BcaiiuTK.  Die  Qetchichu  d.  Quellen,  III,  par.  1, 624;  Valljlubi,  Order  of  St.  Benedict  at  Maillezais,  later  lived  at 

Storia  deUe  Univeniih  degii  Studi  del  PiemcmAvlII.  219.  Avignon  for  a  period  of  twelve  yeaiB  with  Cardinal 

A.  B.  Mkbhan.  Peter  de  Pratis,  Bishop  of  Prseneste,  and  m  1354  waa 
Beranlt-BercaBtel,  Antoinb  Henri  db,  a  writer  n^^de  prior  of  St.  Eligius  at  Paris,  He  was  an  elo- 
of  church  history,  b.  22  November,  1720,  at  Briey,  guent  preacher  and  a  voluminous  homiletical  writw. 
Lorraine;  d.  about  1794  at  Noyon,  France.  At  an  His  most  important  work  is  the  "Repertorium  mo- 
eariy  age  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  but  left  it  rale",  for  the  use  of  preachers,  a  kind  of  Biblico-moral 
after  his  oraination  to  the  priesthood.  He  was  made  dictionary,  in  which  the  principal  words  of  Scripture 
parishpriestofOmerville  and  later  a  canon  of  Noyon.  are  arranged  alphabetically  and  moral  reflections 
His  most  important  work  is  entitled  "Histoire  de  attached  thereto.  It  appeared  some  time  before 
r^glise"  and  was  issued  at  Paris,  1778-00,  in  twenty-  1^55  and  was  dedicated  to  Cardinal  de  Pratis.  The 
four  volumes.  The  history  gives  a  circumstantial  "Repertorimn"  proved  to  be  one  of  the  most  popular 
account  of  the  Church  from  the  time  of  its  founding  books  of  its  kind  and  was  frequently  printed—first  at 
up  to  the  year  1721.  It  is  not  so  much  intended  Cologne  in  1477,  and  again  at  Nuremberg  (1489), 
for  students  and  learned  investigators  as  for  educated  fyons  (1517),  Pwis  (1521),  Venice  (16^),  Antwerp 
Christians,  and  especially  for  those  priests  whose  (1609),  etc.  A  French  translation  fafv  Richard  1«- 
professional  cares  do  not  allow  them  time  to  carry  blanc  appeared  at  Pans  m  1684.  Other  works  of 
on  higher  studies.  Cn  account  of  its  general  use-  Bercheure  are:  "Reductorium  morale"  to  the  Sacred 
fuhiess  his  work  has  had  a  large  circulation:  in  spite  Scriptures  m  thirty-four  books,  embracing  all  the 
of  many  defects,  especially  in  the  later  volumes,  it  Spofa  of  the  Bible,  printed  at  Strasburg  in  1474, 
has  often  been  repubUshed,  as  at  Maastricht  (1780-  gaale  (1515),  Lyons  (1536):  "Inductonum  morale 
91),  at  Toulouse  (1811).  It  has  also  been  translated  bibhcum";  sixteen  books  on  God  and  the  world;  and 
into  foreign  languages:  it  was  published  in  Italian  »  French  translation  (the  earliest)  of  I^vy,  made 
at  Venice  (1793),  and  in  German  at  Vienna  (1784).  about  1360  at  the  request  of  Kmg  John  the  Good- 
Various  scholars  have  continued  the  history  or  have  published  at  Paris  in  1514  in  three  volumes.  His 
issued  it  in  a  condensed  form.  Instances  are  the  '  Inductonum  morale  bibhcum  ',  oommentanes, 
edition  of  Guillen  (Besangon,  and  Paris,  1820-21),  discourses,  letters,  and  other  treatises,  have  never 
that  of  Pelier  de  la  Croix  (Ghent,  1829-33),  and  that  been  pnnted.  Editions  of  his  collected  works  ap- 
of  Robiano  (Ljrons  and  Paris,  1835  and  1842).  The  peaxedatLvons  (1520),  Vemce  (1583, 1631),  Cologne 
best  edition,  with  a  continuation  up  to  1844,  was  (lo60,  1669),  etc.  ,,«^^v  «t  ^^^  « 
«lit^  by  Henrion    (Paris^  1844)^    T^^'»«L~£-  in'k^St\^SrcSSt^if^:^8^lCl!^&^,'^^. 

densed    edition    was   edited   by    Gams    (Innabruok,  usr,  Bio-fnbNogrqphis,  a.  v.  Berevin:  BraunmOllkr  in  Kir- 

1854-60).  thmUx^  U,  388;  S^blbaueb,  HiML  rti  UtL  OnL  8.  Bm,,  III, 

^^'^  '     '       Patricius  SoHLAOTO,  Thomas  Obbtrbich. 

Bercharios  (Bbrbrus),  Saint,  Abbot  ci  Haut*  «  Berchmans,  Saint  John.    See  John  Berchmans, 

vUlers  in  Champagne,  b.  636;  d.  28  March,  696.  8^™t- 

Descended  from  a  distinguished  Aquitanian  family,        Berehtold  (Bebthold),  Blbssbd,  Abbot  of  the 

he  received  his  instruction  from  St.  Nivaxd  rNTivo*),  Benedictine  Monastery  of  Enselberg  in  Switzeriand; 

Archbishop  of  Reims,  under  whose  charge  ne  aa-  date  of  birth  unknown;  d.  3  r>Iovember,  1197.    Be- 

vanced  rapidly  in  virtue  and  learning.    Believing  fore  becoming  abbot  he  was  a  monk  at  Engelbere 

himself  called  to  the  sacred  ministry,  he  entered  tiie  and  a  favourite  disciple  of  the  learned  abbot,  Blespea 

monastery  of  Luxeuil  under  St.  Walbert.  and  by  Frowin.    When  Frowin  was  on  the  point  of  d3ring 

his  humble  and  faithful  performance  of  auty  soon  he  advised  his  monks  to  elect  the  pious  Berehtold 

excelled    his   fellow-novices.    Upon   his   return   to  as  his  successor.    Accordingly,  after  Frowin's  death, 

Reims  he  induced  St.  Nivard  to  erect  the  cloister  which  occurred   27   March,    1178,    Berehtold   was 

of  Hautvillers,  of  which  Bercharius  himself  became  chosen  abbot.    Following  in  Frowin's  footsteps,  he 

the  first  abbot.   Wholly  given  up  to  prayer  and  medi-  was  intent  on  maintaining  strict  monastic  discipline, 

tation  he  also  instructed  his  brethren  to  lead  a  con-  the  importance  of  which  he  inculcated  by  his  own 

templative  life.    Ever  zealous  for  the  propa^tion  of  example.    Nor  did  he  neglect,  at  the  same  time,  to  en- 

th«  Faith,  he  founded  two  cloisters  in  the  Diocese  of  courage  his  monks  in  the  purstdt  of  Divine  and  human 

ChAlons-sur-Mame,  the  one  (Puis3re  or  Moutier-en-  knowledge.    By  his  .order  they  reproduced  many 

Der)  for   men,  the   other  (Pellmoutier,  PueQarum  old  writrngs,  some  of  which  are  still  extant  in  the 

Monasterium)  for  women.    These  institutions  he  en-  library  of  Engelberg.    The  more  learned  monks  were 

riched  by  donations  of  valuable  relics,  procured  on  a  encouraged  to  write  original  works.    When  Abbot 

journey  to  Rome  and  the  Holy  Land.  Biurchard  openly  taught  that  the  souls  of  the  just 

The  monk  Daguin,   provoked   by  a  reprimand  had  ffone  to  heaven  before  the  Resurrection  of  Christ, 

from  Bercharius,  stabbed  him  during  the  ni^t.    No  Berehtold  himself  wrote  ''Apolo^  contra  erroron 

word  of  complaint  or  censure  did  he  utter  ^en  the  Burehardi  Abbatis  S.  Joannis  in  Thurthal  seu  Vallis 

murderer  was  led  before  him;  but  he  gloried  in  ex-  Taurinse",  in  which  he  shows  himself  not  only  well 

horting  the  transgressor  to  penance  and  in  requesting  versed  In  Holy  Scriptures  and  the  writings  of  the 

him  to  make  a  pugrimage  to  Rome  to  obtain  pardon  Fathers,  but  also  a  master  in  theological  knowledge 

and  absolution.    Daguin  left  the  monastery  never  to  and  dialectical  skill.    Abbot  Burehajnd  became  oon- 

retum.    After   two  days  of  severe  suffering,  the  vinced  of  his  error,  retracted,  and  died  a  saintly 

saint  succumbed  to  his  wound,  a  martyr  not  tor  the  death.    Though  especially  mindful  of  the  spiritual 

Faith,  indeed,  but  for  charity  and  justice.    His  and  intelleotiud  advancement  of  his  monks,  Beccb* 


BEBEA                                  4S7  BSBENOA&nrS 

toM  did  not  omit  to  provide  also  for  the  temporal  ical  the  opinion  of  Erigena  and  defended  the  doo- 

weifare  of  Engelberg.    He  procured  for  his  monas-  trine  of  Radbert  Paschasius.     Berengarius,  in  his 

teiY  many  financial  privileges,  among  which  was  the  defence,  wrote  a  letter  which  Lanfranc  received  in 

right  to  lev^  tithes  upon  the  churches  of  Stanz  and  Rome  whither  he  had  gone  to  take  part  in  a  coimcil. 

Buochs,  which   were   under  his  jurisdiction.    The  The  letter  was  read  in  this  councA  (1050);  Beren- 

contemporaneous  annals  of  Engelberg,   which   are  garius  was  condemned,  and  was  ordered  to  appear 

published  in  "Mon.  Germ.  Hist.,  SS.''.  XVII,  280,  at  a  council  which  was  to  be  held  the  same  year  at 

relate  that  Berchtold  foretold  the  death  of  Emperor  Vercelli.     King  Henry  I  being  titular  Abbot  of  St. 

Frederick  Barbarossa.    Later  chronicles  state  that,  Martin  of  Tours,  B^engarius  applied  to  him  for 

through  his  blessing,  the  lake  near  Stanzstad  was  permission  to  go  to  the  council.    It  is  probable  that 

stocked  with  fish,  and  that  shortly  before  his  death  at  this  time  the  conferences  of  Brionne  and  Chartres 

he  three  times  changed  water  mto  wine.    He  is  were  held  in  which  Berengarius  imsuccessfully  de- 

fi»Derally  represented  in  the  act  of  blessing  fish,  fended  his  oninions.    (Cf.  Durand  of  Troam,  Liber  de 

His  miracle  of  turning  water  into  wine  is  corroborated  Corpore  et  Sanguine  Christi,  xxxiii,  in  Mi^e,  P.  L., 

by  an  epigram  beneath  a  representation  of  him  which  CXtlX.  1422.)    The  king,  for  reasons  which  are  not 

vas  kept  in  the  choir  of  Engelberg  up  to  the  seven-  exactly  known,  ordered  E^rengarius  to  be  imprisoned, 

teenth  century.    At   Engelbei^   nis   feast  is   cele-  and  at  the  Cotmcil  of  Vercelli  (1050)  his  doctrine 

brated  on  the  anniversary  of  his  death.  was  examined  and  condemned. 

Ada  SS.  (Paris.  1887).  Nor.  1.  ,386:    Mubkb.  B<dvetia  The  imprisonment,  however,  did  not  last  long. 

Baneta  (Lucerne,  1648;  St.  Gall.  1761):  BuROBNBa.  Helveita  rvUf^  Riahon  nf  Antrm    RnoAhina  T^nmrk    waA  hia  A^ 

Sanaa  (jSnsiedeln  and  New  York.  1860^  I.  80:  Verauck  einer  ^"?  ^^^op  01  i^gers,  ^USeDlUS  Unmo,  was  niS  dlS- 

vrkundlichen    DarsteUung    A»    rnchsfreien    8Hf1e$    Engelberg  Ciple  and  supporter,  and  the  Coimt  of  AnjOU,  Geof- 

(Lucerne.  1^);  Matbb,  Da9  BenedtkHno'  SHft  Engelberg  frey   Martel,   his    protector.      The   following  vear^ 

(Lucerne,  1891).                                                      ^^  j^y  order  of  Henry  I,  a  national  synod  was  held  in 

MiCHASL  Ott.  Paris  to  judge  Berengarius  and  Eusebius  Bruno; 
Berea.    See  Bercea.  neither  was  present,   and   both   were  condemned. 
•B                -c^                 a     -ct.  ^^  *^®  Council  of  Tours  (1055),  presided  over  by  the 
Berengar,  Fredoli.    See  Frbdou,  papal  legate  Hildebrand,  Berengarius  signed  a  pro^ 
Berengarins  of  ToTxm,  b.  at  Tours  about  999;  fession  of  faith  wherein  he  confessed   that  after 
d.  on  the  island  of  St.  Cosme,  near  that  cit^r,  in  1088.  consecration  the  bread  and  wine  are  truly  the  body 
Having  completed  his  elementary  studies  in  his  na-  and  blood  of  Christ.     At  another  council  held  in 
tive  city,  he  went  to  the  school  of  Chartres  in  order  Rome  in  1059,  Berengarius  was  present,  retracted 
to  stuoy  arts  and  theology  under  the  direction  of  his  opinions,  and  signed  a  formula  of  faith,  drawn 
the  famous  Fulbert.     There  he  was  distinguished  up  by  Cardinal  Humbert,  affirming  the  real  and 
for  his  curious  and  quick  intelligence.    It  seems  that  sensible  presence  of  the  true  body  of  Christ  in  the 
even  at  this  early  time  his  bent  of  mind  and  singular  Holy  Eucharist.     (Mansi,  XIX,  900.)     On  his  re- 
opinions  were  a  source  of  anxiety  to  his  master,  turn,  however,  Berengarius  attacked  this  formula. 
(M.  Clerval,  Les  Eooles  de  Chartres  au  Moyen  Affe,  Eusebius  Bruno  abandoned  him,  and  the  Count  of 
Chartres,  1895.)    After  the  death  of  Fulbert  (1029)  Anjou,  Geoffrey  the  Bearded,  vigorously  opposed 
Berengarius  left  Chwtres  and  took  chai^,  as  echo-  him.    Berengarius  appealed  to  Pope  Alexander  II, 
iagticus,  of  the  school  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours.    His  who,  though  he  intervened  in  his  behalf,  asked  him 
reputation  spread  rapidly  and  attracted  from  all  to  renounce  his  erroneous  opinions.    This  Berenga^- 
parts  of  France  numerous  and  distinguished  disciples,  rius  contemptuously  refused  to  do.   He  then  wrote  his 
who  afterwards  held  positions  of  importance  in  the  ^De  SacrA  Coen&  adversus  Lanfrancum  Liber  Pos- 
Church.    Among  them  are  mentioned,  though  there  tenor",  the  first  book  of  whicii — ^now  lost — had 
is  some  doubt  about  the  first  two,  Hildebert  of  been  written  against  the  Council  of  Rome  held  in  1059. 
Lavardin  who  became  Bishop  of  Le  Mans  and  Arch-  He  was  again  condenmed  in  the  Councils  of  Poitiers 
bishop  of  Tours,   St.    Bruno,   the   foimder  of  the  (1075),  and  of  St.  Maixent  (1076),  and  in  1078,  by 
Carthusians,  Eusebius  Bruno,  afterwards  Bishop  of  order  of  Pope  Gregonr  VII,  he  came  to  Rome,  and 
Anders,  FroUand,  Bishop  of  Senlis,  Paulinus,  aean  in  a  council  held  in  St.  John  Lateran  signed  a  pro- 
of Metz.     In   1039  Berengarius  was  chosen  arch-  fession  of  faith  affirming  the  conversion  of  the  bread 
deacon  of  Angers  by  Hubert,  bishop  of  that  city,  into  the  body  of  Christ,  bom  of  the  Virgin  Mary. 
Berengarius  accepted  this  office,  but  continued  to  The  following  year,  in  a  council  held  in  the  same  place 
live  at  Tours  and  direct  his  school.  Berengarius  signed  a  formula  affirming  the  same 
It  was  about  1047  that  the  teaching  of  Berengarius  doctrine  in  a  more  explicit  way.    Gregory  VII  then 
touching  the  Holy  Eucharist  began  to  attract  at-  recommended   him   to   the   bishops  of  Tours   and 
tention.    In  the  Eucharistic  controversy  of  the  ninth  Angers,  forbidding  that  any  penalty  should  be  in- 
oentury.    Radbert    Paschasius,    afterwards    abbot  flicted  on  him  or  that  anyone  should  call  him  a 
of  CorDie,  in  his  f'De  Corpore  et  Sanguine  Domini"  heretic.    Berengarius,  on  his  return,  again  attacked 
(831),  had  maintained  the  doctrine  tlmt  in  the  Holy  the  formula  he  had  signed,  but  as  a  consequence 
Eucharist  the  bread  is  converted  into  the  real  body  of  the  Council  of  Bordeaux  (1080)  he  made  a  final 
of  Christ,  into  the  very  body  which  was  bom  of  Mary  retraction.     He  then  retired  into  solitude  on  the 
and   crucified.     Ratramnus,  a  monk  of  the  same  island  of  St.  (!k>sme,  where  he  died  in  union  with  the 
abbey,  defended  the  opinion  that  in  the  Holy  Eu-  Church. 

charist  there  is  no  conversion  of  the  bread;  that  Doctrines  and  their  (Condemnation. — ^Accord- 

the  bodv  of  CJhrist  is,  nevertheless,  present,  but  in  a  ing  to  some  of  his  contemporaries,  Berengarius  held 

spiritual  wav;  that  it  is  not  therefore  the  same  as  erroneous  opinions  about  the  spiritual  power,  mar- 

tnat  bom  of  Mary  and  crucified.    John  Scotus  Eri-  riage,  the  baptism  of  children,  and  other  points  of 

gena  had  supported  the  view  that  the  sacraments  doctrine.      (Bemold   of   (instance,    De    Berengerii 

of  the  altar  are  figures  of  the  body  of  Christ;  that  hseresiarchaddamnationemultipliciinP.  L.,CXLvlII, 

they  are  a  memorial  of  the  true  body  and  blood  of  1466;  Guitmond,  De  (^rporis  et  Sanguinis  C^hristi 

Christ.    (P.  Batiffol,  Etudes  d'histoire  et  de  th^logie  veritate  in  EucharistiA,  P.  L.,  CXLIX,  1429,  1480.) 

Mieitive,  2d  series,  Paris,  1905.)     When,  therefore,  But  Berengarius's  fundamental  doctrine  concerns  the 

Hu^^es,  Bishop  of  Langres,  and  Adelman  icoldtre  of  Holy  Eucharist. 

Li^ge,  discussed  Berengarius's  teaching  on  this  sub-  In  order  to  understand  his  opinion,  we  must  ob- 
ject, the  latter  answered  by  appealing  to  the  au*  serve  that,  in  philosophy,  Berengarius  had  rationalis- 
thority  of  Erigena.  It  was  at  this  point  that  Lanfranc,  tic  tendencies  and  was  a  nominalist.  Even  in  the 
abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Le  Bee,  attacked  as  hereti*  study  of  the  questions  of  faith,  he  held  that  reason 


BIBENOABinS                           488  BEBSNOABIUft 

is  the  best  guide.     Reason,  however,  is  dependent  attitude  hesitating.     There  is  much  divergence  of 

upon  and  is  Umited  by  sense-perception.    Authority,  opinion  among  historians  and  theologians  on  the  in- 

tnerefore,  is  not-  conclusive;  we  must  reason  accord-  terpretation    of    Berengarius's  doctrme  about  this 

ing  to  the  data  of  our  senses.    There  is  no  doubt  that  pomt,  if  it  does  not  appear  clearly  that  he  denies  the 

Beren^rius    denied    transubstantiation    (we    mean  Real  Presence,  if  perhaps  the  difl&culty  for  him  is 

the  substantial  conversion  expressed  by  the  word;  in  the  mode  rather  than  in  the  fact  of  the  real  pree- 

the  word  itself  was  used  for  the  first  time  by  Hilde-  ence;   yet  his  exposition  of   it,  together  with  his 

bert  of  Lavardin);  it  is  not  absolutely  certain  that  principles  of  philosophy,  endanger  the  fact  itself  of 

he  denied  the  Real  Presence,  though  he  certainly  held  the  Real  Presence  and  sounds  very  much  like  a  nega- 

false  views  regarding  it.     Is  the  body  of  Christ  present  tive  of  it. 

in  the  Eucharist,  and  in  what  manner?     On  this  Influences. — Outside   of   Eusebius    Brund  who 

question  the  authorities  appealed  to  by  Berensarius  supported  Berengarius,  at  least  for  a  time,  no  theo- 

are.  besides  Scotus  Erigena,  St.  Jerome,  St.  Ambrose,  logian  of  importance  systematically  defended  his 

ana  St.  Augustine.    These  fathers  taught  that  the  doctrine.     We  know,  however,  from  ecclesiastical 

Sacrament  of  the  Altar  is  the  figure,  the  sign,  the  writers  of  his  own  and  the  following  period  that 

token  of  the  body  and  blood  of  the  Lord.     These  the  influence  of  his  principles  was  widespread  and 

terms,  in  their  mmd,  apply  directly  to  what  is  ex-  caused  serious  disturbance.     (Guitmund,  op.  cit.  in 

temal  and  sensible  in  the  Holy  Eucharist  and  do  P.  L.,  CXLIX,  1429  sqq.;  Durand  of  Troam,  Liber 

not,  in  any  way,  imply  the  negation  of  the  real  pres-  de  Corp.  et  Saiig.  Christi,  in  P.  L.,  CXLIX,  1421.) 

ence  of  the  true  boay  of  Christ.    (St.  Aug.  Serm.  143,  The  writers  of  the  following  century  continue  their 

n.  3;  Gerbert,  Libellus  De  Corp.  et  SsSig.  Domini,  dissertations  against  the  "New  Berengarians"  (cf. 

n.  4,  P.  L.,  CXXXIX.  177.)     For  Berengarius  the  Grregorius  Barlmrigo  in  Hurter's  Sanctorum  Patrum 

body  and  the  blood  of  Christ  are  really  present  in  opuscula  selecta,  XXXIX);  they  find  traces  of  his 

the  Holy  Eucharist;  but  this  presence  is  an  intellectual  influence  in  various  current  phrases  and  sometimes 

or  spiritual  presence.     The  substance  of  the  bread  warn  against  expressions  which  might  be  understood 

and  the  substance  of  the  wine  remain  unchanged  in  the  Berengarian  sense.    The  Council  of  Piacenza 

in  their  nature,  but  by  consecration  they  become  (1095)    a^n    condemned    Berengarius'    doctrine, 

spiritually  the  very  body  and  blood  of  Chnst.    This  His  teachings  favoured,  at  least  to  some  extent, 

spiritual  body  and  blood  of  Christ  is  the  res  sacra-  the  diverse  nereaies  of  the  Middle  A^es  about  the 

menti;  the  bread  and  the  wine  are  the  figure,  the  Holy  Eucharist,  as  also  the  views  of  tne  Sacramen- 

sign,  the  token,  sacramentum.  tarians  of  the  sixteenth  century.     The  great  theo- 

Such  is  the  doctrine  of  Berengarius  in  his  various  logians  of  the  time  were  unanimous  in  protesting 
discussions,  letters,  and  writings  up  to  the  Council  against  his  principles,  attacking  his  opinion  as  con- 
of  Rome  in  1059.     (Migne  P.  L.,  CXLII,  1327;  CL,  trary  to  the  teaching  of  tradition  and  the  doctrine 
66;  Martdne  and  Durand,  Theasaurus  Novus  Anec-  of  the  Church.    Among  them  we  may  mention  ec- 
dotorum,  Paris,  1717,  IV.)     At  this  council,  Ber-  pecially  Adelman,  Scholasticus  of  Li^;   Hugues, 
engarius  signed  a  profession  of  faith  afiirming  that  Bishop  of  Langres;   Lanfranc,  then  Abbot  of  Le 
the  bread  and  wine  after  consecration  are  not  only  Bee;  Guitmund,  a  disciple  of  Lanfranc  who  became 
a  sign,  but  the  true  body  and  blood  of  Christ  which  Bishop  of  A  versa;  Durand,  A.bbot  of  St.  Martin  of 
can  be  perceived  in  a  sensible  and  real  manner.  Troam;  Bemold  of  Constance,  and  others,  most  of 
(Lanfranc,  De  Corp.  et  Sang.  Domini,  ii,  in  P.  L..  them  Benedictines.     (L.  Biginelli,  I  benedittini  e  ^ 
CL,  410.)     As  already  said,  Berengarius  retractea  studi  eucaristici  nel  medio  evo,  Turin,  1895.) 
this  confession.    He  maintained  that  the  bread  and  The  error  of  Berengarius,  as  is  the  case  with  other 
wine,  without  any  change  in  their  nature,  become  heresies  was  the  occasion  which  favoured  and  even 
by  consecration  the  sacrament  of  the  body  and  blood  necessitated,  a  more  explicit  presentation,  and  a 
of  Christ,  a  memorial  of  the  body  crucified  and  of  more  precise  formulation  of  Catholic  doctrine  about 
the  blood  shed  on  the  cross.    It  is  not,  however,  the  the  Holy  Eucharist.    Some  expressions,  among  those 
body  of  Christ  as  it  is  in  heaven;  for  how  could  the  used  even  by  the  adversaries  of  the  Berengarian 
body  of  Christ  which  is  now  in  heaven,  necessarily  doctrine,  were  corrected.     It  was  Hildebert  of  La- 
limited  by  space,  be  in  another  place,  on  several  vardin.acontemporaryof  Berengarius  if  not  his  ijupil, 
altars,  and  in  numerous  hosts?    Yet  the  bread  and  who    nrst    used    the    word    ^' transubstantiation '[. 
wine  are  the  sign  of  the  actual  and  real  presence  of  (Sermonee  xciii;  P.  L.,  CLXXI,  776.)    The  Council 
the  body  and  blood  of  Christ.     (De  Sacrd,  Coen&;  of  Rome  in  1079  in  ita  condemnation  of  Berengarius, 
Lanfranc,  op.  cit.)  expresses  more  clearly  than  any  document   oefore 

In  the  two  councils  of  Lateran  (1078  and  1079)  it.  the  nature  of  this  substantial  change;    and  St. 

Berengarius   accepts   and   signs   this   profession   of  Tnomas,  in  his  definition  of  Transubstantiation  uses 

faith  that  "after  the  consecration,  the  bread  is  the  almost  the  same  terms  as  the  council.    (Sum.  Theol., 

true  body  of  Christ,  the  very  body  bom  of  the  Vir-  III,  Q.  Ixxv,  a.  4.)     Though  the  feast  of   Corpus 

gin"; — tnat  "the  bread  and  wine  on  the  altar,  by  Christi  was  officially  established  only  in   the  tnir- 

the  mystery  of  the  sacred  prayer  and  words  of  our  teenth  century,  its  institution  was  probably  occa- 

Redeemer,  are  substantially  converted  into  the  very  sioned  by  these  eucharistic  controversies.    The  same 

flesh  and  blood  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  true  and  may  be  said  of  the  ceremony  of  the  elevation  of  the 

life-giving",  etc.     (Mart^ne  et  Durand,  op.  cit.,  IV,  Host  after  the  consecration  in  the  Holy  Sacrifice  of 

103;  Denzinger,  Enchiridion,  Wttrzburg,  1900,  n.  298.)  the  Mass. 

In  his  explanation  of  this  profession  of  faith,  written  There  is  no  complete  edition  of  the  works  of  Ber- 
after  the  council,  Berengarius  again  clearly  denies  engarius.  Only  one  volume  has  been  published  by 
transubstantiation.  He  declares  that,  at  the  Last  Yisher  in  Berlin  (1834)  containing  the  second  part 
Supper,  by  virtue  of  the  Lord's  blessing,  the  bread  of  his  "De  Sacr4  CoenA",  \mder  the  title:  "Beren- 
and  wine,  keeping  their  natural  properties,  received  garii  Turonensis  opera  quffi  Supersunt  tain  inedita 
a  power  of  sanctification  and  became  the  sacrament  c[uam  edita,  I,  De  SacrA  CoenA  aid  versus  Lanfrancum 
of  His  body  and  blood;  that  the  bread  and  wine  on  hber  posterior".  Others  of  his  opinions  and  writinjgs 
the  altar  are  the  very  body  of  Christ,  His  true  and  are  to  be  found  in  the  works  quoted  above  and  in  P.  L., 
human  body.  (Mart^ne  et  Durand,  op.  cit..  IV,  107.)  CL,  63,  66;  H.  Sudendorf,  "Berengarius  Turonensis 
From  all  of  which  we  conclude  that,  during  his  oder  eine  Sammlung  ihn  betreffender  Briefe"  (Ham- 
life,  and  before  his  final  profession  of  faith,  Berenga-  burg,  1850). 

rius  certainly  denied  transubstajitiation.    As  to  Qie  i>.  r^^,    ^^^  ^^  ^  p^^  Berengarii  Ande^avmm, 

real  presence,  his  thought  is  rather  obscure  and  his  Archidiaconi   (Ancen,    1056);   Schwanb.    Doffmon^eaeA.  <kr 


BERENOEB                               489  BERGAMO 

lS?T  f^^n^yJ"^^''-  l?®A^i,^^^'  kiaT^4^  8*a^^  to-day.    Its  old   name   was   Euheeperidea^ 

M>^'7rAfcr^^^  or    Hesperid^L,  for  which    Ptolemy  III  E^^ 

1889);  ScHNiTZER,  B6rmqar  von  Tours,  ein  Beitrag  zur  Abend-  substituted  Beremce  m  honOUr  of  his  Wife  (Droysen, 

'^^n1^j!^'''ii^'A^!n^'^'*'\^^^r^^^^%tI'*If'  Geschichte    des    Hellenismus,    III,    2,    331).     Like 

<ibM(»iSuW«ctoCwn«ctodti?itA<A«/ncarnaK(m(lx)ndon,  ^  the  Other  Cities  Of  Uyrenaica,  It   had  received  a 

BiGiKELLi,  La  Rinaacema  degli  Studi  Eucariatici  nel  Medio  Evo  Jewish  colony,  80   it   became  early  an  important 


iMmt.  tAn*  (Lyons,  1902),  XL;  Vernet  in  Did,  de  Aiol.  caih'.l  H.  E.  VII,  26),  who  is  also  spoken  of  in  the  "  Apoph- 

s.  7.  Birenger,  thegmata  Patrum"  (Cotelier,  Monum.  eccles.  flrsec. 

George  M.  Sauvagb.  i,  385;  Migne,  P.  G.,  LXV,  119).  Da<^  was  present 
Berenger,  Pierre  (Peter  op  Poitiers,  Pbtrtjs  **  *^®  Council  of  Nicasa  in  325  (H.  Gelzer,  Patrum 
ScHOLAsncus),  a  French  writer  who  flourished  about  Nicaen.  nomina,  219).  In  394,  Probatius  followed 
the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century.  From  the  second  ^.  Constantinople  the  Patriarch  of  Alexandria, 
name  we  may,  perhaps,  infer  that  Poitiers  was  his  Theophilus  (Mansi,  III,  852).  The  city  was  re- 
native  place.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Abelard,  and  is  stored  by  Justinian  (Procopius,  De  Aedif.  VI,  2). 
celebrated  chiefly  for  his  vigorous  defence  of  his  It  is  mentioned  with  the  wrone  spelling  "Beronice", 
master  in  a  letter  which  he  addressed  to  St.  Bernard  ?y  Hierocles  (733,  3)  and  by  Geormus  Cyprius 
after  Abelard's  condemnation  at  the  Council  of  (°-  794)  among  the  bishoprics  of  the  Xybian  Pen- 
Sois8onsinll41.  Later  on  he  wandered  through  the  tapolis,  but  is  omitted  by  the  later  "Notitise". 
Wvennes  Mountains,  hunted,  he  tells  us,  not  by  wild  ^^  ^^^  ^ave  disappeared,  like  so  many  other  sees, 
beasts,  but  by  the  Christian  faithful  of  the  Diocese  of  ^^  ^^^  *inie  of  the  Arab  invasion  m  the  seventh 
Mende,  who  apparently  took  sides  with  St.  Bernard,  century.  „  «^  «««  ^  „  . 
Ilioee  attacks  were  the  occasion  of  a  letter  which  he  J^^i^'  ^^  '  '  ®^"^^'  ^^^'  ^^*  epucopo^ 
directed  to  the  Bishop  of  Mende,  and  in  which  he  re-  '  I^  Petit. 
tracted  all  that  he  nad  said  against  "the  man  of  -d^*^**.      c^-d^™-,. 

God"  m  his  former  epistle.    There  is  also  extant  a  »«'«**»•    See  Birftta.                        „  ,  ,      , 
letter  of  B^renger's  against  the  monks  of  the  Grand  Bergamo,  Diocese  op.— The  city,  called  by  the 
Chartreux  (Contra  Carthusienses).     Finally,  we  find  ancients  Bergonum,  is  capital  of  the  province  of  that 
mention  of  a  treatise,  now  lost,  in  which  he  discussed  name  in  Lombardy,  and  contains  45,000  inhabitants, 
the  doctrine  of  the  Incarnation.     The  three  letters  are  I*  is  said  to  be  of  Etruscan  foundation.     Dunng 
published  by  Migne  (P.  L.,  CLXXVIII,  1857  sqq.).  the  anarchy  that  reigned  in  Italy  in  the  eleventh 
That  addressed  to  St.  Bernard,  while  not  wanting  in  centunr,  Bergamo  set  itself  up  as  a  commune,  and 
grace  and  elegance  of  style,  is  altogether  too  in-  as  such  joined  the  various  leagues  of  Lombard  com- 
temperate  in  tone  to  deserve  serious  consideration  as  nmnes  formed  to  resist  the  power  of  the  German 
an   historical   document.     In    it    occurs   the   well-  emperors.    At  a  later  period,  nowever,  a  number  of 
Imown  description  of  an  informal  meeting  of  the  powerful  families  succeeded  each  other  in  the  mas- 
bishops  on  the  eve  of  the  Council  of  Soissons.     If  we  *ery  of  the  city,  e.  g.  the  Tiuriani,  the  Visconti,  and 
are  to  believe  Pierre,  the  prelates  were  primed  in  a  ^^e  Suardi.     From  1797  to  1859  Bergamo  passed 
most  disgraceful  manner  in  St.  Bemard^s  interests,  throughallthepolitical  vicissitudes  of  Northern  Italy, 
and  the  condemnation  of  Abelard  was  decided  before  ^^  ^as  always  been  a  city  of  great  industrial  and  com- 
the  council  actually  opened.     Even  if  the  author  of  mercial  importance.     The  neighbouring  territory  is 
this  story  had  not  afterwards  excused  it  on  the  ground  rich  in  minerals,  chiefly  iron;  there  are  also  extensive 
that  it  Vas  the  work  of  an  inconsiderate  youth,  quarries  of  choice  marble.    Among  the  celebrities  of 
overeome  by  the  ardour  of  his  devotion  to  his  teacher,  Bergamo  are  the  poet,  Bernardo  Tasso,  father  of 
the  violent  tone  of  the  letter  itself  would  be  enough  Torquato;  the  Jesuit  Maffei,  known  for  his  history  of 
to  condemn  it.     In  the  letter  to  the  Bishop  of  Mende  Italian  literature;  Donizetti,  the  musical  composer; 
Pierre  protests  that  he  would  recall  all  that  he  has  Cardinal  Angelo  Mai,  etc. 
written  against  St.  Bernard  were  it  possible  to  sup-  ^  Bej^amo  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  suffragan  to  the 

Eress  all  the  copies  of  the  letter,  and  begs  that  what  Archbishop  of  Milan;  the  diocese  contains  a  popula- 

B  wrote  be  taken  as  a  jest.     He  goes  even  farther  tion  of  430,000.     Legend  traces  the  begimungs  of 

when  he  says  that  his  more  mature  judmient  con-  Chnstianity  m  this  city  back  to  St.  Barnabas,  said 

demns  the  doc|;rines  attributed  by  St.  Bernard  to  to   have   ordained    St.    Namus   who    became   first 

Abelard— not,  indeed,  because  they  are  untrue,  but  Bishop  of  Bergamo.     More  ^tworthy  is  the  ac- 

because  they  are  unsafe.    The  invective  against  the  count  of  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Alexander,  said  to 

Carthusians  pays  high  tribute  to  the  rule  of  the  have  been  tribune  of  the  Theban  Legion.    Whatever 

order,  but  finds  fault  with  the  procUvity  of  the  mem-  the  value  of  the  details  of  the  legend,  the  fact  has 

here  of   the  order  to  indulge  in  mahcious  gossip,  been  proved  that  long  before  Diocletian  proclaimed 

Pierre  exhibited  many  of  the  traits  of  his  master.  Jhe^  .great  persecution   in   303,   both  Galerius  and 

He  was  by  nature  a  lover  of  contention,  totally  de-  Maximi^  m  the  West  inaugurated,  on  their  own 

void  of  respect  for  the  prestige  of  either  person  or  responsibihty,  a  crusade  against  Chnstianity  and 

institution.     His    sole    merit    was    the    undeniable  sought  particularly  to  remove  all  Christians  from  the 

vivacity  and  brilliancy  of  his  style  and  his  unusually  armies    (Allard,   La   pers^ution   de   Diocl^tien,   I, 

extensive  acquaintance  with  the  poets  of  classical  101-146).    St.  Alexander  was  one  of  the  victims  of 

antiquity.     He  professed  his  devotion  to  Catholic  this  persecution,  and  his  martyrdom  may  well  have 

dogma    and   apparently  maintained   that  Abelard,  taken  place  in  287.   To  this  martyr  was  dedicated  the 

though  he  had  spoken  of  matters  of  faith  in  a  man-  first  cathedral  of  the  city,  richly  endowed  by  the 

ner  novel  and  unsafe,  had  not  been  guilty  of  formal  Lombard  king,  Gnmoaldus,  and  by  Charlemagne, 

heresy,  and  had  not  been  treated  with  that  mercy  In  1561  this  was  destroyed  by  the  Venetians  on 

to  which  his  love  of  Catholic  truth,  as  he  saw  it,  account  of  its  adaptability  to  the  purposes  of  a 

entitled  lum.  fortress,  and  the  church  of  San  Vmcenzo  was  raised 

RtmTSAT,  JJfSard  (Paris,  1855),  I,  234  sqq.:  Cousin,  Petri  to  the  dignity  of  a  cathedral  under  the  title  of  San 

AhtHanH  opera  (Paris,  1859),  Ii,  771  sqq.;  Vacandard  in  Alessandro.    This  is  a  magnificent  chi^rch  adorned 

Du±  de  thSoL  eath.,  s.  v.                    Wttt,.i^  Tr^^^.>  with  a  cupola  of  unusual  size,  rebuilt  in  1689  after 

WILLIAM  ITJRNKR.  ^j^^  designs  of  Cario  Fontana.    It  contains  painting 

Berenice,  a  titular  see  of  Egypt  which  was  sit-  by   IVevitali,  Tiepolo,   Ferrari,   Moroni,   ralma   il 

uated  at    the  end  of  Major  Syrtis  where  Beng&zi  Qiovine,  and  Colghetti  who  decorated  the  interior  oC 


BEBOIEB                                490  BIBINOTON 

I)he  cupola  in  the  nineteenth  centiuy;  likewise  basso-  and  the  origin  of  evil,  and  one  volume  of  ■ermops 

rilievos    of    Fantoni,    of    exquisite    workmanship,  were  published  after  his  death.    Though  on  c^taia 

Worthv  of  special  note  is  the  octagonal  baptistery  points,  as  on  the  questions  of  grace  and  the  super- 

formea  of  eight  pieces  of  rosso  antico  (old  red  mar*  natural    necessity   of   revelation,    the    doctrine  of 

ble),  the  work  of  Giovanni  da  Campione,  originally  Berber  lacks  precision  and  completeness,  the  value 

placed  in  the  church  of  Santa  Mana  Maggiore,  the  of  ms  theological  and  apologetical  work  cannot  be 

most  beautiful  of  the  churches  of  Bergamo.     The  denied. 

interior   is    decorated    with  wonderful    frescoes   by  ^  f^?*^  Kittorme,  •»  an  introduction  to  the  JXaunnain 

Cavagna  Pw,accini.  Luca  Giordano  Giro  Fem.  etc.  ft^^.*^  ^SSS.JSS?'  S^fTsS' iStfe 

Remarkable  also  are  the  tombs  of  Cardinal  Lonso,  blancht  in  IHcL  de  UUoL  cath,,  a.  v. 

of  the  Alessandri,  and  of  Bartolommeo  CoUeoni,  tne  Q.  M.  Sauvaob, 

last  a  work  of  the  sculptor  Amedeo.    The  chapel  of  a      r%                -n 

this  tomb  is  adorned  with  paintings  by  Tiepolo,  Bergomeniis  Pstrus.    See  Phteb  of  BEROAMa 

Angelica  Kaufmann,  and  Giuseppe  Crespi.     Other  Bexington,   Charles,  titular  Bishop   of    Hiero- 

churches  are  those  of  San  Alessandro  in  Colonna,  with  Ceesarea,  b.  at  Stock,  Essex,  England,  1748;  d.  8  June, 

a  beautiful  "Last  Supper"  by  Calligarino;  San  Ales*  1798.    His  life  is  a  continued  story  of  disappointed 

sandro  della  Croce,  adorned  by  iPalma  il  Vecchio,  hopes  and  expectations.     At  thirteen  he  was  sent  to 

Bramantiuo,  and  others;  San  Andrea  with  paintings  the  Enelish  College  at  Douai,  where  his  alnlities  at 

of  Padovanino  and  Moretto;  San  Grata;  San  Bartolo-  once   showed    themselves;    but    he    never   apj^ed 

meo;   Santa  Maria  del  Sepolcro  with  a  wonderful  himself  to  his  work.     His  progress  was  so  unsatis- 

picture  of  St.  Sigismund,  the  masterpiece  of  Pre-  factory  that  four  years  later  he  was  removed  and 

vitali.     Among  the  shrines  of  the  diocese  may  be  sent  to  St.  Gregory's  Seminary,  Paris.    According 

mentioned  that  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  della  Coma-  to  his  cousin,  the  Rev.  Joseph  ^rin^n,  he  did  very 

busa,  formed  by  a  great  natural  cavern^  extending  little  better  at  Paris  than  at  Douai,  though  he  suo- 

between  three  and  four  hundred  feet  mto  Monte  ceeded  at  last  in  taking  his  doctorate  at  the  Sorbonne 

Albenza,  not  far  from  the  Jura  Pass.    Within  recent  in   1776.     On  his  return   to   England,  he   became 

times  Bergamo  has  become  the  centre  of  important  chaplain  at  Ingatestone  Hall,  a  few  nules  from  his 

and  far-reaching  Catholic  movements  of  a  popular  birtnplace.      ^ter   travelling   for   two   years  with 

character.                                      ^  young  Mr.   Giffard  of  Chillmgton,  on  his  return, 

The  diocese  contains  350  parishes,  512  churches,  Berington    was    appointed    coadjutor    to    Bishq) 

chapels,  and  oratories,  1,157  secular  and  58  regular  Thomas  Talbot,   Vicar  Apostolic   of  the   Midland 

clergy,  400  seminarists,  84  lay  brothers.  478  mem-  District,  becoming  at  the  same  time  titular  Bishop 

bers  of  female  religious  orders,  8  schools  for  boys,  of  Hiero-Csesarea. 

34  for  girls,  and  a  population  of  430,000.  The  Midland  District,  one  of  the  four  into  which 

Cappblletti.  U  chine  d'luilia   (ymice,  1844),  XI,  445;  for  ecclesiastical   purposes   England   was   then  dv- 

^^^^Z^i'Ti^A^SSTcJ^'^ptSS^'JjS^  vjded,,,wa8.at  U»t  toe  the  stwnghold  of . "C«k 

mxUHce  bergomensis  (1784).  alpme  '   opmions.    With    these   Cfaanes   Benngton 

U.  Benigni.  ^^^^  ^  ^^  sympathy,  in  consequence  of  which,  in 

1788,  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Catholic  Com- 

Bergier,  Nicolas-Sylvestre,  French  theologian,  mittee,  who  were  then  agitating  for  the  repeal  of 

b.  31  December,  1715  at  Damey  in  Lorraine;  d.  at  the  Penal  Laws,  for  which  end  thev  were  unfortu- 

Yersailles,  9  Apnl,  1790.    After  a  course  of  theology  nately  willing  to  minimize  some  of   their  Catholic 

in  the  University  of  Besan^on,  he  received  the  degree  principles.    Two  other  ecclesiastics  were  elected  at 

of  doctor,  was  ordained  priest,  and  went  to  Paris  to  the  same  time,  the  Rev.  Joseph  Wilkes,  O.  8.  B.,and 

finish  his  studies.     Returning  to  BesauQon  in  1748,  Bishop  James  Talbot,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  Xondon 

he  was  given  charge  of  a  parish  and  later  became  District,    though    the    latters    appointment    was 

president  of  the  college  of  the  city,  which  had  for-  merely  nominal,  for  he  never  attended  the  meetings, 

merly  been  under  the  direction  of  the  Jesuits.    In  Berington  took  a  leading  part  in  the  disputes  which 

1769  the  Archbishop  of  Paris,  M.  de  Beaumont,  followed  between  the  G>inmittee  and  the  bishops, 

appointed  him  canon  of  the  cathedral,  and  thence*  and  though  his  svmpathies  were  chiefly  with  the 

forth  Bergier  resided  at  Paris.    A  pious  priest  and  former,  he  exerted  a  restraining  influence  on  them, 

an  energetic  student,  he  devoted  a  ^reat  part  of  his  and  was  ever  trying  to  bring  about  an  understand- 

time  to  writing  in  defence  of  religion.    He  agreed  ing  between  the  two  contending  parties.     Never- 

to  correct  certain  articles  of  the  ''Encyclopedie".  theless,  he  did  not  scruple  to  sign  his  name  to  the 

but  found  himself  obliged  to  write  entirely  original  most  extreme  documents   which  appeared  in  the 

articles  which  then  formed    the  "Dictionnaire  de  official  publications  of  the  Committer  known  as  the 

th^ologie"  as  a  part  of  the  '* Encyclopedic ".  "Blue  Books",  and  he  defended  the  oath  intended 

The  works  of  Bergier  are  in  the  fields  of  apologetics  to  be  imposed  by  the  legislature  on  Catholics,  which 

and  theology,  except  "Les  elements  primitifs  des  was  afterwards  condenmed  by  the  Holy  See.    In 

langues"  (Besan^on,  1764)  and  ^'L'origme  des  dieux  the  midst  of   these  disputes  Bishop  James  Talbot 

du  paganisme"   (Paris,   1767).     Among  his  apolo-  died,  and  endeavours  were  made  by  the  Committee  to 

gctical  and  theological  works,  the  most  important  secure  the  appointment  of  Berington  in  his  i^aoe. 

are:  "Le  d^isme  refute  par  lui-m6me"  (Paris,  1765);  so  that  he  might  reside  in  London  and  exert  tne  in- 

''La     certitude    des     prcuves    du     christianisme"  fluence  attached  to  the  position.    These  endeavours 

(Paris,  1767,  also  published  in  Migne's  '*  D^monstra-  failed,  and  Dr.  Douglass  was  appointed  Vicar  Apos* 

tions  ^vang^liques'',  XI);  "R^ponses  aux  C^nseils  toUc.     Some  of  the  more  extreme  laymen,  however, 

raisonnables  de  Voltaire"  (Paris,  1771,  also  in  Mi^e,  maintained  that  thev  had  a  right  to  choose  their 

ibid.);  ^'Apologie  de  la  religion  chr^tienne" — against  own  bishop,  and  called  upon  the  Catholic  bodv  to 

d'Holbach^s  "Christianisme  d6voil6"  (Paris,  1769);  disavow  tne  prelate  appointed  by  Rome,  and  to 

''Refutation  des  principaux  articles  du  dictionnaire  rally  round  Berington;  but  on  this  occasion  the  latter 

philosophique";  '^Examen  du  mat^rialisme"  (Paris,  showed  his  sound  sense  by  publishing  a  letter  in 

1771);  "Traits  historique  et  dogmatique  de  la  vraie  which  he  refused  to  have  anything  to  ao  with  these 

religion"    (Paris,    1780,   and    8    vols.   8vo.,   1820).  machinations,  by  which  action  he  practically  put 

The  "  Dictiorilnaire  th^ologique  "  has  been  often  edited,  an  end  to  them. 

especially  by  Gousset  in  8  vols.   (Besan^n,  1838)  Bishop  Thomas  Talbot  died  in  1795,  and  Charles 

and  Migne  (Paris,  1850).    Some  of  his  wntiujons  con-  Berington  succeeded  as  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  BGd- 

oeming  divorce,  the  question  of  the  mercy  of  God,  land  District.    Agiun  he  appeared  to  have  a  career 


BIBINGTON  491 

hdare  him.    Before  giving  him  his  special  faculties,  his  works.  ''The  Literary  Histoiy  of  the  Middle 

however,  Rome  caUed  upon  him  to  withdraw  his  Ages"   (1811).     He  pubushed  many  other   books 

signature  from  the  Blue  Books.    For  several  years  at  different  times;  but  some  of  his  writings  remained 

he  demurred,  being  still  under  " Cisalpine"  influence,  in  manuscript,  lest  their  publicatio];ii  ^ould  give 

At  length,  through  the  intervention  of  Monsignor  offence.     In  private  life  Joseph  Berii^ton  was  a 

Erekine,  who  was  living  in  England  as  an  informal  model  priest,  exact  in  the  dischai^ge  of  his  duties, 

papal  envoy,  Beringfcon  was  inouced  to  sign  the  neces-  and  noted  for  his  charity  to  the  poor.    He  was  re- 

saiy  retractation,  on  11  October,  1797.    After  some  spected  by  aU  who  knew  him.  Catholic  and  Pfotes- 

delay  due  to  the  disturbed  state  of  Rome,  his  faculties  tant  aUke,  and  i^ter  his  death  a  slab  was*  erected 

were  sent,  but  they  never  reached  him.  for  he  died  in  his  memory  in  the  Protestant  church  at  Buckland 

suddenly  of  apoplexy  while  riding  home  irom  Sedgley  with  an  inscription   written    by  his  friend.   Rev. 

Paric                                                    _  John  Bew,  formerly  President  of  Oscott.    The^only 

Charl^    BmTiSR,    HisL    Memoirt 
MiLNEB,  Suvplem, 
AuHEaflT,  aUiory  < 
o/  MUner;  Bradt,  . 

«tc                                                  ^     '         ^  (1787);  "Rights  of  Dissenters"  (1789);   "Henry  II, 

Bernard  Ward.  Richard  and  John"  (1790);  "Examination  of  Events       • 

Berington,    Joseph,    one    of    the    best    known  termed    Miraculous"   (1796):    "Grother's    Prayers" 

Catholic  writers  of  his  day,  b.  at  Winsley,  in  Here-  (1800);  "Faith  of  C^atholics'^  (1813);  "Decline  and 

fordshire,  16  January,  1743;  d.  at  Buckland,  1  Decem«  Fall  of  Cath.  Relig.  in   Eng."  (1813,  a  reprint  of 

ber,  1827.    He  was  educated  at  the  English  College  Memoirs  of  Panzani):  numerous  letters  and  pamphlets 

at  Douai,  showing  such   talent  and  originality  of  and  many  other  works  in  MS. 

mind  that  after  his  ordination  to  the  priesthood  he  (>>opmR  m  IHcl  of  NaLBiog.;  Gii^w,BMJ^ 

w«  promoW  to.  the  chair  of  philosophy  in  the  '^'S^^lj^akTS'lLSt^raW  "'^^'  B..^n^.  l^, 

iffiiversity.    In  this  position  his  inclination  towards  Bkrnabd  Wabo 

Hberrf  opinions  becwne  apparent,  and  his  theses.  Bwisford,  Humphret,  Confessor    (c.   1588)  *of 

prepared  for  the  exhibition  of  his  pupils,  created  ^h^the  only^tant  isc^t  occurs  in  the  MS. 

suet  a  stir  that  he  thought  it  prudent  to  resign.    On  i^^Sd  "  F"?  SoSSl  dllring  the  seventeenth  cen- 

Ilia  return  to  England,  Ee  occupied  several  positions  ^  ^  ^^^     Cliktopher^rene.    This  MS.  which 

SB*::Sdir"ii^^'f77*?ri7Tiir'j^*ffl^  £Ir^^*^  ^•i^feS^^^^-^^^ate  "^^ 

lt^\VSr^^l^\  fut^r^his'^^'fe  6^^h^7^risSrdWt.^tes  uT^was^^U- 

^^  he  lferrds\^leUed1*^Ud  eSi^.'    We  ^J^  '^  '^^'^  f  ?-»? i  -•><««  ''^^^'  ^  ^ 

^o^wh^  t  ^^  fceT  ^^^"^Z  ^X'stXf at^^raWt^o'lSS?.*  ^^^ 

STte^tp^iJfedT^SiuKbho^^O  h£  ?«>-  *i^-<«y  ir  ^**^^  *^p'°^.  ^••'^"*  ^^  T 

rTru^^r^-n  '^•^  1         vv/wvijuw*  urxoxivF^,  ^sjxu^  wx*«.  j^          ^  havme  once  a  smt  airainst  one,  who 

Both  the  Bennetons  were  of  the  same  cast  of  nund:    t    *r"»  ***v*       iTi?   v"   _.  »6«**«  u*-.  u  e^ 

u  *u         ^****6«^"o    cH.             s7Z             •  A  ji  fearmir  to  be  cast  by  his  means,  accused  him  before 

both  were  favourers  of  the  committee  appomted  to    lrrT?jii  iT-^- "r.-Tr*     totuLJTvi"     JCl.,ij 


^T^^h^^Zf'l^Z^lTih^^^^^  ?^  ^oM  but  only  say  he  would  go  to  their  chureh; 
tnct  was  tne  cniei  centre  oi  these  opimons,  and  ^l- i,  u^  «*4.^«i«.  jLr„««j      T«k«Srvf«««  v.^  «,««  ^^^ 
fifteen  of  the  clergy  of  Staffordshire  formed  them-  ^^?^  ^«  "^^^^  ^^"^-     therefore  he  was  corn- 
selves  into  an  assoSation  of  wh^h  Joseph  Berington  nutted  to  prison  where  he  remamed  seven  [blank  m 
was  the  leader,  the  primaiy  object  beLg  to  sg^d  °r^l'^L^f±Z"^ff:-J'^?:l  ^^^, 


W  tw^^;,    Tk}^^  4'«iC,V   w^  ^.7  tl»at  the  missing  word  was  yeare  and  states  that 

^  i^l^J^    %^^.   >.!.^v'»7^Lr^.rtl  he  died  in  Derby  Gaol  about  i688.    To  this  account 

on  that  side.    Afterwards,  however,  they  were  led  ^^♦.k:««  «„«  ^^iv  «^«+„;«+^  k^  ^^a^^     *t<v.*>  "n^^oif. 

j«fr.  r.*y.^^  o«H-^«    ^r^^iJur  ,«  toVJr.^  „V.  ♦!»«  /.»«-.  Hothlug  Can  With  ccrtamtv  be  added._  The     Douay 


^t^TwIuVhl^Xmor^ktocriUd^m";  ""'"""  '^: ^''^.h^r^'^^d'J^rn'pJL'^d^Tn 

Joeei>h  Berington  was  ^  this  time  becoming  well  ^,ZXZ  l^'ISSJ"' ButX  yot^^ 

faown  M  an  author  witli  ajj  attracting  s^te  of  ^  ^  ^  certamly  identified  with  HumpW^eris- 

^^vk^^Lrli'v^.vl^^^^h^ui^'^h!^^  fo«i  "  there  we.4  at  this  time  other  fcatholics  of 

and  Behaviour  of  English  Cathohcs    (1780)  oontain«i  ^j^  ^,^     j      j^         j  Oswald, 

■^"'**^*"'^-^^^r?Ur^^'ihTlt'Y^.Sf-  -d.F-derick  'Beresford.    were/prisoned   in   th4 


uou    ucLuro    iiiauiitwMTu    txu    JLfuuai;      auu    lua       xvc-  utd,  JSng.  Com.  (L<oo 

flexions",  addressed  to  Rev.  J.  Hawkins,  an  apostate  don,  1877),  113. 122. 

priest  (1785  and  1788),  were  much  criticized^  while  Edwin  Burton. 

perhaps  more  than  all,  the  "Memoirs  of  Panzani",  Beiiasa  (Berisa  or  Verissa),  a  titular  see   of 

which  he  edited  with  an  Introduction  and  Supplement  Pontus  Polemoniacus.  in  Asia  Minor  which  Kiepert 

01793),  gave  him  the  reputation  of  being  a  disloyal  and  Ramsay  have  rigntly  identified  with  the  modem 

Catholic.      Under    these    circumstances,    when    Sir  village  of  Baulus  or  Bolus,  south-west  of  Tokat. 

John    Throckmorton    of    Buckland    in    Berkshire,  In  the  time  of  St.  Basil  it  was  included  in  the  Diocese 

appointed   Berington   his   chaplain,   Dr.    Douglass,  of  Ibora,  as  appears  from  letters  LXXXVI  and 

Bishop  of  the  London  District  (in  which  BucMana  LXXXVII   of   tne   great   bishop,   but  soon   after 

was  situatedX,  refused  to  give  mm  faculties,  till  in  became  an  independent  bishopric  in  Armenia  Prima, 

1797  he  printed  a  letter  explaining  his  views,  which  with    Sebasteia    as     metropoUs.    This  ^  important 

the  bishop  considered  satisfactory.     A  year  or  two  change   took   place   before  458,   when  its   mshop. 

later,  Dr.  Douglass  again  suspended  him,  until  he  Maxentius  (wntten  wrongly  Auxentius),  subscribed 

aimed  a  further  declaration  in  1801.  with  his  colleagues  of  Annenia  Prima  the  synodal 

jBerington  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  at  letter  to  the  Emperor  Leo  (Mansi,  XII,  587-589). 

Buckland,  where  he  wrote  the  most  extensive  of  all  Hierocles,  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century, 


BEBIBTAIir  492  BIBLAMD 

does  not  treat  it  as  an  independent  city;  but  It  is  deacon,  and  soon  after  bewi  his  lon^  career  as  pny 
mentioned  as  such  by  Justinian  in  a  Novdla  of  536,  fessor  in  the  Academy  of  MOnster,  his  native  town, 
among  the  cities  of  Armenia  Secunda.  It  must  where  he  taught  till  his  death.  In  1832  he  was 
be  remembered  that  this  emperor^  when  creating  ordained  priest  without  ever  having  taken  a  course 
the  province  of  Armenia  Quarta  m  536,  gave  to  in  any  ecclesiastical  seminary.  His  first  book, 
Armenia  Prima  the  name  of  Armenia  Scunda,  "Apologetik  der  Kirehe",  was  published  in  1835, 
without  altering,  however,  the  established  ecclesiaa-  ancf  favourably  noticed  by  Protestant  critics.  He 
tical  organization,  so  that  Berissa  remained  a  suffra-  was  appointed,  first,  associate  professor,  then  regular 
gan  see  of  Sebasteia.  Among  its  bishops  may  be  professor,  lecturing  on  apologetics  and  moral  the- 
mentioned  Thomas,  who  was  present  at  the  fifth  ology,  but  he  ultimately  restricted  himself  to  dog- 
oecumenical  council,  in  553  (Idansi,  IX,  175).  and  matic  theology.  His  influence  on  the  theological 
another  at  the  sixth  in  680  (ibid.,  XI,  676).  It  faculty  of  the  Academy  was  so  marked  that  its  spirit 
appears  still  later  in  the  "Notitis  Episcopatuum''  may  be  said  to  be  his.  He  became  dean  of  the 
as  suffragan  to  Sebasteia,  and  its  name  is  written  faculty  in  1849  and,  with  Bisping.  Schwane,  and 
sometimes  Bripla^y  sometimes  BepUrari;  KtpUra"ii  others,  established  the  fame  of  nis  Alma  Mater,  ex- 
and  Kriptaari  are  merely  palseographical  mistakes,  celling  less  in  speculation  than  in  argument  and  in 
Berissa  was  a  Latin  bishopric  as  btte  as  the  fifteenth  positive  exposition  of  dogma.  Kihn  numbers  him 
century,  when  Paul  II  appointed  the  Franciscan  among  those  who  discuss^  theological  matters 
Libertus  de  Broehun  to  si 
John  (Wadding,  Annales 

Lbquikn,  Orim§  Chritt.,  I,  433:  HI.  1071;  Gams.  8trie9  history  ^ 

epim»p,,  440;  Ramsay.  Hut,  Geogr.  of  Awia  Minon  32^  centunr,''dec£re8,  "B^rlage's  writines  excel  in  cor- 

iffrrr.  ^^^  expression  of  dogmatic  principles^  in  elegance 

Beristain  y  Martin  de  Sousa,  Jos6  Mariano,  of  language,  and  in  clearness  of  diction".    Those 

Mexican  bibli<«rapher,  b.  in  Puebla,  Mexico,  22  May,  who  have  been  his  pupils  say  that  as  a  lecturer  he 

1756;  d.  at  A^xioo,  23  March,  1817.    He  went  to  was  concise,  direct,  and  refined.    He  garnered  the 

Spain  and  spent  some  time  in  the  family  of  the  fruit  of  his  studies  in  seven  volumes,  '  KatholiBche 

former  Bishop  of  Puebla,  then  Archbishop  of  Toledo.  Dogmatik",  published  1839-64. 

Returning  to  Mexico  (1811)  he  was  made  Archdeacon  ^iC^ulbn  in  icirc^ex..  b.  v.:  BrOck.  Oefchiehu  der  KaOuL 

of  the  jfetropolitan  church  of  Merico  (1813),  and  ^^^^'^ii^t!t^'^^S^^"^Kil3!^ 

was  afterwards  its  Dean.     Benstam  was  a  secular  geschicJue,  727;  Luteraritdu  HandweUw,  1881,  no.  303. 
priest  who  had  made  thorough  studies  at  Mexico  Jos.  Selingkr. 

and  perfected  them  in  Spain  under  the  most  favour-       ^    *     »    r^  At-^-t.  *t>-j  l 

able  circumstances.    He  wrote  a  number  of  treatises,        Berland,  Pierre,  Archbishop   of    Bordeaux,  b. 

some  of  them  on  economic  subjects,  but  hardly  any  1375  m  M6doc;  d.   1457  at  Bordeaux.    Bemg  of 

were  published,  the  manuscripts  being  mostly  lost  humble  extraction,  it  was  only  through  the  hberahty 

through  carelessness  in  sending  them  to  Europe.  O'  fnends  that  he  was  able  to  study  the  humamti^ 

His  great  work  is  the  "Biblioteca  hispano-americana  at  Bordeaux  and  canon  law  at  Toulouse.    Ordained 

septentrional,"  the  last  part  of  which  was  published  pnest,  he  was,  first,  secretary  to  the  Archbishop  of 

after  his  death.    For  this  he  used  as  a  basis  the  Bordeaux,  then  canon  of  St.  Andrew's,  and  after- 

" Biblioteca  mexicana"  of  Bishop  Juan  Jos6  de  Egui-  wards  pastor  of  Soliac.    In  1430  he  was  niade  Arch- 

ara  y  Eguren  of  which  only  the  first  volume  (as  far  as  bishop  of  Bordeaux.    Durmg  his  mcumbwicy,   he 

"  J'O  appeared  in  print.    Beristain  at  first  intended  took  a  peat  mterest  in  educational  matters,  found«l 

to  republish  Eguiara,  completing  the   alphabet  by  the  Umversity  of  Bordeaux,  endowed  St.  Raphael  a 

means  of  sketches  and  notes  leftby  the  author,  but,  College  with  twelve  scholarships  for  mdigent  student^ 

as  he  proceeded  to  carry  out  the  idea,  he  found  and  ^  «e?eral  won  the  character  of  a  highly  cultured, 

that  it  would  be  preferable  to  compose  an  independ-  and  samtly  prelate.  ^  His  position  as  archbishop  was 

ent  bibliography,  incorporating  in  it  the  material  n?08t  delicate.    During  the  Hundred  Years    War, 

Eguiara  had  collected.    The  'biblioteca"  of  Boris-  the  province  of  Guyenne  had  showed  marked  Pfefer- 

tSn  is,  thus  far,  the  most  complete  work  on  the  ence  for  the  EngUsh  Crown,    (hi  the  other  hand,  the 

subject  that  exists,  but  it  contains  many  errors  in  conduct  of  the  English  toward  J<»n  of  Are,  mar- 

names  and  dates.    Still,  if  we  take  into  account  the  tj^ed  shortly  after  Borland's  preferment,  coupled 

time  when  he  wrote,  and  the  great  obstacles  he  had  with  the  ambition  of  Hennr  VI,  who  had  himself 

to  overcome  in  the  shape  of  distances  from  sources  solemnly  crowned  KinK of  France  at  Paris,  couldnot 

and  their  frequent  inaccessibility,  it  must  be  con-  peet  the  approval  of  the  worthy  archbishop.    Twice 

sidered  a  monumental  work  and,  up  to  this  day,  the  he  went  north  m  an  endeavour  to  bnng  his  suzerain 

principal  source  of  knowledge  of  the  bibUography  to  greater  moderation.    Havmg  failed  m  this,  he 

of  Mexico  and  Central  America.  transferred  his  allegiance  to  Charles  VII,  Kmg  of 

Autobioaraphy  in   the  Biblioteca  hiepano-americana  eepten^  France,  and  was  instrumental  in  brmgmg  aOOUt  the 

trumal  (Mexico,  1816-19):  Diocionario  univereal  de  Hietoria  submission    of   the   whole    province    to    the   French 

'k^':r,ii''^^i:ini'J^^^^rS:^S'^^Sa^  Cn,™,  and  with  h  the  tennination  ofthe  H,^dred 

(Mexico.  1878),  I.  Years'  War.    Borland,  old  and  mfirm,  resigned  nia 

Ad.  F.  Bandelibr.  see  in  1457  and  died  shortly  afterwards,  venerated 

Berlage,  Anton,  dogmatic  theologian,  b.  21  De-  *>y  his  people.    His  remains  were  laid  at  rest  in  tbj 

cember,    1805,   at  Mttnster,   Westphalia;   d.   there,  vauk  of  the  cathedral, jBad  Jus  name  is  ye^  honoured 

6   December,    1881. 

theolo^  in  the  same 

at  the  Gymnasium,  a ^ ^^ «^  ^^  — ^  ^— .«.«.-.  ^  *  •  •. 

of  Bonn  in  1826.    Esser,  at  Mttnster,  and  especially  Louis  XI  had  obtained  from  Sixtus  IV  the  agwint- 

Hermes,  at  Bonn,  led  him  to  such  speculations  in  pent  of  a  commission  with  a  view  towards  Beriaijcl  s 

theology  as  would  have  proved  detrimental,  had  he  beatification,  but  the  cause  fell  through  at  that 

not  prosecuted  his  studies  at  Tttbingen,  during  1829  prince's  death.    This  fact,  coupled  with  the  veneim- 

and  183C        "     ~         "  '*         '  ^"  '  "     '"  "  "*'" 

fluenced 
him 


uixxa  .xvx*A  vtio  V4«t6ci  1/,  pixiiuovL,.uw*i  ojoi^iiio  wicu  ^  174Q).  CompteB-rendue  dee  iravaux  de  la  tm 
prevalent  m  Germany.  He  graduated  as  Doctor  of  monwnenU  Xwtorijuet  de  la  Oironde  (Paris.  1862). 
Theology  at  the  Umversity  of  Munich  while  yet  a  J*  F*  £ 


SOLUB^ 


BBBLAHGA  493  BKBLUT 

Berlanga,  Frat  TomXs  de,  Bishop  of  Panama,  lies;  1,695^1   are  Protestants;  98^93  Jews,  and 
b.  at  Berlanga  in  Spain,  date  uncertain;  d.  there  22^056  belong  to  other  denominations. 
8  August,  1551:    He  was  professed  at  the  convent        History. — ^The  present  city  of  Berlin  has  crown 
of  Sa^  Esteban  of  Salamanca,  10  March,  1608,  in  out  of  two  settlements  of  the  Wends:  KOlln,  lymg  on 
the  Dommican  Order,  and  in  time  was  elected  prior  an  island  in  the  Spree,  and  Berlin,  opposite,  on  the 
of  the  convent  on  the  Island  of  Hispaniola  (Santo  right  bank  of  the  Si>ree.    Kdlln  is  mentionea  for  the 
Domingo).    The    Dominicans   of    Hispaniola    then  first  time  in  an  official  document  dated  1237;  Berlin, 
dep^dsd  on  the  province  of  Andalusia,  out  Berlanga  in  1244.    B^ven  at  this  date  both  places  possessed  the 
obtained  at  Rome,  in  1528,  the  establishment  of  a  rights  of  Brandenburgian  cities,  but  were  not  equal  in 
separate  province  \mder  the  name  of  Santa  Cnut,  importance  to  other  cities  of  the  Mark.    A  numoer  of 
of  which  he  was  made  provincial  in  1530.    From  ola  churches,  which  are  still  among  the  most  im- 
Santo    Domingo    he    claimed    the    newly   founded  portant  ones  of  the  city,  testifv  to  the  active  religious 
province  of  Simtiago  de  Mexico  as  being  under  his  life  prevalent  at  this  earlv  date,  as:  the  churcn  of 
jurisdiction,  but  was  successfully  opposed  by  Fray  St.  Mary,  erected  at  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century; 
Domingo    de    Betanzos.      About    the    same    time  the  church  of  St.  Nicholas;  the  church  of  the  Grey 
be  was  proposed  for  the  Bishopric  of  Panama,  and  Monastery   (Kirche  des  grauen  Klostera)^  a  Gothic 
went  thither.     His  vast  and  indefinite  diocese  em-  edifice  built  at  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
braced  everything  discovered,  and  to  be  discovered,  Alto^ther  there  were  about  eighteen  chureh-build* 
on  the  South-American  west  coast,  from  which  but  ings  in  Berlin  before  the  Reformation.    It  was  not 
a  few  years  previous  had  come  the  news  of  the  dis-  until  the  two  towns  were  united  into  one  commimity, 
covery  of  Peru  by  Pizarro.     When,  therefore,  the  in  1307,  that  the  place  grew  to  be  of  some  importance. 
Spanish  crown  began  to  notice  signs  of  trouble  be-  In  the  tumultuous  times  which  prevailed  in  the  Mark 
tween  Pizarro  and  Almagro,  about  their  respective  of  Brandenburg  during  the  fourteenth  century,  Beriin 
territorial  limits,  it  sent  Bishop  Berlanga  to  Peru  and  FrankfortK>n-the^der  became  the  leaders  of  the 
with   power  to  arbitrate  between  the  two  on  anv  confederation  of  the  cities  against  the  nobles,  and 
question  at  issue.     At  the  same  time  the  Spanish  joined  the  Hanseatic  League.     When  the  Emperor 
monareh,   the    Emperor    Charles    V,  by  a    decree  Charles  IV  obtained  the  Mark  from  the  house  of 
(Midla)  dated   19  July,  1534,  ordered  Berlanga  to  Wittelsbach,  Berlin  rose  against  him,  but  was  de- 
make  a  report  on  the  condition  and  prospects  of  feated  and  compelled  to  open  its  gates  to  the  em- 
Peru,  its  geo^phical  and  ethnographic  peculiarities,  peror.    Berlin  paid  an  imwiiling  ob^ence  to  Freder- 
The  arbitration  failed.     Pizarro  had   ^rhaps  be-  ick  I  of  Hohenzollem  who  made  his  entiy  into  the  city 
cause  he  had  been  secretly  informed  of  the  bishop's  in  1415.    When  the  Elector  Frederick  II  again  sepa- 
mission)  settled  for  the  time  being  with  Alma^  rated  the  two  cities  and  erected  a  fortified  castle  oe- 
and  sent  him  off  to  Chile,  so  that  no  communication  tween  Berlin  and  KdUn,  on  the  site  of  the  present 
from  Berlanga  reached  him.    The  latter's  office  as  royal  residence,  the  inhabitants,  imder  the  leadership 
arbitrator  was  thereby  practically  vacated,  and  he  of  Beri^d  Ryke,  revolted,  stormed  the  house  in  which 
returned  to  his  see,  refusing  all  advances  made  to  the  elector  was  accustomed  to  live  when  in  Berlin,  and 
him  by  Pizarro.    The  latter  displayed  considerable  destroved  the  public  records.     Frederick  conquered 
feeling,  complaining  that,  as  long  as  the  conquest  was  the  rebels  and  took  from  the  city  its  jurisdiction  and 
in  douDt,  he  had  been  left  alone,  but  that  now  that  other  privileges.    In  1451  the  castle  was  completed; 
it  had  been  achieved  ''a  step>father  had  been  sent  Elector  John  Cicero  chose  it  for  his  usual  residence, 
to  him".    Berlanga  sent  to  the  crown  a  description  which  greatly  increased  the  importance  of  Berlin, 
of  what  he  saw,  a  brief  and  unvarnished  report  from  The  Reformation  foimd  ready  acceptance  in  Berlin, 
the  standpoint  of  a  cool-headed  observer.     His  mis-  and  after  the  death  of  the  Elector  Joachim  I  (see 
sion  was  well  intended,  but  practically  impossible.  Brandenburg)  it  triumphed  over  the  old  Faith.    The 
Pizarro  had  artfully  removed  the  other  party  to  the  nobility  living  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Berlin  ac- 
proposed  arbitration,  and  Berlan^  was  too  honest  cepted  the  new  doctrine  at  Teltow,  April,  1539,  and  the 
to  yield  to  insinuations  of  a  one-sided  investigation.  Elector  Joachim  II,  in  the  same  year,  followed  their 
Of  the  gifts  tendered  he  accepted  for  himself  a  dozen  example.    On  the  2d  of  November  the  first  celebration 
silver  spoons  valued  at  twelve  ducats,  600  pesos  of  the  Lord's  Supper  according  to  the  Lutheran  Bite 
for  the  hospital  of  Panama,  and  400  for  the  hospital  took  place  at  Berlin  in  the  Dominican  chureh.  which 
of  Nicaragua.    After  promoting  the  construction  of  was  later  transformed  into  a  Protestant  cathedral, 
the  convent  of  Santo  Domingo  at  Lima,  Berlanga  In  1540  the  new  church  ritual  for  the  Mark  was  set- 
returned,  in  1537,  to  Spain  where  he  died  in  his  native  tied  and  printed  at  Beriin.     The  Reformation  in  a 
town.  short  time  gained  a  complete  ascendancy,  the  mon- 
OviBDo,  Hiatoria  general^  etc.  (Madrid,  1850,  etc.);  Ctbza,  asteries  were  suppressed,  and  the  Franciscan  Father 
23'*^?.2^Sr*JXa";£rfcrrtr5Sil[^  ?«»"" Z^.  ISn)  w^,  the  last  CathoHc  pnest  in  Berlin 

unpubtiBhed;  DocumerUo9  uMitoa  de  Indiaa  (important  letter*  until  the  coming  of  the  Domimcans  abOUt  one  nun- 

by  Berlanga);  DXvila  Padxlla,  Hiatoria  ae  la  fundaddn  y  dred  and  fifty  years  latOT. 


S!ST"^ ':S?rSS^^?«;±J^^^'^/5l?ij;^"??S:    __The  city  8urfered  greatly  during  the  Thirty  Yea« 


J,i.£:iSr^^'^S^.%J'^J^?^ioUoi.T^Sri  fljSted  &y  tWs  war  dunng  the  reign  of  Frederick 

report  byBi»LANOA.ftete«idnd«teca/uiadd«tottemi.  jni€rft)#  William,  the  Great  Elector,  grew  in  sise,  and  was 

y  pMactdn  dd  PerU  (dated  February  3,  1538.  printed  on  page  suiTOimded  by  new  fortifications.     Immigrants  from 

aw.^888?*~^'**'^°'*^'  ^'*^  '*'^'^*'  "^  CoWWoa  de  Lima  ^^^  Lo^  CJountries   and   French   Huguenots,  who 

(i^ima,        ;.                                 Ad  F  Bandelier  brought   many   branches   of   industry   with   them, 

raised  the  number  of  inhabitants  to  20,000.    Freder- 

Beriin,  capital  of  the  German  Empire  and  of  the  ick  I  made  Berlin  the  royal  residence  and  adorned  it 

Kingdom  of  Prussia,  and  residence  of  the  German  with  many  fine  buildings,  the  most  famous  arehitect 

Ehnperor  and  Prussian,  King.    It  is  situated  in  the  and  sculptor  of  the  time  being  Schlater.    In  1709 

heart  of  the  Mark  of  Brandenburg,  on  both  sides  of  the  Frederick  introduced  a  common  government  for  the 

Spree  above  its  entrance  into  the  Havel.    The  city  five  divisions  of  the  city  which  had  gradually  grown 

5»ver8  an  area  of  24}  sq.  miles  and  had,  1  December,  up.    In  1696  he  founded  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts, 

1905,  2,040,148  inhahitants,  not  including  the  popu-  and  in  1700  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  of  which  Leibnits 

lation  of  the  suburbs  which  are  virtually  parts  of  the  was  the  first  president.    Berlin  suffered  greatly  dup- 

ci^.    Of  the  inhabitants  of  Berlin  223,948  are  Catho-  ing  the  Seven  Year?  War,  in  the  course  of  which  it  was 


BERLIN  494  BERUR 

seized  and  plundered  in  1757  by  the  Ai]8ti%is,  and  tive  needs  of  Gatholicisin  in  the  capital  of  the  Ge^ 

in  1760  by  the  Russians;  but  under  the  wise  rule  of  man  Empire. 

Frederick  the  Great  (Frederick  II)  it  rapidly  reoov-  Statistics. — ^Ecclesiastically,  Berlin  belongs  to  the 
ered  from  the  damage  done  to  it  and  became  an  im-  Del^^tion  of  the  Mark  of  Briuidenburg,  which  is 
portant  centre  of  commerce,  industry,  and  intellectual  under  a  del^;ate  of  the  Frince-BiBhop  of  Br^u; 
life.  The  number  of  inhabitants  increased  to  115,000.  the  delegate  is  the  Provost  of  St.  Hedwig's  in  Berlin. 
Frederick  William  II  also  spent  large  siuns  of  monev  The  Arc&presb3rterate  of  Berlin  embraces  the  city  of 
in  beautifying  the  royal  city.  Under  Frederick  Will-  Berlin  with  the  exception  of  a  small  part  of  Fned- 
iam  III  there  was  a  temporary  check  to  its  develop-  richsberg  (2,686  Catnolics),  and  includes  also  the 
ment  during  the  era  of  the  Napoleonic  ascendancy,  suburbs  ccdled  Treptow,  Stralau,  Sohdneberff,  and  a 
In  1808  the  city  acquired  the  right  of  self-government  part  of  Charlottenbur^  (as  far  as  the  pari£  of  St. 
to  a  limited  degree,  and  in  1809  the  University  of  Matthias);  the  Catholics  in  the  presbyterate  num- 
Berlin  was  founded.  During  the  long  period  of  peace  bered  in  1907,  239,666,  of  whom  221,262  lived  in 
which  followed  the  downftul  of  Napoleon  a  new  de-  Berlin  proper.  The  other  suburbs,  both  large  and 
velopment  of  the  city  b^an  and  its  artistic  embellish-  small,  belong  to  the  Archipresbyterate  of  Chanottoi- 
ment  by  Schinkel,  Kauch,  Schadow,  and  others  made  burg.  In  1^7  the  Cathohc  clergy  of  Berlin  ccmsisted 
rapid  progress.  In  1838  the  first  railway,  from  Berlin  of  13  clergy  of  higher  rank  (the  provost,  7  parish 
to  Potsdam,  was  opened;  the  railway  traffic  increased  priests,  andS  military  chaplains),  31  assistant  deigy, 
the  industrial  importance  of  the  city,  and  in  1844  the  7  priests  in  other  positions,  and  15  living  in  corn- 
first  large  industrial  exhibition  of  the  German  States  munity— altogether  66  priests,  of  whom  26  do  not 
l^longing  to  the  customs-union  was  held  here.  On  come  from  the  Diocese  of  Breslau.  The  archipres- 
the  15th  of  March,  1848.  a  revolution  broke  out;  byterate  is  divided  for  the  cure  of  souls  into  14  dis- 
more  than  1,000  barricades  were  erected,  and  en*  tricts  composed  of  8  parishes  and  6  vicariates^  in 
counters  between  the  soldiers  and  the  populace  oc-  1907  another  vicariate  was  in  process  of  erection, 
curred;  on  the  18th  of  March  a  bloody  struggle  took  The  Catholic  soldiers  are  formed  into  5  church  com- 
place  in  the  streets  of  Berlin  in  which  the  soldiers  munities  oi^  parishes;  Berlin  is  also  the  seat  of  the 
were  victorious,  but  they  afterwards  withdrew  from  Catholic  fielo^provostship  for  the  Prussian  army  and 
the  city  at  the  order  of  the  king.  In  1871  Berlin  be-  the  imperial  navy.  In  1907  Berlin  had  8  Catholic 
came  the  capital  of  the  new  German  Empire.  ^  From  parish  churches  and  18  chapels  where  public  church 
13  June  to  13  July,  1878,  were  held  the  sessions  of  services  were  held;  these  with  the  pnvate  chapels 
the  Berlin  Congress;  since  this  date  Berlin  has  made  31  church  edifices;  1  church  ouilding  and  1 
developed  into  a  great  metropolis;  it  has  become  chapel  were  then  in  process  of  construction.  With 
the  most  important  industrial  city  of  the  Euro-  the  exception  of  the  church  of  St.  Hedwig  and  the 
pean  continent,  the  most  important  railway  centre,  church  in  the  home  for  invalided  soldiers,  all  of  the 
and  one  of  the  chief  commercial  cities  of  the  Catholic  church  buildings  of  Berlin  were  erected  in 
enipire.  more  recent  times.  The  principal  churches  are:  St 
For  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  after  the  Hedwig  (1747-73— see  above);  in  the  style  of  the 
Reformation  Catholicism  was  suppressed  in  Berlin;  Pantheon  at  Rome:  St.  Michael,  the  first  Catholic 
public  Catholic  church  services  were  forbidden;  Mass  garrison-church  of  Berlin  (1851-61)  in  early  Renais- 
could  be  said  only  in  the  private  chapels  of  the  sance  style:  St.  Sebastian,  the  largest  Catholic  church 
Catholic  embassies.  As  late  as  1653  the  elector  was  of  Berlin  (1890-93)  in  Gothic  style,  tower  269  feet 
obliged  to  promise  the  Protestant  diet  that  he  would  high;  St.  Paul,  a  Dominican  church  (1892-93)  in 
not  aJlow  private  or  public  Catholic  church  services.  Gothic  style;  St.  Matthew,  a  Gothic  building  (1893- 
In  order  to  be  able  to  raise  troops  more  easily  in  95),  tower  302  feet  high;  St.  Pius  (1893-94T,  rather 
Catholic  districts  Frederick  William  I  in  1720  gave  tasteless  Gothic;  St.  John,  the  second  Catholic  surri- 
the  first  permission  for  the  holding  of  public  Catholic  son  church  and  one  of  the  largest  chiux^h  buildings 
services  m  a  private  house  in  Berlin;  soon  after  this  of  Berlin  (1894-97),  in  Romanesque  style;  church  of 
the  first  Catholic  chapel  was  fitted  up.  The  pastoral  the  Heart  of  Jesus  (Herz^esukirche),  Romanesque 
care  was  exercised  by  Dominicans  from  Halberstadt;  style  (1897-98). 

the  saintly  Father  Bruhns  being  particularly  success-       Schoous. — There   has   been   no   public   Catholic 

ful  in  his  labours.    The  conquest  of  Catholic  Silesia  higher  school  for  boys  in  Berlin  since  the  struggle 

by  Frederick  the  Great  drew  many  Catholics  to  between  the  Catholic  Church  and  the  State  (/CuSiir- 

J^rlin,  and  the  church  of  St.  Hedwig  was  built  for  kampf)  swept  away  the  Catholic   Progynmasiimi; 

the  Catholic  community  (1747-73),  Frederick  the  there  is,  however,  a  private  higher  school  for  boys 

Great  giving  the  ground.    He  also  built  a  small  church  with  about  130  pupils.    The  Catholic  boys  who  at- 

at  the  home  for  disabled  soldiers,  for  the  Catholic  tend  the  state  and  city  high-schools  are  divided,  for 

pensioners.    The  addition  of  large  Catholic  territories  purposes  of  religious  instruction,  into  twelve  groups 

m  consequence  of  the  partition  of  Poland,  the  secu-  of  lour  sections  each.    There  are  3  higher  Catholic 

larization  of  1802-03,  and  that  of  1815  by  the  Vienna  schools  for  girls;  two  of  these  prepare  teachers,  and 

Congress  likewise  increased  the  number  of  Catholics  one  is  oonducted  by  the  Ursulines  and  indudee  a 

in  Berlin,  but  it  was  not  until  1848  that  they  ob-  conservatory  of  music.    There  are  30  Catholic  schools 

tained  more  freedom.    Since  then  the  growth  of  the  for  primary  instruction,  attended  by  over  20,000 

Catholic  population  has  kept  pace  with  the  develop-  Catholic  children,  namely  the  parish  school  of  St. 

ment  of  the  municipality.     Under  Frederick  the  Hedwig  and  29  Catholic  town-district  schools. 
Great  the  Catholic  population  was  about  5,000  in        Orders,  Congregations,  and  Charitabi^   In- 

107,000   inhabitants;   m   1817  there  were   186,570  sTrrunoNs. — ^The  male  orders  in  Berlin  are:  I>oniin- 

Protcstants  to  6  J57  CathoUcs;  in  1843, 16,453  Catho-  leans,  1  house  with  10  priests  and  7  brothers;  the 

lies  to  328,253  Protestants;  1853,  19,075  Catholics;  Poor  Brothers  of  St.  Francis,  1  house  with  17  brothers 

1871,  51,517;  1885,  99,579:  1900,  188,440  Catholics  who  carry  on  an  orphan  asylum  for  boys.   The  fanaJe 

in  Berlin  proper.    Church  buildings  did  not  increase  orders  and  congregations  in  Berlin  proper  had,  in 

in  the  same  ratio,  and  the  need  of  more  edifices  grew  1907,  18  houses  and  387  inmates:  the  Ursulines, 

continually  greater.    With  the  aid  of  the  whole  of  a  house  with  37  inmates,  carry  on  a  boarding-echod 

Catholic  Uermany  a  number  of  Catholic  churches  for  ^rls,  a  higher  school  for  girls  united  to  a  private 

was  erected  in  the  decade  beginning  with  1890  to  semmary  for  teachers  and  a  conservatory  of  music; 

meet  this  want,  but  the  construction  of  new  church  the  Sisters  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  a  house  with 

buildings,  especially  in  the  rapidly  growing  environs  56  Sisters,  have  charge  of  St.   Hedwig's   ho^tal, 

and  suburbs  of  Berlin  is  still  one  of  the  most  imperar  which  has  an  average  of  530  patients  and  160  ooo- 


BHtUOZ  495  BKBMAL 

valesoents;  Dominican  nuns,  4  houses  with  95  sisters,  Union  of  Catholic  Germany  with  about  4000  mem- 
cany  on  the  St.  Katharine  Home,  which  includes  a  bers;  13  organized  groups  in  Berlin  proper  of  the 
day-nursery  and  home  for  women  servants,  the  St.  Centre  Party;  the  Windthorst  Union.  Besides  these 
Antonius  Home,  which  includes  a  kindergarten  and  there  are  some  20  singing,  and  church-choir,  societies, 
nureery  for  small  children,  a  home  for  women  serv-  and  about  25  social  societies.  The  most  important  oi 
ants,  and  an  institution  of  visiting  nurses  for  the  sick  the  6  Catholic  papers  are:  "The  Germania",  and  the 
and  poor,  the  Maria-Victoria  Sanaj^rium,  a  hospital  "M&rkische  S^itung". 

and  mstitution  for  visiting-n\U*ses  for  the  sick  and         SrrRXCKrvM.  Berlin  %m  19.  Jahrh.  (Berlin,  1867-69);  Idem, 

poor  and  the  St.  Vincent^errer  Home,  a  dispensary  *gi"fe  l±S«-^BiS^.f88#Al^^fe^Sr/^«^ 

and  home  of  nurses  for  the  sick  and  poor  and  a  home  1840  (Berlin,  1893-94);    Holtze,  deaeh.  der  stadt   Berlin 

for  women  servants;  the  Grey  Sisteris,  7  houses  with  (TObiiwen.  1906);  Gortain,  Dm  kathol,  Berlin  (Berlin,  1906); 

137  sisters,  have  in  charge  4  dispensaries  and  homes  f^f^  ^^•'  ^'"^  ^^  inrstbiachdfiiche  Ddegatur  (Berlin, 
for  visiting-nurses,  St.  Joseph's  Hospital,  and  the  •  j 

St.  Afra  Home,  which  includes  a  rescue  and  orphan  Joseph  Lins. 


um,  a  home  for  women  servants,  and  a  creche:  ^^.u  _tt  -r^i.  Lxr^^i^ 
iHese  sisters  are  also  the  nurses  in  2  garrison  hospitals.  ^  BerUoi,  Hector,  French  composer,  h.  at  lfC6^ 
The  Sisters  of  St.  Maiy,  58  sisters  in  4  houses,  1  of  ^'^^A^^'J'^K^flSS^^^b-^  December,  1803;  d. 
which  is  in  Beriin-Rixdorf,  conduct  the  Hospital  of  ^*.  i5^A^^*^T  /  11  ^^u-  ^^  ^ *.'  ^  P^y«;j»a»» 
a  Mary,  3  homes  for  visiting-nurses,  and  a  house-  TJJ^^  ^^^^  *?  l?^^^  ^  ST^.P?^'^^.^^  ^^^ 
keeping  knd  needlework  school  combined  with  a  ^t  pug^  sent  him  to  the  Medical  School  m  Pans, 
kindergarten.  The  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  13  sisters  in  }^^  Beriioz  soon  changed  the  dwsecting  room  for 
1  hou^,  conduct  a  hospice  or  boai-ding-home  for  ^}^  bBrary  of  the  Conservatoire,  where  he  sought  to 
single  Women  and  young  girls,  a  boa^-school  ^uamt  lumself  with  the  scorw  of  the  masters  of 
wl^re  housekeeping  is  taught,  ind  a  hous?^for  re-  "^"3^;  Heretofore  his  music^studies  had^been  wn- 
treats.  St.  Josephs  Orphin  Asylum,  housing  200  ^^d  to  a  rudimentary  knowledge  of  the  flute  and  of 
children,  is  convicted  by  ladies,  not  profess^  re-  J^^  «^^-  ^tf""  studying  harmony  with  Lesvei^ 
ligious,  who  lead  a  kind  of  conventual  life.  Taking  '^^  ^J^  months,  Berlioz  com^sed  a  ma^,  whidi 
these  and  other  Catholic  institutions  together,  there  was  perfomed  m  the  church  of  St  Roch^  Bemg  ad- 
are  in  Beriin  proper  4  Catholic  hospitals,  12  dis-  mitted  to  the  Conservatoire  in  1823,  be  beca^ 
pensaries  and  homes  for  visiting-nurses,  4  mstitutions  not  only  for  his  great  talent,  but  abo  for  his  rebeUion 
for  convalescents,  3  institutions  for  the  care  of  smaU  *??}?®*  academic  traditions.  For  the  pure  classicism 
children,  9  day-nurseries,  5  homes  for  children  of  of  Chenibmi,  the  bead  of  the  ^hool,  he  had  no  respect, 
•     .'--•'-       -'  nor  did  he  ever  learn  to  understand  and  appreciate 


Hke-8  homes  for  girU  who  are  out  of  employment,  7  }*^?  *^«  romanticists  m  literature,  proceeded  by  vio- 
housekeeping  ancf  needlework  schools,  3  orphan  ***"^«  ^^  ignoring  every  established  rule.  As  a  con- 
asylums  knd  institutions  for  first  comiliunicante,  1  s^iuence  he  never  fidly  mastered  the  vanous  forms 
rescue  home  for  girls  ^^  composition.  With  his  "Fantastic  Sjrmphony**,  a 
Associations.— There  is  much  activity  among  the  ja^tate  called  "La  mort  de  Sardanapale"  which  won 
Catholic  societies  of  Beriin.  In  1907  the  religious  ^^''  ^f^  ^®.  ^  i^  Rome  '  (carrvmg  with  it  a  five 
associations  were:  21  brotherhoods  and  confratemi-  .  7.^  -^I^^r*  *,  ..*  ""JTu  °^  l^^  works,  Ber- 
ties  of  the  Rosary;  9  societies  of  the  Childhood  of  Jl^*  ^^Vt  !^"™*tion  of  the  new  school  of  composi- 
Jesus;  8  societies  of  Christian  mothers;  7  confra-  **^n.  ^*"??  }^  *u  ^^^  *^®  ,^^  ^^  programme 
temities  of  the  Holy  Family;  7  altar  societies  for  the  ^^^^:  ^  ^^  ^  the  endeavour  of  composers  of  this 
making  of  vestments;  11  St.  Charles  Borromeo  so-  ^^^^  to  express  by  means  of  music  definite  ideas 
cieties;  9  societies  for  collecting  funds,  especially  for  ^  mo<^  and  even  to  relate  definite  events.  Al- 
theBonifaceassociations;12sodalitiesoftheB.V.M.,  ,^o^^  P^''^?^  has  written  a  number  of  works  on 
10  youths'  or  St.  Aloy^ius  sodalities.  Among  the  ^turgical  texts,  ^y  any  of  them  have  the  htm- 
locd  charitable  associations  are:  the  Catholic  charity  gjcal  character.  His  Rw^mem  ,  wntten  for  double 
organization  of  Berlin  and  its  suburbs,  an  associa-  ^T^»  ^  enormous  orchestra  four  mihtary  bands, 
tion  of  aU  the  Catholic  benevolent  institutions,  en-  and  organ,  suggests  Michelangelo  m  its  gigantic  con- 
dowments,  and  societies  of  Beriin  and  ite  environs;  ception.  While  it  strikes  terror  into  the  heartof  the 
Societies  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  including  16  con-  P®^»  ^^  ^^  "^^^  »nsP"^  devotion.  A  Te  Deum 
ferences  for  men  and  16  conferences  fo?  women:  f  t)uilt  on  equaUy  W  sc^e,  and  is  more  notable 
the  St.  Hedwig's  women's  association;  the  society  of  "^  »*«  P?^"\P  *,?^  splendour  than  for  its  prayerfuhi^. 
the  B.  V.  M.  for  the  protection  of  girls;  4  societies  Although  Berhoz  was  a  child  of  his  tune  and  m  his 

for  the  care  of  lying-m  women;  tht  Catholic  burial  ^T""  F^^  ^iP'T?!?  1^  ^""^"^  P^'""  u  ""^  T"\k® 

aasociation;  the  society  for  the  care  of  the  Catholic  ^^  ^<>t  lose  the  Catholic  sense,  as  is  shown  by  the 

deaf  and  dumb  of  Berlin,  its  environs,  and  the  whole  attraction  bturgical  texts  nad  for  him,  and  also  by 

ddegature.      The   most    important  associations  in  muneroi^  other  traits.    Thus  m  his  "Damnation  de 

connexion  with  the  various  callings  are:  the  Catholic  ^*"?*    ^«  ^^^  ^^^^  ^  ®^"^?^  P^!r'*'T  r^^T' 

Journeymen's  Union,  having  a  building  of  its  own;  P^}^  ^y.  ^^  gruesome  music,  instead  of   ulti- 

the  CathoUc  Apprentices'  Union;  the  Master-Work-  matelysavmg  him  m  accordance  with  the  pantheistic 

men's  Union;  13  Catholic  workmen's  unions,  with  creed  of  Gwthe.    Berlioz  is  one  of  the  most  striking 

about  2800  working-men  members,  which  belong  to  examples  of  modern  subjectivism,  and  the  numerous 

the  district  organization  for  Berlin;  11  associations,  works  he  has  left  behmd--symphoni^  with  and  ^th- 

having   1500  members,  which  belong  to  the  Berlin  ^"*.f^,?"^'  ""^i^^  ^  oratorio,  "The  Childhood  of 

distmt  organization,  akd  are  compo^  of  working-  9^'^'lf'^^''^S'^^^^\''T^''^'^'^^^^^ 

women,  umnarried,  and  married  women;  the  unions  ^^F^P'^.J^^Y^  ^^^  *^  ^®  remained  faithful  to 

of  the   organized   Catholic  Workingmen's   associa-  <^^no"c  »deals. 

4. ,rtox  ^1:     riu  •-^'  -.        '^        00  -^..^„  «.:*u  ^ ^         Berlioz,  MHnotrea;  Ambros,  Bunte  BUUler;  Julien,  Hector 

tions  (28);  the  Chnstian  unions.  32  groups  with  over  Serliog  (Aria.  1888);  HiPPEAi.  Berlioz,  I'himme  et  I'artitte 


4000  workingmen  members;   the  Catholic  business 
men's  society  with  400  members;  2  societies  of  Cath- 


(Paris,  1888). 

Joseph  Otten. 


olie  male  and  female  teachers;    9  associations  of 

Catholic  students;  2  PhUister  societies.    Among  the       Bemal,  Aoobtino,  Spanish  theologian,  b.  at  Ma- 

polttical  associations  shoidd  be  named:  the  People's   gallon  in  Aragon  in  15iS7;  d.  at  Saragossa,  13  Sep> 


BERNARD  496  BBRKARD 

tembor,  1642.    He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesys  in  tary  for  the  diocese,  Vicar-General,  Provost  of  the 

1603  when  sixteen  years  old.    Being  a  finished  clas-  Chapter,   and   Prothonotary  Apostolic.    After  the 

sical  scholar  he  taught  humanities  and  rhetoric  with  deatn  of  Bishop  Moreau,  in  1901,  Mgr.  Bernard  was 

success.    The  greater  part  of  his  life,  however,  he  continued  in  the  office  of  Vicar-General  by  Bishop 

spent  as  professor  of   philosophy  and  theology  at  Decelles,  and,  when  the  latter  died,  in  1905,  was 

Saragossa,  where  he  died.     He  was  a  man  oFrare  elected  Vicar-Oapitular.    The  Institute  of  the  Sisters 

innocence  and  candour  of  soul;  so  great  was  his  love  of  St.  Joseph,  owe  to  him  their  organization,  and 

of  prayer  that  it  would  be  hard  to  say  to  which  he  formation  as  a  teaching  body.     Besides  "Svnodal 

devoted  more  time,  to  meditation  or  to  study.    He  Decrees"  and  a  summary  of    the  "Clerical  Confer- 

was  looked  upon  by  many  as  one  of  the  most  learned  ences",  he  edited  the  "Pastoral  Letters"  of   the 

men  of  his  age.    His  published  works  are:  "  Dispu-  bishops  of  the  diocese,  in  nine  volumes.     He  declined 

tationes  de  Divini  Verbi  Incarnatione"  (Saragossa,  the  See  of  St.  Hyacinth  on  the  plea  of  his  enfeeUed 

1639);    "  Disputationes    de  Sacramentis  in  genere,  health,  until  he  received  from  rope  Pius  X  a  per- 

EucharistiA.  et  Ordine"  (Lyons,  1651)  a  posthumous  emptory    order    to    accept.    He    was    consecrated 

work,  15    February,    1906. 
South WKLL,  BiUtotheca,  03;  Hurteb,  Nomendator,  380.  L.  O.  RoBERGE. 

Timothy  B.  Barrett.  ^  ,  ^        ,  ,     «     ^ 

Bernard  Oarvajal.    See  Caryajal. 

Bernard   (or  Barnard).   Saint,  Archbishop    of       Bernard  Oirca.    See  Bernard  of  Pa  via. 
Vienne,  France,  b.  in  778:  d.  at  Vienne,  23  January.        Bernard,  Claude,  a  French  ecclesiastic  known  as 

842.     His  parents,  who  lived  near  Lyons  and  had  "the  poor  priest"  (ie  pauvTe  prdtre),  b.  at  Dijon, 

large  possessions,  gave  him  an  exceUent  education,  23  December,  1588:  d.  in  Paris,  23  March,  1641.    His 

and  Bernard,  m  obedience  to  the  paternal  wish,  father  was  a  distinguished  lawyer,  and  filled  suo- 

mamed  and  became  a  military  officer  under  Charlo-  cessively  offices  of  honour  and  responsibility.    Young 

magne.    After  seven  years  as  a  soldier  the  death  of  Bernard  was  educated  at  the  Jesuit  coUege  of  D61e 

his  father  and  mother  recalled  him.     Dividing  his  and  was  remarked  for  his  brilliant  imagination  and 

property  into  three  parts,  one  for  the  Church,  one  ^it.     Pierre  Le  Camus  Bishop  of  Belley  uiied  him 

for  the  poor,  and  one  for  his  children,  he  retired  to  ^o  enter  the  priesthood,  but  he  declined,  saying  that 

the  wilderness  of  Ambronav,  where  there  was  a  poor  he  preferred  the  life  of  a  poor  gentleman  to  that  of  a 

monastery.     Bernard  bought  the  monastery,  enlarged  poor  priest.     Shortly  afterwards  he  went  to  Paris  as 

it,  and  become  one  of  its  inmates.     Upon  the  death  a  prot^6  of  M.  de  Bellegarde,  Governor  of  Bourgogne. 

of  the  abbot  he  was  elected  (805)  to  the  vacant  posi-  Yot  a  while  the  social  Ufe  of  the  capital  attracted 

tion.    In  810  he  was  chosen  Archbishop  of  Vienne  ijim;    gradually,    however,    some    disappointments, 

to  succeed  Volf^re,  but  it  was  only  upon  the  command  together  with  the  death  of  an  intimate  friend  who 

of  Pope  Leo  III  and  of  Charlemagne  that  he  accepted  y^^  tjUed  in  a  dud,  brought  about  a  decided  change 

the    honour.     He    was   consecrated    by  Leidtrade,  j^  his  mode  of  life  and  led  up  to  his  entrance  into 

Archbishop  of  Lyons,  and  distinguished  hhnself  by  the  priesthood.      He  was  ordained  by  the  above- 

his  piety  and  l^mii^.     He  took  part  in  drawmg  mentioned  Bishop  Le  Camus,  and  invited  to  his 

up  the  Capitulanes  of  Charlemagne  and  aided  Ago-  fjrgt  Mass  the  poor  of  the  city,  distributing  to  them 

bard  in  a  work  upon  Jewish  superstitions.  all  his  possessions,  and,  later  on,  an  inheritance  of 

Bernard  was  a  member  of  the  CouncU  of  Pans  400,000  Uvres,  or  about  eighty  thousand  dollars. 
(824)  convoked  by  Louis  the  Pious,  at  the  request  of        Henceforth  Bernard  devoted  himself  to  the  service 

Eugenius  II,  in  the  hope  of  bringing  about  an  agree-  of  the  poor,  and  delighted  in  the  name  of  "the  poor 

ment  between  the  Church  of  France  and  that  of  the  priest '^    The  poor,  the  sick,  and  the  prisoners  were 

East  as  to  the  devotion  to  be  paid  to  images.     Ber-  [^  special  care;  he  fed,  nursed,  consoled,  and  in- 

nard  took  an  unfortunate  rwsition  in  the  quarrels  struoted  them  with  more  than  motherly  tenderness, 

between  Louis  the  Pious  and  his  sons  over  the  parti-  xhis  life  of  selfnsacrifice  seemed  rather  to  increase  his 

tion  of  the  empire  between  the  three  sons  of  his  first  personal  charms.     Wealthy  and  distinguished  persons 

marriage,  to  which  the  monarch  had  agreed.     Like  sought  his  company,  and  for  the  honour  of  entertain- 

Agobard  of  Lyons,  Bernard  sided  with  the  oldest  ment  at  his  modest  table  contributed  abundantly  to 

son,  Lothair,  and  was  one  of  the  prelates  who  deposed  his  charities.     His  kindly  wit  never  deserted  him. 

the  emperor  at  Compi^gne  and  condemned  him  to  When  Cardinal  Richelieu  once  pressed  upon  him  the 

make  a  pubhc  penance.     Louis  soon  regained  his  acceptance  of  some  favours  he  replied  that  he  would 

authority  and  another  council  of  bishops  annulled  be  pleased  if  stronger  boards  were  placed  in  the 

the  action  of  the  one  of  Compi^gne.    Agobard  and  tumbril,  or  cart,  on  which  the  condemned  were  taken 

Bernard  were  deposed,  but  the  sentence  of  deposition  to  execution.     "It  is  a  pity",  said  he,  "that  the 

was  never  carried  out,  owing  to  the  intervention  of  constant  dread  of  falling  through  the  vehicle  should 

Lothair.  who  had  been  reconciled   to  his  father,  distract  our  attention  from  God". 
From  this  tune  on,  the  archbishop  devoted  himself        Bernard's  methods  were  characterized  by  some  as 

entirely  to  the  duties  of  his  pastoral  office.    Towards  odd  and  reprehensible.     He  continued,  however,  to 

the  end  of  his  life  he  loved  to  retire  to  a  solitary  spot  enjoy  the  fnendship  and  admiration  of  saintly  priests 

on  the  banks  of  the  Isdre  where  stands  to-day  the  .ijke  Bourdoise,  Olier,  and  St.  Vmcent  de  Paul,  an 

town  of  Romans  which  owes  its  ongm  to  him.    On  ample  justification  of  his  character  and  sacerdotal 

the  approach  of  death  he  had  himself  removed  to  ministry.     In  the  history  of  charity  he  bears  a  strik- 

Vienne.     He  is  honoured  in  Dauphiny  as  the  patron  ing  resemblance  to  St.  Francis  of  Assisi  and  St.  Vin- 

saint  of  agricultural  labourers.  cent  de  Paul,  and  his  beatification  has  often  been     , 

Acta  SS.  (3d  ed.).  January,  III.  167-187;  BiU,  haa.  lot.  „--pH  hv  fhp  rnval  ftniirt  and  hv  thp  nl*»rirv  nf  Pnmrp 

(1898).  149-160;  CHAPHUI8,  SL  Bemctrd,  ArcfUvSqUe  deVimne  "fS®^  ^^j}^^  ^Jf^.^""*  ??^  °7  ^f.  ^^^  ^^  *  ran^      I 

(Grenoble,  1898).  He  founded  at  Paris,  for  the  education  of  poor  candi- 

A.  FouRNET,  dates  for  the  priesthood,  the  seminary  of  the  Trente- 

Trois,  which  still  exists.     He  contributed  much  to 

Bernard,  Alexis-Xyste.  Bishop  of  St.  Hyacinth,  popularize  the  beautiful  prayer  to  the  Blessed  Vii|^ 

P.  Q.,  Canada,  b.  at  BelcEil,  t.  O.,  29  December,  known  as  the  Afcmororc,  sometimes  attributed  to  hmi; 

1847.     He  made  his  classical  and  theological  studies  but  certainly  of  an  earlier  date. 

under  the  Sulpician  Fathers  in  Montreal,  and  was  ,  The  life  of  Bernard  has  been  written  byGAumiK  Cl68p> 

ordained  priest  1  October,  1871      After  a  ye«:  as  \^r^^^l^'',^^*'k^''Ji'TkSS:\!^^'ISS^ 

curate  he  became  successively  President  of  Sorel  XXV,  251-261. 

College,  Canon  of  the  Cathedral,  Axchdeacon,  Secre-  Charles  B.  Schrantv. 


BEBNABD 


497 


BEBHAED 


Claude  Bebmabd 


Bamardp  Claude. — French  phvBiologJsty  b.  12 
July,  1813  at  Saint  Julien  near  Villefranche,  Franoe; 
A  at  Paris,  10  February,  1878.  His  father  was  the 
proprietor  of  a  vineyara  and  his  early  education, 
wbch  was  begun  by  the  village  curij  was  obtained 
at  the  Jesuit  college  in  Villefranche.    Going  to  Lyons 

to  continue  his 
studies,  he  be- 
came instead  a 
pharmacist's  as- 
sistant. While 
here,  his  literary 
ambitions  led  him 
to  write  a  come- 
dy, "La  rose  du 
Rh6ne",  which 
was  put  on  the 
stage.  Enoour- 
agedby  its  recep- 
tion, ne  wrote  a 
£ve  act  drama 
and  setting  out 
In  1834  for  Paris, 
submitted  it  to 
^aint  Marc  Gi- 
rardin,  the  well- 
known  critic. 
The  latter  found 
exidence  of  literary  ability  in  the  young  author's 
work,  but  advised  him  to  study  medicine  as  a 
more  certain  means  of  securing  a  livelihood  than 
literature.  Bernard  followed  this  counsel,  which 
proved  the  turning  point  in  his  career,  and  the  play 
Arthur  de  Bretagne"  was  not  published  until  long 
after  his  death  in  1886. 

Bernard  devoted  himself  particularly  to  anatomy 
and  physiology  but,  being  of  a  retiring  disposition 
and  somewhat  awkward  in  manner,  he  did  not  impress 
his  professors  or  fellow  students  with  the  power 
of  which  he  was  later  to  give  proof.  In  1839,  he 
was  appointed  interne  to  Magendie,  professor  of 
medicine  at  the  College  de  France,  and  one  of  the 
physicians  of  the  H6tel  Dieu,  noticing  his  skill  in 
diasectjon,  soon  made  him  his  priparaieur,  or  lecture 
assistant.  This  latter  appointment,  in  spite  of  many 
disadvantages,  proved  a  fortimate  one,  and  Bernard 
now  began  the  researches  in  physiology  which  made 
him  famous.  His  first  important  worik  was  a  study 
of  the  pancreas  and  its  fimctions.  This  was  fof- 
bwed  by  the  discovery  of  the  glycogenic  function  of 
the  liver — ^perhaps  ms  most  noteworthy  achieve- 
ment, particularly  on  account  of  its  bearmg  on  cur- 
rent views  in  biology.  It  had  been  supposed  by 
bk>logi8t8  that  the  animal,  unlike  the  plant,  could 
not  build  up  complex  compounds  within  itself,  but 
could  only  utilize  those  furnished  by  the  plant  such 
as  carbohydrates,  proteids,  etc.,  resolving  them  into 
constituents  suited  to  its  own  needs.  Bernard  imder- 
took  the  task  of  tracing  out  the  various  transforma- 
tions of  food  stuffs  within  the  animal  organism,  be- 
ginning with  the  carbohydrates;  and  he  not  only 
found,  contrary  to  the  accepted  view,  that  sugar  was 
formed  in  the  uver,  but  he  was  also  able  to  isolate  a 
substance  from  the  hepatic  tissue  which,  though  not 
sugar,  was  converted  by  fermentation  into  dextrose. 
He  made  a  special  study  of  its  properties  and  called 
it  "glycogen^'. 

Bernard  did  not  piu^ue  his  investigations  in  this 
field  any  farther,  but  took  up  the  study  of  the  in- 
fluence of  the  nervous  system  on  animal  heat.  This 
led  to  the  discovery  of  the  vaso-motor  system.  He 
found  that  severing  the  cervical  sympathetic  on  one 
side  of  the  neck  of  a  rabbit  caused  a  sensible  rise  in 
the  temperature  of  the  affected  region.  F\ui;her  ex- 
periments on  the  sub-maxillary  and  other  glands 
showed,  as  he  aimoimced  to  the  Academic  des 
Sciences,  in  1858,  that  when  the  gland  ifi  actively 


secreting,  the  venous  blood  issuing  from  it  is  red. 
Two  sets  'of  nerves  control  the  action  of  the  gland, 
stimulation  of  the  chorda  tympani  making  the 
venous  blood  red,  while  stimulation  of  the  sympa- 
thetic nerve  makes  it  darker  than  usual.  He  was 
thus  able  to  formulate  the  statement:  'Hhe  sympa- 
thetic nerve  is  the  constrictor  of  the  blood  vessels; 
the  chorda  tympani  is  their  dilator",  and  it  may  be 
said  with  truth  that  all  subsequent  work  on  the  vaso- 
motor system  has  been  based  on  these  researches. 
The  physiological  effects  of  poisons,  particularly  of 
curare  and  carbon  monoxidey  also  engaged  Bernard's 
attention.  He  found  that  the  former — an  arrow 
poison  employed  by  South  American  Indians — ren- 
dered the  motor  nerves  inactive,  while  the  sensoiy 
and  central  nervous  system  remained  intact.  His 
analysis  of  the  action  of  the  latter  showed  that  it 
instantly  replaces  the  oxygen  of  the  red  blood  cor- 
puscles, while  it  cannot  of  itself  be  subsequently 
replaced  by  oxygen. 

In  1855  Bernard  succeeded  Magendie  as  pro- 
fessor at  the  College  de  France,  having  been  ap- 
Eointed  his  deputy  as  early  as  1847.  In  1862  his 
ealth  failed  and  it  was  not  until  1870  that  he  fully 
recovered.  In  his  later  years  he  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Napoleon  III,  who  was  much  im- 
{>ressed  by  him  and  establisned  two  well-equipped 
aboratories  for  him — one  at  the  Sorbonne,  the  otner 
at  the  Mus^  d'Hidtoire  Naturelle.  In  1867  the 
emperor  made  him  a  member  of  the  Senate,  and  in 
1868  he  was  admitted  to  the  Academic  des  Sciences. 
He  devoted  himself  to  scientific  work  and  the  re- 
vision of  his  published  lectures  until  shortly  before 
his  death.     He  received  a  public  funeral,  at  the  ex- 

Eense  of  the  State,  from  the  Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame, 
eing  the  first  Frenchman  of  science  to  be  thus 
honoured.  A  statue  was  erected  in  his  honour  in 
1886  in  the  court  of  the  College  de  France,  and  also, 
in  1894,  in  the  court  of  the  Faculty  of  Medicine  at 
Lyons.  ,  Bernard's  chief  contribution  to  physiological 
literature,  apart  from  his  orimnal  papers  presented 
to  various  societies,  are  his  "Lemons  ,  in  seventeen 
volumes,  upon  various  topics  in  physiology.  These 
comprise  his  lecture  courses  whicn  were  reported 

by  his  students  and  revised  by  himself. 

Foster,  Claude  Bernard  (New  York,  1809);  Walsh,  Makera 
of  Modem  Medicine  (New  York,  19071 

Hknrt  M.  Brock. 

Bernard  Ouidonis,  Inquisitor  of  Toulouse  against 
the  Albi^enses  and  Bishop  of  Loddve,  b.  at  Roydres 
(Limousin)  in  1261;  d.  at  Lauroux  (H6rault),  30  De- 
cember, 1331.  He  was  one  of  the  most  prolific 
writers  of  the  Middle  Ages.  He  entered  the  Eibmini- 
can  Convent  at  Limoges,  and  made  his  profession  in 
1280.  Ten  years  later  he  was  made  Prior  of  Albi,  and 
subsequently  at  Carcassonne,  at  Castres,  and  at 
Limoges.  In  recompense  for  his  services  as  Inquisitor 
he  was  made  Bishop  of  Tuy  in  Galicia,  by  Pope 
John  XXII,  and  a  year  later  Bishop  of  Loddve.  In 
spite  of  his  manifold  occupations  he  wrote  numerous 
works  of  great  importance  such  as:  "Fleurs  des 
chroniques  ,  which  is  a  universal  chronicle  from  the 
time  of  Our  Lord  to  1331;  "Chronique  abr^g^  des 
empereurs*',  "Chronique  des  rois  de  France",  "Cata- 
lo^e  des  Ev^ues  ae  Limoges",  "Traits  sur  les 
saints  du  Limousin",  "Traits  sur  I'histoire  de  Tab- 
baye  de  St.  Augustin  de  Limoges",  "Chronique  des 
Prieurs  de  Grandmont"  (as  far  as  1318)."  "Chronique 
des  Prieurs  d'Artige"  (as  far  as  1313),  "Chronique 
des  6v^ues  de  Tomouse"  (as  far  as  1327),  "Sanctoral 
ou  Miroir  des  saints",  "Vie  des  saints",  "Traits 
sur  les  soixante-douze  disciples  et  sur  les  ap6tres", 
"Traits  sur  I'^poque  de  la  m^bration  des  conciles", 
"Compilation  historique  sur  Tordre  des  Domini- 
cains  ,  "Pratique  de  I'inquisition".  This  last  is 
practically  his  most  important  work.  It  is  an  expo^^ 
of  UtB  prerogatives  and  duties  of  the  inquisitor;  its 


BEBNARD  ^8  BKBMARD 

citationsi  its  forms  of  condemnation,  its  instructions  Under  Tancred  he  studied  in  Bologna,  where  later 
for  examinations,  constitute  a  imique  document  he  accepted  the  chair  of  canon  law.  Here  Durantis 
for  the  study  of  the  Incmisition  during  the  first  was  his  disciple.  Bemiutl  obtained  a  canoniy  in 
period  of  its  existence.  This  work,  lost  Tor  a  time,  the  Cathedral  of  Bologna,  and  was  also  named  chap- 
was  published  later  in  extenso  by  Tabb^  Douais,  lain  to  Popes  Innocent  IV  and  Alexander  IV,  by 
^'Practica  Inc|ui8itionis  hsereticse  pravitatis,  auctore  whom  he  was  employed  in  solving  questions  of  we^t 
Bernardo  Gmdonis  (Toulouse,  1886).  Bernard  is  According  to  the  mscription  on  his  tombstone  he 
also  the  author  of  a  number  of  theological  treatises;  was  Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Bologna.  B«w 
"Abr^^  de  la  doctrine  chr^tienne",  **TTBit6  de  la  nard  found  ample  scope  for  his  literary  activity  in 
messe  ,  ''Traits  sur  la  conception  de  la  Vierge'',  his  chosen  branch,  canon  law.  From  glosses, 
and  also  of  different  sermons.  summaries,  and  similar  works,  which  had  sppes^rei 
Ba.vM.K,  NqHce  fwr  la  manuacri^  <U  Bernard-Ouy  in  Cofl.^  on  the  Decretals  of  Gregory  IX  and  other  collections, 

^r/-,i5S'i»¥/^P^«*!ff/T5i^*JSSSf^r'  "  '"'^*  h_e  completed^ust  before  his  death   a  work  on  the 

M.  DB  MoREiBA.  Gregonan  Decretals.    This,  owing  to  his  exact  knowl- 
edge of  former  collections  and  thorough  grasp  of 

Bernard  of  Basse,  Friar  Minor  and  chronicler,  his  subject,  won  for  him  the  admiration  of  nis  con- 

a  native  of  Aquitaine,  date  of  birth  uncertain;  he  temporaries;   so   that  he  was  styled  ''Glossator", 

belonged  to  the  custody  of  Cahors  and  was  secretary  and  his  work,  commonly  known  as  "Gloesa  Ordi- 

to  St.  Bonaventure.    He  took  up  the  pen  after  tfaie  naria",  became  the  fruitful  source  of  later  glosses, 

Seraphic  Doctor,  he  tells  us,  to  gather  the  ears  the  which  were  printed  with  Gregory's  collection.     Ber^ 

latter  had  dropped  from  his  sheaf,  lest  anything  niu*d  was  careful  to  note  what  he  had  taken  from 

of  so  great  a  memory  as  that  of  St.  Francis  might  others,  while  his  own  comments  were  signed  "  Bern. " 

perish.     His  "Liber  de  Laudibus  Beati  Fwrncisci"  The  "Glossa  Ordinaria"  was  given  to  the  press  in 

composed  about  1280,  besides  a  r6sum6  of  some  of  Mainz  in  1472,  1473,  and  in  Rome  in  1474.     In  this 

the  earlier  legends,  contains  brief  and  valuable  in-  Roman  edition  there  are  additions,  especially  from 

formation  about  the  companions  of  St.  Francis  and  the  "Novella  Commentaria"  of  Giovanni  Andrea 

the  foundation  of  the  three  Franciscan  Orders,  and  (d.   1348).     Bernard's  "Casus  Longi"  on  separate 

is    the    only   thirteenth-century    document   which  chapters  of  the  same  Gregorian  Decretals  is  equally 

specifies  the  first  biographies  of  St.  Francis.    About  mentorious.     It  was  frequently  edited:  Paris,  1475; 

1297-1300  he  compiled  a  catalogue  of  the  ministers  Venice,  1477;  Bologna,  1487;  Strasbure,  1488,  1493; 

^neral  up  to  his  time,  which  is  also  a  source  of  much  Lyons,    1500.     Another    work,    entitled    "Smmna 

importance   for  the   study   of   Franciscan   historv.  super  Titulis  Decretalium ",  was  based  on  similar 

Critical  editions  of  both  these  works  have  been  pub-  writings  of  his  master,  Tancred,  of  Bernard  of  Pavia 

lished  by  the  Friars  Minor  of  Quaracchi  [In  Analecta  and  others.     It  is  a  clear,  concise  treatise,  found 

Franciscana,  III   (1897),   666-707]   and   by  Father  in  the  works  of  Nicolaus  de  Tudeschis  (Milan,  five 

Hilarin  Felder  of   Lucerne,  O.  M.  Cap.    "Liber  de  volumes  in  folio). 

Laudibus"  etc.  (Rome,  1897).     Bernard  also  wrote       Hurtkr.  iVomenctefor  IV,  coll.  290,  291;  Leurtn,  /niro- 

the  life  of  Blessed  Christopiier  of  Caho«  inserted  g^„'»  ''^ir^^''£rS^7^^'l^^iJ:^Ji^ 

m  the  "Chronica  XXIV  Generahum  '  (ed.  Quarac-  Rechu  (Stuttgart,  1876-80.)  ft,  114-117. 
chi,  1897,  161-173)  and  is  verv  probablv  the  author  Andrew  B.  Mkbhan. 

of  the  "Speculum  Disciplinae     and  of  the  "Epistola 

ad  Quendam  Novitium^'  erroneously  attributed  to       Bernard    of   Olairvaux,  Saint,  b.  in    1090,  at 

St.    Bonaventure    (See    Bonav.  Opera    Omnia    ed.  Fontaines,   near   Dijon,   France;    d.    at   Clairvauz. 

Quaracchi,  1898,  VIII,  583  sqq.  ana  663  sqq.).  21  August,  1153.     His  parents  were  Tescelin,  Lord 

WADDma,  Scriptorra  Ord.  Minorum  (1660),  59,  and  Sbara-  of  Fontaines,  and  Aleth  of  Montbard,  both  belonging 

li'%4f  SflrC^nJ'l^-  i^  ^\'^7i^t  ^X.  ^T;  to.  the  highwt  nobiUty  of  Burgundy.    Bernard,  the 

Ehrle   in  Zfttsckr,  f.  kath.    Theol.    (1883),  VII,  767-774;  third  of  a  family  of  seven  children,  SIX  of  whom  were 

Deniple,  Archiv.f.  Liu.  und  KinJumgesch.  dea  M.  A.  (1885),  sons,  was  educated  with  particular  care,  because, 

I,  146  sqq.  and  630  eqq.,  also  Mtac.   Franceacarw  (1886),  I,  «,k:u   vAt    nnhom     a.   rlAvoiit    man    \\s\A    fnrpf/ilH    hia 

L  sqq.;  ChPHON.  UA^jitaiM  S6raphtque  (1900).  I,  passim.  w™*?  vct  unDorn,  a  uevout  man  naa  loreujia  nis 

Paschal  Robinson.  great  destiny.    At  the  age  of  mne  years,  Bernard 

was  sent  to  a  much  renowned  school  at  Chatillon-sur- 

Bemard  (or  Bernardine)   of  Bologna  (TPlovi-  Seine,  kept  by  the  Secular  Canons  of  Saint-Vorles, 

AND  TosELLi),  Fnar  Minor  Capuchm  and  Scotist  jje  had  a  great  taste  for  literature  and  devoted  him- 

theologian,  b.  at  Bologna,   17  December,  1701;  d.  gglf  for  some  time  to  poetry.     His  success  in  his 

19  February,  1768.    In  1717  he  entered  the  Capu-  studies  won  the  admiration  of  his  masters,  and  his 

chm  Order  and  some  years  later  filled  successively  growth  in  virtue  was  no  less  marked.     Bemanl's 

the    offices   of   professor    of    moral   and   dogmatic  great  desbe  was  to  excel  in  literature  in  order  to  take 

theology  and  several   times  held    positions  of    re-  up    the    study   of    Sacred    Scripture,    which    later 

sponsibility.    Perhaps  the  best  known  of  Bernard  of  on  became,  as  it  were,  his  own  tongue.    "  Piety  was  his 

Boloma's  wriUn^s  is  the  "Bibliotheca  Scriptorum  aU*',  says  Bossuet.    He  had  a  special  devotJon  to 

O.  Min.  S.  Francisci  Cap.  ',  a  work  which  resembles  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  there  is  no  one  who  speeikB 

Wadding^s  well-known  "Scriptores  Ord.  Min."    It  more  sublimely  of  the  Queen  of  Heaven.    Bernard 

was  published  at  Venice  in  1747,  and  an  appendix  -^as  scarcely  nineteen  years  of  age  when  his  mother 

appeared   at   Rome    in    1852.     Besides   this   work  ^jed.     During  his  youth,  he  did  not  escape  trying 

Bernard  wrote  an  elementary  treatise  on  philoso-  temptations,  but  his  virtue  triumphed  over  them, 

phy  according  to  Duns  Scotus  entitled  "Institutio  j^  many  instances  in  a  heroic  manner,  and  from  this 

Philosophica  prsemittenda  theologi»"  (Venice,  1766),  time  he  thought  of  retiring  from  the  worid  and  living 

and  a  treatise  on   dogmatic  theolo^'',   "Institutio  a  life  of  solitude  and  prayer. 

Theologica"  (Venice,  1746).    He  is  also  the  author        st.  Robert,  Abbot  of  Molesmes,  had  founded,  in 

of  a  "Phrasarium  S.  Scriptur»"  composed  for  the  logg,  the  monasteiy  of  Clteaux,  about  four  leagues 

use  of  preachers  and  authors.  from  Dijon,  with  the  purpose  of  restoring  the  Rule 

HuRTEB,  Namenclator,  III,  6.  n^^,^^,„  of  St.   Benedict  in  aU  Its  rigour.     Returning  to 

Stephen  M.  Donovan.  Molesmes,  he  left  the  govemmSit  of  the  neiTabbey 

Bernard  of  Botone,  generally  called  Parmensis  to  St.  Alberic,  who  died  in  the  year  1109.   St.  Stephen 

from  his  birthplace,  Parma  in  Italy,  a  noted  canonist  had  just  succeeded  him  (1113)  as  third  Abbot  of 

of  the  thirteenth  century;  date  of  birth  unknown;  Clteaux,  when  Bernard  with  thirty  young  noblemen 

d.  1263,  or,  according  to  Hurter,  24  March^  1266.  of  Burgundy,  sought  admission  into  the  oroer.   Three 


APPARITION  OF  THE  B-  VIRGIN  TO  ST.  BERNARD— FIL I PPINO  LIPPI 


the  bead  of  a  bond  of  monks,  the  tbird  to  leave    general  onapter  of  the  order  convoked  bjr  SCephen 
'QUsux,  to  found  a  new  house  at  VaJlfe  d'Absinthe,     o(  Ctteaux.   Though  not  yet  thirty  years  old,  Beniaxd 
or  Valley  of  Bittemeas,  in  the  Diocese  of  Langrea.     was  listened  to  with  the  greatest  attention  and  ro- 
This  Bernard  named  Claire  Vallde,  or  Clairvaux.    epect,  especially  when  he  developed  his  thougbte 
on  the  25th  of  June,  1115,  and  the  names  of  Bernard     upon  the  revival  of  the  primitive  spirit  of  regularity 
uid  Clairvaux  thence  become  inseparable.     During    and  fervour  in  all  the  monastic  orders.    It  was  this 
the  absence  of  the  Bishop  of  Langres,  Bernard  was     general  chapter  that  gave  definitive  form  to  the  con- 
blcsaed  as  abbot  by  William  of  Champeaux,  Bishop     stitutions  of  the  order  and  the  r^ulations  of  the 
of  Ch&lons-sur-Hame,  who  saw  in  him  the  predes-     "Charter  of  Charity"  which  Pope  Calixtus  II  con- 
tiaed  man,  servum  Dei.    From  that  moment  a  strong    firmed  23  Decemb^.  1119.    In  1120  Bernard  corn- 
friendship  sprang   up   between   the  abbot  and   the     posed   his   first   work   "De   Gradibus    Superbiie    et 
btdnp,  who  was  professor  of  theolo^  at  Notre  Dame,    Humilitatis"   and   hie   homilies  which   he  entitles 
of  Paris,  and  the  founder  of  the  cloister  of  St.  Victor.     "De  liudibus  Marin".     The  monks  of  Cluny  had 
The  beginnings  of  Clairvaux  were  trying  and  pain-     not  seen,  with  satisfaction,   those  of  CIteaux  take 
fuL  The  K^me  was  so  austere  that  Bernard's  health    the  fiist  place  among  the  religious  orders  for  regu- 
was  impaired  by  it,  and  only  the  influence  of  his     larity  and  fervour.     For  this  reason   there  was  a 
biend  William  of  Champeaux,  and  the  authority    temptation  on  the  part  of  the  "Black  Monks"  to 
of  the  General  Chapter  could  make  hun  mitipt«  his    make  it  appear  that  the  rules  of  the  new  order  were 
impracticable.     At  the  solicitation  of  William  of 
8t.  Theirry,  Bernard  defended  himself  by  publishing 
his  "Apology"  which  is  divided  into  two  parts.     In 
the  first  he  proves  himself  innocent  of  the  mvecUves 
against  Cluny,  which  had  been  attributed  to  him, 
and  in  the  second  he  gives  the  reasons  for  his  attack 
upon  averred  abuses.     He  protests  hia  profound  es- 
teem for  the  Benedictines  of  Quny  whom  he  declares 
he  loves  equally  as  well  as  the  other  religious  orders. 
Peter  the  Venerable,  Abbot  of  Cluny,  answered  the 
Abbot  of  Clairvaux  without  wounding  charity  in  the 
least,  and  assured  him  of  his  great  admiration  and  sin- 
cere friendship.     In  the  meantime  Cluny  estabUshed 
a  reform,  ana  Sugcr  himself,  the  minister  of  Louis  le 
Gros,  and  Abbot  of  St.  Denis,  was  converted  by  the 
apology  of   Bernard.     He  hastened  to  terminate  his 
world^  life  and  restore  discipline  in  his  monastery. 
The  seal  of  Bernard  did  not  stop  here;  it  extended  to 
the  bishops,  the  clergy,  and  the  faithful,  and  re- 
markable conversions  of  persons  engaged  in  worldly 
pursuits  were  among  the  fruiU  of  his  labours.     Ber- 
nard's letter  to  the  Archbishop  of  Sens  is  a  real 
treatise   "De    Officiis    Episcopcrum".       About    the 
same  time  he  wrote  his  work  on  "Grace  and  Free 
Will". 

In  the  year  1128,  Bernard  assisted  at  the  Council 
of  Tnwes,  which  had  been  convoked  by  Pope  Hono- 
rius  11,  and  was  presided  over  by  Cardinal  Matthew, 
Bishop  of  Albano.  The  purpose  of  this  council  was 
to  settle  certain  disputes  of  the  bishops  of  Paris, 
and  regulate  other  matters  of  the  Churcn  of  France. 
The  bishops  made  Bernard  secretary  of  the  council, 
and  charged  him  with  drawinz  up  the  synodal  stat- 
utes. After  the  council,  the  Bishop  of  Verdun  was 
VesmBHT  or  Br.  Bebnabd  or  Clubtacz  deposed.     There  then  arose  against  Bernard  unjust 

reproaches  and  he  was  denounced  even  in  Rome,  as 
austerities.  The  monastery,  however,  made  rapid  a  monk  who  meddled  with  matters  that  did  not  con- 
pn^resB.  Disciples  flocked  to  it  in  great  numben,  cem  him.  Cardinal  Harmeric,  on  behalf  of  the  pope^ 
desirous  of  putting  themselves  under  the  direction  wrote  Bernard  a  sharp  letter  of  remonstrance.  It 
of  Bernard.  His  father,  the  aged  Tescelin,  and  all  is  not  fitting",  he  said  "that  noisy  and  troublesome 
his  brothers  entered  Clairvaux  as  religious,  leaving  fn^  should  come  out  of  their  maTshes  to  trouble 
oBfy  Hiimbeline,  his  sister,  in  the  world  and  she,  with  the  Holy  See  and  the  cardinals".  Bernard  answered 
the  consent  of. her  huebsJid,  soon  took  the  veil  in  the  letter  by  saving  that,  if  he  had  assisted  at  the 
the  Benedictine  Convent  of  Jully,  Clairvaux  be-  council,  it  was  because  he  had  been  dragged  to  it, 
coming  too  small  for  the  religious  who  crowded  there,  as  it  were,  by  force.  "Now  illustrious  Harmeric",  he 
it  was  necessaiy  to  send  out  bands  to  found  new  added,  "  it  you  so  wished,  who  would  have  been  more 
houses.  In  1118,  the  monastery  of  the  Three  Foun-  capable  of  freeing  me  from  the  necessity  of  assisting 
tains  was  founded  in  the  Diocese  of  Ch&Ions;  in  1119,  at  the  council  than  yourself?  Forbid  those  noisy 
that  of  Fontenav  in  the  Diocese  of  Auton  (now  Dijon)  troublesome  frogs  to  come  out  of  their  holes,  to  leave 
and  in  1121,  tnat  of  Foi^y,  near  Veirins,  in  the  their  marshes  .  .  .  Then  3^ur  friend  will  no  longer 
Diocese  of  Lain  (now  Soissoti).  Notwithstanding  be  exposed  to  the  accusations  of  pride  and  presump- 
this  prosperity,  the  Abbot  of  Clairvaux  had  his  trials,  tion".  This  letter  made  a  great  [mpfMB,ion  upon  the 
During  an  atisence  from  Clairvaux,  the  Grand  Prior  cardinal,  and  justified  its  author  bolii  in  his  eyes  and 
of  Cluny,  Bernard  of  Uxells,  sent  by  the  Prince  of  before  the  Holy  See.  It  was  at  tliis  council  that 
Priors,  to  use  the  expression  of  Bernard,  went  to  Bernard  traced  the  outlines  of  the  Rule  of  the  Knights 
Clairvaux  and  enticM  away  the  abbot  s  cousin.  Templars  who  soon  became  the  ideal  of  the  French 
Robert  of  ChAtillon.  This  was  the  occasion  of  the  nobilitv.  Bernard  praises  it  in  his  "De  Laudibus 
la^;wtr  »nd  DXWt  toucbinf  of  8enuiRl'f  letten.  Novb  Militis". 


BERNABD  500  BDirABD 

The  influence  of  the  Abbot  of  Qairvaux  wiui  soon       In  1137  he  was  agam  forced  to  leave  his  solitude 

£elt  in  provincial  affairs.     He  defended  the  rights  by  order  of  the  pope  to  put  an  end  to  the  quarrel 

of  the  Church  against  the  encroachments  of  kinss  between  Lothaire  and  Roger  of  Sicily.    At  the  oon«  ' 

and  princes,  and  recalled  to  their  duty  Henry.  Arch-  ference  held  at  Palermo,  Bernard  succeeded  in  oon- 

bishop  of  Sens,  and  Stephen  de  Senlis,  Bisnop  of  vincing  Roger  of  the  rights  of  Innocent  II  and  in 

Paris.    On  the  death  of  Honorius  II,  which  occurred  silencing  Peter  of  Pisa  who  sustained  Anadetus. 

on  the  14th  of  February,  1130,  a  schism  broke  out  The  latter  died  of  grief  and  disappointment  in  113S, 

in  the  Church  by  the  election  of  two  popes.  Inno-  and  with  him  the  schism.    Returning  to  Clairraux, 

cent  II  and  Anacletus  II.    Innocent  II  having  been  Bernard  occupied  himself  in  sending  bands  of  monks 

banished  from  Rome  by  Anacletus  took  refu^  in  from    his    too-crowded   monastery   into    Germany, 

France.     King  Louis  le  Gros  convened  a  national  Sweden,   England,  Ireland,   Portugal,  Switzerland, 

council  of  the  French  bishops  at  Etampes,  and  Ber-  and  Italy.    Some  of  these,  at  the  command  of  Inno- 

nard,  summoned  thither  by  consent  of  the  bishops,  cent  II,  took  possession  of  Three  Fountains  Abbey, 

was  chosen  to  judge  between  the  rival  popes.     He  near  the  Salvian  Waters  in  Rome,  from  which  ?o^ 

decided  in  favour  of  Innocent  II,  caused  him  to  be  Eugenius  III  was  chosen.     Bernard  resumed  bis 

recognized  by  all  the  great  Catholic  powers,  went  commentary  on  the   "Canticle  of  Canticles",  aa- 

with   him    into    Italy,   calmed   the   troubles    that  sisted  in  1139,  at  the  Second  General  Lateran  Council 

agitated  the  country,  reconciled  Pisa  with  Genoa,  and  the  Tenth  CEcumenical,  in  which  the  surviving 

and  Milan  with  the  pope  and  ^Lothaire.    According  adherents  of  the  schism  were  definitively  condeomed. 

to  the  desire  of  the  latter,  the  pope  went  to  Li^  About  the  same  time,  Bernard  was  visited  at  Clair- 

to. consult  with  the  emperor  upon  the  best  means  vaux  by  St.  Malachi,  metropolitan  of  the  Church 

to  be  taken  for  his  return  to  Rome,  for  it  was  there  in  Ireland,  and  a  very  close  friendship  was  formed 

that  Lothaire  was  to  receive  the  imperial  crown  from  between  them.    St.  Malachi  would  f^&aiy  have  taken 

the  hands  of  the  pope.     From  Liege,  the  pope  re-  the  Cistercian  habit,  but  the  sovereign  pontiff  would 

turned  to  France,  paid  a  visit  to  the  Abbey  of  St.  not  give  his  penmssion.    He  died,  however,  at  Clair- 

Denis,  and  then  to  Clair\^ux  where  his  reception  vaux  in  1148. 

was  of  a  simple  and  purely  religious  character.    The        In  the  year  1140,  we  find  Bernard  engaged  in  other 

whole  pontifical  court  was  touched  by  the  saintly  matters  which  disturbed  the  peace  of  vae  Church, 

demeanour  of  this  band  of  monks.    In  the  refectory  Towards  the  close  of  the  eleventh  century,  the  schools 

onlv  a  few  conmion  fishes  were  found  for  the  pope,  of  philosophy  and  theolo^,  dominated  by  the  passion 

and  instead  of  wine,  the  juice  of  herbs  was  served  for  discussion  and  a  spirit  of  independence  which 

for  drink,  savs  an  annalist  of  Ctteaux.    It  was  not  a  had  introduced  itself  into   political   and  religious 

table  feast  that  was  served  to  the  pope  and  his  fol-  questions,  became  a  veritable  public  arena,  with 

lowers,  but  a  feast  of  virtues.    The  same  year  Ber-  no  other  motive  than  that  of  ambition.    This  ex- 

nard  was  again  at  the  Council  of  Reims  at  the  side  altation  of  human  reason  and  rationalism  found  an 

of  Innocent  II,  whose  oracle  he  was;  and  then  in  ardent  and  powerful  adherent  in  Abelard,  the  most 

Aquitaine  where  he  succeeded  for  the  time  in  de-  eloquent  ana  learned  man  of  the  age  after  Bernard 

taching  William,  Count  of  Poitiers,  from  the  cause  ''The  history  of  the  calamities  and  the  refutation  of 

of  Anacletus.  his   doctrine   by   St.    Bernard",   says   Ratisbonne, 

In  1132,  Bernard  accompanied  Innocent  II  into  "form  the  greatest  episode  of  the  twelfth  century". 

Italy,  and  at  Cluny  the  pope  abolished  the  dues  Abelard's  treatise  on  the  Trinity  had  been  condemned 

which  Clairvaux  used  to  pay  to  this  celebrated  abbey  in  1121,  and  he  himself  had  thrown  his  book  into  the 

— an  action  which  gave  nse  to  a  quarrel  between  fire.    But  in  1139  he  advocated  new  errors.    Bernard, 

the  "White  Monks"  and  the  "Black  Monks"  which  informed  of  this  by  William  of  St.  Thierry,  wrote 

lasted  twenty  years.    In  the  month  of  May  the  pope,  to  Abelard  who  answered  in  an  insuiMns  manner, 

supported  by  the  army  of  Lothaire,  entered  Rome.  Bernard  then  denoimced  him  to  the  pope  ^o  caused 

but  Lothaire,  feeling  lumself  too  weak  to  resist  the  a  general  council  to  be  held  at  Sens.    Abelard  asked 

partisans  of  Anacletus,  retired  beyond  the  Alps,  for  a  public  discussion  with  Bernard;  the  latter 

and  Innocent  sought  refuse  in  Pisa  in  September,  showed  his  opponent's  errors  with  such  clearness  and 

1133.    In  the  meantime  the  abbot  had  returned  to  force  of  logic  that  he  was  unable  to  make  any  reply, 

France  in  June,  and  was  continuing  the  work  of  and  was  ooliged,  after  being  condemned,  to  retire. 

peacemaJdng  which  he  had  commenced  in   1130.  The  pope  confirmed  the  judgment  of  the  council. 

Towards  the  end  of  1134,  he  made  a  second  journey  Abelsuxi  submitted  without  resistance,  and  retired 

into  Aquitaine,  where  William  X  had  relapsied  into  to  Cluny  to  live  under  Peter  the  Venerable,  where 

schism.    This  would  have  died  out  of  itself  if  William  he  died  two  years  later. 

could  have  been  detached  from  the  cause  of  Gerard,  Iimocent  ll  died  in  1143.  His  two  successors, 
who  had  usurped  the  See  of  Bordeaux  and  retained  Celestin  II  and  Lucius,  reigned  only  a  short  tiaae. 
that  of  Angoul^me.  Bernard  invited  William  to  and  then  Bernard  saw  one  of  his  disciple^i,  Bemara 
the  Mass  which  he  celebrated  in  the  Church  of  La  of  Pisa,  Abbot  of  Three  Fountains,  and  Known  there- 
Couldre.  At  the  moment  of  the  Communion,  placing  after  as  Eugenius  III,  raised  to  the  Chair  of  St.  Peter, 
the  Sacred  Host  upon  the  paten,  he  went  to  the  Bernard  sent  him,  at  his  own  request,  various  in- 
door of  the  church  where  William  was,  and  pointing  structions  which  compose  the  "  Book  of  ^nsidera- 
to  the  Host,  he  adjured  the  Duke  not  to  despise  tion",  the  predominating  idea  of  which  is  *hat  the 
God  as  he  did  His  servants.  William  yielded  and  the  reformation  of  the  Church  ought  to  commerice  with 
schism  ended.  Bernard  went  again  to  Italy,  where  the  sanctity  of  its  head.  Temporal  matters  are 
Roger  of  Sicily  was  endeavouring  to  withdraw  the  merely  accessories;  the  principal  are  piety,  medita- 
Pisans  from  their  allegiance  to  Innocent.  He  re-  tion,  or  consideration,  which  ought  to  precede  action- 
called  the  city  of  Milan,  which  had  been  deceived  The  book  contains  a  most  b^uUful  page  on  the 
and  misled  by  the  ambitious  prelate  Anselm,  Arch-  papacy,  and  has  always  been  greatly  esteemed  by 
bishop  of  Milan,  to  obedience  to  the  pope,  refused  the  sovereign  pontiffs,  many  of  whom  used  it  for 
the  Archbishopric  of  Milan,  and  returned  finally  to  their  ordinary  reading. 

Clairvaux.     Believing  himself  at  last  secure  in  his       Alarming  news  came  at  this  time  from  the  East 

cloister    Bernard    devoted    himself    with    renewed  Edessa  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  TurJ^,  and 

vigour  to  the  composition  of  those  pious  and  learned  Jerusalem  and  Antioch  were  threaten^  with  similar 

works  which  have  won  for  him  the  title  of  "Doctor  disaster.     Deputations  of  the  biidiops  of  Armenia 

of  the  Church".    He  wrote  at  this  time  his  sermons  solicited  aid  from  the  pope,  and  the  King  of  France 

on  the  "Canticle  of  Canticles".  also   sent   ambassadors.     The  pope  commissioned 


BIBVABD  501 

fiernard  to  preach  a  new  Crusade  and  granted  the  title  of  Doctor  of  the  Church.     The  Cistercians 

same  indulgences  for  it  which  Urban  II  had  accorded  honour  him  as  only   the   founders  of  orders  are 

to  the  first.    A  parliament  was  convoked  at  Vezelay  honoiu^,  because  of  the  wonderful  and  widespread 

in  Burgundy  in  1134,  and  Bernard  preached  before  activity  which  he  jgave  to  the  Order  of  Clteaux. 

the  assembly.     The  King,  Louis  le  Jeune,  Queen  The  works  of  St.  Bernard  are  as  follows:  "De 

Eleanor,  and  the  princes  and  lords  preeent  pros*  Gradibus  Superbise",  his  first  treatise;   ''Homilies 

trated  themselves  at  the  feet  of  the  Abbot  of  Clair-  on  the  Gospel  'Missus  est' ''  (1120);  "  Apology  to  Wil- 

vaux  to  receive  the  cross.    The  saint  was  obliged  liam  of  St.  Thierry"  against  the  claims  of  the  monks 

to  use  portions  of  his  habit  to  make  crosses  to  satisfy  of  Cluny:  "On  the  Conversion  of  Clerics",  a  book 

the  zeal  ahd  ardour  of  the  multitude  who  wished  to  addressea  to  the  young  ecclesiastics  of  Paris  (1122); 

take  part  in  the  Crusade.    Bernard  passed  into  Ger-  "De  Laudibus  Novae  MiUtise",  addressed  to  Hushes 

many,  and  the  miracles  which  multiplied  almost  de  Payns,  first  Grand  Master  and  Prior  of  Jerusalem 

at  his  every  step  undoubtedly  contributed  to  the  (1129).    This  is  a  eulogy  of  the  military  order  in- 

success  of  his  mission.    The  Emperor  Conrad  and  stituted  in  1118,  and  an  exhortation  to  the  knights  to 

his  nephew  Frederick  Barbarossa,  received  the  pil«  conduct  themselves  with  courage  in  their '  several 

pirns'  cross  from  the  hand  of  Bernard,  and  Pope  stations.     "De  amore  Dei"  wherein  St.   Bernard 

Eugenius,  to  encourage  the  enterprise,  came  in  person  shows  that  the  manner  of  loving  God  is  to  love  Him 

to  France.    It  was  on  the  occasion  of  this  visit,  1147,  without  measure  and  ^ves  the  different  degrees  of 

that  a  council  was  held  at  Paris,  at  which  the  errors  this  love;  "Book  of  Precepts  and  Dispensations" 

of  Gilbert  de  la  Por6e,  Bishop  of  Poitiers,  were  ex-  (1131),  which  contains  answers  to  questions  upon 

amined.    He  advanced  among  other  absurdities  that  certain  points  of  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict  from  which 

the  essence  and  the  attributec  of  God  are  not  God,  the  abbot  can,  or  cannot,  dispense;  "  De  Gratis  et 

that  the  properties  of  the  Persons  of  the  Trinity  libero  Arbitrio"  in  which  the  Catholic  dogma  of 

are  not  the  peraons  themselves,  in  fine  that  the  Di-  grace  and  free  will  is  proved  according  to  the  princi- 

vine  Nature  did  not  become  incarnate.     The  dis-  pies  of  St.  Augustine;   "Book  of  Consideration", 

cufision  was  warm  on  both  sides.    The  decision  was  addressed  to  Pope  Eugenius  III;  "De  Officiis  Epis- 

left  for  the  council  which  was  held  at  Reims  the  coporum",  addressed  to  Henry,  Archbishop  of  Sens, 

following  year  (1148),  and  in  which  Eon  de  TEtoile  His  sermons  are  also  numerous:  "On  Psalm  XC, 

was  One  of  the  judges.     Bernard  was  chosen  by  the  'Qui  habitat'  "  (about  1125);  "On  the  Canticle  of 

council  to  draw  up  a  profession  of  faith  directly  op-  Canticles".     St.   Bernard    explained    in    eighty-six 

posed  to  that  of  Gilbert,  who  concluded  by  stating  •  sermons  only  the  first  two  chapters  of  the  Canticle 

to  the  Fathers:  "If  you  believe  and  assert  differently  of  Canticles  and  the  first  verse  of  the  third  chapter, 

than  I  have  done  I  am  willing  to  believe  and  speak  There  are  also  eighty-six  "Sermons  for  the  Whole 

as  you  do".     The  consequence  of  this  declaration  Year";    his  "Letters"  number  530.     Many  other 

was  that  the  pope  condenmed  the  assertions  of  Gil-  letters,  treatises,  etc.,  falsely  attributed  to  him  are 

bert  without    denotmcing   him   personally.      After  found  amon^  his  works,  such  as  the  "I'Echelle  du 

the  council  the  pope  paid  a  visit  to  Clairvaux,  where  Goitre  *',  which  is  the  work  of  Guigu^  Prior  of  La 

he  held  a  general  chapter  of  the  order  and  was  able  .Grande  Chartreuse,  les  Mutations,  TEdification  de 

to  realize  the  prosperity  of  which  Bernard  was  the  la  Maison  int^eure,  etc. 

soul.  WorkB  of  St  Bernard,  ed.  Mabillon,  2  vols.  fol.  (1667, 1690), 

the  failure  of  the  Crusade  he  had  preached,  the  entire  three  Uvea  of  the  saint:  Fito  Prima  by  Wiluam  op  St.  Thierry, 

responsibihty  for  which  was  thrown  upon  him.    He  Ernaud  db  Bonneval.  and  Gbopfroy  of  Auxerre;  Vita 

hsTaccredited  the  enterprise  by  miracles,  but  he  fl^.%i^a*^tgLe*S;^"".Si  r^^'^^S^J^'^iX 

had  not  guaranteed  its  success  against  the  nuscon-  Miraculorum  of   Herbert,   the  Exordium  Magnum  Cuter- 

duct  and  perfidy  of  those   who   participated  in   it.  eience.   and   the  Chronicon  ClaravalUnae   (Paris,    1839-40,   4 

I-ck  of  dQpline  and  the  over-confidence  of  the  I^^-4°'3"BS^'l^(ili2)?U^'iS!'i^te  B^^ 

Uoman  troops,  the  mtngues  of  the  Pnnce  of  An-  CUxirvaux  (Monster,   1886);     Neander,  Der  heUige  Bernard 

tioch  and  Queen  Eleanor,  and  finally  the  avarice  and  (Gotha,  1889);  AbbI;  Vacandard,  sl  Bernard,  Orator  (1877). 

evident  treason  of  the  Christian  nobles  of  Syria,  who  '^^'^  «^»*>  pubhshed  a  hfe  (Pans.  1895-97).           q,,  ^^ 
prevented  the  capture  of  Damascus,  appear  to  have 

been  the  cause  of  disaster.    Bernard  considered  it  Bernard  of    Oluny  (or  of  Morlaix),  a  Bene- 

his  dut^  to  send  an  apology  to  the  pope  and  it  is  dictine  monk  of  the  fii^t  half  of  the  twelfth  century, 

inserted  in  the  second  part  of  his  "  Book  of  Considera-  poet,  satirist,  and  hynm-writer,  author  of  the  famous 

tion".     There  he  explains  how.  with  the  crusaders  verses   '^n   the  Contempt   of   the  Wgrld".     His 

as  with  the  Hebrew  people,  in  whose  favour  the  Lord  parentage,  native  land,  and  education  are  hidden  in 

had  multiplied  His  prodigies,  their  sins  were  the  obscurity.    The  sixteenth-century  writer  John  Pits 

cause  of  their  misforttmes  ana  miseries.    The  death  (Scriptores  Anglise,  Ssec.  XII)  says  that  he  was  of 

of  his  contemporaries  served  as  a  warning  to  Bernard  En^hsh  birth.    He  is  frequently  called  Morlanensis, 

of  his  own  approaching  end.    The  fibtat  to  die  was  which  title  most  writers  have  interpreted  to  mean 

Soger  (1152),  of  whom  the  Abbot  wrote  to  Eugenius  that  he  was  a  native  of  Morlaix  in  Brittany,  though 

Iin^If  there  is  any  precious  vase  adorning  the  palace  some  credit  him  to  Murlas  near  Puy  in  fi^arn.    A 

of  the  King  of  ICings  it  is  the  soul  of  the  Venerable  writer    in    the    ''Journal    of   Theological    Studies" 

Soger".     Thibaud,  Count  of  Champagne,  Conrad,  (1907),  VIII,  354-359  contends  that  he  belonged  to  the 

Knperor  of  Germanv,  and  his  son  Henry  died  the  family  of  the  Seigneurs  of  Montpellier  in  Languedoc, 

same  year.    From  the  beginning  of  the  vear  1153,  and  was  bom  at  Murles,  a  possession  of  that  dis- 

Bernard  felt  his  death  approaiSiine.     The  passing  tinguished  family:  also  that  he  was  at  first  a  monk 

of  Pope  Eugenius  had  struck  the  fattd  blow  by  taking  of  St.  Sauveur  d  Aniane,  whence  he  entered  Cluny 

from  nim  one  whom  he  considered  his  greatest  friend  under  Abbot  Pons   (1109-22).     It  is  certain  that 

and  consoler.    Bernard  died  in  the  sixty-third  year  he  was  a  monk  at  Cluny  in  the  time  of  Peter  the 

of  his  ace,  after  forty  years  spent  in  the  cloister.  Venerable  (1122-56),  for  his  famous  poem  is  dedi- 

He  founded  one  hundred  and  sixty-three  monasteries  cated  to  that  abbot.    It  may  have  been  written  about 

in  different  parts  of  Europe;  at  his  death  they  num^  1140.     He  left  some  sermons  and  is  said  to  be  the 

hered  three  hundred  and  forty-three.    He  was  the  author  of  certain  monastic  regulations  known  as 

first   Cistercian  monk  placed   on  the  calendar  of  the  ''Consuetudines  Cluniacenses "  (Hergott,  Vetus 

nints  and  was  canonised  by  Alexander  III,  18  Jan-  Discipl.    Monast.,    Paris,    1726;    Albers,    Consuet. 

oaiy,  1174.    Pope  Pius  VIII  bestowed  on  him  the  Quniac.  antiquiores,  Monte  Cassino,  1906),  also  of  a 

n.— 32 


BmrABD  502  BHUffARD 

cBalogue  (Colloquium)  on  the  Trinity.     The  "De  devoid  of  eseura,  with  tailed  rhymes  and  a  feminine 

Conteinptu   Mundi"   contains  about  3,000   v^ves,  leonine  rhyme  between  the  two  first  sections;  the 

and  is  for  the  most  part  a  very  bitter  satire  against  verses    are    technically    known    as   leonini  crittati 

the  moral  disorders  of  the  monastic  poet's  time.    He  trUices  dactylicit  and  are  so  difficult  to  construct  in 

spares  no  one;  priests,  nuns,  bishops,  monks,  and  great  numbers  that  the  writer  claims  Divine  inspira- 

even  Rome  itself  are  mercilessl^r  scourged  for  their  tion  (the  impulse  and  inflow  of  the  Spirit  of  Wisdom 

shortcomings.     For  this  reason  it  was  first  printed  and  Understanding)  as  the  chief  agency  in  the  execu- 

b^  Matthias  Flaccus  as  one  of  his  testes  veritatis,  or  tion  of  so  long  an  effort  of  this  kind.    To  Archbishop 

witnesses    of    the    deepHseated    corruption    of    the  (then  Dean)  Trench,  who  first  translated  about  one 

medieval    Church    (Varia    poemata    de    corrupto  himdred  lines  (Sacred  Latin  Poetry,  London,  1849, 

ecclesise  statu,  Basle,  1557),  and  was  often  reprinted  1864),  the  metre  seemed  repulsive  and  awkward; 

b^  Protestants  in  the  course  of  the  seventeenth  and  to  the  famous  Uturgiologist  Dr.  Neale  (The  Rhythm 

eighteenth  centuries.     Its  complete  Latin  text  is  of  Bernard  of   Monaix,  8th  ed.,  London,  1868)  it 

found   in   Thomas   Wright    (Anglo-Latin    Satirical  seems ''one of  the  loveliest  of  mediaeval  measures". 

Pbets  of  the  Twelfth  Century,  London,  1872).    This  It  is,  indeed,  a  solemn  and  stately  verse,  rich  and 

Christian  Juvenal  does  not  proceed  in  an  orderly  sonorous,  not  meant,  however,  to  be  read  at  one 

manner  against  the  vices  and  follies  of  his  age.    it  sitting,  at  the  risk  of  surfeiting  the  appetite.   Bemard 

has  been  well  said  that  he  seems  to  eddy  about  two  of  Clunv  is  an  erudite  writer,  and  his  poem  leaves 

main  points:  the  transitory  character  of  all  material  an  excellent  impression  of  the  Latin  culture  of  the 

pleasures  and  the  permanency  of    spiritual    joys.  Benedictine   monasteries   of   France   and   England 

Bemard  of  Cluny  is  indeed  a  lyrical  writer,  swept  in  the  first  half  of  the  twelfth  century  (Bishop  Stubbs, 

from  one  theme  to  another  bv  the  intense  force  of  Seventeen  Lectures  on  Medieval  History,  London, 

ascetic  meditation  and  bv  the  majestic  power  of  1893).     The   modem   interest  of   English-speaking 

his  own  verse,  in  which  there  lingers  yet  a  certain  circles  in  this  semi-obscure  poet  centres  in  the  lovely 

fierce   intoxication    of    poetic    wrath.      His   highly  hymns  of  exceptional  piety,  warmth,  and  delicacy 

wrought  pictures  of  heaven  and  hell  were  probably  of  sentiment  dispersed  through  his  lurid  satire:  one 

known  to  Dante;  the  roasting  cold,  the  freezing  fire,  of  them,  in  particular.   ''Jerusalem  the  Golden", 

the  devoiuing  worm,  the  fiery  floods,  and  agam  the  has  been  made  imiveraally  famous  in  the  translatk>n 

glorious  idyl  of  the  Golden  Age  and  the  splendours  of  the  above-mentioned  Dr.  Neale,  first  printed  in  his 

of  the  Heavenly  Kingdom  are  couched  in  a  diction  ''Medisval  Hynms  and  Sequences"  (London,  1851). 

that  rises  at  times  to  the  height  of  Dante's  genius.  •Other  translations  of  the  brief  portion  made  known 

The  enormity  of  sin,  the  charm  of  virtue,  the  torture  in  Enriish  by  the  aforesaid  writers  are  owing  to 

of  an  evil  conscience,  the  sweetness  of  a  God-fearing  8.  G.  Duffela   (1867)  and  Chariee  Lawrence  Ford 

life   alternate  with  heaven  and  hell  as  the  themes  (1898).     A  complete  English  translation  (in  prose) 

of  his  majestic  dithyramb.     Nor  does  he  dwell  in  appeared  from   the  pen  of  Hennr  Pr^le,   in  the 

generalities;    he   returns   again   and   again   to   the  "American   Journal   of  Theolojgy"    (1906,   72-101, 

wickedness  of  woman  (one  ofthe  fiercest  arraignments  286-308,   495-516),   with   a   biographical   note   by 

of  the  sex),  the  evils  of  wine,  money,  leammff,  per-  Samuel  Macauley  Jackson, 
iury,  soothisaying,  etc.;  this  master  of  an  elegant,        '  **   '        "   "'  '""* 

forceful,  and  abundant  latinity  cannot  find  words  ^^^    ^^^  ^  ^^  ^^  ^^^^^ 

strong  enough  to  convey  his  prophetic  rage  at  the  j5iS.''or^y»nno^Jy',  ^  ▼. 
moral  apostasy  of  his  generation,  in  almost  none  of  Thomas  J.  Shasak, 

whom  does  he  find  spuitual  soundness.     Youthful 

and  simoniacal  bishops,  oppressive  agents  of  eccle-  Bernard  of  Oompostella  (1)  Antiquttb,  a  canon- 
siastical  corporations,  the  officers  of  the  Curia,  papal  ist  of  the  early  thirteenth  century,  a  native  of  Coin- 
legates,  and  the  pope  himself  are  treated  with  no  postella  in  Spain.  He  is  called  Antiquus  to  dLis- 
less  severity  than  in  Dante  or  in  the  sculptures  of  tinguish  him  from  another,  as  below.  He  became 
medieval  cathedrals.  Only  those  who  do  not  know  a  professor  of  canon  law  in  the  University  of  Bo- 
the  utter  frankness  of  certain  medieval  moralists  logna.  Bemard  compiled  a  collection  of  the  decrees 
could  borrow  scandal  from  his  verses.  It  may  be  promulgated  by  Innocent  III  during  the  first  ten 
added  that  in  medieval  times  "the  more  pious  the  years  of  his  pontificate  (1198-1208).  This  wo  A, 
chronicler  the  blacker  his  colours".  The  eariy  half  often  called  by  the  scholars  of  Bologna  "Compilatio 
of  the  twelfth  centurv  saw  the  appearance  of  several  Romana'*,  because  the  author  took  his  documents 
new  factors  of  secularisn;!  unknown  to  an  earlier  from  the  Roman  archives,  was  not  of  much  practical 
and  more  simply  religious  time:  the  increase  of  worth,  since  an  official  or  authentic  collection,  ex- 
conunerce  and  mdustnr  resultant  from  the  Crusades,  tending  to  1210,  rendered  Bemard's  compilation 
the  growing  independence  of  medieval  cities,  the  superfluous.  Only  portions  of  either  of  these  ooUec- 
secularization  of  Benedictine  life,  the  development  tions  were  printea  (ed.  "Ant.  Augustini  Opera,*', 
of  pageantry  and  luxury  in  a  hitherto  mde  feudal  Lucca,  1769,  IV,  600-608).— (2)  Junior  or  Mooer- 
world,  the  reaction  from  the  terrific  conflict  of  State  nus,  a  canonist  who  lived  in  the  middle  of  the  thip- 
and  Church  in  the  latter  half  of  the  eleventh  century,  teenth  century,  called  Compostellanus  from  the  fact 
The  song  of  the  Cluniac  is  a  great  cry  of  pain  wrung  that  he  possessed  an  ecclesiastical  benefice  in  Oom- 
from  a  deeply  religious  and  even  mystical  soul  at  postella.  He  was  known  also  as  Brigantius  from 
the  first  dawning  consciousness  of  a  new  order  of  nis  birthplace  in  Galicia,  Spain;  later  of  Monte 
human   ideals   and   aspirations.     The   turbid   and  Mirato.    Bemard  was  chaplam  to  Innocent  IV,   a 


the  near  future.   This  poet-preacher  is  also  a  prophet;  the   Decretals  of  Gregory  IX.    The   "Mai«arita" 

Antichrist,  he  says,  is  bom  m  Spain;  Elijah  has  come  was  published  in  Paris,  1516.     Bemard  was  the  first 

to  life  a^n  in  the  Orient.   The  last  days  are  at  hand,  to  write  a  commentary  on  the  constitutions  of  Inno- 

and  it   oehoves  the  tme  Christian  to  awake  and  be  cent  IV  (not  published).    A  third  work  was  entitled 

ready  for  the  dissolution  of  an  order  now  grown  "Casus  seu  Notabilia"  on  the  five  books  of  Decretals, 

intolerable,   in  which  religion   itself  is  henceforth  which  was  intended  as  a  complete  and  practical 

remiesentea  by  cant  and  hypocrisy.  conmientary,  but  which  owing  to  the  authors  death. 

The  metre  of  this  poem  is  no  less  unique  than  its  did  not  go  beyond  titie  six^  of  tbe  first  book,  ^^ 

diction;  it  is  a  dactylic  hexameter  in  three  sections,  sequently  not  puWshed* 


Banii.TB,  Dw  OaMAudtr  QwOm,  II,  118,  110;  LiouM,    to  devote  bimaelf  to  their  eoDvereioD.    For  fort** 

theae  people  Euid  earned  the  light  of  taith  even  into 
Bemud  of  Loxomblirf ,  Domiiiic&n  theotogiao,     many    cantana    of    Lombardy,    effecting    numeroiu 
amtroveraialist,  and  Inquisitor  of  the  Archdioceaea    conversiona  uid  working  many  miracleB. 


k  6>logne,  Hainz,  and  Trier;  b.  at  Straaaen  near  For  another  reaaon,  however,  Bemard'e  name 
GoloKiie:  d.  at  Cologne.  5  October,  1535.  He  studied  will  forever  be  f&moua  in  history.  Since  the  most 
at  the  latter  place  where  he  entered  the  Order  of  ancient  timea  there  was  a  path  across  the  Pennine 
Preachers,  received  the  baccalaureate  at  Louvain,  Alps  leadinK  from  the  valley  of  Aoata  to  the  Swiss 
H9B,  and  was  appoiated  Master  of  Students  at  Co-  canton  of  Valais,  over  what  is  now  the  pass  of  the 
logne,  1506,  1506.  In  1507  he  became  R^cnt  of  Great  St.  Bernard.  Tbia  paaa  is  covered  with  pei^ 
Studies  at  Louvain;  fellow  of  the  college  of  Doctors  petual  enow  from  seven  to  eight  feet  deep,  and  drifts 
Rt  Cologne,  in  1516;  and  served  twice  as  Prior  of  sometimes  accumulate  to  t&  height  of  forty  feet, 
dlogne.  AH  the  author  of  the  "Catalogus  hiereti-  Though  the  pass  was  extremely  dangerousj  especially 
coram ",  he  has  been  described  as  somewhat  lacking  in  the  springtime  on  account  of  avalanches,  yet  it 
m  critical  judgment;  but  he  was  otherwise  a  safe  and  was  often  used  by  French  and  German  pilgrims  on 
indefatigable  defender  of  the  Faith  against  the  their  way  to  Itome.  For  the  convenience  and  pro- 
heretics  of  his  time.  His  important  works  are;  lection  of  travellers  St.  liemard  foundnl  a  monastery 
"Cntalogus    hnreUcorum    omnium ",  etc.     <£kfurt,  and  hoepice  at  the  highest  point  c'  the  pass,  8.O00 


tarn  Uoenos  or  Si.  Biaa^aB 

1622;    Coioepe,    1528;    ^rls,    1524):    "OonriUain  feet  abov«  sea-level,  in  the  year  962.    A  few  years 

generale  malignantium ",  etc.  (1528);  "Dj  oidinibiu  later  be  established  another  hospice  on  the  Little 

militaribuB  ",  etc.  {Goloene,  1527).  St.  Bernard,  a  mountain  of  the  Graian  Alps,  T,t)7i) 

QD*™^E™*m.  s™t  Orrf.  P™d   (Pa™   ira>   II.  98;  feet  above  sea-level.      Both  were  placed  in  charge 

a  DieL  dt  AM.  caih.  (PariB.  1003).  788;  Hdrtsb,  ?'    Augufltinian    monKfl    alter    ponuncal    approval 

r  <lBiisbnuk,  IS06).  II,  1261.  had  been  obtained  by  him  during  a  visit  to  Rome. 

J.  R.  Vou.  These    hospices   are   renowned    for   the   generous 
bospitality  extended  to  all  travellers  over  the  Great 

Barnard  of  Hsntlioti,  Saint,  b,  in  923,  probably  and  Little  St.  Bernard,  so  called  in  honour  of  the 

in  the  castle  Uenthon  near  Anneoy,  in  Savov;  d.  at  founder    of    these    charitable    institutions.     At    all 

NoTarSii  10O8.     He  was  descended  from  a  ricn,  noble  seasons  of  Uie  year,  but  especially  during  heavy 

family  and  received  a  thorough  education.     He  re-  snow-storms,    the    heroic    monks    accompanied    by 

fused  to  enter  an  honourable  marriage  proposed  by  their  well-trained  dogs,  go  out  in  search  of  victims 

hia  father  and  decided  to  devote  himseli  to  the  sei^  who  may  have  succumbed  to  the  severitv  of  the 

vice  of  the  Church.     Placing  himself  under  the  di-  weather.     They    offer    food,    clothing,    and    shelter 

lectjon  of  Peter,  Archdeacon  of  Aosta,  under  whose  to  the  unfortunate  travellers  and  take  care  of  the 

guidance    he    rapidly  progressed,  Bernard  was  or-  dead.    They  depend  on  gifts  and   coUeotions  for 

dained  priest  and  on  account  of  his  learning  and  susteoanoe.    At  present^  th«  order  ooosistB  of  about 

virtue  was  made  Archdeacon  of  Aosta  ^66),  having  fixty  meroben,  the  inaj<Hity  of  whom  live  at  the 

chaise  of  the  government  of  the  diocese  under  the  boapioe  while  some  have  charge  of  neighbouring 

bishop.     Seeing   the    ignorance    and    idolatry   still  parishes. 

fnv£Unf  smonc  the  people  of  Uw  AJpa,  he  leaolved  Tho  lavtaotof  St.  Bonatd'slifawas  therMonoili^ 


BmrABD  504 

ti<m  of  two  noblemen  whose  strife  threatened  a  fatal  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  civil  and  canon  law 

issue.    He  was  interred  in  the  cloister  of  St;  Law-  and  oftheoloey.    For  a  time  Bernard  served  in  the 

rence.    Venerated  as  a  saint  from  the  twelfth  cen-  armies  of  Rudolph  of  Hapsbui^.    After  his  return  to 

tury  in  many  places  of  Piedmont  (Aosta,  Novara,  ^ena  he  was  appointed  oy  his  fellow-citizens  to  the 

Brescia),  he  was  not  canonised  imtil  1681,  by  In-  highest  positions  in  the  town  government.    While 

nocent  XI.    His  feast  is  celebrated  on  the  15th  of  thus  occupied  he  was  struck  with  blindness.     Having 

June.  recovered  his  sight  through  the  intervention  of  die 

SuRTOs.  VI,  3M;  J>oMKz,  Vie  d.S.  BBnwddif  Menthon  Blessed  Virgin  he  retired  (1313)  to  a  solitary  spot 

g^*i'^^?SS"34i*:rq.r'^  B^IS;  about  ten  Sles  from  Siena,  where  he  led  a  lif^of  She 

Apdtre  de9  Alpes  (Toulouse,  1858).  greatest  austenty. 

Barnabas  Dierinoer.  The  fame  of  his  virtues  soon  attracted   many 

Bemud  of  Pavia.  a  noted  canonist,  provost  of  ^'J?'?'  ^„^T^  TH-S^"^?^  t^fi^\  ^^ 

the  cathedral  chapter  of  Pavia.  and.  in-ll90,  pro-  ^SL"^ ,^:^%f?^J^  ^S!^^^  *^^i^ 


Extrava«antiX"  to  complete  and  bring  down  to  2!°!^,?L- T^*  P"*^'^  °/k*to^1!15*^°'" '"J^'^** 

his   o^  day    Gratian'8    ''Decretum".       Bernard  SS^L^PS"?*  *^*"'°*"*v^  ^'^l®'^  ^"«Ik     ^"^^ 

quotes  authorities  in  an  abbreviated  form;  hence  S.h^^pII'!^^  ^^^  !?T  '^°'^*^^  ^^X" 

t&  title.    With  the  exception  of  a  small  figment  f?5^.!^?fi°™'^'  confirmed  its  constitutions  (1319), 

of  a  letter  of  8t.  Gregoiy  the  Great,  he  took  nSthmg  ?Jl,°???^^r  ,VS]^*"^  ^<^  ^  ^*'^  •'**t^  ^^• 

from  Gratian.    La^  decrees  and  a  few  fragmente  2!^5°*  I^  J^^^^'Ji?**.  °J?50iy  Xl     Upon  the 

of  Roiaan  and  German  civU  law  ai«  foundln  the  ffiPftS^^lA-    "  P^*  T  *^ii °!2*"*'*  1°^  ^^^ 

work.    The  "Breviarium"  soon  found  favour  in  the  ^^^  fP^  H'^"^  ^^"""^  themselves  to  the 

University  of  Bologna,  and  from  the  time  of  Tancied  ?S!,?L  J^t  "?^  ^^"^^  ■  "''^J^^'^  .j'V*^*^^ 

(d.  about  1236)  wis  termed  "Compilatio  Prima"-  £*?„«tyi^™ ^  ^''^ 'r?""!^'^^^*'^  ^t '**"°'*"1 

the  first  collection  of  canon  law  After  Gratian's-  [?' ^^^Si^iT*  iS°  3^"  B«"""^  *«i.  »»  *^  '^  «^ 

whUe    other    coUections    are    styled    "CompUatio  !?r^JLTn^  Si    ^^*'^    ?"^  i^"""^.  ^^    "^^ 

Secunda",  "Tertia",  etc.  ™-^'*' t*"1«^*' ,??T^*'°°.''**^'?!>**  "'^SfT^^ 

The  "Bireviarium''  is  divided  into  five  books,  the  Zf V  mifS  Sf   .^F^?*'T  ''^  ^'^  '**^*^f 

books  into  152  titles,  the  titles  into  912  chapters  the  *^i i.*^?  P'^^^fr"^- ^**'*'°}^  .^"n  ^"^IS  °' 

/.hmnnlnoioRl  orHpr  lUin»  nh»«rv«H  «  f»r  «  ™v»iKi«  Veneration  among  the  samte.    In  the  Roman  Har- 


IlAKicHAcrz, 


processes,  the  third  of  matters  pertaining  to  clerics  A.  Fourxet. 

and  regulars,  the  fourth  of  matrimony  the  fifth  of  Bemardln  de  Picqulgny.    See  Piconio  (a  Pic»- 

ecclesiastical  cnmes  and  cnmmal  procedure.    While  j^jq) 

no  rubrics  we  prefixed  to  the  books  of  Bernard,  B,„i„dtoe    ot   Peltre,    Blessed,    Friar   Minor 

his  titles  and  chapters  have  their  own  peculiar  m-  *»w»i«M«iii^i    vl    .  ^  ,7'    tx  1     •   ',  jor.      j  j     . 

scriptions.    The  ''Breviarium"  was  pub'Ushed  in  a  S'*''^|?'^i  ^^l  ^tj^i  ^WT'  "LJ^^iS^f  \t:^ 

wort  entiUed  "  Antique  CoUectiones  Decretalium,  Pavia    28  September,  1494      He  belonKed  to  the 

cum   Ant.   Augustini,   Episcopi    IlerdensU,   notis*'  noble  family  of  Tomitano  and  wm  the  eldest  of  nine 

(Lerida.  1576;  Paris,  16095;  alJo  in  the  work:  "Ant.  J^H^";  ^»  "^  St  James  of  the  Marc^  preached 

Augustini  Op^ra"  (Lucca,  1765 ;  4  vols.)    Jo-  l^  |^°*«?  course  at  ^ua  and  inspired  to  ent«r 

sep^  AnthonFde  ftiegger,  k  professor  n  the  Univer-  J^®  u  'i??'"?T  v^^^'  »?*  ™^m  JT*k  "    "^  "'• 

si^of  Pra^e  (d.  m6)   published  an  incomplete  ^e  habit  of  the  Fnars  Minor  in  May  of  the  same  year. 

ecStion  oflhe  "Breviarium"    (Freiburg,  mi)  in  ^e  completed  successfully  his  studi«,  at  Mantua 

wUch  he  attempted  to  harmonre  Bei?^'s  work  7*^'^'^°,f^.'''^P'?*V°  ^i.  ^"T""*i^J^ 

with  the  DecretJs  of  Gregory  IX.  °l  »?  impediment  in  his  speech,  Bemardme  be^ 

Bernard  wrote  a  "Sumna  Decretalium"   a  com-  *™  ^°^  '^^  fruitful  apostolate  which  has  caused 

pendium  of  his  " Breviarium",  which  for  a  long  time  !»«« .*<>  be  ranked  as  one  of  the  greatest  Fn«cis«n 

instituted  the  chief  text^boik  of  the  schoofe  and  nj""'onane8  of  the  fifteenth  century.     Every  «ty 

was  edited   bv  Lamievrea   (Tlatiahon     ISflOl      TU^  ^^  O"**  "^^  ^^^^  province  from  Lombardy  in  the 

^'sS^  wJrk  w^^iU^*"8u°mma^2-M^^  ^^  *<>  Sardinia  and  the  provinces  of  the  south 

monio",  which  was  foUowed  by  another:  "Summa  h^*  "'"Tf^'^'f^ -.^tl^^jL  ^f  ^"^ T^ 

de  Electione".    Both  are  short  treatises  (see  Las-  !*^'^.L'^^_^^!jT^f?_°f  S^_*P^^**lf-J^.'!-'^ 


Laspe; 
on  nifi 


s  wie  title,      v^'uevui  i^curcuuiuiu    ,  par\>  oi  wnicn     .  .  '.        _  ^   *i r^,.^j«.     t-u^  «,^-j  ^,^-  „,u:^u 

^yres  edited.     Bernard  also  w^te  a  glossary  J?  a  certam  sense,  the  founder.    The  word nwrw  which 

on  his^reviarium",  a  life  of  St.  LanfrancrBisbob  literally  means  an  accumulation  ofwealth  or  money, 

of  Ticino,  and  commentaries  on  Ecclesiasticus  anS  "'^Z'^^^^^'i^^lL^^ 

the  Canticle  of  Canticles  "®®^  ^^   ^"®  fifteenth   century  to  sigmfy  lending- 

I^miiN,  Introduetio  in  CarimM  Jurvi  Can,  (Freiburg,  1888).  houses  in  ^neral;  and  hence  the  nunUes  pi^U  or 

97  eqq.;  Hurteb.  Nomendaior,  IV,  191,  192;  JEuil,ws  Fhw-  monti  dx  pieth  were  a  species  of  chantable  lending* 

BKRo  m  Quinqm  ComjriUuioneB  AnUqua  (L«ipsi«,  1882),  pp.  vi  houses  not,  perhaps,  unlike  our  modem  pawnbrokers' 

*'^-                                          Andrew  B.  Meehan.  establishments,  but  possessing,  of  course,  none  of 

Bernard  Tolomeo,  Saint,  founder  of  the  congre-  the  sinister  features  of  the  Tatter.     As  originally 

gition  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  of  Monte  OH  veto,  b.  at  instituted  the  manti  di  pietd  were  intended  as  a 


Glairvaux.    He  was  educated  by  his  unde,  Christo-    zeal  in  reorganizing  them  and  in  founding  them  in 


pher  Tolomeo,  a  Dominican,  and  desired  to  enter  the  places  where  they  had  not  previously  existed  a£fords 

religious  life,  but  his  father's  opposition  prevented,  an  explanation  of  the  fact  that  he  is  generally  repre- 

and  he  continued  his  studies  in  secular  surroimdinfs.  sentea  canying  in  his  hand  a  morUe  at  pietH^  that  is» 

After  a  course  in  philosophy  and  mathematics  Ixe  a  little  green  mil  composed  of  three  mounds  and  oo 


BXBKABDIHE            505  BSENA&DINE 

die  top  either  a  cross  or  a  standard  witb  the  inscdp-  four  months  entire  charge  of  this  hospital    Despite 

tion:  Vuram  iUiua  habe.    As  an  author  Bemardine  his  youUi  Bemardine  proved  fulljy  equal  to  this 

has  left  us  little  if  anything  of  importance,  but  it  is  task,  but  the  heroic  and  unremittmg  labour  it  in* 

interesting  to  note  that  the  authorship  of  the  well-  volved  so  far  shattered  his  health  that  he  never 

known  Anima  Christi  has  as  often  as  not  been  completely  recovered.    Having  distributed  his  patri- 

ascribed  to  Blessed  Bemardine  of  Feltre.    The  fact,  mony  in  charity,  Bemardine  received  the  habit  of 

however,  that  the  Anima  Christi  was  composed  some-  the  Friars  Minor  at  San  Francesco  in  Siena,  8  Sep- 

time  before  the  birth  of  Blessed  Bernardino  dis-  temb^,  1402,  but  soon  withdrew  to  the  Observantine 

proves  any  claim  that  he  might  have  of  being  its  convent  of  Columbaio  outside  the  city.     He  was 

author.    As  in  the  case  of  St.  Ignatius,  Bemaniine  professed  8  September,  1403  and  ordamed  8  Sep* 

also  made  frequent  use  of  it  and  recommended  it  to  tember,  1404.    About  1406  St.  Vincent  Ferrer,  while 

his  brethren.    The  feast  of  Blessed  Bemardine  is  preaching  at  Alexandria  in  Piedmont,  foretold  that 

kept  in  the  Order  of  Friars  Minor  on  the  28th  of  nis  mantle  should  descend  upon  one  who  was  then 

September.     (See  Monti  di  PietX.)  listening  to  him,  and  said  that  he  would  return  to 

Lto,  Livet  of  the  Sainia  arid  BleMed  of  the  Three  Orderf  of  St.  France  and  Spain  leaving  to  Bemardine  the  task  of 

Francta  (Taunton,   1886).   Ill,   243-266;   Waddino,   Annalea  pvjin«w»liTiniy  f  ho  i^mAinimr  n^nnlpa  nf  TtAlv 

Minorum,  VI,  142,  XII,  442,  passim;  Acta  88.,  September,  evangelizing  ine  remaimng  pwpi^  Ot  liaiy. 

VII,  814-914;  Zanbttini.  Compendia  della  vita  del  Beato  Fel^  Nearly  twelve  years  passed  before  this  prediction 

trtm,  Bernardino  Tomitano  (Milan);  Flornoy,  Le  Bienhevreux  ytba  fulfilled.     Durinf  tflis  period,  of  which  we  have 

^:S^i;i^^^^^r^J^%'\ol:l^TTZ,?-^ii  "*  «<>  defuk    Bemardine  seems  to  have  lived  in  r^ 

Stephen  M.  Donovan.  tirement  at  Capnola.     It  was  m  1417  that  ms  gift 

of  eloquence  was  made  manifest  and  his  missionary 

Bemardine  of  Fossa,  Blessed  ^  of  the  Order  of  life  really  began  at  Milan  at  the  close  of  that  year. 

Friars  Minor,  historian  and  ascetical  writer,  b.  at  Thenceforth,  various  cities  contended  for  the  honour 

Fossa,  in  the  Diocese  of  Aquila.  Italv,  in  1420;  d.  at  of  hearing   him,  and  he  was  often   compelled  to 

Aquila,  27  November,  1503.    Blessed  Bemardine  be-  preach  in  the  market  places,  his  auditors  sometimes 

bn^ed  to  the  ancient  and  noble  family  of  the  Amici,  numbering  thirty  thousand.     Bemardine  gradually 

and  sometimes  bears  the  name  of  Aquilanus  on  ao-  sained  an  immense  influence  over  the  turbulent, 

count  of  his  long  residence  and  death  m  the  town  of  luxurious  Italian  cities.    Pius  II,  who  as  a  youth  had 

Aquila.     He  received  his  early  training  at  Aquila  been  a  spellbound  auditor  of  Bemardine.  records 

and  thence  went  to  Perugia  to  study  canon  and  civil  that  the  saint  wsjb  listened  to  as  another  Pavl,  and 

law.    On  the  12th  of  March  in  the  year  1445,  he  re-  Vespasiano   da    Bisticci.    a   well-known   Florentine 

ceived  the  Seraphic  habit  from  St.  James  of  the  biographer,  says  that  oy  his  sermons  Bemardine 

Marches  who  was  then  preaching  a  course  of  lenten  ''deanised  all  Italy  from  sins  of  every  kind  tn  which 

sermons  at  Perugia.    From  the  time  of  his  entrance  she  abounded".    The  penitents,  we  are  told^  flocked 

into  religion,  Bemardine  never  ceased  to  advance  to  confession  ''like  ants"  and  in  several  cities  the 

in  reli^us  perfection,  and  the  success  which  crowned  reforms  urged  by  the  saint  were  embodied  in  the 

his  missionarv  labours  throughout  Italy,  as  well  as  in  laws  under  the  name  of  Riformazioni  di  frate  Ber* 

Dalmatia  and  Serigonia,  bears  witness  to  the  eminent  nardino.     Indeed,  the  success  which  crowned  Ber- 

sanctity  of  his  life.    Bernaroine  fulfilled  the  office  of  nardine's  labours  to  promote  moralitv  and  regenerate 

provincial  of  the  province  of  St.  Bemardine  and  of  society,  can  scarcely  be  exaggerated.     He  preached 

the  province  of  Dalmatia  and  Bosnia,  and  would  with  apostolic  freedom,  op^y  censuring  Visconti, 

have  been  chosen  Bishop  of  Aquila  had  not  his  Dtike  of  Milan,  and  elsewhere  fearlesslv  rebuking 

humility  forbidden  him  to  accept  this  dignity.    His  the  evil  in  high  places  which  underminea  the  Quat* 

cult  was  approved  by  Leo  XII,  26  March,  1828.    His  trocento.     In  eacn  city  he  denounced  the  reigning 

feast  is  kept  in  the  Franciscan  Order  on  the  7th  of  vice  so  effectively  that  bonfires  were  kindled  and 

November.    The  writings  of  Blessed  Bemardine  in-  "vanities"  were  cast  upon  them^  by  the  cartload, 

elude  severtl  sermons  and  divers  ascetical  and  his-  Usury  was  one  of  the  prmcipal  objects  of  the  saint's 

toric^  opuscules;  among  the  latter,  the  ''Chronica  attacks,  and  he  did  much  to  prepare  the  way  for  the 

Fratrum   Minorum   Observantiss "   deserves   special  establishment  of  the  beneficial  loan  societies,  known 

mention.   This  interesting  chronicle  was  first  edited  by  as  Monti  di  Pietd.     But  Bernardino's  watchward, 

Leonard  Lemmens,  O.  F.  M..  from  the  autograpn  like  that  of  St.  Francis,  was  "Peace".     On  foot  he 

manuscript,  and  is  prefaced  by  an  interesting  life  traversed  the  length  and  breadth  of  Italy  peace- 

of  Blessed  Bemardine  and  a  critical  estimate  of  his  making,  and  his  eloquence  was  exercised  with  nreat 

writings.    It  may  also  be  mentioned  that  Bemardine  effect   towards   reconciling   the   mutual    hatred   of 

is  the  author  of  the  first  life  of  hb  patron,  St.  Ber-  Gudphs  and  Ghibellines.    At  Crema,  as  a  result  of 

nardine  of  Siena.  his  preaching,  the  political  exiles  were  recalled  and 

Lbo,  Livee  of  the  Saints  and  Bleeaed  of  the  three  Orders  of  St,  even    reinstated    in    their    confiscated    possessions. 

SSS:. S^^-oi^lL^b*l^:^'^X^^?^SS^  Everywhere  BerBardine  persuaded  the  cities  to  take 

1905);  WADDma.  AnnaUe  Mtnorum,  XII,  277-480:  Htotbr.  down  the  arms  of  their  wamng  factions  from  the 

Nomendator,  IV,  968;  Hugh  a  Pe^cocostanza,  Vita  del  B.  church  and  palace  walls  and  to  inscribe  there,  in- 

Bemardino  da  ^oeea  (Naples.  187^).               n^„^^,„  stead,  the  initials  I.  H.  S.     He  thus  gave  a  new 

Stephen  M.  Donovan.  .      ^  ^^  ^  tangible  form  to  the  devotion  to  the 

Bemardine  of  Siena,  Saint,  Friar  Minor,  mis-  HcHy  Name  of  Jesus  which  was  ever  a  favourite 
sionary,  and  reformer,  often  called  the  "Apostle  of  topic  with  him  and  which  he  came  to  regard  as  a 
Italy' ,  b.  of  the  noble  family  of  Albizeschi  at  potent  means  of  rekindling  popular  fervour.  He 
Massa,  a  Sienese  town  of  which  nis  father  was  then  used  to  hold  a  board  in  front  of  him  while  preaching, 
«M>vemor,  8  September,  1380;  d.  at  Aquila  in  the  with  the  sacred  monogram  painted  on  it  in  the  midst 
Abruzzi,  20  May,  1444.  Left  an  orphan  at  six  Ber-  of  rays  and  afterwards  expose  it  for  veneration.  This 
nardine  was  brought  up  with  great  care  by  his  pious  custom  he  appears  to  have  introduced  at  Volterra 
aunts.  His  youtn  was  blameless  and  engaging.  In  in  1424.  At  £U>logna  Bemardine  induced  a  card- 
1307  after  a  course  of  civil  and  canon  law,  he  joined  painter,  who  had  been  ruined  by  his  sermons  against 
the  Confraternity  of  Our  Lady  attached  to  the  fl;reat  gambling,  to  make  a  living  by  designing  these  tab- 
hospital  of  Santa  Maria  della  Scala.  Three  years  Giter,  j^ts,  and  such  was  the  desire  to  possess  them  that 
when  the  pestilence  revisited  Siena,  he  came  forth  the  man  soon  realized  a  small  fortune. 
fo»m  the  life  of  seclusion  and  prayer  he  had  em-  In  spite  of  his  popularity — perhaps  rather  on  ac 
bsaced,  to  minister  to  the  plague-stricken,  and,  count  of  it — Bemardine  had  to  suffer  both  opposition 
ttBBsted  by  ten  companions,  took  upon  himself  for  and  persecution*     He  was  accused  of  heresy,  the 


BEBHABDIHE                            506  BBBHABBINS 

tablets  he  had  used  to  promote  devotion  to  the  part  of  Italy  which  had  not  heard  his  voice,  set  oat 
Holy  Name  being  made  the  basis  of  a  clever  attack  to  evangelize  the  Kingdom  of  Naples.  Being  too 
by  the  adherents  of  the  Dominican,  Manfred  of  weak  to  walk,  he  was  compelled  to  ride  an  ass.  But 
Vercelli,  whose  false  preaching  about  Antichrist  worn  out  by  his  laborious  apostolate  of  forty  years 
Bernardino  had  combated.  The  saint  was  charged  the  saint  was  taken  down  with  fever  and  reached 
with  having  introduced  a  profane,  new  devoton  Aquila  in  a  dying  state.  There  lying  on  the  bare 
which  exposed  the  people  to  the  danger  of  idolatry,  ground  he  passed  away  on  Ascension  eve,  the  20th 
and  he  was  cited  to  appear  before  the  pope.  This  of  May,  just  as  the  Friars  in  choir  were  chanting  the 
was  in  1427.  Martin  V  received  Bernardine  coldly  anthem:  PcUer  manifestam  nomen  Tuum  hominQms 
and  forbade  him  to  preach  or  exhibit  his  tablets  .  ,  .  ad  Te  venio.  The  magistrates  refused  to  allow 
until  his  conduct  had  been  examined.  The  saint  Bemardine's  body  to  be  removed  to  Siena,  and  after 
humbly  submitted,  his  sermons  and  writings  beii^  a  funeral  of  unprecedented  splendour  laid  it  in  the 
handed  over  to  a  commission  and  a  day  set  for  his  church  of  the  Conventuals.  Miracles  multiphed  after 
trial.  The  latter  took  place  at  St.  Peter's  in  presence  the  saint's  death,  and  he  was  canonized  by  Nicholas 
of  the  pope,  8  June,  St.  John  Capistran  having  charge  V,  24  May,  1450.  On  17  May,  1472,  Bemardine's 
of  the  saint's  defence.  The  malice  and  futility  of  body  was  solemnly  translated  to  the  new  church  of 
the  charges  against  Bernardino  were  so  completely  the  Observants  at  Acjuila,  especially  erected  to  re- 
demonstrated  that  the  pope  not  only  justified  and  ceive  it,  and  enclosed  m  a  costly  shrme  presented  by 
commended  the  saint's  teaching,  but  urged  him  to  Louis  XI  of  France.  This  church  having  been  com- 
preach  in  Rome.  Martin  V  subsequently  approved  pletely  destroyed  by  earthquake  in  1703,  was  re- 
Bemardine's  election  as  Bishop  of  Siena.  The  placed  by  another  edifice  wnere  the  precious  relicE 
saint,  however,  declined  this  honour  as  well  as  the  of  St.  Bernardino  are  still  venerated.  His  feast  is 
Sees  of  Ferrara  and  Urbino,  offered  to  him  in  1431  celebrated  on  20  May. 

and   1435,   respectively,   saying  playfully   that  all  St.  Bernardine  is  accoimted  the  foremost  Italian 

Italy  was  already  his  diocese.     After  the  accession  missionary  of    the    fifteenth  century,  the  greatest 

of  Eugene  IV  Bemardine's  enemies  renewed  their  preacher  of  his  day,  the  Apostle  of  tne  Holy  Name, 

accusations  against  him,  but  the  pope  by  a  Bull,  and  the  restorer  of  the  Order  of  Friars  Minor.    He 

7  January,  1432,  annulled  their  highhanded,  secret  remains  one  of  the  most  popular  of  Italian  saints, 

proceedings  and  thus  reduced  the  saint's  caliminiators  more  especially  in  his  own  Siena.    With  both  painters 


re( 

asserted. 

was  perpetuated  by  the  feast  of  the  Triumph  of  the  Pinturicchio  at  Ara  Coefi  in  Rome,  while  the  carveS 

Holy  .Name,  conceded  to  the  Friars  Minor  in  1530  reliefs  on  the  facade  of  the  Oratory  of  Perugia,  built 

and  extended  to  the  Universal  Church  in  1722.  in  1461  by  the  magistrates  of  that  faction-rent  dty 

In  1433  Bernardino  accompanied  the  Emperor  Sig-  in  gratitude  for  Bemardine's  efforts  for  peace  among 

ismund  to^  Rome  for  the  latter's  coronation.    Soon  them,  are  considered  one  of  the  loveliest  productions 

after  he  withdrew  to  Capriola"  to  compose  a  series  of  of  Renaissance  art.    But  the  best  portrait  of  Bemar- 

sermons.     He  resumed   his   missionaiy  labours  in  dine  is  to  be  foimd  in  his  own  sermons  and  this  is  es- 

1436,  but  was  forced  to  abandon  them  in  1438  on  his  pecially  tme  of  those  in  the  vernacular.    That  we  are 

election  as  Vicar-General  of  the  Observants  throu^-  able  to  enter  so  thoroughly  into  the  spirit  of  these 

out  Italy.    Bernardino  had  laboured  strenuously  to  Predidve  volgari  is  due  to  the  pious  inoustry  of  one 

spread  this  branch  of  the  Friars  Minor  from  the  Benedetto,  a  Sienese  fuller,  who  took  down  word  for 

outset  of  his  religious  life,  but  it  is  erroneous  to  style  word,  with  a  style  on  wax  tablets,  a  complete  course 

him  it-8  founder  since  the  origin  of  the  Observants  of  Bemardine's  Lenten  sermons  delivered  m  1427,  and 

may  be  traced  back  to  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  afterwards  transcribed  them  on  parehment.     Bene- 

century.     Although  not  the  immediate  founder  of  detto's  original  MS.  is  lost,  but  several  very  ancient 

this  reform,  Bernardine  became  to  the  Observants  copies  of  it  are  extant.    All  the  forty-five  sermons  it 

what   St.    Bernard    was   to    the    Cistercians — their  comprises  have  been  printed  (Le  Prediche  Volgari  di 

Principal    support    and    indefatigable    propagator.  San  Bernardino  di  Siena.    Edite  da  Luciano  Banchi, 

ome  idea  of  his  zeal  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  Siena,  1880-88,  3  vols.).    These  seraions  which  often 

that,  instead  of  the  one  hundred  and  thirty  Friars  lasted  three  or  four  hours,  throw  much  light  on  the 

constituting  the  Observance  in  Italy  at  Bemardine's  fifteenth-century  preaching  and  on  the  custonis  and 

reception  into  the  order,  it  coimtea  over  four  thou-  manners  of  the  time.     Couched  in  the  simplest  and 

sand  before  his  death.    In  addition  to  the  number  he  most  popular  language — for  Bernardine  eveiywhere 

received  into  the  order,  Bemardine  himself  founded,  adapted  himself  to  the  local  dialect  and  paiJanoe — 

or  reformed,  at  least  three  hundred  convents  of  Friars,  they  abound  in  illustrations,  anecdotes,  oigressions, 

Not  content  with  extending  his  religious  family  at  and  asides.    The  saint  often  resorted  to  mimicry  and 

home,  Bernardine  sent  missionaries  to  different  parts  was  much  given  to  making  jokes.     But  his  native 

of  the  Orient  and  it  was  largely  through  his  efforts  Sienese  gayety  and  characteristic  Franciscan  playful- 

that  so  many  ambassadors  from  different  schismatical  ness  detracted  nothing  from  the  effect  of  lus  sermons, 

nations  attended  the  Council  of  Florence  in  which  and  his  exhortations  to  the  people  to  avert  God's 

we  find  the  saint  addressing  the  assembled  Fathers  wrath  by  penance,  are  as  powerful  as  his  ajppeals 

in  Greek.     Having  in  1442  persuaded  the  pope  to  for  peace  and  charity  are  pathetic.     Very  different 

accept  his  resignation  as  vicar-eeneral  so  that  he  from  these  popular  Italian  sermons  taken  down  deOa 

might  give  himself  more  imdividedly  to  preaching,  viva  voce  are  the  series  of  Latin  sermons  written  by 

Bernardine   resumed   his   missionary  labours.     Al-  Bemardine,  which  are  in  fact  formal  dissertatkHis 

though  a  Bull  was  issued  by  Eugene  IV,  26  May,  with  minute  divisions  and  subdivisions,   intended 

1443,  charging  Bernardine  to  preach  the  indulgence  to  elucidate  his  teaching  and  to  serve  rather  as  a 

for  the  Crusade  against  the  Turks,  there  is  no  record  guide  to  himself  and  others  than  for  practical  de- 

of  his  having  done  so.    There  is,  moreover,  no  good  livery.     Besides  these  Latin  sermons  which  reveal 

reason  to  believe  that  the  saint  ever  preached  out-  profoimd  theological  knowledge,  Bemardine  left  a 

side  Italy,  and  the  missionary  joumey  to  Palestine  number  of  other  writings  which  enjoy  a  high  reputa- 

mentioned  by  one  of  his  early  biograpners  may  per-  tion — dissertations,  essays,  and  letters  on  practical, 

haps  be  traced  to  a  confusion  of  names.  ascetical,  and  mystical  theology,  and  on   religioufl 

In   1444,  notwithstanding  his  increasing  infirmi-  discipline,  including  treatises  on  the  Blessed  ^r«in 

ties,  Bernardino;  desirous  that  there  should  be  no  and  St.  Joseph,  useid  in  the  Breviary  leaaona,  bmsl 


BmrAEDINCS  507  BIBn 

commentary  on  the  Apocalypse.    Bemardine's  writ-  gas  of  Burgos,  who  towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
ings  were  first  collected  and  published  at  Lyons  century,  had  reformed  the  Abb^  of  Gradefes,  Per- 
in  1501.     De  la  Haye*s  edition,  "Sti.  Bemardini  ales,  and   St.  Anne  of  Valladolid,  where   Jane  de 
Senensis  Ordinis  Seraphici  Minorum  Opera  Onmia".  Ayala  introduced  the  true  spirit  of  Cfteauz.    In  1601 
issued  at  Paris  and  Lyons  in  1536,  was  reprintea  St.  Anne  of  Valladolid  became  the  mother-house  of 
there  in  1650,  and  at  Venice  in  1745.    As  a  result  of  the  new  reform,  and  in  1606  the  oonstitutions  were 
the  petition  addressed  to  the  Holy  See  in  1882  by  approved  by  Paul  V.    This  reform  extended  as  far  as 
the  Ueneral  Chapter  of  the  Friars  Minor,  requesting  the  Indies  and  the  Canary  Islands. 
that  St.  Bemardine  be  declared  a  Doctor  of  the        In  1622  Louise-Theresa-Blanche  de  Ballon,  daugh- 
Church,  a  careful  inquiry  was  instituted  as  to  the  ter  of  Charles-Emmanud  de  Ballon,  chamberlain  of 
authenticity  of  the  works  attributed  to  the  saint,  the  Duke  of  Savoy  and  later  ambassador  of  this  prince 
Some  of  these  are  certainly  spurious  and  others  are  in  France  and  Spain,  began,  under  the  direction 
doubtful  or  interpolated,  while  not  all  the  saint's  of  St.  Francis  of  Siales,  her  near  relative,  the  reform 
genuine  works  are  contained  in  the  editions  we  pos-  of  the  monastery  of  St.  Catherine  (Savoy).    She  after- 
aess.    A  com]3lete  and  critical  edition  of  St.  6er-  wards  went  with  five  sisters  to  Rumilly  and  foimded 
nardine's  writings  is  much  needed.     An  excellent  the  Congr^ation  of  Bemardines  of  Divine  Provi- 
selection  from  his  ascetical  works  was  recently  issued  dence.    This  reform  spread  into  SavoV  and  France, 
by  Cardinal   Vives    ^ti.   Bemardini    Senensis    de  The  constitutions  were  printed  in  1631.     In  1634 
IXominicd  Passione,   Resurrectione  et  SS.   Nomine  Mother  de  PonQonnas,  who  with  four  other  Cistercian 
Jesu  Contemplationes,  Rome,  1903).  sisters  of  Grenoble  had  embraced  the  reform,  having 
We  are  fortunate  in  possessing  several  detailed  gone  to  Paris  to  found  a  new  house,  had  the  oonstitu- 
lives  of  St.  Bemardine  wntten  by  his  contemporaries,  tions  reprinted  with  some  changes.    Louise  de  Ballon 
Three  of  these  are  given  in  full  in  the  Acta  Sanctorum  then  had  them  again  printed  so  as  to  conform  to  the 
Maji,^  y,  with  Comm.  Prsev.  by  Henschen.   The  ^rli-  first  oonstitutions — an  action  which  caused  the  sepan^ 
est  by  Bemabseus  Senensis,  an  eyewitness  of  much  tion  of  the  convents  of  France  and  Savoy.    The  con- 
be  records,  was  compiled  in  1445  shortly  after  the  vents  of  France  formed  what  is  known  as  the  con- 
saint's  death.    The  second  by  the  celebrated  human-  ^-egation  ''of    St.   Bernard".    Mother   Baudet  de 
ist,  Maphseus  Vegius,  who  knew  the  saint  personally,  Beauregard  who  succeeded  Mother  dePon9onnas  in  the 
was  prmted  in  1453.    The  third  by  Fra  Ludovicus  government  of  the  monastery  of  Paris^  changed  the 
Vincentinus  of  Aquila  was  issued  after  the  transla-  name  from  Bemardines  of  Divine  Providence  to  Ber- 
tion  of  the  saint's  body  in  1472.    A  fourth  contem-  nardines  of  the  IVecious  Blood  (1654).    Their  rules 
porary  biography  by  a  Friar  Minor,  hitherto  unedited,  were  approved  by  the  Abbot  of  Pridres,  Vicar  General 
has  lately*  been  printed  both  by  Father  Van  Or-  of  the  Strict  Observance  of  Ctteaux,  and  the  Prior  of 
troy,  S.  J.,  in  the  Anal.  Bolland.  (XXV,  1906,  pp.  304-  St.  Germain-de»-Pr^,  as  Vicar  General  of  the  Cardmal 
389)  and  by  Father  Ferdinand  M.  d'Ardules,  O.F.M.  de  Bourbon,  reoeived  the  vows  of  the  new  commu- 
(Rome,  1906).    The  life  of  St.  Bemardine  written  in  nity  on  the  27th  of  August  of  the  same  year. 
Italian  by  bos  namesake,   Bl.  Bemardine  of  Fossa       The  monasteries  of  the  congregation  now  number 
(d.  1503),  and  mentioned  by  Sbaralea  and  others  does  (I)    Bemardine    Recollects,    13;    QI)    Bemardines 
not  appear  to  have  come  down  to  us.    But  the  lat-  founded  by  Mother  de  Ballon,  2*  (III)  Bemardines  of 
tefB  "Chronica  Fratrum  Minorum  Observanti»",ed-  Flines,  2*  (IV)  Bemardines  of  Lille,  3;  (V)  Bemar- 
ited  by  Lemmens   (Rome,    1902),   contains  several  dines  isolated  in  Belgium  and  Peru,  6.    The  houses 
important  references.     A  valuable  account  of  Ber-  of  France  have  been  closed  by  the  Government.    The 
nafdine's  youth  is  furnished  by  Leonardus  (Benvog-  Bemardines  of  to-day  are  ensaged  in  teaching  and 
iienti)  Senensis,    Sienese   ambassador  to  tne  pope,  fdllow  a  somewhat  modified  rule. 
This  work  which  was  edited  by  Father  Van  Ortroy       The  Bemardines  of  Spain  rise  every  day  at  three 
in  Anal.  Bolland.,  XXI  (1902),  53-80,  was  compiled  o'clock,  and  on  daya  of  great  solenmities  at  two 
in  1446  at  the  instance  of  St.  John  Capistran.     The  o'clock.     For  the  ofl5ce  they  follow  the  Cistercian 
"Life"   of    St.    Bemardine  attributea  to  St.  John  Breviary.   They  fast  two  days  a  week  from  Pentecost 
himself,  and  the  one    transcribed  by  Surius  in  his  to  the  14th  of  September,.four  days  a  week  from  the 
"  Vita  SS. "  (1618),  V,  267-281,  as  well  as  the  tributes  14th  of  ^ptember  to  Easter  Sunday,  and  every  day 
to  Bemardine  of  Pius  II  and  St.  Antoninus  and  the  during  Advent,  Septugesima  time,  and  Lent.    Meat 
acts  of  his  canonization  are  found  in  vol.  I  of  de  la  is  allowed  three  times  a  week  except  during  Advent 
Have's  edition  of  Bemardine's  works.  and  the  nine  weeks  before  Easter  Sunday.    Their 
w ADDING,  AnnaUa,  XII,  ad  ann.  1450,  n.  I  and  Scriptores  habit  consists  of  a  woolen  robe  and  their  bed  is  oon- 

(1050).  67-68:  Bbaralea.  SuppUmentum  (1806),  131-134.  725;  f^rmiihlft    fr»    fhft    rP^ilfl.t.innfl      Thev    live    in    cnm» 

Amadio  Luzzo,  VHa  di  5.  Bernardino  (Venice,  1744:   ilome.  lormaDle    tO    tne    regulations.      ^  ^^y.  "^e    m    OOm- 

1828;  Siena.  1864;  Monza.  1873);  Berthadmier.  ^ii.  de  s.  munity  m  sickness  as  well  as  m  health.    With  the 

Bemardin  (Paris.  1862);  Tousbaint,  Daa  Leben  dee  h.  Bemardin  Bemardines  of  Mother  de  Ballon  this  rule  is  Still  more 

von  Siena  (Ratisbon,  1873);  Life  of  St.  Bemardine  of  Siena  rntttirsLi^       Thpv  rifw  At   five  o'clock  summer  and 

(London,  1873);  Lao  de  Clary.  Uvea  of  the  SainU  of  the  Three  "V"8^^.,    ^^^T  nse  at  nve  O  ClOCK  sunamer  ana 

Orders  of  SL  Fronde  iT&Mnton,  1886),  II,  220-275:  Leon,  Viede  Winter.    Silence  is^kept  except  dunng  the  recreation 

SL  Bemardin  (Vanves,  1893);  Ale8«io,  Storia  di  S.  Bernardino  e  which  follows  dinner  and  SUpper.    They  fast  tWO  days 

lt.S;;*S?T8/.?I^''r8fe).''^id5?b"£3fi'  4?'?SrS.^<^  »  ^^  ^"•m  ^^  Sunday  to  Pentecost  .and  on 

life  of  St.  Bemardine  is  that  by  Paul  Thureau-Dangin  of  the  Saturday  also  durmg  Advent.    They  abstam  from 

French  Academy:  Un  prSdieateur  pomdaire  done  Vltalie  do  la  meat  on  the  Wednesdays,  Fridays,  and  Saturdays 

Benaiseance:  S.  Bemardin  de  Siine  (Paris,  1896).    Thia  bril-  ^f  xu^  -^u^ift  vaaf  M   Giu^aa 

liant    monocraph   has   been    translated  into   Italian   (18»7).  ^*  ^^®  vrXiOiB  year.  J».  UILDAB. 

Oerman  (1904),  and  English  (1900). 

Paschal  Robinson.  Berne,  the  fourth  city  of  Switzeriand  in  population, 

capital  of  a  canton  of  the  same  name  which  is  the 

Bemardines,  The,  title  of  certain  sisters  of  the  second  of  the  Swiss  cantons  in  size  and  first  in  popu- 

order  of  CSteaux  who  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  and  lation,  and  since  1848,  capital  of  the  Swiss  Gonfed^u- 

in  th^  seventeenth  century,  made  energetic  efforts  to  tion,  is  situated  at  a  point  1.788  feet  above  the  sea    . 

restore  the  primitive  observance  of  their  rule.    They  level,  in  Lat.  46*  57'  N.,  and  Long.  7**  26'  E.    The 

were  the  Bemardine  Recollects  (Bemardcts  Recoletas)  larger  part  of  the  city  is  built  on  a  peninsula  that 

in  Spain*  the  Bemardines  of  Divine  Providence,  the  projects  into  the  Aar  from  its  left  bank.     In  the 

Bernardmes  of  the  Precious  Blood;  and  the  Bernar-  Middle  Ages  Berne  contained  over  5.000  inhabitants; 

dinefi  of  Flines  and  of  Lille,  in  France  and  Savoy*  and  in  1764,  13,681;  in  1850,  27,558;  m  1900,  64,064. 

aome  isolated  foundations  in  Belgium  and  in  Peru.  This  last  number  includes  60,622  Germans,  3,087 

The  first  reform  was  due  to  the  Abbesses  of  Las  Huel«  French,  902  Italians,  762  of  mixed  Romance  blood; 


508 

divided  as  to  religion,  there  are  57,946  Protestants,  Joumeymm's  Union  (GeseUenverein),  founded  in 
6,278  Catholics,  668  Jews,  and  481  persons  belonging  1868;  the  Association  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  for  aid- 
to  other  creeds.  As  capital  of  the  Swiss  Confeoera-  ing  the  poor,  1868;  Women's  Society  for  the  En- 
tion,  Berne  is  the  seat  of  the  nationalL  as  well  as  of  eouragement  of  Religious  Life  and  Aid  of  the  Poor, 
the  cantonal,  government,  and  the  official  residence  1875;  Congregation  of  the  Children  of  Mary,  for 
of  all  representatives  of  foreign  Powers.  Being  the  young  giS,  1881;  the  parish  Cecilia  Association 
point  of  junction  of  seven  diiferent  lines  of  railroad,  (since  1878)  a  church-chour  society;  Men's  Society, 
Berne  is  visited  annually  by  some  200^000  tourists  founded  in  1872,  reorganized  in  1^  as  the  Cathobc 
and  is  the  headquarters  of  a  nimiber  of  mtemational  Association  of  the  City  of  Berne,  for  the  protection  of 
unions  and  associations,  such  as  the  International  Catholic  interests,  ana  imited  with  the  social  union. 
Postal  Union;  the  International  Telegraph  Union:  Bemia,  founded  in  1887. 

the  International  Patent  Office;  the  International  History. — The  many  remains  discovered  show 
Express  Union;  the  International  Publishers'  Con-  that  the  territory  surroimdin^  Berne  was  occupied 
gress;  the  International  Peace  Society^  the  Blue  Cross  in  prehistoric  times.  After  me^  Romans  had  been 
Society.  It  is  the  residence  of  a  "Christian-Catholic"  driven  out,  the  region  was  occupied  by  the  Alemanni 
(Old-Catholic)  bishop,  and  a  Catholic  parish  priest,  and  Bur^undians;  in  a.  d.  534  it  belonged  to  the 
the  centre  of  a  large  trade  in  agricultural  produce  Franks,  m  888  it  formed  part  of  the  second  Bur- 
and  of  considerable  manufactures  (chiefly  spun  silk,  {^ndian  empire,  together  with  which  it  was  absorbed 
machinery,  and  scientific  and  musical  instruments),  mto  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  in  1032.  The  Dukes  of 
It  is  one  ot  the  best  built  cities  in  Switzerland,  having  Zfthringen  received  the  territorv  as  a  fief  from  the 
broad  streets  and  large  squares,  while  it  has  pre-  empire,  and  the  last  duke  of  tnis  line,  Berthold  V, 
served,  more  than  most  of  tne  larger  Swiss  cities,  the  founded  the  city  of  Berne  in  1191.  At  his  death 
old  national  characteristics  in  its  domestic  and  mu-  (1218)  it  was  made  a  free  city  of  the  empire.  With 
nicipal  architecture.  There  are  six  bridges  across  the  but  few  interruptions  the  city  was  able  to  preserve 
Aar,  of  which  the  two  most  important  are  the  iron  its  independence  during  its  lon£  and  frequent  wars 
KirchenfeldbrQcke,  217  yards  long,  built  in  1882-83,  with  the  Ck>unts  of  Kyburg,  the  Emperor  Rudolph  of 
and  the  KomhausbrQcke,  388  yards  long,  and  157  Hapsburg,  the  Burgundian  ruler,  Charles  the  Bdd, 
feet  above  the  River  Aar,  built  in  1896-98.  The  city  ana  so  on.  It  was  also  able  by  a  clever  and  con- 
contains  7  churches  and  several  chapels.  The  Catho-  sistent  policy  to  increase  the  size  of  its  territory:  in 
lie  church  of  the  Holv  Trinity,  built  in  1896-1900,  1415  it  conquered  Aargau,  and  Vaud  was  aimexea  in 
with  a  tower  147  feet  high,  is  m  the  style  of  an  early  1536.  The  Disputation  of  Berne,  held  in  January, 
Christian  basilica.  The  church  of  Sts.  Peter  and  1528,  through  the  efforts  of  Berthold  Haller.  Valerius 
Paul,  originally  Catholic,  was  turned  over  to  the  Anshelm,  franz  Kolb,  and  other  friend^  of  Zwindi, 
Old  Catholics  m  1874.  The  most  important  of  the  resulted  in  the  adoption  of  the  Reformation  by  toe 
secular  buildings  are:  the  Rathaus  of  the  Canton,  city  and  the  increase  of  the  possessions  of  the  State 
built  1406-16;  the  old  and  new  Federal  Buildings:  by  the  confiscation  of  church  property;  the  land  thus 
the  Parliament  Building  {Parlament8geb&ude\  erected  acquired  amotmted  to  186  square  miles.    During  the 


in  1834  by  the  reorganization  of  the  academy  already  with,  Zurich,  which,  with  Berne,  occupied  the  most 
in  existence;  it  has  a  Protestant  theological  faculty,  prominent  position  in  the  Confederation.  The  ex- 
an  Old  Catholic  theolo|;icaI  faculty,  ana  faculties  of  treme  oligarchical  rule  of  the  few  patrician  families 
philosophy,  law,  medicine,  and  veterinary  medicine;  caused  a  rebellion  of  the  peasants  m  1653,  and  the 
Its  yearly  expenses  are  880,000  francs  ($176,000),  conspiracy  of  Samuel  Henzi  in  1749,  both  of  which 
and  the  ^idowment  amounts  to  over  a  million  francs  uprisings  were  suppressed  with  much  bloodshed,  and 
($200,000).  Connected  with  the  university  are  an  the  power  of  the  Government  became  more  absolute, 
observatory,  a  botanical  earden,  and  numerous  in«  It  was  not  until  the  French  Revolution  that  the 
stitutes  ana  clinics;  the  .University  Library  was.  in  oligarchy  was  swept  away.  After  a  brave  strug^e, 
1905,  united  with  the  City  Library,  the  joint  oollec-  Berne  was  taken  and  plundered  by  the  Frencn  (5 
tion  amounting  to  some  200,000  volumes,  including  March,  1798);  it  lost  the  Aargau  and  Vaud  and  be- 
many  valuable  manuscripts.  Besides  these  there  are  came  the  capital  of  the  newly  founded  Helvetian 
a  public  and  a  private  gymnasium,  a  secondary  Republic.  As  compensation  for  the  loss  of  the 
school  for  boys,  a  public  and  a  private  secondary  Aargau  and  Vaud,  the  Congress  of  Vienna  (1815) 
school  for  girls,  a  normal  school  (at  Muristalden),  an  gave  Berne  the  greater  part  of  the  supprooocd 
industrial  art  school,  which  is  combined  with  the  Bishopric  of  Basle  and  the  cities  of  Biel  and  Neuen- 
cantonal  industrial  art  museum,  students'  work«  stadt.  The  oligarchical  government,  which  was  re- 
shops,  and  schools  for  mechanics,  art,  and  music,  established,  was  obliged  to  abdicate  at  the  outbreak 
Among  the  numerous  learned  societies  established  at  of  the  Revolution  of  July,  and  a  new  Constitution  was 
Berne  are  the  Swiss  Society  for  the  Natural  Sciences,  adopted  (21  July,  1831)  which  granted  democratic 
founded  in  1815.  and  the  Historical  Research  Society  representation.  This  Constitution  was  amended  in 
of  Switzerland,  toimded  in  1840;  the  Cantonal  Hospi-  a  radical  direction  in  1848  by  the  adoption  of  direct 
tal  contains  360  beds  and  has  an  endowment  of  voting  without  property  qualification;  in  1896  a  new 
over  eight  million  francs  ($1,600,000);  it  was  founded  Constitution  was  accepted  which  granted  initiative 
in  1354,  and  since  1884  has  been  situated  on  the  by  the  people. 

Kreuzmatte  in  Holligen.       Other  hospitals  are:  a  It  was  not  until  1798  that  the  Catholics,  in  virtue  (^ 

hospital  for  infectious  diseases,  founded  in  1284,  and  section  6  of  the  Constitution  of  the  Helvetian  Repub- 

containing  128  beds;  a  hospital  for  women,  with  lie,  were  able  to  re-establish  their  church  organisation, 

maternity  department,  1781;  the  city  BurgerspUalf  In  1799  the  Franciscan  Father  Girard  became  the 

founded  in  1742,  and  having  an  endowment  of  some  fibrst  parish  priest,  beins  at  the  same  time  vicar- 

7  million  francs  ($1,400,000);  the  city  ZieglerspUalf  general  to  the  Bishop  of  Lausanne^  in  1804  he  retired 

founded  in  1867,  and  having  an  endowment  of  some  from  Berne  to  become  a  teacher  at  Freibui^  and 

3  million  francs   ($600,000);   the   JennerapUal   for  Lucerne.    Relations  with  the  cantonal  government 

Children;    the   Cantonal   Insane   Asylum;    a   town  were  fairly  good  during  the  pastorates  of  his  numer- 

orphan  asylum  for  boys  and  ^rLs,  Magdalen  asylum,  ous  successors,  ^et  the  Catholic  community  remained 

and   numerous   private    institutions.     Among   the  a  private  association  and  was  not  reoogmied  by  the 

Oatholio  societies  and  associations  are:  the  Catholio  authorities,  althou^  the  Constitution  of  1848  gua> 


BEBNE  509 

anteed  freedom  of  public  wonlup.     The  Catholio  and  noble  in  its  native  simplicity.    Undoubtedly 

community   made   use   of   the   French   Protestant  Bemi's  fame  is  more  deservedly  due  to  his  ''Rime  . 

church  until  Father  Baud  (1832-67)  built  a  Catholic  embracing  "Sonetti",  "Sonettesse",  and  "Capitoli", 

church  (1858-64);  in  1864  the  parish,  toother  with  wherein  the  Bemesque  manner  found  its  inception 

theold  part  of  the  canton,  was  included  m  the  Dio-  as    well    as    highest    achievement,    and    snivelling 

cese  of  casle.   The  Catholics  refi2sed  to  recognize  the  Petrarchists   were   pitilessly   flouted.     In    spite   of 

deposition  of  Bishop  Lachat  of  Basle  and  rejected  numberless  imitators,  including  such  men  as  Bene- 

the  laws  of  1873-74,  which  were  unfavoiu^ble  to  the  detto  Varchi,  Ercole  Bentivo^io,  Giovanni  Mauro, 

Church;  these  included  the  laws  concerning  parish  Matteo  Franzesi,  and  Ludovico  Dolce,  Bemi's  easy 

elections,  the  cantonal  synod  as  the  highest  cnurch  flowing  tercets,  fairly  bubbling  over  with  graceful 

authority,  and  civil  marriage.     In  the  consequent  raillenr  and  capering  mirth,  dwarfed  all  his  rivals, 

religious  struggle  (KuUurkampf)  they  were  obJiged  The  *  Rime,  Poesie  latine,  e  Lettere"  were  edited 

to  give  up  their  church  and  all  church-endowments  by  A.  Virgili  at  Florence,  in  1885.    Nor  are  the 

to  flie  Ola  Catholics,  who  were  favoured  in  every  way  L^tin  poems,  a  rustic  farce  known  as  "Catrina", 

by  the  authorities,  as  was  shown  by  the  erection  of  TFlorence,  1567),  and  the  "Dialogo  contro  i  poeti" 

an  Old  Catholic  theological  faculty  in  1874,  etc.    It  (Ferrara,  1527)  unworthy  productions  of  his  facUe 

was  not  until  the  decade  beginning  with  1880  that,  pen.    The  morality  of  Bemi's  writings  ik  far  from 

during  the  pastorate  of  Fatner  Jacob  Stammler,  a  commendable. 

truce  was   established    between   Church   and   State.  ,  Virgili.  Francesco  Bemi,  con  doeumenH  iftediH  (Florenoe, 

Father  Stan^er  built  a  new  church,  1896-1900,  'Z'^i^±^^^i^roIS^^nl^::^ic^iu!l^i:i^ 

and  was  raised  to  the  See  of  Basle-Lugano  m  1906.  (Strasbmv,  1888),  II,  514. 

The  ohroniolas  of  Valerius  Anbhblm  (d.  1540)  and  other  Edoardo  San  GlOVAl»nn. 

medievkl  writera  have  been  edited  (1884-ldOl)  by  the  Hiatori-  vixwy^^x. 

cal  Society  of  the  Canton  of  Berne.    See  alao  ForUe$  rentm         «»       j  t^  a  -r^         «     -r^.  i 

Bementium  (a  collection  of  documents  earlier  than  the  year         Beniier,     EtieNNE-AleXANDRE,    French    Bishop, 

^^S^S^Rdf^rftS^^Fr]^  ^-  ^*  ^^°  (Mayenne),  31  October,  1762;  d.  at  Pans, 

tJS3'<JSS^dTJi  (^ris^f^^i^^W?^  1  October  1806. .  He  wa^  at  first  professor  of  theology 

SkkUgidUcfUe  0886):  Idem,  Benu  Burgtrachaft  und  OeaeUen^  in  the  higher  seminary  and  m  the  University  of  Angers, 

f^  ^^?SIS:  *551J'  l^"**'  ^^^  in  den  XUI^XIX,  JahrhuL  then  pastor  of  St.  Laud's  parish,  in  that  city.    During 

£X«'^'Hlfef^"M^S,iSr^^^i3ri?^  ^^%^^^^^  ^  -^f^  *o  t'^e.the  divil  Oa^. 

/a9i  (a  pamphlet— Berne.  1801);  Gbiser,  I>w  KeryoMUfwdc*  and  succeeded   by  his   eloquence  in   arousing  the 

ajkn  Bern  1191-1798  (Berne.  1891);  Idem.  Oeacfcicfcte  de»  peasants  of  Anjou  and  Vend^  into  insurrection.    He 

rSrSJSjK"/^  ^^1^^  ^.^SSS5i^  then  became  one  of  the  most  important  leaders  of 

(1803):  Idem.  GeaehichU  der  RdmischkaiholiecKen  Oemeinde  in  the  whole  movement  by  his  personal  mfluence  both 

^.(Solothurn,  1001);  Daouet,  L«  Phe  Qirard  et  wn  Umps  with  the  chiefs  and  on  the  different  military  councils. 

(runs,  1896),  II;  TOrlbr,  Do*.  FranMukanerldosteT  %n  Bern,  tt  pollpd  "L'AnAtre  dp  la  VendA***      Ah  tr»  what 

m  pamj^et  lesued  at  the  opening  of  the  new  high-achool  at  ^®  ^^  cauea     1j  Apotre  ae  la  venaee   .     as  W)  wnai; 

Beroe  (Bwne,  1003);  AnnvaL  Reports  of  the  StaHetical  Bureau  was  his  real  conduct  dunng  this  insurrection,  towards 

of  Berne,  the  end  of  it  especially,  its  various  historians  do  not 

Grbgor  Rbinhold.  agree.    At  any  rate,  after  the  18th  Brumaire.  Bemier 

^  an  played   the  part  of  negotiator   between   the   First 

Berne,  Abbey  op.     See  Hbbswijk.  ^  Consul  and  the  insurgents.     When  Bonaparte  had 

Bemi,  Francesco,  an  Italian  comic  poet,  b.  at  resolved,  in  spite  of  all  difficulties  and  opposition, 

Lamporecchio  (Florence)  1497  or  1498;  d.  at  Florence,  to  unite  the  French  nation  and  the  Catholic  Church, 

26  May,  1535.    The  son  of  noble  but  impoverishea  he  chose  the  Abb6  Bemier  to  represent  the  French 

parents,  he  spent  his  early  years  in  the  Tuscan  Government  in  the  preparatory  negotiations.    This 

capital  fighting  want.     At  twenty  better  luck  awaited  choice  was  a  happy  one,  on  the  part  of  the  First 

him  in  Iu>me,  where  Cardinal  Bibbiena,  his  relative  Consul,   for,   despite   how   widely   historians   differ 

the  Cardinal's  nephew,  Angelo  Dovizi,  and  Giovanni  in  their  appreciations  of  Bemier's  character^  none 

Mattia  Giberti,  Bishop  of  Verona  and  Datary  to  of  them  denies  him  a  deep  and  subtle  intelligence, 

Leo  X,  successively  employed  him.    In  the  datary,  an  untiring  and  resourceful  activity,  and  a  seductive 

however,  he  had  found  a  hard  taskmaster,  who  kept  influence---all    qualities  which  m»ie  him  a  clever 

him  at  nis  correspondence  all  day  long  and  would  politician. 

not  countenance  the  buffooneries  in  which  the  youn^        As  soon  as  Mgr.  Spina  and  Caselli,  the  pope's 

derk  took  huge  delight.     So,  in  1631  we  find  Bemi  envoys,  arrived  at  Pans,  in  November,  1800,  Bemier 

at  Padua  in  rapturous  freedom,  gaily  bent  on  bandv-  enterea  into  relations  with  them,  and,  at  once  began, 

ing  insults  with  the  notorious  Aretino.     StUl,  the  with  Mgr.  Spina,  the  preparatory  negotiations  on 

autumn  of  the  same  year  saw  him  back  at  his  desk  the  important  points  which  were  to  be  discussed, 

in  the  episcopal  residence  of  Verona,  penning  letters  namely,  the  resignation  of  the  bishops,  the  reduction 

with  a  reluctant  hand.  ^  Not  until  1533,  when  Cardi«  of  the  number  of  dioceses,  the  alienation  of  ecclesi- 

nal  Ippolito  dei  Medici,  who  had  engaged  him  the  astical  properties,  nomination  to  the  bishoprics,  and 

year  oefore.  made  him  a  canon  of  the  Florentine  the  taking  of  the  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  constitution. 

cathedral,  did  he  find  a  position  that  pleased  him.  They  successively  presented  four  projects  of  reduc- 

But  that  long  dreamed  of  life,  with  its  unbridled  tion,  followed  by  another  project  drawn  up  by  Na- 

frolic  and  happy  idleness,  was  not  to  last,  for,  beoom«  poleon  himself.    Difficulties  arose,  necessitating  the 

ing  involved  m  the  feud  then  raging  between  Ippolito  presence  in  Paris  of  the  Papal  Secretary  of  state, 

and  Alessandro  dei  Medici,  he  fell  a  victim  to  poison  Consalvi,  in  June,  1801.    The  Concordat  was  to  be 

under    very    mysterious    circumstances    two   years  signed  on  13  July,  and  Bemier  had  been  appointed 

afterwards.  ^  by   a   decree   of  the   preceding   day  (Messidor  23, 

Bemi's  most  extensive  work,  the  refashioning  of  an.  IX)  as  one  of  the  three  representatives  of  the 

Matteo  Maria  Boiardo's  chivalric  poem,  "L'Orlando  French  Government,  to  conclude  the  Concordat  and 

innamorato",  was  published  at  Milan  seven  years  sign  it.    In  the  meantime,  the  project  agreed  upon 

after  his  death  and  again  at  Venice,  1545.     Leaving  had  been  changed  by  Bonaparte;  letters  were  ex- 

the  original  plot  and  detailed  (Unouemeni  entirely  changed  between  Consalvi  and  Bemier;  Consalvi  re- 

undianged,  tne  jovial  Florentine  sought  to  enamel  fused  to  sign  the  new  project.     Negotiations  con- 

wiUi  a  smooth  diction,  and  colour  with  many  a  quip  tinned  untu  the  16th  of  July,  when  an  agreement 

and  prank  what  he  thought  offensive  on  account  of  was  reached  and  the  Concordat  signed  at  2  o'clock 

its  ruggedness  of  form  and  dullness  of  st^^le.    Thus  in  the  morning.     (See  Concordat.)    In  1802  Bemier 

he  unwittingly  made  a  parody  of  a  creation  st^rong  was  named  Bishop  of  Orleans,  by  Bonaparte* 


610 

dtSa  ngola.  non  !a  pama  mui).    Tbe  ait  <A  ttia 

period  in  aiDung  at  outward  eSect  lost  all  modem- 

tion  and  went  to  too  great  an  extreme.    In  a>m- 

pletJoK  the  church  of  St.  Peter  Bemini  was  natunllT 

obl^ed   lo   exert  all   hia   powers.     Ae   the   aevenui 

architect  engaged  in  the  work  he  gave  the  finLahing 

touches    to    the    great    undertaking.     With    Mirnd 

judgment  he    followed    the   plan  of   Uadema— to 

increase  the  effect  of  the  facade  b^  means  of  flankii^ 

towers.     He  wished,  however,  to  make  the  towers  a 

()   H   HtnvAniL         more  important  feature  than  in"Uadema's  scheme, 

OAUTAOii.        keeping  them  though  in  sucb  proportion  that  in  the 

Bernini,  IioifXKico,  son   of    the  famous  artut    distance  they  should   appear  some   thirty  metres 

Giovanni  Lorenzo  Bemini,  lived  in  the  early  part    below  the  dome.    Aa  ono  tower  was  well  under  way 

b!  the  eighteenth  century.     He  became  a  prelate  and    it  fell  down  on  account  of  the  weakness  of  the  founda- 

canon  of  Santa  Maria  Ma^iore  in  Rome.     He  de-    tJon  bud  by  Madema.     One  of  the  moat  briltiaat 

voted  himself  to  the  study  of  eoclealaBtical  history    worka  of  Bemini  is  the  colonnade  before  St.  Peter'a. 

and    wrote    an   extensive   history   of    the    heresies,     It  proves  the  truth  of  the  axiom  he  laid  down:  "An 

.  "latoria  di  tutte  l'hereeie",4  vola.  tdL  (Rome,  1705~    architect  proves  his  skill  by  turning  the  defects  of 

17);   also,   "Memorie    istoricbe  di   cid  che  hanna    a  tate  into  advantages".    The  slope  of  the  ground 

operato    i   sommi   pontefici  nelle    guerre   contra    i    from   the   doorway   of    the    basilica   to    the   bridge 

Turohi"  in  quarto^loma,  1686);  "II  tribunale  delta    over  the  Tiber  suggested  the  scheme  of  laying  out 

8.  Ruota  Romana  (Rome,  1717).  the  great  stairway   of   twenty-two   steps   and  the 

AOaSmHlanan  limpet.  nos}.1»tiBTXTia,!iomtiuiaiar,     great    and    equally     well-conceived     tenaoe.    The 

•  Q  M.  Sattvaok.         ground   available    being   limited   on    two   ddee  by 

neighbouring  houaes,  Bemini  avoided  the  danger  ot 

BAtniai,  Giotamni  Lorbnio,  one    of  the  most    coming  too  close  to  the  buildings  by  adopting  the 

vigorous  and  fertile  of  Italian  architects  and  sculp-    beautilul  elliptic  form  of   the  colonmtde,  which  en- 

tora,  b.  at  Naples  in  1598;  d.  at  Rome  in  16S0.    Ber-    cloees,  nevertheless,  as  large  a  ground-surface  aa 

nini  in  his  art  ia  the  most  industrious  of  Roman  art-    the  Colosseum. 

ists,  and  his  work  tends  largciv  to  the  baroq^ue.  In  The  avenue  thus  formed  is  perhaps  the  moat 
ad^tion  to  his  abilities  aa  Bculptor  and  arciutect  he  beautiful  one  in  the  world.  When  the  piaua  is 
possessed  those  of  a  painter  and  even  of  a  poet.  Hia  approached  from  the  distance  a  fine  view  la  at  first 
lather,  a  painter  and  sculptor  of  moderate  skill,  gave  obtained  of  the  dome;  unfortunately  the  dome  is 
him  his  nrat  lessons  in  art.  In  1608  the  father  was  more  and  more  obscured,  on  nearer  approach,  by 
called  to  Rome  and  took  Lorenio  with  him.  It  is  the  portioo  and  the  fa^e  of  the  church.  Four  rows 
said  that  the  bov  even  in  his  eighth  ^ear  had  carved  of  Tuscan  columns,  placed  to  right  and  left  and 
a  beautiful  marble  head  of  a  child;  in  hia  fifteenth  having  altogether  tiie  form  of  an  ellipse,  traverse  the 
year  he  produced  the  "David  with  a  Sling"  which  is  piazza  from  one  end  to  the  other.  Between  tin 
now  in  the  Villa  Borzhese.  Paul  V  employed  him,  middle  rows  of  columns  two  carriages  can  pesa, 
and  under  the  five  (ollawing  popea  he  rose  to  great  The  dope  of  the  ground  without  being  sharp  enoujdi 
fame  and  importance.  He  was  the  favourite  of  to  produce  fatigue  causes  the  eye  to  look  steadi^ 
Urban  VIII  (Bariwrini).  In  1029  he  became  the  upward.  In  the  middle  of  the  ellipse,  which  is 
architect  of  St.  Peter'a  and  superintendent  of  Public    895x741    feet,   stands    the    obeUek,   84     feet    high, 


Works  in  Rome.    He  ruled  m  art  like  a  second    which  was  placed  here  in  1586  by  Sixtus  V.     Back 
""  '   lelangelo,  although  his  style  bore  little   resem-    ot  the  ellipse  rises  the  terrace.     Two  ^lleries  unite 
a  to  that  of  the  latter.     Hazarin  tried  in  1664     the  ellipse  with   the   portico,   the  height  of  whidi 


to  persuade  him  to  come  to  Paris,  but  he  did  not  is  best  realiiwd  by  comparing  it  with  these  galleries, 

visit  that  city  untJI  1665  when  he  accepted  an  in-  Everything  here  is  on  a  gniat  scale.    When,  how- 

vitation  from  Louis  XIV,    A  son  named  Paul  and  ever,  the  pope  ^vee  the  blessing  from  the  balcony, 

a  numerous  suito  accompanied   him   to   Paris  and  the  convergence  of  the  linea  in  the  arrangement  of 

Versailles.    Jealousy,  however,  prevented  the  carry-  the  piazza  causes  the  space  to  appear  much  greater 

ing  out  of  hia  plana  for  the  Louvre,  nor  was  he  able  than  it  reaUy  is.    The  stairway  (Bcala  Re^a),  which 

to    maintain   himself    long   in    Paris.    Hia    pupil,  ascends  from  the  portico  to  the  Sala  Regia,  offers  a 

Uathias  Rosm,  was  also  forced,  not  long  aft^  the  fine  perspective.     limitation  was  here  turned  into  * 

master's  departure,   to  leave   the   dtv.     "nie  king,  aource  of  b^uty,     Bemini  had  a  larse  share  in  tin 

however,  treated  Bemini  with  great  nonour  during  erection  of  the  Btat«ly  Barberini  palace  at  Rome. 

his  stay  and  rewarded  him  munificently.      Bemiu  He  built  the  beautiful  Odescalchi  palace,  took  part 

made  a  bust  and  an  equestrian  statue  of  Louis  XIV  in  adorning  the  Piazza  Navonawith  the  obelisk,  and 

which  were  in  a  styie  agreeable  to  the  taste  of  that  designed  the  pleasing  statues  of  the  river-gods  for 

monarch.    Queen  Christina  of  Sweden  viwted  Bemini  the  great  Fountain. 

during  her  stay  in  Rome;  and  on  an  order  of  Kng  In  speaking  of  Bernini's  work  aa  &  sculptor  it  m^ 
Philip  IV  he  made  a  huge  crucifix  for  the  royal  mor-  be  eaid  that  in  this  field  the  decadence  of  hia  art 
tuaiT  chapel.  He  also  carved  bueta  of  Charles  I  of  makes  itself  apparent.  The  skeleton  representing 
England  and  his  wife  Henrietta.  Bemini  triumphed  Death  on  the  tomb  of  Urban  VIII,  in  the  church  ol 
over  all  his  detractors  and  became  in  the  end  as  rich  St.  Peter,  is  placed  in  the  midst  of  ideal  and  really 
as  be  waa  famous.  beautiful  figures.  Weaker  still,  with  the  exception 
It  is  not  neceuary  to  speak  here  of  his  writing  of  the  portnut,  is  the  tomb  of  Alexander  VII.  "St 
and  of  his  comedies  m  verse.  Nor  need  mention  be  Theresa  pierced  by  an  Arrow"  is  exoeedin^y  ef- 
made  of  his  painting  which  amount  to  some  two  fective.  the  "Rape  of  Proserpine",  as  well  as  bis 
hundred  canvases.  He  owes  his  fame  to  his  archi-  "ApoUo  and  Daphne",  are  weak  and  sensuous.  On 
teetuntl  work,  for  which  he  had  in  Rome  great  and  the  other  hand,  the  equestrian  stetue  of  CoostantiDe 
inspiring  examples.  He  never  lacked  imagination,  in  St.  Peter's  suflers  from  its  size,  aa  the  heroic  pro- 
inventive  power,  or  courage  in  undertaking  a  task,  portions  do  not  appear  to  be  united  with  tJie  nece» 
He  did  not  copy  the  aimplicity  of  the  antique  and  sary  intrinric  worth.  To-day  the  canopy  (jbaUa» 
often  deUberat«ly  departed  from  the  canons  of  art  cAtno)  is  as  univeraally  condemned  as  it  waa  tbw 
in  the  hope  of  excelling  them  (cU  non  esor  lalvoUa  (1633)  admired.    Nwther  is  a^jroval  now  (pvea  b 


**- 


»  . 


BSBMIHI  611 

^iie" Chair  of  St.  Peter"  in  the  tribune  of  the  basilica,  poooooaod  many  titles  of  nobility  but  was  almost; 

Viewed  as  a  sculptor  Bernini  is  at  times  extreme,  reduced  to  poverty.    Fran9ois,  the  youneest  son, 

without  force,  theatrical  in  the  pose,  affected  in  de-  was  destined  for  an  ecclesiastical  career  ana  sent  to 

tails,  or  over-luxuriant  in  physical  graces.    He  was  St.-Sulpice.     He  left  that  institution  at  the  age  of 

entirely  in  accord  with  the  spirit  of  his  time  and  nineteen  to  go  into  the  world  to  retrieve  the  family 

count^ianced  it  with  all  the  authority  of  his  ability  fortime.    The  title  of  Abb^,  by  which  he  was  Imown, 

and  fame.    He  attached  more  importance  to  ^race  meant  in  those  days  little  more  tlum  the  tonsure 

of  outwuxl  form  than  to  intrinsic  merit,  and  aimed  and  the  black  gown;  it  certainly  meant  only  that  to 

more  at  external  effect  than  at  the  real  strtistic  com-  him.    Young  &mis  was  a  worldling  in  the  full  sense 

pleteness  of  the  work.    Yet  among  his  productions  of  the  word,  but  success  was  slow  in  coming.    His 

as  a  sculptor  are  many  excellent  works.    As  exam-  noble  birth  gave  him  access  to  the  chapters  of  Brioude 

pies  may  be  given  the  tomb  of  the  Countess  Matilda  and  Lyons;  his  ready  wit  and  courteous  manners 

m  St.  Peter's,  and  the  statues  of  St.  Ludovica  Al-  opened  to  him  the  mansions  of  the  wealthy,  and  the 
bertoni  and  St.  Bibiana  in  the  niches  of  the  colonnade  -  french  Academy  admitted   him  in  reoo^tion  of 

of  St.  Peter's.    In  the  niches  of  these  coliunns  are  certain  literary  essays  whose  principal  merit  was  ^- 

162  statues  made  after  designs  by  Bernini.    In  his  lantry;  but  aU  this  only  concealed,  without  relieving, 

work  on  the  Bridge  of  Sant'  Angelo  he  shows  at  his  poverty.    It  was  at  this  time  that  Bemis  was 

least  wonderful  richness  of  design.    He  by  no  means  introduced  to  the  future  Madame  de  Pompadour,  an 

failed  in  designs  for  tombs  and  in  portrait  busts;  for  acquaintance  which  soon  meant  a  pension  of  1500 

example,  the  bust  of  his  dau^ter  and  that  of  In-  livres  and,  later,  the  appointment  as  ambassador  to 

nocent  X.  Venice. 

He  often  spoiled  the  pure  plastic  effect  of  his  work  Once  at  Venice,  Bemis  rapidly  rose.    He  succeeded 

by  two  or  three  false  conceptions.    He  held  that  the  in  adjusting  some  differences  l)etween  the  Venetians 

antique  repose  of  sculpture,  which,  it  must  be  ac-  and  Pope  Benedict  XIV,  and  thus  won  the  favour 

knowl^ged,  at  times  nearl^r  degenerates  into  stiff-  of  the  latter.    The  knowledge  he  had  acquired  of 

ness,  must  be  transformed  into  effective  action  at  European   diplomacy   made   him   valuable   to   his 

any  cost.    The  naturalistic  painting  of  the  time  Government,  and  partly  in  view  of  possible  prefer- 

drove  the  sculptors  into  this  course.    But  in  the  ment  in  the  Churcn  and  partly  through  a  desire  of 

plastic  arts  the  reason  for  extreme  action  is  often  breaking  with  the  past,  Bemis  received  the  subdea- 

not  clear  and  it  appears  weak,  sentimental,  and  conship  at  the  hands  of  the  Patriarch  of  Venice, 

thealncal.    Wlien  tne  work  is  executed  in  polished  In  1756  Louis  XV  recalled  him  to  make  him  his 

marble,  for  which  Bernini  had  a  strong  predilection,  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  but  his  tenure  of  office 

over-action  is  apt  to  degenerate  into  the  opposite  was  short  and  full  of  trials.    The  alliance  of  France 

of  what  is  intended  and  to  become  an  extreme  with  Austria  against  England  and  Prussia  resulted 

ugliness,  or  a  miscarried  attempt  at  grandeur.    On  in  the  Seven  Years' War  in  which  France  was  the  loser, 

account  of  these  misconceptions  of  art  Bernini's  and  Bemis  was  held  responsible  for  both  the  alliance 

work  was  often  a  failure.    The  style  of  sculpture  and  its  consequences,    it  is  true  that  this  new  policv 

which  aims  solel}r  at  outward  effect  is  seen  to  best  had  been  practically  inaugurated  bv  Rouilld,  Bemis  s 

advantage  when  it  is  used  in  connexion  with  archi-  predecessor  in  the  foreign  office;  that  the  worthless- 

tecture.    The  statues  designed  by  Bernini  for  the  ness  of  the  French  generals,  all  creatures  of  Madame 

fafade  of  St.  Peter's  and  of  the  Lateran  belong  to  de   Pompadour,   and   not   Berais's  carelessness  or 

this  form  of  art.    Action  appears  at  its  best  in  incompetency,  was  the  true  cause  of  the  defeats  of 

sculpture  when  used  as  decoration  and  on  a  small  theFrench;thatthetreatyof  Paris,  which  terminated' 

scale.    The  decorative  architectural  style  is  better  the  war,  insured  to  the  French  some  appreciable 

suited,  therefore,  for  relief  work  than  for  sculpture  advantages;  yet,  despite  this,  Bemis  lost  tne  favour 

in  the  round.  of  the  people  and,  along  with  it,  the  friendship  of 

DoMiNici,  Viu  del  Pittori,  ScuUon  ed  Ardtiteui  NapoHtani  Madame  de   Pompadour.     He   tendered   his  resig- 

(Leipsis.  1879).  banished  to  the  Abbey  of  Vic-sur-Aisne,  near  Sois- 

Q.  QiBTBCANN.  sons.    Pope  Clement  AlII  was  the  only  one  to  re- 
member him.    Just  as  the  fallen  minister  was  going 

Bernini,  Giuseppe  Maria,  a  Capuchin  missionary  into  exile,  he  received  a  papal  motu  proprio  making 

and  Orientalist,    b.   near   Carignan    in    Piedmont;  him  cardinal  (1758). 

d,  in  Hindustan  in  1753.  For  many  years  he  Bemis  profited  by  his  six  years  of  enforced  retire- 
was  a  missionary  in  the  East  Indies,  and  acquired  ment,  receiving  the  diaoonate  and  the  priesthood, 
a  remarkable  knowledge  of  the  languages  and  dialects  In  1764,  after  the  anger  of  the  king  and  Madame  de 
of  India.  In  his  traveLs  through  the  country  he  made  Pompadour  had  subsided,  he  was  sent  to  Albi  as 
a  special  and  careful  study  of  the  manners,  customs,  archbishop.  His  zeal  there  won  him  the  esteem  of 
ana  relidous  beliefs  and  practices  of  the  people,  all  and  prepared  him  for  a  still  higher  position,  that 
The  resmts  of  his  studies  were  collected  in  his  work:  of  ambassador  of  France  at  Rome  (1769).  Bemis's 
**  Notizie  laconiche  di  alcuni  usi,  sacrifizi,  ed  idoli  nel  influence  in  Rome  was  considerable.  It  was  felt 
regno  di  Neipal,  raccolte  nel  anno  1747''.  This  in  the  conclave  of  1769,  which  elected  Ganganelli, 
work  has  never  been  published,  but  is  preserved  in  and  in  that  of  1774,  which  elected  Braschi.  In  the 
manuscript  in  the  library  of  the  Propaganda  at  Rome,  suppression  of  the  Jesuits  by  Clement  XIV,  Bemis 
and  in  the  museum  of  Cardinal  Bonria.  Bernini  also  is  far  from  deserving  all  the  blame  that  is  put  on  him. 
wrote  "Dialogues",  in  one  of  the  Indian  languages.  It  is  well  known  that  he  personally  regretted  the 
also  preserved  in  manuscript  in  the  Propaganda;  a  measure,  and  that  as  ambassador  he  tried  to  avert 
translation  of  "AdhiatmaRamayana" :  one  of"  Djana  it  by  assisting  the  wavering  pope  in  securing  the 
Sagara",  and  a  collection  of  historical  studies  under  delays  for  which  he  had  asked.  But  the  pressure 
the  title,  "M^moires  historiaues"  (Verona).  exercised  by  the  Bourbons  of  Spain,  Naples,  and 

Dtgionario  Biografico  Univertaie  (Florence,  1840).    A  very  France,  and  the  passive  attitude  and  tacit  consent 

SSaSSa  £'3^°«^Mr'  """^-^'"^  •».  been  ^  Austria  bro^t  the  negotiations  to  an  abrupt 

Eneas  B.  Goodwin.  termmation.    When  the  trench  Revolution  broke 

out,  Bemis  held,  in  the  ^ational  church  of  St.  Louis 

Bemis,  Fran^ois-Joachim-Pierrb  db,  a  French  des  Fran^iis,  a  solemn  funeral  for  the  martyred 
cardinal  and  statesman,  b.   1715  at  Saint-Marcel-    Louis  XVI;  he  also  placed  his  palace  at  the  disposal 

d'Arddche;  d.  at  Rome,  1794.    The  Bemis  family  of  the  princesses  of  France  who  had  sought  refuge 


BIRNO  512  BIRNOLD 

in  Rome,  and  finally  resigned  his  post  rather  than  crated  in  Rome  l^  Pope  Adrian  IV.    As  these  see 

take  the  constitutional  oath.    The  last  three  years  were  not  only  episcopal  residences  but  also  politica 

of  his  life  he  spent  in  Rdme  in  comparative  povertv,  centres  and  strongholds  of  foreign  power,  the  Obo- 

devoting  himself  to  the   French  exiles  and   fully  trites  identified  the  Christian  wi£  the  Genn^n  name 

i'ustifying  the  epithet,  **  Protector  of  the  Church  of  and  detested  both.    No  wonder  that  Bemo  at  first 

Tnnce",  bestowed  upon   him  by  Pius  Pope  VI.  met  with  small  success  in  his  missionary  labours. 

The  Fr^ch  colony  in  Rome  erected  a  magnificent  The  Obotrite  Prince  Niklot,  the  fiercest  enemy  both  of 

mausolevun  in  his  honour,  and  the  church  of  St.  the  Germans  and  of  the  Christian  religion,  had  not  yet 

Louis  received  his  remains.  submitted  to  German  ascendeninr  and  was  the  gr»^ 

Bemis's  life  has  too  lon^  received  but  scant  appre-  est  obstacle  to  the  conversion  of  the  people.     Bemo 

dation  because  of  the  levity  of  his  vouth,  which  he  was  even  obliged  in  1158  to  transfer  his  eroscopal 

was  the  first  to  regret  and  called  the  delicta  iuven-  see  from  Mecldenburg  to  Schwerin,  whither  German 

ttUis  mece.    The  publication  of  his  ''M^moires''  in  colonists  had  already  penetrated.    From  Schwerin 

1878  has  put  a  new  construction  on  many  things  as  a  centre,  the  zc^ous  and  intrepid  missionary 

and  given  us  a  truer  and  better  opinion  of  him.  bishop  b^gan  his  work  of  preaching,  destroying  idols, 

Although  the  first  part  of  his  life  cannot  be  defended,  baptising,  and   building   churches,  and  penetrated 

still,  from  the  time  of  his  ordination  at  Venice  and  as  far  as  Demmin  in  hither  Pomerania.    Here,  in 

Soissons,  the  courtier  took  a  higher  view  of  the  1163,  he  converted  the  powerful  Prince  Pribislav, 

sanctity  of  the  priestly  character,  and  was  no  dis-  son  of  Niklot,  who,  however,  fell  away  again  the  very 

credit  to  it.    Bemis  was  a  writer  of  no  mean  talent,  next  year,  made  war  upon  the  Germans,  and  attacked, 

His  "Poles''  show  a  bright  imaj^nation  and  a  and  nearly  killed  the  bishop  at  the  altar.    In  the 

facile  pen;  his  "Letters''  are  not  inferior  to  Voltaire's;  end  he  had  to  acknowledge  the  German  supremacy 

and  tne  poem  "Religion  veng^",  though  lackine  and   remained   henceforth   loyal   to   the   Christian 

the  calm  beauty  of  Racine's  similar  production,  stiU  religion. 

has  inspiring  passages.    Didot   published    Semis's        In  1168  Bemo  undertook  a  missionary  expedition 

"(Euvres  mll^  en  prose  et  en  vers"  (Paris,  1797),  to  the  island  of  ROgen  and  destrosred  the  temple  and 

and  Masson  edited  his  "M^moires"  (1878).  the  great  idol  of  uie  pagan  inhabitants,  whom  by 

EnqfdopAHe  dM  ams  du  monde  (Paris,  1834);  Masson.  patience  and  kindness  ne  won  ovCT  to  the  CSiristian 

?fSnS7?)S. i  ^:^3tl^  tei.t^SS;:  «¥<>?.    in  the  year  ini  he  consecrated  the  CaUje- 

(Paris,  I884)j  Db  La  Rocheterie,  Revue  des  queations  hie-  dral  of  Schwerm,  where  m  1177,  he  held  the  first 

tonquee  (Pans.  1879),  XXVI.  214;  Thbincr.  /fwftmv  de  synod.    The  greatest  service  which  this  apostolic 

»t^ii^^,S;'^'^f^.?.M'^^'""'  '''*'""  """^  ™«  "'ndered.tp  those  «>untri«  was  the  intrcduc 

J.  F.  SoLLiER.  ^'^^  ^'  "^  rehgious  brethren,  the  Cistercian  monks. 

The   monastery   of   Doberan,   which   through   the 

Bemo  (Abbot  of  Reichenau),  famous  as  orator,  bishop's  efforts  was  founded  by  Pribislav  in  1171, 

poet,  philosopher,  and  musician,  bom    (date    un-  soon  became  a  centre  from  which  radiated  Christian 

known)  at  Prftm  near  Trier;  d.  7  June,  1048.    He  civilization  far  and  wide.    The  monks  had   been 

became  Abbot  of  Reichenau  in  1008.    Educated  in  brought  from  his  own  monastery  of  Amelungsbom. 

the  school  of  St.  Gall,  Bemo  visited  Rome  with  the  Two  years  later  Dareun  was  founded  and  entrusted 

Emperor  Henry  II,  and  upon  his  return  introduced  to  Danish  monks,     fhis  monastery,  however,  did 

many  reforms  in  the  liturgical  music  of  his  native  tiot  flourish  until  the  Danish  monks  were  replaced 

land.    Among    his    books    are    the    "Tonariiun",  by  monks  from  Doberan.     During  the  schism  caused 

"De  vari&  psalmorum  atque  cantuum  modulatione'\  b^  Frederick  Barbarossa,  Berno,  like  all  the  Cister- 

and  "De  consonA  tonorum  diversitate",  all  of  which  cians,  never  wavered  in  his  loyalty  to  the  legitimate 

are  contained  in  Migne's  "Patrology"  and  in  Ger-  pope,  though  his  metropolitan,  the  Archbishop  of 

berths  "Scrip tores".    Another  woS  attributed   to  Bremen,   had  Joined    the   cause   of   the   antipope. 

him,  but  less  known,  is  entitled  "De  instrumentis  When  at  last  Frederick  made  his  peace  with  Alex- 

musicalibus".      ^  ^  ander  III,  Bemo  was  enabled  to  make  a  journey  to 

Living  and  writing  at  a  time  when  the  traditions  Rome  (1178)  to  pay  his  homage  to  the  poi>e,  who 

of  Rome  and  St.  Gall  were  still  fresh,  Bemo  has  confirmed  the  erection  of  his  diocese.    During  the 

left,  in  his  works  on  music,  a  fruitful  source  of  Lent  of  the  following  year  he  took  part  in  the  Creneral 

information  to  those  who  are  interested  in  ascer-  Coimcil  of  the  Lateran.     During  his  absence  in  Rome, 

taining  and  restoring  the  rhythmical  form  in  which  the  Wends  had  risen  against  the  Germans,  the  ^rc»t 

the  Gregorian  melodies  were  originally  sung.    Bemo's  monastery*  of  Doberan  had  been  destroyed  and  its 

testimony,  with  that  of  other  early  writers,  supports  seventy-eight  inmates  massacred.     When  peace  was 

the  view  of   those  who  hold  that  the  Gregorian  re-established  Doberan  was  rebuilt  and  again  peopled 

melodies  consist  of  long  and  short  note-values,  as  by  monks  from  Amelungsbom  in  1186.     Bemo  died 

against  the  theory  that  all  notes  in  the  chant  are  of  in  1191  (11907)  having  mboured  as  bishop  in  Meck- 

eoual  length.  lenbuiig  for  over  thirty  years. 

Waonbr.    Neumenhmde    (Freiburg,    1905);    Bontin,  On         Dibxamp  in  Kirchenlex,,  11,  b.  v.;  AUoemeine  deuiache  Btog., 

Oregonan  Rhythm  (New  York.  1906);   Voix  de  8L  OaU  (Fri-  II,  s.  v.:  Heroknr6ther-Kirc8H,  Kirchrngeaeh.,  II,  536-538, 

bourg,   Switzerland,    1906).  a  full  bibliography^  ibidem,  277,  278,  535,  536;  Chkvax.isk, 

Joseph  Otten.  Bio-bM.  (Paris,  19()6),  8.  V. 

B.  GitijDner. 
Bemo  (Apostle  of  the  OBomiTEB),in  the  latter 
half  of  the  twelfth  century.    The  Obotrites  were  one        Bemold  of  Oonstaiice,  historian  and  theologian^ 

of  the  Slav  tribes  known  under  the  conunon  name  of  b.  in  Swabia  about  1054;  d.  at  Schaffhausen,  16  Sep- 

Wends.  and  dwelt  along  the  Baltic  in  Mecklenbui^.  tember.  1100.    He  entered  the  school  of  Constance 

Three  bishoprics  had  been  erected  in  their  country  under  the  renowncMl  Bernard  of  Constance,  and  made 

as  early  as  the  tenth  century,  Oldenbui^  (transferred  rapid  progress  in  study.     He  attended  the  Lenten 

to  Liibeck  in  the  twelfth  century),  Rataebuig,  and  Synod  of  Rome,  in  1079,  at  which  Berenearius  re- 

Mecklenbui^,  but  they  remained  vacant  during  the  tracted  his  errors.    Remaining  in  Italy  tQI  1084  he 

greater  part  of  the  eleventh  centiuy.     Duke  Henry  returned  to  Constance  for  the  episcopal  consecration 

the  Lion,  of  Saxony,  having  parUy  subdued  the  of  Gebhard,  whose  action  in  enforcing  the  reforjn 

Obotrites,  re-established  the  three  bishoprics,  and  decrees  of  Gregoiy  VII  he  later  on  oefended.    In 

in  1155  selected  Bemo  as  Bishop  of  Mecklenbui^.  the  same  year  ne  was  ordained  priest  by  the  pw^ 

He  was  a  Cistercian  monk  of  the  flourishing  monas-  le^te.  Cardinal  Otto  of  Ostia.    In  1086  he  went  with 

tery  of  Amelungsbom  on  the  Weser,  and  was  oonse-  Bishop  Gebhard  as  counsellor  to  King  Herman,  to 


>Jm  b&ttle  of  Bleichfeld.  About  the  Mine  time  be 
fnteted  the  Benedictine  Abbejr  of  St.  Blasien  in 
tbe  Black  Forest  near  SchaFThsusea,  and  in  1091 
the  Abbe^  of  All  Saints  in  the  city  itself,  where  he 
died.  His  name  has  ever  been  associated  with  the 
idbrras  of  Gregoi7  VII.  The  seventeen  tracts  that 
hive  readied  us  are  mostly  apologies  for  the  pope's 
policy,  or  vindicationa  of  men  who  advocated  or 
enforced  it  in  Germany.  Chief  among;  these  are: 
"De  prohibendA  sacerdotum  incontinentift",  written 
agsiiut  the  married  clergy;  "De  damnatione  schis- 
raaticonim",  wherein  he  justified  the  pope's  con- 
dmination  of  that  abuse;  "Apologeticus  super  ex- 
Nmmunicationem  Gregoril  VII",  a  defence  of  the 
[Kipe'B  excommunication  of  HeiU7  IV  and  his  par* 
tisans.  fiemold  is  the  author  of  a  chronicle  (Mon. 
Germ.  Hist.,  Script.,  V)  which  is  still  highly  esteemed. 
The  latter  part  is  a  terse  record  of  contemporary 
events  by  a  knowing  and  intelligent  observer. 
Dom  Morin  has  shown  (Revue  Benedictine,  VIU, 
385-395)  that  Bernold  is  the  author  of  the  "Miero- 
It^us",  an  important  medieval  liturgical  treatise. 
Several  other  works  are  ascribed  to  him,  but  without 
nifficient  evidence. 

SncLAu.  Libtn  und  Werke  dtM  MOnAit  Btmold  sm  Sonet- 
Btanm  (Jena.  188B);  ScanLVZKs.  Dt  BtrOuMi  tt  Btmotdi 
damidt  (Bonn,  1887):  PcrHKT,  Brmald  da  Coaitana;  La 
lUtarmt  dt  Saint  Orfaoin  VII  (Saint-Ettenne,  IMM):  Perti  in 
lin.  Otrm.  Hut..  Script,  V;  Thiner.  ibid..  II;  Watteneach, 
OmoMrndt  OtKAichugMlien  im  MilielaUtT  (Berlin.  ISTT).  II. 
43. 

Thob.  M.  Schwebtner, 

Beinwkrd,  Saint,  thirteenth  Bishop  of  Hildes- 
beim.  Germany,  b.  about  the  middle  of  the  tenth 
century;  d.  20  November,  1022.  He  claimed  deecent 
from  a  noble  Saxon  family,  which  counted  among  its 
members  men  of  distinction  in  Church  and  State. 
Hia  grandfather  was  Athelbero,  Count  Palatine  of 
Saiony.  Having  lost  his  parents  at  an  early  age, 
he  came  under  the  care  of  his  uncle  Volkmar,  Bishop 
of  Utrecht,  who  entrusted  his  education  to  Thangmar, 
tbe  pious  and  learned  director  of  the  cathedral  school 
at  Heidelberg.  Underthisma^ 
ter,  Bemward  made  rapid  prw- 
ress  in  Christian  piety  as  w«l 
as  in  the  sciences  and  in  tha 
liberal  and  even  mechanical  arts. 
He  became  very  proficient  in 
mathematics,  p^tmg,  architeo- 
ture,  and  pB'^icul'"^7  in  the 
manufacture  of  ecdesiastioal 
vessels  and  ornaments  of  silver 
and  gold.  He  completed  his 
studies  at  Mainz,  where  he  was 
ordained  priest  by  Archbishop 
Wllligis.  Chancellor  of  the  Em- 
pire (976-1011).  He  decUned 
a  valuable  preferment  in  the 
diocese  of  lus  uncle,  Bishop 
Volkmar,  and  chose  to  remain 
with  his  grandfather,  Athel- 
bero, to  comfort  him  in  his  old 
age.  Upon  the  death  of  the 
latter,  in  987,  he  became  chap- 
lain at  the  imperial  court,  and 
was  shortly  afterwards  appomted 
by  the  Empress-Regent  Theo- 
phano,  tutor  to  her  son  Otto  III, 
then  six  years  of  age.  The 
vouthful  emperor  is  Miown  to 
have  been  a  learned  and  re- 
ligious prince,  for  which  he 
was  indebted  in  no  small  degree  to  his  instructor. 

Bemward  remained  at  the  imperial  court  until  993, 
when  he  was  elected  Bishop  of  Hildesheim.  His  long 
episcopate  of  nearly  thirW  years  was  prolific  of  great 
Rsults  for  the  EKoceee  of  Hildesheim.  Thangmar,  his 
former  tutor,  who  subsequently  became  his  biogra^Kwr, 


desoribos  in  eloquent  terms,  how  the  sunt,  after  petv 
forming  his  episcopal  functions  in  the  cathedral,  was 
wont  to  visit  the  various  workshops  connected  with 
the  catitedral  school,  and  with  his  own  hands  manu- 
factured gold  and  silver  vessels  for  the  enrichment  of 
the  altaiB,  Under  his  direction  arose  numerous 
churches  and  otjier  edifices,  including  even  fortifica- 
tions tor  the  defence  of  his  episcopal  city  aranst  the 
invasions  of  the  pa^an  Normans.  As  evidences  of 
his  skill  in  the  practice  of  the  mechanical  arts  there 
are  still  preserved  in  Hildesheim  a  cross  of  rich  and 
exquisite  workmanship,  known  as  the  "Bemward 
Cross'',  the  famous  Bemward  column,  with  winding 
reliefs  repreaenting  scenes  from  the  life  of  CSirist, 


Thi  Beshwabd  Chobs 

two  bronie  doors  of  the  Cathedral  of  HQdeahdm, 
showing  Scriptural  scenes,  and  two  candlesticks 
symbolic  of  Cnrist,  the  light  of  the  worid.  A  monu- 
ment of  his  zeal  and  s^  is  St.  Michael's  abbe^- 
chureh  at  Hildesheim— now  Protestant — one  of  the 
most  magnificent  basilicas  in  Germany.  His  knoid- 
edge  and  practice  of  the  arts  were  wholly  employed 
ittthe  service  of  the  Church.  A  man  of  extraordinaiy 
piety,  he  was  much  given  to  prayer  and  the  practice 
of  mortification.  Shortly  before  his  death  m  1022 
he  had  himself  invested  with  the  Benedictine  habit. 
He  was  canonized  by  Pope  Celestine  III  in  1193, 
His  feast  occurs  on  20  November. 

Stimmm  aui  Maria  Loath  (1886),  XXVIII;  QnUn, 
Papl  OnOBT  Vir  V.  XXXIII,  UV;  Kvmf,  Atia*m*in» 
Ktn»^JackiAle,  XIII. 

J.  A.  BmsHAXtJSXa. 
Benaa  (later,  Berrb<xa,  Bbkoie,  and  Beroe),  a 
titular  see  of  Macedonia,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Ber- 
mioe,DOw  Doxa;  it  still  preserves  its  ancient  name. 


pronoun 
Feria,  i 


the  battle  of  Pydna  (168  b.  c.)  and  from  49  to  48 
Pompey  took  up  his  winter  quarters  there  (Hutareh, 
Pomp.  04).  in  its  Jewish  synagogue  St.  Paul 
preached  successfully  (Acts,  xvii,  10,  13);  on  with- 
drawing he  left  at  Bercea  his  disciples  Silas  and 
Timothy.  Onesimus,  tormeriy  Philemon's  slave, 
was  its  first  hishop  aooording  to  the  Apostolic  Con- 
stitutions (VII  46).    Atthetimeof  thelastpartitioD 


BEEOStTS  514  BESOSXni 

of  the  empire,  it  was  allotted  to  Macedonia  Prima  Roman  writers,  show  a  remarkable  agreement  with 

(Hierocles,   Synecdemos,   638),  and   its   see^  made  the  cuneiform  records  and  inscriptions  found  in  the 

suffragan   to  Thessalonica.    Amongst   its   bishops,  libraries  and   temples  of   Babylonia  and  Aa83nna. 

Gerontius  was  present  at  Sardica  in  344,  Luke  at  the  Unfortunately,  however,  by  far  the  greater  part  of 

Latrocinium  of  Ephesus  in  449,  Timothy  at  the  this  priceless  work  has  perished.     What  has  come 

Council  of  Constantinople  under  the  Patriarch  Menas  down  is  in  the  form  of  fragments  preserved  princi- 

in  536,  Joseph  at  the  Eighth  CEksumenical  Council  in  pally  bv  late  Greek  historians  and  writers,  such  as 

869.     Under  Andronicus  II  (1283-1328)  Beroea  was  Alexander  Polyhistor,  Abydenus,  and  ApoUodorua, 

made  a  metropolis.    The  actual  Greek  metropolitans  whose  writings  are  quoted  by  Josephus,  Nicholas  of 

add  the  title  of  Naoussa,  a  neighbouring  city.    It  Damascus,   Julius  Africanus,    Eusebius,   SvncelluB, 

has  now  about  10,000  inhabitants.  and  a  few  others.    So  it  is  apparent  that  the  views 

Besides  this  Beroea,  there  was  in  Thracia  a  Beroe,  put  forth  by  Berosus  come  down  in  a  very  roiind- 

or  Aiigusta  Trajana  (Hierocles,  635),  whither  Pope  about  manner.   In  places  his  statements  have  been  so 

Liberius  (355-358)  was  exiled  (Sozomen,  IV,  11).  garbled  as  to  seem  absurd,  and  yet,  fragmentary  as 

It  is  called  Berrhcea,  or  Beroe,   in  episcopal  lists  his  woric  is,  it  is  of  great  importance. 

(Georgius  Cyprius,  53;  Parthey,  Notit.  episc,  VI,  57;  Of  the  origin  of  the  goos  and  of  the  world,  ao- 

VII,  53;  VIII,  57).    Its  Tiu*kish  name  was  Sski-  cording  to  the  cosmology  and  mvthology  of  the  Baby- 

ZagrOf  for  which  the  present  Bulgarian  substitute  is  lonians,  Berosus    has    the  following  account,  pre- 

Stara-Zagora,    For  its  episcopal  list  see  Lequien,  I,  served  by  Damascius,  which  shows  a  remarkable 

1165-68:   Gams,  427.     Beroea  is  also   an  ancient  agreement  with  the  Babylonian  Creation  epic  di&- 

name  oi  Aleppo.  covered  recently  and  masterly  discussed  and  studied 

Lequien.  Or.  Christ.,  II.  71-74;  Gams,  Series  epiacop.,  429;     by  Smith,  Delitzsch,  Jenson,  Zinunem,  Jastrow,  King, 

SfJSw'"!^ ^"^^              **'*''  ^''*"'*^'''  ^^^  ^  Dhorme,  and  others.     "Among  the  barbarians,  the 

'    '            *                                     Xi.  Peht.  Bab^rlonians  seem  to  pass  over  the  first  of  ^princi- 
ples in  silence,  imagining  two  to  begin  with,  Tavthe 

BeroBOS    (Bripwirdt  or    BrifHoffffSs),  the  name    of  (Tiamat,  the  Hebrew  Tehdm)  and  Apason  (Apsu), 

a  native  historian  of  Babylonia  and  a  priest  of  the  making  Apason  the  consort  of  Tavthe,  whom  th^ 

great  god  Bel  (Bel-Marduk).    He  flourished  during  called   the   'mother  of   the   gods'.     The   issue  of 

and  after  the  lifetime  of  Alexander  the  Great,  al-  their  union,  as  they  said,  was  an  only  son,  Mjromis 

though  the  exact  dates  of  his  birth  and  death  are  (Mummu),  who  seems  to  me  to  stand  for  the  visible 

unknown.    It  is  certain,  however,  that  he  lived  in  world,  offspring  of  the   first  two  principles,  from 

the  days  of  Alexsmder  (356--326  b.  c.)  and  continued  whom  are  subsequently  produced  another  generic 

to  live  at  least  as  late  as  Antiochus  I  Soter  (280-261  tion,  Dache  and  Dachos   (should  be  Lachme  and 

B.  c),  to  whom  he  dedicated  his  famoiis  history  of  Lachmos^Labamu  and  Lubmu).     A  third  follows 

Babylonia.    The  meaning  of  his  name  is  uncertain,  from  the  same  parents,  Kissare  (Kishar)  and  As- 

notwithstanding  the  fanciful  etymology  of  Scaliger  soros  (Anshar),  of  whom  three  gods  are  bom:  Anoe 

and  others  who  claim  it  is  composed  of  &r  and /fosea,  (Anu),  Illinois  (Elim?=Bel)  and  Aos  (£^):  finally 

"Son  of  Hosea".    Concerning  his  personality  very  the  son  of  Aos  and  of  Davke  is  Belos  (Bel-Marduk), 

little  is  known  with  certainty.     According  to  Vi-  called  by  them  the  'demiurge*"  (Damascius,  De 

truvius  and  Pliny   (whose   testimony,  taken  as  a  primis  principiis,  ed.  Kopp,  125,  p.  184). 

whole,  is  to  be  accepted  with  caution),  Berosus. was  Berosus's  account  of  the  creation  of  the  world  and 

profoundlv  versed  in  the  science  of  astronomy  and  as-  of  mankind,  as  preserved  to  us  by  Syncellus  who 

trology;  that  much  is  certain.    Leaving  Babylonia,  copied  it  from  Alexander  Polyhistor,  runs  as  follows: 

he  settled  for  awhile  in  Greece,  on  the  island  of  Cos,  "  There  was  a  time  when  all  was  darkness  and  water, 

where  he  opened  a  school  of  astronomy  and  astrology,  and  from  the  midst  thereof  issued  spontaneously 

From  there  he  passed  to  Athens  where  his  wonderful  monstrous  animals  and  the  most  peculiar  figures: 

learning  and   remarkable   astronomical   predictions  men  with  two  wings,  and  others  with  four,  with  two 

brought  him,  such  fame  that  a  statue  with  a  gilt  faoesortwoheads,oneof  aman,  theotherof  awoman, 

tongue  was  erected  in  his  honour  in  the  public  gym-  on  one  body,  and  with  the  two  sexes  together;  men 

nasium.    Vi  truvius  attributes  to  him  the  invention  with  goats'  legs  and  goats'  horns,  or  with  horses' 

of  a  semi-circular  sundial.  Justin  Martyr,  undoubtedly  hoofs;  others  with  the  hinder  parts  of  a  horse  and 

through  a  misunderstanding,  affirms  that  the  Baby-  the   foreparts   of  a  man,    like   the   hippocentaurs. 

Ionian  Sibyl  who  gave  oracles  at  Cumsa  in  the  time  There  were,  besides,  human-headed  buUs,  dogs  with 

of  the  Tarquins  was  a  daughter  of  Berosus.    Tatian,  four  bodies  and  fishes'  tails,  horses  with  dogs'  heads, 

the  disciple  of  Justin,  and  himself  a  Mesopotamian  animals  with  the  head  and  body  of  a  horse  and  the 

by  birth,  rightly  calls  Berosus  the  most  learned  tail  of  a  fish,  other  quadrupeos  in  which  all  sorts 

historian  of  Western  Asia.    It  is  doubtful,  however,  of  animal  shapes  were   confused  together,   fishes, 

whether  the  Babylonian  Berosus  is  the  same  per-  reptiles,   serpents,   and   every  kind  of  marvellous 

sonage  as  the  astronomer  Berosus  of  whom  many  monster  presenting  the   greatest   variety  in   their 

Greek  and  Latin  historians  make  mention.  shapes,  representations  of  which  may  be  seen  in  the 

Berosus  wrote  a  history  of  Babylonia,  probably  paintings  of  the  temple  of  Belos.    A  woman  named 

imder  title  of  "  Babyloniaca ",  though  it  is  referred  Omoroca  (Um-Uruk,  the  mother  of  Uruk)  presided 

to  under  the  title  of  '^Chaldaica"  by  Josephus  and  over  this  creation;  in  the  Chaldean  language  sne  bears 

Clement  of  Alexandria.    The  work  was  divided  into  the  name  of  Thavatth  (Tiamat),  si^nifjring  in  Greek 

three  books,  or  parts,  of  which  the  first  dealt  with  'the  sea',  and  she  is  also  identified  with  the  moon, 

human  history  from  the  beginning  of  the  world  to  "  Things  being  in  this  condition,  Belos  (Bel-Marduk) 

the  Flood,  the  second  from  the  Flood  to  Nabonassar  came  upon  the  scene  and  cut  the  woman  in  half; 

(747  B.  c),  and  the  third  from  Nabonassar  to  Alex-  of  the  lower  part  of  her  body  he  made  the  earth, 

ander  the  Great  and  even  as  far  down  as  the  rei^  and  of  the  upper  half  the  heavens,  and  all  the  crea- 

of  his  patron  Antiochus.    The  materials  of  this  his-  tures  that  were  in  her  disappeared.    This  is  a  figura- 

tory,  written  in  Greek,  he  professes  to  have  derived  tive  way  of  explaining  the  production  of  the  universe 

from  ancient  Babylonian  cnronicles  and  inscriptions  and  of  animated  beings  from  humid  matter.    Belos 

preserved  in  the  temple  of  Bel  in  Babylon,  and  there  then  cut  off  his  own  head,  and  the  other  gods  having 

IS  every  reason  to  beheve  in  the  truth  of  his  assertion,  kneaded  the  blood  flowing  from  it  with  the  earth, 

as   most   of    his   statements,    notwithstanding   the  formed  men,  who  by  that  means  were  gifted  with 

manifold  and  unconscientious  handlings  whion  his  understanding,   and   made   participants  of  divina 

work  underwent  at  the  hands  of  later  Greek  and  thought. 


BEBOTH  515  BXBOTH 

"Thus  it  was  that  Belos,  interpreted  by  the  Greeks  in  Armenia,  is  still  found  in  the  Gordyaean  Mountains 

as  signifVing  Zeus,  having  divided  the  darkness,  in  Armenia,   and  pilgrims  brins  away  asphaltum 

separated  the  heavens  ana  the  earth,  and  ordered  which  they  have  scrapc^i  from  the  fragments;  they 

the  world;  and  all  animated  beings  who  were  not  use  it  agamst  witchcraft.    As  to  the  companions  of 

able  to  endure  the  action  of  light  perished.    Belos,  Xisuthros,  they  arrived  in  Babylonia,  dug  up  the 

seeing  that  the  earth  was  a  desert,  though  fertile,  writings  buried  at  Sippara,  founded  a  number  of 

commanded  one  of  the  gods  to  cut  off  his  head,  and  cities,  Duilt  temples,  and  restored  Babylon''. 

kneading  the  blood  which  flowed  with  earth,  he        The  chronological  history  of  Babylonia,  according 

produced  men,  as  well  as  those  animals  who  are  able  to  Berosus,  was  as  follows:  The  first  period,  reaching 

to  live  in  contact  with  the  air. — ^Then  Belos  also  from  the  Creation  to  the  Flood,  is  said  to  have  in- 

fonned  the  stars,  the  sim,  the  moon,  and  the  five  eluded  ten  reigns  of  432,000  years.     Some  of  the 

planets.''    (Ap.Syncell.,  29;  Euseb.,  Chronic.  Armen.,  names  of  these  antediluvian  kin^  have  been  found 

i,ii,iv,ed.  Mai,  p.  10;  ed.  Lenormant,  Fragment  1.)  also   in   the   cuneiform   inscriptions.     The   second 

His  account  of  the  Deluge,  which  shows  a  remarka-  period  includes  eighty-six  kings  and  a  period  of 

ble  agreement  with  the  eleventh  tablet  of  the  Gil-  34,080  years,  which  onng  us  down  to  about  2500  b.  c. 

gamesh  epic  and  a  striking  similarity  to  the  parallel  The  third  period  includes  eight  Median  kings  who, 

narrative  of  Genesis,  is  of  great  importance,  and  has  towards  2500  b.  c.  must  have  invaded  Bai^lonia. 

oome  down  to  us  throu^  Alexander  Polyhistor;  a  These  are  followed  by  eleven  other  monarchs,  the 

short  extract  is  also  given  by  Abydenus.     After  record  of  the  duration  of  whose  reigns  is  lost.    The 

referring  to  the  ten  antediluvian  kings  (cf .  the  ten  fifth  period  includes  forty-nine  CluQdean  kings  and 

antediluvian  patriarchs  of  Genesis),   Berosus  pro-  458  years.    The  end  of  tms  period  brin^  us  down  to 

ceeds  as  follows:  ''Obartes  (Ubaratutu)  being  dead,  about  2000  B.C.     The  sixth  period  mcludes  nine 

his  son,  Xisuthros,  reigned   eighteen  sars   (64,800  Arabian    Idngs    with    245    years.     This    so-called 

years).  It  was  in  his  time  that  the  great  Deluge  came  Arabian  dynasty  is  identical  with  the  now  historically 

to  pass,  the  history  of  which  is  related  in  the  following  ascertained  first  Semitic  dynas^,  to  which  Hammu- 

manner  in  the  sacred  documents:  Cronus  (Ea)  ap-  rabi  belonged.    The  seventh  penod  includes  forty-five 

peared  to  him  in  his  sleep  and  annoimced  to  him  kings  and  526  years.   The  succeeding  parts  of  Berosus's 

that  on  the  15th  of  the  month  of  Daisios  (the  As-  chronology  are  lost,  up  to  the  pencxl  of  Nabonassar 

Syrian  month  Sivan,   a  little  before  the  summer  whose  era  commencea  in  747  b.  c.    The  history  of 

solstice),  all  mankind  would  perish  by  a  deluge,  this  period,  which  reaches  the  reign  of  Alexander  the 

He  then  commanded  him  to  take  the  beginning,  the  Great,  including  such  illustrious  kings  as  Nabopo- 

middle  and  the  end  of  all  that  had  been  consigned  lassar,  Nebuchadnezzar,  Nabonidus,  Cyrus,  etc.,  is 


w.  .V  wnu*  ix»  looxxiijr  axivi  ^«.*^v  "'J""*'/  ^  F"**^  "*  OrctcoruM  (2  vols..   Parw.   1848);  Cobt,  Ancient  FragmenU 

the  vessel   provisions   for   food   and   dnnk,    and   to  (London,   1882).     The  best  and  moet  exhaustive  study  on 

introduce  into  it  animals,  both  fowls  and  quadrupeds:  Berosus  and  his  history  is  that  of  the  late  Catholic  Assyriolo- 

hjtly,  to  g«t  eveiTjhm?  ready  for  navigation.    And  ^  l^^ll^T^^i^^r^^tTy^^'^SST^:^^ 

When  Xisuthros  asked  m  which  direction  he  should  EusEBros,  SchOnb  ed..  with  Gutschmis's  comments.     See 

steer   his   vessel,    he   was    told    'toward    the    gods',  also  Smith,  DMomtv  of  Greek  and  Rowum  Biographty  and 

«rf  to  pray  that  good  should  come  of  it  to  men.  ^^^:^A,\,Z^.^?^^:^±^'^^^,^:SS^ 

"Xisuthros  obeyed,  and  built  a  ship  five  stadia  dfi  Ba&a<m«a  e  d»  i^tnitw  (1886),  I, ^  sqq. 
long  and  two  broad;  he  gathered  in  all  that  had  been  Gabribl  Gussani. 

commanded  him,  and  took  on  board  his  wife,  his 

children,  and  his  intimate  friends.  Beroth   (Bebroth),  a  city  in  Chanaan,  one  of 

"The  deluge  having  come  upon  them,  and  soon  the  confederation  of  cities  under  the  headship  of 

subsiding,  Xisuthros  loosed  some  birds,  who,  having  Gabaon  (Gibeon),  whose  territory  was  invaded  by 

found  neither  food  or  place  of  rest,  returned  to  the  the  Israehtes  under  Josue  (Jos.,  ix;. '  Its  inhabitants, 

vessel.    Some  days  later,  Xisuthros  again  gave  them  together  with  those  of  three  neighbouring  cities,  in 

their  liberty,  but  they  returned  once  more  to  the  order  to  save  themselves  from  extermination,  went 

ship,  t^r  feet  soiled  with  mud.  to  Josue  in  the  disguise  of  travellers  from  afar  and 

At  last,  being  loosed  for  a  third  time,  the  birds  begged  mercy;  the  Israelites  entered  into  a  league 

returned  no  more.    Then  Xisuthros  understood  that  with  them,  but  when  the  deception  was  discovered 

the  earth  was  bare;  he  made  an  opening  in  the  roof  made  them  hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of  water 

of  the  ship  and  foimd  that  it  had  gone  aground  upon  for  themselves.    Their  city  was  afterwards  assigned 

amountam.    Then  he  came  down  with  nis  wife,  his  to  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  (Jos.,  xviii,  25),  but  it 

da^i^ter  and  his  pilot,  worshipped  the  Earth,  raised  seems  to  have  remained  Chanaanite  till  the  monarchy, 

an  altar  and  sacnficed  thereon  to  the  gods;  at  this  as  it  was  only  ''reckoned''  among  the  cities  of  Benja- 

nioment  he -disappeared  with  those  who  bore  him  min  (II  Kings,  iv,  2).    Later  the  Berothites  fled  to 

company.  Gethaim  (iv,  3),  probablv  at  the  time  Saul  sought 

"Nevertheless,  those  who  remained  in  the  ship,  not  to  slay  the  Gabaonites  (Gibeonites,  II  Kings,  xxi, 

seeing   Xisuthros   return,    also    descended    to    the  2),  with  whom  the  Berothites  seem  to  have  been 

ground  and  began  to  look  for  him,  calling  him  by  reckoned  (Jos.,  ix,  3,  17).    Two  descendants  of  these 

name.    They  never  saw  Xisuthros  a^in,  but  a  voice  Berothites  slew  Isboseth,  the  son  of  Saul,  claimant 

from  heav^  made  itself  heard,  bidding  them  be  to  his  throne  and  rival  of  David;  thev  brought  his 

pious  towards  the  gods;  that  he  had  received  the  head  to  David,  who  punished  the  murder  with  death 

reward  of  his  piety  in  being  taken  up  to  dwell  hence-  (II  Kings,  iv).     Probably  revenge  on  Saul  for  his 

forth  among  tne  gods,  and  his  wife,  nis  daughter  and  injury  to  their  fathers  was  one  of  their  motives, 

the  pilot  of  the  vessel  shared  this  great  honour,  for  blood  feud  was  regarded  as  a  duty.     Naharai, 

The  voice  said,  moreover,  to  those  who  were  left,  armour-bearer  of  Joab,  David's  great  general,  was  a 

that  they  should  return  to  Babylonia,  and  agreeably  Berothite  (II  Kings,  xxiii,  37),  and  we  read  of  men 

to  the  decrees  of  fate  dig  up  the  writings  buried  at  of  Beroth  among  the  returned  exiles  ^  Esd.,  ii,  25; 

Sippara,  in  order  to  transmit  them  to  men.     It  II  Esd.,  vii,  29),  tliough  these  were  more  probably 

added  that  the  country  where  they  then  were  was  Israelites. 

Araienia.     After  hearing  the  voice  they  sacrificed        Beroth  is  usually  identified  with  El-Btr6h,  a  town 

to  the  gods,  and  returned  on  foot  to  Babylonia.    A  of  800  inhabitants,  about  9  miles  north  of  Jem- 

portbn  of  Xisuthros'  ship,  which  finally  went  aground  salem,  near  which  is  an  abundance  of  water  (Beroth 


BKBBBTTIHI 


516 


wells)  at  which  tradition  reports  Joseph  and  Mary 
halted  on  their  return  from  Jerusalem  when  they 
missed  the  Child  Jesus  (Luke,  ii).  It  was  the  usual 
stopping  place  of  caravans  to  N&bulus  and  Nazareth. 
Leqendre  in  Vio.,  Dia.  de  la  Bible  (Paris,  1896);  Robinson, 
Biblical  Rewarches  in  PaUatine  (Boston.  1874),  I.  452. 

John  F.  Fbnlon. 

Berrettini,  Pibtro  (called  Pibtro  da  Cortona). 
a  distinguished  Italian  painter,  architect,  and 
writer,  b.  at  Cortona,  in  Tuscany,  1  November,  1596; 
d.  at  Rome,  16  May,  1669.  He  studied  first  under 
his  uncle,  Filippo  Berrettini,  and  then  at  Florence 
under  Andrea  Conunodi.  At  the  age  of.  fifteen 
he  left  that  city  for  Rome,  and  entered  the  studio 
of  Baccio  Ciarpi,  a  Florentine  painter.  There  he 
applied  himself  to  the  study  of  the  works  of  Raphael, 
Michelangelo,  and  Polidoro,  to  that  of  the  antique 
sculptures  and  notably  of  the  bas-reliefs  of  the 
column  of  Trajan.  Wnile  still  very  young  he  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  Cardinal  Sacchetti,  who 
became  his  protector,  and  for  whom  were  painted 
the  first  two  of  his  works,  "The  Battles  of  Alex- 
ander" and  "The  Rape  of  the  Sabines".  There- 
upon, Pope  Urban  Vlll  gave  him  the  order  to  dec- 
orate a  chapel  of  the  church  of  Santa  Bibiana. 
Such  was  his  success  there  that  he  received  the 
commission  to  paint  what  proved  to  be  his  most 
celebrated  work,  the  ceiling  of  the  great  salon  of 
the  Barberini  Palace,  representing,  in  allegory,  the 
history  of  that  family.  He  then  designed  soine 
mosaics  for  the  dome  of  St.  Peter's.  After  a  trip 
through  Lombardy  and  a  sojourn  at  Venice,  he 
went  to  Florence,  where  the  Grand  Duke  Ferdinand 
II  employed  him  to  decorate  the  Pitti  Palace. 
There  ne  painted  several  important  frescoes,  but 
left  without  completing  the  series,  angered  by  the 
actions  of  jealous  rivals.  The  compositions  in- 
cluded "Clemency  of  Alexander  to  the  Family  of 
Darius",  "The  History  of  Masinissa",  "The  Con- 
tinence of  Cyrus",  and  "The  Firmness  of  Porsenna". 
The  work  was  completed  by  his  pupil  Ciro  Ferri. 
On  his  return  to  Rome  Berrettim  received  many 
important  commissions,  acquiring  a  great  reputation. 
He  executed  a  number  ot  frescoes  in  churches,  as 
well  as  easel  pictures.  He  became  wealthy,  and 
Pope  Alexander  VII  created  him  a  Chevalier  of  the 
Order  of  the  Golden  Spur.  His  principal  pupils 
were  Francesco  Romanelli,  Ferri,  Testa,  Giordano, 
and  Borgognone.  He  is  buried  in  the  church  of 
San  Martino,  of  which  he  was  architect,  and  to 

which  he  left  a  large  sum  of  money. 

Bbtan,  Dictionary  of  Paintert  and  Engravert  (London  and 
New  York,  1903-05). 

Augustus  Van  Cleef. 

Berroguete,  Alonso,  for  his  mastery  of  the 
arts  of  painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture,  some- 
times called  the  Spanish  Michelangelo,  b.  at 
Paredes  de  Nava,  in  Castile,  about  1480;  d.  at 
Toledo,  1561.  He  was  the  second  son  of  the  painter, 
Pedro  Berruguete,  who  was  his  first  instructor. 
His  family,  however,  chose  the  law  for  his  pro- 
fession and  obtained  for  him  an  oflficial  position 
at  Valladolid,  the  title  of  which  he  held  for  years, 
probably  long  after  he  had  devoted  himself  to  art. 
It  is  said  that  the  fame  of  Michelangelo  led  him 
to  Italy  after  his  father's  death  and  he  entered 
the  school  of  that  great  master  in  Florence  and 
had  among  his  friends  Andrea  del  Sarto  and  Ban- 
dinelli.  In  the  competition  with  Leonardo  he  made 
a  copy  of  Buonarroti's  great  cartoon  of  Pisa.  Ac- 
eompanjring  his  master  to  Rome,  where  he  assisted 
him  in  the  Vatican,  he  was  one  of  the  sculptors 
chosen  by  Bramante  to  compete  in  making  a  copy 
of  the  Laocodn  to  be  cast  in  bronze,  Sansovino, 
however,  being  the  wirmer.  On  his  return  to 
Florence,  he  was  engaged  by  the  nuns  of  San  Ge- 
ronimo    to  finish  an  altarpiece  left  unfinished  at 


his  death  by  Filippo  Lippi.  After  a  long  rendenoe 
in  Italv,  Berruguete,  in  1520,  went  back  to  Spain, 
where  he  was  greatly  honoured  by  Charles  V,  who 
i^pointed  hkn  a  chamberlain,  and  court  painter 
and  sculptor,  and  gave  him  much  work  to  do  at 
Madrid,  at  the  Palace  of  £1  Prado,  and  at  the  Al- 
hambra.  With  Philip  II  he  continued  in  favour 
and  became  a  rich  man,  married  a  lady  of  quality 
and  bought  the  lordship  of  Ventosa  near  Valladolid. 
After  his  return  to  Spain,  the  artist  lived  for  some 
time  at  Saragossa,  where  he  made  an  altar  and  a 
tomb  for  the  church  of  Santa  Engrada.  At  Vallar 
dolid  he  executed  many  works  for  churches  and 
monasteries,  notable  among  which  is  the  high 
altar  of  the  Church  of  San  Benito  el  Real,  belong- 
ing to  the  convent  of  the  Benedictuies,  on  which 
he  spent  six  years.  Berruguete  worked  with  FeUpe 
de  Vigar  on  the  sculptures  of  the  cathedral  at  To- 
ledo. There  also,  in  the  hospital  of  St.  John  the 
Baptist,  is  one  of  his  finest  works,  executed  when 
he  was  nearly  eighty  years  of  age,  the  monument 
of  its  founder,  the  Cardinal  Archbishop  Juan  de 
Tavera.  His  best  work  in  painting  is  considered 
to  be  in  the  cathedral  of  Palenda  and  in  the  church 
of  Ventosa;  his  best  work  in  bronze  and  marble 
in  the  cathedral  and  other  buildings  of  Toledo. 


Augustus  Van  Cleep. 


Bamiyer,  Iaaao-Joseph,  b.  at  Rouen,  7  Novem- 
ber, 1681;  d.  at  Paris,  18  February,  1758.  He 
entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1697.  His  peat 
work  is  a  "  History  of  the  People  of  God  ",  pubhshed 
in  three  parts.  The  first  of  these  parts  bears  the 
title  "  Histoire  du  peiiple  de  Dieu  depuis  son  origine 
jusqu'&  la  venue  du  Messie''  (7  vols.,  Paris,  1728). 
A  revised  and  augmented  edition  of  this  was  publish^ed 
at  Paris  in  1733.  Next  followed  (Paris,  1734)  a 
supplement,    containing    the    continuation    of  the 

Srophesies  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  History  of 
ob,  maps  necessary  for  understanding  the  sacred 
history,  etc.  By  1736  seven  editions  of  the  work 
had  been  issuecf.  It  was  translated  into  German, 
Spanish,  Italian,  and  Polish.\  The  second  part  of 
the  "History"  was  published,  also  at  Paris,  in  1753: 
"Histoire  du  peuple  de  Dieu  depuis  la  naissanoe 
du  Messie  iusqu'^  la  fin  de  la  Synagogue".  In 
1754  an  idiHon  plus  exade  appeared  at  Antwerp 
(8  vols.),  and  in  1755,  at  Paris,  still  another  editk>n 
(4  vols.).  The  latter  contained  five  questiona: 
(1)  On  Christ,  the  object  of  the  Scriptures;  (2)  On 
Christ,  the  Son  of  God;  (3)  On  Christ,  the  Son  of  Man; 
(4)  On  Christ,  the  founder  of  a  new  religion;  (5)  On 
the  Presentation  of  Christ  in  the  Temple  and  the 
Purification  of  the  B.  V.  M.  According  to  de  Backer, 
this  second  part  of  the  Historv  was  published  without 
the  knowleoge,  and  against  the  will,  of  the  superiors 
of  the  Jesuit  house  in  Paris.  Berruyer  put  his  name 
to  only  a  small  number  of  copies  of  this  publication. 
The  third  part  of  the  work  has  the  title,  '^Histoire  du 
peuple  de  Dieu,  ou  paraphase  des  Epitres  des  Ap6- 
tres^'  (2  vols.,  Lyons,  1757). 

The  work,  as  its  various  parts  appeared,  aroused 
a  great  uproar  and  some  bitter  controversy,  Writt«i 
in  a  brilliant,  very  rhetorical  and  lively  style,  it 
was,  nevertheless,  deservedly  criticized.  Serious 
fault  was  found  with  the  author  for  giving  to  portions 
of  the  sacred  narrative  the  air  of  romance  rather 
than  of  sober  history.  The  freedom  with  which  he 
described  certain  facts  was  considered  unbecoming 
in  a  Christian  writer,  and  offensive  to  the  Christian 
reader.  Some  propositions  put  forward  by  him 
were  construed  as  favouring  Nestorianism.  But 
above  all  Berruyer  was  blamed  for  following  the 
singular  and  paradoxical  opinions  of  Hardouin. 
For  these  reasons  the  woric  was  condemned  by  maaf 


BE&BTEB 


517 


BEBBYSR 


bishops  of  France,  by  the  superiors  of  the  society, 
bv  the  Sorbozm^y  and  by  the  Parliament  of  Pans, 
llie  first  part  was  put  on  the  Ihdex,  27  May.  1732: 
the  secona  part,  3  December,  1754,  and  by  a  Brief  of 
Benedict  XIV,  17  February,  1768:  the  third  part 
24  April,  1758,  and  by  a  Brief  of  Clement  XIII, 
2  December,  1758.  (See  ''Index  Librorum  Pro- 
hibitorum",  Rome,  1900,  62).  A  corrected  edition 
of  the  first  part,  approved  by  the  Roman  censors, 
was  published  at  Besangon  in  182^. 

90M1CERTOOBL.  BiU,  tUlactU  J.,  1. 1357;  Dk  Backer,  BM. 
dn  icnwama  de  Ujl  c„  de  /.,  Ill,  144;  Hurtxb,  Nomendator 
LUerariuB,  II,  1350. 

Joseph  M.  Woods. 

Berryer,     Pisrrb-Antoine,     French     advocate, 
orator,  and  statesman,  son  of  Pierre-Nicolas  Berryer, 
an  advocate,  b.  at  Paris,  4  January,  1790:  d.  at  Auger- 
ville^  29  Novemb^  1868.    A  pupil  of  the  Collie  de 
Juilly,  which  the  Oratorians  nad  reopened  in  1796. 
Berryer,  after    having    believed    himself  favoured 
with   an    ecclesiastic^    vocation,    eventually    con- 
secrated himself  to  the  forensic  career.     "Leaving 
college  to  the  sound  of  the  artillery  of  Jena",  he  dis- 
playeid  his  Bonapartist  sentiments  in  certain  verses 
upon  Marie  Louise  which  he  wrote  in  1810;  but  eight- 
een months'  study  of  the  reports  of  the  Constituent 
Assembly,  under  the  guidance  of  Bonnemant,  a  for- 
mer memoer  of  that  assembly,  made  a  monarchist  of 
Berryer,  in  1812,  and  a  monarchist  he  remained  to 
the  end  of  his  da^.    He  always  maintained  the  prin- 
ciple that  "the  king  is  not  tlie  head  of  a  party";  he 
took  the  view  that  France  was  not  antagonistic  to 
the  kine  personally,  or  to  the  king's  ri^ht,  l>ut  to  the 
monarchist  party,  and  it  was  always  Berryer 's  idio- 
syncrasy to  be  independent  with  respect  to  that 
party.    He  distinguisned  himself  at  the  beginning  of 
the  Restoration  by  assisting  his  father  and  the  elder 
Dupin  in  the  defence  of  Marshal  Ney  and  by  his  own 
defence  of  two  generals,  Debelle  and  Cambrorme, 
compromised  in  the  Hundred  Days.     Debelle,  con- 
demned to  death,  had  his  punishment  commuted  to 
toi  years'  imprisonment,  after  an  application  made 
by  Berryer  to  the  Due  d'Angouldme;  Cambronne  was 
acquitted,  and  Berryer,  accused  of  having  in  his 
speech  for  the  defence,  maintained  the  right  of  in- 
surrection, defended  himself  victoriously.     In  1818 
he  defended  General  Canuel,  and  in  1820  General 
Donnadieu,  both  charged  with  exa^^rating  the  im- 
portance of  the  Lyons  and  GrenoUe  risings,  which 
they  had  suppressed.    These  interventions  of  Bernrer 
were  very  displeasing  to  the  Decazes  ministry:  but 
the    yoimg   advocate,  having    thus  combated  the 
spirit  of  reprisals  against  the  old  Napoleonic  army, 
which  the  Kestoration  was  developing,  next  directed 
his  energies  to  opposing  a  certain  shiKle  of  liberalism 
which  seemed  to  him  (mngerous  to  monarchical  prin- 
ciples.    In  1830,  in  order  to  supply  the  property 
qualification  needed  to  l^alize  his  election  as  Deputy 
for  the  Department  of  I&ute-Loire,  his  friends  pur- 
chased for  him  the  estate  of  Angerville,  in  Loiret. 
His  first  parliamentary  speech  (9  March,  1830)  was 
in  defence  of  the  Crown  and  the  Polignac  Ministry 
against  the  address  of  the  two  hundred  and  twenty- 
one,  which  he  considered  seditious.    On  hearing  this 
^eech  Royer-Collard  remarked,  ** There  is  a  Power" 
(Voito  une  puissaru^). 

Under  the  July  Monarchy  Berryer  was  one  of  the 
most  formidable  members  of  the  opposition.  After 
vainly  endeavouring  to  dissuade  the  Duchesse  de 
Benri  from  her  insurrectionary  enterprise,  he  was 
himself  arrested  as  an  accomphce,  but  was  ac(}uitted 
hy  the  jury.  He-  then  entered  upon  a  campaign  for 
the  liberation  of  the  duchess,  and  defended  Chateau- 
briand against  the  charge  of  complicity.  Returned 
bf  various  constituencies  in  successive  general 
elections  he  was  the  idol  of  both  Legitimists  and 
Republicans.    His  political  life  interfered  so  much 

II.— 33 


with  his  law  practice  that  in  order  to  live  he  waa 
ofc^ged  to  sell  his  estate  of  Angerville;  Lq^timists 
and  Republicans  united,  in  1836,  to  buy  it  back 
for  him.  He  continued  to  advocate  every  measure 
calculated  to  limit  the  arbitrary  power  of  the  central 
government — ^jury  trials  for  press  offences,  nomina- 
tion of  mayors  by  the  communes,  abolition  of  the 
property  qualification*  The  speech  was  long  famous 
with  which,  in  1834,  h^  defeated  the  treaty  according 
to  the  United  States  tardy  compensation  for  vessels 
confiscated  by  Napoleon.  He  was  of  counsel  for  the 
defence  in  the  case  of  Louis  Bonaparte's  Boulogne 
attempt,  in  1840;  defended  the  Republican  Lecuii- 
Rollin  in  1841,  in  a  series  of  four  addresses  to  the 
Chamber;  in  1844  gloried  in  the  "3elgrave  Square 
Pilgrimage"  which,  with  four  other  L^timists.  he 
had  maoe  to  the  Comte  de  Chambord.  E^ectea  by 
the  Department  of  Bouches-du-Rhdne  to  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly  of  1848.  and  to  the  L^islative  of 
1849,  Berryer  voted  with  tne  Right,  but  without  sup- 
porting any  of  the^  intrigues  of  Louis  Bcmaparte. 
After  the  2d  of  December  1851,  he  returned  to  his 
practice  at  the  Bar.  Montalembert,  prosecuted  in 
1868  for  an  article  suspected  of  advocating  for  Prance 
the  liberties  of  England,  had  Berryer  for  his  advocate. 
Monarchist  to  the  end,  he  exerted  himself  as  a  private 
individual  to  reconcile  the  Houses  of  Bourbon  and 
Orleans.  In  1863  he  was  chosen  to  represent  the 
Bouohes-du-Rh6ne.  sat  with  the  opposition,  and 
sharply  attacked  tne  Mexican  ^«r  nolicy  of  the  Im- 
perial Government. 

The  Academy  received  Berryer  in  1866;  on  the  20th 
of  December,  1861,  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  his  call 
to  the  Bar,  all  the  advocates  of  France  united  in 
honouring  him  with  a  splendid  banquet.  Only  a  few 
days  before  his  death,  he  wrote  to  the  Comte  de  Cham- 
bord a  letter  which  is  an  admirable  testament  of  the 
Monarchist  faith.  Berryer  was  a  life-long  defender  of 
religious  liberty.  He  was  the  first  to  miake  clear  (in 
his  articles  on  the  Gallican  Church  in  the  ''Quoti- 
dienne")  the  changes  wrought  by  the  Revolution  in 
the  relations  between  Church  and  State;  he  showal 
that  what  the  State  called  '^ Gallican  liberties"  repre- 
sented henceforth  only  a  right  to  oppress  the  Church. 
In  1846  and  1847,  in  two  letters  to  Bishop  Fayet 
of  Orleans,  he  urged  Catholics  to  take  their  stand  on 
the  common  eround  of  liberty.  It  was  in  this  spirit 
that,  in  1826,  he  had  pleaded  for  Lamennais,  who  nad 
accused  the  Gallican  Church  of  atheism,  and  that, 
in  1828^  he  wrote  against  the  Martignac  ordinances  on 
the  episcopal  schools  (petits  s&minaires).  In  1831  * 
he  spoke  against  the  re-establishment  of  divorce;  in 
1833  a^inst  the  project  of  Portalis  tending  to  state 
recognition  of  marriages  by  priests.  His  reply  to 
M.  Thiers,  3  March,  1845,  on  the  Jesuits,  remains,  says 
M.  Thureau-Dangin,  "a  sovereign,  definitive  refuta- 
tion of  all  those  who,  then  or  since,  have  pretended 
to  invoke  aeainst  the  relidous  orders  the  old  laws  of 
proscription  .  Berryer  defended  the  religious  asso- 
ciations with  all  the  more  authority  because,  in  that  - 
same  year,  pleading  for  three  carpenters  who  had 
combined  to  secure  a  suspension  of  work,  he  formally 
asserted  the  right  of  labour  to  combine  (droit  de 
coalition  ouvrikTe)^  which  right  French  law  was  not 
to  recognize  until  1863.  He  gained  great  popularity 
among  the  labouring  classes  when  he  compiu^  the 
restrictions  imposed  on  them  with  the  toleration 
accorded  to  ''coalition^  formed  in  other  spheres  of 
society,  with  the  aim  of  securing  not  a  wage-increase 
of  10  centimes,  but  an  enormous  advantage  for  opera- 
tions involving  hundreds  of  millions".  Liberty  of 
association  for  all;  respect  by  the  State  for  the  au- 
tonomy of  the  Church — such  was  the  principle  from 
which  he  never  wavered,  and  in  the  name  of  which 
he  lHt)ught  about,  in  1850,  the  defeat  of  Jules  Favre's 
project  which  would  have  compelled  the  Church  to 
re-establish  the  non-amovability  of  certain  member 


BEB8ABEX  518  BEB8ABXE 

{desaervania)  of  the  lower  cler^.    The  return  of  Ber-  account  of  the  occasion  which  gave  rise  to  the  name, 

ryer  to  the  practice  of  his  rehgious  duties,  under  the  In  the  first,  it  was  bestowed  by  Abraham,  when,  alter 

influence  of  his  friend,  Pdre  de  Ravignan,  S.  J.,  was  a-  conflict  between  his  herdsmen  and  those  of  King 

the  crowning  reward  of  his  fruitful  activity  in  behalf  Abimelech  as  to  the  ownership  of  a  well,  he  oon- 

of  the  Church.  eluded  a  covenant  with  the  kmg,  who  was  acoom- 

Berryer  never  wrote  his  discourses;  he  meditated  panied  bv  his  captain,  Phicol.    In  the  second,  it  waa 

before  speaking.    Even  his  apparent  improvisations  bestoweci  many  years  later  by  Isaac  when,  after  a 

were  deceptive — "The  extempore  speaker*',  he  used  conflict  between  his  herdsmen  and  those  of  King 

to  say,  "nas  repeated  the  same  thing  to  himself  Abimelech  as  to  the  ownership  of  a  well,  he  oon^ 

twent^  or  a  hundred  times."     During  the  Restora-  duded  a  covenart  with  the  kmg,  who  was  a^ccom- 

tion  his  lectures  on  eloquence  at  the  ''Soci^t^  des  panisd  by  his  captain,  Phicol.    Other  points  in  the 

Bonnes  Etudes"  were  attended   by  such  men  as  two  accounts  are  parallel  also,  though  there  are 

Montalembert  and  Lacordaire.    He  was  admired  by  many  differences.    The  traditional  opinion  regards 

all  for  his  sincerity  and  the  absence  of  all  oratorical  them  as  narratives  of  two  different  series  of  eventa 

artifice.     There  was  something  astounding  in  the  which  befell  the  two  patriarchs,  surprising  in  certain 

suddenness  with  which,  after  a  moment  of  apparent  details,  p^haps,  yet  not  remarkable  for  the  essential 

inattention,  he  was  wont  to  crush  his  opponent's  ar-  facts  which  are  such  as  might  easilv  recur.    The 

gument.    ''If  I  could  act  as  M.  Benyer  speaks!"  modem  critical   opinion   considers   ttiat   the  same 

said  the  actress  Rachel,  moved  by  his  natural  and*  tradition  became  attached  to  two  different  names 

n)ontaneous  eloquence.    On  another  occasion  when  and  was  embodied  in  two  differei^t  documents  (the 

Derryer  was  speaking  against  Jules  Favre.  the  latter  Elohistic  and  the  Jahvistic:  see  articles:  Abraham, 

referred  to  him  as  '^my  sublime  adversary".  Qbnbsis,  Pentateuch ).    "  Doubtless,  history  repeats 

Berryek,  Di9cour9  partementavef,  5  vols.;  Fiaidoyen,  4  itself ",  says  Prof.  Sayce  (Early  Helwrew  History,  64); 

vols  ([Paris.  1872-78);  CA^ifcaE.  Berryer,  mvte  judi^vy,  a  disputes  about  the  possession  of  wells  in  a  desert- 

•ec  dtMcovtrs   (MaraeiUes,    1871);    Lbcanuet,   Berryer   (Pans,  ,  wopi*«»  c*vrvviw  w.w  j/waow3o*vM  v/*   T*^ua  xu  »  ^"^ 

1892);  Laoombb,  Berrytr,  3  vols.  (Paris,  1894-06).  the  leading  land  can  frequently  recur,  and  it  is  possible  that  two 

work  on  Bwryer.  kings  of  the  same  name  may  have  followed  one 

Georoes  Goyau.  another  on  the  throne  of  Gerar.    But  what  does  not 

Benabee  (yit^  1K3),  or  Bebrsheba,  a  town  on  the  seem  verv  possible  is  that  each  of  these  kings  should 
southern  extremity  of  Palestine,  one  of  the  most  have  had  a  *  chief  captain  of  his  host '  called  by  the 
familiar  geographical  names  of  Holy  Writ,  known  strange  non-Semitic  name  of  Phicol;  that  each  of 
on  account  of  its  position  and  its  connexion  with  them  should  have  taken  the  wife  of  the  patriarch, 
several  incidents  in  Hebrew  history.  Throughout  believing  her  to  be  his  sister;  or  that  Beeiisheba 
most  of  that  history,  it  was  proverbially  the  extreme  should  twice  have  received  the  same  name  from  the 
point  to  the  south  in  the  country;  from  "Dan  to  oaths  sworn  over  it."  The  differences  of  detail  are 
Bersabee  **  included  the  entire  length  of  the  country,  regarded  bv  the  upholders  of  the  traditional  opinion 
from  north  to  south  (Jud.,  xx,  1,  etc.;  I  Par.,  xxi,  as  proofs  that  two  distinct  facts  are  related,  and  by 
2  ''from  Bersabee  to  Dan'O;  later,  after  the  de-  critics  as  variations  that  "  would  naturally  arise  from 
struction  of  the  northern  kingdom,  the  territory  the  fluctuation  of  tradition".  (Driver,  Genesis,  255.) 
was  sometimes  described  as  extending  ''  from  Gabaa  Bersabee,  the  village  that  grew  up  around  the 
to  Bersabee"  (IV  K,  xxiii,  8),  or  "from  Bersabee  wells  at  this  spot,  is  identified  with  the  present 
to  Mount  Ephraim"  (II  Par.,  xix,  4);  and  finally,  Bir  es-Seba  which  is  twenty-eight  miles  south-west 
after  the  exile,  the  place  still  remains  as  the  southern-  of  Hebron,  on  the  road  to  Egypt.  The  oounti^ 
most  point  in  the  phrase  ''from  Bersabee  imto  the  surrounding  it,  known  as  the  desert  of  Bersabee,  i£ 
valley  of  Ennom  "  (II  Esdras,  xi,  30).  Milton  has  a  soil  that  is  said  to  be  naturally  very  fertile,  needing 
helped  to  fix  the  name  and  locality  of  the  town  in  only  irrigation  to  make  it  productive;  the  few  cul- 
the  minds  of  English  readers  by  his  reference  tivated  plots  in  the  valley  give  "  fine  crops  of  wheat 
To  Be^rsaba,  whertf  the  Holy  Land  and  barley ".  In  the  spring,  sheep,  goats,  and  cameb 
Borders  on  Egypt  and  the  Arabian  shore.  find  there  a  rich  pasture  land.  Three  wells  may  be 
Still,  it  was  not  exactly  on  the  southern  border,  which  seen  there  to-day,  one  of  which,  however,  is  dry. 
was  considered  to  run  "  along  the '  riVer  of  Egypt  \  the  The  largest  is  beheved  to  have  been  dug  by  Abraham 
present  Wady  el-Arish,  nearly  60  m.  S.  E.  of  Beer-  (Gen.,  xxi)  and  is  at  least  very  ancient.  It  is  a 
sheba"  (G.  A.  Smith);  but  there  was  little  arable  solidly  constructed  piece  of  masonry,  about  thirty- 
land  beyond  it,  and  it  was  practically  the  last  stop-  eight  feet  deep;  it  still  furnishes  abundant  sweet 
ping  pomt  in  the  country.  water.    The  climate  of  Bersabee,  though  very  hot, 

The  name  means,  literally,  "the  well  of  seven",  is  regarded  as  healthy.     The  highest  altitude  is 

but  Gen.,  xxi,  30,  31,  and  xxvi,  26-33,  explain  it  as  960  feet  above  the  Mediterranean.    At  this  day,  the 

"the  well  of  swearmg".    The  former  narrative,  with  desert  presents  a  picture  of  the  same  pastond,  p^r 

its  insistence  on  the  "seven"   (aheba*)  ewe-lambs,  triarchal  life  that  we  see  in  Genesis  (CJonder,  Palestine, 

leads  one  to  expect  the  name  to  be  interpreted  as  52-55).     Bersabee,  with  the  desert  around,  is  the 

"the  well  of  seven",  and  inclines  one  to  regard  the  cradle  of   the   Hebrew   race   and   connected  with 

other  explanation  as  a  gloss,  or  as  evidence  of  the  memories  of  Agar  and  Ismael  TGen.,  xxi),  of  Abraham 

interweaving  of  another  narrative;  yet  it  may  be  (ib.),  of  Isaac  (xxvi),  of  Jacob  who  was  bom  there, 

"that  the  two  explanations  resolve  themselves  into  and  his  sons  (xxviii,  xlvi),  of  the  sons  of  Samuel 

one;  for  the  Hebrew  word  'to  swear'  (niahba',  the  (I  K.,  viii,  2),  of  EUas  (III  K.,  iii),  and  of  Amos, 

reflexive  of  the  unused  ahOba*)  seems  to  mean  properly  who  denounced  its  idolatry  (v,  5,  viii,  14).    It  formed, 

(as  it  were)  'to  seven-oneself ',  i.  e.  to  pledge  oneseu  at  first,  part  of  the  territoiy  of  Juda  (Josue,  xv,  28) 

in  some  way  by  seven  sacred  things,  so  that  if  it  and  later  fell  to  the  lot  of  Simeon  (xix,  2).    Its  site 

be  assumed  that  the  'seven  lambs'  were  used  for  this  as  a  halting-place  on  the  road  to  Egypt  made  it 


purpose,  only  one  ceremony  would  be  described  in    well  known  to  all.    After  the  Exile,  it  a^in  became 
the  passage^'    (Driver,   (Genesis,   215).     Seven  was    acentreforthe  Jews  (II  Esd.,  xi,  27),  andinthedays 


wells  in  the  vicinity.     G.  A.  Smith  inclines  to  the  see.    Extensive  ruins  of  dwellings  and  public  edifices, 

meaning,  "well  of  the  seven  gods",  but  offers  no  mostly  of  Roman  days,  still  remain. 

proof  to  support  it.                                ,  .     ,        ..  Cond«r.  PaUaHM  (New  York,  s.  d.);  Idem.  Tmu  Wcrk 

Blach  of  the  two  narratives  referred  to  has  its  own  (London,  1880);  Drivkb,  <?en««»  (New  York,  1904);  LwatmrnM 


BBBTHA                                 519  BSRTHOLD 

laIwV^i^i«'^^»^%'-*®!7?J"/5'^v^^S^  ^'**'  Valdarao,  where  she  lived  famous  for  miracles  until 

U99):  hvuL  m  Habt..  IHcUafBibU  (New  YoA.  lWi.  her  death.    (See  Acta  SS.  for  that  day,  and  Soldani, 

John  F.  Fbnlon.  «yj^  ^  g  ^^^„^  Florence,  1731.) 

Bertha. — ^Of  the  various  holy  women  bearing  the  V.  Blessed  Bertha  db  Mabbais,  d.  1247.    She 

name  of  Bertha,  five  are  more  particularly  worthy  of  was  a  Obtercian  nun,  who  became  the  first  abbess  of 

notice.    I.  Bertha,  Queen  of  Kent,  d.  c.  612.    She  a  convent  which  was  founded  by  Jane,  Countess  of 

was  a  Frankish  princess,  daughter  of  Charibert  and  Flanders,  in  1227  at  Marquette  or  Marchet,  near 

the  pious  Ingoberga.    In  marrying  the  pagan  King  Lille.    She  died  on  18  July,  and  is  briefly  noticed  on 

Ethelbert  of  Kent,  she  brought  her  chaplain  Liud-  that  day  in  the  Acta  SS.    Bertha  is  called  Blessed  by 

hard  with  her,  and  restored  a  Christian  church  in  the  Cistercian  chronicler,  Henriquea,  but  the  evi- 

Canterbury,  which  dated  from  the  Roman  occupa-  dence  of  cultus  is  very  slight. 

Uon,  dedicating  it  to  St.   Martin.     The  present  St.  Dunbab,   Dictumary  of  Samdy   Women   (London,    1904); 

Martin's  at  Canterbury  occupies  the  same  site.    St.  fp^^ggif^''*''*^  *^  •'''*^  hiatorigues:  ^io-BibluHrrapkie 

Augustine,  who  was  sent  by  Gr^ry  the  Great  to  '         *                              Herbert  Thurston. 
preach  the  Gospel  m  England  in  596,  no  doubt  owed 

much  of  his  favourable  reception  to  the  influence  of  Berthier,  Guillaume-Fran^^ois,  a  Jesuit  professor 

Bertha.    St.  Gregory  in  601  addressed  to  her  a  letter  and  writer,  b.  at  Issoudun,  1704;  d.  at  Bourges,  1782. 

of  thanks,  which  is  still  preserved.    It  is  printed  in  He  taught  philosophy  at  Rennes  and  Rouen,  and  the- 

Haddan  and  Stubbs,  III,  17.    Ethelbert  himself  was  ology  at  Paris.    From  1745  to  1762  he  was  editor  of 

baptized  on  Whitsunday  in  597,  and  Canterbury  the  "M^moires  de  Tr^voux",  and  because  of  his 

became  the  mother-church  of  England.    Bertha  was  powerful  opposition  to  the  infidel  ''encyclopfidistes'* 

sometimes  styled  "Saint*',  but  there  is  no  clear  evi-  was  bitterly  attacked,  notably  by  Voltaire.    Between 

dence  of  cultus.     (See,  on  this  point,  the  poems  of  1745  and  1749  he  published  volumes  XIII  to  XVIII 

R^;inaldof  Canterbury  in  the*' Neues  Archiv",xiii.)  of  the  history  of  the  French  Church  (1320-1659). 

Fuller  accounts  of  Bertha  will  be  found  in  Lingard,  The  previous  volumes  had  been  prepared  by  Fathers 

jlo-SaxonChurch:"  "Diet.  Nat. Biog.",Plummer,  Longueval  (I-VIII),  Fontenai  (IX,  X,  and  part  ot 

e",  and  Routledge,  "Church  of  St.  Martin".  XI),  and  Brumoy  (end  of  XI  and  XII).     In  1762, 

*M..  Si^.   Bertha,   virgin   and  martyr,  Abbess  of  when  the  Society  of  Jesus  was  suppressed  in  France, 

Val  dX/r,  near  Avenav,  Reims,  d.  about  690.    She  the  Dauphin  appointed  him  tutor  of  his  sons  and 

was  wife  of  St.  Gumoert,  Lorii  of  Champenois,  a  librarian  of  the  court  library,  but  two  years  later  his 

noUemon  of  royal  blood.    He  built  a  nunnerv  for  his  position  at  court  became  so  disagreeable  that  he  left 

wife  and  her  maidens  at  Avenay,  and  retirea  himself  France  and  spent  the  following  ten  years  in  Germany, 

to  a  monastery  on  the  coast,  where  he  was  soon  On  his  return,  in  1774,  he  retired  to  Bourges.    These 

afterwards  put  to  death  by  pagan  marauders.    When  years  of  retirement  were  spent  in  study  and  writing, 

the  people  of  Avenay  suffered  from  lack  of  water.  After  his  death  several  of  his  works  were  published 

St.  Peter  appeared  to  Bertha  and  showed  her  a  field  by  Father  de  Querbeuf:   (1)  A   translation  of  the 

where  there  was  a  good  spring.    This  she  bought  for  Psalms  with  notes  (8  vols.);  this  was  often  reprinted, 

a  pound  of  silver.    It  became  a  holy  well  which  cured  (2)  Five  volumes  on  Isaias.     (3)  Five  volumes  of 

diseases  and  supplied  both  her  own  nuns  and  the  "R^exions  Spirituelles'\ 

hamlet  of  Avenay  with  water.    Bertha  was  martyred  „  I>»  Qubrbeuf  m  Pmmest^uiu,  preface;  Sommervoqiil, 

5y  Gumbcrt'e  r/latives,  who  were  indijmant  at  the  i«c4t  &cf /ail.  S.  ."f  ~"""'*'  """•»«««"»'= 

oistnbution  of  his  money  to  the  poor.    Whether  the  John  Corbett. 
abbey  founded  at  Avenav  followed  the  Benedictine 

or  the  Columban  Rule,  does  not  seem  certain  even  Berthold,    Bishop,    Apostle    of    the    Livonians, 

U>  Mabillon.    The  whole  legend  in  fact  is  very  late  killed  24  July,  1198,  in  a  crusade  a^inst  the  pagan 

and  unreliable.    St.  Bertha's  feast  is  on  the  1st  of  May.  Livonians  who  threatened  destruction  to  all  Chris- 

CSee  Acta  SS.  for  that  day.)  tians  that  lived  in  their  territory.     He  was  previously 

III.  St.  Bertha,  Abl)ess  of  Blan^  in  Artois,  d.  Abbot  of  the  Cistercian  monastery  of  Lockum  in 

about  725.    She  was  the  dai^hter  of  Ri^bert,  Count  Hanover.     At    the    death   of    Meinhard,    the    first 

of  the  Palace  under  Clovis  if,  and  married  Siegfried,  Bishop  of  Livonia  (c.   1196),  Archbishop  Hartwig 

a  rolation  of  the  Idng.    After  twenty  years,  when  he  of  Bremen,  to  whose  province  belonged  the  newly 

died,  she  determined  to  found  a  nunnery.    Two  build-  converted    countries    along   the   eastern   shores   of 

ings  which  she  constructed  fell  down,  but  an  angel  the  Baltic  Sea,  appointed  Abbot  Berthold  successor, 

in  a  vision  guided  her  to  another  spot,  and  there  after  It  seems  very  probable  that,  as  Dambereer  asserts 

many  difficulties  a  nunnery  was  built,  which  she  en-  in  his  "Synchronistische  Geschichte  der  Kirohe  und 

tered  with  her  two  elder  daughters,  Deotila  and  der   Welt   im   Mittelalter'',   when   Meinhard   came 

Gertrude.     A  still  later  legend  represents  this  Ger-  to  Bremen  in  1186  to  obtain  help  in  his  apostolic 

trude  as  much  persecuted  by  the  attentions  of  a  great  labours  in  Livonia,   Berthold  joined  the   band  of 

noble,  Roger,  who  wished  to  marry  her  by  force,  but  missionaries    who    accompanied    him    thither.    On 

she  was  savea  from  his  violence  by  her  mother's  firm  this  assumption,   Berthold  had  been  working  ten 

courage  and  trust  in  God.     Some  time  before  her  years  as  a  missionary  an^ong  the  Livonians  when 

death  Bertha  is  said  to  have  resigned  her  office  of  he  became  their  second  bishop  and  was,  therefore, 

abbess  and  to  have  shut  herself  up  in  a  little  cell  well  acquainted  with  his  field  of  labour, 

built  aeainst  the  church  wall.    But  the  whole  story  The  Livonlan   pagans  were  fanatically  opposed 

of  Bertna,  as  Mabillon  and  the  BoUandists  agree,  is  to    Christianity.     Berthold's    predecessor,    assisted 

of  very  late  date  and  historically  worthless.    Her  feast  by  merchants   from    Bremen   and   LUbeck   and   a 

is  kept  on  the  4th  of  July.    (See  Acta  S8.  for  that  day,  few    converted    natives,    had    built    fortifications 

andDfeobertj^'StctBertheetsonAbbayedeBlangy^',  along  the  River  DOna,  where  the  Christians  held 

Lille.  1892.)  their   religious   services   and    could   protect   them- 

ly.  Blessed   Bertha  de  Bardi,  abbess,   b.   in  selves  against  the  fury  of  the  pagans.     Following 

Florence,  date  uncertain;  d.  24  March,  1163.     She  in  the  footsteps  of  his  predecessor,  Berthold  tried 

was  the  daughter  of  Lothario  di  Ugo,  Count  of  to  gain  their  confidence  and  good  will  bv  kindness. 

Vemio,  and  is  ordinarily  called  Bertha  de  Bardi,  but  At  first  they  appeared  to  become  less  hostile,  but 

the  name  should  probaoly  be  d'Alberti.    She  joined  soon    their    old    hatred    revived.    When    Berthold 

the  order  of  Valfombrosa,  a  branch  of  the  Bene-  attempted  to  bless  the  Christian  cemetery  at  Holm, 

dictines,  at  Florence,  but  she  was  soon  sent  to  govern  their  pagan  fanaticism  broke  loose  in  all  its  fuiy 

and  reform  a  convent  of  the  order  at  Cavriglia  in  and  they  decided  either  to  bum  the  bishop  together 


BSRTHMA  520  BXBTBOLD 

with  his  church  at  Holm  or  to  drown  him  in  the  waa  oonyened  to  devise  means  of  stemming  the  tide 

Dana.    The   Christians   fled   to    their   strongholds  of  Lutheran  progress.    Soon  after,  he  resigned  lus 

at  Uxkiili  and  Hokn,  while  the  bishop  escaped  in  bishopric  (1526)  and  retired  to  the  monastery  of 

a  ship  to  Lubeck.  i  Raitenhaslach  on  the  Austro-Bavarian  frontier.    In 

Pope   Celestine   III.   shortly   before    his    death,  1528;  or  1529,  he  removed  to  Saalfelden,  where  he 

was  preparing  to  sena  a  fleet  of  crusaders  to  pro-  founded  ^533)  a  hospital  with  a  church  for  inflnn 

tect  the  Christians  of  the  Baltic  Provinces,  and  priests.    He  died  here  and  was  buried  in  the  parish 

his  successor,  Innocent  III,  continued  the  work,  church. 

Berthold  gained  the  financial  assistance  of  Arch-  After  his  resignation  of  his  episcopal  functi(ms 
bishop  Hartwig  and  many  merchants  of  Bremen  Berthold  devoted  his  time  to  literary  pursuits.  At 
and  Lilbeck.  In  a  short  time  a  large  fleet  was  the  suggestion  of  Matthew  Lang,  the  Cardinal  Arch- 
ready  for  departure  well  equipped  and  loaded  bishopofSahburg  (1519-40),  he  wrote  his ''Tewtsche 
with  crusaders  and  manv  German  peasants  who  Theologey''  (German  Theology — Munich,  1528)  and 
were  to  settle  permanentlv  in  Livonia.  It  put  to  translated  it  afterwards  into  Latin  (Augsburg,  1531). 
sea  at  Ltlbeck  and  crossed  the  Baltic,  entering  the  Earnestness  in  the  suppression  of  abuses  and  mild- 
Biver  DOna  from  what  is  now  called  the  Gmf  of  ness  in  his  dealings  with  others  were  characteristic 
Riga.  Near  the  mouth  of  the  Ddna  the  German  traits  of  Berthold.  and  fhev  appear  also  in  his  works; 
peasants  landed  with  the  purpose  of  making  their  his  ''Theolo^"  ooes  not  bear  the  bitterly  polemical 
homes  in  the  vicinity,  and  laid  the  foundations  stamp  of  similar  contemporaneous  writings.  The 
of  the  city  Riga,  at  present  one  of  the  most  impor-  work  does  not  seem  to  have  been  in  great  demand, 
tant  commercial  seaports  in  Russia.  Berthold,  as  neither  the  ori^nal  nor  the  translation  was  re- 
accompanied  by  the  crusaders,  sailed  up  the  river  printed  until  Reithmeier  re-edited  the  work  (1852). 
as  far  as  Holm,  where  the  pagan  Livonians  had  The  book,  however,  was  important.    The  German 

gathered  With  the  intention  of  attacking  the  fleet,  original  is  valuable  from  botn  a  linguistic  and  the- 

aving  vainly  attempted  to   come  to  a  peaceful  ological  point  of  view.    Linguistically,  it  proves  that 

agreement  with  them,  Berthold  and  his  companions  Lutner  was  not  the  onlv  able  exponent  of  reli^ous 

sailed  some  distance  down  the  river,  with  the  Li-  doctrines  in  the  vernacular;  theologically,  it  exhibits 
vonians 
agreed 

for  col  ^  ^ ,  ,  ,  ,  ,  .« 
tunity,  however,  Sie^  fell  upon  the  Christians  who  a  defence  of  the  Catholic  doctnne  and  practice  of 
ventured  outside  their  fortincations,  and  hostilities  Communion  under  one  kind,  against  the  Reformers; 
were  resumed.  The  crusaders  were  victorious,  ^3)  "Onus  Ecclesise''  or,  "Burden  of  the  Church'* 
but  Berthold's  horse  became  intractable  and  galloped  (LEuidshut,  1524)  is  also  generally  attributed  to  him. 
into  the  midst  of  the  fleeing  Livonians.  A  pagan  It  is  a  fearless  exposition,  from  a  Catholic  point  of 
by  the  name  of  Ymant  thrust  his  lance  into  Ber-  view,  of  the  abuses  then  prevalent  in  the  Church, 
thold's  back,  inflicting  a  wound  that  caused  speedy  The  book  occasioned  mucn  comment  and  was  re- 
death.  The ,  bishop's  body  was  buried  by  the  printed  twice  in  1531,  at  Cologne  and  probably  at 
crusaders  at  UxkOU  whence  it  was  transferred  to  Augsbuig,  and  again  in  1620  without  indication  of 
Riffa  by  Bishop  Albert  of  Apeldem  whom  Arch-  place. 


expressing  their  regret  at  the  unhappy  occurrence  316;  ma-^bb-Punkm  in  Kirchfnlex^.n,  472-476;  Schapj- 

and  asked  to   belJaptized.    The  final  conversion  Hebzoo.  ^eh^^.-^neyi.  (New  York).  I.  Js62.           x^_^_^ 

of  Livonia  was  effected  by  ^shop  Albert,  who  was  '     *  wesbkr. 

assisted  in  his  apostolic  labours  by  the  newly  founded  Berthold     of     Henneberg,     Archbishop      and 

Order  of  the  Brothers  of  the  Sword  which  in  1237  Elector  of  Mainx,  b.  1441;  d.  21  December,  1504. 

was  affiliated  with  the  Teutonic  Order.  Having  completed  his  education  at  the  University 

Qkvber,  Onginea  UvonitB  •acra  et  civiUt  (Frankfort  and  of  Erfurt,  he  became  a  canon  of  the  Cathedral  of 

&*uJS/1g^V^nr^SiiaS?te'^'f'x«»^3^  Polo«»e  in  1464.    'Pdtee  Jfean,  kter  he  came  to  the 

336,  437-438;  SErr«Ra.  in  KvchmUex.,  8.  v.  impenal  court  of  Frederick  III.    He  was   chosen 

Michael  Ott.  Archbishop  of  Mainia  in  1484  and  consecrated  20  May, 

1485.     When   in   1486   Maximilian   I    was    elected 

Berthold  of  Ohiemsee,  a  German  bishop  and  Roman  King,  to  rule  in  union  with  his  father,  Fred- 
theological  writer,  b.  1465  at  Salsbuig,  Austria;  d.  erick  IH,  Berthold,  as  imperial  chancellor,  ob- 
19  July,  1543,  at  Saalfelden  (duchy  of  Salzburg),  tained  the  right  of  having  all  royal  documents 
His  real  name  was  Berthold  POrstinger,  ^frequenSy  submitted  to  him  for  signature.  Being  heart  and 
called  Pirstinger;  but  he  is  genertuly  known  as  soul  for  a  political  reform  of  the  tottering  empire, 
Berthold  of  C&emsee,  from  his  episcopal  see,  situ-  he  used  all  his  influence  to  bring  about  a  change 
ated  on  one  of  the  islands  of  the  Bavarian  lake  of  in  its  constitution.  How  Berthold  wished  to  re- 
Chiemsee.  We  have  but  little  information  regarding  form  the  empire  may  be  gathered  from  the  pro- 
his  early  life.  He  was  licentiate  in  civil,  and  doctor  gramme  submitted  to  the  emperor  at  the  diet  of 
in  ecclesiastical  law,  and  in  1495  he  i^pears  as  the  Worms  in  1495.  All  state  affairs  were  to  be  managed 
Magister  CamercB  of  the  Archbishop  of  Salzburg,  and  by  an  imperial  council  (Reichsrath)  consisting  of 
in  1508  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Chiemsee.  During  seventeen  members.  The  councillors  were  to  be 
his  episcopal  career  (1508-25),  he  resided  at  Salzburg,  chosen  by  the  electors  and  the  estates,  while  the 
in  the  quality  of  coadjutor  to  the  archbishop  of  the  emperor  was  to  appoint  the  president  of  the  council, 
latter  place.  The   emperor,   of   course,    justly    rejected    such   a 

Berthold  twice  conspicuously  used  his  influence  programme  which  would  have  changed  the  emfnre 
with  the  Archbishop  of  Salzburg  in  behalf  of  the  un-  mto  an  oligarchy,  with  the  emperor  a  mere  figure- 
fortunate:  in  1511  in  favour  of  the  Salzburg  town-  head. 

councillors    who    had    been    ooftdemned    for    hieh  Berthold's   ecclesiastical    reforms,    on    the    other 

treason,  and  again  in  1524  in  the  interest  of  the  hand,  which   were  even   more   pressing    than   po- 

rebellious  peasants.    He  was  present  at  the  Provincial  litical  changes,  were  accompanied  \\ith  great  success* 

Coimcil  ot  Salzburg  (1512),  and  also  took  an  active  He  encouraged  and  urged  the  reformation  of  the 

part  in  1522  in  tlmt  of  MUhldorf  (Bavaria),  which  clergy  and  the  religious  orders,  which  was  already 


BBBTHOLD  521  BSRTBOLD 

in  progress,   and   was   especially   solicitous   for   a  courses  on  the  Last  Judgment  became  a  favourite 

better  education  of  the  clergy.    Qe  courageously  book  of  the  people  under  the  title  "The  VaUey  of 

ressted  the  heretical  tendencies  of  many  humanists  Josaphat". 

and,  though  friendly  disposed  towards  the  better       There  is  no  doubt  that  Brother  Berthold  preached 

ones,  scatmngly  rebuked  others.    To  piard  against  in  German.     For  a  long  time,   however,  scholar! 

impure  literature  he  establi^ed  in  his  diocese,  on  disagreed  as  to  how  his  sermons  had  been  preserved. 

4  January,  1486,  a  censorship  of  the  press,  which  It  is  now  generally  accepted  that  the  sermons  were 

was  the  first  in  history.     Berthold  had  long  been  often  written  down  afterwards  in  Latin,  frequently 

dissatisfied  with  the  many  pecuniary  demands  of  with  marginal  comments  ip  German;  these  reports  of 

Rome  i^K>n  Germany  and  the  improprieties  that  the  sermons,  as  they  may  be  called,  partly  uerman, 

often  accompanied   the   preaching  of  indulgences,  partly  Latin,  or  at  times  in  the  language  in  which 

and  shortly  oefore  his  death  he  respectfully  sub-  they  were  delivered,  are  what  have  been  handed 

mitted  these  grievances  of  the  German  nation  to  down  to  posterity.    The  discourses  thus  preserved 

Pope  Pius  III,  who  had  iust  succeeded  Alexander  are  of  the  greatest  importance  for  the  history  of  the 

VI.    He  is  buried  in  the  Cathedral  of  Mainx,  where  development  of  the  literature  of  homiletics;  they  are 

a  magnificent  monument  perpetuates  his  memory.  of  eqvud  value  as  rich  sources  for  determining  the 

Weckeblb.   De  Berthotdi  HmruAergenna  aa-ckiep.  Mop.  condition  of  education  and  culture  in  the  thirteenth 

3S£S«r?52;  '^HL^^'A^^  lill^k^St^^.^  c«rtu,7.    it »  difficult,  therefore,  to  understand  how 

im  BreiKBUj  1803)  I.  powom  (tr.,  St.  Louia);  Max  Jamsen,  this  groatest  of  German  preachers  to  the  poor  could 

Xower  Maxumilian  I  (Munich,  1905).  65  aq.  have  been  forgotten  for  centuries.    It  was  not  until 

Michael  Ott.  some  of  BrotHer  Berthold's  sermons  were  published 

Berthold    of    EatUbon,   a   Franciscan    of    the  in  1824  that  attention  was  called  to  the  eloquent 

monastery  of  that   city    and    the    most   powerful  Franciscan,    ^nce  this  date,  the  enthusiasm  for  Ber- 

preacher  of  repentance  in  the  thirteenth  century,  thold  has  grown  steadily  so  that  he  has  become  a 

D.  about  1210:  d.  at  Ratisbon,  14  December,  1272.  favourite,   both  of  Germanic  scholars  and  of  the 

He  was  probably  a  member  of  a  well-^o-do  middle  historians  of  the  development  of  German  civilization. 

class  family  oi  Ratisbon  named  Sachs.    The  ex-  He  is  also  regarded  as  the  great  pattern  of  homely 

ceQence  of  his  literary  training  is  proved  by  his  pulpit  eloquence. 

sermons  which  show  more  than  common  acquaint-         Klwo,    Art^oWt,    de9   Frann^nera,    deuUdte   Predigten 

-  -     -  —  -..-*..  (Berlin.  1824);  PrKirrBB  two  Stbobl,  BerihoUi  von  tUgtrn*' 


7909  (Munich.  1882);  Unkkl.  Barthold  wm 

1882);    Strombkrobr,    Btrthold    von 

_  .  ^    .  .  1877);  Michael,  OeacA.  de«  deut9^ien 

Augsburg    inspectors    oT    the    convent    of     Votkeavom  is.  Jahrh.  bU  gum  Au9Qanoe  de9  M.  A.  (FrdburK 


N.  SCHEID. 


NiedermOnster.  a  proof  of  the  hirfi  regard  in  which  ^  ^^-  l^>'  "•  "^»  144-180. 
Berthold  was  tnen  held.     One  of  his  contemporaries, 
the  Abbot  of  Niedendtaich,  who  is  a  reliable  his-  Berthold    of   Reichenaii,  a   Benedictine    monk 
torian,  speaks  in  1250  of  the  great  reputation  that  and  chronicler  of  the  celebrated  Abbey  of  Reichenau 
Berthold  had  in  Bavaria  as  a  preacher.    Four  years  on  the  Lake  of  Constance;  d.  probably  in  1088.    He 
later  the  missionary  trips  of  tnis  preacher  extended  was  a  disciple  and  friend  of  the  learned  Hermannus 
as  far  as  the  valley  of  the  Rhine,  Alsace,  and  Switzer-  Contractus.    When  Hermaim  saw  death  approaching, 
land.    During  the  next  ten  years  Berthold 's  apos-  he  entrusted  to  Berthold  all  the  wax  tablets  that 
tolic  Jabours  led  him  eastward  into  Austria,  Afo-  contained  the  writings  which  he  had  not  yet  com- 
ravia,  Bohemia,  and  SUesia.    In  1263  Pope  Urban  IV  mitted  to  paichment  and  commissioned  Berthold  to 
appointed  him  to  pre»ach  the  Crusade  and  Albert  the  peruse  them  and,  after  careful  revision,  to  copy  them 
Great  was  designated  as  his  assistant.  on  parchment.    Berthold  was  also  exhorted  by  his 
When  speaking  to  Slavonic  aiidiences  Berthold  dying  master  to  continue  the  famous  world-chronicle, 
naturally  emploviMl  an  interpreter,  just  as  Bt.  Bernard,  begim  by  Hermann,  which  in  chronological  order  re- 
in his  day,  maae  use  of  an  interpreter  in  Germany,  lated  the  history  of  the  world  from  the  birth  of  Christ 
Notwithstanding  any  difficulties  that  might  arise  as  to  1054,  the  year  in  which  Hermann  died.    To  the 
to  speech,  wherever  he  went   Berthold  exerted  an  continuation  of  this  chronicle  and  to  a  biography  of 
extraordinary  power  of  attraction  over  his  hearers  his  master  and  friend,  Hermannus  Contractus,  is  due 
80  that  the  churches  were  not  able  to  hold  the  great  whatever  fame  is  attached  to  the  name  of  Berthold. 
crowds  of  plain  people  who  came  from  all  quarters  The  chronicle,  as  far  as  it  was  written  by  Berthold, 
to  hifl  services,  and  ne  was  often  obliged  to  preach  comprises  a  concise  and  impartial  history  of  the 
in  the  open  air.    When  this  was  the  case,  a  pulpit  troublesome  times  immediately  preceding  the  acces- 
was  generally  arranged  under  the  spreadiiig  branches  sion  of  Gregory  VII  and  probably  also  of  the  early 
of  a  linden  tree.    Long  after  his  day  'MBerthold's  reign  of  this  great  pontin.    It  is  reprinted  to  the 
linden*'  was  to  be  seen  at  Glatz.    About  1270  he  year  1080^  with  an  introduction  bv  Pertz,  in  "Mon. 
aeems  to  have  returned  to  Ratisbon  where  he  re-  Germ.   Hist.:  Script."  V,  264-326,   and  in  P.   L., 
mained  the  rest  of  his  fife.    The  Franciscan  mar-  CXLVII,  314-442.    Pertz  contends  that  Berthold 
tyroloQT  includes  his  name  amone  the  blessed  of  did  not  begin  the  continuation  of  Hermann's  chronicle 
the  oraer,  and  his  remains  form  tne  most  precious  until  1076,  and  that  in  the  execution  of  it  he  made 
relic  among  the  treasures  of  the  cathedral  at  Ratisbon.  use  of  another  chronicle,  written  bv  Bemold  who 
The  poets  and  chroniclers  of  his  time  made  frequent  was  also  a  monk  of  Reichenau;  but  it  has  been  proved 
reference    to    Berthold.     He    was    called    "sweet  almost  bevond  doubt  by  Giesebrecht  and  Scnulzen 
Brother  Berthold*',  "the  beloved  of  God  and  man",  that  Berthold  was  the  first  to  continue  Hermann's 
"a  second  Elias",  "the  teacher  of  the  nations"  ;  chronicle  and  that  Bemold 's  chronicle  is  a  continua- 
all  of  these  expressions  are  proofs  of  the  high  esteem  tion  of  Berthold 's.    It  is,  however,  still  imdecided 
in  which  his  activities  were  held.    The  secret  of  the  as  to  what  year  Berthold 's  chronicle  extends.    Usser- 
preacher's  success  lay  partly  in  the  saintliness  of  mann  and  Schulzen  hold  that  it  extends  only  to  the 
ois  life  and  p£ully  in  his  power  to  make  use  of  the  vear    1066,    while    Pertz,   Giesebrecht.  and  others 
language   of    humble   life.     He   became    the   great  believe  that  Berthold  wrote  the  chronicle  at  least  to 
master,  it  may  be  said,  the  classic  of  homely  speech,  the  middle  of  the  year  1080,  where  the  manuscript 
and  this  rank  has  been  maintained  by  his  sermons  suddenly  ceases  in  the  middle  of  a  sentence, 
to  the  present  day.    One  of  his  two  popular  dis-  The  original  text  of  Berthold  is  no  longer  in  ex- 


BSRTI  522  BBBTINOBO 

istence  and  all  the  existing  copies  have  been  com-  companionsbuilt  a  small  house  whence  they  went  out 

piled  from  various  manuscripts  found  in  the  monas-  daily  to  preach  the  word  of  God  among  the  natives, 

teries  of  St.  Gall,  St.  Blaise,  Muri,  and  Engelberg.  niost  of  whom  were  still  heathens.    Gradually  some 

The  chronicle  was  continued  by  Bemold  to  the  year  converted  heathens  joined  the  httle  band  qi  missioD- 

1100,  and  by  others  to  the  year  1175.    From  vanous  aries  and  a  larger  monastery  had  to  be  built.   A  tract 

passages  in  Berthold's  chronicle  it  appears  that,  for  of  land  called  Sithiu  had  been  donated  to  Omer  by  & 

a  short  time  at  least,  he  considered  Cadalus,  Bishop  converted  nobleman  named  Adrowald.     Omer  now 

of  Parma,  as  the  legitimate  occupant  of  the  papal  turned  this  whole  tract  over  to  the  missionaries,  who 

throne;  but  he  soon  noticed  his  mistake  and  from  selected  a  suitable  place  on  it  for  their  new  monastery, 

the  year  1070,  or  even  earlier,  acknowledged  Alex-  But  the  conmiunity  grew  so  rapidly  that  in  a  short 

ander  II  as  the  true  pope.    Bemold  remarks  in  his  time  this  monastery  also  became  too  small  and  an- 

chronicle  under  the  year  1088  that  Berthold,  an  otherwa8t)uiltwherethecityof  St.  Omer  now  stands, 

excellent  teacher  who  was  very  well  versed  in  Holy  Shortly  after  Bertin's  death  it  received  the  name  of 

Scripture,  died  at  an  advanced  age  on  the  12th  of  St.   Bertin.    Munmiolin,   perhaps  because   he  was 

March.  the  oldest  of  the  missionaries,  was  abbot  of  the  two 

./i'.i^J^®*"'*^^'  ^S^^^^^^iV^^^'^^^ff'^^  ^^^P^  ?^'^'  ^n*  monasteries   until  he  succeeded   the  deceased  St. 

hi9torica  (Bonn,  18ff7);WATnsBACBLDeutmMaiuUOemJUeht»^  ^^}^  ^  liisnop  Ol   Woyon,   aDOUt  tne  year  OW. 

iruelUn    (Berlin.    1894).    II.   vu:    Haugk,   KirchenoMehichie  Bertm  then  became  abbot. 

DeuUcfOandB  (Leipzig,  1906),  III,  952.  The  fame  of  Bertin's  learning  and  sanctity  was  so 

Michael  Opt.  peat  that  in  a  short  time  more  than  150  monks 
Berti,  Giovanni  Lorenzo,  an  Italian  theologian,  Rved  under  his  rule,  among  them  St.  Winhoc  and 
b.  28  May,  1696,  at  Sarravezza,  Tuscanv;  d.  26  March,  his  three  companions  who  had  come  from  Brittany 
1766.  at  Pisa.  His  parents  were  of  tne  lower  class,  to  join  Bertin 's  community  and  assist  in  the  oon- 
At  tne  age  of  fifteen  he  entered  the  Augustinian  version  of  the  heathen.  When  nearly  the  whole 
order,  and  preached  with  success  before  he  had  neighbourhood  was  Christianized,  and  the  marshy 
attained  his  twenty-third  year.  He  subseauently  land  transformed  into  a  fertile  plain,  Bertin,  know- 
occupied  important  offices  in  his  order,  i.  e.  tnose  of  ing  that  his  death  was  not  far  off,  appK)inted  Rigo- 
general  secretary,  prefect  of  the  Angelica  (the  former  bert,  a  pious  monk^  as  his  successor,  while  he  him^lf 
valuable  library  of  the  Augustinians  at  Rome),  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  preparing  for  a  happy 
general  assistant.  He  first  taught  philosophy ,  then  cleath.  Bertin  began  to  be  venerated  as  a  saint 
theology,  at  Sienna,  Florence,  Bologna,  Padua,  Rome,  soon  after  his  death.  His  feast  is  celebrated  on 
and  finally  (1748)  became  professor  of  ecclesiastical  5  September.  In  medieval  times  the  Abbey  of  St. 
history  at  Pisa.  He  suffered,  in  1762,  a  stroke  of  Bertm  was  famous  as  a  centre  of  sanctity  and  leara- 
apoplexv  which  was  repeated  and  eventually  caused  ing.  The  "Annales  Bertiniani''  (830-882;  Men. 
his  death.  His  literar^  career  was  an  a^tated  one.  Germ.  Hist.:  Script.,  I,  410-515)  are  important  for 
By  order  of  Father  Schiaffinati,  his  Superior  General,  the  contenaporary  history  of  the  West  Prankish 
he  wrote  the  extensive  work  "De  Tneologicis  Dis-  Kinedom.  The  abbey  church,  now  in  ruins,  was  one 
ciplinis"  (Rome,  1739-45),  an  exposition  of  the  of  the  finest  fourteenth-century  Gothic  edifices.  In 
theological  teaching  of  St.  Augustme.  The  book,  later  times  its  library,  archives,  and  art-treasures 
which  appeared  in  several  editions,  was  vehemently  were  renowned  both  in  and  out  of  France.  The  monks 
attacked  ov  dlse  de  Sal^n  (who  was  successivelv  were  expelled  in  1791  and  in  1799  the  abbey  and  its 
Bishop  of  Agen,  1730-35,  Bishop  of  Rodez,  1735-46,  church  were  sold  at  auction.  The  valuable  charters 
and  Archbishop  of  Vienne,  1747-51)  and  by  Languet  of  the  abbey  are  published  in  Guerard,  "Cartulaire 
de  Ger»r,  Archbishop  of  Sens  (1731-53).  They  ac-  de  Tabbajre  de  St.  Bertin"  (Paris,  1841;  appendix  by 
cused  Berti  of  Jansenism.     In  answer,  the  latter  Morand,  ibid.,  1861).    The  list  of  abbots  is  given  in 

E"ished:  (1)  "Augustinianum  Systema  de  GratiA"  "Gallia  Christiana  nova",  III,  486  sqq.  See  La- 
ne, 1747;  Munich,  1750);  (2)  "In  Opusculum"  plane,  "Ahb^s  de  St.  Bertin"  (St.  Gmer,  1854-55). 
horn,    1756).    The    accusations    against    Berti       Mabilw)n,  Acta  55.  0.5.  B..  »ac. ///J,  W-150;  Arta  S5., 

were  submitted  to  the  Roman  authorities.     Benedict  L?S^?J**Lv?i/  cJETST^T^^ 

XIV  (1740-58)  had  his  book  examined  and  found  its  MorJu  of  t/u  iVut  (Boston).  I.  6&  saci.-.'buiBtK,  Kie«  da 

teaching  sound.     Besides  other  works  published  in  SainU  (Paris),  X,  402  sqq.    The  earliert  »ource«  «re  two 

this  controversy.  Berti  wrote:  (1)  ."Commentarius  de  T^^xS"^^'^'^&^'Z^Ct  ^t?  *^  « 

Rebus  ^tis  S.  Augustmi  '  (Vemce,  1756);  (2)  "S.  published  by  Mabzllon  and  by  the  BolUndisU,  loc  oit. 
Augustmi   Qusestionum   de   Scienti&.  .  .  .  duucida-  Micbabl  Ohrr. 

tio^  (Pisa,  1756);  (3)  "  De  Hseresibus  Trium  Priorum 

Sesculorum"    (Bassano,    1769);    (4)    "Historia   Eo-       Bertinoro,    mocBSE    or. — tiertmoro,    anciently 

desiastica"  (Florence,  1753),  an  ecclesiastical  his-  called  Forum  Truentinorum,  and,  at  the  time  of  the 

tory,  which  he  later  published  in  an  abridged  form  Gothic  war,  Petra  Honorii,  whence  the  present  name, 

(Pisa,  1760),  and  which,  thus  shortened,  was  fre-  is  a  small  city  in  Romagna,  province  oT  Forli,  Italy, 

quently  re-edited  (recently  at  Turin,  1892).  According  to  legend,  aTOut  the  year  303  St.  Illumi- 

^^■^f5iJ^?*"S^^f^'^A^'i^^^^^k}??^)i  Hh^z5i H«^»TE.  nata,  a  virgin  of  Ravenna,  took  refuge  here,  but  did 

'^'^^&'!\^^^i^Til]^^:UaJ'^'^'  *""""  not  «,capeVartyrdom     Jp  to  ladTBertinoro  ^ 

N.  A.  WsBER.  subject  to  the  Bishop  of  Forlimpopoh;  m  that  year, 

however.  Cardinal  Albornoz  being  commander  of  the 

ifertm,  Saint,  Abbot  of  St.  Omer,  b.  near  Ojn-  troops  of  Pope  Gregory  IX,  the  latter  city  was  de- 
stance  about  615;  d.  about  709.  At  an  early  age  stroked,  and  the  episcopal  seat  was  transferred  to 
he  entered  the  monastery  of  Luxeuil  in  France  where.  Bertinoro.  A  word  will  first  be  said  of  Forlimpopoli. 
under  the  austere  Rule  of  St.  Columban,  he  prepared  Forlimpopoli  was  founded  in  173  b.  c.  by  the 
himself  for  his  future  missionary  career.  About  the  Gonsul  M.  ropilius  Lsenas.  The  first  bishop  is  sup- 
year  638  he  set  out,  in  company  with  two  confreres,  posed  to  have  been  St.  Rufillus,  appointed  oy  Pope 
Mummolin  and  Ebertram,  for  the  extreme  northern  St.  Sylvester,  and  he  is  supposed  to  have  trans- 
part  of  France  in  order  to  assist  his  friend  and  kins-  formed  a  temple  of  Isis  into  a  chureh.  At  all  events 
man.  Bishop  St.  Omer,  in  the  evangelization  of  the  St.  Rufillus  is  the  patron  of  the  city,  and  the  church 
Morini.  This  country,  now  the  Department  Pas-de-  in  which  his  body  is  preserved  is  said  to  have  been 
Calais,  was  then  one  vast  marsh,  studded  here  and  an  ancient  temple  of  Hercules.  In  500  Asellusy 
there  with  hillocks  and  overgrown  with  seaweed  and  Bishop  of  Forjimpopoli,  was  present  at  the  Roman 
bulrushes.    On  one  of  these  hillocks,  Bertin  and  his  synod  that  passea  on  the  election  of  Pope  Simma- 


BXBTONIO  523  BIRTaAMD 

bOi,  ana  in  (549  Bishop  Stephen  attended  the  Roman    of  Jtili  in  Southwestern  Peru,  Bertonio  had  the  fol- 
eoimcfl  concerning  the  Monothelites.    Thb  city  had    lowing  woiioB  printed  there,  all  in  the  vear  1612: — 


attacked  by  King  Grimoald,  who  pillaged  it  and  part);  "Confesionario  muy  copioso  en  dos  lenguas. 

butchered  numbers  of  the  people  and  clergy  (Paul  aymard  y  espafiola''  etc.;  "Lioro  de  la  vida  y  mila- 

Diac.,  Hist.  Lang.,  V,  x).    By  the  famous  donation  gros  de  Ntro  8eCk)r  Jesuchristo  en  doe  lenguas,  aymarti 

of  Pepin,  Forlimpopoli  with  the  other  cities  of  the  y  romance,  traducido  del  que  recopil6  el  Licenciado 

exarchate  and  the  Pentapolis  was  made  a  part  of  the  Alonso  de  Villegas  "  etc.    The  pubbcations  by  Father 

patrimony  of  St.  Peter.    In  1073  during  the  episco-  Bertonio  being  as  rare  as  they  are  important,  Platz- 

pate  of  Pietro,  St.  Peter  Damian  went  to  Forlimpopoli  mann  has  published  in  facsimile  the    Arte  y  jcramA- 

to  reform  ecclesiastical  discipline,  and  on  this  occa-  tica''  of  1603  and  the  Vocabularies.    Manum  Vicente 

aon  is  thought  to  have  delivered  a  sermon  on  St.  Ballivian  in  a  pamphlet  conclusively  refutes  the 

Rufillus,  which  Vecchiazzani,  an  historian  of  this  city,  slur  cast  by  Sir  Clements  Msj^ham  on  Bertonio,  that 

daims  to  have  discovered  at  Rimini  in  the  Library  of  the  latter  mvented  the  name  "  Aymard'\ 

St.  Jerome.     But  this  is  very  doubtful.    Among  the  Touin  Saloaii ando.  Lm  antiouot  Jemitat  dd  Peru  (Lima, 

8ucc«8ive   biehope    Uberteflo    (1214)    .md  Taddep  ^^L'Sri^'i^^;.^^^}^^^'^^''^'' ''' ''"^''"^''- 

(1285)  were  noted  for  their  beneficence  and  their  i^   »   #             a^  i?  -o  ^^^r^^-,  ^^r^ 

efforts  for  the  preservation  of  peace.     During  the  ^'  * "  ^^ndklibr. 

fourteenth  century  Romagna  was  at  the  mercy  of  _.                  . 

petty  tyrants  ana  Forlimpopoli  was  ruled  by  the  Bartnaid,  Saint  Louib.    See  Louis  Bbrtrand, 

Ordelaffi  of  ForU.    Innocent  VI  first  tried  censures  Saint. 

as  a  means  of  enforcing  his  conmiands  as  sovereign,  Bertrand,   Pierrb  (1)  a  IfYench  Cardinal,  theo- 

and  sent  Cardinal  Albomoz  to  Forlimpopoli  (13^).  logian,  and  canonist,  b.  1280  at  Annonay  in  Vivarais; 

Francesco  II,  of  the  Ordelaffi  family,  however,  when  d.  1348  or  1349  at  the  Priory  of  Montaud,  near 

the  cardinal  had  left,  burned  the  statue  of  the  pope  Avignon.    His   noble   parents^   is   known    to    us 

in  the  public  square,  and  was  guilty  of  great  cruelty  through  the  manuscript  memoir  of  Gratsset,  a  Celes- 

towards  the  clergy.  tine  monk  of   the  seventeenth   century    (Discours 

In  1360  Albomoz  took  the  city  by  force^  obliged  stoMo^que  de  la  noble  maison  de  Bertrand  et  de 
Uie  inhabitants  to  abandon  it,  and  razed  it  to  the  leur  aUiance  avec  celle  de  Colombier).  The  lesal 
flTound.  The  episcopal  see  was  then  transferred  to  profession  seems  to  have  been  the  first  aim  of  nis 
Bertinoro,  and  the  bishop,  Roberto  dei  Resinelli,  an  education.  He  successively  studied  and  tauf^ht 
Augustinian,  took  with  him  the  relics  of  St.  RufiUus.  law  in  the  Universities  of  Avignon,  Montpellier, 
Fonimpopoli  was  gradually  rebuilt,  and  Leo  XU  Origans,  and  Paris.  Prized  as  one  of  the  best  law- 
restored  it  to  the  rank  of  a  city.  Tne  bishop,  how-  regents  of  his  day,  he  soon  reached  high  positions  in 
ever,  remained  at  Bertinoro.  In  1377  Roberto  was  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  the  King's  Council,  and 
succeeded  by  Bishop  Teobaldo,  who  received  from'  the  Queen's  Chancery.  His  definite  callmg  lay, 
Urban  VI  the  civil  authority  over  Bertinoro  and  however,  in  another  direction,  and  he  became  a 
Cesena,  and  by  virtue  of  his  authority  fought  a^nst  priest,  nis  priestly  career  was  no  less  brilliant  than 
the  bodies  of  mercenaries  recruited  by  the  Antipope  nis  legal  success.  We  find  him  in  rapid  succession 
Clement  Vn,  by  whom  he  was  made  prisoner.  Dean  of  Puy-en-Valais,  Bishop  of  Nevers.  Bishop 
Bishop  Ventura  degli  Abati  was  highly  praised  by  of  Autun.  In  1331  Pope  John  XXII  made  him  a 
Martin  V  for  his  learning  and  piety.  Tommaso  cardinal  in  recognition  of  many  services  rendered 
Casein,  a  Dominican  (1544),  was  an  able  theologian;  to  the  Church.  Amonf^  these  services  are  to  be 
Gianandrea  Caiigari  (1580),  formeriy  nuncio  to  reckoned  several  chan table  institutions  founded 
Poland,  restored  the  Catheiml  of  Santa  Caterina.  at  Annonay,  and  the  Collie  d'Autun,  or  Coll^ 
Giovanni  della  Robbia  (1624),  a  Dominican,  estab-  Cardinal,  established  in  Pans  on  behalf  of  fifte^ 
lished  at  Forlimpopoli  the  Accademia  dc^li  In-  poor  students,  five  for  theoloev,  five  for  law,  and 
fiammati.  In  1803  Tope  Pius  VII  was  obhged  to  five  for  the  fine  arts.  Bertrand^s  best  title  to  recog- 
suppress  the  Diocese  of  Bertinoro  which,  however,  nition  is,  however,  his  defence  of  the  rights  of  the 
vas  re-established  in  1817.  From  1824  to  1859  it  was  Cburch  both  by  word  of  mouth  and  also  with  his  pen. 
united  to  the  Diocese  of  Sarsina.  In  the  Diocese  of  Foumier,  in  his  "Officiality  du  moyen-Age''  (Paris, 
Bertinoro  is  situated  the  celebrated  church  of  Polenta,  1880),  points  out,  at  tiie  beginning  of  the  Valois 
in  Romanesque  style,  which  inspired  one  of  the  most  dynaist^,  a  strong  tendency  of  the  State  towards 
beautiful  odes  of  Carducci.  ourtaiiing  the  Church's  traditional  rights.     In  1320 

The  diocese  contains  63  parishes,  93  churches,  took  place  the  famous  "Conf^nce  de  Vincennes", 

chapels,  and  oratories,  92  secmar  priests,  78  regulars,  where  Herre  de  Cugnidres,  roeaking  for  Philippe  de 

32  seminary  students,  5  lay  brothers,  90  members  Valois,  bitt^ly  complained  ot  undue  extension  of  ec- 

of  female  religious  orders,  1  school  for  boys,  and  6  desiastical  pnvileges  (e.  ^.,  the  ordination  of  clerics 

:'or  girls,  and  a  population  of  32,500.  for  the  sole  purpose  of  «i joying  the  privilegittm  fori; 

CAPMELLmjjI^ c^t«M d'Ikdia  (Venice.  1844).  II;  Anfiuorio  eauacM  det  veuves,  or  widow's  causes  drawn  to  ecolesi- 

td,  (Aome.  1906),                                          Benigni  Mtical  courts;  the  free  use  of  censures  to  enforce 

the  Church's  privileges;  appeals  to  the  Church  from 

BertoniOi    linDOVico,    an     Italian     missionary,  the  decision  of  civil  courts,  etc.).     Pierre  Bertrand, 

o.  1552  at  Rocca  Contrada  near  Anoona;  d.  at  lima,  then  Bi^op  of  Autun,  was  the  principal  spokesman 

Peru,  3  August,  1625.    He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  of  the  clergy.    He  replied  in  a  spirit  of  conciliation 

in  1575.     Sent  to  Peru  six  years  later,  he  laboured  to  all  charges  bearing  on  minor  points,  but  strongly 

frincipally  amon^  the  Aymard  Indians  of  Southern  upheld  w&t  he  considered  the  essential  rights  of 

*eru  and  of  Bolivia,  and  has  left  valuable  works  tM  Churdi.     Following  on  the  lines  of  Uie   Bull 

on  the  Aymard  language.    His  earliest  publications  "Unam  Sanctam"  of  &niface  VIII,  he  sununed  up 

on  that  idiom  appeared  under  the  title     Arte  breve  his  plea  in  four  statements;  (1)  Uie  secular  power  is 

ie  la  lengua  avmard  para  introducir  el  Arte  erande  from  Qod;  (2)  yet.  it  is  not  by  itself  sufficient  for 

de  la  misma  lengua''  (Rome,  1603),  also  ''Arte  y  tJie  government  ol  the  people,  for  whieh  spiritual 

mmiitica  muy  copiosa  de  la  lengua  aymar^"  etc.  jurisdiction  is  also  reqmredf;  (3)  although  nothing 

The   printing   press   having   been   introduced    and  prevents  the  two  powers  from  being  in  the  same 

'9Btabiished  by  the  Jesuits  at  the   Indian   mission  n^ds;  (4)  still,  whether  in  the  same  or  different 


BXRTULF                               524  BSRULLK 

nandfl,  they  stand  in  a  certain  relation  of  subordi-  Berolle,  Fierrb   de,  cardinal,   and  founder  o! 

nation,  tlie  spirituid  power  being  the  higher  of  the  the  French  congregation  of  t|ie  Oratory,  b.  in  the 

two.    His  views  are  to  be  found  in ''Libellus  ad  versus  province  of  Chionpagne,  France,  at  the  chAteau  of 

Petrum  de  Cugneriis"  and  "De  origine  et  usu  iuri»-  C^rilly,   4    Februanr,    1575;    d.   2    October,   1629. 

dictionum",  pulidished  in  Paris  in  1495  and  1584  De  Ei^ruUe  came  from  a  distinguished  family  of 

respectively,  and  later  inserted  in  volume  XIV  of  naa^istrates.     From  his  youth  and  even  before  his 

the  "Maena  BibUotheca  Veterum  Patrum"  (Cologne,  ordmation  he  devoted  hmiself  to  the  conversion  of 

1618).    Many  other  writings  of  Cardinal  Bertrana  Piotestante    and  wrote    a  ''Discourse  on  Interior 

(apologetical,   canonical,   pastoral)   have  not   been  Abnegation ".    After  entering  the  priesthood  he  was 

EuUished  and  are  reported  to  be  in  the  Vatican  made  chaplain  to  Henry  IV  and,  m  company  with 

ibrary.  his  friends  the  Cardinal  du  Perron  and  St.  Francis 

(2)  Bertrand,  Pierre,  de  Colombisr  (also  known  de  Sales^  he  continued  his  labours  for  the  conversion 

as  Bertrand  Pierre),  a  French  cardinal,  nephew  of  of  the  BLuguenots.    With  the  co-operation  of  Madame 

the  fore^inf^,  whose  name  he  adopted,  b.  u\  1279,  at  Aoarie  (the  Bl.  Bfarie  of  the  Incarnation)  he  intro- 

Colombier,  m  Vivarais;  d.  in  1361  at  the  priory  of  duced  (jannelite  nuns  of  the  Reform  of  St.  Teresa 

Montaud,  near  Avignon.    Like  his  uncle,  he  studied  into  France,  a  work  attended  with  many  difficulties, 

law  and  occupied  important  positions  in  the  Parlia-  In  1611  de  B^rulle  founded  the  congregation  of  the 

ment  of  Pans.    Ordained  priest,  he  soon  rose  to  Oratory  on  the  model  of  the  one  formed  some  years 

distinction,  became  Bishop  of  Nevers,  then  of  Autun,  before  oy  St.  Philip  Neri  at  Rome.    Owing  to  the 

later  of  Arras,  and  was  made  cardinal  by  Clement  VI.  differences  of  time  and  place  the  French  congr^ation 

1344.    His  career  as  a  cardinal  was  a  distinguishea  varied  in  some  important  respects  from  the  Italian 

one.    The  popes  at  Avignon  used  him  as  their  trusted  Oratory.      (Cf.   Oratory.   French   Congregation 

agent  in  many  delicate   missions,  notably  for  the  of  the.)    In  speaking  of  the  French  Oratorians  it 

termination  of  the  war  between  France  and  England  should  be  remembered  that  from  this  congregation 

and  the  election  of  Charles  of  Bohemia  to  the  im-  proceeded  the  seventeenth-century  reform  of  the 

perial  throne.    He  met  little  success  in  his  ^Kleav-  clergy  of  France.   The  celebrated  Jesuit  Cotton  called 

our  to  stop  the -Hundred  Years'  War,  but  brought  the  French  Oratory  "necessary  to   the  Church", 

about  the  desired  election  of  Charles  IV,and,havmg  and   St.  Francis  de  Sales  said  also  that  there  was 

in  the  meantime  become  Dean  of  the  Sacred  College,  "  nothing  more  saintlv  and  more  useful  to  the  Church 

was  naturally  chosen  by  Innocent  VI  to  go  to  Rome  and  God".    White  filling  the  office  of  Superior-Gen- 

and  crown  the  new  emperor.    Cardinal  de  Colombier  eral  of  the  Oratory  Father  de  B^rulle  was  also 

left  no  writings.    The  Celestine  monks  of  Colomlner  actively  employed  in  the  pubhc  affairs  of  the  time; 

and  Montana,  whose  benefactor  he  was,  held  his  for  example^  in  the  arrangements  for  the  marriage 

and  his  imcle's  memory  in  great  veneration.    We  of  Charles  I  of  England  with  Henrietta  of  France, 

are  indebted  to  them  for  manv  biographical  details  sister  of  Lonis  XIII.     Pope  Urban  VIII  in  1627 

on  the  two  Cardinals  Bertrana.  l^warded  de  B^rulle's  services  to  Church  and  State 

••S^v'^^J'IJi*;***^"!  ^^'i'*^  ^*'*i?^***i'***A,^'S^v^f??  ^^^*^  by  creating  him  a  cardinal     Two  years  later  de 

1760),  XXIV;  QaUta  Chnatuma  (Pana,  1720-70),  III,  .IV  and  Tik„,iip   Hi^   -mrhiU  aa^nntr   MaiM       Hih   diflointp    St 

XII;  Mak)n  in  Orande  Encj/clopidie;  Idem,  Etmi  kUtorvtue  J*?*^"®  ?®i  wmie  saying  MaM.      His  OlSCiple,   £>t. 

VivaraiB  (Tournon,  1890);  Chetalier,  R^,  de9  9aurc$9  kuL:  Vmcent  de  Paul,  said  of  him:     He  IS  one  of  the  most 

Bw-^ibL                                               J.  F.  SoLLUEE.  saintly  priests  I  have  known '^  and  his  friend  St. 

Francis  de  Sales  declared:  ''  He  is  everything  which  I 

Bertolt,  Saint,  Abbot  of  Bobbio,  date  of  birth  should  desire  to  be  myself ". 
unknown;  d.  639  or  640.  He  was  the  son  of  a  pagan  Cardinal  de  B^ruUe  left  several  works,  the  remark- 
nobleman  in  Austrasia  and  a  near  relative  of  St.  able  qualities  of  which  led  Pope  Urban  VIII  to  call 
Amulf,  Bishop  of  Metz,  whose  pious  example  had  him  the  ApoMdua  Verbi  incamati.  "This  expres- 
such  an  influence  on  Bertulf  that  he  became  a  Chris-  sion",  wrote  Cardinal  Perraud,  also  an  Oratorian, 
tian  and  in  620  entered  the  monasteiy  of  LuxeuiL  in  his  work  "L'Oratoire  de  France  aux  XVII*  et 
A  few  years  later  he  became  acquainted  with  Abbot  XVIII*  sidles",  "is  more  than  a  magnificent  pane- 
Attala,  who  had  come  to  Luxeuil  on  a  visit,  and.  gjrric  awarded  to  the  piety  of  the  foimder  of  the  Ora- 
with  permission  of  Abbot  Eustace  of  Luxeuil,  joined  ^ry;  in  a  word,  it  contains  the  essential  epitome  of 
Attala's  community  at  Bobbio  in  Italv.  Upon  his  writt^i  works,  for  it  mav  be  said  of  them,  as  of 
the  death  of  Attala,  in  627,  Bertulf  was  elected  by  the  entire  life  of  the  saintly  cardinal,  that  the  one 
the  monks  of  Bobbio  as  their  abbot.  Like  his  holy  aim  was  to  make  our  Saviour  Jesus  Christ  bett^o* 
predecessor,  he  insisted  on  the  observance  of  the  known  and  more  loved. "  The  chief  works  of  Cardi- 
austere  rule  introduced  by  St.  Columban,  the  founder  nal  de  B^rulle  are:  Q)  "Traits  des  ^ergumdnes" 
of  Bobbio.  and  preached  fearlessly  against  Arianism,  (Troyes,  1599).  (2)  "Disoours  etc."  (Paris,  1609) 
which  haa  gained  a  firm  foothold  in  Italy  imder  the  on  various  subjects.  G)  "  Discours  de  I'^tat  et  des 
Lombard  kings.  When  the  Bishop  of  Tortona  g^randeurs  de  J^us"  (Paris,  1623).  The  last  men- 
endeavoured  to  bring  Bobbio  imder  his  own  juris-  tioned  work  was  reprinted  several  times;  the  sub- 
diction,  Bertulf  hastened  to  Rome,  where  Pope  stance  and  often  the  actual  e:q>re8sions  are  to  be 
Honorius  received  him  kindly  and  granted  tne  found  in  the  diffuse ''Mutations''  of  Father  Hour- 
monastery  entire  exemption  from  episcopal  jurisdic-  going  and  also  in  Bossuet's  ''  Elevations  sur  les  mys- 
tion.  Jonas,  a  monk  of  Bobbio,  who  accompanied  feres".  (4)  "Vie  de  J6sus"  (Paris,  1629);  this  was 
Bertulf  on  his  journey  to  Rome,  relates  that,  while  a  sequel  to  the  preceding  work,  which  the  pious 
returning  to  his  monastery,  Bertulf  was  attacked  author  had  just  finished  at  the  time  of  his  death, 
by  a  deadly  fever,  and  cured  miraculously  by  St.  (5)  "El^vatkMi  k  J^us-Christ  sur  Sainte  Madeleine" 
Peter.  The  same  author  ascribes  a  few  other  (Paris,  1627).  Father  Bourgoing  issued  a  conaplete 
miracles  to  the  prayers  of  St.  Bertulf.  Most  martyr-  edition  of  the  works  of  CJardinaT  de  B^rulle  (Paris, 
ologies  give  him  the  title  of  saint.  His  feast  is  cele-  1644),  which  included  some  writings  not  mentioned 
brated  on  19  August.  above,  and  he  added  to  the  edition  a  "table  of  the 

The  first  source  for  Bertulf's  biocraphiee  is  a  short  life  the(^ogy  of  this  great  author  arranged  according  to 

KrLo'N^  i'^  ^^^S:T"i:ra^.  rt:  ''^tt^J^^^l^^^  the  or^of  the  '  §^Pf '  <>^,  S^.  Thomas.^    ^ 

wrrs.  Ada  SS.,  August.  Ill,  752.  have  published  this  biog-  the  Abb4  Migne  repnnted  the  third  edition  of  the 

raphy.     See  also  Mabillon,  AnnaleB  Benedietini,  ad  <m.  6M$,  complete    works.       Cardinal    de    B^rulle's    wntingS 

'L^sS^'^MSr^tS^^                                     \j^^  ®»*"^Jt  a  robust  and  vigorous  doctrine  full  of  unction 

1866), 32&:  QvSalt^vieB  de$  StnnU  (Paris).  X,  27  sqa.  and  piety,  which  is  set  forth  at  times  in  a  somewhat 

Michael  Orr.  diffuse  style.    One  of  his  biographers.  Father  Cloy- 


BXRVAHaSR  525  BXaAHgOlT 

aenet,  has  said:  **  He  wrote  the  books  at  his  leisure  ius,  a  monk  at  Luxeuil  and  organizer  of  the  monastic 

and  weighed  each  word",  and  the  biographer  adds  life;  St.  Donatus;  St.  Hush  I  (1031-^7),  prince  of 

veiy  justly  that  the  reader  is  rewarded  for  his  trouble,  the  empire,  the  real  founoer  of  the  city  whose  mar- 

for  "it  is  impossible  to  read  them  without  feeling  kets,  commerce,  and  schools  he  established;  Car- 

onesdf  filled  with  love  for  our  Saviour  Jesus  Christ'',  dinal  de  Granvelle  (1584-86),  the  famous  minister  of 

Tababaud,  HM«p«r»  du  Pin  de  BJnMe  (Paria,  1817).  II;  Philip  II,  who  built  the  pdace  of  Besancon;  Antoine- 

l2X"i'  U'ciZlkLru^'trt'^^^^  t  Pi«™  de  Grammont  (ld^8),  who  strenuously  op- 

eanWnaZrfeBAnitfe  «<  flicfce/wu  (Paris- 1872-76),  III:  Inoold,  posed  Jansenism  and  the  Reformation,  strove  to 

Buai  d»  hibliomMt  •rotortenne  (Pwis.  1882);  Idim,  Lm  imKft  the  clergy,  and,  in  1691,  transferred  to  Besan- 

mroae.ducardtnadeBirMU0iVwnBA^).  ^n   the   University  of   Ddle;    Le   Coz    (1802-15), 

*     •     '     -         *  former  constitutional  bishop  whose  personality  pro- 

Berranger,  Martin  de,  a  French  priest,  founder  voked  in  the  diocese  no  little  opposition  to  the  Con- 

of  charitable  institutions;  b.  at  Sarrelouis,  15  May,  cordat*  Cardinal  de  Rohan-Chabot  (1828-33);  Car- 

1795;  d.  at  Paris,  1865.     After  being  for  some  time  dinal  Mathieu  (1834-75),  who  distinguished  mmself 

assistant  pastor  in  his  native  city,  he  took  part,  in  by  his  defence  of  the  temporal  power,  and  was  a 

1822,  in  the  foundation  of  the  Association  Royale  de  member  of  the  '*  Opposition  '  at  the  Vatican  council. 

Saint-Joseph,   and   later  of  the  (Euvre  de  Saint-  He  opposed  strenuously  in  his  diocese  the '^simul- 

Henri.    Tnese   two    institutions   were    destined   to  taneous  churches"  which  sprang^ up  throughout  the 

give  to  woridngmen  free  instruction  and  professional  district  of  Montbdliard  where   Protestants  are  nu- 

training.    To  reach  this  end  more  effectively,  he  merous. 

founded,  in  1827,  a  boarding-school  where,  besides        The  monastery  of  Luxeuil,  founded  by  St.  Colum- 

manual  training,  poor  boys  could  receive  intellectual,  banus  (d.  615),  ^ve  to  the  Diocese  of  Besancon  a 

religious,  and  moral  education.    This  is  the  CEuvre  series  of  saints.     First  came  the  direct  successors  of 

de  Saint-Nicolas.     In    the    beginning   only   seven  St.    Golumbanus;    the    Abbot    St.    Eustasius    who 

children  were  in  the  establishment,  but  it  soon  dc-  founded  a  celebrated  school  in  this  monastery:  the 

veloped  and  was  transferred  from  its  poor  quarters  in  Abbot  St.  Valbert  who  sent  monks  to  found  the 

the  Faubourg  Saint-Marceau,  to  a  better  location  Abbeys  of  St.-Val^ry,  St. -Omar,  and  St.-Bertin,  and 

in  the  Rue  'N^ugirard.    At  the  time  of  the  Revohi-  died  m  665;  the  Abbot  St.  Ingofroid;  St,  Donatiis, 

tion  of  1830,  the  first  two  institutions  disappeared,  who  became  Bishop  of  Besan^onj  and  St.  Ans^tsus, 

but    the    Institution    Saint-Nicolas    remained.    It  author   of   a   celebrated   collection   of   capitularies, 

had  niany  difficulties  to  overcome;   the  resources  The  Abbey  of  Lure  was  founded  at  the  be^nning  of 

were  insun^cient;  proper  instructors  could  not  always  the  seventh  century  by  St.  D^icole  (Deicolus),  or 

be  found;  suspicions  of  political  intrigues  were  en-  Dcsle,  disciple  of  St.  Uolumbanus;  later  its  abbots 

tertained  by  the  Government,  which  led  to  various  were  princes  of  the  Holy  Empire.    The  Abbey  of 

vexatious   mquiries.     De    Bervanger    succeeded    in  Baume  lea  Dames,  founded  in  the  fifth  century  and 

overcoming  all  obstacles,  and  the  institution  became  in  which  Gontran,  King  of  Bur^imdy,  was  buried, 

more  and  more  prosperous.    Soon  a  branch  estab-  was  the  school  where  St.  Odo,  afterwards  Abbot  of 

lishment  was  founded  at  Issy.      In  1859  De  Ber-  Guny,  studied  in  the  tenth  century;  at  the  end  of 

vanger  turned  over  the  institution  to  Cardinal  Mor^  the  eighth  century  there  was  built  near  it  an  abbey 

lot,  Archbishop  of  Paris,  who  gave  the  direction  of  for    ^nedictine    nuns,    members    of    the   nobility, 

it  to  the  Christian  Brothers.     It  has  since  been  en-  During  the  Revolution,  the  superb  church  of  this 

lamd.    De  Bervanger  wrote  the  "  R^le  de  TCEuvre  abbey  was  laid  waste.    Among  the  other  saints  of 

de  Saint-Nicolas"  (1853).  the  Diocese  of    Besancon  may  be  mentioned  the 

I>ic<umnaire  <i«  p^d<WM  (Paria,  1887),  I,  pt.  M80.  hermit  St.  Aldegrin  (tenth  century),  and  St.  Peter 

C.  A.  DuBRAT.  Fourier  (1565-1640),  one  of  those  who,  in  the  sev- 

Besanjon  (Vesontig),  Archdiocese  of,  coexten-  enteenth  century,  inaugurated  systematic  educa- 
Ave  with  the  departments  of  Doube,  Haute-Sa6ne,  tion  for  girls.  During  the  Bdiddle  Ages  several 
and  the  district  of  Belfort.  Few  nineteenth-century  popes  visited  Besan9on,  among  them  L«o  IX  who 
(fioceses  have  imdenrone  similar  territorial  changes,  consecrated  the  altar  of  the  old  Cathedral  of  St. 
The  Concordat  of  1802  gave  the  Diocese  of  BesanQon  Etienne  in  1050,  and  Eugenius  III,  who,  in  1148,  con- 
all  those  districts  which,  in  1822,  constituted  the  Dio-  secrated  the  church  of  St.  Jean,  the  new  cathedral, 
ceseof  St.-Claude.  In  1806,  Besancon  was  given  ju-  A  council  was  held  at  Besangon  in  1162,  presided  over 
risdiction  over  the  three  parishes  of  the  principality  by  Frederick  Barbarossa,  in  the  interest  of  the 
of  NeufchAtel  (Switzerland)  which  fell  under  the  con-  Ajitipope  Victor  against  Pope  Alexander  III.  Guido 
trol  of  the  See  of  Lausanne  in  1814.  In  1870,  after  of  Burgundy  who  was  pope  from  1119  to  1123  under 
the  annexation  of  Alsace-I/)rraine  by  Germany,  the  the  name  of  Calixtus  II,  and  the  Jesuit  Nonnotte 
district  of  Belfort  was  withdrawn  from  the  wee  of  (1711-93),  an  adversary  of  Voltaire,  were  natives  of 
Strasbuig  and  attached  to  that  of  Besan9on.  The  Besancon.  The  miracle  wrought  through  the  Sacred 
jnetropoutan  jurisdiction  of  Besan9on  also  underwent  Host  of  Favemey,  during  a  nre  in  the  3rear  1608,  is 
siDffular  changes.  In  1802  its  sufiFragans  were  the  annually  commemorated  by  elaborate  ceremonies* 
Biaboprics  of  Dijon,  Autun,  Mete,  Nancy,  and  Stras-  The  places  of  pilgrimage  are:  Notre  Dame  du  Ch4ne 
burp.  Under  the  Restoration,  Dijon  and  Autun  were  at  Scey;  Notre  Dame  d'Aigremont;  the  pilgrimage  of 
withdrawn  ftt>m  Besan^n,  the  latter  becoming  the  St.  Pierre  of  Tarentaise  at  Cirey-les-Bellevaux,  where 
metropolitan  of  the  Sees  of  Saint-Di6,  Verdun,  and  St.  Pierre  de  Tarentaise  died  in  1174;  Notre  Dame 
Belley.  In  1874,  after  the  German  conquest,  the  des  Jacobins  at  Besancon;  and  Notre  Dame  de  la 
churdies  of  Metz  and  Strasburg  were  under  the  di-  Motte  at  Vesoul.  Parts  of  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Jean 
rect  control  of  the  Holy  See.       '  at  Besancon  were  erected  as  early  as  the  eleventh  cen- 

Local  legends  attribute  the  evangelization  of  Besan-  tury. 
Qon  to  Stfl.  Ferr6ol  and  Ferjeux,  sent  thither  by        In  1899  the  following  institutions  were  to  be  found 

St  Irensus,  Bishop  of  Lyons.    Duchesne  has  proved  in  the  diocese:  15  infant  schools  in  Besan^n  and 


the   initial    link.    The    catalogue    of    the    earliest  Besan^n  and  1  in  Vesoul;  2  hospitals  and  hospices 

bishops  of  Besancon  is  to  be  read  with  caution,  in  Bewi^on  and  8  in  Vesoul;  12  communities  for 

Hie  first    bishop   known   to    history  is  Celidonius  the  care  of  the  sick  in  their  homes  at  Besangon  and 

te.  445);  other  incumbents  of  the  see  were  St.  Rothad-  8  in  Vesoul;  1  house  of  retreat  in  Besancon  and  1 


m 


BESANOE                                526  BE80I0NE 

Vesoul;  3  homes  for  the  aged  in  Besan^n;  1  infant  the  Tamil  grammar  in  live  years,  and  for  the  next 

asylum.   1   boys'  orphanage,  'aad  4  gratuitous  in-  twenty  years  made  so  thorou^  a  study  of  the  wlwle 

dustrial  schools  in  Vesoul,  all  conducted  by  nuns;  field  of  Tamil  literature  that  the  native  men  of 

1   deaf-mute  institute   and   1   boys'  orphanage  in  letters  bowed  to  him  as  their  master.    He  eompoaed 

Besan^on  conducted  by  brothers.  a  grammar  of  High  Tamil,  and  was  the  first  to  write 

In  1900  the  diocese  had  the  following  religious  a  grammar  of  Low  Tamil   (the  common  dialect) 

orders.  Men:  Capuchins,  Eudists,  and  Marianists  at  which  still  remains  the  foundation  of  scientific  Tamil 

Besan^on,   and   Trappists   at   Notre    Dame   de  la  philology.    He  is  also  the  compiler  of  several  Tamil 

Gr&ce  de  Dieu.     Women  (purely  local  orders):  Sis-  dictionaries,    among   them    the    quadruple    lexicon 

ters  of  Qiarity  of  Besangon,  niu-sing  and  teaching,  containing  words,   synonyms,   categories  of  words 

.„._^.^  .._   ,^^.  o._. .  .,._  T...._.__  T.__._.^_^._  .     .                  ^      .,  .    ..           ,        ^     lil-Utin- 

ascetical 
;tions  for 

mother-house  at  Besangon.     At  the  close  of  1905  the  the  use  of  the  native  catechists;  also  controversial 

Archdiocese  of  Besangon  had  657,773  inhabitants,  60  tracts   against   the   Danish   Lutheran   missionaries 

pastorates,  814  succursal  parishes  (mission  churches),  who  sou^t  to  gain  a  foothold  in  the  Madiu^  Mission, 

and  97  curacies.  Besohi  is,  however,  best  known  as  a  Tamil  poet.    In 

GMia  cfmsHana  nseo),  xy.  1.  322;  Inttrummta,  1-124;  a  poem  of  1100  stanzas,  "  Kitt^  ammalle  saritiram  ", 

RiciifARD,  Hutovrt  de9  dtocne*  de  Beeanfon  ei  de  SattU-Clattde  u/^ „;.,,-„  ♦u^  «v-« ;«.,>-  ^/  *u^  »^o^<.r«  Qf    rk^^u^'mi^   r,^^* 

(BeBancon,  1847-60);  Suchbt,  Noire  dSZ  de  Bemncpn  et  du  g?  8^«?^**^?  praises  of  the  martyr  St.  Qmtena  (not 

Mpartement  du  Doube  (BeaaiiQon.  1802);  Bbboier,  Etude  eur  St.    Catbenne,   as  some   wnters   have   mistakenly 

VhymrMvre  hieontm  ^  cardinal  Mathieu,  arckivfque  de  Beeanr-  asserted).     His  greatest  poetical  work  is  the  "T&D- 

^JSXToiJ^^is^S^'^^'   ^"''*   ^PMcopoux,   I;  bd^^i,/      (The'^UnfadiA^  Garland),  one    of    the 

Georges  Gotau.  Tamil  classics.    This  Tamil  ''  Divina  Commedia "  is 

_                ,              ,           xNnT^..T.       *  ^^..  divided    into    thirty-six    cantos,   containing    3,615 

Besange,  Jerome  Lamy,  O.S.B.,  b.  at  Lrnz,  1726;  stanzas.     "It  is",  says  Baumgartner,  "the  noblest 

d.  1781.    For  twenty-four  years  he  taught  Scripture  epic  poem  in  honour  of  St.  Joseph  written  in  any 

at  Salzburg.     He  published  the  foUowmg  works:  hlterature,  East  or  West.    In  one  of  the  most  difficult 

"Introductioin  VetusTestamentum"(2vors.,Steyr.  languages   of   Southern   India   Beschi   produced  a 

1765);  "Introductio  m  sancta  qua.tuor  Evangelia'  poem  which  for  richness  and  beauty  of  language, 

rVenice,  1775);  "Introductio  in  Acta  Apostolorum"  for  easy  elegance  of  metre,  popular  treatment,  and 

(Pavia,  1782);  "FasciciUus  Mywto'^  a  coimnentarv  true  poetical  conception  and  execution,  is  the  peer 

on  the  Passion  (Steyr,  1766);  "Die  sieben  Busspeal-  of  the  naUve  classics;  in  nobility  of  thought  and 

men     (Salzburg,  1776).  subject-matter,  it  is  as  superior  to  them  as  the 

Pawbot  in  Vio..  Dtet,dela  BtWtr.                  CoRBwrr  harmonious  civiHzation  of  Christianity  rises  above 

.    .             '  ^^^  confused  philosophical  dreams  and   ridiculous 

BeBchefeTi    Theodore,    Jesuit     missionary     in  fables   of   idolatry.''    Another   poem    "Paramarta- 

Canada,  b.   at  Ch&lons-sur-Mame,  25  May,   1630;  guru  Kadey"   ^the  adventures  of  the  Guru  Para- 

d.  at  Heims,  4  ]^ebruary,  1711.     He  entered  the  marta),  in  which  he  dehghtfully  satirizes  the  foibles 

Society  of  Jesus  at  Nancy,  24  May,  1647,  studied  and  conceited  ignorance  of  the  native  ffurvis  (heathen 

philosophy  and  theolo^  at  Pont^^-Mousson,  taught  teachers),  is  the  most  entertaining  book  in  Tamil 

numanities  and  rhetonc  for  seven  years  in  various  Uterature,   bubbling  over   with   wit   and   humour, 

colleges  in  France,  and  after  his  third  year  of  proba-  Besohi  himself  translated  it  into  Latin.     It  has  also 

tion  came  to  Canada  in  1665.    From  Quebec,  where  been    translated    into    English,    French,  *German, 

he  was  stationed  for  three  years  after  his  arrival,  he  Italian,    and    Canarese.    Grgsse    and    Babington, 

set  out  on  an  embassy  to  the  Mohawks,  and  to  the  editors   respectively .  of   the   German   and   English 

Dutch  at  Albany,  but  a  sudden  outbreak  of  Indian  translations,  seem  to  be  ienorant  both  of  Beschi's 

hostilities  compelled  him  to  turn  back.    In  1670-71,  authorship  of  the  book  and  of  his  great  importance 

however,  he  was  a  missionary  among  the  Iroc|uois.  in  the  literature  of  Southern  India,  for  they  make  no 

In  1672,  he  returned  to  Quebec,  becoming  superior  of  mention  of  his  name.    The  tradition  that  he  was  at 

the  Canadian  missions  in  1680,  and  retaining  that  one  time  prime  minister  to  a  native  raja  is  not 

office  until  at  least  1687.    A  year  later  he  was  prefect  sufficiently  authenticated.    In  1744  he  was  rector 

of  classes  in  the  College  of  Quebec  and  in  1689  re-  of  the  Aussion  of  Manapar,  where  he  died.    His 

turned  to  France,  where  he  acted  as  procurator  of  memory  lives  to  this  day  in  Southern  India, 

the  missions.    During  his  stay  in  Canada  he  was  for  ^Sommkbvooel,  BibliotMoue  de  la  <^^de  J.,  I.  ,ocj  ^4^ 

Sixteen  years  the  spiritual  director  of  the  Ureulines  j^^  j^  Maduri  (foiimai,  1894).  I.  152-163;  in  particulw 

at  Quebec,  and  their  annals  describe  him  as  '  a  man  Baumoartnbr.  Oeeehichte  der  Wdiliteratwr  (Freiburg  im  Br., 

of  distinguished  merit  and  a  director  of  great  wisdom  18®7),  II,  345-864. 

and  experience".  ^-  Guldner.  ^ 

THWArraa,  Jeeuit  Relatione,  LXII,  91;  XLIX,  273.  274;  «^«^i^^i      rt^     ^it>i              xl         u   j            *    /i  j\ 

RocHEMONTEix,  Let  Jisuitee  et  la  NouveUe-France  au  ^V//«  BeB6ie6l,     (Be^Ard,    m     the     shadow    of    God). 

eiMe  (Paris,  180*;96).  Ill,  371;  Soiiiibevoobl,  BtbL  de  la  e,  I.  The  son  of  Uri  and  grandson  of  Hur  of  the  tribe  of 

mf  KrJtftie  J^  jt^*to  ^rand  "s  many  appurtenances  (Ex    xxxi  2  sqq.)     To  too 

i™i  ^^ iul  ijf^Ai^JL^iJ^i^r.  i^\^u\  were  entrusted  the  preparation  of  the  holy  oils,  the 

went  to  the  Madura  mission  m  1710,  durmg  nearly  •  ,^«.^     ^u^    •^^•^♦i,,    „««+,vi«*»f «    ««r^  ^  i;n<kii«-  fhA 

f-v-4.«  ,.^»^  «f  ««>r^«f^i:^  \:t^  *^.^<.r:»<.  ui^^^u  «  ™^«*k,r  moenee,    the    pnestly   vestments,  ana    nnally  toe 

u^is^flh^foi'of^rMid^^r,^^  ^^f^i-'  ^  -"^  -f  °f  .*''"'  ?"™»-  f-  s*^ 

celebrated    Roberto    de'    Nobili.    Once    he   b4rely  fft^^J^rit  »&nt,  Z^oS  W  PSLh^ofX 

escaped  suffering   death   for  the  Christian  religion  *"  •»""  ""^  *l'?  a™»f  ants,  especially  Oohabjortte 

Tkr.\™J!  ^■^•.,.■.^1;,  r^:=-.,„„.-.r  .--i  .iV.^~  »»  iki  proper  execution  of  their  office   (Ex.,  xxn,  3-e> 

rhougn  primarily  a  missionary  and  always  at  the  L-Ji,  <ij_qc.  vr-ru!  1^ 

head  bf  a  district,  he  is  better  known  as  one  of  the  u'n^^t  ♦»,«  1!;.=  „/  VK.fc„*k  m««k  -i..^  m.^wd 

classical  writers  oi  Tamil  Uterature.    No  sooner  had  ,"•  P°*  **?  *^?  ^PJ^^  ^''1;''^*''"*^?*^  a      T^ 

L  arrived  in  India* than  he  began  the  study  of  San-  "  ^*'""«"«'  «»  **»«  ^''^^  "^  ^"«  ^l^'??;^*'^- 

skrit,  Telugu,  and  especiaUy  of  TamU.    "nianks  to  tt.JL.iL.  albbbt. 

his  genius  and  indefatigable  industry,  he  mastered  Besoigna,  J&RfiMB,  a  Jansenist  writer,  b.  at  Paric 


fiUOLDUB  527  BUSABIOH 

1686;  d.  1763.    Orduned  ih  1715,  lie  received  the  the  revival  of  ancient  learning,  conHtantly  dreading 

doctorate  of  the  Sorbonne  three  years  later.    He  waa  the  harmonising  of  the  two  syatems;  he  criticiied  the 

tlm  asaiatant  principal  of  the  College  of  Fleaeis,  but  unrestrained   partisanBhip    of    his   master   auite   as 

hia  defence  of  Jansenism  and  his  opposition  to  the  mucb  as  that  of  Michael  Apostoliua.     His  leanuiig 

Bu]l"U'iuKenitus"obligedhim  to  resign  the  poet.    In  and  eloquence  soon  excited  the  admiration  and  re- 

1729,  the  Sorbonne  erased  him  from  the  list  of  Doc-  epect  of  all  and  brought  him,  within  a  short  space  of 

ton  and,  in  1731,  he  'was  exiled  from  Paris.    During  tmie,    various    ec- 

the  following  year  he  was  allowed  to  return.     He  clesiastical     digni- 

wrot«  a  "History  of  the  Abbey  of  Port  Royal"  (6  ties.     In    1436   he 

vols.),  and  "Lives  of  the  Four  Biehops  engaged  in  was  made   Bishop 

the  case  of  Port  Royal".    We  have  also  from  his  pen  of  NiciEa,  but  waa 

two  works  on  Scripture:  "Concorde  dea  livres  de  la  not  destined  to  see 

Sagesse"  (Paris,  1737),  reprinted  in  Migne's  "Curaua  hia  diocese,    how- 

Completus"  (XVlII)  and  "Morale  des  ApOtres  ou  ever,  as    the  em- 

ctmcorde   des  ^pttree  de   saint   Paul   et   des  ^pttres  peror,  John    VIII 

■     N.  T."  CParia,  1747).  Pa!»ologua, 


—  ..  -, — Baoigite  (P«ria.  him     accomoanv 

1783):  QctMRD,  La  Frmc*  titUrain  (Parin  1827).  f.  316-316;  l;^  ,_    .,,„    (K.,,^, 

BtDBTEBiiic  in  Diet.  d»  <Mol.  ojjt.,  with  slut  oibisZvama-  "1™  to    tne   UOUn- 

klio  vriiii«s;  Rsr  in  DicL  da  la  BAU.  CM      Of       t cfTara, 

John  CoRSsn-r.  whichtheyreachea 
4     March,    1438. 

Beaoldns,  Christopher,  a    German  jurist  and  Here    his    dignity 

publicist,  b.  of  Protestant  jarents  in  1577  at  Tflbio-  and   touching  elo- 

gen.  WOrtemberg;  d.  15  September,  1638  at  Ingol-  quencc,  as  well  aa 

9ta^t,    Bavaria,      He    stuaied    jurisprudence    and  his    vast  theolog- 

graduated  as  Doctor  of  Law  in  1698;  and  in  1610  be-  ical      erudition, 

came  professor  of  law  at  TObiiiKen.     He  was  held  in  gave    him      such       JoEjiiiHn,  Cauimu.  Bi^auoh 

high  regard  aa  a  teacher,  and  nis  counsel  was  fre-  great   authority 

quentl^  sought  in  juridical   questions   bv  the  civil  among  the  Greek  bishops  that   the   happ^  issue   of 

administration.      His  studies   extended    Deyond   his  the   council — the    reunion   with   the   Latin    Church 

specialty;  he  acquired  the  knowledge  of  nine  Ian-  — may  be   attributed   in   great  part   to  him.     This 

gUflaes;    perused  the  Scriptures,  the  writings  of  the  was   Jullv  recognized,   as   on   6   July,  1439,  in   the 

Fathers,  and  of  the  medieval  mystics.    His  inclination  cathedral  of  Florence,  to  wliich  the  council  had  been 

towards  the  Catholic  religion  grew  with  his  knowledge  tranaterred,  he  waa  commissioned  to  read  the  Greek 

of  it.     He  waa  publicly  converted  at  Heilbronn  m  redaction  of  the  Act  of  Union. 

163S.  Two  years  later,  he  accepted  the  chair  of  Bessarion  returned  to  Greece,  but  during  the  same 
Roman  Law  at  the  University  ot  Ingolstadt.  He  was  year  is  found  once  more  at  Florence  with  Eugeniiu  IV, 
conwderine  the  offer  of  a  professorship  at  the  Uni-  who,  in  the  consistory  of  18  December,  1439  (accord- 
versityof  Bologna,  tendered  him  by  Pope  Urban  VIII,  ing  to  others  8  January,  1440),  created  him  cardinal 
when  he  died.  On  his  death-bed  he  conjured  his  wife  ot  the  title  of  tlie  Twelve  Holy  Apostles.  At  the 
to  embrace  the  Catholic  faith;  three  months  later  she  same  time  another  Greek,  ArchbiGriop  Isidore,  re- 
was  received  into  the  Church  with  her  eight-year  old  ceived  the  sacred  purple.  The  brief  duration  of  the 
daUjghter.  The  nobleness  of  character  and  erudition  union  of  the  churches  is  well  known.  Bessarion  him- 
of  Beeoldus  have  been  recognized  even  by  his  oo-  self,  havioK  changed  to  the  Latin  Rite  was  cordially 

Knents,  although  an  attempt  was  made  to  ascribe  hated  by  the  schismatic  Greeks.    This  notwithstand- 

>  conversion  to  interested  motives.    His  works  are  ing,  Bessarion  continued  to  work  zealously  for  the 

very  numerous.     His  pubUcation  of  three  volumes  of  umon  of  the  other  Oriental  schismatic  churehes,  the 

documenlfl  from  the  Stuttgart  archives  eave  offence  Jacobites  and  Ethiopians  (1442),  the  Syrians  (1444), 

because  their  contents  t^ided  to  prove  that  the  im-  the  Chaldeans  and  Maronites  (1445).     At  this  time, 

mediate  dependeni^  of  the  Wartemlserg  monasteries  also,  to  refute  the  accusations  of  Marcus  of  Epheeus, 

on  the  Empire  {ReuhsunmiltelbaTkeit)  implied  for  the  against  the  council,  he  wrote  the  book:  "De  successu 

local  dukes  the  obligation  of  restoring  the  confiscated  synodi  fiorentinte".     Nicholas  V,  like  Eugenius  IV. 

religioua  property.     His  writings  are  important  for  gave  evidence  oE  the  great  regard  in  which  he  bela 

the  hiatory  of  the  causes  of  the  Thirty  Years  War.  the  Greek  scholar.     In  1449  he  made  him  Bishop  of 

^  Rim,  Connrttioi  (EWbnrg.  1867).  V  31&-32B:  QOBTta,  Ulaziara  and  in  the  same  year  conferred  on  him  the 

SthetDMfdltt  toil  (fl«  (Stuttgart,  1B02),2»*--300;  BtIKTONO,  „,V„,rhifj.pian     tlw"     nf     SfibinB      fnr     whi<.h     that     nf 

OoA.  d.  dtuU€hm  IMiinHtMcntck.  (18S0).  1.  ea2  Kni.:»TKM.  W;iDurbipanan    See    ol    Habina     lor    which    tnat    ol 

ho-BbOck  in  KirdittUtz..  II,  G26-S2S.  Frascati  was  shortly  after  substituted.     In  the  fol- 

N,  A.  WrsER.  lowing  year  he  was  sent  as  papal  legate  to  Bologna, 
a  dty  torn  by  constant  factional  quatrels.     In  the 

Basauion,  Johannes    (or    Babilius),  Cardinal,  Brief  of  appointment  of  26  February,  1450,  the  pope 

b.  at  Trebiiond,  1389,  or  according  to  others,  1395,  says  he  is  sending  Bessarion  lamquam  oTijeiuni  paa», 

but  most  probably  in  1403;  d.  at  Ravenna  IS  Novem-  and  expresses  th?  hope  that  with  his  experience  and 

ber,  1472,  Some  claim  illustrious  parentage  for  him,  prudence  he  may  be  able  to  govern  the  city  in  peace, 
but  as  to  this  nothing  certain  is  Known,     In  1413,         Bessarion  continued  as  governor  of   Bologna  for 

while  still  very  youngTne  was  sent  to  Constantinople,  five  years,  achieving  complete  success  in  calming  the 

where  he  devoted  himself  to  study,  achieving  great  internal  discord.     Not  satisfied  with  that,  he  intro- 

BuccesB  in  the  field  of  letters.    In  1423  he  entered  the  duced  wise  reforms  into  the  city  government  and  in 

Order  of  St.  Basil  and  in  the  same  year  waa  sent  to  the  administration  of  justice.    Above  all  he  lavished 

thePeloponneaus  to  study  philosophy  under  Gemistus  all  his  attention  and  generosity  on  the  university, 

Pletho.     It  ia  known  that  Pletho  was  a  bitter  op-  Bologna's    greatest    glory,    restoring    the    building 

ponent  of  Aristotle,  against  whom  he  championed  which  threatened  to  fall   into  ruins.     He  gathered 

with  immoderate  zeal  the  doctrines  ot  Plato,  with-  there  as  teachers  the  most  famous  professors  of  the 

out,  however,  distinguishing  between  genuine  Pjaton-  time,  supplying  at  his  own  expense  the  deficiencies 

ism   and    neo-Platonism.      The    lessons    of    Pletho,  in  their  tionoraria,  and  encouraging  with  munificence 

though  makinB  Bessarion  a  follower  ot  Plato,  did  not  particularly   the   study   of   the   crassics.     Thus,   he 

prevent   him   from   perceiving  the  many   points   of  gathered  about  him  a  court  of  poets  and  men  of 

eoDtact  between  the  two  phUosophera,  and,  during  fetters.    He  waa  cordial  to  all,  even  the  lowliest;  by 


BSSSXL  SZ& 

stringent  l^islation  he  sought  to  curb  immoderate  cords  which  bad  arisen  •between  the  first  two,  and  to 

luxury;  and  he  rebuilt  and  adorned  many  churches  induce  the  last-mentioned  to  join  in  the  great  expedi- 

of  the  city,  among  them  that  of  San  Luca.    By  his  tion  against  the  enemy  of  Christianity.    On  20  April, 

f)rudent  and  far-seeing  administration  and  his  abso-  1472,  ne  left  Rom6---but  was  received  in  an  im- 

ute  impartiality  he  won  the  confidence  of  the  citizens  friendly  manner  both  in  Burgundy  and  at  Paris  so 

of  Bologna,  so  that  on  his  departure  they  honoured  that  he  was  forced  to  return  to  report  the  complete 

his  memory  in  an  inscription*  and  ev^  afterwards,  failure  of  his  mission.    The  disappointment,  the  db- 

in  all  their  necessities  ana  in  all  transactions  with  the  comforts  of  travelling,  and  his  ^at  age  made  sad 

Holy  See,  they  had  recourse  to  his  intervention.  havoc  on  his  strength.    At  Ravenna  he  was  oblifed 

While  Bessarion  was  legate  in  Bologna,  Cardi-  to  interrupt  his  journey:  there  his  death  occurrea  at 

nal  Stefano  Porcaro  was  in  l>anishment  in  that  city,  the  Abbey  of  St.  John  tne  Evangelist,  18  November, 

being  assigned  one  hundred  ducats  in  addition  to  the  1472.    His  body  was  taken  to  Rome  and  interred  in  a 

anniml  pension  of  three  himdred  granted  him  by  the  tonab  which  had  been  erected  in  the  portico  of  the 

pope.     Porcaro   succeeded   in   eluding   Bessarion's  convent  of  the  Conventual  Minorites,  dose  by  the 

vigilance  and  escaping  to  Rome.    Bessarion  did  not  Basilica  of  the  Twelve^  Holy  Apostles.     A  simple 

delay  in  apprising  the  pope  of  his  flixht.    The  rest  is  sarcophagus,  on  which  is  inscribed  a  Greek  distich 

weU  Imown.    In  1453  Nicholas  V  med;  and  in  the  of  his  own  composition,  contains  his  remains, 
conclave  following  his  death,  Bessarion  was  all  but        All  the  aspirations  of  Bessarion,  which,  more  than 

chosen  to  succeed  him;  however,   Calixtus  III  was  great,  were  unique,  were  absorbed  by  three  ideas: 

finally  elected.    Constantinople  had  just  faUen  into  the  union  of  the  Oriental  Church  with  the  Latin, 

the  hands  of  the  Turks  and  the  Byzantine  Empire  the  rescue  of  Greek  lands  from  the  Mussulman  yoke, 

had  been^  destroyed.    Thereupon  Bessarion  usea  all  and  the  triumph  of  classic  literature  and  philosophy, 

his  influence  with  Francesco  Foscari,  the  Doge  of  especially  the  Greek.     If  the  realization  of  the  firet 

Venice,  as  well  as  with  the  new  pope  to  persuade  two  was  only  partial  or,  in  a  way,  temporary,  the 

them  to  take  up  the  offensive  against  the  invading  third  was  certainly  fulfilled  to  a  more  complete  de- 

b^barians.     Not  confining  his  efforts  to  words,  at  sree  than  perhaps  Bessarion  himself  had  dared  hope, 

the  cost  of  heavy  pecuniary  sacrifices  he  furthered  His  labours  in  that  direction  had  lasting  success, 

the  cause  of  the  crusade.     His  zeal  was  still  more  By  his  translations  of  Xenophon's  "Memorabilia", 

pronounced  under  Pius  II,  whose  election  was  due  Aristotle's  "Metaphysics",  etc.,  he  paved  the  way 

m  a  special  manner  to  him.     In  the  congress  of  for  a  more  exact  knowledge  of  the  real  ^thoujght  of 

Mantua,  convened  by  the  pope  in  1450  for  tne  pur-  the  Stagyrite.     His  part  in  the  reconciliation  of 

pose  of  forming  a  league  of  sdl  Christian  princes  .  Flatonism  and  Aristoteleanism  has  already  been  men- 

against  the  Turks,  Bessarion  took  a  most  active  part,  tioned.    In  this  contest  of  intelligence,  he  wrote  the 

not  justified,  however,  by  results.    The  love  of  his  works  "In  oalumniatorem  Platonis"  against  George 

native  land  impelled  him  to  accept  the  commission  of  Trebizond,  who  in  his  translation  of  the  Laws  of 

ffiven  him  by  the  pope  to  attend  two  German  diets  Plato  had  sharply  criticized  their  author,  exalting 

held  the  following  year,  one  on  the  2nd  of  March  at  Aristotle  instead.     In  the  fifth  book  of  nis  work, 

Nuremberg,  the  other  on  the  25th  of  the  same  month  Bessarion,  in  turn,  enumerates  the  faults  of  transla- 

at  Worms.     Neither,  however,  had  any  practical  re-  tion  and  the  errors  in  the  conmientanr  of  George, 

suits.     At  the  command  of  the  pope  ne  went  to  At  a  tremendous  outlay,  he  gathered  toother  a 

Vienna  to  induce  the  emperor  to  assist  with  arms  library  of  eight  hundred  codices  of  Greek  MsS.,  and 

and  supplies  Matthias  Corvinus,  the  young  King  of  still  at  his  own  expense  had  many  others  copied  by 

Hungary.    After  a  long  wait  the  German  lea&rs,  men  of  letters.    After  1464  he  gave  these  treasures 

17  feptember,  asked  for  another  delay,  and  only  to  the  Republic  of  Venice  with  which  he  had  always 

the  express  wish  of  Pius  II  kept  Bessarion  in  Ger-  been    in    the   greatest    sympathy.      These    codices 

many  for  a  whole  year,  pleadinfl;  the  cause  of  the  formed   the   nucleus   of   the   famous   "Bibliotheca 

Christians  of  the  Orient.    Lntemal  discord  among  the  Sancti  Marci''. 

German  leaders  prevented  them  from  reaching  any  „The  greater  pwpt  of  Bessarion's  works  are  to  be  found  in 

^^«:«:^«   ^^*.»»»«r»<»  +k«   ».MionrlA     »^nA   TlAuaofn/^   »A  P'  ^m  CLXI.     Conceming  Bessarion:    Al.   BLANDVnua,  De 

decision  conceming  the  crusade,  and  Bessanon  re-  t»»id««VY*i«pM<MBw«irionM(Rome.l777):  WoLro.v.GowH^ 

turned  to  Rome  disillusioned  and  discouraged.     As  a  Stwlien  vnd  Fonchuiufen  iOter  daa  Leben  tmd  Zeit  des  Card,  B, 

reward  for  his  labours  the  pope  bestowed  on  him  the  (Jena,  1874):  Vast.  Le  Card,  B.  (Paxk,  1878):  Sadov,  B^ur 

^^^^^^A^^^^,    AlxK^.r   ^c   ^•^♦♦o  T?<^i...a4-a    ^f   Pi^tkalr  ^r^tm  de  ntcie  son  role  au  coneue  de  Ferrara  (Florenoe  »na  St. 

commendatoiy  Abbey  of  Grotta-B  errata  of  Greek  p^temburg,  1888);  Rocholl,  Benarion  (LeipW  l«H). 
Basilians,  which  became  a  centre  of  learned  pursuits.  »       U.  Benigni. 

Shortly  afterwards,  on  the  death  of  Cardinal  Isidore, 

metropolitan  of  ICiew  and  Patriarch  of  Constant!*        BesBel,  Johann  Franz  (in  religion  Gottfried), 

nople,  Bessarion  received  the  patriarchal  title.  Benedictine,  abbot,  and  historian,  b.  5  September, 

In  1463  Pius  II  once  more  sent  him  to  Venice  to  1672,  at  Buchen,  in  the  Grand-ducny  of  Bacfen;  d.  at 

win  that  republic  over  to  the  cause  of  the  crusade  Gdttweig,  22  January,  1749.    He  nmde  his  course  in 

which  the  pope,  on  his  own  initiative,  wished  to  the  humanities  at  Aschaff enburg,  WOrfburg,  and 

organise.     Long,  serious  discussions  ensued,  and  at  Bamberg,  and  in    1690  entered  the  University  of 

last,  in  September  of  the  same  year,  the  republic  Salaburg,  conducted  by  the  Benedictines,  where  he 

signed  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  Matthias  Corvinus,  specialized  in  philosopny,   also   attending   lectures 

and  on  20  October  the  crusade  was  solemnly  pro-  on  theology  and  jurisprudence.     Attracted  by  the 

claimed.    The  results  hoped  for,  however,  were  not  learning  and  piety  of  his  teachers,  he  resolved  to 

entirely  achieved.    During  the  pontificate  of  Paul  II  become  a  religious  and  entered  the  Benedictine  Order 

who  continued  the  crusade,  Bessarion  withdrew  from  at  GOttweig  on  the  Danube,  Lower  Austria,  15  June, 

active  affairs  and  devoted  himself  entirely  to  study,  1692.    After  making  his  vows  (21  June,  1693),  he 

cultivating  the  friendship  of  many  Greek  and  Italian  completed  his  theological  course  at  Vienna,  was  or- 

scientists  then  in  Rome,  and  engaging  in  learned  dis-  dained  (21  March,  1696),  and  on  23  May  was  granted 

cussions  with  them.    Thus  he  won  the  title  of  LU"  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Theoloa^,  being  shortlv  afto^ 

terarum  patronus.    In  his  house  the  first  Accademia  wards  appointed  Lector  in  philosophy  and  tneology 

was  founded.    In  1470  when  Paul  II  desired  to  or-  in  the  monastery  of  Seligenstadt  on  the  Main.    In 

ganize  a  new  crusade,  Bessarion  wrote  the  letter  "De  1699  he  was  summoned  to  the  electoral  court  of  Maim 

Bello  Turcis  inferendo".    Sixtus  IV,  who  approved  by  Archbishop  Lothar  Franz  von  SchOnbom,  who 


529  BSBTIABm 

of  Dodor  Juris  Utriuaque,  and  on  his  return  to  Marnz  orders  tn  the  Anglican  Church,  and  a  little  later  re- 

(1703)  he  was  appointed  vicar-general  and  supreme  tired  to  Lincoln,  displaying  great  activity  there  as  a 
judge  of  the  ^ole  archdiocese  by  his  benefactor,  preacher.  Doubts  about  the  spiritual  authority  of 
He  was  also  employed  on  various  diplomatic  missions,  the  Established  Church  sprang  up  in  his  mind,  which 
as,  for  instance,  to  the  court  of  Bnmswick-WoKen-  were  strengthened  by  mtercourse  with  the  AbbS 
battel  in  connexion  with  the  conversion  of  Duke  An-  Beaimiont,  then  in  charge  of  the  small  Catholic 
ton  Ulrich  and  his  granddaughter,  the  Princess  Elisa-  chapel  at  Lincoln.  The  result  was  that  he  was  re- 
beth  Christine,  later  the  wife  of  Emperor  Charles  VI.  ceived  into  the  Catholic  Church  by  Rev.  Mr.  Hodg- 
He  made  three  journeys  to  Rome  to  settle  differences  son,  Vicar-General  of  the  London  district,  26  May, 
between  the  pope  and  the  emperor  concerning  the  1798.  In  1800,  he  married  Sarah,  daughter  of  Ed- 
limits  of  the  province  of  Comacchio.  On  7 February,  ward  Sealy,  Esq.,  and  was  the  father  of  the  well- 
1714,  he  was  elected  Abbot  of  G6ttweig.  and  from  known  author,  John  Richard  Digby  Beste.  His  first 
that  time  forward  was  commissioned  by  the  emperor  works  were  a  treatise  entitled  "The  Christian  Religion 
to  conduct  diplomatic  negotiations,  in  addition  to  briefly  defended  against  the  Philosophers  and  Re- 
being  made  imperial  theologian  and  serving  twice  as  publicans  of  France'*  (octavo,  1793),  and  in  the  same 
honorary  rector  of  the  University  of  Vienna.  year  a  discourse  on  "  Priestly  Absolution  "  which  was 

Abbot  Bessel  was  the  second  founder  of  GOttweig,  republished  in  1874.  It  is  interesting  that  this  latter 
which  became,  under  his  rule  of  thirty-five  years,  a  work  anticipated  some  of  the  Tractarian  arguments 
centre  of  learning.  He  added  to  the  rare  Hebrew,  and  met  with  the  warm  commendation  of  the  chief 
Greek,  and  Roman  coins  and  bracteates  collections  members  of  the  University  of  Oxford  in  1794.  After 
of  copper-plate  engravings  (over  20,000),  minerals,  his  conversion  Beste  was  an  occasional  contributor 
shells,  and  paintings.  By  the  expenditure  of  princelv  to  Catholic  periodicals.  He  also  travelled  abroad 
sums  he  enriched  the  library  with  thousands  of  and  spent  several  years  in  France  and  Italy.  Car- 
volumes,  chiefly  on  historical  subjects,  as  well  as  tiv-  dinal  Wiseman  met  him  at  Rome  in  the  Jubilee 
cunabula  and  MSS.  Himself  a  thoroi^h  sdiolar,  he  of  1825,  and  mentions  him  in  his  "Last  Four  Popes" 
encouraged  among  his  religious  all  imdertakings  of  a  (Boston.  1858,  p.  245).  In  1826  Beste  published 
scientific  or  artistic  nature.  Wheil  the  abbey  was  "Four  Years  in  France,  or  Narrative  of  an  English 
almost  totally  destroyed  by  fire,  he  gathered,  by  Family's  Residence  there  during  that  period,  pre- 
judicious  management,  means  sufficient  to  rebuild  ceded  by  some  account  of  the  Conversion  of  the 
it  on  a  more  splendid  scale.  Author  to  the  Catholic  Faith'*  (octavo).    Two  years 

Personally,  Abbot  Bessel  was  a  retiring  religious,  later  he  wrote  a  similar  book  on  his  stay  in  Italy, 

presenting  to  all  a  shining  examine  of  noonastic  piety  Ten  years  after  his  death  appeared  his  last  work, 

and  virtue.     Besides  several  comparatively  unino-  called  "  Poverty  and  the  Baronet's  Family,  a  Catholic 

portant  works,  such  as  "Margarita  pretiosa",  "Curise  Story"  (12mo,  1846). 

KomansB  praxis",  and  "Austria  ritus",  he  pub-  .Gilw)w,  Bibl.  Diet,  Eng,  Cath.,  s.  v.;  Kknt  in  Diet.  NaL 
lished  (Vienna,  1732)  two  letters  of  St.  Augustine  to  ^^''  ^^'  *^^-  tj,  „  ^  o  a„,  ,  .„„ 
Optatus,  Bishop  of  Mileve,  which  had  l^n  until  Edward  P.  Spillane. 
then  unknown.  He  is  erroneously  credited  with  Bestiaries,  medieval  books  on  animals,  in  which 
the  authorship  of  "  C^uinquaginta  Romano-catho-  the  real  or  fabulous  characteristics  of  actually  existent 
licam  fidem  omnibus  allisprseferendi  mo tiva"  (Mainz,  or  imaginary  animals  (such  as  the  griffin,  dragon, 
1708),  a  controversial  work  written  ori^naUy  in  siren,  unicorn,  etc.)  were  figuratively  treated  as  - 
Latin,  but  translated  into  almost  every  European  religious  symbols  of  Christ,  the  devil,  the  virtues  and 
tongue.  The  work  which  brought  him  lasting  re-  vices.  The  origins  of  a  symbolism  of  this  character, 
nown  and  a  jAace  in  the  records  of  the  science  of  taken  from  nature,  are  to  be  sought  in  anticjuity  and 
history  is  entitled  "Chronicon  Gottwiccnse,  tomus  above  all  in  the  ancient  East.  Eastern  literature, 
prodromus"  (Tegernsee,  1732).  Not,  as  might  be  as  well  as  the  Greco-Roman  literature  dependent  on 
thought,  a  histoiy  of  the  abbey,  this  sin^e  volume  it,  ascribed  to  certain  animals,  whether  fabulous  or 
is  a  comprehensive  work  on  German  diplomatics,  real  (the  lion,  the  tiger,  the  snake,  the  eagles),  a-cer- 
treating  of  manuscripts  found  in  registers  and  ar-  tain  connexion  with  the  life  and  actions  of  man  and 
chives,  original  documentary  evidence,  diplomas  of  the  gods,  and  made  a  corresponding  religious  use  of 
German  emperors  and  kings,  and  inscriptions  and  them.  This  is  exemplified  m  the  Oriental  and  en- 
seals, illustrated  with  maps  and  engravings  on  copper,  pecially  E^rptian  worship  of  animals.  Many  remi- 
The  author  abo  discusses  medieval  geography,  as  well  niscences  of  this  animal  symbolism  are  encountered 
as  the  royal  palace-ctomains  (Pfalten)  and  tne  vari-  in  the  Old  Testament.  From  the  earliest  period 
ous  districts  of  Germany.  Great  learning  and  clear  Christian  fancy  interpreted  these  animals  according 
critical  acumen  distinguish  this  work,  which  marked  to  the  symbohsm  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  so  de- 
an epoch  in  the  history  of  CJerman  diplomatics,  and  picted  them  in  Christian  art.  Thus,  for  example,  in 
has  served  as  the  basis  of  all  later  works  on  the  same  the  Catacombs  some  are  symbolic  of  what  is  good, 
subject.  e.  g.  the  lamb  or  sheep  representing  the  soul  or  the 

Albrrt,  Gottfried  Betfd  w^m  CA«mico»  Oo<ft«een»e  in  believer,  the  dove  the  soul,  the  phocnix  Christ  or 

FreOnsrger  Di^Joemm-Arditr.  <l8»»is  ^XVII  217-250  immortality,  and  the  peacock  immortality;  others 

rATRiciUB  GCHLAQER.  gymboHc  of  what  is  bad,  e.  g.  the  serpent  representing 

Beste,  HenrY'Digbt,  miscellaneous  author,  b.  at  the  devil;  still  others,  especially  in  later  times,  are 

Lincoln,  England,  21  October,  1768;  d.  at  Brighton,  to  be  interpreted  in  various  senses;  thus  the  lion  may 

28  May,  ISfe.    He  was  the  son  of  the  Rev.  Henry  symbolize  either  Christ  or  the  devil.    An  early  com- 

Beste,  D.D.,  prebendary  of  Lincoln  Cathedral.    His  pilation  of  such  allegorical  interpretations  of  the 

mother,  Magdalen,  daughter  and  heiress  of  Kenehn  nature  of  plants  and  animals,  made  up  partly  from 

Di^by,    Esq.,    of    North    Luffenhalti    in    Rutland,  antique  materials,  is  still  extant  in  the  "rhysio- 

daimed  to  be  the  representative  of  the  extinct  male  logus",  the  much  copied  and  much  used  "natural 

line  of  the  historic  Sir  Everard  and  Sir  Kenelm  histoiy"  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  the  basis  of  all 

Digby.    His  father  dying  in  1782,  Henry  was  sent  later  bestiaries.    Similar  compilations  are  the  "Liber 

two  years  later  by  his  mother  to  Oxford.     He  became  formularum"  of  Eucherius,  some  parts  of  the  "  Libri 

a  commoner  of  Magdalen  CJollege,  where  he  took  his  orieinum"  of  Isidore,  parts  of  the  writings  of  Bede 

B.A.  degree  in  1788  and  his  M.A.  in  1781.    He  was  and  Rabanus,  and  the  treatise  long  ascribed  to  the 

afterwards  elected  to  a  fellowship,  which  he  resigned  second-century   Melito   of   Sardes,   and   known   as 

when  the  family  estates  came  to  him  on  the  death  "(3lavis"  or  "The  Key",  which  appeared  in  its 

of  his  mother.    In  September,  1791,  he  took  deacon's  present  form  towards  the  eleventh  century.    Later 


BBTAimHI                              530  BBTAinOS 

bestiaries  obtained  much  valuable  material  from  him  in  1541,  and  approximately  repeated  in  1543» 
the  ^'Libri  moralium''  of  .Gregory  the  Great.  The  just  as  the  unfortunate  "New  Laws  regarding  the 
medieval  bestiaries  are  more  or  less  exact  translations  Indies  were  to  be  promulgated  under  the  influence 
or  imitations  of  the  '^Physiologus";  e.  g.  the  bestiary  of  Las  Casas.  he  assumed  an  entirely  difTerent  atti- 
of  Philippe  de  Thaun,  about  1121,  edited  by  Thomajs  tude.  Free  irom  all  controversial  spirit,  he"  quietly 
Wright  (London,  1841),  and  two  bestiaries  of  the  gave  his  opinion  in  a  sense  diametrically  opposed  to 
thirteenth  century,  one  by  Pierre  of  Picardy.  the  the  measures  Las  Casas  pressed  upon  the  Govern- 
other  by  Guillaume  of  Normandy  puhlishea  by  ment.  This  is  significant,  coming  from  a  member  of 
Hippeau  (Caen,  1852).  The  bestiary  appears  in  its  the  same  order  and  of  almost  equal  rank.  Betanzos 
complete  development  in  Richacd  de  Foiunival's  was  an  intimate  friend  of  the  most  distinguished  Fran- 
'^Bestiaire  d'Amour*',  written  in  the  fourteenth  ciscans  of  Mexico — Archbishop  Zumiirraga,  Motolinia, 
century  and  published  by  Hippeau  (Paris,  1860),  in  and  othen,  who  did  not  harmonize  A^ith  Las  Casas  in 
the  treatise  De  animahbus  attributed  to  Bl.  Al-  his  extreme  tendencies.  He  is  credited  with  the 
bertus  Magnus,  in  the  "Tractatus  de  bestiis  et  aliis  authorship  of  an  addition  to  the  "Doctrina*'  of  Fray 
rebus**  supposed  to  have  been  written  by  Hugo  of  Pedro  de  C)6rdova  which  appeared  in  1544,  and  possi- 
St.  Victor,  above  all  in  the  "Speculum  naturale"  of  bly  im  1560,  but  this  is  not  yet  fully  established. 

Vincent  of  Beauvais.  Vcazbalckta,   CoUcddn  de  Documentot  para   la   HisUrria 

The  influence  of  the  sjonbolism  of  the  totiariee.  is  t^^li^So^'^^'IS^^iJityirc^l^B^iS^^ 

plainly  seen  m   the   vanous  forms  of  medieval   m-  Ccwm;  Mkndikta.  HutoHa  ecUgidatica  indiana,  1600  (Mexico, 

tellectual  life.    It  was  evident  in  the  sermon  and  also  1870);  DIvila  Padilla,  HUtoria  de  la  fund(Kuin  y  difcvrw 

bee  m  the  blessing  of  Easter  candles  and  the  blessing  igie),  I;  Rbme8al.  HUtoria  de  la  Provinda  de  San  Viomte 

of  wine  on  the  feast  of  St.  John  as  a  preventive  of  ds  Chyapa  y  Ouatemala  de  la  Ordtn  de  Santo  Domingo  (Madrid. 

Doisoning  from  fnake-biteB      The  metri«il  animal  i«>»);  j^JT^^^^jt^J^^  if  J'iSKt^rS 

fables,  particularly,  exhibit  the  widespread  taste  for  Chiavaa  y  QwOenuda;  Gil  (^nzales  DXvila,  Teatro  odesid*- 

this  form  of  allegory.    The  influence  of  the  symbolism  Hco  de  lapHmitiya  tgUna  de  lae  IndiaepccidenUdee  (Madrid. 

of  the  bestiaries  is  stUl  more  manifest  in  medieval  l^>5  J>^ccumano  de  Hutona  y  ^^^V*^"^' J^W.  I. 
sculpture,  both  Romanesque  and  Gothic.  Though  ^-  * '  ^andbuer. 
the  use  of  animal  subjects  in  the  oldest  Irish  and  Brumes,  Fray  Pedro  de,  a  Franciscan  mission- 
Merovingian  art  has  apparently  no  deeper  aim  than  ^ry,  b.  at  Betanzos  in  Galicia;  d.  at  Chomez,  Nicam- 
the  enjoyment  of  grotesque  forms,  yet  anunal  sym-  g^a,  1570.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest  Franciscan 
holism  appears  from  the  earliest  date  as  an  element  of  nussionaries  to  Guatemala,  and  founder  of  the  Church 
Romanesque  art,  specially  in  miniature  and  sculp-  jj^  Nicaragua.  He  is  said  to  have  acquired,  in  eight 
ture.  m  both  of  which  it  often  exhibits  a  dose  de-  yeare  the  use  of  fourteen  Indian  languages,  includSng 
pendence  on  the  bestianes.  (See  Animals  in  Chris-  l^  NahuatL  It  is  certain  that  he  possessed  an  ex- 
TiAN  Art;  Symbolism.)  ^^  r  . .  .^  ^  traordinary  gift  for  linguistics  since  in  one  year  he 
(lS"9^ -N^xIfif^^JStt  i'S!^rr^^'Z!Utna'':S!llt  "T^f^^Av*-'^.  P"T?»^  '^V*"^  of  Guatemala: 

holiecke  Tieroeach.  dee  MiUelaUer$  in  Raumer,   Taaehenbuch  Quich^.  Kakchiquel,  and  Zutuhll,  speaking  them  as 

0867).  177-269:  Kbepnbr,  t7«>«r  die  TieH>tuJi^  dee  Miuetr-  perfectly  as  the  Indians  themselves.     It  was  during 

^).  460'i^r*                                     Katholtecher  Seelsorger  ^  ^^^    ^^^  ^^  ^^^^^  ^j  ^  writings,  that  thi 

Joseph  Sauer.  controversy   began    between   the   Franciscans    and 

-^  ^             T^        T^                   T^      .  .  Dominicans  over  the  use  of  the  Indian  term  *'Cabo- 

BeUnios,  Fray  Domingo,  a  Domimcaji  mission-  vil"  as  a  synonym  for  God.    Betanzos  insisted  that 

aiy,  d.  at  VaUadohd,  Sept.,  1549.     One  of  the  most  they  were  not  synonymous  and  always  wrote  "Dioe  ", 

illustrious  Domimcans  of  the  sixteenth  century  m  even  in  Indian  idioms.    The  Dominicans  on  the 

America.     A  native  of  Leon  in  Spain,  he  first  studied  other  hand  kept  up  the  native  term  "Cabovtt". 

mnsprudenoe  at  Salamanca,  then   became  a  Beno-  xhe  Franciscans  were  right,  since  the  aborigines  had 

dictine  and  hved  as  a  hermit  on  the  Island  of  Ponza  ^o  conception  of  monotheism,  and  "CaboviT'  means, 

for   five  years.     He  then  jomed   the   Domimcans.  ^ot  a  personal  supreme  Deity,  but  the  spiritual  es- 

who  had  established  themselves  on  the  Island  of  gence  which  all  Indians  believe  to  pervade  the  worid, 

Hispamola    (Santo    Domingo)    in    IftO.     Betanzos  localizing  and  individuaUzing  at  wiU;  an  ammistic 

went  there  four  years  later.     In  151b  he,  with  sev*  j^ea  underiying    Indian    fetishism.     Betanzos  waa 

eral  other  Dominicans,  wrote  a  violent  letter  to  Las  one  of  the  authors  of  a  work  published  at  Mexico 

Casas  on  the  rapid  disappearance  of  the  Indians  of  and  entitled,  *'Arte,  Vocabulana  y  Doctrina  Chria- 

the  Antilles,  indulging  in  the  grossest  exaggerations  tiana  en  Lengua  de  Guatemala".    It  is  probably  the 

about   the   numbers   of  the   abonginal   population  book  printedin  Mexico  previous  to  1553  and  ascrib^ 

(which  they  had  no  means  of  knowing,  even  ap-  -        -                  -    -                 -    -            —  - 


province  of  Santiago  de  Mexico.     Hardly  had  it  been        Casual  mention  of  Fray  Pedro  de  Betansoe  b  found    in 


Domingo.      Betanzos    went    to    Spain    in    1531    and  idioma  UtiaUco;  of  the  1724  print,  Doctrina  Crietiana  en  ley%msa 

nhtAinAd  fmm  fhp  Holv  SflA  th*»  inHpnpnHonpA  nf  his  Ouatemalteea.  and  while  the  former  it  attributed  to  Biabop 

ODtainea  irom  ine  noiy  oee  ine  inaepenaence  OI  ms  Marroquin.  tKe  latter  has  for  iU  authors  Fray  Juan  DC  ToRitaa 

foundation.     He    also    established    the    Dominiqan  and  Fray  Pkdro  de  Bbtansos.    The  biographic  dat&    &re 

Province    of    Guatemala.      As    Provincial    of    Mexico  found  in  BAristain,  Bibliot.  hiepano-americana  mU  (IJexioo, 

in  1535   he  at  once  organi^mtoions  among  thr^  'r^'^;^S^Sri,r:^St:^'^:^^^''S^'^Itr' 

Indian   linguistic  stocks:   Nahuatl  (Aztec,  or  Mexi-  Frandeco    de   Ouatemala    (Guatemala,    1714-16).   S^vi 

can),     MixteCO,    and    Tzapoteco.       He    returned    to  MonotyraoA  o/  XwAort,  etc.  (New  York.  1861),  copies 

lin  in  1549,  and  died  in  September  of  the  same  Tii:L.if  rf^i:^^=i^S  ^^"I^yjl:?^^ 


Spain  .11  x»^j7,  cMiv.  «.^  11*    .^pv^ii,u«=i    v..   wic  o«,.iro  languagee   (London,    1868).     On   the  oontroversy  ovw 

year  at  Valladolid.    The   Bishopric  of  Guatemala  use ofthe words "Dios" and "Cabovil" Bee REMMAL,i^jM 

was  tendered  to  Betanzos,  but  he  declined  it.     While,  <fc  ^  provinda  de  San  VicenU  de  Chyapa  y  Ouatemala  (r 

in  his  letter  of  1516,  he  acquiesced  in  the  extreme  ^^^^^*  .      „  D*,nj-r», 

views  of  his  brethren  of  the  order  on  the  question  of  *  uand 

Indian  policy,  in  the  '^ Opinion"  (Parecer)  given  by        Betansos,  Juan  de. — ^Unfortunately  veiy  little  is 


531 

CDown  OS  yet  of  this  official,  wtio  has  left  such  val-  of  the  Uotmt  (d  CMiTM.    It  fa  not  mentioned  in  'h» 

idble  works  on  the  Indian  traditJooB  and  languago  Old  Teatunent;  in  tlte  New  Testament  it  comoi 

of  Peru.    He  naa  a  Spaniard  by  birth  and  came  to  into  prominence  aa  the  Village  of  Mary,  Martha, 

Peru  at  an  early  day.     Whether  or  not  he  was  still  aod  Lazarus,  and  as  the  scene  of  the  great  miracle  of 

OH  the  Island  of  Santo  Domingo  in  1539^  as   notary  the  raising;  of  Lazarus  to  life  by  Jeans.     Here  Jeeua 

or  scribe,  is  uncertain.    He  was  at  Cuzco  m  1542  and  often  received  hospitality  in  the  house  of  hia  friends, 

officiated  as  puaBi-intrapreter  at  the  investigation  of  Mary,  Martha,  and   Laianw;  and   Dear  this  village 

Indianhistorioal tradltionsorderedby VacaoeCastro.  Jesus  ascended  into  Heaven.    The  most  accepted 

(See  Pebu.)    Bivea  then  he  had  acquired  a  solid  ao-  etymology  of  the  name  is  Belt-'Ania',  "House  of 

Juaintanoe  with  the  Quichua  idiom.     He  married  an  Hiaeiy".     The    Talmud    derives    the    name    from 

idiaa  giri.  of  the  Inca  tribe  and  composed  the  fiiat  Beit-HinA,   or   Bft'unij    "House   of    Dates".    The 

catechiam  known  to  us  in  the  Quicnua  language,  modem  name  of  the  village  is  d-'Azariye,  so  called 

The  manuscript  is  now  in  the  National  Archivee  at  from  the  memory  of  LaBanu.    The  mitial  letter 

Lima.     In  1551  he  finished  his  book  entitled  "Suma  of  the  name  Lexarus  is  elided  in  Arabic  after  the 

y  Narraci^Q  de  loe  Incas  &o"  (dedicating  it  to  the  i  of  the  article. 

viceroy  Antonio  de  Mendoza),  one  of  the  moet  im-        Some  believe  that  the  present  village  of  Bethany 

portant  sources  for  ancient  Peruvian  history.     Un-  does   not  occupy   the  site   of   the   ancient   Tillage; 

fortunately  only  a  part  of  this  work  ia  still  imown  to  but  that  it  giw  up  around  the  tnuUttonal  cavo 


Tarn  Vnua*  or  Bvmim 

exist.     It  embodies  the  earliest  accounts  of  Indian'  idiich  th^  suppose  to  hnvB  been  at  some  distance 

traditions  from  Bolivia  and  extreme  southern  Pern,  from  the  house  of  Martha  and  Mary  in  the  village. 

and  as  they  were  gathered  by  Betanzoe  within  lees  Zanecchia    (La    Palestine    d'aujouraliui,    1899,    I, 

than  fift«en  years  after  the  landing  of  Pizarro,  they  445  sq.)  placce  the  site  of  the  ancient  village  of 

can  hardly  bo  much  tainted  by  contact  with  Euro-  Bethany   higher  up  on  the  south-eaBtem   slope   of 

peans.     Of  the  life  of  Betanzoe,after  1551,  practically  the  Mount  of  Olives,  not  far  from  the  accepted  site 

nothing  is  known.  of  Bethphage,  and  near  that  of  the  Ascension.     It  is 

Rpr.Huw.  jfunw  y  NiBTociin  dt  toM  ineat  qut  lot  Indie*  quite  oertam  that  tho  present  village  formed  about 


lsl5rS','..r-K'°SSSS"5."7X;^a  th.W«iitto,JlombotL«jnj.,  which  i.  in 

, ■  jidadrid,  1S78,  Intcoductton);  aAHi.fA,  El  Orion  m  the  Village.    The  identification  of  this  (_  _   .  . 

d;  1«  indua  (FatW  Gwjfa  owned  the  compieis  manuncripi  the  tomb  Of  Lasaru*  is  merely  possible;  it  has  no 

(ltdrina«.^"«^'U*^*i.*i^b:^"hS'^5SSSS  "t^^K  '"'rin-io  "  «rtrin«'<=   authority     The   die 

■oln  to  DMcmdnuta  ii  Oobumo  dt  lot  Ingot,  uid  ii  dkted  of  the  ancient  vulage  may  uot  precisely  comcide 

1M3)   Bamdeueb.  Aboriginal  MyAt  and  TTaditioat  concam-  with  the  preeent  one,  but  there  IS  every  reason  to 

,»wA,/(fanrfrfTW{kB«(79M.,Xt^-4«iA«po/o^  beliav,   ttiat   it   was   in   this   leneral   location.     St. 


in™.  T-A*  Cnai  rf  Cara*u«  [ibid..  VI.  No.  65rMu«Di»D»i.     behave   that   It   was   in   this   general   iocation. 
Ditdenano,  oto.  (Uma,  ISTS),  II.  Jerome  testifies:  "Bethany  is  a  village  at  the  e* 


Ad.  F.  Bakdelieb.  . 

,  the   Mount  of  Olives,   where   the   Saviour   raised 

Batubara.    See  Bethany  beiohs  tbx  Jordan.  Laurua  to  l&e.  to  which  event  the  church  now 

BathAiiy  (Bi|terla),  a  village  of  Palestine,  fifteen  built   there    beats    witness"    (Onoro.    ed.    Lagardr 


nmonzB,   or  one  mile  and  three-quarters,  east  of 
Jerus^em.  at  the  baae  of  tbe  aoutb-easteni   slope 


108,  3). 


'oA),  IV J 


BKTHAVT  S32  BKTHLKHBM 

uutum''    ttnti   held  in  great   veneration.    Towards  The  reading  "Bethabara"  came,  into  the  eodicM 

thp  close  of  the  fourth  century  St.  Silvia  decUrea  that  on  the  authority  of  Origea.  A.  E.  Bbeen.   * 

on  the  Satitt^y  before  Palm  Sunday  the  clergy  of        BatharKO,  a  city  of  the  AmorrhiteB  in  the  vaUey- 

Jcn^lem  and  the  people  go  out  to  the  Laianum  plain  east  of  the    Jordiin,  about  twelve  miles  from 

at  Bethany,  so  that  not  only  the  place  itself  but  Jericho  (Num.,  ixxii,  36;  Jo«.,  xjii,  27).     It  was  re- 

thp  fields  round  about  are  full  of  people.     In  Eoemory  built  by  the  tribe  of  6ad  and  later  fortified  by  Herod 

of  this  ancient  ciutom   the   Franciscan   Fatnera  of  Antipas,  who  named  it  Livias  in  honour  of  the  wife 

the  Holy  Land  and  the  pilgrims  go  out  and  worship  ^f  Augustiw.    As  she  was  later  called  Julia,  Joeephue 

at  the  tomb  of  Lazarus  on  Friday  of  Passion  Week,  speaks  of  the  city  as  Julias.    Having  been  burnt  at  the 

rhere    is    no    Catholic    chapel    at    Bethany.     The  fjji  oi  Jerusalem,  it  was  restored  by  the  Christiana 

Schismatic   Greeks   have   a   monasteiy   and   chapel  and  became  a  biabopric.     The  site  is  identified  by 

there.     The  land  about  Bethany  is  largely  a  desert  gome   with  Tell   el   Rameh,   six   mUea  east   (rf  the 

01  stone,  and  from   the  eievaled  ground  north   of  Jordan,  by  others  with  Beit  Harran 
the  village,  the  eye  sweeps  over  an  undulating  desert       HEiDETmVio.,/>ic(.de  la  AtN(.- RiEn,SiM-Aifiu(2Ddad., 

even   to   the    valley   of   the   Jordan.     The   present  1SS7):  Mekhill.  Au(^Ik<  Jordan.  3a3. 
village  is  made  up  of  about  forty  wretched  Moslem  John  Cobbbtt. 

houses;  there  is  not  a  Oiristian  in  the  village.     The         BethdAffon,    name    of    two    cities    in    Palestine. 

only  notable  ruin  at  Bethany  is  that  of  a  tower,  a  (1)  A  city  (Jos.,  xv,41)  pf  the  tribe  of  Juda  "in  the 

few  paces  south-east  of  the  tomb  of  Lazarus,     The  plains",  that  is,  the  territory  below  Joppa  between 

massive   stones   yet   remaining   in   portions   of   the  the  mountains  and  the  Medilerranean.      Its  site   la 

walls  indicate   that  it  is  older  than   the  Crusades;  uncertain.     (2)  A  city  (Jos.,  xix,  27)  of  Aser  near 

it  may  date  from  the  fourth  or  fifth  century.    In  Zabulon,  supposed  to  be  Tell  Da'ouk,  south-east  of 

1138  Melisenda,  wife  of  King  Fulke  I,  of  Jerusalem,  Akka. 

fouflded  a  cloister  of  nuns  at  Betlianyj  but  the  ruins        F°r  nttrmeta  and  eonieetuiw  see  Haobn,  Lex.  BMicum. 
of    this    cloister    have    not    been    laentified.    The  "■  *'  in>™  f.  „ ,  . 
sites  of  the  house  of  Martha  and  Mary,  and  of  that        «    ^  .    j              ,„             ,   ^  ?      *^''^'^- 
'  "^      -   "^     ■                   •             .  ^..1.--..    but  it  is        BBth«l   OBTVa,    "house   of   God"),   an   ancient 
naginary.  Canaanitish  town,  twelve  miles  north  of  Jerusalem, 
im  Fond;  not  far  from  Silo  on  the  way  to  Sichem.    The  primitive 
pici.  d«  Jo  name  was  Luia.    Abram  twice  offered  sacnfice  east 
of  Bethel  (Gen.,  xii,  8;  xiii,  3).    In  these  passages  the 
le  of  Bethel  is  used  by  anticipation,  as  it  was  given 
he  town  by  Jacob  after  tiis  vision  (Gen.,  xrviii, 
».-  HMwip.                When  the  Israelites  entered  the  promised  land. 
Bethel  was  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  but  it 
A.  c,  Bbeen.  was  taken  and  occupied  by  the  Ephraimitcs  (Judges, 
BethMy  Beyond  the  Jotdui  (fi7,earia  ripar  t«I  i.  22-26).    It  was  a  place  of  importance  in  the  8ul>- 
•IvSdwi,).— In  the  text  of   St.  John's  Gospd.  i,  28,  "fqufnt  history.     Here  the  Israelites  in  the  days  of 
the  author  locates  the  event  of  Our  Lord's  baptism  ^"e  Judges  "ere  wont  to  consult  the  Lord  (Judpes, 
by   St.   John   the   Baptist   at    Bethany   across    the  ".  18,  26;  XX I.  2'  the  phrase  ''in  Silo"  added  m 
Joidan  and  there   is  herein  a  celebrated  variant,  these  texts  by  the  Vulgate  is  a  mistake)  and  the  Ark 
The  greatest  number  of   the   ancient   codices,   and  "f   »*>«   Covenant   was   probably    here   tor   a   tune. 
thoeeofgreatestauthority.liave^ijSoi-ia, "Bethany".  Samuel  wm  wont   to  judge   in   Bethel   every  year. 
This  reading  is  approved  by  Lachmann,  Tisehendorf,  After  the  division  of  the  kingdoms  Jeroboam  deoe- 
Westcott-Hort,  and  othere.     The  uncial  codices,  C,  crated  the  place  by  erecting  a  golden  calf  and  m- 
K,  T,  U,  A,  n,  many  minuscule  codices,  the  Sinaitic  trodunng  the  Egyptian  worship  of  Apis.    ThM  c^a- 
Syriac,   and  Cureton'a   Syriac   text  have    ^ijftiflBpii,  tinned  until  Israel  was  led  captive  to  Asirynft  CTV 
"■flethabara".      This     reading     was     approved     by  K.,  x,  29)   and  was   frequently  denounced  by  the 
Origen,  Jerome,  Eusebius,  and  Chrysostom.     Origen,  prophets   Osee  and  Amos.  .ShorUy  befora  hii   ■»- 
in  his  commentary  on  this  place  of  St.  John's  Cos-  sumption,  EliM  visited   Bethel,  where  then  wu   a. 
pel.  declares  as  follows;  "We  are  not  ignorant  that  "cbool  of  prophets  (IV  K.,  ii,  2,  3);  the  bow  front 
in  nearly  all  codices  Bethany  is  the  reading.     But  *he  town  mocked  Eliseua  on  his  return  and  were 
we  were  persuaded  that  not  Bethany,  but  Beth-  destroyed  by  bears  (ibid.,  23).    One  of  the  pekerte 
abara  should  be  read,  when  we  came  to  the  places  """  had  been  earned  away  captive  was  aUowed  to 
that  we  might  observe  the  footprints  of  the  Lord,  return  somewhat  later  and  dwelt  in  Bethd  to  teach 
of  His  disciples,  and  of  the  prophets.     For,  as  the  fhe  people   (IV   K.,  xvii,  28).     Great  oonfumon    at 
Evangehat  relates,  Bethany  the  home  of   Lwarus,  "tolatroia   worship  sprang   up    until   Jomaa   toalW 
Mary,  and  Martha,  is  distant  from  Jerusalem  flft«en  destroyed  the  altar  and  the  high  place  there  (fV  K,, 
furiongs,  while  the  Jordan  is  distant  one  hundred  tx"'.   15).     After  the   Captivity,  the   Benjammites 
and  eighty  furlongs.    Neither  is  there  a  ^aoe  along  returned  to  Bethel.    In  the  time  of  the  Maochrtj^ea, 
■  the  Jordan  which  has  anything  in  comtnon  with  the  '^  ^^s  fortified  by  Bacchides.     There  is  no  menbon 
name    Bethany.     But    some   say    that    among    the  oi  Bethel  in  the  New  'reBtament,_  but  JMephus   re- 
mounds  by  the  Jordan  Bethabara  is  pointed  out,  !»"»  that  it  was  taken  by  Vespasian  (BeU.  JwL,  IV . 
where  history  relates  that  John  baptised".  >^,  9)-    Eusebius  mentions  the  place  m  a  village      It 
Archjcological  research  has  failed  to  identify  either  «  commonly  identified  nowadays  wth  Beitm.     THe, 
Bethany   or    Bethabara    beyond    the   Jordan;    the  P"™  "f  several  Chnstiwi  chuxehas  on  the  spot  wnutd 
conjectures  range  from  the  ruina  on  the  bank  of  the  indicate  that  in  the  Middle  Ages  it  had  agam,pown 
Jordan  opposite  Mahadet  Hadschle,  leM  than  two  to  so^ne  importance.     'The  name     Bethel     m   tOmo 
miles  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Jordan,  even   to  read  in  Joe.,  xii,  16  and  1  K.,  xxx^  27;  it  is  pn>faaU(y 
Mahadet   'AhSta,  a  ford  of  the  Jordan  near  Beth-  another  name  for  Bethul  (Joe.,_xix,  4),  aoWOt  tbe 
sliean.     All   things   considered,   the   moat   probftWe  tribe  of  Simeon,  the  site  of  which  is  unca^Ofc. 
opinion  h  that  there  was  a  Bethany  fitt«n  furlongs  «^;°^''i,^fjr^?^7  m^^g'l^lsa^'zii'iSSt 
from    Jerusalem^   and    another   across   the   Jordan.  Palvtint  d'auioiad'h**  (ISM),  il.  4S8  ■■(; 
The  name   of  this  latter  may  have  been  a  translitera-  diadez..  «.  v.                                             if 
tion  of  n":((  IT3,  "the  place  of  the  ship".     Bethany                                                             •''^'™  ^ 
across  the  Jordan  has  shared  the  fate  of  many  other        BetUaliein,  a  titular  see  of  P^estine.    The  earlj 
BibUcal  sites  which  have  disappeared  from  the  earth,  name  of  the  city  was  Ephrata;  afterwards  Bethleheto. 


VIEW  OF  BETHLEHEM 
INTERIOR  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  THE  NATIVITY.  BETHLEHEM 


BKTHLKHEH                             533  BXTHZ.KHBH 

'House  of  Bread";  to-day  Beith-lAhm,  "  UouM  of  Bethlebem-^Tbo  old  Hebrew  nwne  hfth  khem, 
Resb".  Tberedied  Rachel,  jBcob'svifc(Gen., XXXV,  meaning  "house  of  bread",  baa  survived  till  tbt 
19l;David  wafi  born  there  (I  Kinga.xvii,  12),  and  many  present  day.  In  its  Arabic  torm,  however,  M  takm, 
other  Biblical  person;^ges.  There  v/aa  enacted  tbe  it  means  "bouse  of  meat".  Several  achotai^  (Smith, 
meiouB  idyll  of  Ruth  and  Booz.  There,  above  all.  Hist.  Geog,  of  the  Hoty  Land,  1906,  318.  n'.  2)  hold 
toe  Saviour  was  born,  a  descendant  of  David,  and  that  the  name  is  connected  with  Lakhmu,  one  of  the 
from  this  fact  the  humble  villas  has  acquired  un-  divinities  in  the  Babylonian  Creation  myth  and  that 
paralleled  gloty.  It  was  at  Bethlehem,  also,  that  B«thlehem  was  a  sacred  shrine  of  that  god  in  ancient 
in  the  fourth  century  St.  Jerome,  St.  Paula,  and  St.  timea.  This  is  possible,  but  there  is  no  actual  evj- 
Eustochium  fixed  their  residence.  According  to  dence  in  favour  of  the  conjecture.  Two  cities  of  the 
John  Caseian,  it  was  in  a  monastery  of  Bethlehem  name  are  known  from  Sacred  Scripture;  I.  Bi:tb- 
that  the  office  of  Primp  was  instituted.  As  early  as  lereu  is  mentioned  in  Jos.,  xix,  15,  as  one  of  the 
the  second  century  it  was  indicated  by  St.  Justin  twelve  cities  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Zabulon.  It 
Martyr,  a  native  of  Neapolia  (N&blous),  as  the  place  is  but  a  small  town,  poorly  built,  and  of  no  great 
of  the  Nativity.  About  A.  n.  330  Conatantine  the  importance  (Buhl,  Geog.  des  alten  Palfistina,  1806, 
Great  built  a  basQica  on  this  site.  The  present  church  215),  a  little  leas  than  seven  miles  south-west  of  Sap- 
appears  to  date  from  a  later  time — either  the  fifth  nhoris  (^affarleh)  and  seven  miles  north-west  of 
or  the  sL\th  century — and  has  been  repaired  at  still  Nazareth,  the  home  of  Our  Ix>rd.  Critics  do  not 
lata-  periods.  The  Frankish  kings  were  wont  to  agree  among  themselves  whether  the  Bethlehem 
come  from  Jerusalem  to  be  crowned  at  Bethlehem,  in  described  inJudgee,  xii,  8,  10,  as  the  home  of  Abesan 
memory  of  the  coronation  of  David  by  Samuel.  The  (Ibzan),  one  of  the  minor  judges,  is  the  same  as  that 
greater  part  of  the  church  is  now  shared  by  various  of  Jos.,  lix,  15,  or  Betlilehcm  ot  Juda.  A  large  num- 
'  communions;  while  the  choir  belongs  to  the  Greeks  ber  if  not  the  majority  of  modem  commentators, 
alone,  the  Grotto  of  the  Nativity  is  open  to  the  Latins,  are  in  favour  of  Bethlehem  of  Zabulon.  But  ancient 
the  GreekSj  and  the  Armenians,  who  hold  services  tradition  (Jowphus,  Aatiq. ,  V,  vii,  13;  cf.  also  Moore, 
there  each  in  turn.  JiM^et,  Int.  Crit,  Com.)  made  Abe^n  spring  from 
The  first  Bishop  of  Bethlehem,  Amolfo  (1000-  Betnlehem  of  Juda  and  the  yiew  is  aMy  d^ended 

title  V 

Greek  diocese  (Revue  de  I'Orient  latin,  I.  141). 
The  Diocese  of  Bethlehem-Ascalon  existed  from 
1109-137S,  but  since  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century  ita  bishops  resided  at  Clamecy  in  France. 
The  Inocesc  of  Bethlchem-Clamecy  was  created  in 
1378,  and  suppressed  by  the  Concordat  between 
Napoleon  and  Hub  VII,  in  1801.  The  titular  Bishop- 
rics of  Bethlehem  and  Ascalon,  however,  had  existed 
eeparal«ly  from  1378  to  1503,  when  they  were  aup- 
ptessed.  From  1801  to  1840  both  residential  and 
titular  sees,  either  of  Bethlehem  or  Ascalon,  were 
ex^ct.  In  1840,  Gregory  XVI  reunited  tbe  title,  of 
Bethlehem  in  pernetuum  to  the  independent  Abb^ 
of  St.  Maurice  d'Agaune  in  Switzerland.  In  1867 
the  tjtular  See  of  Ascalon  was  also  re-establi^ed. 

Bethlehem  ia  to-day  a  little  town  with  about 
10;000  inhabitants,  exclusive  of  foreigners  (5,000 
Latins,  100  Catholic,  or  Melchite,  Greeks,  4fl00 
Greeks,  a  few  Armenians  and  Muaaulmans).  The 
inhabitants   are   very  active   and  industrious.     B&- 

adcB  agriculture,  they  are  engaged  in  the  fabrication  _ 

of  wooden,   mother-of-pearl,   and   bituminous  lime-  QENEa»i,  V™*  orlsisLBBui 
Htoae   objects,   such   as   beads,    crosses,   etc.    The 

women  are  remarkably  beautiful  and  wear  a  peculiar  the  importance  of  that  city  w 

costume  which  is  very  rich  and  of  ancient  pattern,  efforts  of  some  modem  crit 

Tbe  Franciscans  govern  the  Latin  parish,  a  acholaa-  famous.    Unable  to  accept  as  historical  the  ns 

ticate,  a  primary  school,  and  an  asylum;  the  Christian  of  Our  Lord's   birth   in   Bethlehem   of  Juda,  these 

Brothers  have  a  novitiate  for  native  young  men;  scholars  would  place  the  Nativity  in  Bethlehem  of 

the  Fathers  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  or  Bethwrmnibee,  Zabulon,  referred  to  In  the  Talmud  (Megilla,  70^  a) 

have   a   scholasticato   for   their   misaiona   in   South  as  Bethlehem  tenyi/ah,  which  is  regardea  as  equiva- 

Araerica;  the  Balesians  conduct  an  industrial  sduml  lent  to  nB^ryyah,  i.  e.  Bethlehem  of  Naiareth  (of 

'with  an  orphanage  and  an  elementary  school;  the  Galilee),  a  certainly  remarkable  combination  of  two 

Sistera  of  St.   Joseph  of  the  Apparition  have  two  names  so   wdl   known   from   the   Gospels    (R^ville, 

convents,   a  school,-  an   orphanage,   and   an   infant  J^us  de  Nazareth,  2nd  ed.,  Paris,  1906,  I.  360). 

school;  the  Sisters  of  Charity  have  a  hospital  and  an  II.  Bethleheu  ov  Ixsouk  [so  tbe  Greek  text  of 

orphanage-  the  Carmelite  nuns,  a  monastery.     The  Matt.,  ii,  1,  erroneously  corrected  by  St.  Jerome  to 

Greek  Catholic  parish  lately  eetabliahed  has  not  yet  Bethlehem  of  Juda,  thinking  that  the  Evangelist  had 

a  church.    There   are   alao   Greek   and  Armenian  in  his  oridnsi  text  conformed  t^i  the  Old  '^tament 

monasteries,    and    schools    conducted    by    Greeks,  uaage(Juages,Kvii,7,  xix,  1;  IKIngB(Sam.),xvii,  12}], 

Armenians,  and  Protestants.  ia  much  more  celebrated  than  its  northern  namesake 

L«,nBH.  Or    ChrM..  Ill,  1276-1386;  O.™.  616;  En»«.,  I.  ■  as  the  birthplace  of  David,  and  above  alj-ifOur  Lord. 

138;  II.  118:  Riaht.  Etuda  tur  I'httlatrt  rfc  VtvtAi  lU  Beiiitxm  I  he  city,  which  munbers  now  about  10,000  inhabi- 

ifim».  I888I,  compleiH!  by  papers  in  Rrvafdt  rOrimt  latin,  tants,  almost  exclusively  Christians,  is  situated  five 

tni  1391-94:  Gufaini,  Judii,  I,  13D-207;  Cokdu,  TaMxiri  the  bi^road  from  Jerusalem  to  Hebron,  m  the  midst 

in  Faiatuu.  I,  283.     .  of  a  most  beautiful  country  (Buhl,  op.  eit.,  19). 


of  a  most  beautiful  country  (Buhl,  op.  cit.,  19). 
S.  Vaii.b£,        which  contrasts  f  avouraUy  with  the  nei^DOurhood  of 


BETHLBHUI  534;  £ETBL£HE11ITE8 

Jerusalem.  At  an  altitude  of  2,350  feet  it  spreads  out  New  York,  1906, 1,  204^.  Agamst  tne  first  exi^laoA* 
between  the  Wadi  el  Hrobbe  in  the  North  and*the  tion  it  may  be  noted  with  many  critics  that  Matt,  and 
Wadi  er-Rfihib  in  the  south;  the  land  of  Moab  is    Luke  agree  independently  in  placing  the  birth  at 


The  main  resources  of  Bethlehem  are  agriculture  and  "Hist,  des  livres  du  N.  T.",  Paris,  1906,  II,  209). 

the  sale  of  religious  articles;  the  city  is  also  the  We  must  not.  however,  exaggerate  the  value  of  that 

market-place  of  the  peasants  and  bedouins  of  the  argument.     (Cf.  Revue  d'histoire  et  de  litt6rature 

neighbourhood.  reu^euses,  Jan.-Feb.,  1906,  62  sciq.)    These  diffi- 

According  to  Gen.,  xxxv,  16,  19;  xlviii,  7,  Bethle-  cutties  were  tmknown  to  the  ancient  writers,  who 
hem  was     ssociated  with  the  patriarchal   history,  reproduce  simply  the  Gospel  narratives  with  addi- 
The  sepulchre  of  Rachel,  or  Qubbet  Rahll  (Rachers  tions,  in  some  cases  possibly  historical.    About  150 
dome)  as  it  is  called  now,  about  one  mile  north  of  we  find  St.  Justin  Martyr  referring  (Dial.^  Ixxviii) 
Bethlehem,  still  shown  to  the  pilgrim  and  venerated  to  the  Saviour's  birth  as  having  taken  place  m  a  cave 
by  Christians,  Mohammedans,  and  Jews,  is  referred  near  the  village  of  Bethlehem;  such  cave  stables  are 
to  aj;ain  in  I  Kings  (Sam.),  x,  2,  and  Matt.,  ii,  16-18;  not  rare  in  Palestine,    (Cf.  Massie  in  Hast.,  Diet,  of 
cf.  Jer.,  xxxi,  15.    As  an  examination  of  these  pas-  the  Bible,  III,  234;  Expository  Times,  May,  1903, 
Bogea  shows,  the  tradition  presents  some  obscurities,  384;  Bonaccorsi,  "II  Natale'*,  Rome,  1903,  16-20.) 
and  critics  question  the   correctness  of   the  gloss  The  tradition  of  the  birth  in  a  cave  was  widely  ac- 
(Gen.,    xxxv,    19)    which    identifies    Ephrata   with  cepted,  as  we  see  from  Origen's  words  about  a  century 
Bethlehem,  supposing  it  the  result  of  a  confusion  later:  "In  Bethlehem  the  cave  is  pointed  out  where 
between  Bethlehem-Ephrata  [Ruth,  iv,  11;  Mich.,  v,  He  was  bom,  and  the  manger  in  tne  cave  where  He 
2  (1)],  i.  e.  our  Bethlehem,  and  another  Ephrata  in  was  wrapped  in  swaddling  clothes,  and  the  rumour 
the  north,  otherwise  unknown,  or  assume  two  differ-  is  in  those  places  and  among  foreigners  of  the  Faith 
ent  traditions  re^pirding  Rachel's  sepulchre.      (Cf.  that  indeed  Jesus  was  bom  in  this  cave".     (Contra 
commentaries:  Driver  in  Hast.,  "Diet,  of  the  Bible",  Celsum,  I,  li.)    It  is  reproduced  also  in  the  apocry- 
rV,  193,  a;  Buhl,  op.  cit.,  156,  159;  Badeker-Benzin-  phal   gospels    (Pseudo-Matt.,   xiii,    ap.    Bonaccorsi, 
ger,  " Palastina  ima  Syrien",  1904,  91.)    Bethlehem  op.,  cit.,  159-163;  Protevang.  of  James,  xvii  soq., 
IS  mentioned  also  in  Judges  as  the  home  of  the  young  Bonaccorsi,  155-159;  Gospel  of  the  Infancy,  II-IV, 
Levite  who  went  to  Michas  (xvii,  7  sqq.)  and  of  the  Bonaccorsi,  163-164).     Over  the  traditional  spot  of 
young  woman  (xix,  1  sqq.)  whose  death  caused  the  the  Nativity  stands  a  church  (St.  Mary  of  the  Na- 
expedition  against  the  tribe  of  Benjamin.     In  the  tivity),  surrounded  on   the   north-west  and  south- 
Old  Testament,  however,  it  is  connected  especially  west  by  the  convents  of  the  Latins  (Franciscans), 
with  the  great  King   lAvid  (I  Kings,  xvi,  1   and  Greeks,  and  Annenians,  respectively.    The  building 
passim) f  whose  name  is  given  to  the  three  cisterns  is,  apart  from  additions  and  modifications  made  by 
(Bi  'ar  Da  'Qd),  found  north-west  of  the  town,  not  Justmian  (527-565),  substantially  the  work  of  Con- 
far  from  the  tomb  of  Rachel.    A  tradition  not  older  stantine  (about  330).    Underneatn  that  most  ancient 
than  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  according  to  and  venerable  monument  of  Christianity,  a  favourite 
Bftdeker-Benzinger  (p.  91),  sees  therein  the  cistern  resort  of  pilgrims  throughout  the  centuries,  is  the 
referred  to  in  II  Kmes,  xxiii,  14  sqq.  and  I  Par.  grotto  of  the  Nativity.     The  Nativity  chap)el.  run- 
(Chron.),  xi,  16  sqq.    Later  the  city  was  fortified  by  ning  in  the  same  general  direction  as  the  cnurch 
Roboam  (II  Par.,  xi,  6),  and  I  Esd.  (Ezrah),  ii,  21  (east  to  west),  is  situated  under  the  choir |  at  the 
sqq.  [cf.  II  Esd.  (Nehem.),  vii,  26]  informs  us  of  the  eastern  end  is  a  silver  star  with  the  inscription:  Hie 
return  of  123  Bethlehemites  from  the  Captivity.  de  Virgine  Maria  Jesus  Christus  natits  est,  and  near 

In  the  New  Testament,  we  have,  with  the  exception  the  chapel  of  the  Crib  (see  Bonaccorsi,  op.  cit.,  77- 

of  John,  vii.  ^2,  references  to  Bethlehem  only  in  113).     Other  mottoes  to  the  north  and  north-west 

Matt.,  ii,  ana  Luke,  ii,  whose  narratives  of  the  birth  connected  with  that  of  the  Nativity  are  associated, 

of  the  Saviour  in  the  city  of  David  have  rendered  it  mostly  by  recent  traditions   (c.  fifteenth  century), 

most  dear  to  Christians.    Many  modem  critics,  how-  with  the  narratives  of  Matt.,  ii,  mainly,  and  with  the 

ever,  are  making  Bethlehem  a^ain  "little  among  the  memory  of  the  great  scholar  St.  Jerome  and  his 

thousands   of   Judah"  1[Schmidt,   The   Prophet   of  company   of   pious   and   learned   friends    (Sanders, 

Nazareth,   1905,   246)    by   attacking  the   historical  Etudes  sur  S.  J6r6me,  Paris,  1903,  29  sqq.). 
value  of  the  Gospel  narratives.     Some  place  Our  Edward  Arbez. 

J^lu^Miit^tifc&it'!!^  i^o^^T^^^^  Bethlehem,  an  erchitectural  tenn  used  in  the 

P^^l  ^^^^^i;  ;«  f  l^^ui.  nid'  Id  'htf^^Awv  Ethiopic  Chur^ih  for  the  oven  or  bakehouse  for  baking 

«f  ,hf  TnLnlTlH^,v„^in^  ?^^v^i-in^  *^  K^rf^*"  ««•  Eucharistic  bread.     It  is  a  usual  at- 

?       I   .  te-^  !^;^rf^^%«  wifcHwL^  M^;  tachment  to  Coptic  churches  and  is  generaUy  situated 

tives  as  a  legend  arisen  from  the  Jewish  tradition  that  «^^«„k«««  ^^4^%.:^  ♦k«.  »»^i»<.»^  ^t  ?u^  ^v..iCLk      t*  :a 

KctL^^^  Tn^^^'V^^rL^'lt^^^^^^  rr  inThrfc'^f  IFdt^Mr'^l  fh^dioiiL^ 

sfraS^^if'c^^ist,^^^  S,t^  :LlilTikr2ll'Z  Ii^^orlw^'^i^ 

!?l"3^r6^l 'LSliljl   'll''T'2^  ^'i^^^'^  J^frtfyf^'^rvSTd^^^^^^^  T^ 

-  ni.  4ttftL  H^  n'  T-    knf^^n    i^f  f  ^o^»  domestic  buildings,  such  as  the  miUawm, 

n,?4fi^9^  2^?  ^^?Qr;T*  h.^^rl^^'  ^M^^r^^h  the  oven  (Bethlehem),  the  refectory  and  the  like, 
pp.  46^  221-223,  393-395.)     Others  more  seldom  give        Butlbr.  The  AncietU  Coptic  Churdu»  Sf  Em/vU  1.48. 
the  explanation  already  mentioned.  Thomas  H.  Poole. 

This  question,  which  is  part  of  the  larger  problems        -^-.•,x  «t  .r, 

connected  with  cc.  i-ii  of  Matt,  and  Luke,  cannot  be        Bethlehem,  Councils  op.    See  Jerusalem,  Synod 

discussed  here.    [See  besides  the  lives  of  Jesus  and  ^^' 

commentaries;  Ramsay,  "Was  Christ  bom  at  Beth-        Bethlehemites. — I.  Military     order:     II.  Hospi- 
lehem?",  1898,  and  Quirinius,  Census  of.]    Suffice  '  talers.    I.  There  were  two  military  orders  dedicated 

it  to  remark  here  that  if  the  second  explanation  re-  to  Our  Lady  of  Bethlehem  and  known  under  the 

moves  some  difficulties,  it  requires  us  to  go  entirely  name  of  Bethlehemites.    Matthew  Paris  calla  atten- 

behind  the  narratives  of  both  Matt,  and  Luke,  who  tion  to  the  former  in  his  "Grande  Chronigue*'  (tr. 

most  clearly  mean   only   Bethlehem  of  Juda   (see  Huillard-Br^holles,    Paris,    1840,     8vo,    III,    300] 

Knowlii^   ^'Dictionary  of  Christ  and  the  Gospels",  where   be  mentions   that   Heiiry   III   of   F.nglnnfl 


BETBLXHBMmS                        535  BBTHLIHSHITES 

atitharized  them  to  open  a  house  in  a  suburb  of 'Cam-  of  Grod  oould  labour  to  better  advanta^.  He  himself 
bridge  (1257);  but  he  leaves  us  in  complete  ignorance  work^  with  the  masons.  The  hospital  was  thor- 
as  to  their  founder,  where  they  originated,  and  their  oughly  equipped  and  stocked  and  even  offered  an 
history.  We  only  Imow  that  their  habit  was  similar  to  opportimity  for  the  religious  installment  of  those 
that  of  the  Dominicans  and  that  a  red  star,  whose  who  tended  the  sick.  Tne  institution  was  placed 
five  rays  emanated  from  an  azure  centre,  decorated  under  the  patronage  of  Our  Lady  of  Bethlehem, 
the  breast  of  their  cape.  This  was  in  commemoration  Helpers  soon  jomed  Pedro  de  Betancourt  and  at 
of  the  star  that  appeared  to  the  Magi  and  led  them  to  length  was  formed  a  congregation  of  brpthers  gener- 
Bethlehem.  Notnmg  further  is  known  of  this  military  ally  known  as  E^ethlehemites  and  so  called  on  account 
order.  There  was  an  order  of  knights  whose  members  of  their  house.  But  the  care  of  the  sick  did  not  totally 
wore  a  red  star  on  their  costume  and  who  might  have  absorb  their  attention;  they  likewise  lent  their  as- 
been  called  Bethlehemites  because  of  having  a  house  sistance  in  the  two  other  hospitals  of  the  city  and 
in  Bethlehem  at  the  time  of  the  Crusades;  this  was  Pedro  continued  to  befriend  poor  children.  The 
the  Military  Order  of  Crusaders  of  the  Red  Star  prisoners  also  excited  his  compassion.  Every  Thurs- 
(Ordo  mUitaris  crudgerorum  cum  rubed  steUA),  They  day  he  begged  for  them  through  the  citjr  and  visited 
came  from  Palestine  to  Bohemia  in  1217,  and  Blessed  them  in  their  cells.  The  neglected  souls  in  purgatory 
Agnes  of  Bohemia  confided  two  hospitals  to  their  were  also  the  objects  of  ms  solicitude  and  at  the 
charge.  They  have  since  remained  in  that  country  principfd  gates  of  the  city  he  founded  two  hermitages, 
where  they  devote  themselves  to  the  care  of  the  sick,  or  chapels,  wherein  religious  of  his  community  begged, 
to  education,  and  to  the  various  works  of  the  ecclesi-  so  that  masses  might  be  celebrated  for  the  souls  oi 
astical  ministry.  the  deceased.    He  himself  would  travel  the  streets 

After  the  taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks  at  night  ringing  a  bell  and  recommending  these  souls 

(1453),  Pius  II  founded  under  the  patronage  of  Our  to  be  prayed  for.    His  devotion  to  the  Blessed  Virdn 

Lady  of  Bethlehem  an  order  of  knights  for  the  de-  was  inspiring  and  during  a  novena  of  preparation  for 

fence  of  the  Island  of  Lemnos  which  Cardinal  Louis,  the  feast  of  the  Purification  his  religious,  with  arms 

Patriarch  of  Acjuileiai  had  recaptured  from  Moham-  extended  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  recited  tne  rosary  in 

med  II.    The  island  was  to  oe  their  headquarters  their  chapel  at  midnight  in  the  midst  of  a  great 

whence  they  were  to  oppose  the  attacks  of  the  Mos-  throng.   In  1654  he  made  a  vow  to  defend  the  Immac- 

lems  by  way  of  the  i^ean  Sea  and  the  Hellespont.  ulateConception  even  at  the  peril  of  his  life.    He  died. 

The  order  was   composed   of  brother-knights  and  exhausted  bv  labour  and  penance,  25  April,  1667,  at 

priests  governed  by  an  elective  grand-master.    The  the  age  of  forty-eight.    His  funeral  was  impressive 

white  costume  worn  by  the  menioers  was  decorated  and  at  the  request  of  the  Capuchin  Fathers  he  was 

with  a  red  cross  and  the  rule  prescribed  for  them  buried  in  their  church. where,  for  a  long  time,  his 

was  very  similar  to  that  of  the  Kiiights  of  St.  John  of  remains  were  held  in  veneration. 

Jerusalem.      The    pope    installed    this    community  Before  establishing  his  Guatemala  hospital  Pedro 

18  January,  1459,  and,  that  their  needs  misht  be  de  Betancourt  had  Income  affiliated  with  the  Third 

supplied,  turned  over  to  them  the  property  and  reve-  Order  of  St.   Frauds,  adopting  its  religious  garb 

nues  of  the  orders  of  St.  Lazarus,  of  Sainte-Marie  du  which  he  still  retainea  after  founding  his  congrega- 

ChAteau  dee  Bretons,  of  Bologna,  of  the  Holy  Sepul-  tion.     He  personally  trained,  his  first  disciples  and 

chre,  of  Santo  Spirito  in  Sassia,  of  St.  Mary  of  the  had  no  wisn  to  or^nize  a  community,  but  sunply  to 

Crossed  Friars,  and  of  St.  James  of  Lucca,  all  of  establish  his  hospital.    He  sent  Brother  Anthony  of 

which  were  suppressed  for  this  purpose.     Pius  II  the  Cross  to  Spain  to  solicit  the  kind's  approbation  of 

alluded  in  a  Bull  to  this  foundation  and  the  bravery  the  work.    The  favour  was  granted,  but  Pedro  died 

of  its  knights,  but  the  second  capture  of  Lemnos  by  before  the  messenger's  return.    From  that  time  the 

the  Turl^  rendered  the  institution  useless.     Thus  community  prospered,  beginning  with  the  extension 

the  order  of  Our  Lady  of  Bethlehem  was  suppressed  of  the  hospital  and  the  erection  of  a  beautiful  church, 

almost  as  soon  as  founded  and  those  orders  whose  Brother  Anthony,  who  assumed  the  government, 

goods  the  pope  had  transmitted  to  it  were  re-estab-  drew  up  constitutions  which  he  submitted  to  the 

Ushed.  bishop  of  the  diocese  for  approval  and  it  was  at  this 

II.  The  hospitaler   Bethlehemites,  or  Belemites,  juncture  that  the  Capuchins  requested  him  to  make 

were  founded  by  the  Yen.  Pedro  de  Betancourt.  some  alterations  in  tne  habit  worn  by  his  religious. 

A  descendant  of  the  celebrated  Juan  de  Betancourt,  A  free  school  for  poor  children  was  always  connected 

who,  early  in  the  fifteenth  century,  achieved  the  with  the  Bethlehem  hospital,  a  feature  of  all  new 

conquest  of  the  Canary  Islands  for  Henry  III  of  foundations.    One  of  these  was  soon  undertaken  by 

Spain,  Pedro  was  bom  at  Villafloca  on  the  island  of  Brother  Anthony  of  the  Cross  who  sent  two  of  his 

Teneriffe  in  1619.     From  childhood  he  led  a  pious,  community  to  Peru  where  they  were  very  favourably 

austere  life  and  in  1650  left  family  and  country,  thus  received  by  the  viceroy  to  whom  he  had  recora- 

carrying  out  his  desire  of  going  to  the  West  Indies,  mended  them.    Doctor  Antoine  d'Avila  ^ave  them 

Durmg  the  following  year  he  reached   Guatemala,  the  Hospital  of  Notre  Dame  du  Carmel  which  he  was 

the  cafHtal  of  New  Spain,  where  he  intended  to  pre-  then  establishing  at  Lima  and  afterwards  solicited 

pare  for  the  priesthood  tnat  later  he  might  go  forth  admission  among  them.    In  1672  Brother  Roderick 

and  evangelize  Japan.    However,  three  years  of  un-  of  the  Cross  obtained  the  confirmation  of  this  estab- 

succeesfuTstudy  at  a  Jesuit  college  led  him  to  abandon  Ushment  by  the  King  of  Spain  and  it  was  also  through 

this  idea  and,  after  holding  the  position  of  sacristan  his  efforts  that  Pope  Clement  X  confirmed  the  con- 

for  a  while  in  a  church  dedicated  to  the  Blessed  gregation  and  its  constitutions   (1673).     After  his 

Virgin,  he  rented  a  house  in  a  suburb  of  the  city  return  to  America  this  religious  founded  the  Hospital 

called  Calvary,  and  there  taught  reading  and  cate-  of  St.  Francis  Xavier  in  Mexico  and  those  of  Chacha- 

chism  to  poor  children.     But  this  charitable  work  [»c»yas,Cajamarca,  and  Trujillo,  goinff  back  to  Spain 

did  not  furnish  sufficient  outlet  for  his  zeal.     The  ';«  1081  to  secure  the  confirmation  of  these  new  in- 

c<todition  of  the  sick  poor  excited  his  compassion  and  sUtutioas.     The  Council  of  the  Indies  assigned  the 

he  sheltered  them  in  his  home  which  he  converted  hospital  of  Lima  an  income  of  3,000  cro\ms.    The 

into  a  hospital.    His  zeal  elicited  benefactions  from  Betnlehemites,  because  of  making  only  simple  vows, 

those  around  him  and  the  bishop  and  governor  sup-  remained  under  diocesan  jurisdiction  from  wnich  they 

plied  him  with  all  the  conveniences  he  required,  wished,  however,  to  be  freea  so  that  their  congrega- 

oeveral  individuals  provided  for  the  purchase  of  the  tion  mi^ht  be  converted  into  a  regular  religious  order 

houses  surrounding  the  one  he  then  occupied  and  on  bound  oy  solemn  vows.    The  Spanish  court  did  not 

their  aite  was  erected  a  hospital  in  which  this  servant  approve  this  plan  and  at  first  tne  Holy  See  was  not 


BKTH8AIDA  5! 

favourable  to  it,  but  due  ctueflj'  to  the  ioflnence  of 
Cardinal  Mellmi,  fonner  nuncio  at  Madrid,  Roderick 
of  the  Croes  at  length  ove-came  all  difficulties  and 
in  the  Bull  of  26  Hurch,  1687,  Innocent  XI  anthariied 
these  religious  to  make  the  three  Bolenm  vows  accord- 
ing to  the  rule  of  St.  AueuEtine  and  to  have  a  supenor- 
general,  and  grant«d  them  alt  the  privilj^es  of  the 
AuguBtinian  fnara  and  convents.  Later,  Clement  XI 
renewed  this  authorisation  and  these  favours,  adding 
thereunto  the  privileges  of  the  mendicant  orders, 
of  tiie  Regular  Clerks,  of  the  Miniaters  of  the  Sick, 
and  of  the  HoapitallerB  of  Charitjr  of  3t.  Hippotytus 
(1707). 

Meanwhile  the  order  was  niultiplTing  ita  foundsf 
tions  in  Latin  America  and  was  eBt«bliebed  in  Are- 
quipa,  Cuzco,  Santiago  de  Cuba,  Puebta,  Guadala^us, 
Guanajuato,  Dajaka,  Vera  Oui,  Havana,  Santiago 
de  Chile,  Buenos  Ayres,  and  Guatemala  la  NuCva.  A 
school  for  poor  children  was  connected  with  every 
hospital  and  the  pious,  devoted  lives  of  these  religious 
won  .them  esteem  and  gratitude.  They  were  espe- 
cially admired  during  the  plague  of  1736,  a  fact  unani- 
mously  acknowlet^d  by  the  writers  who  describe 
the  condition  of  Latin  America  in  the  eighteenth 
century.  But  this  did  not  prevent  their  suppression, 
as  well  as  that  of  all  other  reli^ous,  in  1820.  At  that 
time  their  superior-general  resided  in  Mexico  and  the 
Betiilehemit«B  were  scattered  throughout  two  prov- 
inces, that  of  Peru  including  twenty- two  houses  and 
that  of  New  Spain,  eleven.  To  the  ordinary  religious 
vows  they  added  that  of  caring  for  the  sick  even  at 
the  risk  of  their  own  lives.  In  1688  Brother  Anthonj 
of  the  Cross,  with  the  help  of  a  pious  woman,  Hane 
Anne  del  Gvialdo,  founded  at  Guatemala  a  community 
of  BetMehemite  nuns  and  a  hospital  exclusively  for 
women.  These  nuns  were  cloistered  and  obswred 
the  same  rule  as  the  men  and  they,  too,  were  sup. 
pressed  in  1S20, 

HiLTOT,  flutotn  deM  ordrtm  motuuliquei.  III,  3Afi-39fl;  VTII, 
3T1-3TZ:  BtRoNics,  AtmaUi  tecUtiimtcHtixt^.  17A3),  XXIX, 
ITO-ISO;  HEiuBucnu,  Dit  Ctrden  und  Kmgrtaalvmn.  I, 
407^68;  bb  Mobtalvo,  Vida  del  vmrrabU  Ptdro  di  San  Joti 
BtUmtoiiH  (Rome.  1718);  EvZAOOntBB,  Lot  aUenm  mtdHcom 
tn  Anfrica  (Paria,  1859),  II,  304-300,  408-110. 

J.  M.  Bbbsk. 

B^thsaida. — I.  A  Crry,  or  perhaps  two  cities,  on 
the  shore  of  the  Lake  of  Genesareth,  the  frequent 
scene  of  Christ's  preaching  and  miracles  (Matt.,  xi, 
21;  Luke,  x.  13).— II,,  in  the  Vu!gat«,  a  Pool  in 
Jerusalem,  also  called  Bethesda  (John,  v,  2). — III. 
A  TiTULAH  See. 

I.  The  Cttt.  (Or,  fitfiaatid-  Aram,  tm  TV^, 
"house,  or  place,  of  fishing".)  The  old  writers,  up 
to  the  sixteenth  century,  uicw  of  but  one  Bethsaida, 
though  they  do  not  seem  to  have  always  indicated 
the  same  site.  Since  then  it  has  been  a  much 
debated  question  whether  there  were  not  two  places 
of  this  name:  one  east  of  the  Jordan;  the  other  west, 
near  Caphamaum.  A  Bethsaida,  which  the  Te- 
trarch  Philip  enlarged  into  a  city  and  named  Julias, 
after  the  daughter  of  Augustus,  existed  east  of  the 
river,  near  where  it  enters  the  lake  (Josephus,  Ant., 
XVIII,  ii,  1;  BeU.  Jud,  II,  ix.  I;  in,  x,  7;  Vita,  72). 
Near  this  Bethsaida  took  place  the  feeding  of  the 
live  thousand  (Luke,  ix,  10)  and  the  healing  of  the 
blind  man  (Mark,  viii,  22).  Whether  another^  is 
to  be  admitted,  depends  on  two  questions  on  which 
the  controvert  mainly  turns;  whether  Julias, 
though  belonging  politically  to  Gaulonitis,  was 
comprised  within  the  limits  of  Galilee  (John, 
21)  and  whether,  in  Mark,  vi,  45,  and  John,  vi, 
a  direct  crossing  from  the  eastmi  to  the  wes 
shore  is  intended.  The  negative  view  seems  to  be 
gaining  ground.  In  the  supposition  of  two  Beth- 
saidas,  the  western  would  be  the  home  of  Peter, 
Andrew,  and  Philip  (John,  i,  44;  xii,  21),  and  the 
Bethsaida  of  Matt.,  xi,  21  and  Luke,  x,  13.  Juliaa 
!e  identified  by  many  with  et>-TeU;  but,  as  thia  is 


somewhat  too  far  up  the  river  to  answer  JooephiN^ 
description,  others  [n«fer  El-Araj,  close  to  the 
shore,  or  Mes'adtyeh  farther  east.  The  partisaoE 
of  a  western  Bethsaida  are  mudi  divided  on  ita  nte. 
'Ainet-Tflbigha  and  KhAn  Minyeh  are  most  favoured, 
II.  Thb  Pool.  [Gr.  p^toiti,  p^taU,  pifita6d. 
— Bediesda  is  supported  by  moat  Gr.  MSS.,  stiD 
Bethiatha  may  be  the  true  readinK  and  Bethesda  ' 
a  corruption,  as  Bethsaida  most  probably  is.  Beth* 
esda  iHnbaUy=KlDn  n'3  (House  of  Mercy).  The 
etvmidmrv  of    Bethsatfaa   is    unccr- 


derstood  to  mean  that  it  was  situated  near  the 
sheep  E^te.  This  would  place  it  north  of  the  tem^e 
area.  The  early  writer*  speak  of  it  as  a  double 
pool,  the  fifth  portico  running  between  the  two 
basins,  but  give  no  details  as  to  its  location.  From 
the  sixth  to  the  thirteenth  century,  it  is  mentioned 
as  being  near  the  present  church  of  St.  Aime.  Just 
west  of  this  church  an  old  double  pool  was  dis- 
covered some  years  ago,  which  is,  theie  is  little 
doubt,  the  pool  spoken  of  by  medieval  writers,  and 
probably  the  old  pod  of  Bethesda.  Since  the 
fourteenth  century  Birket  Isrfiln,  north-east  of  the 
temple  area,  is  pointed  out  as  Bethesda.  Olhera 
prefer  the  Fountain  of  the  Virgin  {'Ain  Sitti  Marian), 
or  'Ain  Umm  ed-Derd)  because  of  ita  intcnuittent 
flow;  or  the  pool  of  Siloe,  which,  beine  fed  by  the 
preceding,  shares  its  intermittence.  Lastiv,  some 
advocate  Hamm4m  esh-Shit4  (Bath  of  He»lth), 
west  of  the  temple  area,  because  of  its  name 
HI.  Tbe  TiTULjiR  See.— It  is  uncertain  a 
.jriod  Bethsaida,  the  fonner  of  the  two  cm^ 
.'Julias)  mentioned  under  I,  became  a  titular  tec 
depending  on  Scythqpolis.  There  was  in  the  n^ion 
of  Nineveh  another  Bethsaida,  with  a  Jacobite  titu- 
lar bishop  in  1278.  ■        o,. 

DIM.  RoB^N?  BM.  ^tn^t  (LoDckiD.  ISM).  U-  MS: 
111,  35S;  RBLiMD,  Palattmo  (Utrechl,  1714)^653. 868;  C"™»j 
Qaiiim    (Pku.    1880).  I.  3M;   " '-   <"-— —    >>—    -* 

OU    BMt;    ViM     KABTDHt     ir 


t  K 


1   /Us.   BM,  III,  6i  iM.      la 


537  BITBOTHAL 

iT^.'l^'^'nM'^ju^j^uSL^M^  ^  P^*<«8  ^^^  ^^  horsemen  cannot  ride  abreaat 

fe.^iS'B^^^^  MtJS!^:  pne  of  the  three  above-named  places  is  m  aU  proba- 

Dma$ehJPal.  Ver.,  II,  66.    8m  aGo:  ScbObbb,  Jhnah P«mU  bility  the  site  of  ancient  Bethulla.    The  other  sites 

ifii'lSte**?  im^^'  ^'  "'  ^**  ^^*  **  ^^*  Hmdkt  in  Via.,  Dui.  are  all  deficient  in  some  essential  requirement. 

W.^Survey  of  Wester 
Expior,  Fund,  Quart.  Sto 
mareheB  (London,  1856), 

u  Mj??7^"i:,„     ••  ^*  "^^^'  Hbiow  m  Vio.,  Z)Mt  4b  -^  vio..  iMct  d<  te  Stbto.  1, 1761  wmJ  Ma»ta,  tiiorlu,  <U  v*ro 

111.— Lntumi,  Orun*  Chrkt.,  U,  1877.  „,,  13,  ix.6^;  Zakcocbu,  io  Pofc»t  rf-oujourrf..  II.  581. 

F.  BscRrau  F,  Bechteu 

»;S?^.?f"  P?''-  1«^n'?/,  B«*«»  ..5»«?t.  <».  le*i?'3'       Beflmne,  Jamm.    See  Bkaton,  Jamks. 
Beth  snhn,  "mao6  of  rest  ),  a  oity  within  lasaohar,       »«i.__i.v.i  /t  *  ?•  \  ^u     •  •       i       .  *    »i. 

but  usignMl  tr£uu»eee  (jie.,  x^,  11;  I  Par.,  vii        Betf?t>»^  fat-  •P<>n«aZta),  the  giving  pone's  troth 

29);  laiTscythopolifl,  now  the  viMage  ^i«&n,  thre^  ;r*^i*'S',TA*"t  ^^'^^l?^^-    Betrothal,  in 

ma;,  west  oY  the^oAlan.    Beca^6f  its  st^ngth  ^  ^^''^^  Chn«*. "«  »  deUBerate  and  free,  mutual, 

the  Israelites  could  not  take  it  at  the  time  of  Sie  *™«  ?S°^'  ^*«™*"y  expres^,  of  future  ihai- 

conquest  (Jos.,  xvii,  16;  Judges,  i,  27),  and  when  n-ge.^etween  determinate  and  fit  persons     It  is  a 

the  Philistines  hung  up  the  fodies  of  Sto^  and  bis  P««?»8e.  '^^V^'  <>'  agreem«it-not  merely  an  m- 

three  sons  on  its  ^  after  the  batUe  of  Gelboe  ^S?"'^lrt:t^f,t^„''"°''^^^  ^  "^{f^ 

L?ttr5ssi-ofMX^ntS^.''^iti^  ^ar'Ssr^s^Tih^s-^j;^ 

named  Scythe 
settled  there. 

f«iP!l^*i^Kf «/io^f%!rvK'il^'w^Jir««r'  ^iJ/^^^iJ^♦J^  be  given  with  the  intention  of  binding  oneself,  and 

[t  f^ tt j^**.^/ tL^KI?  wiT?^^  ^^^t^  TL^roT^^sr^'i^tr^i^i; 

and  one  of  the  chief  towns  of  Decanolifl    In  fSinfttiftn  °^  ^^  action,  m  person  or  by  proxy.    Lastly,  this 

RoBDfeoN,  BtW.  lUsearduB  (London.  1866).  Ill,  326-83Sfc  ^y  the  Church;  that  IS,  between  whom  there  is  no 

Survey  of  WeUemPaluL,  Mem.  II.  101-114;  ScHORBR.Jmffia  matrimonial  impediment,  either  as  regards  the  hcit- 

^^u^^-  ?JlT:7*JJfe^^y»  U*  li  110-113;  Rbland.  Pa/a«Kna  ness  Or  validity  of  the  contract.    The  betrothal  is  a 

ISSx  i:  l»i?2W?^^        •  *  ~  ^  *™*         •  promise  of  future  marriage,  and  hence  it  diifers  from 

p,  BxoHTXL.  ^^6  marriace  contract  itself,  which  deals  with  that 

state  as  in  tne  present. 

BethuUa  (Gr.,  /3ervX«da^,  the  citv  whose  deliver-        Formalities. — Formal  betrothal  is  not  customary 

ance  bv  Judith,  when  besieged  by  Holofemes,  forms  in  the  United  States,  or  in  English-speaking  coun- 

the  subject  of  the  Book  of  Judith.    The  view  that  tries  gener^y^  as  it  is  among  certain  nations,  where 

Bethulla  is  merely  a  symbolic  name  for  Jerusalem  the  ceremony  is  sometimes  solemn  (before  ecclesiasti- 

or  a  fictitious  town,  has  met  with  little  favour,  even  cal  witnesses)  and  sometimes  private  (made  at  home 

among  those  who  deny  the  historical  character  oi  before  the  family  or  friends  as  witnesses).    Among 

the  book.     Bethulia  is  clearly  distinguished  from  English-speaking  peoples  the  betrothal,  if  it  occurs,  is 

Jerusalem  pv,  6;  xi,  14,  19;  xv,  6,  8;  Uie  references  generally  without  the  presence  of  a  third  party.    In 

throughout  the  artide  being  to  the  fuller  Greek  text),  Spain  (S.  C.  C,  31  January,  1880;  11  April,  1891) 

and  the  topographical  details  leave  no  doubt  that  and  in  Latin  America  (Acta  et  Decreta  Cone.  PI. 

the  story,  even  if  it  be  only  a  pious  romance,  is  con-  Amer.  Lat.,  p.  250,  in  note  1)  a  betrothal  compact  is 

nected  with  a  definite  place.    Its  site,  however,  is  considered  invalid  by  the    Church  unless  written 

in  dispute.    Beside  S&n(ir,  Mithiltyeh,  or  Misiltyeh,  documents  pass   between   the  contracting  parties. 
Tell  Kheibar  and  Beit-Ilfa,  which  have  divided  opin-  *  This  practice  obtains  in  other  countries  also,  but  its 

ion  for  some  time,  Haraia  el-Mallah,  Khirbet  Sheikh  observance  is  not  necessary  to  validate  the  agree- 

Shibel,  el-B&rid  and  Sicnem   (Bethulia  being  con-  ment. 

sidered  a  pseudonym)  have  recently  been  proposed        Effects. — ^A  valid  betrothal  begets  chiefly  two 

as  sites  oi  Bethulia.  ^  effects.    There  arises  first  an  obligatioh  in  justice, 

The  city  was  situated  on  a  mountain  overlooking  binding  the  contracting  parties  to  keep  their  agree- 

the  plain  of  JezrAel,  or  Esdrelon,  and  commanding  ment;  viz.  to  marry  at  tne  time  specified;  or,  when 

narrow  passes  to  the  south  (iv,  6,  7;  vi,  11-13);  at  the  date  of  marriage  is  not  agreea  upon,  whenevc^r 

the  foot  of  the  mountain  there  was  an  important  the  second  party  to  the  compact  reasonably  demandp 

spring,  and  other  springs  were  in  the  neSfhbourhood  the  fulfilment  of  the  mamage-promise.    Marriage, 

(vi,  11 ;  vii,  3, 7, 12).     Moreover  it  lay  withm  investing  consequently,  with  a  third  party  is  forbidden,  though 

lines  which  ran  through  Dothain,  or  Dothan,  now  not  invfdid.    There  arises,  secondly,  owing  to  an 

Tell  Doth&n,  to  Belthem,  or  Belma,  no  doubt  the  ecclesiastical  law,  a  diriment  impediment,  known 

sameas  the&lamonof  viii,3, and  thencetoKyamon.  as  "public  decency'',  extending  to  relatives  in  the 

or  ChelnK)n,  ''whijh  lies  over  against  Esorelon  first   degree  of   the   parties   U^trothed.    Hence,   a 

(vii,  3).     These  data  point  to  a  site  on  the  heights  marriage  contracted  between  the  male  party  to  a 

west  of  Jenin   (Engannim),  between  the  plains  of  betrotlud  and  the  mother,  sister,  or  daughter  of  the 

Esdrelon  and  Dothan,  where  Haraiq,  Kh.  Sheikh  other  party;  and,  vice  versa,  between  the  woman  and 

Shibel ,  and  el-B&rid  lie  close  together.    Such  a  site  the  father,  b»x>ther^  or  son  of  the  man,  would  be 

best  fulfib  all  requirements.     It  lies  between  lines  null  and  void.    This  impediment  continues  to  exist 

drawn    from   Tell    Doth&n    to    Bel'ema,    probably  in  aU  its  force,  even  after  the  betrothal  has  been 

Belma,  or  Belamon,  and  from  the  latter  to  el-Y&mOn,  legitimately  dissolved.    The  first  of  these  effects, 

probably  Kyamon;  there  are  a  number  of  springs  an  obli«ition  of  justice,  may  arise,  it  will  be  seen, 

and  wells  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  near  by  are  from  a  betrothal  compact  which  has  not  all  the  essen- 

the  two  passes  of  Ketr  AdiLn  and  Burqfn,  so  narrow  tials  of  the  definition  given  above;  not  so,  howevei: 


BETB0TH4L  538  BETTIAH 

of  the  second  effect.    It  is  sometimes  stated  that  a  tions   were    more   frequently    disregarded.    Haioe 

betrothal  does  not  bind  in  English-speaking  coimtriea.  the  praetioe  of  giving  eamest-mone^,  or  pledges  of 

This  is  inexact,  to  say  the  least.    There  is  no  excep-  fidehty    (flrrlUB)^    came    into    prominence;    another 

tion'at  any  time,  or  in  any  comitry,  to  the  binding  step  led  to  gifts  being  bestowed  by  the  parties,  one 

force  arising  from  a  valid  betrothal,  even  though  it  upon  the  other.    The  kiss,  the  joining  of  hands, 

he  not  pubhc  (S.  C.  S.  Off.,  11  Aug.,  1852),  or  to  the  and  the  attestation  of  witnesses  were  other  elements 

impediment  begotten  thereby.    Engagements  very  introduced.    Even  in  England  formal  engagements 

frequently,  though  not  always,  are  rather  proposals  of  this  kind  were  conmion  down  to  the  tmie  of  the 

of  matrimony  than  promises  as  explained  above,  and  Reformation.     As     barbarian    influence,     however, 

in  them  an  essential  element  of  the  betrothal  is  want-  began  to  affect  the  Empire,  the  betrothal  took  on 

ing  (Sabetti,  Theol.  Mor.,  n.  838,  qu.  30;  Kenrick,  more  the  semblance  of  wife-purchase. 
Theol.  Mor.,  nos.  23,  37).  The  Church,  at  the  beginnmg  of  the  third  century 

Dissolution. — A  betrothal  may  be  dissolved:  at  the  latest,  reoognized  betrothal  as  a  perfectiy 
(1)  By  the  mutual  and  free  consent  of  the  contract-  valid  and  Lawful  contract.  In  the  fourth  centunr, 
ing  parties.  (2])  By  a  diriment  impediment,  which  in  Africa  at  least,  according  to  the  testimony  of  St 
subsoauently  arises  between  said  parties.  In  this  Augustine  (Sermo  viii,  18;  Sermo  xxxvii,  7;  Sermo 
case  tne  innocent  party  is  released  from  his  or  her  cccxxxii,  4,  etc.),  espousals  were  contracted  in  writ- 
obligation,  but  not  the  one  through  whose  fault  the  in^,  the  instrument  {tabuUB),  signed  by  the  bishop, 
impediment  arose.  The  latter  may  be  held  to  the  bemg  publicly  read.  At  the  same  time  the  dowiy,  if 
contract,  if  the  impediment  be  such  that  the  Church  any,  was  given;  or  nuptial  gifts  were  exchanged, 
can  dispense  from  it.  (3)  By  a  valid  marriage  entered  Pop©  Benedict  I  (573-677),  writing  to  the  Patriarch 
into  with  a  third  person.  (4)  By  protracted  delay  of  Gran,  declares  that  it  is  connubial  intercourse  that 
on  the  part  of  eitner  of  the  contracting  parties  in  makes  two  one,  that  mere  betrothal  would  not  pre- 
fulfilling  the  agreement  to  marry,  in  which  case  the  vent  a  man  from  entering  into  wedlock  with  the 
innocent  party  is  released  from  obligation.  (5)  By  sister  of  his  betrothed.  The  question  of  relationship, 
one  of  the  contracting  parties  choosing  a  higher  state  then,  arising  from  the  betrothal  contract  was  mooted 
of  perfection,  as  for  example  by  solenm  profession  in  even  at  that  early  period.  Gregory  the  Great 
a  religious  order,  by  the  reception  of  major  orders,  (690-603)  allowed  a  woman  who  was  betrothed  to 
etc.  (6)  By  any  notable  change  in  body  or  soul  or  dissolve  her  engagement  in  order  to  enter  a  convent 
worldly  state  of  one  of  the  parties — any  grave  cir-  (Bk.  VI,  Ep.  xx). 

cumstance  which  if  it  had  happened  or  been  known        At  the  end  of  the  ninth  centunr  betrothal  had 

before  the  betrothal  would  have  prevented  it.     To  become  a  very  frequent  subject  of  Church  legisla- 

these  may  be  added  the  impossibility  of  contracting  tion.    From  a  reply  of  Pope  Nicholas  to  the  Bulgariaas 

matrimony,  and  a  dispensation  granted  by  the  pope  in  860  (Responsa  ad  Consulta  Bulgaronim,  c.  iii)  it 

for  just  causes.  is  apparent  that  the  preliminaries  leading  up  to  a 

Procedure  for  Breach  op  Promise. — ^In  case  of  mamage  in  the  Church  were:  (1)  The  betrothal 
refusal  to  complete  the  contract  by  marriage  an  action  or  espousal;  the  expression  of  consent  by  the  con- 
before  the  diocesan  court  is  permissible.  Bishops,  tractmg  parties,  ancl  the  consent  also  of  their  parents, 
however,  are  counseled  not  ordinarily  to  enforce  or  guarmans,  to  the  projected  niarriage.  (2)  The 
marriage  in  such  cases,  as  generally  it  would  prove  auhafrhaiio,  or  delivery  of  the  ring  by  the  man  to 
unhappy.  In  English-speaking  countries  these  mat-  the  woman  by  way  of  an  earnest,  or  pledge.  (3) 
ters  are,  as  a  rule,  taken  into  the  civil  courts,  where  The  documentary  transfer,  by  the  man  to  the  womsm, 
the  only  V  remedy  is  a  breach-of-promise  suit,  the  of  the  dowry,  m  the  presence  of  witnesses.  The 
penaltjr  being  a  fine.  In  the  United  States,  before  marriage  was  to  follow  immediately,  or  after  an 
the  civil  law,  betrothal  has  only  the  moral  force  of  a  interval  more  or  less  protracted.  These  rites  are 
mutual  promise.  Betrothal  in  England  was  once  a  still  recognized  in  modem  uses.  The  ceremony  of 
legal  bar  to  matrimony  with  another;  at  present  betrothal  is  found  in  a  measure  in  the  present  nuptial 
the  only  legal  remedy  for  the  violation  of  the  betrothal  service.  There  is  a  declaration  of  consent,  which, 
is  an  action  for  breach  of  promise.  since  the  marria^  follows  immediately  after,  is  d» 

History. — ^Jewish  and  Roman  laws  and  customs  prcesenti.    The  placing  of  the  ring  on  the  finger  of 

must  have  influenced  the  early  practice  of  the  Church  the  bride   by  tne    bndegroom  constitutes  the  «i/6- 

anent  betrothal.    The  Jewish  laws  of  marriage,  and  arrhatiOf  while  in  many  places  transferring  of  the 

consequently  of  betrothal,  were  based  in  a  great  dowry  is  represented  by  a  medal  or  coin — a  relic  of 

measure  on  the  supposition  that  it  was  a  purchase.  Salic  law  and  of  wife-purchase.     (See  Mart^ne,  Do 

In  the  law  of  Moses  there  are  certain  provisions  Antiq.  Ecc.  Ritibus,  I,  ix,  a.  3,  n.  4,  speaking  of  a 

respecting  the  state  of  the  virgin  who  is  betrbthed.  ritual  of  the  Church  of  Reims.) 
but    nothing    particularly    referring    to    the    act    of        Conault  recognited  authoritiea  in  canon  law  or  moral  thed- 

betrothal.    %\den's    "XixoT   Hebraica"    gives    the  ?SK,i"  f|S?r,&'';^i|"^Dv"cirk^c;l^^ 
schediile  of  later  Hebrew  contracts  of   betrothal.  1904),  XIV;  Ludlow  in  Z>ic<.  CAritt.  Xnrtg..8.  v. 
Where  the  contract  was  in  writing,  it  \^'as  written  out  Andrew  B.  Mbehan. 
by  the  man  before  witnesses  and  delivered  to  the        «  ^    j.v  i  »i.        a     r» 
woman,  who  must  know  its  import.    Rome,  on  the        Betrothal  Ring.    See  Ring. 
other  hand,  at  the  beginnmpj  of  the  Christian  Era,        Bettiah,   Prefecture  Apostolic  op,  in  north- 
had  ceased  to  consider  marriage  as  a  wife-purchase,  em  India,  includes  as  part  of  its  jurisidiction   the 
Marriage,  and  still  more   betrothal,  was  a  purely  entire  native  state  of  Nepal,  which  has  an  area  of 
civil    compact,    verbally    concluded.    Under    later  more  than  59,000  sauare  miles  and  a  population  of 
Roman  law,  which  constituted  a  basis  for  our  eccle-  nearly  3,000,000.    The  prefecture  is  bounded  on  the 
siastical    legislation,    betrothal    was    looked    upon  north  by  Tibet;  on  the  east,  by  the  Ghagra;  on  the 
simply  as  a  contract  of  future  marriage,  stronger  south,  by  the  Ganges;  and  on  the  west,  approxi- 
indeed  than  the  engagement,  since  to  enter  into  a  mately,  by  the  Kusi. 

second  betrbthal  compact  was  held  to  be  as  infamous        In  1738  Father  Joseph  of  Carignano,  a  Capuchin, 

as  bigamy  itself.     No  legal  forms  were  prescribed  on  his  way  to  the  missions  of  Nepal  and  Tibet,  arrived 

for  the  early  Roman  betrothal,  but  the  compact  was  at  Bettiah,  not  far  from  the  southern  boundary  of 

generally  accompanied  by  the  man's  sending  to  the  the  former  kingdom.    The  Queen  of  Bettiah,  being 

woman  the  iron  betrothal  ring  (anniUua  pronubus).  grievously  sick,  was  cured  by  him;  in  return,  she 

As  the  Empire  grew  in  importance,  so  did  the  be-  allowed  him  to  preach  the  Gospel.    The  Nepal  war 

trothal  contract,  while  at  tne  same  time  its  obliga-  of  1769  obliged  the  (Christians  to  retire  soutawards. 


to  the  neighbourhood  of  Bettiah.    In  18S3  Father  not  precluded  from  betting  if  the  latter  renudna 

Alexander  of  Albano  opened  an  orphanage  at  Chak«  obstinate.    If  a  bet  fulfils  these  conditions  and  the 

nee;  but,  as  the  number  of  Italian  missionaries  was  object  of  it  is  honest,  so  that  the  bet  is  not  an  incentive 

falling  off,  this  district,  then  a  portion  of  the  Allaha*  to  sin,  it  wiU  be  a  valid  contract,  and  therefore 

bad  mission,  was  turned  over  (29  October,  1889)  obligatorj  in  conscience.    Debts  of  honour  then  are 

to  the  Capuchins  of  the  Province  of  Northern  TyroL  also  debts  that  we  are  bound  in  conscience  to  pay  if 

By  a  decree  of  20  April,  1892,  this  coimtry  waa  they  fulfil  the  conditions  just  laid  down.    It  follows 

made  an  independent  prefecture,  suffragan  to  the  that  the  avocation  of  the  professional  bookmaker 

See  of  Agra;  the  districts  of  Bettiah,  Champaru.  need  not  be  morally  wronff.    It  is  (]uite  possible  to 

Sarun,  Tiroot,  Mazufifarpore,  Dharbanga,  and  part  of  keep  the  moral  law  and  at  the  same  time  so  to  arrange 

those  of  Bha^pur  and  Monghvr  were  assigiied  to  it.  one  s  bets  with  different  people  that,  though  in  all 

Propaganda  added.  19  May,  1893,  the  whole  of  Ne-  piobabilitv  there  will  be  some  loss,  still  ther^  will  be 

',  a  territory  wider  than  the  whole  of  the  original  gain  on  tne  whole.     (See  Gambuno.) 


prefecture,  and  which  extends  to  the  borders  of  Tibet.  „  Lbhmkuhl.  TheoioM  MoraliB  (|ieibu«t.  18M),  I.  n.  1138; 

Nepal  thus  became  separated  from  the  Diocese  of  ^allbrini.  Opum  Monde  (Prato.  i892),  IH.  7M. 
Allahabad;  it  can  scarcely  be  said,  however,  to  have  dx,ater. 

ever  been  evangelized,  seeing  that  within  its  59,000        Bevgnoi,  Auqtjstb-Abthur,  Count,  French  histo- 

square  miles  Rampjur  is  the  only  station.  rian  and  statesman,  b.  at  Bar-sur-Aube,  25  March. 

Generally  speaking,   missionar^r  activity  in  this  1797;  d.  at  Paris,  15  March,  1865.    He  was  a  son  ot 

prefecture  nas  been  concentrated  in  the  Bettiah  di&-  Jacques-Claude  Beujpiot,  who  was  a  Deputy  in  the 

trict.    According  to  the  latest  statistics  of  the  Ca*  Legislative  Body  of  1791,  Minister  of  Finance  to 

puchin  missions,  the  prefecture  niunbers  13,000,000  Jerome,  King  of  Westphalia  in  1807,  Minister  of  the 

inhabitants,  of  whom  only  3,633  are  Catholics.    Nearly  Interior  under  the  Provisional  Covemment  of  1814. 

all  the  Europeans  (220)  are  Anglicans.    In  1889  the  and  Postmaster  General  in  1815.     At  the  age  ot 

mission  had  only  three  stations;  there  are  now  12  twenty-one  Auguste-Arthur  Beugnot  made  known  his 

stations  and  11  churches  or  chapels.    The  principal  ability  as  an  histcmcal  writer  by  dividing  with  Mignet 

stations  are  BetUah  (the  residence  of  the  Prefect  the  prize  of  the  Academic  des  Inscriptions  (1818)  for 

Apostolic,  Ilarione  da  Abtei),  Chohoree,  Chaknee,  the  best  essay  on  the  institutions  of  St.  Louis.    The 

Latonah,  Somastipore,  Dharbanga,  Somesar,  Rampur  competitions  of  1822  and  1831  led  to  his  work  on 

(in  Nepal),  and  Kanmagar.    The  minor  stations  are  "The  Jews  of  the  West"  and  his  "History  of  the 

Mazuffarpore,  Sonepore.  Chapra,  and  Hipore.    The  Destruction  of  Paganism  in  the  West",  in  conse- 

mission  is  administ^^  by  14  Capuchin  pnests,  aided  quence  of  which  he  was  elected  to  the  Acad^nie  des 

bv  8  lay  brothers.    There  are  also  20  sisters  of  the  Inscriptions.   To  the  general  public  the  latter  of  these 

Holy  Cross  (Kreuzschwestem)  from  Switzerland;  35  two  works  was  more  especially  known;  it  was  placed 

schools,  with  854  pupils;  and  10  orphanages,  with  on  the  Index,  and  has  lost  its  vogue  since  the  ap- 

403  orphans.  pearance  of  Seeck's  treatise  on  the  same  subject. 

8kUu$  Mi9nonum  Ord.  Mvn,  Cap,  (1906).  The  learned,  however,  attach  a  higher  value  to  the 

Albeet  Battandier.  works  of  Beugnot  on  the  Middle  Ages;  his  edHions  of 

Betting. — ^A  bet  may  be  defined  as  the  backing  the  "Assizes  of  Jerusalem"  (1841-43),  of  Beauma- 

of  an  amimation  or  forecast  by  offering  to  forfeit,  .noir's  book  of  the  "Customs  of  Beauvaisis"  (1842), 

in  case  of  an  adverse  issue,  a  sum  of  money  or  article  and  of  the  "Olim",  or  ancient  registers  of  -the  Parlia- 

of  value  to  one  who,  by  accepting,  maintains  the  oppo-  ment  of  Paris  (1839-48).    These  editions  are  of  great 

site  and  backs  his  opmion  by  a  corresponding  stipu-  value  for  the  history  of  feudal  and  customary  law,  and 

lation.    Although  tnere  are  no  Federal  statutes  in  of  juridical  procedure.    The  name  of  Beugnot,  lastly, 

the  United  States  on  this  matter,  many  of  the  States  is  associated  with  the  voluminous  publication  of  the 

make  it  a  penal  offence  when  the  bet  is  upon  a  horse-  "Historians  of  the  Crusades",  wnich  began  in  a 

race,  or  an  election,  or  a  game  of  hazard.    Betting  memoir  written  by  him  in  1834.    Beugnot  entered 

contracts  are  also  frequently  made  void.    Similarly  politics  in  1841  as  a  Peer  of  France,  was  Deputy  for 

in  Great  Britain  betting  in  streete  and  public  places,  Haute-Mame  in  the  Cumber  of  1849,  and  under  the 

and  the  keeping  of  betting  houses  are  forbidden  bv  Empire  went  into  a  retirement  which  lasted  until 

law,  and   warring  contracts  are  null   and   void,  his  death. 

Such  laws  are  just  and  useful,  inasmuch  as  they  serve  The  Villemain  educational  plan  of  1844.  to  subject 
to  keep  within  the  bounds  of  decency  the  daneerous  the  heads  of  independent  institutions  to  tne  jurisdic- 
habit  of  gambling,  and  the  many  evils  which  are  tion  of  the  imiversity,  and  to  impose  upon  their 
usually  associated  with  it.  Although  betting  is  to  pupils  the  obligation  of  making  their  studies  in  rhet^ 
be  discouraged  as  being  fraught  with  danger,  and  oric  and  philosophv  in  certain  prescribed  establish- 
although  it  may  be  morally  wrong,  still  in  particular  ments,  was  opposed  by  Beugnot  on  liberal  principles, 
cases  it  is  not  necessarily  so.  As  I  may  give  the  whilst  others  opposed  it  on  religious  grounds.  This 
nooney  of  which  I  have  the  free  disposal  to  another,  proj[ect  was  withdrawn  in  January,  1845,  its  author 
so  there  is  nothing  in  sound  morals  to  prevent  me  navmg  become  demented.  Beugnot,  who  had  de- 
from  entering  into  a  contract  with  another  to  band  stroy^  the  draft  of  a  speech  in  support  of  the  Ville- 
over  to  him  a  sum  of  money  if  an  assertion  be  found  main  progranmie,  was  welcomed  by  the  Catholics  as  a 
to  be  true,  or  if  a  certain  event  come  to  pass,  with  labourer  entering  the  vineyard  at  the  eleventh  hourf 
the  stipulation  that  he  is  to  do  the  same  in  my  favour  In  1845  he  advocated  the  claim  of  the  bishops,  as 
if  the  event  be  otherwise.  of  all  other  citizens,  to  the  right  of  petition.  In  his 
This  may  be  an  innocent  form  of  recreation,  or  a  pamphlet.  "L'^tat  tn^lo^en  ,  he  made  it  clear  that 
ready  way  of  settling  a  dispute.  However,  the  the  attacks  on  the  Jesuits  were  neither  more  nor 
practice  is  very  liable  to  abuse,  and  that  it  may  be  less  than  attempts  to  destroy  the  liberty  of  associa- 
morally  justifiable  theologians  require  the  following  tion,  and  the  Jesuits  empowered  him  to  treat  with 
conditions:  The  parties  must  have  the  free  disposal  Guizot  in  their  name  at  tne  time  of  the  negotiations 
of  what  they  stake,  and  both  must  bind  themselves  between  France  and  the  Holy  See  in  rega^  to  the 
to  stand  by  the  event  and  pay  in  case  of  loss.  Welsh-  dispersion  of  the  Society.  As  drafter  of  the  Law  of 
ing  is  wrong  in  morals  as  it  is  in  law.  Both  must  1850  on  Liberty  of  Teaching,  he  vainly  endeavoured 
understand  the  matter  of  the  bet  in  the  same  sense,  to  prevent  the  return  of  the  bill  to  the  CJouncil  of 
and  it  must  be  imcertain  for  them  both.  If,  however.  State,  7  November,  1849,  and  in  the  decisive  de- 
one  has  absolutely  certain  evidence  of  the  truth  of  bate  (14  January  to  15  March.  1850)  he  vigorously 
his  contention,  and  says  so  to  the  other  party,  he  is  seconded  the  efforts  of  Montalembert,  Paneu,  and 


BBUXa  540  BIAMOm 

» 

rhiers  which  resulted  in  victory  for  the  Church  and  Fiaher  ia  believed  to  have  received  his  first  educa- 

liberty.  tion  at  the  grammar  school  attached  to  the  minster. 

Wallon,  Eloge$  oeadimiQtM  (P»™.  1882),  I.  The  chapter  beine  secular,  the  minster  escaped  the 

Georges  Gotau,  rui^  that  fell  on  tne  monasteries  under  Henry  VIII. 

KAn«%A     Qat*,*     akk/v*    r^f    r<k».n/^    A    iMA/^  ^^^  ^ss  dissolvcd  in  1647  imder  the  "Colleges  and 

Beano,    Saint,   Abbot    of    Oymiog,   d.   «60(p.  Chantries  Act"  of  Edward  VI.    The  sevens-seven 

was.  accordmip  to  the  "Bucched  Beuno  .  bom  m  ^'^t'?"  "^xr     «*  ■^'»«.iv*  t*.     x^^  o^Tv^vj-oc*«t 

PoWia-lMd^d,  aftw  education  »nd  ordi^atioii  in  «>"epate  officets   thus  dispowMsed  were  repUced 

*vTT«-»c*Mv*  «uv»,  ciiwi  ^7^«i««>ov.^ _rir\i7  1     ^  TLr^  by  a  vicar  and  three  assistants  reduced,  under  Eliza- 

ttie  monastery,  of  Bangor,  in  North  Wates,  became  ^^j^    ^     ^  ^  .  (^r^duaUy  the 

an  active  mwaoner^advan,  K^  «»,£*ynedd.  «»-  miwterfeU  into  decay  until,  in  1713,  a  restoraUon 

iiur  his  firenerous  benefactor.    Cadwalkm.  Oadvaas  j*******^*  '^^  *"    _^^f^^^   i***v»*,  *«  xfxt#,  »  .vov^««iavr» 

soS  and  fucLeor,  deceived  Beuno  about  ^ome  land,  '^««^,  ^f^^^^^y.^  ^^'T  '^  ^'^'"irTr  J^"*  ""S 

and  on  the  saint  (demanding  justice  proved  obduoite  J'*^^*^/^^!!!!^'  "i^  ^  *  '^^^^?/  ^^^^^r  work 

o^uIJ::™:   o^U^Vr^-rS^./JJTT^^  ; '  m  ISOe  and   subsequent  years  it  still 


Cl^nog  Fawr  (Carnarvonshire). 

Beuno  became  the  guardian  and  restorer  to  «„.,^  „„^,        ^^.^.^    „.,.^^ 

of  his  niece,  the  virgin  St.  Winefride,  idiose  clients  Bevtrley  ISitittr  (lAmi!ai,  iooT)? 

still  obtain  marvellous  favours  at  Holywell  (Flint-  Edwin  Burton. 

shire).     He  was  relentless  with  hardened  smneo,  Bej^rifaick,  Lawrence,  Belgian   theologian  and 

but  full  of  compassion  to  those  in  <h»tre«.     Before  ecclesiastical  writer,  b.  at  Antwerp,  April,  1578;  d 

his  death  "on  the  seventh  day  after  Easter 'he  had  at  the  same  place,  22  June,  1627.   the  son  of  a  noted 

a  wondrous  vision.     Eleven   churches  bearing  St  pharmacist,  he  prepstfed  at  Louvain  for  the  same 

Beuno's  name,  with  various  relics  and  local  usages,  profession  but,  deciding  to  enter  the  priesthood,  he 

witness  to  his  far-reaching  nusswnary  aeaL    He  is  ^^^  ordained  June,  1602.    While  a  theological  stu- 

oommemorated  on  the  ^st  ?f  Ap«^- ,^^^     ^    ^     ^  ^  dent  he  taught  poetry  and  rhetwic  at  the  college  of 

BeSn,,^rm1hS'^^a1SSB^b2^^  Vaulxand  as  pastor  of  Herent  was  professor  of  phi- 

dedioatiooB;  cf.  Pollbn  in  The  Mmoh,  F«bnuiry.  1804,  238;  losophy  at  a  nearby  seminary  of  canons  regular.    In 

Stubbs,  CoundU,  1, 160;  Diet.  NaL  Bioo.AY,  444.  1605  he  came  to  the  ecclesiastical  seminary  of  Ant- 

Patrick  Ryan.  werp,  taught   philosophy   and  theology  and  later 

B«v«rUy  Blinster,  a  collegiate  chu^tsh  at  Bever-  became  superior.    In  1608  he  was  canon,  censor,  and 

ley,  capital  of  the  East  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  served  theologian  of  the  church  of  Antwerp;  in  1614  he  was 

by  a  chfi4>ter  of  secular  canons  until  the  Reformation,  ^ade  protonotary.     Beyeriinck  was  an  exemplary 

The  foundation  owes  ite  origin  to  St.  John  of  Beverley  P^wt,  a  gifted  rhetoncian,  orator,  and  administrator 

early  in  the  eighth  century,  when  the  locality  was  a  ^^^  *^  indefatigable  worker.    Besides  seminary  and 

clearing  in  the  foEest  of  Deira  (Indrawood),  after-  diocesan  work  he  was  en^ed  continually  in  preach- 

wards  known  as  Beverlac  (A.  S.  Beoferlic),  a  name  ^K  and  writing.     Compilation  was  his  bent.     His 

possibly  due  to  the  colonies  of  beavers  in  the  river  works  are  mainly  encyclopedic;  his  knowledge  more 

Hull.    St.  John  here  foimded  a  community  of  monks  extensive  than  profound.    He  wrote,  e.  g.  a  second 

and  another  of  nuns,  but  traditions  as  to  the  exist-  volume  (Antwerp,  1611)  of  the  "Opus  Chronographi- 

ence  of  an  earlier  church  are  legendary  and  untrust-  ?S5»  SJ^j?  wiiversi  a  mundi  exordio  usque  ad  annum 

worthy.    Later  the  saint,  having  resimed  his  See  of  MDCXI"  (first  volume  to  year  1672  by  Opmeer),  a 

York,  retired  here  and  died  (721),  Ms  shrine  being  collection  of  hves  of  popes,  rulers,  and  illustnous 

in  the  minster.     After  the  destruction  of  the  mon-  *»en;  and  the  "Magnum  Theatrum  Vit^  Humanp, 

astery  by  the  Danes,  a  chapter  of  secular  canons  was  **oc  est  Rerum  Divinanim  Humanarumque  grntagma 

founded   by   King  Athelstan   in  gratitude   for  his  CathoKcum    Philosophicum    Historicum    Dognati- 

victory  at  Bruhanburh  (937),  as  he  had  visited  the  cum",  etc.  (Cdogne,  1631,  7  vols.;  Venice,  1707,  8 

shrine  on  his  march  north.    It  remained  a  popular  vols.),  an  encyclopedia  of  mformation  on  diveree 

place  of  pilgrimage  throughout  the  vicissitudes  of  the  subjects  arranged  in  alphabetical  order.    Its  scope 

Danish    and    Norman    invasions.     Few   particulare  ranges  from  profound  theological  dissertations  to 

about  the  eariy  history  of  the  church  are  known,  merest  trivlabties.     Much  of  its  vast  material  was 

but  a  fire  in  1188  destroyed  the  greater  part  of  it,  gathered  by  others,  but  to  Beyeriinck  belongs  the 

and  the  present  Gothic  minster,  rivaUing  the  great  credit  of  myin^  the  work  its  final  form.    His  numerous 

cathedrals  in  beauty,  dates  from  that  time.    The  p^her  publications  are  listed  m  the  works  referred  to 

west  front  in  particular  is  imsurpassed  as  a  specimen  ^  the  appended  bibliography.                         ,^,v    » 

of  the  P«rpen<Ucular  stvle,    The  choir  aacTdouhk  -jSSLjttiS.s^BS'SSISi  fe7BJSISK'*iraw.'k)i 

transepts  were  built  early  in  the  thirteenth  centuiy;  So6;  B*og,  univ,  (Paria.  I8ll).  IV,  426. 

while  the  present  nave  replaced  the  Norman  nave  John  B.  Petebson. 

a  century  later.    Throughout  the  Middle  Ages  the        <> #i**^i^-.     o^  rv«v»^   x>^ » 

shrine  was  frequented  by  pilgrims,  and  the  charters  ?^  S^',,^  ^f^ 

of  its  liberties  were  renewed  by  successive  monarchs.  Biancni  and  Nen.    See  Florbncb. 

*It8  banner  was  placed  on  the  standard  at  the  "  battle  Bianchi,  Giovanni    Antonio,  Friar  Minor  and 

of  the  Standard     (1138),  and  it  was  further  honoured  theologian,  \).  at  Lucca,  2  October,  1686;  d.  at  Rome, 

after  the  victory  of  A^court,  which  was  won  on  the  18  January,  1768.    At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  entered 

feast  of  the  translation  of  St.  John   (25  October,  the  Franciscan  Order.    He  was  once  elected  to  the 

1415),   and  was  attributed  by  Henry  V  to   that  office  of  Provinical  of  the  Roman  Province,  and  for  a 

saint's  intercession    (Lyndwode,  "  Provinciale '\  II,  number  of  years  was  professor  of  philosophy  and 

"Anglicanae").    The  minster  was  originally  served  theology.     During  these  years  of  professorship,  be 

by  a  chancellor,  precentor,  sacrist,  nine  canons,  nine  no  doubt  acquired  much  of  the  extensive  and  accu- 

vicars-choral  ana  seven  berefellarii  or  clerks,  but  in  rate  acc|uaintance  with  ecclesiastical  subjects  dis- 

time  several  chantry  priests  and  minor  officials  were  played   in   the  productions  of  his   later  life.    He 

added.    The  temporalities  were  administered  by  a  possessed  a  memory  of  such  range  and  tenacity  that 

provost,  who  was  not  necessarily  a  member  of  the  ne  was  considered  a  prodijgy  by  the  many  students  and 

chapter.    The  former  office  was  held  by  many  noted  scholars  who  came  to  visit  him  in  his  convent  oelL 

Englishmen,  including  St.  Thomas  Becket  and  John  Bianchi  was  held  in  h^  esteem  by  the  Roman 

de  Thoresby,   afterwards  CardinaL    Blessed   John  Curia  and  by  Clement  ^Ql,  whose  successor.  Bene- 


BIANOHINI                             541  BUSD 

diet  XIV,  appointed  him  oonsultor  of  the  Holy  copious  notes  by  himself  and  othera,  and  several 

Office.  documentfl  relative  to  the  history  of  the  popes,    it 

It  was  perhaps  at  the  instance  of  Clement  XII  was  republisbed  in  Itigne,  P.  L.,  GXXVII-CXXVIII. 

that  Biancni  composed  his  scholarly  and  exhaustive  _  HjiiTra,  Non^ndat^r,  II:  Duchbsnb,  EhuU  aw  U  L*. 

defence  of  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  Roman  ^<"^-  ^*^*™'  ^^^^»  "^  "••  v^^^,^  i  a^,,^„ 

Pontiff,  which  had  been  attackedby  ihe  NeapoUtan  J^-bancw  J.  Bchabfbr. 

lawyer,  Pietro  Giannone^  in   the  latter's   ''Storia  lMf«^i*itii   (Blanchini^,  Giuseppe^  Italian  Orar 

civik  del  r^no  di  Napoir\    Bianchi's  work  which  torian,  Biblical,  historical,  and  liturgical  scholar,  b. 

was  entitled  ''Delia  podeetii  e  della  poUzia  della  at  Verona,  1704:  <L  in  Rome,  1764.    Clement  XII 

chiesa,  trattati  due  contro  le  nuove  opinioni  di  Pietro  and   Benedict   XIV,    who   highly   appreciated   his 

Giannone"  appeared  in  Rome  in  six  voliunes  between  learning,  entrusted  him  with  several  scientific  labours, 

the  years   1745   and    1751.    In   the   first   treatise  Bianduni  had  contemplated  a  larse  work  on  the 

(2  vols.)  Bianchi  defends  the  indirect  power  of  the  texts  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  '' vindiciee  Canoni- 

Roman  Pontiff  over  temporal  sovereigns:  while  he  carum    Scripturarum    VulgatcD    latinsB    editionis", 

lucidly  and  forcibly  defends  the  rights  ot  the  pope  which  was  to  comprise  several  volumes,  but  only 

as  regards  the  external  laws  and  government  of  tne  the  first,  in  which,  amonff  other  things,  are  to  be 

Church,  in  the  second  treatise^  which  comprises  the  found  fra^ents  of  the  "UexaDla"  (cod.  Chisianus), 

remaining  four  volumes.    Anud  the  storm  of  con-  was  published  (Rome,  1740).    Much  more  important 

troversiaf  literature  provoked  by  the  treatise  of  the  is  his  "Evangeliarium  ouadruplex  latinse  versionis 

Dominican  theologian,  Daniele  Concina,  ''De  Spee^  antiquso",  etc.,  2  vols.  (Rome,  1749).    Among  his 

taculis    theatralibus",   Bianchi's   ''Sui   vizii  e  sui  historical   labours   may   be   mentioned   the   foiu*th 

difetti  del  moderno  teatro  e  sul  modo  di  corr€|;erli  ed  volume  whidi  Bianchmi  added  to  the  publication 

emendarli^'  appeared  at  Rome  in  1753.    In  this<  of  his  uncle,  Francesco  Bianchini,  ''Anastasli  biblio- 

he  contends  with  Scipio  Maffei  ajpbist  Concina  for  thecarii  Vitas  Rom.  Pontif."  (Rome,  1735):  he  also 

the  la^i^ulness,  within  certain  Emits,  of  modem  published  the  '' Demonstratio  historise  ecclesiasticse 

theatrical  displays.    Notwithstanding  these  graver  quadripartitse"  (Rome,  1752-^54).    The  chief  litur- 

preoccupations,  Bianchi  found  time  to  indulge  his  gical  work  of  Bianchini  is  "Liturgia  antiqua  his- 

predilection  for  poetij  and  tragic  writing,  and  his  panica.    gothica,    isidoriai^    mozarabica,    toletana 

compositions  in  this  field,  though  of  minor  impor-  mixta '^    (Rome,    1746).    He    also    undertook    the 

tance,  show  him  to  be  an  accomplished  master  of  edition  of  the  works  of  Bl.  Thomashis  (Tomasi),  but 

his  own  native  Tuscan.  onW  one  volume  was  issued  (Rome,  1741). 

HuBTEB,  Nomendaior,  II,  1530-32:  d'Ai.bnc»n  in  I>ieL  de  ViLLABOBA,Jf emoritf  degli  Scrittori  FUippini  (Naples,  1837); 

thiol,  eath.  (Paris.  19(X)).  Il,  812 ;   ScHtTLTE,  OeKkiehie  der  Manqbitot,  Jomph  Bianchini  et  lea  anctenma  varauma  laHnea 

QueOeH  taid  Litteratur  dea  Canoniadtan  Rachta,  (Stuttpart,  1889).  da  la  Bibla  (Amkiia,  1882);  Hubtbe,  Noma$ulatar,  III,  71  0Qq. 

UI.  512 ;  FxLLEB,  Biographie  wdveraeUa  (Paris.  1848),  II.  2.  R.  BUTIN. 

Stephen  M.  Donovan. 

BiancMii,  OnAnLSS,  merchant  and  jphSantiiropist, 

Bianchini,  Francbbco,  a  student  of  the  natural  b.  26  S^tember.  1785,  in  the  duchy  of  Milan;  d.  near 

sciences,  and  an  historian,  b.  at  Verona,  Northern  C^nmcJ^  Ireland,  22  September,  1875.    At  an  early 

ItaJy,  13  December.  1662*  d.  at  Rome,  2  March,  age  he  was  sent  to  Ireland,  as  apprentice  to  an  Italian 

1729.    At  first  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  printseller,  became  a  distinguished  and  wealthy  mer- 

mathematics,  physics,  and  astronomy;  later  he  abo  ohant,andwasthefirsttoe8tablishri815-58)  through- 

took  a  course  in  theology.    In  169^  he  was  advanoed  out  the  island  a  system  of  rapid  and  cheap  transporta- 

to  deaconship,  but  never  became  a  priest.    In  1684  tionof  perejMis  and  of  government  maiL    He  was  an 

he  transferred  his  residence  to  Rome,  where  he  found  intimate  friend  of  O'Oonnell,  a  promoter  of  Oatholio 

at  once  a  protector  in  Cardinal  Pietro  Ottoboni,  of  Enumcipation,  a  benefactor  of  many  Catholic  chari- 


whose  library  he  became  ctBtodian.  When  the  ties,  and  a  practical  friend  of  the  Catholic  University 
cardinal  became  Pope  Alexander  Vm  (1689-01)  at  Dublin.  The  £nglish  postmaster  general  in  his 
he  still  extended  his  favours  to  Bianchini;  after  Report  for  1857  said  that  "no  living  man  has  ever 
Alexander's  death,  his  nephew,  also  Cardinal  Pietro  done  more  than  he  for  the  benefit  of  the  sister  king- 
Ottoboni,  lodged  the  scholar  in  his  own  palace,  dom".  In  the  development  of  his  vast  transporta- 
Bianchini  received  also  many  honours  and  com-  tion  system  he  displayed  extraordinary  energy  and 
missions  of  trust  from  succeeding  popes.  In  1703  ingenuity,  and  did  much  to  increase  the  resources  of 
he  was  eknted  president  of  the  society  devoted  to  his  adopted  country,  while  he  promoted  in  a  remark- 
the  study  of  historical  antiquities;  he  was  made  able  way  its  social  relations.  His  residence  at  Long- 
secretary  of  the  commission  for  the  reform  of  the  field,  near  Clonmel,  was  a  centre  of  hospitality,  and  a 
calendar  and  he  was  sent  to  Paris  with  tbs  canfi-  source  of  much  practical  activity  for  the  general 
oal's    hat    destined    for    Rohan    Soubise.    During  welfare  of  his  country. 

this  journey  he  was  received  everywhere  with  eon-  O'Rrj^,  Charha  B*on«mi  (Dublin,  IWWjLfnd  iPl^*^??'" 
fflderktion  bv  the  learned.  The  Umvereity  of  Oxford  ^^  ^  daughter.  ll«.  Morgan  John  OtonneU  (Dublin, 
furnished  the  expenses  of  his  sojourn  in  England.  Thomas  J.  Shahan. 
Benedict  XIII  (1724-30)  appointed  him  historiog- 
rapher of  the  ^ndod  held  at  the  Lateran,  Rome  Biard,  Pibrbe,  Jesuit  missionary,  b.  at  Grenoble, 
(1725).  He  was  a  member  of  many  learned  acad-  France,  1567;  d.  at  Avignon,  17  November^  1622.  In 
emies  in  Italy  and  elsewhere.  He  was  distinguished  160S  he  was  cdled  from  a  chair  of  Scholastic  theology 
for  "  a  great  purity  of  life  and  an  exceeding  modesty  and  Hebrew  at  Lyons  by  Father  Coton,  the  king  s 
of  mind",  as  the  canons  of  St.  Mary  Ma^or  expressea  confessor  and  preacher,  to  take  charge  of  the  Jesuit 
it  in  his  epitaph.  His  chief  works  are:  Two  Disser-  mission  in  Acadia.  As  de  Monts,  the  founder  of 
tations  <m  the  Calendar  and  the  Qyde  of  Julius  Acadia,  was  a  Calvinist,  and  a  considerable  number 

^f  and  the  Paschal  Canon  of  St.  Hippolytus"  of  the  colonists  were  also  of  that  religion,  vehement 

3,  1703);  "A  Solution  of  the  Paschal  Problem''  opposition  was  made  to  the  appointment  of  Biard 

(Rome,  1703);  one  volume  of  "A  Universal  History"  and  Ins  companion,  Edmond  Masse,  as  missionaries. 

(Rome,  1697);  an  edition  of  the  "Liber  Ponlificahs"  Through  the  interposition  of  the  Marquise  de  Guer- 

in  four  volumes,  three  of  which  were  edited  by  him-  chevijte,  who  purchased  the  vessel  that  was  brining 


introductions,  various  readings  of  the  manuscripts,    21  Januaiy,  1611,  and  arrived  on  Pentecost  Pay, 


k_ 


BXBBIKIIA 


542 


BIBIANA 


22  May,  at  Port  Royal.  They  met  with  but  littie 
success.  The  predecessor  of  the  missionaries,  a 
secular  priest  named  Josue  Flesche,  had  baptued 
indiscriminately.  This  the  Jesuits  refused  to  do. 
The  colonists,  moreover,  remained  hostile,  and  viewed 
as  a  business  peculation,  the  enterprise  was  a  failure. 
Madame  de  Guercheville.  who  had  succeeded  de 
Monts  as  proprietor,  finally  sent  out  another  vessel 
under  La  §aussaye,  and  ordered  him  to  stop  at  Port 
Roysd,  and,  taking  the  two  Jesuits;  foimd  a  colony 
elsewhere.  Obeying  instructions.  La  Saussaye  sailed 
over  to  what  is  now  Bar  Harbor.  The  new  estab- 
lishment was  called  Saint  Sauveur.  This  was  in 
1613.  It  was  hardlj;  begun  when  Samuel  Argall 
came  up  from  Virginia,  plundered  the  colony,  and 
took  Biard  and  another  Jesuit  with  four  colonists 
to  Jamestown  where  only  the  authority  of  Aigall 
prevented  them  from  bemg  hanged.  Another  ex- 
pedition was  fitted  out  to  complete  the  destruction 
of  Saint  Sauveur  and  Port  Koyal,  and  the  two 
Jesuits  were  compelled  to  accompany  the  marauders. 
Everything  was  ruined  and  Biard  and  his  compan- 
ion were  made  to  appear  as  if  they  had  instigated  the 
attack.  They  sailed  off  with  the  attackinir  party  who 
intended  to  return  with  them  to  the  English  colony, 
where  they  would  probably  have  been  executed, 
but  the  vessel  on  which  they  were  held  as  prisoners 
was  driven  by  storms  across  the  ocean.  Frequently 
they  were  on  the  point  of  being  thrown  overboard, 
but  when  the  ship  was  compelled  to  enter  the  Port 
of  Fayal  in  the  Azores,  Biard  and  his  companions 
consented  to  remain  in  the  hold  lest  their  discovery 
should  entail  the  death  of  their  captor.  A  second 
time,  upon  entering  Milford  Haven,  in  Wales,  the 
captain  having  no  papers,  and  being  in  a  French 
ship,  was  on  t^e  point  of  being  hanged  as  a  pirate. 
But  Father  Biard  saved  him  by  explaining  the  situa- 
tion to  the  authorities.  The  missionary  was  then  sent 
to  France,  where  he  had  to  meet  a  storm  of  abuse 
because  ot  the  suspicion  that  he  had  helped  in  the  de- 
struction of  Port  Royal.  Champlain,  however,  vin- 
dicated him.  He  never  returned  to  Canada,  but 
resumed  his  work  as  professor  of  theology,  and  after- 
wards became  famous  as  a  missionary  in  tne  south  of 
France,  and  towards  the  end  of  his  life  was  made 
military  chaplain  in  the  armies  of  the  king.  Lescar- 
bot,  who  was  unfriendly  to  the  Jesuit  missionaries, 
speaks  of  Biard  in  flattering  terms. 

RocHBMOirrEXX,  Le*  JSsuUeM  et  la  Nouvelle  Franct;  Cbaklb- 
voix,  HUL  de  la  NouoelU  France;  Lea  Relatione;  (Euvret  de 
Champlain,  V.  viii;  Faillon,  Cotonie  Frangaiee;  Parkman, 
Pioneers  of  France  %n  the  New  World, 

T.  J.  CABfPBSLL. 

Bibbiena  (Bernardo  Dovizi)  an  ItaHan  Car- 
dinal and  comedy-writer,  known  best  by  the  name 
of  the  town  Bibbiena,  where  he  was  bom  4  Aug., 
1470;  d.  at  Rome,  9  Nov.,  1520.  His  obscure 
parentage  did  not  prevent  him  from  securing  a 
literary  training  at  the  hands  of  the  best  scholaiB 
and  from  associating  with  the  most  conspicuous  men 
that  Florence  could  boast.  A  jovial  temper  and 
racv  Tuscan  wit  enhancing  the  charm  of  good 
looks  and  courtly  manners  soon  made  him  the  pre- 
ceptor as  well  as  the  boon  companion  of  Giovanni 
del  Medici's  merry  hours.  When  the  Medici  were 
banished  and  sorrow  followed  mirth  (Nov.,  1494)  it 
was  seen  that  a  gay  man  of  the  world  could  become 
a  brave  and  steadfast  friend.  Not  long  after, 
the  protection  of  Julius  II  and  many  honours  at 
the  Roman  court  were  to  be  his  reward.  In  1513 
his  strenuous  exertions  on  behalf  of  his  lifelong 
patron  secured  the  election  of  Giovanni  dei  Medici 
to  the  pontifical  throne.  Such  services  Leo  X 
repaid  by  bestowing  on  him  the  purple  robe,  ap- 
pointing him  his  treasurer  and  entrusting  him 
with  many  important  missions,  among  them  a 
legation  to  France  (1518).    Later  on.  the  cardinal's 


Bernardo  Cardinal  Bdbiena 


strong  sjrmpathies  for  France  lost  him  Leo's  oon- 
fidenoe.  The  story,  however,  that  he  was  poisoned, 
in  spite  of  Giovio  and  Grassi's  reports,  has  abeo- 
lutefy  no  foimdation.  (Pastor,  Geschicbte  der 
P&pste,  IV,  Part  I,  Leo  X.)  As  cardinal  he  stead- 
ily extended  a 
generous  pat- 
ronage to  art. 
From  Raphael, 
whose  devotion 
he  won,  We  have 
his  best  likeness. 
His  literary  fame 
is  mainty  con- 
nected with  the 
first  good  com- 
edy written  in 
Italian  prose, 
"La  Calandra'^ 
(alJK).  known  as 
"nCalandro" 
and  "La  Calan- 
dria"),  a  dis- 
tinctly juvenile 
proauction, 
probably  given 
for  the  first 
time  at  tJrbino, 

about  1507,  and  very  elaborately  performed  at 
Rome>  seven  years  later,  in  the  presence  of  Leo  X 
and  Isabella  Gonsaga  d'Este,  Marohioness  of  Mantua. 
Though  marred  by  many  scenes  glaringly  inunoral. 
and  though  built  upon  the  plot  of  Plautus's 
"Menaechim",  it  possessed  the  features  of  modem 
comedy  and  won  plaudits  for  its  sparkling  wit 
and  mie  charactensation.  Ariosto  and  Machia- 
velli  imitated  him  in  their  plavs.  The  latest  edi- 
tion of  ''La  Calanora"  is  in  the  "Teatro  Italiano 

Antico"  (Florence,  1888). 

Gaspart,  OeeckicfUe  der  italienieeken  LUteratur  (Strwehmg, 
1888),  II,  677:  Robcob,  Life  of  Leo  X;  Bamdini.  II  Bibbiena 
U  minietro  di  Stato  (Florence.  1760);  Moretti,  Bibbiena  Doviei 
e  la  Calandra  in  the  Nuova  Antologia  (1882),  601, 623;  Solerti, 
La  rappreeentatione  deUa  Calandra  a  Lione  net  1S48  (Florence, 

Edoardo  San  Giovanni. 

Biljiaxia,  Saint. — The  earliest  mention  in  an  au- 
thentic historical  authority  of  St.  Bibiana  ^ibiana), 
a  Roman  female  martyr^  occurs  in  the  ''Liber  Pon- 
tificalis"  where  in  the  biography  of  Pope  Simplicius 
(468-483)  it  is  stated  that  this  pope  "conse<a«ted  a 
basilica  of  the  holy  martyr  Bibiana,  which  contained 
her  body,  near  the  'palatium  Licinianum'  "  (ed. 
Duchesne,  I,  249).  This  basilica  still  exists.  In  the 
fifth  century,  therefore,  the  tx>dilv'  remains  of  St. 
Bibiana  rested  within  the  city  walls.  We  have  no 
further  historical  particulars  concerning  the  martyr 
or  the  circumstances  of  her  death;  neither  do  we 
know  why  she  was  buried  in  the  city  itself.  In  Ifbter 
times  a  legend  sprang  up  concerning  her,  connected 
with  the  Acts  of  the  nmrtyrdom  of  Sts.  John  and 
Paul  and  has  no  historical  claim  to  belief.  According 
to  this  l^nd,  Bibiana  was  the  daughter  of  a  former 
prefect,  flavianus,  who  was  banished  by  Julian  the 
Apostate.  Dafrosa,  the  wife  of  Flavianus,  and  his 
two  daughters,  Demetria  and  Bibiana,  were  also  per- 
secuted oy  Julian.  Dafrosa  and  Demetria  died  a 
natural  death  and  were  buried  by  Bibiana  in  their 
own  house;  but  Bibiana  was  tortured  and  died  as  the 
result  of  her  sufferings.  Two  days  after  her  death  a 
priest  named  John  buried  Bibiana  near  her  mother 
and  sister  in  her  home,  the  house  being  later  turned 
into  a  church.  It  is  evident  that  the  legend  ae^a  to 
explain  in  this  wav  the  origin  of  the  church  and  the 
presence  in  it  of  the  bodies  of  the  above  mentioik^ 
confessors.  The  account  contained  in  the  mar^nrolo- 
gies  of  the  ninth  century  is  drawn  tram  ib»  kcebd. 


BDLK                                 543  BDU 

V 

ifoMBUTiDB,  Sanetuarium,h  278  mq.;  -Ajcto^Sri  J*«»«»  JV,  acter.    They  fotm  the  two  parts  of  a'  great  organio 

2^jij2».S2SS^^^Br±k?8^^  ^''^If  the  centre  of  which  b  the  person  and  mSBion 

AswQHi.  Aofiia  mi6terran0a  (Park.  lewTn,  124:  Dufourcq.  of  Christ.    The  same  Spirit  exercised  His  mysterious 

^Nde  Mur  Ua  GeHa  rmturum  romaina  (Paris.  1900),  123-^26;  hidden  influence  on  the  writings  of  both  Testaments, 

^^'^Ai^^SSTucH'^-^lll^'t^l^.  |«d  rt  of  the  works  of  tfee  who  lived  before 

«H-«06:MiaiuocHi,i?a«aiguMe<^i«etd«i2ome(aome.l002),  Our  Lord  an  active  and  steady  preparation  for  the 

844  KW.                                                 T  T>  XT  ^^^  Testament  dispensation  which  He  was  to  in- 

J.  P.  KiRSCH.  troduce,  and  of  the  works  of  those  who  wrote  after 

Bibla,  Thb.  a  collection  of  writings  which    the  Him  a  real  continuation  and  striking  fulfilment  of 

Church  of  Goa  has  solemnly  recoeniced  as  inspired,  the  old 'Covenant. 

The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek  expression  rd  The  Bible,  as  the  inspired  record  of  revelation, 
ptfikU  (the  books),  which  capie  into  use  in  the  early  contains  the  word  of  God;  that  fs,  it  contains  those 
centuries   of  Christianity   to   designate   the   whole  revealed  truths  which  the  Holy  Ghost  wishes  to  be 
sacred  volume.    In  the  Latin  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  transmitted  in  writing.    However,  all  revealed  truths 
neuter  plural  form  Biblia  (^n.  bibliorum)  gpradually  are  not  contained  in   the  Bible   (see  Tradition); 
came  to  be  regarded  as  a  feminine  singular  noun  neither  is  every  truth  in  the  Bible  revealed,  if  by 
[bibUaf  gen.  biUuB),  in  which  singular  form  the  word  revelation   is  meant   the   manifestation   of   hidden 
has  passed  into  the  languages  of  the  Western  worid.  truths  which  could  not  otherwise  be  known.    Much 
It  means  "The  Book'^,  by  way  of  eminence,  and  of  the  Scripture  came  to  its  writers  through  the 
therefore  well  sets  forth  the  sadred  character  of  our  channels  of  ordinary  knowledge,  but  its  sacred  char- 
inspired  literature.    Its  most  important  equivalents  acter  uid  Divine  authoritv  are  not  limited  to  those 
are:   "the   Divine    Library"    {Bibliotheca   Divina),  parts  which  contain  revelation  strictly  so  termed, 
ffhich  was  employed  by  St.  Jerome  in  the  fourth  The  Bible  not  only  contains  the  word  of  God;  it  is 
c^tuiy;  "the  Scriptures",  "the  Holy  Scriptures" —  the  word  of  God.    The  primary  author  is  the  Holy 
terms  which  are  aerived  nom  eiroressions  foimd  in  Ghost,  or,  as  it  is  commonly  expressed,  the  human 
the  Bible  itself;  and  "the  Old  and  New  Testament  "i  authors  wrote  under  the  influence  of  Divine  inspira^ 
in  which  collective  title,  "  the  Old  Testament  *'  design  tion.    It  was  declared  by  the  Vatican  Council  (Sess. 
nates  the  sacred  books  written  before  the  coming  III,  c.  ii)  that  the  sacred  and  canonical  character 
of  Our  Lord,  and   "  th^  New  Testament "  denotes  of  Scripture  would  not  be  sufficiently  explained  by 
the  inspired  writings  composed  since  the  coming  of  saying  that  the  books  were  composed  by  htiman 
Cluript.                                                                  ^  diligence  and  then  approved  by  the  Church,  or  that 
It  is  a  fact  of  history  that  in  the  time  of  Christ  the  they  contained  revelation  without  error.    Thejr  are 
Jews   were    in    poseesfiion    of   marred    books,   whi'^h  sacred  and  canonical  "because,  having  been  written 
differed  widely  from  one  another  in  subject,  style,  by  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  they  have  God  for 
ongin  and  scope,  and  it  is  also  a  fact  t'lat  they  re-  their  author,  and  as  such  have  oeen  handed  down 
ganlcd  all  sucn  writings  as  invested  with  a  charac-  to  the  Church".    The  inerrancy  of  the  Bible  follows 
ter  which  distinguished  them  from  ail  other  books,  as  a  consequence  of  this  Divine  authorship.    Wher- 
This  was  the  Divine  authority  of  every  one  of  these  ever  the  sacred  Writer  makes  a  statement  as  his  own, 
books  and  of  every  part  of  each  book.    This  belief  that  statement  is  the  word  of  God  and  infallibly 
of  the  Jews  was  confirmed  by  Our  Lord  and  His  true,  whatever  be  the  subject-matter  of  the  statement. 
Apostles:  for  they  supposed  its  truth  in  their  teach-  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  though  the  inspira- 
ing,  usea  it  as  a;  foundation  of  their  doctrine,  and  tion  of  any  writer  and  the  sacred  character  of  his 
intimately  connected  with  it  the  religious  system  work  be  antecedent  to  its  reco^tion  by  the  Church 
of  which  they  were  the  foimders.    The  books  thus  yet  we  are  dependent  upon  the  Church  for  our  knowl- 
approved  were  lumded  down  to  the  Christian  Church  edge  of  the  existence  of  this  inspiration.    She  is  the 
as  the  written  record  of  Divine  revelation  before  the  appointed  witness  and  guardian  of  revelation.    From 
coming  of  Christ.    The  truths  of  Christian  revelation  her  alone  we  know  what  books  belong  to  the  Bible, 
were  made  Imown  to  the  Apostles  either  by  Christ  At  the  Council  of  Trent  she  enumerated  the  books 
Himself  or  by  the  Holy  Ghost.    They  constitute  what  which  must  be  considered  "  as  sacred  and  canonical ". 
is  called  the  Deposit  of  Faith,  to  which  nothing  has  They  are  the  seventy-two  books  found  in  Catholic 
been  added  since  the  Apostolic  Age.     Some  of  the  editions,  forty-five  in  the  Old  Testament  and  twenty 
truths  were  committed  to  writing  under  the  inspira-  seven  in  the  New.     Protestant  copies  usually  laick 
tion  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  have  been  handed  down  the   seven    books    (viz:   Tobias,    Judith,    Wisdom. 
to  us  in  the  books  of  the  New  Testament.    Written  Eodesiasticus,  Baruch,  and  I,  II  Machabees)  ana 
ariginaily  to  individual  Churches  or  persons,  to  meet  parts  of  books  (vis:  Esther,  x.  4-xvi,  24,  and  Daniel 
particular  necessities,  and  aocommooated  as  they  all  lii,  24-90;  xiii,  1-xiv,  42)  which  are  not  found  in 
were  to  particular  and  existing  circumstances,  these  the  Jewish  editions  of  the  Old  Testament, 
books    were   gradually   received   by   the   universal  The  Bible  is  plainly  a  literature,  that  is,  an  impor- 
Church  as  inspired,  and  with  the  sacred  books  of  the  tant  collection  of  wntings  which  were  not  oonoposed 
Jews  constitute  the  Bible.  at  once  and  did  not  proceed  from  ohe  hana,  but 
In  one  respect,  therefore,  the  Bible  is  a  twofold  rather  were  spread  over  a  considerable  period  of  time 
literature,  made  up  of  two  dbtinct  collections  which  and  are  traceable   to  different  authors  of  varying 
correspond  with  two  successive  and  uneoual  periods  literary  excellence.    As  a  literature,  too,  the  Bible 
of  time  in  the  history  of  man.    The  older  of  these  bears  throughout  the  distinct  impress  of  the  circum- 
collections,  mostly  written  in  Hebrew,  corresponds  stances  of  place  and  time,  methods  of  composition, 
with  the  many  centuries  during  which  the  Jewish  etc,,  in  which  its  various  parts  came  into  existence, 
people  enjoyea  a  national  existence,  and  forms  the  and  of  these  circumstances  careful  account  must  be 
Hebrew,  or  Old  Testament,  literature;  the  more  recent  taken,  in  the  interests  of  accurate  scriptural  inter- 
c<^ection,  begun  not  lon^  ^ter  Our  Lord's  ascension,  pretation.    As  a  literature,  our  sacred  books  have 
and  made  up  of  Greek  wntings,  is  the  Early  Christian,  been  transcribed  during  many  centuries  by  all  man- 
or New  Testament,  literature.    Yet,  in  another  and  ner  of  copyists  to  the  iterance  and  carelessness  of 
deeper  respect,  the  Biblical  literature  is  pre-eminently  many  of  whom  they  still  bear  witness  in  the  shape  of 
one.     Its  two  sets  of  writings  are  most  closely  con-  numerous  textual  errors,  which,  however,  but  seldom 
nected  with  regard  to  doctrines  revealed,  facts  re-  interfere  seriously  with  the  primitive  reading  of  any 
corded,  customs  described,  and  even  expressions  used,  important  dogmatic  or  moral  passage  of  Holy  Writ. 
Above  all,  both  collections  have  one  and  the  same  In  respect  of  antiquity,  the  Biblical  literature  be- 
leligious  purpose,  one  and  the  same  inspired  char-  lon^  to  the  same  group  of  ancient  literature  as  the 


BIBLS  544  BIBLE 

ifteraiy  collections  of  Greece,  Rome,  China,  Penda,  until  two  hundred  vears  after  the  Reformation,  and 

and  India.     Its  second  part,  the  New  Testament,  historioally  the   Bible  societies  are  an  appendage 

completed  about  a.  d.  100,  is  indeed  far  more  recent  and  a  consequence  of  the  missionanr  orgamzations. 

than  the  four  last  namea  literatures,  and  is  some-  Some  efforts  were  made  to  pro  viae  a  systematic 

what  posterior  to  the  Augustan  age  of  the  Latin  dissemination  of   Bibles  as  early  as  the  time  of 

language,  but  it  is  older  by  ten  centuries  than  our  CH^dies  I  of  England,  and  before  the  formation  of 

earnest  modem  literature.    As  regards  the  Old  Tes-  Bible  societies  on  a  scale  of  world-wide  activity,  there 

-   tament,  most  of  its  contents  were  gradually  written  existed  a  number  of  organizations  which  made  Bible 

within  the  nine  centuries  which  preceded  the  Chris-  distribution  a  feature  of  their  work.    Aroonff  them 

tian  era,  so  that  its  composition  is  generally  regarded  were,  (1)  The  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowl- 

as  contemporary  with  that  of  the  great  literary  works  edge  (1698),  which  spread  copies  of  Holy  Writ  in 

of  Greece.  China,  Persia,  and  India.    The  Bible  re-  Ei^and,  Wales,  India,  and  Arabia;  (2)  The  Society 

sembles  these  various  ancient  literatures  in  another  for  the  Proi)agation  oi  the  Gospel^  in  Wales  (1662); 

respect.    Like  them  it  is  fragmentary,  i.  e.  made  up  (3)  The  Society  for  Sending  Missionaries  to  India, 

of  the  remains  of  a  lai^ger  literature.    Of  this  we  have  founded  in  1705  by  King  Trederick  of  Denmark: 

abundant  proofs  concerning  the  books  of  the  Old  Tes-  (4)  The  Society  for  the  ftopagation  of  the  Gospel 

tament,  since  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  themselves  re^  in  Foreign  Parts  (1701),  which  devoted  a  large  share 

peatedly  refer  us  to  more  ancient  and  complete  worics  of  its  attention  to  the  American  Colonies;  (5)  The 

as  composed  by  Jewish  annalists,  prophets,  wise  men,  Scottish  Society  for  Propagating  Christian  Knowl- 

Soets,  andso  on  (cf.  Numbers,  XXI,  14:  Josue,x,  13;  II  edge  among  the  Poor  (1750);  (5)  The  Naval  and 
ang8,i,18;IParalip.,xxix,29;IMach.,xvi,24;etc.).  Military  Bible  Society  (1780).  The  foundation  of 
Statements  tending  to  prove  the  same  fragmentanr  these  and  similar  societies  was  but  an  indication 
character  of  the  early  Christian  literature  which  of  the  vast  work  that  was  to  come.  The  great  reac- 
has  come  down  to  us  are  indeed  much  less  numerous,  tion  against  the  rdigious  apathy,  and,  indeed,  in- 
but  not  altogether  wanting  (cf.  Luke,  i,  1-3;  Colos-  fidelitv  of  the  English  people  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
sians,  iv,  16;  I  Corinthians,  v,  9).  But,  however  tury  brought  witn  it  the  foundation  of  numerous 
ancient  and  fragmentary,  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  missionary  societies,  and  this  new  enthusiasm  for 
that  the  Biblicsu  literature  contains  only  few,  and  Christianity  resulted  in  the  foundation  of  the  most 
these  rather  imperfect^  literary  forms.  In  point  of  famous  and  the  most  effective  of  all  Bible  societies, 
fact  its  contents  exhibit  nearly  all  the  literary  forms  The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  7  March,  1804. 
met  with  in  our  Western  literatiu-es  together  with  The  first  impulse  to  the  formation  of  this  organiaa- 
others  peculiarlv  Eastern,  but  none  the  less  beautiful,  tion  was  given  by  a  group  of  Nonconformist  min- 
It  is  also  a  well-known  fact  that  the  Bible  is  so  replete  isters  and  laymen,  but  when  completely  formed, 
with  pieces  of  transcendent  literary  beauty  that  the  the  society  included  an  equal  number  of  members 
greatest  orators  and  writers  of  the  last  four  centuries  of  the  Established  Church  and  of  the  various  sects, 
nave  most  willingly  turned  to  our  sacred  books  as  I^  avowed  purpose  was  "to  encourage  the  wider 
pre-eminently  worthy  of  admiration,  study,  and  circulation  of  the  Bible  without  note  or  comment", 
imitation.  Of  course  the  widest  and  deepest  in-  At  present,  the  British  and  Foreign  Society  is 
fluenoe  that  has  ever  been,  and  ever  will  be,  exercised  governed  by  an  executive  committee  of  36  la3rmen. 
upon  the  minds  and  hearts  of  men  remains  due  to  15  from  the  Church  of  England,  15  dissenters,  and 
the  fact  that,  while  all  the  other  literatures  are  but  6  foreign  members  who  must  reside  in  or  near  London, 
man's  productions,  the  Bible  is  indeed  "inspired  of  The  growth  and  work  of  this  society  have  been  ex- 
God"  and,  as  such,  especially  "profitable  to  teach,  traominary.  It  controls,  according  to  the  latest 
to  reprove,  to  correct,  to  instruct  in  justice"  (II  statistics  (1906)  alniost  8,000  auxiliary  societies; 
Timothy,  iii,  16).  5,729  in  Great  Britain  and  2,224  abroad.  Its  trans- 
ProvidfnHBnmua  J>eu9  in  the  Oreat  Bncudicala  &f  PopB  lations  of  the  sacred  text  munber  about  380.    Its 

^Ji'i'o^7i^t<l)^^^.T^-S^JlS'tf:i  iS2^:  operations  in  India  have  been  particulariy  thorough 

Brrkn,  Introduction  to  Holp  Scripture;  Humphrey,  The  Written  but  m  every  country  where  its  agencies  are  estao- 

Word;  GiooT,  Oenerai  introduction;  Cornelt,   Introductio  lished,  its  work  can  only  be  measured  in  vast  figures. 

Oeneralis;  Hunter.  OuUinee  of  ^><>fnna^The^.  I  j^   di^^   annually  of   about  5,190,000  oopws  of 

FRANCIS  ISi.  UiQOT.  ^^^  Scripturcs  (whole  Bibles,  New  Testaments  and 

Bible  Ohristlans.    See  Methodism;  (BRTANrrEs).  other  portions),   and  spends  each  year  £250,000 

Bible  Oonunantary.    See  Exeobsm.  ($1,210,000).    In  the  hundredy^s  of  its  existence, 

Bibl.  2«--i»f .    See  ONEin*  Coh««..t.o.«.  *35f\5:L*yt^of  fT^ft^^^ 

Bible  Editions.    See  EDmoNS  of  thb  Bible.  have  Seen  numerous  offshoots,  some  in  the  nature  of 

Bible  Manuscripts.    See  Manuscripts  of  the  developments,  others  schisms,  but  the  sise,  wealth, 

*     Bible.  *  and  prestige  of  the  parent  society  have  always 

Bible  Societies.— Protestant  Bible  Societies,  es-  oversnadowed  those  of  its  children  and  its  rivals, 

tablished  for  the  purpose  of  publishing  and  propa-  Mention  must  also  be  made  of  the  Hibernian  Bible 

f;atinff  the  Bible  in  all  parts  of  the  world^  are  the  .^Jociety,  and  the  National  Bible  Society  of  Scotland, 

ogicfu  outcome  of  the  principle:  "The  Bible,  and  the  names  of  which  suflSciently  designate  their  field 

the   Bible   alone   is   the   religion   of   Protestants."  of   labour. 

Precisely  to  what  extent  that  theological  formula        On   the   Cbntinent,   Cormt   Canstein   founded  a 

is  held  true  even  by  the  stanchest  evangelicals,  may  German  Bible  Society  in  1710.    Others  were  estab- 

be  a  matter  of  dispute,  but  the  consistent  and  heroic  lished  at  Nuremberg  (1804),  Berlin  (1806),  Saxony 

efforts  of  the  Bible  societies  to  provide  a  version  of  (1813),  and  Schleswick-Holstein  (1826).    The  Boiin 

the  sacred  text  in  every  tongue  and  to  supply  the  society  was  united  with  the  Prussian  Bible  Societar 

ends  of  the  earth  with  Bibles,  can  scarcely  ble  ex-  in  1814.    The  Danish  Bible  Society  dates  from  1814. 

plained  unless  Chillingworth's  famous  formula  be  the  Russian  from  1812;  a  Bible  society  was  founded 

taken  to  mean  literally  that  the  possession  of  a  copy  in  Finland  in  1812,  one  in  Norway  in  1815,  one  in 

of  the  Bible  is  an  indispensable  means  of  salvation,  the  Netherlands  1813,  one  in  Malta  in  1817,  and  one 

Nevertheless,  it  is  remarkable  that  the  societies  for  in  Paris  1818. 
the  worid-wide  propagation  of  the  Bible,  like  the 
Protestant  missionary  societies,  are  a  late  outgrowth 

of  Protestantism.    It  is  well  known  thaf.  the  sects  did  .       „  ^ 

^ot  seriously  bestir  themselves  about  mission  work  20,000  copies.     Facilities  wefe  POt  at  hand  for  thr 


545 

Ailfilment  of  such  a  work,  and  it  was  not  done.  But  Imowladge  of  faith  and  morals.  Consequently,  the 
in  1782,  Conn-ess  oonunended  the  publieation  of  Council  of  Trent,  in  its  fourth  session,  after  expressly 
the  Bible  which  had  just  t>een  made  in  Philadelphia,  condemn ing  aU  interpretations  of  the  sacked  text 
There  had  been  local  Bible  "societies  in  the  Colonies,  which  contradict  the  past  and  present  interpreta- 
but  these  were  not  united  with  the  American  Bible  tion  of  the  Church,  orders  all  Catholic  publishers 
Society  until  1816.  This  society  has  become  next  in  to  see  to  it  that  theur  editions  of  the  Bible  have  t^ 
sise  and  in  importance  to  its  counterpart,  the  British  ai^Mroval  of  the  bishop.  Besides  this  and  other 
and  Forogn  Bible  Society  and  in  1907  controlled  regulations  concerning  Bible-reading  in  general, 
620  aux^ary  societies  in  the  United  States  and  11  we  have  several  acts  oi  the  popes  (&ected  explic- 
affencies  in  the  Latin-American  countries  and  else-  ttly  agidnst  the  BiUe  societies.  Perhaps  the  most 
where.  The  Society  has  no  established  agency  in  notabne  of  these  are  contained  in  the  Encyclical 
Europe,  but  maintains  correspondents  in  l^orway,  "Ubi  Primum"  of  Leo  XII,  dated  5  May,  1824,  and 
Sweden,  Russian  Finland,  Cermany,  Switserland,  Pius  IX's  Encyclical  "Qui  Pluribus",  of  9  Novem- 
France,  Spain,  Italy,  and  Austria.  In  these  countries  ber,  1846.  Pius  VIII  in  1829  and  Gregory  XVI  in 
it  either  co-operates  with  the  National  Bible  societies,  1844,  spoke  to  similar  effect.  It  may  be  well  to  «nve 
or  lends  assistance  to  the  local  Protestant  churches,  the  most  strikinff  words  on  the  subject  ht)m  Leo  XII 
For  example,  the  American  Bible  Society  has  been  and  Pius  IX.  To  ouote  the  former  Ooc.  cit.]|:  "You 
co-operating  closely  for  the  last  fifty  years  with  the  are  aware,  venerable  brothers,  that  a  certain  Bible 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  Bremen^  Germany,  Society  is  in^udendy  spreadinj^  throughout  the 
and  in  that  time  and  place  has  assisted  m  the  puD-  world,  which,  despising  the  tracutions  of  the  holy 
Ucation  of  over  a  million  volumes  of  Scripture.  The  Fathm  and  the  decree  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  is 
American  Society  has  extended  its  efforts  into  the  endeavouring  to  translate,  or  rather  to  pervert  the 
Levant,  a  regular  agency  being  established  in  Con-  Scriptures  into  the  vernacular  of  all  nations.  .  .  . 
stantinople.  It  works  in  conjunction  with  the  It  is  to  be  feared  that  by  false  interpretation,  the 
Ptotestant  missionaries  in  Bul^iria,  Turkey,  Asia  Gospel  of  Christ  will  become  the  gospel  of  m»i.  or 
Minor,  Mesopotamia,  Syria,  Egypt,-  and  the  Sudan,  still  worse,  the  gospel  of  the  devil. ''  The  pope  then 
In  these  countries  ^tlone,  it  has  distributed  over  ur^  the  bishops  to  admonish  their  flocKs  that 
3,000,000  volumes  during  the  past  half-centiiry.  owmg  to  human  temerity,  more  hsim  than  eood 
All  told,  the  cc^ies  of  the  Bible,  or  parts  c^  the  Bible  may  come  from  indiscriminate  Bible-reading.  Pius 
distributed  by  the  American  Bible  Society  for  one  DC  sa3rs  Qoc.  cit.):  ''These  crafty  Bible  Societies, 
year,  ending  31  March,  1906,  were  2,236,755,  and  which  renew  the  ancient  guile  of  heretics,  cease  not 
during  the  ninety  years  of  its  work  it  has  exposed  to  thrust  their  Bibles  upon  all  men,  even  the  un- 
of  78,509,529  volumes.  learned, — their  BiUes.  which  have  been  trandated 
After  being  duly  impressed  by  these  figures  and  against  the  laws  of  the  Church,  and  often  contain 
those  of  the  still  more  prolific  British  Society,  the  fuse  explanations  of  the  text.  Thus,  the  divine 
Catholic  reader  naturally  questions  whether  the  traditions,  the  teachin|^  of  the  fathers,  and  the  au- 
amount  of  eood  done  is,  after  all,  to  be  mec^ured  thority  of  the  Cathobc  Church  are  rejected,  and 
bv  the  number  of  volumes  distributed.  A  considera*  everyone  in  his  own  way  interprets  the  words  of 
ble  number  of  Protestant  missionaries  have  already  the  Lord,  and  distorts  their  meaning,  thereby 
answered  the  question  negatively,  and  if  we  may  falling  into  miserable  errors'', 
judge  Crom  many  letters  from  ministers  in  the  mission  Thus  are  ^ven  the  chief  reasons  of  the  opposition 
field,  there  is  a  growing  feeling  amon^  thinking  of  the  Church.  Furthermore,  it  can  scarcely  be  de- 
Protestants  that  the  promiscuous  distribution  of  nied  that  the  Bible  societies,  by  invading  the  Catholic 
the  Bible  ''without  note  or  comment''  is  a  doubtful  countries  and  endeavouring  to  foist  the  Protestant 
means  of  propagating  Christian  doctrine.  Even  as  versions  upon  a  Catholic  people,  have  stinted  up 
a  means  of  proselytism,  the  scattering  of  Bibles  much  discord,  and  have  laid  themselves  open  to  the 
seems  not  to  produce  the  expected  results.  A  charge  of  degrading  the  Sacred  Book  by  using  it 
minionary  on  the  Malay  peninsula,  among  others,  as  an  instrument  ofproselytism.  Still  in  almost  all 
oom^lains  that  although  thousands  of  Bibles  were  the  books  and  pamphlets  which  are  written  to  show 
dirtrtbuted,  it  was,  so  far  as  he  could  learn,  "witii  the  results  of  Bible  ^pagandism,  naive  complaints 
scarcely  any  perceptible  benefit".  He  "did  not  hear  are  made  by  the  writers  that  the  Catholic  priests 
of  a  sinfjle  Malav'convert  on  the  whole  peninsula",  forbid  the  dissemination  of  the  Scriptures  among 
The  natrves  of  the  missionary  countries  are,  accord-  their  people.  The  societies  do  not  offer  to  supply 
ing  to  reports,  eager  to  obtain  books  from  1^  so-  Catholics  with  Catholic  Bibles,  fortified  with  the 
eieties,  Imt  agents  and  missionaries  and  bishops  ecclesiastical  Imprimatur,  and  supplied  with  the 
have  rqKMrted  that  in  many  eases  the  volumes  were  neoessanr  notes  of  explanation,  ti  such  an  offer 
UKd  for  vu^ar  and  profane  purposes.  Indeed,  the  were  reluaed.  there  mi^ht  be  some  pretext  for  the 
reckless  distribution  of  the  Scriptures  in  too  many  complaints  of  the  societies,  but  so  long  as  they  follow 
cases  becomes  an  occasion  for  the  profanation  of  the  their  present  course,  it  must  be  evident  that^  they 
written  Word,  rather  than  for  the  growth  of  religion,  have  small  ground  for  wonder  if  the  authorities  of 
Instances'  of  abuse  of  the '  Bible  could  be  collected  the  Church  oppose  them.  The  true  attitude  of  the 
freely  from  the  letters  of  missionaries,  Catholic  Church  towaras  the  popular  use  of  the  Scriptures 
and  non-CathoUc  alike.  is  shown  by  the  establisnment  of  the  SocietiL  di  San 
But  for  deq>er  reasons  than  this^  the  attitude  of  Geionimo,  for  the  translation  and  diffusion  of  the 
the  Church  toward  the  Bible  societies  is  one  of  un-  Qospels  and  other  parts  of  the  Bible  among  the 
mistakable  opposition.    Believing  herself  to  be  the  Italian  peoples. 

divinely   appomted   custodian   and   mterpreter   of  There  have   been   many   dissensions   and   some 

Holy  Writ,  she  cannot  without  turning  traitor  to  schisms  among  the  members  of  the  Bible  societies 

heroelf,  approve  the  distribution  of  Scriptuse  ''with-  themselves.    At  the  very  foundation  of  the  British 

out  note  or  comment".    The  fundamental  fallacy  and  Foreign  Bible  Societv  Bishop  Marsh,  consistently 

of  private  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures  is  pro-  with  the  principles  of  the  Church  of  England,  ob* 

supposed  by  the  Bible  societies.    It  is  the  impelling  jected  to  the  printing  of  the  text,  "without  note  or 

motive  of  tneir  work.    But  it  would  be  likewise  the  comment'',  and  recommended  the  addition  of  the 

vk4ation  of  one  of  the  first  principles  of  the  Catholic  Book  of  Common  Prayer.     The  objection  was,  of 

Faith — a  principle  arrived  at  through  observation  as  couxae,  overruled.    In  1831,  the  British  and  Foreign 

wsU  as  by  revelation — ^the  insufficiency  of  the  Scrip-  Bible  Society  decided  to  demand  belief  in  the  Trinity 

turns  aloDe  to  conveiy  to  the  geM^a^  4*^ader  a  sure  as  a  requisite  to  membei^hip.   This  led  to  a  schism 


BXBLl  546  SIBLH 

Bod  the  foundation  of  the  TrinitariftB  BlUe  Sode^.  Middle  Aj^et,  did  not  oontain  the  fuU  t«xt  of  tU 

Another  echiainatic  society,  orinnoting  from  a  doo-  Bib4e.    E£ort  passages  only  were  cited,  and  theee  doI 

trinal  difference,  ia  the  Bible  Tranalation  Society,  ao  as  to  give  any  continuous  sense  or  line  of  tboughk 

a  body  composed  of  Baptists  who  were  dissatisfied  But  the  object  of  the  wrter  seems  to  have  beoi 

because  the  orieinal  society's  Bibles  did  not  translat«  chiefly  to  make  the  texts  cited  the  basis  of  mend 

the  teicts  which  relate  to  baptism  by  words  that  and  allegorical  teaching,  in  the  manner  so  common 

would  signify  immersion.    Again,  from  the  American  la  those  days.    In  the  Psidter  he  was  content  irith 

Bible  Society,  there  has  been  a  schism  of  Baptists,  copying  out  the  first  verse  of  each  psalm;  whOst 

originating,  as  in  England,  over  the  translation  of  when  (feaUnic  with  the  Gospels  he  did  not  quote  from 

parrlfiiw.     This  dissident   body,  founded  in   1837,  each  evangdist  separately,  but  made  use  of  a  kind  of 

is  called  The  American  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  oonfuaed  diateasaron  of  all  four  combined.    An  B^ 

This  organization  in  turn  experienced  a  seeeMion,  t«mpt  was  made  t^j  estaUish  a  connexion  between 

the  recalcitrants  forming  the  American  Bible  Union,  the  eventa  recorded  in  the  Old  Testament  and  those 

in  1S50.  recOTded  in  the  New,  even  when  there  does  not  seem 

xirt  of  thsBritUi  to  be  any  very  obvious  connexion   between   them, 

K  "ti^'cJ^!^  Thus  the  sleep  of  Adam,  recorded  in  the  beginning 

icon  £Ab  Soaefv,  of  Geneaia,  is  said  to  ivefigure  the  death  of  Chnst; 

iHuj,   Cimanrmti  and  Abraham  sending  hia  servant  with  rich  presenla 

Edi"   miJ^S  to  "eek  a  wife  for  his  son  is  a  type  of  the  Eternal 

If  MuHmt  {Sew  Father  giving  the  Gospels  to  the  Apostles  to  prepare 

™!^™^''™C  *^^  union  ot  His  Son  with  the  Church, 

iSc^hSi)  "^^^  entire  work  contains  about  6,000  Hlustrationa 

»  M.  GiLLIs.  The  pictures  are  arranged  in  two  paralld  columns  on 

_„ .    _      ,  „     „  '  „  each  page,  each  column  having  four  medallioDS  with 

Bible  Tendona.    See  VRBaioira  or  the  BrauL  pictures.     Parallel  to  the  picturea  and  altemattoj 

Bibles,  Picture.— In  the  Middle  A^  the  Church  with  them  are  two  other  narrower  columns,  with  four 

made  use  of  pictures  as  a  means  of  instruction,  to  legends  each,  one  legend  to  «ach  picture;  the  legends 

supplement  the  knowledge  acquired  by  reading  or  consisting  all«matively  of  Biblical  texts  and  moral 

oral  teaching.     For  books  only  existed  in  manuscript  or  allegorical  applications;  whilst  the  picturea  repre- 

form  and,  being  costly,  were  beyond  the  means  of  sent'  the  subjects  ot  the  Biblical  texts  or  of  the  ap- 

most  people.     Besides,  had  it  been  possible  for  the  phcations  of  them.     In  the  MS.  copy  of  the  "Bible 

multitude  to  come  into  the  posseesion  of  books,  they  Moralisfe",  now  under  consideration,  the  illustrationa 

could  not  have  read  them,  smce  in  those  rude  times,  are  executed  with  the  greatest  skill.     The  painting 

education  was  the  privilege  of  few.     In  fact,  hardly  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  best  specimens  of  thirteentn- 

anyone  could  rea^  outside  the  rutks  of  the  cleriy  century  work,  and  the  MS.  was  in  all  probability 

and  the  monks.     So  frescoes  of  scenes  ^m  the  Old  prepared   for  someone  in   the  highest  rank  of  life. 

and  New  Testaments,  stained-glass  windows, and  the  A  apecimen  of  the  second  edition  of  the  "Bible 

like  were  set  up  in  the  churches,  because,  as  the  Moralist''  is  to  be  foiind  in  the  National  Library  in 

KSjmod  of  Arraa  (1025)  said:  "The  illiterate  eontem-  Paris  (MS.  Fmni^  No.  167).    Whilst  it  is  identical 

ited  in  the  lineaments  of  painting  what  they,  with  tna  copy  which  has  juHt  been  examined  in  the 

ving  never  learnt  to  read,  could  not  discern  in  selection  and  order  of  the  Biblical  passages,  it  differs 

writing".    Especially  did  the  Church  make  use  of  from  it  in  the  greater  simplicity  and  brevity  of  the 

picturea  to  spread  abroad  a  knowledge  of  the  events  moral  and  aliegoricfti  teaching  based  on  thorn,     An- 


ments,  whether  as  type  and  antitype,  or  as  prophecy  "Bible  Uistorife  taul«  figurie''.  It  was  a  woit  (rf 
and  fulfilment.  For  this  purpoee  the  picture  Bibles  the  end  of  the  tbirteent£  or  the  beginning  of  the 
of  the  Middle  Ages  were  copied  and  put  in  circulation,  fourteenth  century.  In  eeneral  outline  and  plan  it 
The  moat  Important  of  the  picture  Bibles  of  the  resembles  the  class  of  Bible  which  has  gone  Defoie, 
Middle  Ages  which  have  survived  is  that  variously  but  it  differs  from  it  in  the  selection  of  Bible  pas- 
styled  the  "Bible  Moralist",  the  "Bible  Historide  ,  sages  and  in  the  allegoncal  explanations  derived  from 
the  "Bible  All^^risde"  and  sometimes  "Embltoiee  them.  Coming  to  uie  life  of  Our  Lord,  the  author 
Bibliques".  It  is  a  work  of  the  thirlfienth  century,  of  the  "Bible  Hislorife  toute  figurfc"  dispensed  with 
and  from  the  copies  that  still  survive  there  is  no  a  written  text  altogether,  and  contented  himself  with 
doubt  that  it  existed  in  at  least  two  editions,  like  writing  over  the  pictures  depicting  scenes  of  Our 
to  one  another  in  the  choice  and  order  of  the  Biblical  Bavioor'a  life,  a  brief  explanatory  legend.  Many 
texts  used,  but  differing  in  the  all^oKeal  and  moral  specimens  of  this  BiUe  have  come  down  to  ua,  but 
deductions  drawn  from  these  passages.  The  tew  we  select  part  of  one  preserved  in  the  National 
remarks  to  be  made  hereabout  the  "Bible  Morahafc''  Library  in  Paris  (MS.  Franks  No,  9561}  for  a  brief 
will  be  made  in  connexion  with  copies  of  the  first  duwription.  In  this  MS,  129  pages  are  taJcen  up  with 
and  second  redactions  which  have  come  down  to  us,  the  Old  Testament,  Of  these  the  earlier  ones  are 
The  copy  of  the  first  edition,  to  which  reference  divided  horizontally  in  the  centre,  and  it  is  the  upper 
has  been  made,  is  one  of  the  most  eumptuous  il-^  part  of  the  psfe  that  contains  the  picture  fllustrative 


of  some  Ola  Testament  event.    The  lower  part  r%p- 
from  the  New  Teata- 


lustrated  MSS.  preserved  to  us  from  the  Middle  Agee.  of  some  Old  Testament  e^ 

Unfortunately,  it  no  longer  exists  in  the  form  u  a  resents  a  correspondine  b< 

single  volume,  nor  ia  it  kept  in  one  place.    It  has  ment    Further  on  in  the  volume,  three  picturee  ap- 

been  split  up  into  three  separate  parts  kept  in  three  pear  in  the  upper  part  of  the  page,  and  three  bebw. 

distinct  hbraries.    The  first  part,  consisting  of  224  Seventy-six  pages  at  the  end  of  the  volume  are 

leaves,  is  in  the  Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford.     The  devoted  to  depicting  the  lives  of  Jesus  duist  and  the 

second  part  of  222  leavee  is  in  the  National  Libtaty  Blessed  Virgin. 

in  Paris^  and  the  thUd  part,  made  up  of  178  leaves,        It  must  not  be  supposed  that  these  were  tbe  only 

is  kept  in  the  library  of  the  British  Museum,    Six  BiUee  of  this  class  that  existed  in  the  Middle  Agca 

leaves  of  the  third  part  are  missing,  so  that  it  ought  On  the  contrary,  from  the  great  number  of  copies 

to  contain  184  leavee.     When  complete  and  bound  that  have  survived  to  our  own  day  we  may  gucM 

together,  therefore,  the  whole  volume  consisted  of  how  wide- their  circulation  must  nave  been.    We 

(W  leaves,  written  and  illustrated  on  one  side  only,  have  a  MS.  existing  in  the  British  Museum  (aAdit, 

liiis  Bible,  as  indeed  all  the  picture  Bibles  of  t£e  1677)  entitled  "Figures  de  la  Bible"  coodBtiiig  of 


BIBUA  547  BIBUA 

pictures  illuatrating  events  in  the  Bible  with  short  ion",  and  "Adoration  of  the  Magi",  the  most  famous 

Sescriptive  text    This  is  of  the  end  of  the  thhteenth,  of  his  works,    lliese  are  but  a  few  out  of  a  number 

or  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth,  century.    Of  the  of  illustrious  name^  too  numerous  to  mention  here 

same  date  is  the  ''Historia  Biblise  metrice"  which  is  and  including  Botticelli,  Camicci,  Holman  Hunt, 

preserved  in  the  same  librwy  and,  as  the  name  im-  Leu^hton,  l^urillo,  Veronese,  Tintoretto,  and  Watts. 

piles,  has  a  metrical  text.     £fut  we  haye  specimens  of       TO  study  the  works  of  the  great  Bible-illustrators 

manuscript  illustrated  3ibles  of  eaiiier  date.    Such  is  not  so  difficult  as  might  be  supposed.     For  of  late 

is  the  Biole  preserved  in  the  library  of  St.  Paul's,  vears  a  great  number  of  collections  of  Bible  prints 

outside  the  walls  of  Rome;   that  of  the  Amiens  have  been  made,  some  containing  engravines  of  the 

Librarv  (MS.  108),  and  that  of  the  Royal  Library  of  most  famous  paintings.     In  the  first  half  of  last 

The  Hague  (MS.  69).     So  numerous  are  the  sur-  centurv  Julius  schnorr  collected  together  180  designs 

viving  relics  of  such  Bibles,  back  even  so  far  as  the  called  his  "  Bible  Pictures,  or  Scripture  History',';  and 

deventh  and  twelfth  centuries,  that  it  may  be  safely  another  series  of  240  pictures  was  published  in  1860 

said  that  the  CJhurch  made  a  systematic  effort  to  by  Georse  Wiffand:  whilst  later  in  the  century  ap- 

teach  the  Scriptures  in  those  days  by  means  of  peared    Dakid's    "Bible    (}aUery".    Hodder    and 

illustrated  Bibles.  Stoughton  have  published  excellent  voliunes  repro- 

SiNOLE  Illustrated  Books  op  the  Bible. — ^The  ducing  some  of  tne  pictures  of  the  greatest  masters. 

Bibles  that  have  come  under  notice  so  far  illustrate  Such  are  "The  Old  Testament  in  Art"  (2  parts): 

the  entire  Scriptures.     But  what  was  done  for  the  "The  Gospels  in  Art",  "The  Apostles  in  Art  ',  ana 

Bible  in  full  was  also  done  for  its  various  parts.  "Bethlehem  to  Olivet",  this  latter  being  made  up  of 

Numerous  beautifully  illustrated  psalters  have  come  modem  pictures.    The  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 

down  to  us,  some  of  them  going  as  far  back  as  the  Christian  Knowledge  has  not  been  behindhand,  but 

ninth  centurv,  as,  for  instance,  the  Psalter  of  the  has  issued  amongst  other  publications  a  volume  on 

University  of  Utrecht.     One  thing  that  comes  out  "Art  Pictures  from  the  Ola  Testament"  with  ninetv 

clearly  from  a  study  of  the  contents  and  chaiiacter  illustrations,  and  another  on  the  Gospels  with  350  il- 

of  these  psalters  is  that  a  very  lar^e  proportion  of  lustrations  from  the  works  of  the  gretit  masters  of  the 

them  were  executed  by  artists  working  in  England,  fourteenth,  fifteenth,  and  sixteenth  centuries. 

So,  too,  the  book  of  Job  and  the  Apocalypse  were  „Horne,  introductum  Ut  the  Holy  Scripturet  (Uyndon,  1822), 

nnntr^  ot^rMmfjAv  anH  uAnmt^  wifh  nnmmv^iia  {llna.  "•  3d  ed.;  HuifPHBBY.  Htttory  of  the  AH  of  Prvntmg  (London, 

copiea  sepw^teiy  ana  aaomea  witn  numerous  mus-  jges);  Levmqub  in  Vio..  Dia.  de  la  Bible  (Pari.,  1894),  a.  v. 

trations.      But,    as    we    should    haVe    expected,    the  BHne  en  image;  Dblisle.  mk,  litUraire  de  la  France  (Paria, 

Gospels  were  a  specially  favourite  field  for  the  me-  1883).,  JmCL-  218-285;  Bbiubau.  BiUia  P^perum,  repro- 

i^0val  arf iafii  xvhn  i^axTnt^A  fhoir  f if«o  fn  ninf iii>o.nain«-  duoed m  fMMinile  from  one  of  the  ooDMs  in  the  British  MUMUm, 

dieval  artiste  wno  devotea  tneir  Ume  to  picture-pamt-  ^^  ^  historical  and  bibUographioal  introduction  (London, 


"^ 


with  an  historical  and  bibliogn4>hioal  introduction  (London, 
1869).  „ 

iBLiA  Pauperum. — ^A  class  of  illustrated  Bibles  J.  A.  Howlett. 

to  which  no  allusion  has  been  made,  but  which  had  a  ^^^  jj             g     ^    Hate. 

wide  circulation  especially  m  the  fifteenth  century  Jj!^"  ^.T!/^       «     t     „ 

was  the  "  Biblia  Pauperum  *'.    As  its  name  indicates,  BibHa  Maxima.    See  La  H atb. 

it  was  especiallv  intended  for  the  poor  and  ienorant,  Biblis  Paoperom   (Bible  of  the  Poor)  a  col- 

and  some  say  that  it  was  used  for  purposes  ofpreach-  lection   of  pictures   representing  scenes  from   Our 

ing  by  the  mendicant  orders.    It  existed  at  first  in  Lord's  life  with  the  corresponding  prophetic  types, 

manuscript  (indeed  a  manuscript  copy  is  still  in  ex-  The  series  commonly  consists  of  forty  or  fifty  paces, 

istence  in  the  library  of  the  British  Museum);  but  The  page  is  divided  into  nine  sections.     The  tour 

at  a  very  early  period  it  was  reproduced  by  J^log-  comers  are  used  for  explanatory  texts.    The  central 

raphy,  then  coming  into  use  in  Europe.    As  a  con-  pictures  represent  scenes  from  Our  Lord's  life,  ar- 

sequence  the  ''Biblia  Pauperum"  was  published  and  ranged  chronologically.    Above  and  below  these  are 

sold  at  a  much  cheaper  rate  than  the  older  manuscript  pictures  of  prophets  and  on  each  side  are  scenes 

g'^ture  Bibles.    The  general  characteristics  of  tms  trom  the  Ola  Testament.    It  is  thus  a  concordance 

ible  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  earlier  picture  of  the  Old  and  the  New  Testaments  in  which  is 

Bibles.     The  pictures  are  generally  placed  only  on  gathered  together  the  common  tradition  of  the  Church 

one  side  of  the  page,  and  are  framed  in  a  kind  of  on  the  types  and  figures  of  the  Old  Testament,  as 

triptych  of  architectural  design.    In  the  centre  is  a  taught  by  the  liturgy  and  the  Fathers.    Hence  they 

scene  from  the  New  Testament,  and  on  either  side  of  were  called  sometimes  "  Figur©  typicae  Veteris  Tes- 

it  typical  events  from  the  Old  Testament.    Above  tamenti    atque    antitypicae    Novi    Testamenti"    or 

and  below  the  central  picture  are  busts  of  four  noted  "Hlstoria  Christi  in  Figuris".    An  interestinRrepro- 

prophets  or  other  famous  characters  of  the  Old  Testa-  duction  and  description  of  a  page  on  the  Blessed 

ment.     In  the  comers  of  the  picture  are  the  legends.  Sacrament  is  given  in  Vigouroux,  "  Dictioimaire  de 

The  number  of  these  pictures  in  the  ''Biblia  Pau-  la  Bible",  8.  v. 

perum"  was  usually  from  forty  to  fifty.  'The  invention  of  these  picture-books  is  ascribed 

Picture  Bibles  of  the  Middle  Ages  did  not  exhaust  to  St.  Ansgar,  Bishop  of   Bremen.    This  is  stated 

the  resources  of  Christians  in  illustration  of  the  Bible,  in  a  note  tuided  to  a  copy  at  Hanover  and  in  the 

Since  the  fifteenth  century  a  host  of  artistic  gen-  cathedral  at  Bremen  there  are  remains  of  pictures, 

iuses  have  contributed  to  make  the  events  of  Smp-  corresponding  to  this  copy.     The  name,  however, 

ture  live  in  colour  before  our  eyes.      Most  noted  of  "Biblia  Pauperum"  does  not  seem  to  have  been 

amongst  them  were  Michelangelo  and  Raphael;  the  primitive.    It  was  added  by  a  later  hand  to  a  MS. 

former  chiefly  famous  for  his  rietk  and  the  frescoes  in  the  WolffenbQttel   library;   the   MS.   was   thus 

in  the  Sistine  Chapel:  the  latter  for  the  fifty-two  catalogued,  and  the  name  became  common.     It  is 

pictures  adorning  the  Vatican  and  known  as  "Kaph-  uncertain  why  they  were  so  called.    Perhaps  it  was 

ael's  Bible*',  and  still  more  for  the  seven  cartoons  because  of  the  ancient  saying  that  pictures  were  the 

illustrating  events  in  the  New  Testament.     Perhaps  Bible  of  the  poor,  that  is,  of  the  uneducated.    Some 

no  sacred  picture  has  been  so  often  copied  as  "Tne  think  that  tne  name  came  from  their  use  by  the 

Last  Supper"  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci  painted  in  the  mendicant  orders  as  books  of  instruction.     Others 

refectory  of  the  Dominican  convent  in  Milan.    Well  suppose  that  the  term  means  inexpensive;  manu- 

known,  too,  are  Fra  Bartolomeo's  "Presentation  in  scripts  had  been  beyond  the  means  of  most  people; 

the  Temple"   in  Vienna,  and  Rubens's  numerous  when  the  art  of  printing  from  engraved  blocks  was 

Bible  pictures,  to  be  fotmd  in  the  Louvre,  Brussels,  introduced  these  picture-books  were  among  the  first 

Vienna,  Munich,  and  London,  but  chiefly  at  Antwerp,  printed  and  gain^  a  wide  circulation.    We  have  no 

where  are  his  "Descent  from  the  Ooss".  "Crucifix-  definite  information  as  to  the  purpose  for  whicb 


/  BIBLI04L  548  BIBLIOAL 

these  books  were  intended.     Probably  it  was  fbr  them  ai  duelling  in  tents  and  constantly  moving 

religious  instruction;  perhaps  also  to  serve  as  mod^  from  one  pasture-ground  to  another.    In  course  d 

for  artists.    It  is  certain  that  they  exercised  a  ^^reat  time  tents  merged  into  huts,  huts  into  houses,  and 

influence  in  spreading  a  knowledge  of  the  myst^es  these  into  settlements,  villages,  and  cities,  surrounded 

of  Faith,  affording  themes  for  preachers  and  artists,  bv  cornfields,  vineyards,  oliveyards,  and  gardens. 

At  Hirschau  in  Swabia,  the  entire  series  of  pictures  is  Flocka  and  herds  became  rarer  and,  rarer  till  the  time 

reproduced  in  stained  glass.  ^  of  the  early  monarchy  and  afterwards,  when,  with 

Only  a  few  manuscript  copies  of  the  "Biblia  Pau-  few  exceptions,  they  gave  way  to  commerce  and 
perum'^  are  extant;  they  come  from  the  school  of  trade.  As  among  all  nations  of  antiquity,  a  coalition 
John  van  Eyck  (1366-1466).  The  block-book,  or  of  various  members,  or  branches,  of  the  same  family 
xylographic  process,  appeared  early  in  the  fifteenth  constituted  a  clan  which,  as  an  organization,  seems 
sentury,  ana  Sotheby  counts  sQven  editions  made  to  have  antedated  the  family.  A  coalition  of  clans 
from  these  wooden  slabs.  Only  one  side  of  the  paper  formed  a  tribe  which  wasgovemed  by  its  own  chiefs 
was  printed,  two  sheets  being  pasted  together  to  or  leaders.  Some  of  the  Hebrew  clans  at  the  time  of 
make  a  leaf.  Five  copies  are  in  the  Biuiothdque  the  settlement  in  Canaan  seem  to  have  been  organ- 
Mationale:  four  have  forty  plates;  one  copy  is  coloured  ized,  some  to  have  been  broken  up  and  wholly  or 
by  hand;  the  fifth  has  fifty  plates.  The  first  edition  partially  ineoiporated  with  other  clans.  A  man's 
from  movable  types  was  pnnted  by  Pfister  at  Bam-  standing  in  his  dan  was  so  imi>ortant  that  if  he  was 
herg  in  1462.  The  earlier  editions  nave  Latin  texts;  caat  out  he  became  ipso  facto  an  outlaw,  unle^, 
Ut^  they  were  printed  in  the  vernacular.  A  Ger-  indeed,  some  other  dan  could  be  found  to  receive 
nian  ''Armenbibel"  was  published  in  1470,  and  at  him.  After  the  settlement/the  Hebrew  clan-system 
Paris  in  1£|03,  A.  V^ard  published  "Les  Figures  du  changed  somewhat  and  slowly  degenerated  till  the 
Vieil  Testament  et  du  Nouveau".  In  some  of  the  time  of  the  monarchy,  when  it  fdl  into  the  back- 
printed  editions  the  orifldnal  arrangement  of  pictures  ground  and  became  ab^rbed  by  the  more  compli- 
jnd  texts  was  modified.  In  the  latter  half  of  the  cated  system  ol  national  and  monarchical  govero- 
fifteenth  century  these  books  were  very  popular,  ment. 

As  improved  methods  made  it  possible  to  issue  the        (2)  Marriage  and  the  constitxdion  of  the  famUy.— 

whole   Bible   with  illustrations,   the   "Biblia|'  fell  In  ancient  Hebrew  times  the  family,  as  a  social  or- 

into  disuse  and  disappeared.     Several  facsimile  re-  sanization,  and  as  compared  with  the  clan,  must 

productions    have    appeared    with    historical    and  h^ve  held  a  secondary  place.    Comparative  Semitic 

oiUiographical   introductions   notably   hy   Berjeau  analogy  and  Biblical   evidences  seem  to   indicate 

n859);  Camesina  and  Heider  (yienna,  1863);  Unwin  that  among  the  early  Hebrews,  as  among  other  early 

(Lonaon,  1884),  with  introduction  by  Dean  Stanley:  Semitic  nations,  man  lived  under  a  matriarchate 

Einsle  (Vienna,  1890);  Laib  and  Schwarz  (1892)  and  system,  L  e.  kinship  was  constituted  by  uterine  ties, 

P.  Heitz  (1902).  am  descent  was  reckoned  through  female  lin^;  the 

SoTHKBT.    Th«  Bloek-BookB  or  Xylographid  DtHnmHont  of  father's  relation  to  his  children  being,  if  not  ignored, 

Scripture  History  iatutd  in  HoUatid.  Fra9%c€,  omd  Germany  certainly  of  little  Or  no  importance.    Hence  a  man's 

(London,  1858).    See  also  the  introduotions  to  the  facsimile  u*     ^^-1  fU^  rAlafivAH  of  hia  mnf hpr   Tint  f hnoA  nf  hia 

editions.  Vjootmoux.  Diet,  de  la Bibls,  a.  v.;  Stbsbm  in Xir-  '^^.^^^  ^f  relatives  ot  nis  motner,  not  tnose  01  ms 

ckenUz   B.v.;CBEVAjjMat,IUp.dum>wcMkitt,dumoyen^:  father;   and  consequently   all   hereditary   property 

Topo-biU,  descended  in  the  female  line.   The  position  of  woman 

John  Corbbtt.  during  the  early  Hebrew  period,  although  inferior 

to  wmit  it  became  later,  was  not  as  low  and  insig- 

Biblical  Antiquities. — This  department  of  archse-  nlficant  as  many  are  inclined  to  believe.     Many 

ology  has  been  variously  defined  and  classified.   Some  episodes  in  the  lives  of  women  like  Sarah,  Rebeccah, 

Bcholars  have  included  in  it  even  Biblical  chronology,  Rachel,  Deborah,  Mary  the  sister  of  Moses,  Delilah, 

geography,  and  natural  history,  but  wrongly  so,  as  Jephtah's  daughter,  and  others  are  sufficient  evi- 

loese  tnree  branches  of  Biblical  science  belong  rather  dences.    The  duties  of  a  woman,  as  such  and  as  a 

to   the   external    environment    of   history   proper,  wife  and  mother,  were  heavy  both  physically  and 

Archaeology,  prop^ly  speaking^  is  the  science  of  morallv.    The  work  in  and  about  the  home  devolved 

antiquities,  and  of  those  antiqmties  only  which  be-  upon  her,  even  to  the  pitching  of  the  tent,  as  also 

long  more  closely  to  the  inner  life  and  environment  the  work  of  the  field  with  the  men  at  certain  seasons, 

of  a  nation,  sucn  as  their  monumental  records,  the  The  posjtion  of  the  man  as  father  and  as  the  head  of 

sources  of  their  history,  their  domestic,  social,  re-  the  household  was  of  course  superior  to  that  of  the 

li^us,  and  political  life,  as  well  as  their  manners  and  wife;  upon  him  devolved  the  duty  and  care  of  the 

customs.     Hence,  history  proper,  geography,  and  training  of  the  children,  when  they  had  reached  a 

natural  history  must  be  excluded  from  the  domain  certain  age,  as  also  the  ofiferin^  of  sacrifices,  which 

of  archseolo^.     So  also  the  study  of  monumental  necessarily  included  the  slaugntering  of   domestic 

lecords  and  inscriptions  and  of  their  historical  inter-  animals,   and  the   conduct  of  all  oevotional   and 

cvetation  must  be  left  either  to  the  historian,  or  to  ritualistic  services.     To  these  must  be  added  the 

tibe  sciences  of  epigraphy  and  numismatics.     Ac-  duty  of  maintaining  the  family,  which  presupposes 

oordingly.  Biblical  ^chseology  may  be  appropriately  a  multitude  of  physical  and  moral  obligations  and 

defined  as:  the  science  of  iT  Domestic,  or  Social,  hardships. 

II.  Political,  and  III.  Saorsd,  antiquities  of  the  ^   Polygamy  was  an  acknowledged  form  of  marriage 

Hebrew  nation.  ^  in    the    patriarchal    and    post-patriarchal    periods, 

Our  principal  sources  of  information  are:  (a)  The  although  m  later  times  it  was  considerably  restricted. 

Old  Testament  writings;  (b)  the  archsological  dis-  The  Mosaic  law  everywhere  requires  a  distinctioD 

ooveries  made  in  Syria  and  Palestine^  (c)  the  Assyro-  to  be  made  between  the  first  wife  and  those  taken 

Babylonian,  Egyptian,  and  Canaanitish  monuments:  in  addition  to  her.    Marriage  between  near  relatives 

(d)  the  New  I^tament  writings;  (e)  the  writings  of  was  common,  owing  to  a  desire  to  preserve,  as  far  as 

the  Jewish  historian  Josephus,  and  of  the  Babylonian  possible,  the  family  bond  intact.    As  the  family  was 

and  Jerusalem  Talmuds;  (f)  comparative  study  of  subordinate  to  the  clan,  the  whole  social  life  of  the 

Semitic  religions,  customs,  and  institutions.  people,  marria^,  and  even  property  rights  were 

I.  Domestic  Antiquities. — (1)  Family  and  dan, —  under  the  surveillance  of  the  same.    Hence  a  woman 

The  Old  Testament  books  present  us  the  Hebrews  a^  was  to  marry  within  the  same  clan;  but  if  she  chose 

having  passed  through  two  sta^ges  of  social  develop-  to  many  without  the  clan,  she  should  do  so  only 

ment:  the  pastoral  and  the  {^cultural.    The  stories  upon  such  terms  as  the  clan  might  permit  by  its 

of  the  Patriarchs,  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  picture  customs  or  by  its  action  in  a  particular  case.    Sa 


BmUOAL                             549  BIBLZOAL 

abo,  a  woman  might  be  allowed,  where  compensa-  ordeal  which,  H  was  thought,  no  guilty  wife  could 

tion  was  made,  to  many  and  leave  her  clan,  or  she  well    pass    through   without    betraying    her   guilt. 

might  contract  through  her  father  or  other  male  Divorce  among  the  ancient  Hebrews  was  as  frequent 

relative  with  a  man  of  another  clan  provided  she  as  among  any  other  civilized  nation  of  antiquity. 

remained  with  her  people  and  bore  children  for  her  Mosaic  laws  attempted  onl^  to  restrict  and  to  regu- 

clan.   This  marriage^orm,  known  to  scholars  under  late  it.    Any  '^unseemly  thmg''  was  sufficient  ground 

the  term    of    Sadiqarmarriaqef    was    undoubtedly  for  divorce,  as  also  was  barrenness.   The  wife,  however. 

practised  by  the  ancient  Heorews.  as  positive  in-  was  not  allowed  to  separate  herself  from  her  husband 

dications  of  its  existence  are  found  in  tne  Book  of  for  any  reason:  in  the  case  of  her  husband's  adultery, 

Judges  and  particularly  in  the  cases  of  Jerubbaal,  he  as  well  as  tne  other  guilty  party,  as  we  have  seen, 

Sanuon,  and  others.    The  fact  itself  that  Hebrew  would  be  punished  with  death. 

harlots  who  received  into  their  tents  or  dwelling  Concubinage,  which  differs  widely  from  polygamy, 

men  of  other  clans,  and  who  bore  children  to  their  was   also   extensively   practised   by   the   Hebrews. 

own  clan,  were  not  looked  upon  with  much  disfavour  A  concubine  was  less  than  a  wife,  but  more  than  an 

18  a  sure  indication  of  the  existence  of  the  Sadiqa-'  ordinarv  mistress,   and   her  rights  were  jealously 

marriage  type  among  the  Hebrews.     One  thing  is  guarded  in  the  Mosaic  Code.    The  children  bom  of 

certain,  however,  that  no  matter  how  similar  the  such  a  union  were  in  no  case  considered  as  ill^timate. 

marriage  customs  of  the  ancient  Hebrews  may  have  The  principal  distinction  between  a  legal  wife  and  a 

been  to  those  of  the  early  Arabs,  the  marriage  tie  concubine  consisted  in  the  latter's  social  and  domestic 

am<Hig  the  former  was  much  stronger  than,  and  never  inferiority.    Concubines  were  not  infrequently  either 

as  loose  as,  anoong  the  latter.     Another  form  of  handmaids  of  the  wife,  or  captives  taken  in  war 

Hebrew  marriage  was  the  so-called  levirate  type  or  purchased  of  their  fathers.    Canaanitish  and  other 

(from  the  Lat.  ^emr,  i.  e.  brother-in-law),  i.  e.  tne  foreign  women  or  slaves  could  in  no  case  be  taken 

marriage  between  a  widow,  whose  husband  had  died  as   concubines.     The   seducer   of   an    unbetrothed 

childless,  and  her  brother-in-law.    She  was,  in  fact,  maiden  was  compelled  either  to  marry  her  or  to  pay 

not  permitted  to  marry  a  stranger,  unless  the  sur-  her  father  a  heavy  fine.     In  later  times,  ordinary 

vivii^f  brother-in4aw  formally  refused  to  marry  her.  harlotry  was  punished,  and  if  the  harlot  was  the 

The  levirate  marriage  was  intended,  first,  to  prevent  daughter  of  a  priest  she  was  burnt.     Idolatrous 

the  extinction  of  the  name  of  the  deceased  cnildless  harlotry  and  soclomv  were  severely  punished. 

brother;  and  secondly,  to  retain  the  property  within  The  domestic  and  social  life  of  the  Hebrews  was 

the  same  tribe  and  family.   The  first-bom  son  of  such  frugal  and  simple.     They  indulged  very  little  in 

a  union  took  the  name  of  the  deceased  uncle  instead  public  games  and  diversions.    Hunting  and  fishing 

of  that  of  his  father,  and  succeeded  to  his  estate.    If  were  looked  upon  as  necessities  of  life.    Slaverv  was 

there  were  no  brother  of  the  deceased  husband  alive,  extensively  practised,  and  slaves  were  either  Hebrews 

then  the  next  of  kin  was  supposed  to  marry  the  widow,  or  foreigners.    The  Mosaic  law  is  against  any  kind 

as  we  find  in  the  case  of  Ruth's  relative  who  yielded  of  involuntary  slavery,  and  no  Hebrew  dave  was 

his  right  to  Boaz.    According  to  the  laws  of  Moses,  allowed  to  he  sold  to  foreigners.     An  Israelitish 

a  man  was  forbidden  to  remarry  a  divorced  wife,  slave  was  to  be  set  free  after  five  or  six  years  servitude 

if  she  had  married  again  and  become  a  widow,  or  and  not  without  some  compensation,  unless  he  were 

had  been  divorced  from  her  second  husband.    Israel-  willing  to  serve  another  term.     As  was  natural, 

ites  were  not  forbidden  to  intermarry  with  any  Hebrew  slaves  were  more  kindly  treated  by  their 

foreigners  except   the  seven  Canaanitish  nations;  Hebrew  masters  than  were  foreign  ones,  who  were 

hence  Moses'  marriage  to  a  Midianite,  and  afterwards  either  captives  in  war  or  purchased. 

to  a  Cushite,  woman  and  that  of  David  to  a  princess  (3)  Death  and  burial, — ^The  nrincipal  sicknesses 

of  Geshur  were  not  against  the  Mosaic  law.    The  and  diseases  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament  are: 

high-priest  was  to  marry  a  virgin  of  his  own  people,  intermittent,    bilious,    and    inflammatory    fevers. 

and  in  the  time  of  Ezechiel  even  an  ordinary  priest  dysentery  produced  by  sunstroke,  inflammation  ot 

could  not  marry  a  widow,  unless  she  were  the  widow  the  head,  fits,  apoplectic  paralysis,  blindness,  in- 

of  a  priest.  flammation    of    the    eyes,   h£emorrhajges,   epilepsy. 

Betrothal  was  mostly  a  matter  of  business  to  be  diarrhoea,  dropsy,  various  kinds  of  s^  eruptions, 

transacted  by  the  parents  and  near  family  friends,  scabies,  and  the  various  forms  of  leprosy.    To  these 

A  distinction   between  betrothal  and  marriage  is  must  be  added  some  psychical  diseases,  such  as 

made  even  in  the  Mosaic  law,  where  betrothal  is  madness,  melancholy,  etc.,  and  also  various  forms 

looked  upon  as  more  than  a  promise  to  marry;  it  of  demoniacal  possession^     No  explicit  mention  of 

was  in  fact  its  initial  act,  and  created  a  bond  which  professional  physicians  and  surgeons  is  made  in  the 

could  be  dissolved  only  by  death  or  by  legal  divorce.  Old  Testament. 

Faithlessness  to  this  vow  of  marriage  was  regarded  In  case  of  death,  the  body  was  washed  and 
and  punished  as  adultery.  Betrothal  actually  took  wrapped  in  a  linen  cloth  and,  if  financial  circum- 
place  after  a  dowry  had  been  agreed  upon.  As  a  stances  allowed,  anointed  with  sweet-smelling  spices 
rule,  it  was  given  to  the  parents  m  the  bnde,  though  and  ointments.  Enibalming  was  neither  a  general 
sometimes  to  an  elder  brother.  Marriage  contracts  ap-  nor  a  common  practice.  Burial  tookplace,  usually, 
pear  to  have  been  mostly  oral,  and  made  in  the  pres-  on  the  day  of  the  person's  death.  Tne  dead  body 
enoe  of  witnesses.  The  earliest  accoimt  of  a  wntten  was  never  burnt,  but  interred,  unless  for  some  par- 
one  is  found  in  the  Book  of  Tobit  (D.  V.  Tobias),  ticular  reason,  as  in  the  case  of  Saul  and  his  sons. 
The  wedding  festivities  lasted  ordinarily  seven  days,  Mourning  customs  were  various,  such  as  wearii^ 
and  on  the  day  of  the  wedding  the  bridegroom,  sackcloths,  scattering  dust  and  ashes  on  the  head, 
richly  dressed  and  crowned,  went  in  procession  to  beating  the  breast,  plucking  and  pulling  out  the  hair 
the  raride's  house  to  take  her  away  from  her  father,  and  the  beard,  throwing  oneself  upon  the  earth; 
TIm  bride,  deeply  veiled,  was  led  away  amid  the  rending  the  garments,  going  about  barefooted, 
blessing  of  her  parents  and  friends.  The  bridal  veiling  the  face,  and  in  some  cases  abstaining  from 
proeesBion  not  infrequently  took  place  at  night,  eating  and  drinking  for  a  short  time.  The  usual 
m  the  blaae  of  torches  and  with  the  accompaniment  period  of  mourning  lasted  seven  days.  With  few 
of  80D^,  dancing,  and  the  highest  expressions  of  exceptions  the  bodies  were  interred  outside  of  the 
joy.  town,  either  in  caves  or  in  public  cemeteries.  Perrons 
Adultery  was  punished  by  death,  through  stoning  of  high  social  and  financial  standi^  were  publicly 
of  both  participants.  A  man  suspecting  his  wife  mourned,  and  their  bodies  placed  in  sepulchr^ 
of  unfaitnfulness  might  subject  her  to  a  terrible  hewn  in  rock. 

n.— «6 


BIBUOAL  550  BIBUOAL 

(4)  Food  and  m^aU, — ^The  principal  articles  of>  man  that  will  not  build  up  his  brothers  houfe". 
food  among  the  ancient  Hebrews  can  be  easily  sum-  The  drawing  off  of  the  shoe  evidently  indicated  the 
marized  from  the  interesting  description  of  the  land  surrender  of  the  rights  which  the  law  gave  the  man 
of  Canaan  occurring  in  the  Book  of  Deuteronomy,  to  marry  hn  brother's  widow.  Likewise  the  modem 
where  it  is  said  to  be  ''a  land  of  wheat,  and  barley,  custom  of  throwing  a  slipper  sportively  after  a  newly 
and  vines,  and  fi^  trees,  and  pomegranates;  a  land  wedded  pair  leaving  the  parental  house  appears  to 
of  oil  olive,  and  honey;  a  ,land  wherein  thou  shalt  have  a  luce  symbolical  significance:  the  parents  and 
eat  bread  without  scarceness,  thou  shalt  not  lads  family  friends  thereby  s3rmbolically  renounce  their 
any  thing  in  it"  (Deut.,  viii,  8,  9).  Their  meals  were  right  to  the  daughter  or  son  in  favour  of  the  husband 
undoubtedly  of  the  simplest  description,  and  their  or  wife.  Finger-rines,  ear-rings,  and  bracelets  were 
table  was  more  rich  with  fish,  milk,  fruit,  and  vege*  extensively  used  by  both  men  and  women,  but  more 
tables  than  with  meat.  Animal  food  in  general  so  by  the  latter.  ,  Prosperous  men  always  carried 
was  in  favour  with  the  people  at  large,  but  the  a  staff  and  a  seal.  All  these  ornamental  articles. 
Mosaic  law  restricted  its  use  to  almost  the  minimum,  however,  were  more  indulged  in  by  the  Egyptians, 
Animals  or  parts  of  animals  designated  for  sacrifice  Assyrians,  and  other  Oriental  nations  than  bv  the 
or  other  holy  uses  could  only  be  eaten  under  specific  Hebrews.  Hebrew  women  wore  also  cauls,  anklets, 
conditions.  In  the  eleventh  chapter  of  Leviticus  and  ankle-chains,  scent-bottles,  and  decorated  purses, 
and  the  fourteenth  of  Deuteronomy,  a  list  is  given  or  satchels.  Perfumery  was  also  indulged  in;  and 
of  a  large  class  of  animals  which  were  looked  upon  as  extensive  use  was  macfe  of  pigments  as  applied  to 
ceremonially  unfit  to  be  eaten.  Animals,  further-  the  eyelids  and  eyebrows  by  women.  Tattooing  on 
more,  were  classified  as  pure  and  impure,  or  clean  the  face,  arms,  chest,  and  hands  was  in  all  proba- 
and  unclean,  and  the  complicated  legislation  of  the  bility  practised  by  the  Hebrews,  although  it  was  to  a 
Pentateuch  concerning  the  use  of  these  is  partly  certain  extent  mcompatible  with  certain  Mosaic 
based  on  sanitary,  partly  fanciful,  and  partly  cere-  prescriptions. 

monial  grounds.   The  evening  meal  was  the  principal        (6)  jPa^oral  and  agrtctdtural  life, — ^According  to 

meal  of  the  day,  and  if  kmves,  forks,  spoons,  and  the   Biblical   records,   tilling  the  ground  and  the 

other  like  instruments  were  used  in  the  preparation  rearing  of  cattle  and  sheep  were  the'  first  and  earliest 

of  the  meals,  they  were  not  used  at  the  table.    Hands  occupations  of  men.    In  Patriarchal  times  the  latter 

were  washed  before  and  after  meals.    Neither  prayer,  was  in  greater  favour,  while  in  the  later  Hebrew 

nor  grace,  nor  blessing  seems  to  have  been  profferea  period  the  first  prevailed  over  the  second.     This 

before  or  after  the  repast.    In  other  particulars  the  transition  from  the  pastoral,  or  nomadic,  to  the  ag- 

table  usages  and  customs  of  the  ancient  Hebrews  ricultural,  or  settled,  life  was  a  natural  conseaiience  of 

may  reasonably  be  supposed  to  have  been  like  those  the  settlement  in  Canaan,  but  at  no  time  did  the  two 

of  modem  Palestine.  occupations  exclude  each  other.    Both,  in  fact,  were 

(5)  Dress  and  ornaments. — The  materials  for  important,  indispensable,  and  necessary.  The  sheep 
clothing  were  principally  cotton,  linen,  and  wool;  was,  of  course,  the  principal  animal  both  as  an  article 
silk  is  once,  or  never,  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testa^  of  food  and  as  wool-producer,  besides  its  constant 
ment.  The  wearing  of  a  mixed  fabric  of  wool  and  use  as  a  sacrificial  animal.  Sheep's  milk  was  also  a 
linen  was  forbidden  by  the  Mosaic  law.  So,  also,  favourite  article.  Rams  also,  with  from  two  to  as 
either  sex  was  forbidden  to  wear  the  garments  proper  many  as  eight  horns,  are  not  infrequently  mentioned, 
to  the  opposite  sex.  The  outer  earment  of  men  con-  Goats  are  frequently  mentioned,  and  cows  and  oxen 
sisted  of  loose,  flowing  robes,  which  were  of  various  were  utilized  for  milk  and  butter  and  for  tilling  the 
types  and  forms.  On  the  four  comers  of  this  outer  around.  Horses  and  camels  were  importedlrom 
robe  a  frin^,  or  tassel,  was  attached.  The  under-  Arabia.  Poultry  and  hens  are  not  once  mentioned 
garment,wnichwas  the  same  for  both  sexes,  consisted,  in  the  Old  Testament.  The  ass  was  a  comnnm  and 
generally,  of  a  sleeveless  tunic  or  frock  of  any  ma-  useful  animal  for  transportation,  but  the  mule  is  not 
terial  desired,  and  reached  to  the  knees  or  ankles,  mentioned  in  the  Bible  prior  to  the  time  of  themon- 
That  of  the  woman  was  longer  and  of  richer  material,  archy.  The  life  of  the  Hebrew  and  Eastern  shepherds 
The  tunic  was  fastened  at  the  waist  with  a  ^rdle.  in  general  was  by  no  means  easy  or  uneventful 
The  fold  made  by  the  girdle  served  at  the  same  time  Jacob,  in  fact,  in  reproaching  his  father-in-law,  Labw. 
as  a  pocket.  A  second  tunic  and  the  shawl,  which  says:  ''Thus  1  was:  in  the  <&iy  the  drought  consumed 
was  long  and  of  fine  material,  were  also  in  use.  The  me,  and  the  frost  by  night;  and  my  sleep  fled  ftt>m 
outer  garment  of  the  Hebrew  women  differed  slightly  mine  eyes"  (Gen.,  xxxi,  40);  and  of  his  own  pastoral 
from  that  of  the  men,  and  no  detailed  description  life  ana  its  perils  David  tells  us  that  "there  came  a 
of  it  is  found  in  the  Bible.  It  was  undoubtedly  lion,  and  a  oear,  and  took  a  lamb  out  of  the  flock: 
richer  and  more  ornamented  than  that  of  the  other  and  I  went  out  after  him,  and  smote  him,  and  de- 
sex.  The  most  accepted  colour  for  ordinary  garments  livered  it  out  of  his  mouth"  [I  Sam.  (D.  V.  I  Kin^s), 
was  white,  and  the  art  of  bleaching  cloth  was  from  xvii,  34, 35].  The -shepherd's  duties  were  to  ieadmit 
very  early  times  known  and  practised  by  the  Hebrews,  the  flock  to  pasture,  watch  them,  supply  them  with 
In  later  times,  the  purple,  scarlet,  and  vermilion  water,  go  after  the  straying  ones,  ana  Dring  them  all 
colours  were  extensively  used,  as  well  as  the  black,  safely  back  to  the  fold  at  night.  These'  formed  his 
red,  yellow,  and  green.    Girdles  were  wom  by  both  riches,  trade,  occupation,  and  sustenance. 

sexes,  and  TOlden  ^rdles  were  not  unknown.    Men        Agriculture  is  the  natural  product  of  settled  life, 

covered  the  nead  with  some  kind  of  a  turban,  or  cap.  Nevertheless  we  read  of  Isaac  that  during  the  preva- 

although  it  is  doubtful  whether  its  use  was  universal  lence  of  a  famine  in  Palestine  he  cultivated  land  in 

in  pre-Mosaic  and  Mosaic  times.    In  ancient  times  the  vicinity  of  Gerar.  which  produced  a  hundredfold 

women  did  not  wear  veils,  but  probably  covered  (Gen.,  xxvi,  12).    The  Mosaic  law  recognizes  land 

their  heads  with  kerchiefs,   mufflers,  or  mantles,  as  the  principal  possession  of  the  Hebrews,  and  its  cul- 

Sandals  were  in  general  use,  but  not  among  the  tivation  as  tneir  chief  business.    Hence  every  Hebrew 

poorer  classes,  or  among  the  farmers  and  shepherds,  family  was  to  have  its  own  piece  of  ground,  which 

Worthy  of  notice  is  the  ceremony  mentioned  in  could  not  be  alienated,  except  for  limited  periods. 

Deut.,  XXV,  9,  according  to  which  if  a  man  refuses  Such  family  estates  were  carefully  surveyed:  and  it 

to  marry  the  wife  of  his  brother,  who  had  died  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  flagrant  of  dimes 

childless,  "Then  shall  his  brother's  wife  come  unto  to  remove  a  neighbour's  landmark.    Estates  were 

him  in  the  presence  of  the  elders,  and  loose  his  shoe  divided  into  so  many  yokes,  that  is,  such  portions  as 

from  off  his  footf  and  spit  in  [or  before]  his  face,  and  a  yoke  of  oxen  could  plough  in  a  single  day.   Tbt 

fhe  shaal  answer  and  say,  So  shall  it  be  done  unto  the  value  of  the  land  was  according  to  its  yield  ia  grain 


BIBUOAt.  551  SIMJOAL 

Irrigation  was  practised  to  a  certain  extent  in  Pales-  delight  in  merchandise,  nor  in  such  a  mixture  with 

tine,  though  not  carried  to  the  same  extent  as  in  other  men  as  arises  from  it." 
Assyria,  mbylonia,  and  Egypt.    The  chief  depend-        Previous    to    the    Babylonian    Captivity,  coined 

ence  for  moisture  was  on  the  dew  and  the  drenching  money  does  not  seem  to  have  circulated  among  the 

rains  of  the  rainy  season.    The  climate  of  Palestine  Hebrews,  although  a  few  references  in  Isaiah  and 

was,  as  a  whole,  favourable  to  agriculture,  although  in  other  prophets  seem  to  indicate  its  existence.    Silver 

modem  times  the  valleys  and  the  plains  nave  sreatly  and  ^Id  were  bought  and  exchanged  by  weight 

deteriorated  in  fertility.    The  ground  was  ordinarily  and  value.    The  talent,  the  shekel,  the  kesitahj  and 

fertilized  by  the  ashes  of  burnt  straw  and  stubble,  the  maneh   (mina)   are  late  Hebrew  terms  and  of 

the  chaff  left  after  tlu*e8hing,  and  the  direct  applica-  Babylonian  ori^n.     After  the  Exile,  and  especially 

tion  of  dunff.    According  to  the  Mosaic  law,  every  durine  the  Persian,  Greek,  and  Roman  dominations, 

tillable  land  should  enjoy  on  each  seventh  year  a  coined  money  became  quite  common  in  Palestine, 

ubbaihf  or  a  rest.    The  year  in  question  is  called  the  such  as  the  quadrans^  the  assarion^  the  denarius, 

Sabbatic  Year,  in  which  the  neld  was  not  to  be  the  drachma ^  the  staler ,  the  didrachmay  etc. 
tilled.   The  object  of  this  prescription  was  to  heighten        Durine  the  time  of  the  monarchy  and  afterwards, 

the  natural  fertility  of  tne  soil.     What  grew  spon-  such  trades  and  occupations  as  woodworking,  metal-* 

taneously  in  that  year  was  to  be  not  alone  f.'^r  the  working,  stoneworking,  tanning,  and  weaving  were 

owner,  mit,  on  equal  terms,  for  the  poor,  for  strangers  thoroughly  in  evidence  among  the  most  industrious 

and  for  cattle.     It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether  class  of  the  Israelites,  but  the  Chosen  People  cannot 

this  law  was  scrupulously  observed  in  later  Hebrew  be  said  to  have  attained  considerable  skill  and  suo- 

times.     The   most  widely   cultivated   grains  were  cess  in  these  directions. 

wheat  and  barley,  as  well  as  spelt  and  millet.    Of        (8)  Science,  arts,  etc. — At  no  time  can  the  Hebrews 

plants  and  vegetables  the  principal  were  grape-vines,  be  said  to  have  developed  a  liking  for  the  study  of 

olive-trees,  nuts,  applies,  ngs,  pomegranates,  beans,  history,  astronomv,  astrology,  geometry,  arithmetic, 

lentils,  onions,  melons,  cucumbers,  etc.    The  season  grammar,   and   physical   science   in   general.     The 

for  ploughing  and  cultivating  the  grotmd  extended  Book  of  Job,  Proverbs,  and  the  many  i)arables  which 

from  October  to  March:  that  of  gathering  the  crops  Solomon  is  said  to  have  written  contain  but  meagre 

from  April  or  May  to  September.    The  plough  was  and   popular   notions,   mostly   drawn   from   obser- 

similar  to  our  moaem  one.    It  was  ordinarily  drawn  vations  of  everyday  life  and  happenings,  while  others 

by  two  oxen,  cows  or  asses,  never,  however,  by  an  are,  to  a  great  extent,  due  to  the  Babylonian  in- 

as8  and  an  ox  together.    It  was  also  forbidden  under  fluence  and  civilization  which,  from  very  early  times, 

penalty  of  confimsation  to  sow  the  same  field  with  and  especially  during  and  after  the  Captivit)r,  seem 

two  kinds  of  seeds.   The  beginning  of  the  harvest  was  to  have  invaded  the  entire  literary  and  social  life 

signalized  by  bringing  a  sheaf  of  new  grain  (pre-  of  the  Hebrews.    Hence  the  Hebrew  astronomical 

sumably  barley)  into  the  sanctuary  and  waving  it  system,  their  calendar,  constellations,  sacred  num- 

before  the  Lord.    The  grain  was  generally  cut  with  Mrs,  names  of  the  months,  solar  and  lunar  months, 

the  sickle,  and  sometimes  pulled  up  by  the  roots,  etc.,  are  of  Babylonian  origin.    The  Book  of  Job  no 

Fields  ana  fruit-orchards  were  not  to  be  gleaned  by  less  than  the  early  chapters  of  Genesis  show  the 

their  owners,  as  this  privilege  was  eiven  to  the  poor  traces  of  this  same  Babylonian  influence. 

and  strangers,  as  in  the  case  of  Ruth.    The  threshing        As  the  Tell-el-Amama  letters  have  conclusively 

and  winnowing  were  performed  in  the  open  field,  shown,  the  art  of  writing  must  have  been  known  in 

the  first  by  means  of  cattle  yoked  together,  the  other  Canaan  and  among  the  ancient  Hebrews  as  early 

by  shovels  and  fans.  as  the  Mosaic   age,   and  even   earlier.     Whether, 

(7)  Commerce. — ^The  Hebrew  people  of  olden  times  however,  this  art  was  utilized  by  them  to  any  great 

were  not  inclined  towards  commerce  and  did  not  extent,  is  another  question.     Hebrew  literature  is 

indulge  in  it.     This  is  probablj  due  partly  to  the  one  of  the  most  venerable  and  valuable  literary 

geographical  position  of  Palestine  and  partly  to  its  productions  of  the  ancient  East;  and,  although  in 

physical  features.    For  although,  geographically.  Pal-  respect  of  quantity  and  variety  far  inferior  to  that 

estine  would  seem  to  have  offered  the  most  natural  of  the  Assyro-Babylonians  and  Egyptians,  never- 

highway  to  connect  the  opulent  cbmmercial  nations  theless,  in  loftiness  of  ideals,  sublimity  of  thoughts, 

of  Egypt,  Syria,  Phoenicia,  Assyria,  and  Babylonia,  and  standard  of  morals  and  ethics,  it  is  infinitely 

nevertheless,    it   lacked    a   sea-coast.      Hence    the  superior  to  them. 

Israelites  remained  essentiiEiily  a^culturists.     The  '  The  art  of  music,  both  vocal  and  instrumental, 

trade  of  the  Israelites  consisted  chiefly  in  the  mutual  occupies  a  high  position  in  the  Bible.     Previous  to 

exchange  of  products  among  themselves.     At  the  the  time  of  David,  the  music  of  the  Hebrews  seems 

tune  of  Davia  and  Solomon,  caravans  from  Egypt,  to  have  been  of  the  simplest  character,  as  direct 

Arabia,  and   Syria  were  not   infrequently  sent  io  efforts  to  cultivate  music  among  them  appear  first 

Palestine  and  vice  versa.    The  ships  which  Solomon  in  connexion    with    the    schools   of    the  prophets, 

is  said  to  have  sent  to  remote  lands  were  built  and  founded  by  Samuel.     Under  David's  direction  not 

manned  by  the  Phoenicians.     But  even  this  revival  less  than  four  thousand  musicians,  i.  e.  more  than 

of  commercial  spirit  amon^  the  Hebrews  was  short-  the  tenth  part  of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  praised  the  Lord 

lived,  for  it  ended  with  the  life  of  Solomon.    Solomon's  with  "instruments"  in  the  service  of  the  temple, 

commercial  activities  have  been  also  greatly  mis-  A   select   body   of   two   hundred   and   eighty-eight 

understood  and  exaggerated.     A  faint  revival  of  trained  musicians  led  this  chorus  of  voices,  one  person 

the  Solomonic  commercial  spirit  was  inaugurated  by  being  placed  as  leader  over  a  section  consisting  of 

King  Jehoshaphat.  of  whom  we  read  that  he  made  twelve  singers.     Hcman,  Asaph,  and  Ethan  were 

"'ships  of  Tharshisn  to  go  to  Ophir  for  gold:  but  they  among  the  most  famous  of  these  leaders.     Men  and 

went  not;  for  the  ships  were  broken  at  Ezioneeber*'  women  were  associated  together  in  the  choir.     In 

[I  (D.  V.  Ill)  Kings^  xxii,  48].     Ehiring  and  after  later  Hebrew  times  the  art  of  music  developed  still 

the  Babylonian  Captivity,  the  Hebrews  were  com-  further  till  it  reached  its  acme  under  Hezekiah  and 

pelled  by  circumstances  to  resort  to  trade  and  com-  Josiah.     The    Hebrew    musical    instruments   were, 

merce,  as  they  had  come  into  constant  contact  with  like  those  of  other  nations  of  antiquity,  chiefly  of 

their  Babsrlonian  brethren  and  with  the  numerous  three   kinds,   viz:   stringed   instruments,   wind   in** 

Spo-Phcenician  and  Aranuean  tribes  and  colonies,  struments,  and  such  as  were  beaten  or  shaken  to 

The  historian  Josephus  well  summarizes  this  whole  produce  sound.    To  the  first  class  belong  the  harp, 

matter  when,  in  his  work  against  Apion,  he  sa3rB:  the  psaltery  (also  rendered  "viol",  "dulcimer",  etc.), 

''We  neither  inhabit  a  maritime  country,  nor  do  we  the  sackbut  (Lat.  Sambuca).    To  the  second  belonjir 


BIBLIOAL                            552  BTBLTOAL 

the  flute,  the  pipe  (Lat.  fistula)  ^  and  the  trumpet,  affairs,  however,  does  not  necessarily  imply  a  con- 
To  the  last  belong  the  tabret,  or  timbrel,  the  casta-  dition  of  utter  lawlessness.  On  the  contrary,  tribal 
nets,  and  the  cymbals.  customs  formed  practically  a  law  of  binding  char- 
In  mechanical  arts,  the  Israelites  were  far  behind  acter,  although  tney  were  not  regarded  as  law  in 
their  Egyptian  and  Asffyro-Babylonian  neighbours,  the  proper  sense  of  the  term. 
The  author  of  I  Samuel  (D.  V.  I  Kixigs)  gives  a  sorry  That  such  was  the  prevalent  social  condition  of 
but  true  picture  of  the  times  preceding  the  activity  the  ancient  Hebrews  m  the  patriarchal  period  is 
of  Samuel  as  follows:  '^Nbw  there  was  no  smith  cjuite  certain.  The  few  recoraed  incidents  in  the 
found  throughout  all  the  land  of  Israel  .  .  .  but  all  lives  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  furnish  ample 
the  Israelites  went  down  to  the  Philistines,  to  illustration  of  it.  The  long  sojourn  of  the  Hebrews 
sharpen  every  man  his  share,  and  his  coulter,  and  in  Egypt  and  the  comparatively  advanced  civilixa- 
his  axe,  and  his  mattock.''  In  the  times  of  Solomon,  tion  with  which  they  there  came  in  contact,  as  well 
however,  as  it  appears  in  connexion  with  the  build-  as  their  settlement  in  Canaan,  might  be  expected 
ing  of  the  temple,  conditions  materially  improved,  to  have  influenced  their  old  tribal  system  of  law  and 
Of  the  artisan  classes,  those  working  in  wood  and  justice.  Nevertheless,  the  authentic  historical  records 
metals  were  always,  perhaps,  the  most  numerous  of  Israel's  national  formation  and  even  the  legislatioii  * 
it}  Israel.  ^Among  tne  former  were  carpenters,  of  the  Book  of  the  Covenant,  which  is  undoubtedly 
cabinet-makers,  wood-carvers,  manufacturers  of  the  oldest  Hebrew  code  of  laws,  when  carefully 
wafons,  of  baskets,  of  various  household  utensils,  examined,  utterly  fail  to  show  any  such  remarkable 
including  the  distaff  and  the  loom,  and  of  the  tools  advance  in  the  administration  of  law  and  justice 
used  in  agriculture,  such  as  ploughs,  yokes,  threshing-  over  the  old  nomadic  tribal  system.  It  is  true,  that 
machines,  goads,  and  winnowing-shovels.  Workers  *  as  Dr.  Benzinger  remarks,  "  before  the  monarchy 
in  metals  mentioned  in  the  Bible  are  gold-  and  Israel  had  attained  a  certain  degree  of  unity  in 
silversmiths  and  workers  in  brass  and  iron.  Some  matters  of  law;  not  in  the  sense  that  it  possessed  a 
of  the  tools  of  which  they  made  use  were  the  anvil,  written  law  common  to  all  the  tribes,  or  as  a  imiform 
the  bellows,  the  smelting-fumace,  the  flning-pot,  the  organization  for  the  pronouncing  of  legal  judgments, 
hfunmer,  and  the  tongs.  Among  the  various  products  but  in  the  sense  that  along  with  a  common  God  it 
of  these  Hebrew  metal-workers  are  settings  for  had  a  community  of  custom  and  of  feeling  in  matters 
precious  stones,  gilding,  axes,  saws,  sickles,  knives,  of  law,  which  community  of  feeling  can  be  txaoed 
swords,  spear-heads,  fetters,  chains,  bolts,  nails,  back  very  far.  'It  is  not  so  done  in  Israel'  and 
hooks,  penstocks,  pans  for  cooking  purposes,  plough-  'Folly  in  Israel,  which  ou^ht  not  to  be  done'  are 
shares,  and  the  wheels  of  thresning-instruments.  proverbial  expressions  reaching  back  to  quite  early 
Copper  or  bronze  was  also  used  in  manufacturing  times".  Nevertheless,  law  as  law,  with  legislative 
some  of  these  articles.  Other  artisans  mentioned  power  and  authority,  or  a  imiform  system  of  legal 
in  the  Bible  are:  stone-masons,  brick-  and  tile-makers,  procedure  with  courts  and  professional  judges,  were 
engravers^  apothecaries,  perfumers,  bakers',  tanners,  unknown  in  the  earlier  period  of  Israelitish  hwtory. 
fullers,  spinners,  weavers,  and  potters.  Most  of  these  A  study  of  the  different  Hebrew  terms  for  judge 
trades  and  mechanical  arts,  however,  came  into  clearly  shows  that  a  professional  class  of  judges 
prominence  during  the  reign  of  Solomon  and  his  sue-  and,  consequently,  duly  conatituted  courts  did  not 
cessors.  exist  in  Israel. till  the  first  period  of  the  monarchy, 
II.  Political  ANTiQumBS. — (1)  Civil  adminia-  and  even  later.  The  Shoterim  were  primarily  sub- 
troHon, — It  has  been  truly  said  that  law  as  law  was  ordinate  military  officials,  who  were  employed  partly 
unknown  in  early  Israel.  The  customs  of  the  clans  in  the  maintenance  of  civil  order  and  muitary  dis- 
and  the  conduct  of  the  elders  or  of  the  most  in-  cipline.  It  was  not  until  post-Exilic  times  that  the 
fluential  members  of  the  tribe  were  looked  upon  as  term  was  applied  to  one  with  judicial  power.  Me- 
the  standards  of  law  and  morality.  Lawfulness  was  hokek  (primarily  from  hakakf  "to  cut  m",  **to  in- 
a  matter  of  custom  more  or  less  ancient  and  more  scfibHB",  "to  decide",  etc!,  and  subsequently,  as  in 
or  less  approved;  and  penalty  was  equally  a  matter  Arabic,  "to  be  just",  "right",  etc.)  meant  originally 
of  custom.  When  custom  failed  in  a  specific  case,  commander  or  ruler.  The  shophetim  (Lat.  sufeUi; 
jud^ent  could  be  rendered  and  new  precedents  Assyrian  sapo^ti),  from  which  the  "Book  of  Judges" 
might  be  made  which  in  process  of  time  would  tidies  its  title,  were  not  judges,  but  champions  and 
crystallize  into  customs.  Hence  the  old  tribal  sys-  deliverers.  Hence,  in  Hosea  (D.  V.  Osee),  vii,  7,  and 
tern  among  primitive  Semitic  clans,  and  especially  Ps.,  ii,  10,  Bhophetim  is  a  synonym  of  "kings"  and 
in  early  Israel  and  Arabia,  knew  no  legislative  au-  "rulers",  and  the  sufetea  of  the  Phoenician  cities  and 
thority;  and  no  sinele  person  or  group  of  persons  colonies  were  called  "kings"  by  the  Greeks.  Other 
was  ever  acknowlec^ed  as  having  power  to  make  terms,  such  as  palily  quasirif  the  meaning  of  which  is 
laws  or  to  render  judgment.  Of  course  prominent  rather  obscure,  primarily  mean  "umpire^'  in  general, 
individuals  or  families  within  the  tribe  enjoyed  "chief",  and  "petty  ruler".  The  only  Hebrew  word 
certain  privileges  in  acknowledgment  of  which  tney  which,  properly  speaking,  means  "judge",  in  its 
performed  certain  duties.  In  many  cases  they  were  etymolo^  and  historical  significance,  is  dayyan 
called  upon  to  settle  differences,  but  they  had  ^found  in  all  Semitic  languages:  An^b.  dayydn; 
no  judicial  powers  and,  if  their  decision  did  not  Aramaic  dayydna;  Assyrian  dcHi^nu  or  doria-nUf  etc.). 
satisfy  the  litigants,  they  had  neither  the  right  nor  Although  the  stem  meant  originally  "to  requite", 
the  power  to  enforce  obedience,  much  less  to  inflict  "to  compensate",  "to  govern",  and  "to  rule",  we 
punishment.  Within  the  tribe  all  men  are  on  a  have  sumcient  warrant  to  believe  that  it  meant,  from 
tooting  of  equality,  and  under  a  communistic  system  the  very  earliest  times,  "to  decide",  and  "to  render 
petty  offences  are  unreasonable.  Serious  misde-  decision".  In  the  Old  Testament,  however,  Uie 
meanour  is  punished  by  expulsion;  the  offender  is  word  rarely  occurs.  In  I  Sam.  (D.  V.,I  Kings),  xxiv, 
excluded  from  the  protection  of  his  kinsmen,  and  15,  it  is  even  questionable  whether  it  belongs  to  the 
the  penalty  is  sufficiently  severe  to  prevent  it  being  original  text,  and  it  is  only  in  post-Exilic  times  that 
a  common  occurrence.  The  man  who  is  wronged  the  word  meant  "professional  judge", 
must  take  the  first  step  in  gaining  redress;  and  when  What  was  the  polity  of  the  Hebrew  tribes  prior 
it  happens  that  the  whole  tribe  is  aroused  by  the  to  the  time  of  Moses  is  not  difficult  to  describe, 
perpetration  of  any  exceptionally  serious  crime,  the  "Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  governed  their 
offence  is  fundamentally  regarded  as  a  violation  of  families  with  an  authority  well  nigh  unlimited, 
the  tribe's  honour,  rather  than  as  a  personal  injury  Their  power  over  their  households  was  little  short 
to  the  family  of  the  sufferer.     This  condition  of  of  a  sovereign  dominion.    They  were  independeat 


BIBLZOAL                               553  BIBLIOAL 

princes.     The^   acknowledged   no  subjection,   and  relations,  inheritances,  the  division  of  property,  the 

owed  no  allegiance  to  any  sovereign.    They  formed  appointment  of  the  god  or  upholder  of  the  family, 

alliances  with  other  princes.     They  treated  with  and  the  settlement  of   blood-revenge.     The  local 

kings  on  a  footing  of  equality.     Tney  maintained  judges,  as  we  have  remarked,  were  not  what  this 

a  body  of  servants,  trained  to  the  use  of  arms;  were  technical  title  ordinarily  means.    They  were  merely 

the  chiefs  who  led  them  in  war,  and  repelled  force  arbitrators  and  advisers  in  settling  disputefi  which 

by  force.     Thgr  were  the  priests  who  appointed  could  not  be  settled  by  the  elders,  ana  very  often 

festivals,  and  offered  sacrifices.    They  had  the  power  they  had  to  decide  cases  of  appeal  from  the  ordinary 

of  disinheriting  their  children,  of  sending  them  away  bench  of  elders  at  the  city  gates.    They  were,  as  a 

from  home  without  assigning  any  reason,  and  even  rule,  taken  from  the  body  of  the  elders  of  the  city, 

of  punishing  them  capitally.  and  later  on  from  the  princes^  chiefs,  and  military 

'^he  twelve  sons  of  Jacob  ruled  their  respective  officers  of  the  army.  The  third  class  consisted  of 
families  with  the  same  authority.  But  when  their  priests,  and  later  on  of  prophets.  They  were  am)ealed 
descendants  had  become  numerous  enough  to  form  to  in  all  difficult  cases,  their  authority  and  influence 
tribes,  each  tribe  acknowledged  a  prince  as  its  ruler,  being  undoubtedly  very  strong.  To  appeal  to  a 
This  office,  it  is  likely,  was  at  first  hereditary  in  the  priest  was  to  appeal  to  God  Himself,  for  the  priest  was 
oldest  son,  but  afterwards  became  elective.  When  universally  aclaiowledged  as  the  official  representa- 
the  tribes  increased  to  such  an  extent  as  to  embrace  tive  of  Yahweh.  His  decisions  were  regarded  as 
a  great  number  of  separate  households,  the  less  "directions",  and  as  such  they  were  of  an  advisory 
powerful  ones  united  with  their  stronger  relatives,  character,  thus  constituting  the  "oracle*'  of  the 
and  acknowledged  thepn  as  their  superiors.  In  this  Hebrews.  As  originally  each  family  group  had  its 
way,  there  arose  a  sub-division  of  the  tribes  into  own  priest,  resort  was  naturally  had  to  him  for 
collections  of  households.  Such  a  collection  was  light  on  practical  difficulties,  not  so  much  the  set- 
technicsdly  called  a  family,  a  clan,  a  house  of  fathers,  thng  of  disputes  as  pointing  out  the  safe,  judicious, 
or  a  thousand.  This  last  appellation  was  not  given  or  righteous  way  for  the  individuals  of  the  household 
because  each  of  these  subAfi visions  contained  just  in  embarrassment.  The  prophets  were  also,  in  course 
a  thousand  persons,  or  a  thousand  households;  for  of  time,  appealed  to,  not  so  much  as  official  repre- 
in  the  nature  of  things,  the  number  must  have  varied,  sentatives  of  Yahweh  as  from  the  fact  that  tney 
and  in  point  of  fact,  it  is  manifest  from  the  history,  were  regarded  as  men  eminent  in  wisdom  and 
that  it  did.  As  the  tribes  had  their  princes,  so  these  spiritual  authority.  From  the  eighth  century  down- 
clans,  families,  or  thousands  had  their  respective  wards  the  authonty  of  the  priests  was  flTeatly  over- 
chiefs,  who  were  called  heads  of  houses  of  fathers,  shadowed  by  that  of  the  prophets,  who  managed 
heads  of  thousands,  and  sometimes  simply  heads,  the  destinies  of  the  whole  nation  with  an  almost 
Harrington  denominates  these  two  classes  of  officers  imlimited  authority  and  assertiveness,  proclaiming 
phylarchs,  or  jgovemors  of  tribes,  and  patriarchs,  themselves  as  the  messengers  of  Yahweh^  and  the 
or  governors  of  families.  Both,  while  the  Israelites  mouthpieces  of  His  orders.  A  single  judicial  centre 
were  yet  in  Egypt,  were  comprehended  under  the  for  the  whole  nation  was  never  attained  till  the 
general  tjtle  ol^elders.  Whether  this  name  was  a  period  of  the  monarchy.  During  the  period  of  the 
title  of  honour,  like  that  of  sheikh  (the  aged)  among  Judges  several  leading  judicial  centres  existed,  such 
the  Arabs,  and  that  of  senator  among  the  Romans,  or  as  Shiloh,  Beth-el,  Gilgal,  Mizpah,  Ramah,  ^tc. 
whether  it  is  to  be  understood,  according  to  its  Whether  Hebrew  judges  held  their  omce  for  life 
etymology,  as  denoting  persons  actually  sSvanced  is  not  altogether  certain,  although  the  presumption 
in  years,  is  uncertain.  These  princes  of  tribes  and  is  that  they  did.  It  is  likewise  imcertain  whether 
heads  of  thousands,  the  elders  of  Israel,  were  the  any  salary  or  compensation  was  attached  to  the 
rulers  of  the  people,  while  they  remained  still  subject  office.  •  In  the  case  of  the  Ten  Judges,  no  revenues 
to  the  power  of  tne  Pharaohs,  and  constituted  a  were  appropriated  for  them,  except,  perhaps,  a 
kind  of  Mmperium  in  imperio\  Of  course  they  had  larger  snare  of  the  spoils  taken  in  war;  and  in  case 
no  written  constitution,  nor  any  formal  code  of  laws,  of  the  ordinary  local  judges  or  elders  the  offering 
but  governed  by  custom,  reason,  and  the  principles  of  presents  was  auite  common.  This  at  first  may 
of  natural  justice.  They  watched  over  and  provided  have  been  a  kind  of  testimonial  of  gratitude  and 
for  the  general  good  of  the  community,  while  the  respect,  but  it  afterwwds  degenerated  into  mere 
affairs  of  each  individual  household  continued  under  bribery  and  corruption. 

the  control  of  its  own  father.    For  the  most  part,  it  Whether  the  office  of  princes  of  tribes,  chiefs, 

may  be  supposed,  only  those  cases  which  concerned  military  officers,  elders,  and  judges  was  hereditary 

the  fathers  of  families  themselves  would  come  under  or  elective,  is  n<>t  easy  to  determine.    Both  systems 

the  cognizance  and  supervision  of  the  elders.*'  may  have  been  according  to  the  different  circum-* 

During  their  wanderings  through  the  Desert  the  stances;  but  that  in  the  majority  of  cases  it  was 

Hebrew  tribes  had  no  occasion  to  introduce  any  hereditary,  admits  of  no  doubt,  for  such  was  the 

radical  change  in  this  form  of  government,  for  they  prevailing  custom  in  the  ancient  East  and,  to  a  cer- 

had  to  contend  with  continuous  difficulties  oif  a  social,  tain  extent,  is  so  even  in  our  own  days, 

moral,    and    religious    character.      And,    although  No  external  sign  of  honour  seems  to  have  been 

numerically  superior  to  many  Canaanitish  tribes,  attached  to  the  dignity  of  judges  and  elders  in  Israel. 


against  tLe  predatory  tnbes  and  rivals  &r  the  posses-  ment"  probably  refers  to  the  princes  of  the  tribes, 

sion  of  fertile  lands  and  oases,  they  soon  developed  chiefs,  eiders,  and  judges  in  their  respective  capacities 

a  military  spirit,  which  is  tne  strongest  external  of  military   commanders,   magistrates,   and  moral 

principle  of  cohesion  in  nomadic  life.  advisers  and  arbiters.     In  the  East,  even  at  the 

The    administration   of  justice  in   Israel   in  the  present  day,  the  quadiSf  or  chief  judges  and  magis- 

Mosaic  age,  and  for  a  loi^  time  after,  was  in  the  hands  trates,  have  the  distinctive  privileige  of  riding  either 

of  the  elders,  the  local  judges,  and,  somewhat  later,  on  mules  or  white  asses,  as  against  the  military 

the  priests  and  the  Levites,  joined  afterwards  by  officers  and  civil  governors  who  must  ride  on  horses, 

the   prophets.     The   elders,    who   represented   the  That  the  office  of  chief  magistrate  was  unknown 

former  heads  of  the  families  and  clans  under  the  in  ancient  Israel  is  quite  certain.     In  the  whole 

tribal  system,  had  undoubtedly  ample  jurisdiction  Pentateuchal  legislation  allusion  to  such  an  institu- 

ooncermng  family  affairs,  disputes  about  conjugal  tion  is  absolutely  wanting.    The  supreme  authority 


BIBLICAL  554  BIBUOAL 

of  the  Hebrew  community  was  in  Yahweh.    Moses,  appear  before  Elohim  does  not  mean  to  appear  before 

strictly  speaking,  was  but  the  viceroy  of  Yahweh:  the  judges,  but  to  take  a  solenm  oath  at  some  holy 

and  tne  same,  to  a  certain  extent,  may  also  be  said  place  or  sanctuary  where  the  presence  of  the  deity 

of  Joshua.    Their  successors,  the  judges,  were  rather  was  more  sensibly  felt.    Bv  taking  an  oath  the  man 

military   commanders   than   jud^   or   magistrates  in  question  constitutes  God  as   the  judge   before 

in  the  strict  sense.    With  the  beginning  of  the  mon-  whom   he  protests   his  innocence  ana   amrms  his 

archy,  the  civil  as  well  as  the  military  power  began  rights.    God  is  thereby  called  upon  to  avenge  Him- 

to  be  concentrated,  as  far  as  possible,  in  the  person  self  upon  the  perjurera.     And  this  God  is  neither 

of  the  king.     But  the  Pentateuchal  legislation  as  a  Bel.  nor  Marduk,  nor  any  other  particular  god.  but 

whole  is  decidedly  adverse  to  the  idea  of  concentrat-  is  tne  Deity  in  its  almost  abstract  form — He  wno  is 

ing  all  power  in  the  person  of  the  king,  or  in  that  of  considered  to  be  everywhere  and  to  know  every- 

any  individual,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  thing.      Hence    the    rabbinical    interpretation,  fol- 

wnter  of   Deut.,   xvii,   was   influenced   by  Israel's  lowed,  till  the  discovery  of  the  Code  of  Hammurabi, 

historical  e3y>erience  under  the  monarchy.  by  the  majority  of  commentators,  may  be  confidently 

Allusions  to  the  administration  of  law  and  justice  dismissed, 
in  the  old  Book  of  the  Covenant  are  extremely  meagre        The  legislation   of   Deuteronomy,   on   the  other 
and  utterly  fail  to  give  us  any  clear  (or  even  vague)  hand,  which  is  in  the  main  considerably  later  than 
reference  to  legal  procedure,  judges,  courts,  or  to  that  of  the  Book  of  the  Covenant,  furnishes  us  with 
any  system  of  administration  of  justice.    It  is  true  more  abundant  details  concerning  the  administra- 
that  the  Book  of  the  Covenant  contains  statutes  tion  of  law  and  justice  in  Israel.     These  are  oon- 
and  judgments,  apparently   enacted  by  some  au-  tained  mainly  in  xvi,  18-20;  xvii,  8-13,  and  14-20; 
thontative  power;   for  sucn  an  authority  must   be  xix,  15-20,  and  xxv,  1-4.    From  II  Chronicles  (D.  V. 
assumed,  otherwise  there  would  be  no  meaning  in  Paralipomenon)   we  learn   that   King  Jehoshaphat 
the  precise  fixing  of  punishment,  etc.,  such  as  the  established   in   Jerusalem   a   supreme   tribunal,  or 
punishment  of  oeath,  seven  times  prescribed,  and  court  of  justice,  where  priests  and  lay  judges  par- 
the  avenging  on  the  body  of  the  guilty  person  the  ticipated  in  the  administration  of  justice  each  in 
wrong  he  had  done.     Still,  as  Kautzsch  rightly  re-  their  own  sphere,  and  that  he  appointed  judges  in 
marks,  ''we  are  wholly  in  the  dark  as  to  the  circle  all  cities  of  Judah.     Details  are  lacking,  but  in  its 
from  which  all  the  statutes  and  judgments  proceeded,  broader    features    the    judicature    thus   established 
and,  above  all,  as  to  the  public  authority  by  which  by  Jehoshaphat  agrees  remarkably  with  the  ^tem 
scrupulous  obedience  was  ensured.     And,  emphat-  prescribed  in  Deuteronomy,  xvii,  8-13.    Even  in  this 
ically  as  justice  and  impartiality  in  legal  cases  is  case  it  is  doubtful  whether  these  judges  and  tribunals 
insisted  on  (xxiii,  ff.),  there  is  not  a  single  indication  could   in   any  satisfactory  measure   compare  with 
as  to  who  is  authorized  to  pronounce  sentence  or  to  the  Babylonian  legal  system  of  the  time  of  Ham- 
supervise  the  execution  of  the  verdict."     In  two  murabi.     In  Ezecniers  time    (and  this   brings  ub 
cases,  however,  viz.,  in  Exodus,  xxi,  6  and  xxii,  8,  in  down  to  the  sixth  century  b.  c.)  the  priests  seem  to 
which  the  case  is  complicated  and  the  law  doubtful,  have  absorbed  all  administrative  power,  while  the 
the  Book  of  the  Covenant  insists  that  the  parties  author   of   I    Chronicles,   evidently    influenced  by 
should  present  themselves  "before  God"  (Elohim):  Ezechiel  or  Deuteronomy,  tells  us  that  David  had 
in  the  first  case  probably  to  perform  a  symbolic  act  appointed  6,000  Levites  as  judges,  which  is  quite 
which  will  have   legal    effect,  and    in    the  second  inadmissible.    In  the  post-Exilic  times,  and  during 
probably  to  obtain  an  oracle.    The  Septuagint  seems  the  Greek  and  Roman  periods,  reference  is  made  to 
to  have  understood  the  sense  of  the  phrase  before  professional  judges,  local  courts,  and  tribunals  in 
God  in  its  most  obvious  meaning,  rendering  it  ''before  aU  the  cities  of  Israel,  which  was  undoubtedly  due 
the  tribunal  of  God",  i.  e.  that  the  matter  is  to  be  to    Babylonian,    Persian,    Greek,    and   Roman   in- 
referred  to  the  judgment  of  God,  presumably  in  fluences. 

the   sanctuary   or    oeiore    the    priest.      Rabbinical        Judicial  or  legal  procedure  was  very  simple  in 

tradition,  however,  as  early  as  the  time  of  St.  Jerome,  early  Israel.    In  Ebcodus,  xviii,  22,  we  are  told  that 

took  the  word  Elohim  (God)  as  a  plural,  i.  e.  "gods",  the  elders  appointed  by  Moses  at  Horeb  were  to 

arguing  that  the  word  here  means  simply  "judges",  judge  the  people  "at  all  seasons";  and  in  Numbers, 

from  tne  fact  that,  on  account  of  the  sacredness  xxvii,  2  (cf.  Exodus,  xviii,  19  sqq.),  we  read  that 

of  their  office,  and  the  place  where  their  decisions  Moses   rendered   judgments   before   the    tabernacle 

were  rendered  Soften  in  the  temple  or  at  some  sacred  of  Yahweh,  where  he  sat  with  Aaron  and  the  princes 

shrine)  the  judges  were  called  "gods".     The  rab-  or  elders  of  the  congregation  to  teach  statutes  and 

binical  interpretation  which  has  T^n  followed  by  give  judgments.     According  to  Deuteronomy,  xxi, 

the  majority  of  ancient  and  modern  commentators,  19;  xxii,  15;  and  xxv,  7  (cf.  JProv.,  xxii,  22;  Amos,  v, 

ingenious  though  it  be,  is  nevertheless  erroneous:  11,  15;  and  Ruth,  iv,  1,  etc.),  the  judges  in  the  cities 

for,  considering  the  fact  that  the  two  cases  referred  had  their  seat  at  the  gate,  which  was  the  thorough- 

to  were  such  as  no  judge  could  decide  with  any  cer-  fare  of  the  public,  or  in  the  public  squares  of  the  city, 

tainty  or  probability,  and  in  which  only  a  divine  where  the  markets  were  held,  or  in  some  other  open 

intervention  could   bring   about   a  satisfactory  so-  place.      Even    the    supreme    judges    administered 

lution,  we  may  assume  that  the  rabbinical  inter-  justice  in  public;   Deborah,  for  instance,   under  a 

pretation  is  untenable.     This  conclusion  has  been  palm-tree,  and  the  kings  at  the  gate,  or  in  the  court, 

admirably  vindicated  by  the  Code  of  Hammurabi,  of  the  royal  palace.    Solomon  is  said  to  have  erected 

where,  in  several  cases  in  which  the  doubt  is  such  as  a  porch,  or  nail  of  judgment,  in  Jerusalem,  for  his 

to  make  any  human  wisdom  of  no  avail,  and  any  own  royal  court  of  justice,  and  from  Jeremiah  we 

judicial  decision  untrustworthy,  the  decision  is  left  learn  that  in  later  times  the  princes  of  Judah  ex- 

to  God  Himself.    Hence,  in  all  such  cases  Hammurabi  ercised  iudgment  in  a  chamber  of  the  royal  palace, 

decrees  that  the  litigants  should  present  themselves  Jeremiah  himself,  when  accused  by  the  prieets  and 

"before  God",  and  swear  by  His  name,  i.  e.  take  an  false  prophets,  was  judged  by  the  princes  of  the 

oath.    The  expression  used  oy  Hammurabi  is  exactly  people,  who  are  said  to  have  come  out  of  the  king's 

the  same  as  that  used  in  the  two  passages  of  Exodus  house  into  the  temple  to  judge  at  the  entrance    of 

referred  to,  and  the  cases  in  which  tne  expression  the  new  gate  before  the  assembled   p>eople.     The 

is  applied  are  analogous.    But  in  the  Code  of  Ham-  litigants,  viz.,  the  plaintiff  and  the  defendant,  ap- 

murabi  "to  appear  before  God"  is  the  same  as  "to  peared  personally  before  the  elders,  and  presented 

swear  by  the  name  of  God",  or  "to  take  a  solenm  their  complaints  orally.    The  accused,  if  not  present, 

oath";  hence,  in  the  two  passages  of  Exodus,  to  could   be   summonea   to   appear.     Advocates  are 


WBUOAL                             555  BIBLIOAZ. 

unknown  in  the  Old  Testament,  for  the  plaintiff  was  harmless;  in  the  latter  case,  moreover,  ibe  woman 

supposed  to  look  after  his  own  case  it  he  desired  becomes  fruitful. 

satisfactoiy  judgment.  Litigants  were  also  at  The  existence,  at  least  at  certain  periods,  of  cor* 
liberty  to  settle  their  differences  personally,  without  ruption  and  dishonesty  in  the  administration  of 
appealing  to  the  judge.  The  judge  was  held  bound  justice  in  Israel,  and  especially  among  the  priests, 
to  hear  and  examine  the  case  closely  and  conscien-  need  hardly  be  insisted  on.  The  example  of  the 
tiously,  his  chief  method  of  inquiry  being  the  ex-  two  sons  of  Eli,  notorious  for  their  ^reed,  b  well 
amination  of  the  testimony  of  the  witnesses.  The  known.  Micah,  Isaiah,  Hosea,  Zephamah,  Jeremiah, 
accusations  of  the  father  against  his  rebellious  child  and  Malachi  freely  and  vehemently  accuse  the  He- 
needed  no  support  of  witness.  In  other  cases,  how-  brew  judges  of  unfsdmess,  iniustice,  respect  of  persons, 
ever,  especially  criminal  cases,  not  fewer  than  two  bribery,  and  dishonesty  in  their  legal  decisions, 
or  three  witnesses  were  absolutely  required.  In  all  (2)  The  army, — ^While  in  Egypt,  the  Hebrews  lived 
probability  the  testimony  of  slaves,  cnildren  under  a  peaceful  pastoral  life  under  tne  supreme  control  of 
age,  and  women  was  not  accepted,  as  is  expressly  the  PharacHis.  During  their  forty-years  wandering 
stated  by  Josephus  and  the  Talmud,  although  not  in  the  desert,  they  had  no  enemy  to  fight,  and  no 
mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament.  Witnesses  were  land  to  conquer;  but  when  the  time  of  their  entering 
thoroughly  examined,  and,  as  in  the  Code  of  Ham-  Canaan  approached,  the  situation  was  completely 
murabi,  false  witnesses  were  punished  according  to  chimged.  Here  they  were  face  to  face  with  old 
the  lex  talionia,  viz.,  by  inflicting  the  precise  kind  of  settl^  Canaanitish  tribes  and  nations,  such  as  the 
punishment  the  false  witness  had  intended  to  bring  Philistines,  the  Ammonites,  the  Moabites,  the 
upon  his  victim  by  his  falsehood.  Witnesses  do  Amorites,  the  Jebusites,  the  JBEivites,  the  Perissites, 
not  seem  to  have  been  put  on  oath,  but  when  the  and  many  others,  whom  thev  had  to  attack,  defeat, 
nature  of  the  case  was  such  as  to  make  it  impossible  and  exterminate.  ''Ye  shall  utterly  destroy",  was 
to  have  or  to  produce  witnesses,  as  in  a  case  of  theft,  the  command  of  Yahweh,  "all  the  places,  wherein 
the  oath  was  then  administerea  to  the  accused,  ana  the  nations  which  ye  shall  possess  served  their  gods, 
the  case  decided.  When  the  discovery  of  the  crime  upon  the  high  mountains,  and  upon  the  hills,  and 
and  of  the  guilty  party  was  a  practical  impossi-  under  every  green  tree:  and  ye  shall  overthrow  their 
bility,  Yahwen  was  looked  to  for  the  accomplish-  altars,  and  break  their  pillars,  and  bum  their  groves 
ment  of  the  task.  with  fire;  and  ye  shall  new  down  the  graven  images 

The  Law  affixes  no  civil  punishment  for  perjury:  of  their  gods,  and  destroy  the  names  of  them  out  of 

it  forlnds  it  as  a  profanation  of  Yahweh 's  name  and  that  place"  (Deut.,  xii,  2,  3).    Hence  the  creation 

threatens  it  with  divine  punishment.     It  must  be  and  organization  of  an  arm^r  became  a  necessity,  and 

noted,  however,  that  in  all  cases  in  which  an  oath  it  is  morally  certain  that  in  their  first  wars  every 

was  taken  before  a  judgment-seat  it  consisted  merely  available  Hebrew  fighter  took  part.    From  the  time 

of  an  adjuration  addressed  by  the  judge  and  re-  of  'David  down  to  the  late  monarchical  period  a 

flponded  to  by  the  person  sworn  with  an  Amen,  regular  army  was  selected  and  organized.     From 

'Only  in  common  life  did  the  person  swearing  him-  Num.,i,  3,  it  appears  that  the  whole  male  population 

self  utter  the  oath,  either:  'So  Yahweh  do  to  ntfe,  over  twenty  years  of  age,  if  capable  of  bearing  arms, 

and  more  also',  or  'God  [Elohim]  do  so  to  me',  etc.,  were  liable  to  military  auty.    At  the  time  of  the 

or  'as  Yahweh  liveth'.    But  in  such  cases  the  name  Judges,  it  is  certain  that  tne  Israeli tish  army  was 

of  Yahweh  was  probably  avoided,  and  the  oath  was  composed  wholly  of  infantry,  as  David  was  the  first 

taken  by  the  life  (soul)  of  the  man,  to  whom  one  to  use  horses  and  chariots  for  military  purposes, 

wished  to  protest  by  oath.    In  later  times,  it  became  and  it  was  Solomon  who  first  established  a  distinct 

oomnoon,  especially  among  the  Pharisees,  to  swear  cavalry  army.    In  the  middle  days  of  the  monarchy 

by  heaven,  by  the  earth,  by  the  temple,  the  holy  city,  the  Hebrews  could  raise  an  army  of  one  hundred 

and  by  one's  own  head."  and  eighty  thousand  men  [I  Kings  (D.  V.  Ill  Kings), 

The  verdict,  or  the  sentence,   was   pronounced  xii,  21  J,  and  on  some  occasions  twice  and  even  three 

CMuUy,  although  from  Job,  xiii,  16;  and  Isaiah,  x,  1,  times  as  many  [see  II  Chronicles  (D.  V.  Paralip.). 

it  appears  thai  in  some  cases  the  sentence  may  have  xiii,  3,  and  xiv,  8].    These  figmres,  however,  need 

been   giv^i  in  written  form.     The   sentence   was  be  greatly  lowered,  as  they  are  due  probably  to  a 

to   be  executed  without  delay.     Punishment  was  copyist's  error.    The  army  was  divided  into  hun- 

administered  before  the  eyes  of  the  judge,  and  that  dreds  and  thousands,  with  their  appropriate  leaders, 

of  stoning  by  the  whole  congregation  or  the  people  captains  of  hundreos  and  captains  of  thousands, 

of  the  city,  the  witnesses  being  required  to  put  their  if  on  their  arrival  by  septs  or  clans  they  were  not 

hands  first  to  the  execution  of  the  guilty.  thus   organized.     It  is   certain,    however,   that   in 

The  practice  of  ordeals  as  means  for  ascertaining  point  of  armament  and  military  organization  and 

the  truth,  or  obtaining  a  confession  of  guilt,  was  discipline  the  Hebrew  army  was  greatly  inferior  to 

l^  no  means  unknown  in  Israel,  although  Josephus  either  the  Egyptian  or  the  Assyrian.    Before  under- 

eaqpveBaiy  tdU  us  that  torture  and  the  bastinado  taking  any  military  operation.  Yahweh  was  consulted 

for  tJiis  purpose  were  firat  introduced  into  Israel  through  a  prophet  or  through  the  Urim  and  Thum- 

l^  the  Herodians.    The  most  important  one  is  the  mim,  and  sacrifices  were  offered  just  as  in  Homer's 

so-called  "ordeal  of  jealousy",  prescribed  in  Num-  times.    This  custom,  however,  was  practised  by  all 

bers,  V,  11-31,  in  the  case  of  a  woman  suspected  nations  of  antiquity.    From  many  Biblical  passages 

of  adultery  which  cannot  be  legally  proved.     For  [such  as  Judges,  vii,  16;  I  Sam.  (D.  V.  Kings),  xi,  11; 

this  purpose  the  husband  of  the  suspected  woman  II  Sam.   (D.  V.  Kings),  xviii,  2;  I  Kings  (D.  V. 

would  bring  her  to  the  priest;  he  must  also  brine  III  Kings),  xx,  27;  and  II  Mace.,  viii,  22,  etc.]  it 

with  him  an  offering  of  barley  meal,  which  is  called  clearly  appears  that  the  attacking  Israeli  tish  army 

"a   meal---    '        ^    •    •      •"  ,    ^    .         .  _r.     .._...,._..  .._.„..__.... ._  xu. 

memorial 

priest         ^  ^ 

ber  take  an  oath  of  purgation,  and  then  gives  her  to  conflict  was  preceded  by  two  ranks  of  spearmen; 


nacie  has  been  mingled,  and  into  which  the  written  of  the  enemy,  while  night-attacks,  with  skilfully 
words  of  the  oath  have  been  washed.  If  the  woman  divided  forces,  were  not  infrequent.  The  beginning 
be  guilty  the  potion  proves  harmful;  if  innocent,    of  the  battle  was  signalized  by  the  blast  of  a  trumpet, 


BIBLICAL                              556  BIBLIGAL 

accompanied  by  the  shouts  of  the  combatants.    The  was  to  offer  to  Yahweh  the  firstfroits  of  the  harvest^ 

Ark  with  its  e'j^iod  was  considered  indispensable,  and  to  tha^  Him  for  it. 

It  was  borne  before  the  army,  who,  as  it  was  taken  The  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  or  Booths,  was  obs^^ed 
up,  cried  out,  "Arise,  O  Yahweh,  and  let  Thine  for  seven  days,  i.  e.  from  the  16th  to  the  22nd  of 
enemies  be  scattered,  and  let  them  that  hate  Thee  Tisri  (the  seventh  month  of  the  Jewish  year,  ap- 
flee  before  Thee".  The  principal  equipment  for  proximately  corresponding  to  our  October),  foUow- 
war  was  the  helmet,  shield,  and  other  defensive  ing  closely  upon  the  Day  of  Atonement.  It  marked 
armour,  the  bow,  the  sling,  the  sword,  the  spear,  the  the  completion  of  the  fruit-harvest  (which  included 
javelin,  and  other  instruments  which  must  have  been  the  oil-  and  wine-harvest),  and,  historicallv,  it  coin- 
common  to  all  Oriental  nations,  although  not  ex-  memorated  the  forty-years  wandering  in  the  wilder- 
piicitly  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  ness,  when  all  the  Hebrew  tribes  and  families,  for 

III.  Sacred  ANTiQUiriES.^-Some  of  the  Hebrew  lack  of  houses  and  buildines,  lived  in  tents  and 

festivals  are  originally  of  historical  character,  i.  e.  booths.    "The  sacrifices  at  tnis  feast  were  far  more 

are  oonmiemorative  of  some  ^at  historical  event  numerous  than  at  any  other.    On  each  of  the  seven 

in  the  life  of  the  Hebrew  nation;  while  others  are  days  one  kid  of  the  goats  was  offered  as  a  sin  offering, 

primarily  religious,  or  of  ethico-religious  significance,  and  two  rams  and  fourteen  lambs  as  a  burnt-offering. 

To  the  first  category  belong  the  Feast  of  Passover,  Also  seventy  bullocks  were  offered  on  the  seven  days, 

the  Feast  of  Pentecost,  and  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  be^nning  with  thirteen  on  the  first  day  and  dimm- 

and  other  minor  ones  mentioned  below,  such  as  the  ishmg  by  one  each  dav,  until  on  the  seventh  day 

Feast  of  Purim,  etc.    To  the  second  class  belong  the  seven  were  offered.    After  the  seven  dajrs  a  solemn 

Sabbath,  the  New  Moon,  the  Feast  of  Ttumpets,  day   of    'holy   convocation'    was   observed    which 

the  Sabbatical  Year  and  the  Year  of  Jubilee.    The  marked  the  conclusion,  not  only  of  the  feast  of 

former  were  more  properly  called  festivals;  the  latter.  Tabernacles,  but  of  the  whole  cycle  of  the  festal  year. 

sacred  seasons.     The  latter  are  lunar;  the  former  On  this  day  one  bullock,  one  ram,  and  seven  lambs 

are  solar — based  on  the  lunar  and  solar  systems  re-  were  offered  as  a  burnt  offering  and  one  goat  for 

spectivehr.    The  principal  features  of  the  three  great  a  sin  offering. "    The  earliest  Biblical  allusion  to 

historical  festivals  consisted  in  making  a  pilgrima^,  this  feast  is  found  in  I  (D.  V.  Ill)  Kings,  viii,  2,  and 

or  a  visit,  to  the  Temple,  as  prescribed  in  Exodus,  xxiii,  xii,  32. 

14,  17:  "Three  times  in  the  year  shalt  thou  hold  Besides  these  three  great  festivals,  certain  minor 

pilgrimage  unto  me,  three  times  in  the  year  shall  ones  were  observed   uy  the   Hebrews:  The  word 

all   thy  men   appear  before    Yahweh,  the  God  of  Purim   is   probably   of   Persian   origin    {Ftirdigany 

Israel.*'  Pordigdn,  or  Pardiydn),  and  the  feast  so  named  was 

The  Passover  (whence  our  Pascha),  with  which  the  instituted  to  commemorate  the  overthrow  of  Haman, 
Feast  of  the  Unleavened  Bread  is  closely  connected  the  triumph  of  Mordecai,  and  the  escape  of  the  Jews 
and  almost  identified,  although  originally  distinct  from  utter  destruction  in  the  time  of  Esther.  It 
from  it,  constituted  the  opening  festival  of  the  was  celebrated  in  the  14th  and  16th  ^ay  of  Adar 
Jewish  ecclesiastical  year,  and  was  celebrated  on  (the  twelfth  and  last  month  of  the  Jewish  Year). — 
the  14th  of  Nisan  (Abib),  which  month  approxi-  The  Feast  of  the  Dedication  of  the  Temple  was  in- 
matdy  corresponds  to  our  April.  It  was  insti-  stituted  in  164  b.  c.  by  Judas  Maccabeeus,  when  the 
tuted  in  commemoration  of  the  Exodus  from  Temple,  which  had  been  desecrated  by  Antiochus 
Egypt,  when  the  Angel  of  Death  went  forth  to  de-  Epipnanes,  was  once  more  purified  and  rededicated 
stroy  the  first-bom  of  the  Egvptians,  passing  over  to  the  service  of  Yahweh.  It  commenced  on  the 
(whence  Passover),  however,  the  houses  of  the  He-  25th  of  Chislew,  the  ninth  month  of  the  JdWish  year 
brews,  on  the  lintels  of  whose  doors  the  blood  of  a  (corresponding  to  our  December),  and  lasted  for 
lamb  had  been  sprinkled.  The  Passover  Festival  was  eight  aa^rs.  It  was  a  feast  of  universal  and  un- 
celebrated as  follows:  An  unblemished  male  lamb  bounded  joy,  delight,  and  happiness,  as  was  that  of 
a  year  old  (called  the  paschal  lamb)  was  to  be  se-  Purim.  Other  minor  feasts  were  the  Feast  of  the 
lected  by  each  family  in  Israel.  It  was  to  be  killed  Wood  Offering;  The  Reading  of  the  Law;  Feast  of 
on  the  evening  of  the  fourteenth  day  and  consumed  Nicanor;  of  ike  Captured  Fortress;  of  Baskets,  etc. 
the  same  night.  The  flesh  was  to  be  roasted,  not  The  sacred  seasons,  or  religious  festivals,  are 
eaten  raw,  or  boiled,  and  not  a  bone  of  the  animal  primarily  a  development  of  the  institution  of  the 
was  to  be  broken.  Along  with  it,  unleavened  bread  Sabbath  and  based  on  the  lunar  system  of  the 
and  bitter  herbs  might  be  used,  but  nothing  more;  Calendar.  It  has  been  often  remarked,  and  with 
and  whatever  portions  were  not  needed  for  food  were  good  reason,  that  in  all  the  Hebrew  Religious  Fee- 
to  be  destroyea  the  same  night  by  burning.  Hence,  tivals  the  sacred  number  seven  is  the  oominatin^ 
on  the  evening  of  the  thirteenth  day  of  Nisan,  all  factor.  "Every  7th  day  was  a  Sabbath.  Evenr 
leaven  was  scrupulously  removed  from  the  Jewish  seventh  month  was  a  sacred  month.  Every  seventh 
homes.  The  fourteenth  day  was  thus  regarded  as  a  year  was  a  Sabbatical  year.  Seven  times  seven  was 
holiday,  on  which  all  servile  work  was  suspended,  the  year  of  Jubilee.  The  Feast  of  the  Pasflover, 
In  later  Hebrew  times,  however,  the  Passover  with  the  Feast  of  the  Unleavened  Bread,  began 
Festival  was  somewhat  modified.  fourteen  days  (2x7^  after  the  beginning  of  the  month. 

The  Feast  of  the  Pentecost,  also  called  the  Feast  of  and  lasted  seven  aays.    The  Feast  of  Pentecost  wa« 

Weeks,  Feast  of  Harvest,  Day  of  Firstfruits,  etc.,  seven  times  seven  days  after  the  Feast  of  "the  PasB- 

was  celebrated  on  the  fiftieth  day  after  the  Passover,  over.     The   Feast  of  Tabernacles   began  fourteen 

i.  e.  on  or  about  the  8th  of  Siwan,  the  third  month  days  (2x7)  after  the  beginning  of  the  month  and 

of  the  Jewish  ecclesiastical  year.    It  lasted  a  single  lasted  seven  days.    The  seventh  month  was  marked 

day,  and  it  marked  the  completion  of  the  com  hap-  by  (1)  the  Feast  of  Trumpets  on  the  first  day,  (2)  ttie 

vest.     According   to   later  Jewish   traditions,   the  Fast  of  Atonement  on  the  tenth  day,  (3)  Feast  of 

Feast  of  Pentecost  was  also  instituted  in  commemo-  Tabernacles  from  the  fifteenth  day  to  the  twenty^ 

ration  of  the  giving  of  the  Law  to  Moses.    It  is  men-  first.     The  days  of  the  "Holy  Convocation"  weane 

tioned  in  the  Bible  for  the  first  time  in  the  second  seven  in  number — two  at  the  Passover,  cme  at  Pent;©- 

Book  of  Maccabees.     With  the  Feast  of  Pentecost  cost,  one  at  the  Feast  of  Trumpet*,  one  at  the,I> 

the  New  Year  holiday  season  closed.     The  char-  of  Atonement,  and  one  at  the  Feast  of  Tabemad" 

acteristic  ritual  of  this  feast  consisted  in  offering  and  one  on  the  day  following,  the  eighth  day. " 

and  waving  to  Yahweh  in  his  Temple  two  leavened  The  institution  of  the  Hebrew  Sabbath  may 

loaves  of  wheaten  flour,  together  with  a  sin  offering,  traced  in  its  origin  to  the  early  Bal^ylonians  w 

burnt  offering,  and  peace  offering,  and  its  object  according  to  the  majority  of  Assynologists, 


BIBLICAL  557  BIBLICAL 

to  "have  been  its  ori^natoiB,  although  amoiif  the  Apostolic  letter  of  Leo  XIII,  "Vigilaiiti»",*30  Ooto* 

Hebrews  it  developed  on  altogether  different  lines,  ber,  1002. 

It  was  celebrated  on  the  7th,  14th,  21st,  and  28th  day  ^   ConstUutian, — The  Commission  was  first  appointed 

of  the  lunar  month.    It  is  doubtful  whether  it  was  in  August,  1001,  with  three  cardinal  members  and 

known  and  observed  in  patriarchal  and  pre-Mosaic  twelve  consultors.     After  the  formal  establishment 

times.     Moses,  in  instituting — or  rather  in  modi-  two  cardinab  and  twenty-eight  consultors  from  vari- 

fyin^ — the  old  institution  of  the  Sabbath,  connects  ous  parts  of  the  world  were  added  to  the  first  list. 

it  with  the  seventh  day  of  the  Creation  period,  on  There  is  no  limitation  to  the  niunber  of  consultors. 

which  God  is  said  to  have  rested.    By  the  ancient  In  June,  1007,  the  Commission  was  made  up  of  five 

Babylonians  it  was  looked  upon  as  an  unluckv  day,  cardinals,  Rampolla,  Satolii,-  Merry  del  Vtu,  S^na, 

on  which  it  was  unlucky  to  ao  any  public  work,  and  and  Vives  y  Tuto.    The  consultors  were  forty-three: 

consequently  was  a  day  of  rest.  Amelli,  O.S.B.  (Rome),  Baiestri,  O.S.A.  (Rome),  Bar- 

The  New  Moon  Festival  consisted  in  celebrating  denhewer  ^unich),  Cereseto,  Cong.  Orat.  (Genoa), 

the  reappearance  of  the  moon,  and  as  such  it  was  Ceriani    Qlilan),    Chauvin    ^avai).    Comely,    S.J. 

universally  practised  by  all  Semitic  nations.    Hence,  fRome),  Delattre,  SJ,  (Tronchiennes).  DOsterwald 

in  all  probabilitjr,  it  was  an  acknowledged  pre-Mosaic  (Cologne),  Esser,  O.P.  (Rome),  Fillion,  F.S.S.  (Paris), 

Hebrew  institution.     On  this  day  the  law  enjoined  Fleming,  O.F.M.    (England),   Fracassini    (Perugia), 

only  the  offering  of  special  sacrifices  and  the  blowing  Genocchi,  M.S.C.   (Rome),  Gismondi,  S.J.   (Rome), 

of  trumpets.    Abstinence  from  work  was  not  oblig-  Gonfalonieri     (Florence),    Grannan     (Washington), 

atoiy.     On  the  day  of  the  new  moon  of  the  seventh  Gutberlet  (Fulda),  Hoberg  (Freiburg  im  Br.),  H5pn 

month  the  festival  in  question  was  more  solemnly  (Rome),    van    Hoonacker    (Louvain),    von    Hum- 

and  more  elaborately  celebrated.     After  the  Babylon-  melauer,  S.J.  (Valkenburg),  Janssens,  O.S.B. ,  Second 

ian  e;cile,  however,  the  festivj^  assumed  a  new  char-  Secretary  (Rt>me),  Torio  (Palencia),  Kaulen  (Bonn), 

acter,  similar  to  that  of  the  New  Year  Celebration.  Lagrange,     O.P.     (Jerusalem),     Lamy     (Louvain), 

The  Fetut  of  Trumveie  is  the  New  Moon  Festival  Le^ndre  (Angers),  L^picier,  S.M.  (Rome),  LepidH, 

of  the  seventh,  or  Sabbatical,  month  of  the  year.  O.P.    (Rome),    Lcadtre    (Paris),  Mangenot    (Paris), 

The  Sabbatical  Year  occurred  every  seventh  year,  M^hineau,  S.J.    (Rome),  Mercati   (Rome).  Molini, 

and  in  it  fields  were  not  to  be  tilled.  ^  O.F.M.  (Rome),  Nikel  (Breslau),  Poels  (Wasnington)» 

The  Year  of  Jubilee  occurred  every  fifty  years,  i.  e.  Prat,  S.J.  (Rome),  B.  gchaefer  (Vienna),  Scheil,  O.P. 

at  the  end  of  seven  Sabbatic  years,  just  as  Pentecost  (Paris),   Talamo    (Rome),  Vigouroux,  P.S.S.,  First 

occuired  on   the  fiftieth   day   after   the   Passover  Secretary  (Rome),  and  Weiss  (Braunsberg). 
Festival.    Its  principal  feature^  were  the  emancipa-        Method  of  Procedvre. — ^The  Commission   is  con- 

tion  of  the  Hebrew  slaves  and  the  return  of  mort-  stituted  on  the  lines  of  an  ordinary  Roman  Congre^a- 

ga^d  property  to  its  hereditary  owners.  tion.    The  consultors  in  Rome  hold  meeting  twice 

The  great  Hebrew  Fast  Festival  was  the  "Day  of  a  month,  at  which  the  secretaries  preside.  The  re- 
Atonement'',  or  Yom  Kippur.  It  was  celebrated  suits  of  their  deliberations  are  presented  by  the 
on  the  tenth  day  of  the  seventh  month,  on  which  secretaries  to  the  cardinals,  who  also  meet  twice  a 
day  atoning  sacrifices  were  offered  for  the  sins  and  month,  on  the  second  and  fourth  Sundays.  It  be- 
undeannesses  of  the  people  of  Israel  as  a  whole,  and  longs  to  the  cardinals  to  propose  the  questions  for 
for  the  purification  of  the  temple  in  all  its  parts  and  the  study  of  the  Commission  and  they  alone  have  a 
appurtenances.  It  is  significant  that  the  earliest  vote  in  determining  the  answers.  They  may  sanction 
mention  of  it  in  the  Bible  occurs  in  such  oost-Exilic  or  modify  the  juc^ments  of  the  consultors,  or  send 
writings  as  Zech.  CD.  V.  Zach.),  iii,  9;  Nehemiah,  back  the  entire  question  for  further  study,  or  may 
vii,  73;  ix,  38:  ana  Sirach,  1,  5  sqq.  A  ceremony  commission  one  or  other  consultor  to  make  a  special 
connected  with  the  Day  of  Atonement  is  the  so-  report.  After  the  meeting,  the  secretaries  report  to 
called  Far  Azazel.  It  consisted  in  sending  into  the  the  Holy  Father,  who  may  ratify  the  decision  or 
wilderness  the  remaining  goat  (the  "emissaiy  goat"),  remand  the  question  for  further  consideration, 
the  sins  of  the  people  of  Israel  having  first  been  Papers  sent  by  consultors  who  live  at  a  distance 
placed  symbolically  upon  its  head.  from  Rome  are  read  at  the  meetings  of  the  consultors. 

Treatises  on  Biblical  Ardueolooy  by  J  Ami  (Vienna,  1817);  when  relevant  to  the  subject  under  discussion. 

^:^''?^^^?'ili^f^B'.h^,^o^S^it:m)!l^  ^  Scor^  ?f  «..,  Ccm.mtmon.-It  is  the  duty  of  the 

KBPP  (Vienna,  1867);  Kinzlbr  (Stuttgart.  1884);  Scheoo  Commission:  (1)  to  protect  and  defend  the  integrity 

(Froburg.  1886).    For  English  reade^  the  best  and  most  of  the  Catholic  Faith  in  Biblical  matters:    (2)   to 

?^rT;oir.?feinC,^,T887l^^T«LKl^^^  £»^her  the  progress  of  exposition  of  the  ^red 

(Philadelphia,  1888);  Fsnton,  Early  Hebrew  Life  (London*  Books,   taking   account  of   all   recent   discoveries; 

1880);  PatTta*  SocM  Life  of  the  Hebrffm  in  the  Semitic  Senea  (3)  to  decide  controversies  on  grave  questions  which 

(New  York,  1901);  Trumbull,  The  Blood  Covenant;  Id..  The  mavimap  amonir  Catholic  arholS^-  r'4'i  to  in vp  jmrnvprs 

Thishold  Covenant;  Id.,  The  SaU  Covenant;  various  articles  in  ?**y  ^nse  among  V^ainoilC  scnoiars,  [fk)U)  give  answers 

SuTTB,  Dictionary  of  die  Bible;  Kirro,  Biblical  Cyclopedia;  to  Catholics  throughout  the  world  who  may  consult 

Vigouroux,  Diet,  de  la  Bible;  Hastinos,  Diet,  of  the  Bible;  the  Commission:  (5)  to  see  that  the  Vatican  Library 

•nd  Jemsh  Encyclopedia.     The  most  recent  and  authontative  :      r^mnprlv    fnmisVipH    with    roHinAa    and    nAPPSAArv 

works  on  the  subject,  however,  are  Bbnziqer,  Hebr&iache  }«  P^PSTx?  turnisneu  witn  cooices  ana  necessary 

Ardiaploaie  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1894};  Nowack.  Lehrbudi  der  books:  (6)  to  pubbsh  studiefe  on  Scnpture  as  occasion 

hebr^echen    Archdologie  (Freiburg  un  Br.,  1894);  Buhl,  I>i«  may  demand.     It  Was  the  wish  of  Leo  XIII  that  a 

fSS^b^^^iTp.^.  iSS^Xy'^yJTja,::-!'^  penodical  bulletin  of  Biblical,  studies  should  be  pub 

fi«»tf/«roeltto  (Paris.  1906).  Of  great  value,  especially  for  later  lished  at  Rome,  and  a  special  Institute  for  highei 

Old  Testament  times,  are  ^  the  clasdcal  works  of  SchCrer,  Biblical  studies  established.    Lack  of  funds  has  made 

S5»f  t^^^SSJTh^tS  S.^S^,."ftSn'3Sr*.ir&  such  an  ^tablishment  hnpoesibje  for  the  present,  but 

York);  EDBRaHEw.  The  RHea  and  Worahipe  of  the  Jews  (New  the  idea  has  not  been  abandoned.   To  the  Commission 

York.  1891);    I©.,  The  Temple,  ita  Ministry  and  Service  has  been  entrusted  the  awarding  of  an  annual  prize, 

vix>ndon  and  «ew  York;.  OABRiEL  UUS8ANI.  Biblical  topic.    In  April,  1907,  the  Commission,  with 

Biblieal  CommiSBion,  The,  a  committee  of  cardi-  the  approval  of  the  sovereign  pontiff,  invited  the 

nals  at  Rome  who,  with  the  assistance  of  consultors,  Benedictine  Order  to  underlie  a  collection  of  the 

have  te  secure  the  observance  of  the  prescriptions  variant  readings  of  the  Latin  Vulgate  as  a  remote 

contained  in  the  Encyclical  "Providentissimus  Deus"  prepsu'ation  for  a  thoroughly  amended  edition. 
for  the  iMX>per  intwpretation  and  defence  of  Sacred        Degrees  in  Sacred  Scripture. — On  23   February, 

Scripture.    Its  offici^d  name  is  ''Commissio  Pontificia  1904.  Pius  X  empowered  the  Commission  to  confer 

de  re  biblic&".    It  was  formally  established  by  the  the  aegrees  of  Licentiate  and  Doctor  in  the  faculty  of 


BIBLIOTHBOA  558  BIDIBMANN 

Sacred  Scripture  on  priests  who,  having  previously  borough  (date  unknown),  but  residing  at  Yoric;  d. 

attained  the  doctorate  in  theology,  shomd  pass  sue-  5  Au^ist  (or  8  October),  1585.    Arreted  for  giving 

cessful  examinations,  oral  and  written,  in  matter  a  priest,  Yen.  John  Boste,  a  glass  of  ale,  he  was  also 

defined  by  the  Commission.    The  judges  must  be  at  accused  at  his  trial  of  using  treasonable  words.    He 

least  five  consultors.    Examinations  Imve  since  been  was  acquitted,  but  Judge   Rhodes,  determined  to 

held  twice  a  year,  in  June  and  November.     The  have  his  blood,  had  him  removed  from  the  city  gaol 

official  announcements  of  the  Commission  are  com-  to  the  Castle  and  tried  once  more  at  the  Tiamrnas 

municated  to  the  ''Revue  Biblique",  which  is  not.  Assizes  on  the  same  charge.    He  was  then  oondenmed. 

however,  the  official  organ  of  the  Commission.     (See  One  of  his  offences  was  that,  when  Ven.  Francis 

"Revue  Biblique",  1005,  p.  448.)  Ingleby  was  being  drag^  on  the  htutile  to  execution. 

Decisions  of  the  Commission. — Four  important  de-  hearing  a  minister's  wife  say,  "Let  us  go  into  the 

cisions  on  disputed   Biblical  questions  have   been  Tolbooth  and  we  shall  see  the  traitorly  thief  come 

issued  by  the  Commission:  (1)  On  the  occurrence  in  over  on  the  hurdle *\  he  said,  "No;  no  thief,  but  as 

Scripture  of  "implicit  citations'',  i.  e.  quotations  true  as  thou  art".    These  words  were  supposed  to  be 

from  uninspired  oocuments  which  the  sacred  writer  the  cause  of  his  death.    He  sufifered  at  York, 
does  not  vouch  for,  though  he  does  not  expressly       BRiDoKWATni.    Cone^tatio   (Trier,    15»E»;,  ^Morris,    The 

acknowledge  them  as  Quotations.    These  may  not  be  ^^^  ^  ^<^^  -«^  ^/-ofcaifc  (London.  1891^  C^j^";;;«»- 
admitted  unless  provea  by  solid  arguments  (13  Feb-  ' 

ruary,  1905).    (2)  On  the  historical  character  of  cer-       Bicknor,    Alexander,    Archbishop    of    Dublin, 

tain  narratives.     It  is  not  lawful  to  question  the  date  of  birth  unknown;  d.  1349.    As  his  surname 

historical  character  of  books  hitherto  regarded  as  suggests  he    came   from  a  family  of   Kent,    £n^- 

historical,  unless  in  a  case  where  the  sense  of  the  land.    He   was   elected    Archbishop  of  Dublin    m 

Church  is  not  opposed  and  where,  subject  to  her  1310,  being  at  that  time  Prebendary  of  Maynooth 

judgment,  it  is  proved  by  solid  arguments  that  the  and  Treasurer  of  Ireland.    This  selection  was,  how- 

aacred  writer  did  not  intend  to  write  history  (23  June,  ever,  set  aside  by  Edward  II  in  favour  of  Lech  who 

1905).    (3)  On  the  Mosaic  authorship  of  the  Penta-  soon  died;  after  this,  in  May,  1314,  Edward  petitioned 

teuch.    This  has  not  been  disproved  oy  critical  argu-  Pope  Clement  V  to  confirm  Bicknor's  appointment, 

ments.    Mosaic  authorship,  however,  need  not  imply  The  request  was  earnestly  repeated  in  1317,  and  he 

that  Moses  wrote  with  his  own  hand  or  dictated  all  was  finally  consecrated  m  Rome,  22  July  of  this 

of  it;  the  books  may  have  been  composed  by  secre-  year.     In  1318  he  was  appointed  Lord  Justice  of 

taries  to  whom  he  suggested  the  thoughts  and  whose  Ireland.    On  some  unrecorded  ground  his  name  ap- 

work  he  approved  as  principal  and  inspired  author,  pears  as  attending  the  English  Parliament,  and  be 

It  is  consistent  also  with  the  use  by  Moses  of  docu-  took  part  on  24  September,  1318,  in  promulgating 

ments,  oral  or  written^  and  does  not  exclude  the  at  St.  Paul's  the  excommunication  of  Robert  Bruce, 

presence  of  such  additions  or  imperfections  in  the  Even  though,  as  a  diplomatist,  he  was  frequently 

present  text  as  would  leave  it  substantially  and  absent  from  his  diocese,  he  showed  his  interest  in  it 

mtegrally    the    work    of    Moses    (27    June,   1906).  by  building  an  episcopal  residence,  and  he  endeav- 

(4)  On  the  authorship  and  historical  character  of  cured,   unsuccessiuUy,   to  attach  a  college  to  St. 

the  Fourth  Gospel.     It  is  historically  certain  that  Patrick's  Cathedral.     In  1323  he  was  in  France  on  an 

St.  John  wrote  it.    The  Gospel  is  an  historical  docu-  embassy,  in  1324  he  was  engaged  in  negotiating  peace 

ment,  narrating  the  actual  facts  and  speeches  of  with  France  and  in  arranging  a  Spanish  matcn  for 

Our  Lord's  life  (29  May,  1907).  Edward,  Prince  of  Wales.     In  this  ne  failed;  and  on 

Authority  of  its  Decisions. — ^The  Commission  though  his  return  Edward  II  charged  him  with  the  loss  of 

formed  like  a  Congregation  is  not  a  Congregation  La  Rozelle.    About  this  time  he  joined  with  Queen 

but  seemingly  of  lower  rank.     It45  decisions  are  ap-  Isabella  in  concerting  the  overthrow  of  the  Dee- 

§  roved  by  the  pope  and  published  by  his  command,  pensers.  then  the  royal  favourites.    On  28  May,  1325, 

uch  approval,  when  given  in  formd  communis  does  Edward  II  asked  the  pope  to  remove  Bicknor  from 

not  change  the  nature  of  the  decisions  as  emanating  the  kingdom,  accusing  him  of  the  surrender  of  La 

from  a  Congregation  or  Commission,  nor  does  it  Rozelle,  of  defaming  Hugh  Despenser,  of  improperiy 

make  them  specifically  pontifical  acts;  much  less  excommunicating   Robert   Pinchbeck,   and  of  not 

does  it  imply  an  exercise  of  the  pope's  personal  accounting  for  sums   received  while  Treasurer    of 

prerogative   of  infallibility.     Hence   they   are   not  Ireland.     Bicknor  joined  Queen  Isabella  and  others 

infallible  or  unchangeable,   though   they  must  be  in  declaring  Prince  Edward  guardian  of  the  kingdom, 

received   with   obedience    and    interior   assent,    by  at  an  assembly  at  Bristol;  later,  in  1327,  he  swore 

which  we  judge  that  the  doctrine  proposed  is  safe  publicly  at  the  London  Guildhall  to  maintain  the 

and  to  be  accepted  because  of  the  authority  by  which  queen's  cause  as  against  the  king.    In  1329  Edward 

it  is  presented.    These  decisions  are  not  the  opinions  seized  his  diocesan  revenues  as  a  set-ofif  to  the  sums 

of  a  private  assembly,  but  an  official  directive  norm;  imaccounted  for  by  Bicknor  as  Treasurer  of  Ireland, 

to  question  them  puolicly  would  be  lacking  in  re-  In  1330  Bicknor  became  papal  collector.    He  quaiv 

spect  and  obedience  to  legitimate  authority.    We  are  relied  with  the  Bishop  of  Ossory,  who,  on  app^  to 

not  hindered  from  private  study  of  the  reasons  on  Edward  II,  was  banished  for  nine  years,  during  which 

which  they  are  based,  and  if  some  scholar  should  find  period  Bicknor,  as  metropolitan,  visited  the  See  of 

solid  arguments  against  a  decision  they  should  be  set  Ossory  and  seized  the  revenues.    In  1348  Bicknor 

before  the  Commission.  held  a  synod  at  Dublin  at  which  useful  disdplinarv 

For  details  about  the  Commismon  consult  the  Roman  cor-  decrees  Were  passed.     He  engaged  in  a  dispute  witn 

^^W^^^Z^xlS^A'^^'.UA^r^^X^^!^.  the  Archbishop  of  Annagh  about  the  rij^tto   the 

2  July,  19  November,  1904;  for  the  documents.  Revtie  biblique  pnmacy    OI    Ireland. 

(1903  and  later):  for  the  English  translation  of  the  Letter         Did.  Nat.  Biogr.;  Rtmer,  FiBdera;  Chronidet  of  Edward  t 

YiaUantia,  The  Great  Encyclical   Lettere   of  Pope  Leo  XI II  and  II  in  RoUs  Seriee;  Ypodtffma  Neuatria. 

(New  York,  1903).  537;  for  the  authority  of  decisions,  NouveUe  HenRY  NoRBERT  BiKT. 

revue  thiol.  (Tournai},  May,  1907;  Choupin,  Valeur  dee  dideiona 

docbinalee  et  ditciplxnairee  du  S.-Sikge  (Paris.  1907).   Bldermaim,  James,  a  poet  and  theologian  of  sreat 

John  Corbbtt.  learning  and  sanctity,  b.  at  Ehingen,  G«inaiiv,  in 

BibUothec  Vterum  Patnun.    See  F.xh.b.  o,  '£^^4-^^^^\X:Sil^i94%7'^  ^ 

THE  L/HURCH.  ^^  preliminary  training  he  taught  rhetoric  in  Mu* 

Bickerdike,    Robert,    Venerable,     martyr,    a  nich  from  1606  to  1615,  and  later  spent  eight  yean 

Yorkshire  layman,  b.  at  Low  Hall,  near  Knares-  teaching  philosophy  and  theology  at  Dillingezu      In 


559 


HTgT.T.A 


1024,  he  was  called  to  Rome  wh&re  he  fulfilled  the 
duties  of  theologian  and  censor  of  books  till  his  death. 
From  an  early  age  Bidermann  distinguished  himself 
in  many  branches  of  learning.  Such  was  his  reputa- 
tion  for  scholarship,  that  the  famous  Matthew  Kader, 
a  professor  of  Dillingen,  celebrated  his  fame  in  a  Latin 
poem,  in  which  he  spoke  of  him  as  another  Aquinas, 
Aristotle.  Cicero,  and  Maro.  Besides  numerous  vol- 
umes of  dramas,  epigrams,  biographical  sketches,  etc.. 
Bidermann  wrote  many  books  on  philosophy  ana 
theology.  Amongst  the  best-known  of  these  are: 
"Theses  Theologicffi"  (1620),  "Sponsalia"  (1621); 
"Poenitenti®  Sacramentum"  (1621);  "Matrimonii 
Impedunenta"  (1621):  "Censurae"  (1622);  "Irregu- 
Jaritas"  (1622);  "Suffragia''  (1623);  '*Jesu  Chnsti 
Status  Triplex,  Mortalis,  Immortalis,  Sacramen talis" 
0623);  "Conscientia"'  (1624):  "Prolusiones  Theologi- 
es qmbus  Pontificis  Rom.  oienitas  adversus  bfere- 
Bim  propugnata  est"  (1624);  ^"Eleemosyna"  (1625); 
"Gratia''  (1625);  "Agnosticon  libri  tres  pro  mira- 
cuiis'*  (1626). 

_  SoiOiBiivooBL.  Bibl.  de  la  c  de  J.,  I,  1443;  Bernard  in 
DicL  de  thM,  eath,,  XII,  813;  Hurtbr,  Nomendator,    I,  303. 

R.  H.  TiERNBY. 

Biel,  Gabriel,  called  "the  last  of  the  Scholastics", 

b.  at  Speyer,  Germany,  c.  1425;  d.  at  Tttbingen. 

1495.    His  studies  were  pursued  at  Heidelberg  and 

Erfurt.    While  still  a  young  man,  he  was  noted  as 

a  preacher  in  the  cathedral  of  Mainz,  of  which  he 

was  vicar.     Later  he  became  superior  of  the  "Clerics 

of  the  Common  Life"  at  BOtzbach,  and  in  1479  was 

appointed  provost  of  the  church  in  Urach.     At  this 

period  he  co-operated  with  Count  Eberhard  of  WOr- 

temberg  in  founding  the  University  of  Tubingen. 

Appointed  in  1484  the  first  professor  of  theology  in 

the  new  institution,  he  continued  the  most  celebrated 

member  of  its  faculty  until  his  death.    Though  he 

was  almost  sixty  years  of  age  when  he  b^an  to  teach. 

Bid's  work,  both  as  professor  and  as  writer,  reflectea 

the  hi^iest  honour  on  the  young  university.     His 

finst  publication,  on  the  C^on  of  the  Mass,  is  of 

permanent  interest  and  value.     His  second  and  most 

unportant  work  is  a  conunentary  on  the  "Sentences" 

of  Peter  Lombard.     In  this  he  calls  Occam  his  master, 

but  the  last  three  books  show  him  more  Scotist  than 

Nominalist.    Scheeben    describes   him  as   "one  of 

the  best  of  the  Nominalists,  clear,  exact,  and  more 

positive  as  well  as  more  loyal  to  the  Cnurch  than 

any  of   the  others"    (Dogmatik,   no.    1073).    The 

historian  Janssen  declares  that  he  was  one  of  the  few 

Nominalists  who  erected  a  theological  system  without 

incurring  the  charge  of  unorthodoxy.     (Cf .  Geschichte 

des  deutschen  Volkes,  I,   127,    15th   ed.)     He  was 

neither  narrow  nor  excessively  speculative.    Though 

a  Nominalist,  he  was  tolerant  of  Realism,  which  abo 

flourished   at   Tttbingen    under   the   leadership    of 

Konrad    Smnmenhart.    A    Scholastic,    he   was,   to 

quote  Janssen,  "free  from  empty  speculations  and 

ingenious    intellectual    juggling,    being    concerned 

with  questions  and  needs  of  actual  li&"  (ibidem), 

was  interested  in  the  social  movements  of  his  time, 

and  maintained  friendly  relations  with  the  Human- 


they  could  compel  the  pope's  resignation.  And  he 
displayed  no  more  theological  freedom  than  has  been 
claimed  and  exercised  by  some  of  the  strictest  theo- 
logians. Among  the  opinions  defended  by  Biel 
concerning  matters  controverted  in  his  day,  the 
following  are  worthy  of  mention:  (a)  That  all  eccle- 
siastical jurisdiction,  even  that  of  bishops,  is  derived 
either  immediately  or  mediately  from  the  pope. 
In  this  connexion  .it  is  to  be  noted  that  his  defence 
of  the  episcopal  claims  of  Diether  von  Ysenbuiig 
won  him  the  thanks  of  Pius  II.  (b)  That  the  power 
of  absolving  is  inherent  in  sacerdotal  orders,  and 
that  only  the  matter,  i.  e.  the  persons  to  be  absolved, 
can  be  conceded  or  withheld  by  the  ordinary,  (c) 
That  the  minister  of  baptism  need  have  no  more 
specific  intention  than  that  of  doing  what  the  faith- 
ful, that  is,  the  Chm-ch,  intends,  (d)  That  the  State 
may  not  compel  Jews,  or  heathens,  or  their  children 
to  receive  baptism,  (e)  And  that  the  Contractus 
Trintis  is  morally  lawful.  All  of  these  opinions 
have  since  become  the  prevailing  theological  doctrine. 
The  subject  on  which  Biel  held  tha  most  progres- 
sive views  is  political  economy.  Roscher,  wno  with 
SchmoUer  introduced  him  to  modem  students  of 
economics,  declares  that  Biel's  grasp  of  economics 
enabled  him  not  only  to  understand  the  work  of  his 
predecessors,  but  to  advance  beyond  them.  (Cf. 
Geschichte  der  NationalOkonomik  in  Deutschlandi 
21  sqq.)  According  to  Biel,  the  just  price  of  a  com- 
modity is  determined  chiefly  bv  human  needs,  by 
its  scarcity,  and  by  the  diniculty  of  producing  it. 
His  enumeration  includes  all  the  factors  that  govern 
market  price,  and  is  more  complete  and  reasonable 
than  any  made  by  his  predecessors.  (Cf.  Gamier, 
L'id^  du  juste  prix,  77.)  The  same  author  main- 
tains that  concerning  the  occupation  of  the  merchant 
or  trader,' Biel  is  more  advanced  than  St.  Thomas, 
since  he  attaches  no  stigma  to  it,  but  holds  it  to  be 
good  in  itself,  and  the  merchant  entitled  to  remunera- 
tion because  of  his  labour,  risks,  and  expenses. 
Bid's  discussion  of  these  subjects  is  contained  in 
book  IV  of  his  commentary  on  the  "Sentences". 
He  wrote  a  special  work  on  currency,  ein  wahrhaft 
goldenes  Buck,  in  which  he  stigmatizes  the  debasing 
of  coinage  by  princes  as  dishonest  exploitation  of 
the  people.  In  the  same  work  he  severely  condemns 
those  rulers  who  curtailed  the  popular  rights  of  for- 
est, meadow,  and  water,  and  wno  imposed  arbitrary 
burdens  of  taxation,  as  well  as  the  rich  sportsmen 
who  encroached  upon  the  lands  of  the  peasantry. 
His  works  are:  "Sacri  canonis  MisssB  expositio 
resolutissima  literalis  et  mystica"  (Brixen,  1576); 
an  abridgment  of  this  work,  entitled  "Epitome 
expositionis  canonis  Missffi"  (Aji twerp,  1565);  "Sei^ 
mones"  (Brixen,  1583),  on  the  Sunday^s  and  festivals 
of  the  Christian  year,  with  a  disquisition  on  the 
plague  and  a  defence  of  the  authonty  of  the  pope; 
"Collectorium  sive  epitome  in  magistri  sententiarum 
libros  IV"  (Brixen,  1574);  "Tractatus  de  potestate 
et  utilitate  monetarum". 

MosKR,  ViteB  profesaorum  Tubingennum  crd.  theolog.  dee.  1 
(Tilbingen,  1718);  Winkelmann,  Beschreibung  von  He»»en 
und  HerBfdd  (Bremen,  1711);  Linbjenmann,  Oabriel  Biel,  in 


ists.  One  of  the  latter,  Heinrich  Bebel,  gave  him  Theologiaehe  quarUUachrift  (Ttibingen,  1865),  passim;  Putt, 
the  title  of  "monarch  among  theologians".  His  Oabrid  Biel  cOs  Prediaer  {ErlKogfin,  IS79)\  GARmm,De  Vidie 
theoloirical    writiniw   were    ren«atftdlv   fimnirht.   int/>     rfu  ;u«teprir  (Pww.  1900).  74-83;  Lins  en  ma  nn  m  Xtrcfc^ 


thecdogical  writings  were  repeatedly  brought  into 
the  discussions  of  the  Council  of  Trent. 

Livinff  as  he  did  in  a  transition  period,  Biel  ex- 
hibits characteristics  of  two  intellectual  eras.  Ac- 
cording to  some,  he  was  a  Scholastic  who  expounded 
AristoUe  rather  than  the  Scriptures;  according  to 
others,  he  defended  freer  theological  teaching,  and 
omKMed  the  ancient  constitution  of  the  Churcn  and 
the  authority  ctf  the  pope.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  he 
acknowledged  the  primacy  and  supreme  power  of 
the  Roman  Pontiff,  but,  in  common  with  man^ 
other  theologians  of  his  time,  maintained  the  supen- 
ority  of  general  councils,  at  least  to  the  extent  that 


au  juuepnx  craria,  luuu;.  74-&f;  l.in8enmann  mAvreneruez,^ 
s.  v.;  HuRTER,  Nomendator;  Schwane,  Dogmenaeachichte 
(Freiburg,  1882).  Ill,  poMtm;  Turner,  HiaL  of  Phiiotophy 
(Boston,  1003)  400 ;  Aahley,  English  Economic  History  (New 
York,  1803),  11,  382,  441-46. 

John  A.  Ryan. 

Biella,  Diocesb  of. — ^The  city  of  Biella,  the 
see  of  the  diocese  of  that  name,  is  an  important 
industrial  centre  (anciently  called  Bugella)  of 
Piedmont,  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Novara.  The 
diocese  contains  about  200,000  inhabitants,  and  is  a 
suffra^n  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Vercelli.  Until 
1772  Biella  had  no  bishop,  but  was  under  the  juris- 
diction of  the  Archdiocese  of  Vercelli.    In  that  yeai 


BIEL8KI 


560 


BmrvUiLS 


dement  XI,  yielding  to  the  desire  of  King  Charles 
Emmanuel  III  of  Sardinia,  established  the  Diocese 
of  Biella  by  the  Bull  <'PrsBcipua".  The  first  bishop 
was  Giulio  Cesare  Viancino,  formerly  Archbishop 
of  Sassari  in  Sardinia.  In  1803  Napoleon  suppressed 
the  diocese,  which  again  fell  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  Vercelli,  but  was  re-established  in  1817  by  Pius  VII 
who  appointed  as  bishop  the  Minor  Observantine, 
Bemaraino  Ballato.  It  is  difficult  to  determine 
when  the  Gospel  was  first  preached  at  Biella;  cer- 
tainly not  before  it  reached  Vercelli.  According  to 
the  opinion  of  Fedele  Savio,  S.J.,  the  latter  city  re- 
ceived the  Faith  in  the  second  half  of  the  third  cen- 
tunr  from  Milan. 

In  the  shrine  of  Maria  Santissima  d'Oropa,  situated 
on  a  loft^r  mountain  near  Biella,  the  diocese  preserves 
a  memorial  of  St.  Eusebius,  the  great  Bishop  of  Ver- 
celli, who  was  banished  to  the  Orient  by  Emperor 
Gonstantius  for  his  courageous  defence  of  Catholic 
truth  against  Arianism.  St.  Eusebius,  according  to 
tradition,  upon  his  return  from  the  East,  is  said  to 
have  brought  three  pictures  of  the  Madonna  painted 
on  cedar  wood,  one  of  which,  the  image  of  Oropa,  he 
placed  in  a  small  oratory  he  had  built.  In  the  tenth 
cratury  the  chapel  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  Bene- 
dictines. The  tatter  having  abandoned  the  place, 
Pius  II,  in  1459,  made  over  the  shrine  to  the  chapter 
of  the  collegiate  chiux;h,  now  the  Cathedral  of  Biella, 
to  which  it  has  since  belon^d.  In  the  sixteenth 
century,  the  inhabitants  of  Biella,  in  thanksgiving 
for  their  deliverance  from  the  plague,  built  a  stately 
church  over  the  chapel.  Even  to-day  the  shrine  of 
Oropa  draws  man^  devout  pilgrims. 

Among  the  religious  edifices  of  the  city  of  Biella,  the 

most  notable  is  the  Gothic  cathedral,  built  in  1402. 

Its  beautiful  choir  is  by  Galliari.    The  baptistery, 

in  the  form  of  a  small  temple,  is  said  to  be  an  ancient 

Roman  edifice. 
Cappellbth,  Le  chie^  d'ltalia  (Venice,  1844)^IV.  640. 

U.  Benigni. 

BielBki  (or  Wolski),  Margin,  a  Polish  chronicler, 
b.  of  noble  parentage  on  the  patrimonial  estate 
of  Biala  (whence  the  family  name),  in  the  province 
of  Sieradz,  Poland,  in  1495;  d.  there,  1575;  the  name 
Wolski  is  derived  from  his  estate  at  Wola.  One  of 
two  Polish  writers,  of  the  same  name,  he  was  the 
first  to  use  the  Polish  language,  hence  his  designa- 
tion as  the  father  of  Polish  prose.  He  was  educated 
in  the  University  of  Cracow,  founded  bv  Casimir  the 
Great  in  1364,  and  spent  some  time  with  the  military 
governor  of  that  city.  He  served  in  the  army  in 
the  wars  against  the  Wallachians  and  Tatars,  and 

Sarticipated  in  the  battle  of  Obertyn  (Galicia),  1531. 
[e'  raiiks  among  Poland's  most  prolific  writers, 
and  the  development  of  historical  studies  in  that 
country  is  due  to  his  extensive  writings.  He  is  the 
author  of  numerous  works:  "i^ywoty  Filosof6w" 
(Lives  of  the  Philosophers,  1535);  "Kronika  Swiata" 
(Universal  Chronicle,  1550-64),  from  the  earliest 
time  down  to  his  day,  divided  into  six  periods,  was 
the  first  important  universal  history  published  in 
the  national  idiom,  and  the  first  attempt  at  a  com- 
prehensive history  of  Poland,  from  550  to  1580; 
in  the  second  edition  (1554)  there  is  a  reference  to 
America;  after  the  author's  death  the  work  was 
continued,  rearranged,  and  brought  down  to  the 
year  1597,  under  the  title  of  'TCronika  Polska" 
(Chronicle  of  Poland)  by  his  son  Joachim  (b.  1540; 
d.  1599),  secretary  to  King  Sigismund  III;  "Sprawa 
Rycerskiego",  a  treatise  on  military  art  (1569), 
according  to  the  Greek  science  of  warfare,  in  eight 
parts,  contains  valuable  data  about  the  Polish  armv^ 
and  kindred  subjects.  After  the  demise  of  BielsKi 
several  satirical  poems  were  published:  "Seym 
Majowy",  (The  May  Diet,  1590),  descriptive  of  the 
degradation  of  Hungary,  and  an  appeal  to  his 
countrymen  to  emulate  a  higher  standard  of  life: 


"Seyna  Niewie^ci".  (Woman's  Council,  1586-95). 
ana^ical  of  the  then  existing  politick  conditions 
in  Poland:  "Sen  Maiowy"  (Dream  of  a  Hermit, 
1586);  "Komedia  Justina  y  Konstandey"  (Comedy 
of  Justinian  and  Constantia,  1557). 

EsTRCicHBR,  Poliah  bibli^jraphy  (1800-70);  Bohomolec. 
CoUeetion  of  Hiatoriea  (Warsaw,  1764);  Idkm,  Martin 
BtdskiCWsLn&w,  1764);  Sobieszczanski,  Chronicle  cf  Po- 
land (Warsaw.  1851);  Sibeneychbr.  Chronicle  of  Poland 
(Oacow,  1597);  Tubowbki,  Chronide  of  Poland  (Cnoow, 
1856-62). 

Joseph  Smolinski. 
Biennium  Oanoniconim.    See  Schools. 

Bienville,  Jean-Baptistb  lb  Motnb,  Sieub  de, 
French  Governor  of  Louisiana  and  founder  of  New 
Orleans,  b.  in  Montreal,  Canada,  24  February,  1680; 
d.  in  Paris,  7  March,  1767.  His  father,  Charles  le 
Moyne  de  Bienville,  settled  in  Canada  in  1640;  his 
three  brothers,  Iberville,  Serigny,  and  Ch&teauguay, 
likewise  distinguished  themselves  in  the  early  history 
of  Louisiana.  Li  1698-1699,  Bienville  accompanied 
his  brother  Iberville  in  an  expedition  despatched 
from  France  to  explore  the  territory  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Mississippi.  They  founded  a  settlement  at 
old  Biloxi,  where  in  1700  Bienville  became  command- 
ant, and,  after  Iberville's  death  in  1706,  govemor  of 
the  colony. 

It  was  believed  in  France  that  Louisiana  presented 
a  rich  field  for  enterprise  and  speculation  and  a 
grant  with   exclusive  privileges  was  obtained  by 
Antoine  Crozat  for  fifteen  years.    In  1712  Crozat 
appointed  M.  la  Mothe  Cadillac,  govemor,  and  M.  de 
Bienville  lieutenant-governor.    But  Cadillac  dying 
in  1715,  Bienville  once  more  assumed  the  reins  of 
government.    In  1716,  he  conducted  an  expedition 
against  the  Natchez  Indians,  and  having  orou^t 
them  to  terms,  finished  the  fort  "Rosahe"  which 
had    been    commenced   by   his    brother,    Iberville, 
sixteen    years    before.    In    1717,    Epinay,   a   new 
govemor,  arrived  in  the  colony,  bringing  with  him 
the  decoration  of  the  Cross  of  St.  L^uis  for  Bien- 
ville.    In  the  meantime.  Crozat,  failing  to  realise 
the  great  profits  he  had  escpected,  abandoned  the 
whole  enterprise  and  surrendered  his  charter  to  the 
king  in  1717.    Another  company  was  at  once  formed 
and  Bienville  received  a  new  commission  as  govemor 
of  the  province.    He  now  resolved  to  remove  the 
headquarters  from   Biloxi,   Mobile,   and  St.   Louis 
Bay  to  the  more  fertile  region  of  the  Mississippi 
River,  and  in  1718  he  selected  the  site  for  a  new 
settlement,    which    he    called    New    Orleans.     He 
left  fifty  persons  there  to  clear  the  land  and  build 
some  houses,  but  it  was  not  till  1722  that  it  became 
the  seat  of  government. 

Experience  had  shown  Bienville  that  the  fertile 
soil  of  the  lower  Mississippi,  as  well  as  the  climate, 
was  well  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  sugar,  cotton, 
tobacco,  ana  rice,  and  that  Europeans  were  not 
fitted  for  field-work  in  the  burning  suns  of  Louisiana, 
for  they  sickened  and  died.  The  first  plantation  of 
any  extent  was  therefore  commenced  with  negroes 
imported  from  Guinea.  In  1719,  the  province 
became  involved  in  hostihties  with  the  Spaniards  in 
consequence  of  the  war  with  France  and  Spain. 
The  govemor  twice  reduced  the  town  of  Pensaooia 
and  sent  detachments  to  prevent  the  %>aniardfi 
from  making  inroads  into  upper  Louisiana,  and  the 
country  boraering  on  the  Rio  Grande. 

When  peace  was  restored,  immigrants  began  tc 
arrive  in  great  numbers  from  France  and  Germany 
In  the  autumn  of  1726,  the  Government  of  Louisiana 
passed  out  of  the  hands  of  Bienville  and  he  retired 
to  France  to  recruit  his  health.  In  1734,  the  king 
reappointed  him  Govemor  and  Command^oit-Oenerai 
of  Louisiana,  and  early  in  the  autinnn  he  arrived 
at  New  Orleans  and  entered  upon  the  duties  of  his 
office.  An  expedition  against  tne  Chickasaw  Indianr 
in  the  spring  of  1736  resulted  in  disaster,  but  shoUk 


BiaAMY                              561  BIOAICS: 

expedition  in  1739  met  with  better  success.    This  of  Rome,  on  the  contrary,  strictly  followed  the 

campaign  closed  his  military  and  official  career  in  Apostolic  canons.    This  is  evident  from  the  decrees 

the  colony.    He  returned  to  France  under  a  cloud  of  of  the   Sovereign   Pontiffs   Innocent' I    (401-417), 

eensure  from  the  Government,  after  having  faithfully  Hilary  (461-468),  Gregory  I  (59CM604),  Ctelestine  III 

served  his  country  for  more  than  forty  years.    He  (1191-98),  and  Innocent  III  (1198-1216).    Gregory 

was  buried  with  military  honours  in  the  cemetery  IX  (1227-41)  and  Gregory  X  (1271-76)  further  de- 

of  Montmartre.  creed  that  bigamists  should  be  deprived  of  every 

,o!?'^^'t>.^^'*W*^  o?*^?"*^    ^^*^^^^^nr  M*'^   y^^^*  clerical  privilege  and  the  right  to  wear  the  clerical 

T?^L7i^"'/e^i^."LXvr3i2?'k^^^  garb  and  tonsure  under  Jty  of  excommmiication^ 

Metwnra  of  IxmiHana  (New  York,  1863),  for  portrait  and  The  Council  of  Trent  finally  forbade  bigamists  to 

Tiluable  additional  information.           tj^  p  o  exercise  functions  attached  to  minor  orders,  even 

ti.  r.  OPILLANB.  though  these   functions  were,   on   account  of   the 
Bigamjr  (in  Canon  Law). — ^According  to  the  strict  necessity  of  the  times,  allowed  to  be  performed  by 
meaning,  'the  word  should  signify  the  marrying  of  laymen   (Sess.  XXIII,  c.  xvii,  de  Reform.).     The 
a  second  after  the  death  of  the  first  wife,  in  contra-  reason  for  the  existence  of  this  irregularity  is  two- 
distinction  to  polygamy,  which  is  having  two  simul-  fold:  moral  and  mystical.    The  mord  reason,  which 
taneous  wives.     The  present  usage  in  criminal  law  was  that  of  the  Orientals  and  some  Latin  Fathers, 
of  applying  the  term  bigamy  to  that  which  is  more  is  the  presumed  incontinency  on  the  part  of  the 
strictly  caOed  polygamy  is,  according  to  Blackstone  bigamist  and  his  consequent  unfitness  to  discharge 
(Lib.  IV,  n.  163),  a  corruption  of  the  true  meaning  of  efncientlv  the  office  of  the  priesthood  among  a  people 
bigamy.    Canonically  viewed,  bigamy  denotes  (a)  the  who  looked  with  great  suspicion  upon  a  bigamist 
condition  of  a  man  married  to  two  real  or  interpre-  and  held  him  in  little  or  no  esteem.    The  mystical 
tative  wives  in  succession,  and  as  a  consequence  reason,  which  was  and  is  the  primary  reason  of  the 
(b)  his  unfitness  to  receive,  or  exercise  after  reception,  Western  Church  rtt  admits  tne  moral  reason,  but 
tonsure,  minor  and  sacred  orders.   This  unfitness  gives  as  secondary  to  tne  mystical)  is  the  defect  in  the 
rise  to  an  irrcj^arity  which  is  an  impediment  impedi-  perfect  resemblance  of  the  second  marria^  to  the 
ent  and  not  diriment,  hence  orders  conferred  in  viola-  great  type  of  Christian  marriage — the  mjrst*'*?!  union 
tion  of  it  are  valid  but  illicit.    This  irregularity  is  not  of  Christ  with  the  Church.    This  union  *w  the  union 
a  punishment,  medicinal  nor  punitive,  as  there  b  no  of  one  husband  (Christ)  with  one  spouse  (the  Church) 
sin  nor  fault  of  any  kind  in  a  man  marrving  a  second  without  spot  or  blemish.    Second  marriages  destroy 
wife  after  the  death  of  his  first,  or  a  thira  after  the  the  unity  of  one  husband  with  one  virgin  wife,  and 
death  of  his  second;  it  is  a  bar  against  his  receiving  cause  a  dividing  of  one  flesh  with  two  bodies,  instead 
or  exercising  any  ecclesiastical  order  or  diznitv.  of  cementing  the  union  of  two  bodies  in  one,  accord- 
Origin. — This  irrwilarity  is  not  affixed  to  bigamy  ing  to  Genesis,  ii,  24,  "They  shall  be  two  [one  hus- 
by  either  the  natural  or  Mosaic  law.    It  has  its  true  band,  one  wife]  in  one  flesh".    This  division  of  one 
origin  in  the  apostolic  injunction  of  St.  Paul:  "It  body  with  two,  instead  of  union  with  one  body,  is 
behoveth,  therefore,  a  bishop  to  be  blameless,  the  the  bed-rock  of  this  irregularity.    This  defect  in  the 
husband  of  one  wife"  (I  Tim.,  iii,  2);  "Let  deacons  perfect  resemblance  of  the  second  marriage  (real  or 
be  the   husbemds  of  one  wife"  (1<X2-  <2^t.,  12)  and,  interpretative)  to  the  great  type  of  marriage  gives 
"...  the  husband  of  one  wife"  (Tit.,  i,  6).     By  rise  to  the  irregularity,  and  to  the  name  by  wnich 
these  words  the  Apostle  does  not  enjoin  marriage  it  is  known,  "ex  defectu  sacramenti".     It  is  not 
on  bishops  and  deacons  [Sts.  Paul,  Titus,  and  Timothy  proper  that  one  who  has  received  a  sacrament  de- 
were  celibates  as   were,    according    to    Tertullian  lective  in  its  resemblance  to  its  exemplar  should 
C'Mon<^my".  iv,  in  "Ante  Nicene  Fathers",  Amer.  become  a  dispenser  of  sacraments  to  others. 
Edit.)  all  the  Apostles  with  exception  of  St.  Peter].  Division. — In  the  first  centuries  there  was  only 
but  he  forbids  bigamists  to  be  admitted  to  Sacred  one  kind  of  bigamy  called  true,  or  real,  or  proper, 
orders.     Owing  to  the  small  number  of  those  who  A  second  kind,  called  interpretative  or  fictitious, 
practised   celiba^   at   the   coming   of   Christ,   the  was  afterwards  added.    In  the  Middle  Ages  a  third 
Apostles  found  it  impossible  to  supply  celibates  for  kind,  called  similar ^  was  introduced  by  the  scholas- 
bishops,  priests,  and  deacons  ana  were  forced  to  tics  (Devoti,  can.  univ.,  II,  p.  206).    Durandus  was 
admit  married  men  to  Sacred  orders.    Blamelessness  the  first  to  use  the  term  similitudinaria  (Specul., 
of  life,  however,  was  required,  and  since^  iteration  pars.  I,  de  dispens.  Juxta.  n.  6).     Since  then  the 
of  marriage  was  considered  by  the  Apostles  and  the  traditional  division  has  been  and  is  threefold,  viz. 
people  as  a  strong  presumption  of  incontinency  it  real,  interpretative,  and  similar.     Many  canonists 
was   decreed  that  snould  the  bishop-elect  (pnest-  of  this  century  and  last  hold  that  similar  bigamy 
or  deacon-elect)  be  a  married  man,  he  must  have  had  should  not  be  included  under  the  irregularity  ex 
only  one  wife,  and  further,  that  after  his  ordination  bigamia.     Another  division  is  made,  but  there  is  no 
he  should   live   apart   from   her.     St.   Epiphanius  unanimity  concerning  it,  i.   e.   bigamy  ex  defectu 
(Haer.  Ixiv,  4)  ana  St.  Jerome  (Epist.  CJontra  Vigi-  sacramenti  (by  reason  of  defective  sacrament)  and 
l&ntium,  I)  assert  that  such  was  the  general  custom  bigamy  ex  delicto  (by  reason  of  guilt).    IVAnnibale 
of  the  Church.    This  practice  of  celibacy  before  or  (Summul.  Theol..  Pars.  I,  n.  417  and  418,  note  11 
after  ordination  was  universal  in  all  the  Churches  fourth  edit.)  holds  that  similar  bigamists  and  not  a 
of  the  East  as  well  as  of  the  West  until  about  the  year  few  interpretative  bigamists  are  insular  ex  delicto j 
A,  D.  700  when  in  the  Synod    of  Trullo  concession  zxidnot  ex  defectu  eacramerUi.   St.  Alphonsus  flib.  VII, 
was  made  to  Greek  priests  to  cohabit  with  the  wives  de  Irreg[ul.,  n.  436)  and  very  many  others,  as  well  as 
they   had  married  oefore  ordination.     They  were  the  National  Synods  of  the  Syrians  (an.  1888,  p.  173. 
forbidden,  however,  to  marry  again  under  penalty  edit.  1899)  and  of  the  Ojpts  (Cairo,  an.  1898,  p.  142), 
of  absolute  deposition  from  the  ministnr.     In  the  class  all  three  kinds  of  bigamists  as  irreffulsu*  ex  de- 
Pauiine  injunction   no   mention   is   made  of  sub-  fedu  sacramenti.    Bigamy  in  general  is  the  state  of 
deacons  or  clerics  in  minor  orders,  for  the  simple  a  man  who  has  really  or  inte^retatively  contracted 
reaaon  that  those  orders  were  not  then  instituted,  and  consummated  two  valid  or  two  invalid  marriages. 
The  Apostolic  Canons  (fourth  century),  which  ex-  or  one  valid  and  the  other  invalid,  or  one  real,  and 
tended  the  Pauline  prohibition  to  all  grades  of  the  the  other  a  spiritual,  marriage.     Two  things  are 
sacrament  of  orders,  were  not  imiversally  observed,  essential  to  every  kind  of  bigamy:  (1)  a  marriage 
Vestiges  of  a  lax  discipline  on  this  point  are  to  be  met  valid  or  invalid — adulterous  connexions  or  concu- 
with  m  France  (I  Council  of  Orange,  c.  xxv)  and  in  binage  do  not  enter  into  the  question  at  all;  (2)  a 
%)am  (€k>unc  of  Toledo,  cc.  iii  ana  iv).    The  Church  carnal    knowledge    by   which    the   parties    legally 


BIOAMY  562  BXOAMY 

married  become  one  flesh,  and  without  which  there  not  ex  delido.    The  defect  is  present  irrespective  o( 

is  neither  bigamy  nor  irr^ularity.  his  knowledge. 

Real  bigamy  demands  two  valid  and  legal  and  con-        (2)  When  he  marries  once,  but  the  marriage  is 

sunmiated  marriages  with  virgins;   therefore,   two  invalid,     (a)  The  one  in  Sacred  orders  who  marries 

real  wives  one  after  the  other.     It  is  indifferent  a  widow — ^marriage  invalid  on  account  of  diriment 

whether  or  not  the  marriages  took  place  before  or  impediment  of  S.  Orders — and  is  carnally  joined  to 


(Ephes.,  v,32),  and  the  irregularity  is  present  (Pope  yet  with  him,  as  with  a  real  bigamist,  it  was  not  law- 
Innocent  I,  Decret.,  can.  13,  dist.  34).  There  is,  ful  to  dispense  as  the  husband  of  a  widow,  not  be- 
therefore,  no  real  bigamy  (a)  if  either  or  both  mar-  cause  of  tne  defect  in  the  sacrament,  but  on  account 
riages  are  invalid,  (p)  if  either  or  both  have  not  been  of  the  marital  intention  joined  with  carnal  union, 
consummated,  (c)  if  either  or  both  women  have  not  Although  not  expressed  in  the  above  canon,  yet  it  is 
been  virgins,  (d)  if  one  of  the  two  ceremonies  was  a  the  common  opinion  that  the  cleric  in  major  order 
valid,  consummated  marriage,  and  the  other  a  mere  who  marries  a  woman  corrupted  by  a  third  party  is  a 
betrothal  followed  by  carnal  union.  bigamist  and  irregular.  He  would  not  be  insular 
Interpretative  bigamy  is  the  state  of  a  man  who  if  he  married  a  woman  seduced  by  himself  and  known 
has  not  as  a  matter  of  fact  had  two  legal  wives  in  by  no  other  man  (Schmalz.,  Tit.  XXI,  De  Bigam., 
succession,  but  whose  matrimonial  ventures —  n.  6).  Civil  marriage  will  suffice  in  this  case,  even 
^  whether  one  or  two — are  accompanied  with  such  where  the  Tridentine  law  is  published  (S.  U.  I., 
*  circumstances  as  to  warrant  the  law  by  a  legal  fiction  December  22,  1880).  (b)  Invahd  by  reason  of  a  pre- 
to  hold  him  as  a  bigamist  and  irregular.  It  is  to  existing  marriage  bond  (ligamerC^^  as,  for  instance, 
be  remembered  that  the  laws  which  govern  fictitious  where  the  man  marries  a  woman  who  has  been  di- 
(similar  and  interpretative)  bigamy  must  be  strictly  vor^ed,  repudiated,  or  rejected  by  a  former  husband, 
construed,  for  two  reasons:  (1)  because  there  is  or  who  has  divorced  or  left  him.  In  this  case  the 
questior  of  an  irregularity — something  odious;  and  marriage  is  defective,  the  woman  having  sharod 
(2)  it  is  a  il  ^ion  of  law  and  therefore  does  not  hold  her  body  with  two,  and  hence  he  who  married  her 
unless  in  those  cases  expressly  mentioned  in  the  law  is  irr^ular  for  the  above-mentioned  reason  (Lib.  I, 
(Fagnanus,  cap.  In  Praesen.,  n.  23.  de  Probat.).  Tit.  XXI,  C.  I;  Dist.  XXXIV,  Can.  xv).  (c)  If  the 
Pope  Benedict  XIV  wisely  remarks  (Ad  audientiam,  marriage  was  invalid  by  reason  of  a  diriment  impedi- 
15  February,  1753,  par.  15),  "It  is  the  sole  right  of  ment  other  than  order  and  li^men,  the  more  promi- 
the  legislator,  and  beyond  the  power  of  any  private  nent  opinion  holds  that  the  irregularity  is  incurred, 
author  or  doctor,  to  draw  legal  conclusion  from  a  Fagnanus  (Comment.,  Cap.  iv,  De  Big.,  n.  45)  asserts 
fiction  of  law.  Manv,  therefore,  of  the  ablest  canon-  that  the  prelates  of  the  Rota,  to  whom  the  case  was 
ists  of  recent  years  (v.  g.  D*Annibale,  Gaspari,  Icard,  specially  referred  by  the  pope,  decided  that  a  cleric 
Wernz,  Lombardi,  BaTlerini-Palmieri),  as  also  the  in  minor  orders  \mo  oontraoted  and  oonsammated 
national  synods  of  the  Copts  and  Syrians,  restrict  an  invalid  marriage  with  a  wiaow  was  an  interpreta- 
real  and  interpretative  bigamies  to  the  case  where  tive  bigamist  and  irregular  and  stood  in  nc^  of 
a  man  marries  either  two  valid  and  legal  wives,  or  dispensation,  and  that  Pope  Urban,  upon  the  strength 
a  widow,  or  a  corrupt  woman,  or  knows  his  wife  of  that  decision,  granted  dispensation.  Many  of  the 
carnally  after  she  has  been  corrupted  by  a  third  best  canonists  of  to-day  (v.  g.  D'Annlbale  and  Gas- 
party,  pari)  hold  the  contrary.  The  case  is  not  expressed 
Interpretative  bigamy  is  threefold: —  in  law,  they  say,  and  is  a  legal  fiction  which  at  all 
(1)  When  a  man  contracts  and  consiunmates  only  times  is  dangerous  and  is  totally  unwarranted  if 
one,  and  that  a  valid  marriage,  or  weds  one  wife  to  the  two  cases  differ  in  every  respect,  as  do  these — 
whom  he  is  united  in  one  flesh,  yet  the  circumstances  the  one  being  in  major,  and  the  other  in  minor  orders; 
are  such  that  the  law  considers  two  marriages  and  the  one  in  bad  faith  and  the  other  in  good  faith, 
two  wives.  Of  this  class  there  are  three  cases:  (a)  Yet,  after  all  is  said  pro  and  corif  it  still  remains  true 
When  a  single  man  marries  a  widow  already  made  that  the  proximate  cause  of  the  irregularity  in  the  law 
one  flesh  with  a  former  husband  (Decretal  Greg.,  cited  is  identical  with  that  of  the  second  case,  to  wit. 
Lib.  I,  Tit.  xxi.  Cap.  iii).  Here  the  woman  has  had  marital  intent  with  carnal  consummation, 
two  husbands  and  has  divided  her  flesh  with  two  (3)  When  a  man  marries  twice  and  either  or  both 
instead  of  being  cemented  to  only  one.  Her  marriage  marriages  are  invalid,  as  (a)  he  who  having  contracted 
to  the  second  husband  is  defective  in  its  resemblance  and  consummated  a  marriage  with  a  vimn,  upon 
to  the  marriage  symbol — union  of  Christ  with  the  her  death  received  Sacred  orders,  and  atterwards, 
Church;  the  second  husband  is  not  the  only  husband  without  any  deception  on  his  part,  contracts  and  con- 
of  the  one  wife  who  herself  should  have  been  the  wife  summates  a  sacril^ous  and  invalid  marriage  with  a 
of  only  one  husband.  As  the  wife  in  this  case  has  had  virgin  or  widow,  b^mes  an  inteipretative  bigamist 
two  real  husbands,  so,  by  fiction  of  law,  her  husband  and  irregular,  not  because  of  any  defect  in  the  sacrar 
is  considered  to  have  had  two  interpretative  wives,  ment  in  the  second  marriage,  which  is  no  marriage 
(b)  When  he  marries  an  unmarried  woman,  already  and  no  sacrament,  but  because  of  the  marital  intent 
by  a  third  party  corrupted  (Pope  Hilary,  Synod,  followed  by  consummation  by  means  of  which  the 
Rom.  Cap.  ii,  Dist.  XXXIV,  c.  ix,  Decret.).  Here  necessary  division  of  his  body  with  two  has  been 
a^in  is  a  division  of  flesh  with  two  instead  of  union  effected  (Innocent  III,  cap.  iii,  iv,  De  Bi^.).  Should 
with  one,  and  hence  the  defect,  and,  as  a  consequence,  the  cleric  feign,  rather  than  honestly  intend,  the 
the  irre^^arity.  (c)  When  he  carnally  knows  his  second  marriage,  in  order  to  accomplish  the  carnal 
own  wife  after  she  has  committed  adultery  or  has  union,  some  are  of  the  opinion  that  he  does  not  incur 
been  forcibly  oppressed  (Decretum,  c.  xi;  c.  xii).  the  irregularity,  the  marital  intent  required  by  the 
The  husband  in  this  case  is  not  barred  from  orders  Innocentian  law  not  being  verified;  others  more 
unless  the  adultery  of  the  wife  whom  he  as  a  layman  commonly  afi&rm  that  irregularity  is  contracted, 
has  married  was  conclusively  proved;  nevertheless.  The  reason  ^ven  by  the  affirmants  is  that  the  Inpo- 
in  this  case,  as  in  cases  (a)  and  (b),  ignorance  on  the  centian  marital  intent  is  not  so  much  the  intention 
part  of  the  husband  (sc.  of  the  widowhood  or  corrup-  to  contract  a  valid  marriage,  as  to  externally  contract 
tion  or  adultery  or  rape  of  his  wife)  would  not  except  and  consummate,  an  intention  that  is  always  pre- 
him  from  bigamy  ana  irregularity,  since  there  is  here  sumed  to  be  present  in  such  cases.  External  mar- 
question  of  an  irregularity  ex  defectu  sacramenU  and  riages  are  alwajrs  supposed  to  be  free  and  votontary. 


KOAMY                                 563  BIOAMY 

Emulation  is  never  presumed,  but  must,  on  the  oon-  munication  and  not  irr^ularity.  The  constitution^ 
ferary,  be  demonstrated,  (b)  Should  the  first  mar-  of  Pius  IX,  "Apostolic®  Seais''  imposed  upon' 
riage  before  receiving  Sacred  orders  be  invalid  on  similar  bigamists  excommunication  reserved  to  the 
account  of  any  diriment  impediment  (v.  g.,  consan-  ordinaries,  and  nothing  more.  It  is  evident,  there- 
guinitv  or  the  like),  although  the  case  is  not  expressly  fore,  that  the  law  affixes  no  note  of  irregularity  to 
stated  in  the  law,  the  general  opinion,  with  a  few  a  so-called  similar  bigamist.  Practically  speaking, 
exceptions,  is  that  he  is  an  interpretative  bigamist  however,  there  is  little  difference,  as  the  so-callea 
and  irregidar.  In  answer  to  their  opponents,  the  simUar  bigamists  are  prevented,  on  account  of  the 
affirmants  say  that  the  marriage  mentioned  (Cap.  iv,  censure  and  the  infamy  of  their  act,  from  receiving 
De  Big.^  may  have  been  invalid,  as  there  is  no  cer-  higher  orders  or  exercising  those  already  received; 
taiDty  that  it  was  valid,  in  which  case  the  argument  and  should  thev  solemnlv  exercise  the  functions 
from  one  species  to  another  would  be  legitimate,  of  their  grade,  they  would,  become  irregular  on  ac- 
(c)  Should  Doth  marriajges  be  invalid,  some  assert  count  of  the  violated  censure.  The  bishop  can,  when 
there  is  no  interpretative  bigamy  or  irregularity,  they  have  put  away  the  woman,  done  penance,  and 
Certainly  there  is  no  law  for  it.  Others,  as  St.  Al-  led  edifying  lives,  absolve  them  from  the  censure 
phonsus  (Vol.  VII,  n.  455;  Suarez.,  Disp.  XLIX,  and  dispense  them  from  any  irregularity,  if  any  has 
elect.  II,  n.  11)  teach  as  the  most  common  and  been  incurred,  and  promote  them  to  higher  orders, 
notable  opinion  that  there  is  present  the  marital  It  is  certain,  however,  that  religious,  not  in  Sacred 
intent  with  the  carnal  consummation  which  alone  orders,  with  simple  vows,  who  contract  and  con- 
suffices  to  induce  the  irregularity.  Canonists  differ  summate  marriage  with  a  virgin  or  with  a  ren^ade 
in  opinion  as  to  the  case  where  two  invalid  marriages  nun  who  has  broken  her  solemn  vows,  is  neither  a 
were  contracted  and  consummated  in  good  faith,  bigamist  nor  irregular.  No  such  case  is  found  in 
The  most  common  and  probable  opinion  is  that  the  canon. 

irregularity  is  contracted,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  Effecfb. — Bieamy  begets  irregularity,  the  prin- 
not  the  guilt  of  the  desire,  but  the  intention  to  con-  cipal  effect  of  which  is  to  entirely  exclude  from  the 
tract  and  consummate  the  two  marriages  which  is  reception  and  use  and  exercise  of  any  ecclesiastical 
the  reason  of  the  inwularity  as  laid  down  by  Inno-  order  and  benefice  attached  to  any  order.     Pope 
cent  III  (Cap.  4,  De  Big).    By  almost  common  con-  Gregory  X  (Lib.  I,  Tit.  XII,  Cap.  IJnic.  in  Sexto^ 
sent  the  insularity  is  said  to  be  contracted  by  the  furtner  declared  that  bigamists  should  be  stripped 
cleric  tonsured  or  in  minor  orders  or  layman  who,  of  every  clerical  privil^e,  removed  from  the  pro- 
after  having  contracted  and  consummated  a  mar-  tection  of  the  ecclesiastical,  and  subjected  to  civil, 
riaee  invalid  on  account  of  a  known  impediment  jurisdiction,   deprived   of   the   canon   safeguarding 
and  afterwards,  whether  his  wife  be  living  or  dead,  their  person  from  personal  attack,  and  forbidden 
contracts  and  consummates  another  marriage  even  to  wear  the  tonsure  and  clerical  garb,  under  penalty 
with  a  vii^n.    There  is  present  in  the  case  a  division  of  exconamimication  to  be  inciured  at  the  moment 
i>f  flesh  and  the  marital  intent  necessary  to  produce  of  their  attempted  marriage.    The  Council  of  Trent 
irr^ularity.             ^  also  forbids  to  bigamists  the  exercise  of  any  office 
Similar  Biaamy  is  nowhere  clearly  and  expre£|gly  or  function  of  minor  orders^  even  of  such  functions 
stated  in  the  law.    It  owes  its  existence  to  the  almost  as  are  usually,  by  permission,  allowed  to  married 
universal  and  constant  teaching  of  canonists  and  laymen  on  account  of  scarcity  of  celibate  clerics 
theologians  since  the  time  of  Durandus.     Similar  (^ess.  XXIII,  C.  17,  De  Reform).    Clerics  in  minor 
bieamy  is  twofold:  (1)  When  a  religious  who  has  been  orders  whose  marriages  were  invalid  are  not  com- 
solemnly  professed  in  a  religious  order  approved  by  prehended   under  the  Tridentine  law.     Cleri<»  in 
the  Churen  mariies  a  virgin  and  carnally  knows  her  Sacred  orders  and  religious  clerics,  who,  by  virtue 
as  such.    f2)  When  a  cleric  in  Sacred  orders,  in  vio-  of  the  law  of  celibacy  and  religious  profession,  are 
lation  of  the  law  of  celibacy,  contracts  and  consum-  spiritually  wedded  to  the  clerical  and  religious  states 
mates  a  marriage  with  a  virgin.    This  form  of  bi^my  respectively,  are  not  comprehended  under  the  law 
presupposes  only  one  carnal  marriage  and  a  spiritual  stnpping  them  of  every  clerical  privilege,  and  the  use 
marriage,  which  are  interpretatively  considered  two  of  tonsure  and  clerical  garb,  and  this  out  of  respect 
marriages,  and  each  putative  husband  is  considered  to  their  sacred  character.    Clerics  on  the  other  hand, 
to  have  two  interpretative  wives.    The  carnal  mar-  in  minor  orders  are  not  wedded  to  the  clerical  state; 
riages  are  invalid  by  reason  of  the  diriment  impedi-  hence  they  come  imder  the  law.    Bishops  who  know- 
ment  of  solenm  religious  profession  and  of  orders  ingly  ancl  without  permission  confer  Sacred  orders 
respectively;  but  because  of  the  marital  intent  fol-  on  a  bigamist  are  oy  the  Third  Council  of  Aries 
lowed   by  carnal  consummation,  some  claim  that  (Dist.  LV,  Can.  2)  suspended  from  saying  Mass  for 
similar  bigamy  and  irre^larity  are  incurred  by  reason  one  year,  and  by  the  decretal  law  (Lib.  1,  Tit.  21, 
of   the    <tefective   signification    of    the    sacrilegious  Cap.  ii)  were  deprived  of  the  power  of  ^ving  to  others 
marriage  to  the  symbol  of  matrimony;  some  admit  the  orders  they  had  conferred  on  a  bigamist.    Since 
that  there  is  no  bigamy,  but  an  irregularity  arising  the  constitution  ''ApostolicsB  Sedis",  the  only  pun- 
from  the  sacrilegious  marriage;  others  again  insist  ishment  is  that  which  the  Holy  Father  may  deem 
that  there  is  an  irregularity  on  account  of  some  fit  to  impose  upon  the  bishop  violating  the  canons, 
land  of  a  defect  in  the  sacrament,  but  there  is  no  Dispensation. — This  irregularity  is  removed  nei- 
law  declaring  it  to  be  bigamous  and  irregular.    Gas-  ther  by  baptism  nor  religious  solemn  profession,  but 
pari  (De  Sacra  Ordin.,  nn.  393  saq.)  and  others  re-  by  dispensation.    The  pope,  and  he  alone,  can  dis- 
ject the  first  opinion  altogether  ana  very  conclusively  pense  with  this  prohibition  to  receive  orders.    He  can 
show  that  the  canons  of  common  law  and  the  canons  dispense  with  a  mere  ecclesiastical  law,  such  as  is 
of  Gratian  upon  which  the  first  opinion  is  grounded  the  Pauline  injunction,  although  it  is  of  Apostolic 
are  not  to  the  point.    Gaspari  shows  that  the  decrees  origin.    Pope  Lucius  III,  whilst  urging  the  unlaw- 
(Decretales — ^Lib.  IV,  Tit.  6,  Cap.  i,  2  and  4)  of  Pope  fulness  of  granting  a  dispensation  in  tace  of  St.  Paul's 
Alexander  III  do  not  refer  to  bigamy  or  irre^larity,  prohibition,  did.  however,  grant  it  to  Nicholas  de 
but  spesik  of  suspensions  and  excommunications;  Tudeschis,  a  celebrated  canonist,  better  known  as 
that  the  Gratian  canons  treat  of  religious  men  ana  Abbas  Panormitanus  (Glossa,  ad  verb.  Fiaif  C.  Lec- 
women  who  have  broken  their  vows  and  are  to  be  tor,  XVIII,  Dist.  XXXIV).    Dispensations  in  cases 
removed  from  their  grade,  and  subjected  to  the  same  of  one  who  marries  two  real  wives  or  a  widow  are 
penances  as  were  at  that  period  imposed  upon  biga-  exceedingly  difficult  to  obtain   (Lib.  I,  Tit.  9,  De 
mistA.     Pope  Clement,  in  his  decree  (Lib.  4,  Tit.  Renunt.  Sec.  Personte).     Worthy  of  note  is  the  fact 
Unicus  de  Cons,  et  a£f  Clem.)  also  speaks  of  excom-  that  the  dispensation  does  not  efface  the  defect  in 


BIOABCY  564  BIOAMT 

6he  sacrament,  but  the  unfitness  arising  therefrom  a  grave  an  is  the  cause  of  the  irre^ularityi  to  name 

is  removed.    It  is  the  universal  opinion  of  to-day,  both  the  irregularity  ex  delicto  (with  sin)  and  the 

whatever  may  have  been  the  opinion  of  canonists  irregularity  ex  defeetu  sacramerUi  (without  sin), 

in  the  past,  that  the  pope  alone  can  dispense  all  ^  Ferraris.  Biblioiheca  (itome,  1886),  s.  v.;  Faonjutob, 

bigamiBts,  realand  interpretative,  «  regards  minor  ^r^S^^T  V^TeJ^Tj^.  ^Ec^.'^'b^^T'^^trgin ' 

as  well  as  Sacred  orders,  and  the  collation  and  use  of  Paw.  ii,  pp.  104  aqq.;  Dbvoti,  Jw.  Can.  Univ.  (Rome.  I83flj. 

the  simple,  as  of  great,  benefices.     The  reason  is  n.  206  aqq.;  WKRnz.JvM,Dtxret.,  II,  166-lM;  GAaPAw.  J5« 

evidentrbishope  cannot  dispense  in  the  laws  of  their  g!?tS?;rS»i;«^^^*JK.,^  PiriTi^  ^  w| 
superiors,  to  wit,  the  pope  or  General  Council.    Some  Ballbrini-Palmierj.  Opua.  Theol.,  VII,  De  Cenmria,  385  aqq^ 
canonists  claim  that  bishops,  by  virtue  of  the  Coun-  Andr^Wagner,  Diction.  Canonique,  a.  v.     _,   _.  _ 
cil  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXI VT  C.  6,  De  ReO,  can  dis-  P.  M.  J.  Rock. 
pense  with  interpretative  bigamy  arising  from  occult        Bigamy  (Fr.  bigamie,  from  Lat.  bis,  twice,  and 
guilt.    D'Annibale  floe,  citj  on  this  point  well  re-  Gr.  ydfun,  marriage)  in  Civil  Jurisprudence,  and 
marks  that  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  for  such  acts  especially  in  criminad  law,  is  "a  formal  entering  into 
to  be  private.     Sanchez  asserts  that  it  is  of  little  of  a  marriage  while  a  former  one  remains  un-dis- 
moment  whether  or  not  the  fact  is  private  or  public,  solved"  (Bishop,  Commentaries  on  the  Law  of  Stat- 
since  the  irr^ularity  is  not  ex  delicto ^  but  ex  defeetu  utory  Crimes,  §  577),  "the  crime  of  having  two  wives 
sacramenti.    It  is  certain  that  bishops,  where  there  or  husbands  at  once"  (Murray,  New  Diet.,  s.  v.)  or  two 
is  a  grave  and  positive  doubt  about  the  existence  or  more  wives  or  husbands  (Cientury  Diet.,  s.  v.).   Big- 
of  interpretative  bigamy  and  its  consequent  irregu-  amy,  being  "a  species  of  polygamy"  (Stepheoi,  New 
larity,  can  grant  dispensation.    Bishops  can  dispense  Commentaries,  iV,  83),  may  tie  designated  oy  the  lat- 
with  all  similar  bigamists  as  above  defined  after  ter  word  (Bishop,  op.  cit.);  for  Sir  fkiward  0>ke  de- 
they  have  left  their  putative  wives,  done  penance,  fines  "polygamus"  to  be  one  "qui  duas  vd  plures 
and  led  edifying  lives,  and  can  admit  them  to  the  duxituxores"  (3d  Instit.,  XXVII).    But  its  very  gen- 
exercise  of  all  ecclesiastical  functions  (Lib.  IV,  Tit.  VI,  eral  use  in  English  statutes  and  authorities  renders 
Cap.  i.  Qui  CSerici  et  Vov.;  Lib.  Ill,  Tit.  Ill,  Cap.  bigamy  in  many  instances  the  word  of  more  ready 
Sane  4).    Regular  prelates,^  i.  e.  generals,  provincials,  reference  (Russell,  A  Treatise  on  Crimes^  659). 
abbots,    priors,    guardians,    having    quasi-episcopal        Bigamy  as  defined  is  classed  by  jurists  among 
jurisdiction,  cannot,  in  virtue  of  the  common  law  those  acts  injurious  to  public  morality  by  which 
and   apart   from  special   privileges,  dispense  their  the  State  or  community  generally  is  mjured,  and 
own  suDJects  with  real  or  interpretative  bigamy,  even  which  may  therefore  properly  be  made  criminaL 
as  regards  minor  as  well  as  major  orders.    No  such  The  crime  consists,  according  to  French  law  (Car- 
power  has  been  given  them   by  pope  or  general  pentier,  Codes  et  lois;  Code  p6nal,  340,  note)  "in 
council.    By  virtue  of  privilege  of  Pius  V  (0:>nstit.  the  fact  of  the  celebration  of  the  second  marriage 
"Rom.  Pont.  Circumspecta",  June  21,  1571,  Sec.  3),  before  dissolution  of  the  first",  orj  to  quote  an 
joined  with  that  .of  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXIV,  American  authority,  in  "the  prostitution  of  a  solemn 
Cap.  vi,  etc.)  power  to  dispense  in  irregularities  on  ceremony  which  the  law  allows  to  be  applied  only  to  a 
account  of  occult  guilt,  given  to  bishops,  was  ex-  legitimate  union",  involving  "an  outrage  on  public 
tended  to  regular  prelates.    By  virtue  of  the  privilege  decency  and  morals  "  and  "  a  public  scandal "  (Bishop, 
of  Sixtus  I V ,  regular  prelates  cannot  dispense  with  op.  cit.).   And  so  Boswell  quotes  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson, 
real,   interpretative,   and   public   similar   bigamists  commenting  on   Luther's  allowing  the   Landgrave 
(P.  Venantius,  O.  F.  M.,  Compend.  Privil.  Regu-  of  Hesse  two  wives  with  the  consent  of  the  wife  to 
larium,  ed.  1906;  Piat,  Vol.  II,  p.  577,  2).     As  a  whom  he  was  first  married,  thus:  "There  was  no 
matter  of  fact,  the  Sixtine  constitution  (Reg.  Univ.  harm  in  this,  so  far  as  she  was  only  concemecL  be- 
Eccles.,  August  31,  1474)  makes  a  special  exception  cause  volenti  non  fit  injuria.    But  it  was  an  offence 
in  the  case  of  bigamy.     The  general  opinion,  that  against  the  general  orcler  of  society,  and  against  the 
they  cannot  grant  dispensation  to  their  subjects  who  law  of  the  Gospel,  by  which  one  man  and  one  woman 
are  real  or  interpretative  bigamists,  is  evident  from  are  to  be  united." 

the   fact   that   the   decretal   law    (C.   Altercationis        Although  among  many  nations  pluralitv  of  wives 

in  6°)  has  reserved  that  faculty  to  the  pope;  second,  or  polygamy  has  been  leeally  recognizea,  yet  the 

Tridentine  law  is  against  such  faculty;  third,  declara-  fact  has  been  observed  "that  among  not  a  few  un- 

tion  of  s.  c.  c.  (3  January,  1589)  has  so  decided*  civilized   people  polygamy   is  almost   unknown  or 

fourth,  present  practice  of  granting  privileges  ana  even   prohibited"    (Westermarck,   The   History    of 

faculties  to  religious  orders  as  a  rule  makes  an  ex-  Human  Marriage,  435),  and  where  tolerated^igamy 

ception  of  bigamy  v.  g.,  constit.  of  Leo  XII,  1826,  is  its  usual  form,  as  was  the  case  among  the  Hebrews 

"Plura  Intra",  directed  to  the  Society  of  Jesus,  (op.  cit.,  430).   In  the  earlier  days  of  Babylon,  bigamy 

withholds  the  faculty  of  dispensing  with  bigamists,  is  said  to  have  been  the  exception  and  monogamy 

If  religious  prelates  do  possess  the  faculty  of  dis-  the    prevailing    practice    (Johns,    Babylonian    and 

pensing  in  such  cases,  it  must  be  by  virtue  of  some  Assyrian  Laws,  134).     The  Assyrian  Jungs  appear 

special  privilege  of  recent  date.     Bishops  of  the  to  have  been  monogamists,  the  kings  of   ancient 

United  states  and  of  England,  and  vicars  Apostolic  Egypt  seem  to  have  had  only  one  wife,  and  the 

subject  to  the  Propaganda  (these  latter  only  in  foro  same  remark  may  be  made  of  their  subjects  (Wester- 

iniemo)  have  special  faculties  (Formula  I,  II,  and  marck,  432,  442,  447).     The  law  erf  China  prohibits 

IV  respectively)  to  dispense  interpretative  bigamists;  taking  of  a  second  wife  during  lifetime  of  the  first 

and  in  cases  of  paramount  importance,  on  account  (Westermarck,   445).     Mohammed,   when   allowing 

of  great  scarcity  of  priests,  bishops  in  the  United  his  followers  four  wives,  is  said  to  have  sought  to 

States  can  dispense  also  with  real  bigamists.     Ac-  restrict  what  he  felt  himself  unable  to  abolish.     And 

cording   to    general  opinion,  the  multiplication  of  he  is  said  to  have  been  of  opinion  that,  although  an 

marriages  does  not  increase  the  number  of  irregu-  unlimited  number  of  wives  might  live  togjether  in 

larities  contracted;  so  the  bigamist  and  trigamist  harmony,  this  among  so  few  as  four  would  be  im- 

equally  incur  only  one  irregularity.    In  applications  possible.    Events  seem  to  have  proved  the  correctness 

for  dispensations  mention  of  only  two  out  of  the  of   his  judgment,  for  "the  quarrels,  jealousies  and 

many  marriages  is  sufficient,  and  that  whether  they  expenditure  of  four  wives  vying  with  each  other" 

are  all  real  or  interpretative  or  mixed   bigamies.  (Colquhoun,  Summary  etc.,  }  575)  are  siud  to  have 

In  the  opinion,  however,  of  those  who  divide  inter-  brought  about  the  monogamy  usual  among  modern 

pretative  bigamies  into  ex  defeetu  sacramenti  and  Mohammedans.     Of  those  in  India  ninety-five  pel 

m;  delicto  bigamies,  it  is  necessary,  in  the  case  where  cent  are  monogamists,  and  it  is  said  that  in  Penia 


BIOAHY                            565  biqaM\ 

fe 

i^HO  Der  cent  only  have  a  plurality  of  wives  (Wester-  than  seven  nor  less  than  three  years  or  to  imprison* 
marcK,  439).    "'Tis  true' ,  writes  Lady  Mary  Wort-  ment  of  not  more  than  two  years.     Bigamy  is  a 
ley  Montagu  from  Adrianople,  in  1717,  concerning  crime  within  the  statute,  if  committed  by  a  British 
thieTurics,  ''their  law  permits  them  four  wives;  but  subject,  wherever  the  offence  may  be  committed, 
there  is  no  instance  of  a  man  of  qualitv  that  makes  The  French  ''Code  p^nal''  provides  the  punishment 
use  of  his  libertv  or  of  a  woman  of  rank  that  would  of  "travaux  forc^  k  temps''  for  a  person  who,  being 
8n£fer  it"  (Works^  IL.  190).    The  ancient  Romans  married,  shall  contract  another  marriage  before  die- 
were  monogamists    (Westermarck,   433).     And   in  solution  of  the  former  marriage, 
the  time  of  the  Emperor  Justinian  (527-565)  ^  the  A  United  States  Statute  declares  guilty  of  polyg- 
illegality  of  bigamy  was  firmly  established:  "Duaa  amy  every  person,  having  a  husband  or  wife  living, 
uxores  eodem  tempore  habere  non  licet"  and  "eadem  who  "in  a  territory  or  other  place  over  which  %&. 
duobus  nupta  esse  non  potest"  are  the  expressions  United  States  have  exclusive  jurisdiction",  marries 
of  the  Institutes  (Lib.  I,  tit.  x,  vv.  6,  7).  another,  unless  there  shall  have  been  absence  of  five 
The  law  of  England  is  thus  laid  down  by  an  au-  years,  the  absent  husband  or  wife  "not  known  to  be 
thority  supposed  to  be  of  the  time  of  Edward  I  living  and  believed  to  be  dead",  or  unless  there  shall 
(1272-1307),  the  king,  "who",  remarks  Sir  William  have  been  a  divorce  or  judicial  annulment  of  the 
Blackstone,  "hath  justly  been  styled  our  English  previous  marriage.     The   punishment   provided   is 
Justinian"  (Commentaries,  IV^  425):  "It  has  some-  a  fine  of  not  more  than  five  hundred  dollars  and  not 
times  been  that  a  man  from  wickedness  has  married  more  than  five  jrears'  imprisonment.    The  Constitu- 
several  women,  all  living  at  the  same  time;  but  Holy  tion  of  the  United  States  declaxjes  that  "Congress 
Qiurch  B&ya  that  of  such  women  none  but  the  first  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of 
is  his  lawiul  wife;  wherefore,  the  law  regards  the  religion  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof" 
others  only  as  false  wives"  (Britton,  Lib.  V,  11).  (Constitution,  Amendments,  Art.  1).    The  question 
While  the  first  marriage'  continues  undissolved  by  has  accordingly  been  raised  whether  legislation  such 
death,  or  by  iudgment  of  a  court  of  competent  juris-  as  has  just  been  quoted  may  not  violate  the  Con- 
diction,  a  subsequent  marriage  is.  by  English  com-  stitution  in  the  instance  of  an  adherent  to  a  religion 
mon  law,  a  mere  nullity  and  void  (Rent,  Commen-  of  which  bigamy  is  claimed  to  be  a  tenet.    But  the 
taries  on  American  Law,  Part  IV,  80;  Bishop,  New  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  speaking  by 
Commentaries    on    Marriage,  etc.,   1,    §717).      No  Mr.  Justice  Field,  held  that  "however  free  the  ex- 
length  of  absence  and  no  error  as  to  survival  of  the  ercise  of  religion  may  be,  it  must  be  subordinate 
absent  can  render  valid  the  second  ceremony.    But  to  the  criminal  laws  of  the  country,  passed  with 
in  defining  bigamy  as  a  crime,  statutes  have  been  reference  to  actions  regarded  by  general  consent  as 
more  indulgent.     Notwithstanding  what  we  have  properly  the  subject  of  punitive  legislation",  that 
emoted  from  the  authority  of  the  thirteenth  century,  ''  bigamy  and  polygamy  are  crimes  oy  the  laws  of 
there  seems  to  have  been  no  English  statute  de-  all  civifi:^  and  Christian  countries",  few  crimes 
fining  and  punishing  bigamy  as  a  crime  until  the  being   "more   pernicious   to   the   best   interests  of 
year  1604,  English  Taw  oeing  in  this  respect  ijiore  society",  and  therefore  that  "to  call  their  advocacy 
backward  than  the  law  of  Scotland,  which  so  early  a  tenet  of  religion  is  to  offend  the  common  sense 
as  1551    pronounced   bigamv   a   crime   punishable  of  mankind".     Free  exercise  of  religion  ought  not, 
with  the  pains  of  perjury,  these  being  confiscation  in  the  opinion  of  the  Court,  to  be  construed  to  mean 
of  goods,  imprisonment,  and  infamy   (Bell,   Diet,  toleration  of  crime  (Davis  t;.  Reason,  United  States 
and  Digest  of  the  Laws  of  Scotland,  s.  v.).    By  an  Reports,  CXXXIII,  333,  341,  342,  345).     Alien  po- 
English  statute  of  1604,  upon  which  later  English  lygamists  are,  by  a  United  States  Statute  excluded 
laws  and  laws  in  the  United  States  have  been  mod-  from  admission  to  the  United  States.    The  statute 
elled,  any  married  person  who  should  marry  within  books  of  various  States  of  the  Union  contain  laws 
En^and  or  Wales,  the  former  husband  or  wife  being  modelled  upon,  and  with  provisions  more  or  less 
living,  became  gwilty  of  felony.     But  the  statute  similar  to,  tnose  of  the  English  law  of  1604,  and  de- 
did  not  extend  to  persons  whose  husband  or  wife  fining  bigamy,  or  in  the  statutes  of  sonie  States, 
remained  continually  "  beyond  the  seas  by  the  space  polygamy,  as  a  crime.     Formerly,  by  the  Virginia 
of  seven  years",  nor  to  a  person  "whose  husband  law  (Umted  States  Reports,  XCVlTI,  165)  ana  by 
or  wife  shall  absent  him  or  herself  the  one  from  the  the  law  of  North  Carolina   (I^ent,  Commentaries, 
other  by  the  space  of  seven  years  together  in  any  Part  IV,  79,  note  d),  bigamy  was  punished  by  death, 
parts  within  his  majesty's  dominions,  the  one  of  Now  its  punishment  in  Virginia  is  imprisonment  of 
them  not  Imowing  the  other  to  be  living  within  that  not  more  than  eight  nor  less  than  three  years  (Code, 
time".    The  statute  thus  established  an  arbitrary  §  3781),  and  in  l^orth  Carolina  of  not  more  than 
period  of  absence  as  exempting  from  criminality  ten  years  nor  less  than  four  months  (Revisal,  §  3361). 
a  second  marriage.     That  aosence  within  England  In  the  State  of  New  York  the  punishment  is  not  more 
should  justify  the  second  marriage,  the  one  marrying  than  five  years'  imprisonment,  and  the  period  of 
was  required  to  be  ignorant  of  the  survival  of  the  absence   excusing  second  marriage  is  fixed  at  five 
absent  husband    or    wife;   but  respecting  absence  years,  the  former  husband  or  wife  having  been  ab- 
" beyond   the   seas"  we   are   told    by   Blackstone,  sent  from  the  one  remarrying  "without  being  known 
"Where  either  party  hath  been  continually  abroad  by  him  or  her  within  that  time  to  be  living  and  be- 
for  seven  years  whether  the  party  in  England  hath  lieved  by  him  or  her  to  be  dead"  (Birdseye,  Revised 
notice  of  the  other's  being  living  or  no"  (Commen-  Statutes,  306).    Divorce  (unless  for  fault  of  the  party 
taries,  Bk.  IV,  164),  there  can  oe  no  felony  under  remarrying),  due  permission  of  Court,  or  annulment 
the  statute.    The  statute,  not  otherwise  providing,  of  the  previous  marriage,  or  sentence  to  life  imprison- 
and  its  violation  being  made  a  felony,  men  prosecuted  ment  of  the  former  husband  or  wife  also  excuses  the 
thereunder  were,  according  to  the  general  law  of  remarriage.      Absence,  therefore,  not   dissolving   a 
the  period,  entitled  to  "fenefit  of  clergy"  (Coke,  previous  marriage,  on  proof  that  a  husband  or  wife 
sup.),  subject  to  which,  conviction  under  the  statute  who  had  been  supposea  to  be  dead  is  in  fact  living, 
was  j>unishable  with  death.     The  English  statute  the  second  mams^  may  be  adjudged  to  be  a  nullity, 
of  1861.  now  in  force,  exempts  from  punishment  The  law  will  not  sanction  bigamy  by  recognizing 
a  secona  marriage  only  where  there  has  been  con-  the  two  marriages  to  be  simultaneously  valla    Ao- 
tinual  absence  of  seven  years,  and  the  person  marry-  cording  to  the  law  of  New  York,  the  earlier  marria^ge 
ing  shall  not  know  the  absent  husband  or  wife  "to  ceases  to  be  binding  until  one  of  the  three  parties 
be  living  within  that  time  ".    Those  ^ilty  under  the  to  the  two  marriages  procures   a  judmnent  pro- 
statute  are  liable  to  penid  servitude  of  not  more  nouncing  the  second  marriage  void  (New  York  Court 

XL— 36 


BIOVB  £06  bhuok 

of  Appeals  Reports,  CXIV,  120;  Birdseye,  op.  cit.,  at  Berniftres-le-Palay.  Normandy;   d,  about  159(1 

1042;  cf.  Bishop,  New  Commentaries).  He  studied  at  the  College  of  Caen,  and  at  the  Sor- 

The  recently  recovered  Code  of  the  Babylonian  bonne  in  Paris  where  he  received  the  doctorate.  He 

King  Hammurabi  ^about  2250  b.  c),  in  its  reguia-  was  named  canon  of  his  native  Diocese  of  Bayeux 

tions   respectinj;   bigamy   affords   some   interesting  and,  later,  dean  of  the'  church  of  Mans.    At  the  Pro- 

comparisons  with  modem  legislation  on  the  same  vincial  Council  of  Rouen,  in  1581,  he  sustain^i  the 

subject.     By  that  ancient  statute  a  wife  ''has  no  rights  of  his  cathedral  chapter  against  Bemadin  de 

blame"  who  remarries  after  her  husband  has  been  St.  Francois,  Bishop  of  Bayeux,  and  provoked  an 

taken  captive,  **i{  there  was  not  maintenance  in  his  imfortunate  conflict  with  the  latter  which  ended  in 

house''   (§  134).     But  "if  there  was  maintenance  de  la  Bigne's  resignation   from   his  canonry.    He 

in   his   house'',   the   captive's   wife  who  remarries  resumed,  then,  at  the  Sorbonne  the  patristic  studies 

''shall  be  prosecuted  and  shall  be  drowned"  (f  133).  in  which  he  had  been  long  engaged.    He  had  early 

Another  section  resembles  a  provision  of  an  existing  perceived  that  Protestant  misquotation  and  misin- 

New  York  statute.     Bv  this  statute,  if  the  second  terpretation  of  patristic  texts  was  a  menace  to  Catho- 

marriage  be  annulled  oecause  the  former  husband  lie  interests  and  resolved  to  collect  and  edit  the 

or  wife  is  living,  children  of  this  marriage  are  deemed  available  documents  of  the  Fathers.     He  published 

to  be  "legitimate  children  of  the  parent  who  at  the  in  1575  his  "Sacra  Bibliotheca  Sanctorum  ratnim" 

time  of  the  marriage  was  competent  to  contract"  (Paris^  8  vols.;   additional   volume  in   1579;  later 

(Blrdseye,  Revised  Statutes,  993).     In  like  manner  editions,  Paris,  1589;  Lyons,  27  vols.,  1677;  Cologne, 

this  code  of  four  thousand  years  ago  ordains  that  1694).     It  contains  the  WTitings.  some  complete, 

if,  in  the  instance  of  the  woman  who  'has  no  Wame",  some   fragmentary,   of  our   two   hundred  Fathers, 

there  be  children  of  her  second  marriage,  she  shall  many  published  for  the  first  time.     Particular  care 

return  to  her  first  husband  if  "he  return  and  regain  was  ^ven  to  the  elucidation  of  texts  corrupted  by 

his  citv",  "but  the  children  shall  follow  their  own  heretics.    This  work  was  the  pioneer  in  the  field  of 

father".    As  if  to  rebuke  want  of  patriotism  or  love  critical    patristics.      He   published,   also,   "Statute 

of  home,  the  wife  of  a  man  who  ''has  left  his  city  Synodalia  Parisiensium  Episcoporum,  Qalonis  Adonis 

and  fled"  mi^ht  remarry  and  "because  he  hated  his  et  Willielmi;  item  Decreta  Petri  et  Galteri,  Senonen- 

city  and  fled'  the  fugitive  returning  was  not  allowed  slum  Episcoporum"  (Paris,  1578);  and  an  editkm 

to  reclaim  his  wife  (§  136).  of  St.  Isidore  of  Seville  (Paris,  1580),  in  which  for 

Tennyson  has  made  double  marriage  the  subject  the  first  time  the  latter's  works  were  gathered  in  one 

of  his  poem  "Enoch  Arden".    We  may  notice  now  work. 

carefully  the  poet  causes  a  period  to  elapse  longer        Miqnb,  P.  L.,  LXXXI,  209-212. 
than  the  seven  years  mentioned  in  the  English  Stat-  John  B.  Pehterson. 

ute: — 


•  ■  •  • 


„      ,,,,.,        ,      ten  years  Bllliart,  Marte-Rose-Julie.    See  Juue  Belliabt; 

Since  Enoch  left  his  hearth  and  native  land  Blessed. 

Fled  forward,  and  no  news  of  Enoch  came,  ^,„,  ,  *    ^                        ^         ^                ^     .  . .  x 

1.11.  Billick   (Stein BERGER,  Lat.  Latomtu,  Lapicida\ 

before  his  wife  listens  to  the  argument,  which,  how-  Eberhard,    German   theologian,    opponent  of  the 

ever,  the  poet  is  not  so  unpoetical  as  to  reinforce  by  Reformation,  b.  1499  or  1500  at  Cologne;  d.  there, 

quoting  the  statute:—-               .         ,.    .  12  January,  1557.     Of  a  family  which  gave  a  number 

It  is  beyond  all  hope,  against  aU  chance,  of  prominent  men  to  the  Carmelites  of  Cologne, 

That  he  who  left  you  ten  long  years  ago  Eberhard   entered    the   Carmelite    Order   in   1513, 

Should  still  be  living.  took  his  vows  in  1514,  became  priest  and  master 

—And.  like  the  woman  pronounced  blameless  by  of  students  in  1525,  and  reader  of  divinity  in  1526; 

the  old  Babylonian  Code,  for  whom  "there  was  not  he  matriculated  at  the  University  of  Cologne  in  1528, 

maintenance".  Enoch's  wife  was  "poor  and  wanting  ^ag  made  Prior  of  Cassel.  1531,  Prior  of  Cok)gne, 

help"  when  she  consented  to  the  remarriage  which  1536-42,    received   his    licentiate  and  doctorate  of 

Enoch,  returning  contrary  to  all  seeming  hope  and  divinity,  1540  and  in  1542  was  appomted  Provincial 

chance,  after  having  been  so  long  "cast  away  and  of  the  province  of  Lower  Germany.     He  retained 

lost",  ratified  m  his  self-effacmg  prayer  for  strength  this  dignity  until  his  death,  for,  although  nominated 

"not  to  tell  her,  never  to  let  her  know"— cf.  Ham-  auxiliary  Bishop  of  Cologne,  he  did  not  live  to  be 

murabi.  Code,  §135                     ,^  ,    ^      ^  „      ^   ,  consecrated.    Billick's    activity    on    behalf   of   his 

l^)Ty:;TS^ch!:i'D^^  order  was  succ^ful;  he  enrolled  numerous  candi- 

Commentaries  on  the  Law  of  Statutory  Crimes  (3d  ed.,  Chicago,  dates,   improved  the  plan  of  studies,  saved  several 

1901);  Id.,  New  Commentary  on  Marriaoe,  Divorce,  and  monsisteries  from  destruction,  re-established  others, 

&'Tr"<^^1l»}^tV=^:"Son''T9(g™£^.'X  and  reformed  both  lus  own  province  and  that  of 

Treatise  on  Crimes  and  Misdemeanours  (6th  «d..  London.  1896);  Upper   Germany.      His    chief    importance,    however. 

Holland,  The  Elements  of  Jurisprudence  (10th  ed..  New  York  lies  in  his  dealings  with  the  Arohbishop  of  Cologne, 

and  London,  1906);  The  Statutes  at  Large  {London,  1770),  111;  jf  n^inim**  rpmAin^H  tnift  f^  fhft  rJathrSiV  aaiw  the 

A  Compendious  Ahstract  of   the  Public  General  Acts  (London.  ^^  V^lOgne  renaainea  true  tO  tne  l^atnoUC  <»use  tnc 

1861),  XXXIX;  Bell.  Dictionary  and  Digest  of  the  Laws  of  ment    IS    prmcipally   due    to    the    provmcial   of  the 


m;  Carpentier.  Codes  Carmelites.    As  the  leader  of  the  lower  clergy  be 

SL'^iTTiX^  iL^nd<^l^T^U  ^J.r^Tf^  Pfotested  against  the  heretical  tendenci«  of  %^ 

Revised  Statutes,  Codes,  and  General  Laws  of  the  State  of  New  bishop  Hermann   VOn   Wied,  who  smce  1536  had  f»- 

York  (3d  ed.,  New  York,  1901);  Reports  of  Cases  decided  in  voured  the  Reformers.     Von  Wied  was  exoommuni- 


Mive  up  the  archbishopric  in  1547,  and 

M^^  »,  *.«».*.  ^^.».,.^  v.w«,^«,  *.„^/.  ,..„«.,  v>w„,,..«.     .  ^^-.     It  was  Billick's  exposure  of  thearch- 

fito/uie.  o/ <A«  C/nitod  Sto/M  ij^i  (St.  PaiU^  bishop's  breach  of  faith   that  led   to  the  latter's 

!!r2?)^^^t."^''ilir(^^^^^  deposition.     Writing   against    Bucer     Billick  drew 

MARCK.  The  History  of  Human  Marriaoe  (London,  1891);  Db  upon  himself  the  ire  of  Luther  and  Melanchthon.    ilo 

CoLQDHouN,  A  Swnmary  of  the  Roman  CivU  Law  (lx)ndon.  took  part  in  the  disputations  of  Worms,  1540,  Ratis- 

lS^'ii!'?±^^nX?UlA^X'^i':'trV^oJ',^X^  J«n    1541  and    1546,.andAugBbun5,  1547    and  « 

ington,  1901);  Johns,  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  Laws,  Conr  theologian     accompanied     the    new     Archbishop   Ot 

trucU,  and  Utters  (New  York,  1904).  Cologne  to  the  Council  of  Trent,  1551. 

Charles  W.  SloaNE.  Pootina,  Der  Ka^^nelU  Eberhard  BiUick  (Freibuif  im  Biw 

_^,             __                _,                \     ^r  1901),  contAinB  his  life,  a  complete  biblionaphy,  list  d  n* 

Bigne    (Binius,    BlONiUUs),  Maroderin    db    la,  writings  and  a  calendar  of  his  oorwgpondence. 

French  theologian  and  patrologist,  b.  about  1546  B.  ZtmmbbiIiI*^ 


BILLTTABT  567  BILLY 

BOlnart,    CHARLBS-RsNi:,    Dominican    preacher,  de  Benott  Xlll":  "R^ponse  .  .  .  d,  M.  Sti6venard; 

eontroversialist.  and  theologian,  b.  at  Revin,  a  small  Chanoine  de  Gam  oral,  au  sujet  de  son  Apologie  pour 

town  of  the  Ardennes  on  the  Meuse,  BdgiimK  28  Jan-  feu  Msr.  de  F^nelon'';  ''Avis  k  M.  Sti^venard  sur  la 

uaiy,  1685;  d.  there  20  January.  1767.    He  com-  seconcte  Apologie  pour  Msr.  F^nelon";  "Justification 

pleted  his  classics  at  the  Jesuit  oolite  of  GharleviUe  de  Tavis'';   ''Apologie  au   thomisme  triomphant|' 

and  soon  after  entered  the  Dominican  convent  in  his  (Li^e,   1731);   ''R^ponse  k  I'auteur  d'un  libelle" 

native  town.    He  was  sent  to  the  novitiate  at  Lille,  U734);   "Apologie  .  .  .  contre  I'Histoire  du   bala- 

whence  he  returned  a  year  later  for  profession,  7  Nov-  nisme  compK)8^  par  le  P^re  Duchesne''  (Avignon, 

yember,  1702.    He  followed  the  r^guliff  courses,  re-  1738);  "Sermons  du  R.  P.  O.  R.  Billuart",  edited  by 

odving  ordination  in  1708..    The  two  foUowing  years  Abb^  Leli^vre  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1846). 

he  spent  at  Li^,  pursuing  higher  studies,  and  in  ^^Labye,  ViiaAttcioriamSuvplementumCwra^ 

17in  woo  orkrkTkin^  nrckfoam^  rtf  nKil/M/^nhv  af  nniin.!  1769);  Mamdonnet  m  DxcL  de  thSol.  coth.;  LBLifcvRK,  preface 

mo  was  appointed  prolessor  Ol  pnUOSOpnjr  at  Ltouai.  ^  Sermona  du  R.  P.  BiUuart  (Paria.  1846).  I;  HuBTBB.  Nomenr. 

The  next  ye&r  he  was  transferred  to  Revm,  but  was  daior^U,  1284. 

speedily  promoted  to  a  chair  of  theologv  which  he  J.  R.  Volz. 

held  until  1715,  when  he  was  appoint^  master  of 

students  at  Douai.    Here,  in  1718,  he  became  second        Billy,    (Billi)  Jacques  de,   a  French  patristic 

regent  of  studies  and  was  also  desi^ated  to  preach  scholar,  theologian,  jurist,  linguist,  and  Benedictine 

the  Advent  and  Lenten  courses  at  Lidge.    Invited  to  abbot,  b.  1535  at  Guise  in  Picardy;  d.  25  December, 

Maastricht  by  Count  Tillv,  the  famous  Catholic  gov-  1581  at  Paris.    He  be^an  his  studies  at  Paris,  com> 

emor  of  the  city  and  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  pleted  a  course  of  philosophy  and  theology  before 

armies  in  Holland,  he  preached  on  the  Real  Presence  ne  was  eighteen  years  of  age,  and  then,  at  the  request 

during  the  Corpus  Christi  celebration  and  later  de-  of  his  parents  went  to  Orleans  and  later  to  Poitiers 

fended  the  doctrine  at  a  public  discussion  in  the  town  to  stuay  jurisprudence.    But  having  no  inclination 

hall.    All  this  had  been  arranged  by  the  count,  who  for  law,  he  devoted  most  of  his  time  to  literature, 

had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  the  ministers  reduced  to  The  early  death  of  his  parents  (Louis  de  Billy,  of  an 

silence  by  Billuart's  incisive  logic  and  irresistible  old   French   family  originally   from   Ile-de-France, 

learning.    After  three  years  as  Prior  of  Revin,  Billuart  and  Marie  de  Brichanteau)  gave  him  the  opportunity 

was  caBed  to  the  regency  of  Douai  and  three  years  he   desired  of  pursuing  unhampered  his   favourite 

later,  15  October,  1728,  he  was  elected  provincial.   The  study  of  letters.    Quietly  withdrawing  to  Lyons  and 

honours  of  the  doctorate  were  conferred  upon  him  in  later  to  Avignon,  de  Billy  devoted  himself,  for  a 

1729.    In  1732  he  again  preached  a  course  at  Lidge,  period,  entirely  to  the  study  of  Greek  and  Hebrew, 

adding  to  his  fame  as  a  preacher.     He  next  held  uie  He  already  held  in  cammendam  the  Abbey  of  St.- 

office  of  Prior  of  Revin  for  three  successive  terms  until,  L^nard  of  Ferri^res  in  Aniou,  and  the  Priory  of 

in  1741,  he  was  re-elected  provincial.    In  1746  he  Taussigny  in   Tourraine,   wnen   his  older  brother 

began  and  in  five  years  completed  his  celebrated  and  Jean,  who  had  hitherto  led  a  very  worldly  life, 

monumental  work,  the ''Summa  S.  Thorns  hodiemis  suddenly  announced  his  intention  of  becoming  a 

Academiarum    moribus    accommodata ''    (10    vols.  Carthusian,  and  resigned  in  favour  of  Jacques  his 

lidge,  1746-51).    This  work  had  been  entrusted  to  two  abbeys,  Notre-Dame  des  ChAtelliers  and  St.- 

him  by  the  master  general  of  the  order  nearly  four-  Michel-en-rHerme.    After  some  hesitation  de  Billy 

teen  years  before.    It  was  a  fitting  response  to  a  peti-  accepted  them,  then  entered  the  Order  of  St.  Bene- 

tion  of  his  former  colleagues  at  Douai,  and  it  answered  diet,  and  later  was  made  a  regular  abbot.    Thence- 

a  general  demand,  as  is  evidenced  by  its  publication  forth  he  led  a  very  ascetic  fife  and  governed  his 

in  thirteen  standard  editions.    In  1754,  while  serv*  monasteries  with  great  prudence.    He  was  especially 

ing  a  third  term  as  provincial,  Billuart  published  a  solicitous  for  the   proper  observance  of  monastic 

compendium,  also  well  known  to  the  schomstic  world,  discipline  and  with  that  object  in  view  renewed,  in 

in  six  editions,  the  "  Summa  Summse  S.  Thomee,  sive  1566,  the  statutes  of  his  predecessor.  Abbot  Bertrand 

oompendium  theologise"  (Li^ge,  1754).  de  Moussy.    During  the  civil  wars  that  devastated 

Buluart's  work  is  characteriied  by  a  facile  style.  France  at  this  period  the  monastery  of  St.-Michel-en- 
oopious  treatment,  and  fearless  exposition;  by  well  I'Herme  was  wholly  destroyed.  The  abbot  himself 
fwmned  lo^cal  divisions  and  precise,  clear-cut  dis-  was  frequently  obliged  to  seek  refuge  from  the 
tinctions.  It  ranks  among  the  leading  commen-  ravages  of  war,  and  resided,  for  short  periods,  at 
taries  on  St.  Thomas.  It  is  esteemed  for  its  annexed  Laon,  Nantes,  Paris,  and  in  the  Priory  of  Taussigny. 
historical  essays,  the  materiab  for  which  are  drawn  The  hardships  he  had  to  imdergo  in  his  joumeyings, 
largely  from  the  ecclesiastical  history  of  Natalis  Alex-  his  incessant  toil  and  study,  and  his  ascetic  observ- 
ander,  O.  P.  In  his  moral  science  Billuart  favours  a  ances  gradually  shattered  his  health,  and  while 
moderate  probabiliorism,  in  which  position,  however,  staying  in  Paris  with  his  friend  Gilbert  G§n^brard, 
he  no  longer  commands  a  very  great  foUowing  outside  he  died  at  the  comparatively  early  age  of  forty-six. 
of  his  own  school.  Generally  speaking,  Billuart  He  was  buried  in  tne  choir  of  the  church  of  Saint- 
stands  forth  as  a  theologian  of  authority.    He  is  one  S^verin. 

of  the  foremost  writers  who  have  shed  lustre  on  the        From  the  day  on  which  he  entered  the  novitiate, 

school  of  the  Angelic  Doctor.    In  his  polemical  writ-  de  Billy  set  aside  all  profane  studies  and  devoted 

in|B;s,  Billuart  was  a  devoted  member  of  his  order  and  himself  exclusively  to  the  study  of  the  Fathers, 

a  keen  disciple  of  St.  Thomas,  zealous  for  the  integrity  His  critical  abilities  and  exceptional  linguistic  attain- 

of  the  saint's  accepted  teachings.     Dignified  in  beai>  ments   (he  wrote  Greek  and  Latin  with  singular 

ing,  he  was  gentle  to  those  around  him.    He  wa«  un-  purity  and  precision)  enabled  him  to  do  much  foi 

remitting  in  his  labours  and  a  man  of  prayer  withal,  the  emendation  of  the  text  and  the  correct  interpre 

much  given  to  devotion  to  the  Blessed  Sacrament.  tation  of  many  obscure  passages  in  the  Church 

His  principal  works,  besides  those  mentioned,  are  Fathers.    His  favourite  among  the  Fathers  was  St 

the   foilowii^g:   "  Supplementum  cursus  theologis  '  Gregoiy     Nazianzen.    His    principal    works    arc 

(Li^e,  1759);   "De  mente  ecclesise  catholics  circa  (1)    "S.  Gregorii  Nazianzeni  opera  omnia  latine 

accidentia  eucharistiee "  (Li^,  1715);  "Le  thomisme  (Paris,  1569);  a  second  and  better  edition  appeared 

veng6  de  sa  pr6tendue  condamnation  par  la  constitu-  in  1583.     (2)  "Consolations  et  instructions"  (Paris, 

tlon  Unigemtus"  (Brussels.  1720);  "Lettre  k  MM.  les  1570).     (3)  "R^r^ations  spirituellee"  (Paris,  1573). 

docteurs  de  la  faculty  de  tn^ologie  de  Tuniversit^  de  (4)  "S.  Gregorii  Nazianzem  opuscula''  (Paris,  1575). 

Douai"  (1723);  "Examen  critique  des  reflexions  sur  (5)   " Interpretatio   Latina  xviii   priorum   capitum 

le  bref  de  notre  S.  Pdre  le  pape  Benott  XIII*'  (1725);  S.  Irenoi"  (Paris,  1575).    (6)  "Anthologia  sacra' 

^Lethomismetriomphantparlebref  Demiesaspreces  (P&ria,    1576).     (7)    "Joannia   Damasceni   opera' 


BILOOATION 


568 


BDTATIOn 


(Paris,  1677).  (8)  "Locutiones  Gr»c«"  (Paris, 
1578).  (9)  "Opuscula  aliqua  S.  Joannis  Cluysos- 
tomi"  (Paris,  1581).  (10)  "S.  Isidori  Pelusiot® 
epis.  iibri  tres"  (Paris,  1586).  (11)  "S.  Epiphanii 
opera"  (Paris,  1612). 

ZiEOBLBAUEB,  Uttt,  rei  lit  O. 
353;  IV,  90,  99,  107;  Niceron,  „ 

Francoib,  Bibl.  o^n.  des  icrivains  rf-  .  -.-.w««i,„.  ^w^..  v*^««- 
lon.  1777),  I,  126;  Dupin,  Nouv,  Bibl.  des  atUeun  ecd.  (Amster- 
dam. 1710),  XVI,  123;  Huet,  De  dor,  inUrpr,,  261;  OaUui 
Chriatiana  (Paris,  1720),  11.  1296,  1421;  Natamb  Albxand»b. 
Hiat.  Ecd.  (Venice.  1771),  XVII,  336;  P.  O.,  XXV,  prol. 

Thomas  Obstreich. 

Bilocation  (Latin  bis,  twice,  and  locatio,  place). 
I.  The  question  whether  the  same  finite  being  (es- 
pecially a  body)  can  be  at  once  in  two  (bilocation)  or 
more  (replication,  multilocation)  totally  different 
places  grew  out  of  the  Catholic  doctnne  on  the 
Eucharist.  According  to  this  Christ  is  truly,  really, 
and  substantially  present  in  every  consecrated  Host 
wheresoever  located.  In  the  endeavour  to  connect 
this  fact  of  faith  with  the  other  conceptions  of  the 
Catholic  mind  theologians  make  the  following  distinc- 
tions: (1)  The  place  of  a  body  is  the  surface  of  the 
body  or  bodies  immediately  surrounding  and  in  con- 
tact with  the  located  body.  (2)  A  physical  body  is 
in  place  commensurably  (circumscriptively)  ina»- 
mucn  as  the  individual  portions  of  its  exterior  sur- 
faces answer  singly  to  the  corresponding  portions  of 
the  immediately  environing  surfaces  of  the  body  or 
bodies  that  constitute  its  place.  (3)  A  being  is  defin- 
itively in  place  when  it  is  entire  in  every  porfion  of 
the  space  it  occupies.  This  is  the  mode  of  location 
proper  to  unembodied  spirits  and  to  the  hmnan  soul 
m  tne  organism  whereof  it  is  the  ''substantial  form", 
i.  e.  the  actuating  and  vitalizing  principle.  A  spirit 
cannot,  of  course,  be  in  loco  circumscriptively  since, 
having  no  integrant  parts,  it  cannot  be  m  extensional 
contact  with  the  surrounding  dimensions.  It  may  be 
said,  therefore,  to  locate  itself  by  its  spiritual  activity 
(will)  and  rather  to  occupy  than  to  be  occupied  by 
place,  and  consequently  to  be  virtually  rather  than 
formally  in  loco.  Such  a  mode  of  location  cannot  be 
natural  to  a  physical  body.  Whether  it  can  be  so 
absolutely,  supematurally,  miraculously,  by  an  inter- 
ference on  the  part  of  Omnipotence  will  be  considered 
below.  (4)  A  mixed  mode  of  location  would  be  that 
of  a  bein^  which  is  circumscriptively  in  one  place  (as 
is  Christ  m  heaven),  and  definitively  (sacramentally) 
elsewhere  (as  is  Christ  in  the  consecrated  Host). 

II.  That  bilocation  (multilocation)  is  physically 
impossible,  that  is,  contrary  to  all  the  conditions  of 
matter  at  present  known  to  us,  is  the  practically 
unanimous  teaching  of  Catholic  philosophers  in  ac- 
cordance with  universal  experience  and  natural  sci- 
ence. As  to  the  absolute  or  metaphysical  impossi- 
bility, that  is,  whether  bilocation  involves  an  intrinsic 
contradiction,  so  that  by  no  exertion  even  of  Omnipo- 
t'Cnce  could  the  same  body  be  at  once  in  wholly 
different  places — to  this  question  the  foregoing  dish- 
tinctions  are  pertinent.  (1)  Catholic  phQosophers 
maintain  that  there  is  no  absolute  impossibility  in  the 
same  body  bein^  at  once  circumscriptively  in  one 
place  and  definitively  elsewhere  (mixed  mode  of  lo- 
cation). The  basis  of  this  opinion  is  that  local  ex- 
tension is  not  essential  to  material  substance.  The 
latter  is  and  remains  what  it  is  wheresoever  located. 
Local  extension  is  consequent  on  a  naturally  univer^ 
sal,  but  still  not  essentiallv  necessary,  property  of 
material  substance.  It  is  tne  immediate  resultant  of 
the  ** quantity"  inherent  in  a  body's  materia  com- 
position and  consists  in  a  contactual  relation  of  the 
body  with  the  circumambient  surfaces.  Being  a  re- 
sultant or  quasi  effect  of  quantity  it  may  he  sus- 
pended in  its  actualization;  at  least  such  suspension 
involves  no  absolute  impossibility  and  may  therefore 
be  effected  by  Omnipotent  agency.  Should,  there- 
fore, God  choose  to  deprive  a  oody  of  its  extensional 


relation  to  it^plaoe  and  ihua,  so  to  speak,  driowiBie 
the  material  substance,  the  latter  would  be  quasi  spir- 
itualized and  would  thus,  besides  its  natunu  circum- 
scriptive location,  be  capable  of  receivinj^  definitive 
and  consequently  mulUjMe  location;  for  m  this  case 
the  obstacle  to  bilocation,  vis.,  actual  local  extensioii, 
would  have  been  removed.  Replication  does  not  in- 
volve multiplication  of  the  bodirs  substance  but  only 
the  multiphcation  of  its  local  relations  to  other  bodies. 
The  existence  of  its  substance  in  one  {dace  is  con- 
tradicted only  by  non-existence  in  that  same  fdaoe, 
but  B&yB  nothing  per  se  about  existence  or  non-ex- 
istence elsewhere.  (2)  If  mixed  replication  invdves 
no  absolute  contradiction,  definitive  replic^on  a  for- 
tiori does  not.  (S)  Regarding  the  abf>olute  poso- 
bility  of  a  body  being  present  circumscriptively  in 
more  than  one  place,  St.  Thomas,  Vasquez,  Sflv. 
Maurus,  and  many  others  deny  such  possibility.  The 
instances  of  bilbcation  narrated  in  kves  of  the  saints 
can  be  explained,  they  hold,  by  phantaanal  replica- 
tions or  by  aerial  materialisations.  Scotus,  Bellar- 
mine,  Suares,  DeLugo,  Franselin,  and  many  others 
defend  the  possibility  of  circumscriptive  replication. 
Their  ars^uments  as  well  as  the  various  subtle  ques- 
tions ana  difficulties  pertinent  to  the  whole  subject 
will  be  found  in  works  cited  below. 

Balmbs,  FtmdameiUal  PkOofopky  (New  Yoric,  1864); 
Daloauns,  The  Holy  Communion  (London,  1868):  Fabkb, 
The  BL  SaeramerU  (Baltimore,  1856);  Qutberlet,  IHe  Mdo- 
phynk  (MOnster,  1880):  Nts,  Cotmologie  (Lourain,  1906); 
La  Fabos^  L*i(U$  de  eoiUmu  (Paris.  1894);  Pesch.  PMoeophia 
Nat,  (FreibuiiE*  1897);  Urraburu,  Coemoloffia  (Valladolid, 
1892). 

F.  P.  SlEOFRIK). 

Bination,  the  offering  up  of  the  Holy  Sacrifice  of 
the  Mass  twice  on  the  same  day  hj  the  same  celebrant. 

It  is  believed  by  some  (Magani,  L'Antica  Liturgia 
Romana,  Pt.  I,  p.  296,  Pt.  II,  p.  187)  that  even  from 
Apostolic  times  private  Masses  were  celebrated  when- 
ever convenient.  Be  this  as  it  may,  it  is  certain  that 
in  the  first  years  of  Christianity  public  Masses  were 
offered  on  Sundays  only;  later,  on  Wednesdays  and 
Fridays  also  (Tertullian,  De  Oratione,  xiv).  To 
these  three  days  Saturday  was  added,  especially  in 
the  East  (St.  Basil,  Ep.,  cdxxxix).  St.  Augustine,  who 
died  in  430,  assures  us  (Ep.  liv.)  that  while,  in  his 
time.  Mass  was  celebrated  only  on  Sundays  in  some 
places,  in  others  on  Saturdays  and  Sundays,  it  was 
nevertheless  in  manv  places  customary  to  have  the 
Holy  Sacrifice  daily  (St.  Au£:ust.,  Sermo  Iviii,  De  Orat. 
Domin.),  as  in  Africa  (St.  August.,  op.  cit.),  in  Spain 
(Council  of  Toledo,  year  400),  in  Northern  Italy  (St 
Ambrose,  Sermo  xxv),  in  Constantinople  (St.  John 
Chrysos.  in  Ep.  ad  Ephesios),  as  well  as  elsewhere. 
The  daily  Mass  became  unhrmal  about  the  dose  of 
the  sixth  century.  Nay  more,  it  was  not  long  b^ore 
priests  began  to  celebrate  the  Holy  Sacrifice  two, 
three,  or  more  times  daily,  according  to  their  own  de- 
sire, till  the  sacred  canons  (Gratian,  De  Consecr.,  dist. 
i,  can.  liii)  put  a  limit  to  their  devotion  in  this  re^gard, 
and  Alexander  II  (d.  1073)  decreed  that  a  priest 
should  be  content  with  saying  Mass  once  a  day, 
unless  it  should  be  necessary  to  offer  a  second — never 
more — ^for  the  dead.  Notwithstanding  this  legisla- 
tion, the  practice  continued  of  celebrating  oftener 
on  some  of  the  greater  feasts:  thus  on  the  first  of 
January  one  Mass  was  said  of  the  Octave  of  the 
Nativi^  of  Christ,  another  in  honour  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin*  three  Masses  were  said  by  bishops  on  Holy 
Thursdav,  in  one  of  which  sinners  were  reconciled 
to  the  dnurdi.  a  second  for  the  Consecration  of  the 
Oils,  and  a  tnird  in  keeping  with  the  feast;  two 
Masses  were  said  on  the  Vigu  of  the  Ascfflwon,  as 
well  as  on  the  feast  itself;  three  Masses  were  oele> 
brated  on  Easter,  and  three  also  on  the  Nativity  of 
St.  John  Baptist.  On  the  feast  of  Sts.  Peter  and 
Paul  the  pope  said  one  Mass  in  the  basilioa  of  SC 
Peter  and  a  second  in  that  of  St.  PauL    Finals 


569 

iboHshing   aU    these    customs,    Pope   Innocent   III  HbrobnrOtbbr  in  KinhenUx,.  s.  ▼.  BmatUm;  Bambbbobb, 

(d  1216)  prescribS^that  a  simple  priest  should  say  lSSrX'i:iS^8l^^F'&.  W^y  it^^ 

but  one  Mass  daihr  exwpt  on  Christmas,  when  he  JGstdrew  B.  Meehan. 
might  offer  the  Holy  Sacrmce  three  times;  while 

Honorius  III  (d.  1227)  extended  this  legislation  to  BineTi  Joseph,  canonist,  liistorian,  and  theologian, 
all  dignitaries.  This  then  is  the  discipline  of  both  b.  at  Gluringen,  Switzerland,  1697;  d.  at  Rottenburff, 
the  Eastern  and  Western  Church,  from  which  no  one  Germany,  24  March,  1766.  His  fame  rests  principally 
ma^  recede  without  grave  sin.  on  a  truly  amasing  erudition.  He  entered  the  So* 
It  must  be  noted,  nevertheless,  that  the  Church  dety  of  Jesus  in  1715,  received  the  usual  training 
has  found  it  advisable  under  certain  conditions  to  of  its  membm^  and  was  later  professor  of  canon  Law 
modify  her  discipline  in  'this  r^ard.  Thus  moral  in  the  universities  of  Ingolstaat,  Dilingen,  and  Inns- 
theology  permits  a  priest  to  say  two  Masses  on  Sim-  bruck.  He  entered  zealousl;;^  into  all  the  contro- 
days  and  Holy  Days  of  obligation,  in  case  of  necessity,  versies  with  the  sectaries  of  ms  time,  especially  with 
when,  namely,  a  number  of  the  faithful  would  other-  the  Swiss  heretics.  As  a  consequence,  all  his  works 
wise  be  deprived  of  the  opportunity  of  hearing  Mass.  have  a  polemical  tinee. 

This  would  be  verified,  for  example,  were  a  priest  in  In   1739  appeared  his  "Catholische  Anmerkunff 

charge  of  two  parishes  or  missions  with  no  other  QberdieneuesteuncatholischeControvers-Schreiber   , 

celebrant  availaole,  or  were  the  church  too  small  directed  against  certain  opponents  in  Zurich.    This 

to  accommodate  at  one  time  all  theparishioners  (See  was  followed  in  1744  by  "  Indifferentismus  ",  a  treatise 

Bull,  ''Declarasti",  of  Benedict  XTv,  Bullarium  IV,  on  religious  indifference  and  liberalism  in  dermatic 

328qq.,  16 March.  1746;  Leo XIIL  Litt.  Apost.^Tran^  teaching.    Biner  published  ''Heiligkeit  der  lUrche" 

Oceanum",  18  April,  1897).     The  ordinary  of  the  in  1750,  discussing  the  marks  of  the  true  Church 

diocese,  however,  is  to  judge,  in  these  and  similar  and  ^vins  sketch^  of  eminent  Catholics.    The  best 

cases,  of  the  necessity  of  binating.     For  similar  of  his  polemical  works,  one  of  enduring  merit,  is 

causes,  the  gravity  of  which  is  not  quite  so  apparent,  "  De  SummA  Trinitate,  Fide  Catholicd  et  Hierarchic 

Rome  grants  to  priests  of  missionary  countnes  the  Ecclesiastic^".    It  appeared  in  1765  and  shows  him 

privilege  of  saying  two  Masses  (three  in  Mexico,  ac-  at  his  beet  as  a  theolo^an  and  canonist.    His  last 

oordinff  to  an  indult  of  Pope  Leo  XIII,  Acta  S.  controversial  treatise,  i^ch  appeared  the  same  year 

Sedis,  XIII,  340,  XXIX,  96)  on  Sundajrs  and  Holy  and  was  published  like  all  the  others  at  Vienna,  is 

Days  of  obligation,  under  conditions  practically  the  entitled:   "Kurzer   B^riff   der   heutigen   Glauben- 

same  as  stat^  above  (See  Bull  ''Apostolicum  minis-  streiti|B;keiten".    It  is  an  examination  and  refutation 

terium",  of  Benedict  XlV,  for  the  Anglican  Missions,  of  vanous  Protestant  confessions  of  faith. 

30  May,  1753,  Bullarium,  X.  197  sqq.;  Cone.  Plen.  Biner 's  chief  work  of  a  purely  canonical  character 

Bait.   Ill,  Tit.  iii,  cap.   i;  Acta  et  Decreta  Cone,  is "  Dissertationes  juridical  debcni^ciisecclesiasticis" 

Plen.  Americse  Latins,  no.  348  sqq.;  Putzer,  ''Com-  (Innsbruck,  1746).    His  masterpiece  is  the  "Appara- 

mentarium  in  Facilitates  Apost. ",  no.  159  sqq.).    As  tus  eruditionis  ad  jurisprudentiam  ecclesiasticam". 

regards  permission  to  binate,  theologians  are  agreed  The  work,  despite  its  title,  is  not  restricted  to  canon 

that  it  should  not  be  given  unless  about  thirty  per-  law,  but  is  also  historical,  polemical,  and  theological. 

sons  would  otherwise  te  put  to  notable  inconvenience  It  was  published  at  Vienna,  1754-66  in  eight  quarto 

to  avoid  missing  Mass.     In  certain  extraordinary  volumes.    It  is  a  work  of  vast  erudition  and  a  veri- 

cases  this  numb^  is  reduced  to  twenty,  while,  if  table  storehouse  of  history  and  canon  law.    Dividing 

there  is  question  of  those  detained  in  prison  or  bound  his  material  by  centuries,  Biner  treats  of  the  various 

by  the  laws  of  the  pap^  cloister,  from  ten  to  fifteen  species  of  law,  of  the  history  of  the  church  councils, 

inmates  will  suffice  to  permit  bination.    It  must  be  of  the  political  and  religious  vicissitudes  of  the  various 

borne  in  mind  that  even  in  such  cases  a  priest  is  nations,  of  treaties  and  concordats,  etc.    Interspersed 

permitted  to  say  a  second  (never  a  third)  Mass  only  in  the  work  are  many  valuable  ^cursuses  on  Jansen- 

m  case  another  celebrant  may  not  be  had;  that  a  ism,  Probabilism,  Public  Penance,  Origin  of  Imperial 

stipend  may  not  be  accepted  for  the  second  Mass;  Electors,  etc.    It  is  to  be  regretted,  however,  that  a 

that  the  ablutions  are  not  to  be  taken  at  the  first  work  displaying  such  stupendous  industry  and  eru- 

Mass,  as  this  would  break  the  fast  prescribed.    A  dition  should  &  rendered  less  valuable  for  students 

celebrant  who  is  to  say  two  Masses  in  the  same  by  an  unscientific  arrangement  of  miaterial  and  the 

church  uses  the  same  clialice  for  both,  not  purifyina^  want  of  an  index.    The  vastness  of  the  knowledge 

it  at  the  first  Mass.    If  the  second  Mass  is  to  be  said  which  Biner  displays,  however,  has  received  its  meed 

in   a  different  church,  the  celebrant  immediately  of  praise  even  from  nis  opponents.    He  wrote  many 

after  the  last  Gospd  of  the  first  Mass  returns  to  the  other  works  besides  those  mentioned  in  the  text, 

centre  of  the  altar,  consumes  whatever  drops  of  the  which  may  be  found  in  De  Backer  and  Sommervogel. 

Precious  Blood  may  still  remain  in  the  chalice,  and  ^  Hubtm.  N<mfHci<uor  (ljm^r\M{i^lS95),  III;  De  Backeju 

then  purifies  the  chiice  with  water  only.    This  water,  ^  ^deJ^S^U  ISW)^        ^'  ^mmervooel.  BtU. 

w^ch  \b  poured  from  the  chalice  into  a  glass  on  the  *              *         William  H.  W.  FAirama. 

altar,  is  consumed  together  with  the  second  ablution 

of  a  flubsi^uent  Mass,  or  emptied  into  the  sacrarium.  Binet,  Etiiskkb,  Jesuit  author,  b.  at  Dijon,  France. 

It  nii^t  even  be  given  to  a  lay  person  who  is  in  the  1569;  d.  at  Paris,  1639.    He  entered  the  Society  of 

state  of  grace  And  fasting,  as  is  done  with  the  water  Jesus  in  1590  and  was  rector  of  the  colleges  at  Rouen 

in  which  the  priest's  fingers  are  cleansed,  when  Holy  and  Paris,  and  provincial  of  Paris.  Lyons,  and  Cham- 

Commimion  is  given  to  the  sick.    The  chalice  thus  pagne.     He  was  the  author  of  tor^-five  publishui 

purified  at  the  end  of  the  first  Mass  may  be  used  works,  the  first  of  which,  on  devotion  to  the  Blessed 

for  the  second  Mass  or  not,  as  the  celebrant  may  Virgin,  passed  through  eleven  editions.    His  "  Flowers 

see  fit.  from  the   PSalms"    (Rouen,    1615)    was   translated 

Pope  Benedict  XIV    (d.   1758)   conceded  to  all  into  Italian  and  Latin;  "Consolation  and  Joy  for  the 

priests,  secular  and  regular,  of  the  kingdoms  of  Spain  Sick  and  the  Afflictedf''  (Rouen,  1616)  was  repub- 

and  Portugal  the  privilege  of  saying  three  Masses  on  lished  fourteen  times  in  eight  years;  an  "Essav  on  Na- 

All  Souls'  Day  (2  November).     This  privilege  still  ture's  Wonders"  (Rouen,  1621)  was  one  of  the  most 

holds  for  all  (vaces  which  belonged  to  one  or  other  of  popular  scientific  works  of  tne  century;  it  passed 


570 

(tras  translated  into  English  ^London.  1636);  "Viede  f  Journal  de  Math.,   V,   1840);    "M^snom  ear  la 

St«.  Aldegonde"  was  published  in  English  at  Paria  formation    d'une    claase    trte   ^tendue    d'^uations 

(1G32);  'Purgatory  Surveyed,"  a  translation  by  Fa-  r6ciproques  renfermant  un  nombre  qudeonque  de 

ther  Ash  by  (London,  1663),  was  brought  out  affain  by  variables''  (Paris,  1843). 

Father  Anderdon  (London,  1874);  '^The  Ridi  Man  ComvtM  rendu*  de  VAcadhnis  ds  $eieneeM;  Journal  ds  V Beck 

Saved  by  the  Golden  Gate  of  Heaven;  Motives  and  J»fi/<«*«»«M«.                                  o.^  tt  Tx.,—... 

Power  of  Almsgiving"  (Paris,  1627)  is  dedicated  to  ^^^  ^'  ^^^^n. 

his  mother,  who  was  still  living  at  the  age  of  eighty-  ^4^:™.    a«.,«=»>^,   u- *    •           j      •x«     u   •    tc-w 

five  (Latin  Italian,  and  GermSn  transitions  oftlSs  ,_  ^i™"A  Sj^v^iN,>i5*^nan  and  mtic,  b.  m  1573 


pubUshed  a  work  which  was  received  with  the  great-  f^.^^lZ^'T^^      '"^  ^logne,  ana  uwer  taugit 

h«t  enthusiasm:   "How  Should  ReUgious  SuiSriors  in  the  same  school  for  several  yeare.    Af^ 

fiovpm?"    Twelve  editions  of  this  were  nuffi^^  nation  to  the  priesthood  he  obtained  the  degree  of 

Oovem/       iwelve  editions  ot  this  were  puuisnea  j^^^^^.  ^^  jy^^f^^i^y  f^m  the  University  of  Cologne, 


they  abound  in  apt 


ite  an  original  turn  of  thought  Ji^  successively  ca,non  in  two  clwpter-cWhes  of 

quotation  from  Scripturelia  SPJSf^ri^A'"  -^^  "cathedral     In  1631  he  w«8 

the"  Fathers;  alth6ug2  written  250  years  ago  tbey  >nade  oounseUor  and  vi«ir-^neral  of  the  archdiocwe 

stiU  furnish  both  pleasant  and  profitoSe  miritiS  *  P^motion   due   to  hw   learning, and  one  which 

reading.    Father  BiSet  was  the  8c£)ol-feUow  Md  life-  was  amoly  justified  by  his  ability  m  managing  the 

long  fSend  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  whose  cheerful  JlSjl"  ?L*rh™'*^Tv.  .^hl^^^'f-S^LT^T^ 

«^;^4-..»iUtr  k;-  ^««*  --n.  .v^i.^k  «<ww>.v«kL«  occupations  ne  was  active  in  the  ecclesiastical  minis- 

'^£^'l^iS^!^,^%TJ±l^>UB.u.y^-  tor;  >e  was  al.«  very  charitable  towards  the  poor, 

SoMMwivoaBL.  B%U„  I,  1487-1506;  Bdtenbchoen  in  Ardiiv.  especially  to  needy  students. 

m.  de  VEurope,  III.  316-325;  Hamt,  Notux  bioQraphique,  pr©-  The   reputation  of    Binius    is    owing  chiefly  to 

^^^J^"^  (l^r?«S?.""  ^  •*»'^  •  •  •  *  his  edition  of  the  Councils  of  the  Chu.4     TheV 

Patrick  H  Kkllt  vious  collections  by  Jacques  Merlin,  Peter  Crabbe, 

Binet,  Jacqubs-Philippe-Marib,  French  mathe-  f^t  ^^^.  S""!"  appeared  incomplete  to  him. 

r^^!fir^^7T^L'\fs^'x^"Vzi  Sof  o^i^^h^iis^s'^r^&^^'^w  StW 

L^o^^P^/'aTle^lgf^^^  tt^r.^-nc^:;'^.I^^i%'»nSn 

was   appointed,   in    1806,   studen^«ngineer  in   the  .           .    y^    Latin  text,  and  contains  the  arts  of 

fc£^nfe~l±'^»re*'T^^  t^  ^^it^  §^-  laX  frl  U.e'^'KeBi^^ASr-'^f 

Kf«^-,    Sc^-vel^i^r^'^of^S^  ^t^^lr^  ^^'"^^ttlT^I.^^^ 

geometry,  examiner,   professor  of  mechanics,   and  ?Sr«iPi^;!^^^2?o      t«  S^^^^^Tk;^  I^sJS 

fnapecUur-gdn&ral  of  studies.     In  1823,  he  succeeded  ^ojogne  m  16ia     In  1639  a  thml  edition  m  mi» 

Detorel  the  chair  of  astronomy  at  the  CoU^  de  ^^^°^?«  appeared  at  Pans  m  preoaration  for  whidi 

Fmnce.     Because  of   his   mtense   devotion   to   the  extensive  use  was  made  of  the  cofl^^^^ 

cause  of  Charles  X,  the  Government  of  July,  1830,  P^'^^Lwi^,^^  S?tTon  ^IS'^hl^.wSl  h^^^i 

removed   him   from    the   Ecole  Polytechniqie,  al^  IS,"^  *^!it!^'' Th J^^^ 

though  it  aUowed  him  to  retain  his  piofessorehip  at  1?^!       '  ^^'^^^  Theodoret,  Sozomen,  and  Eva- 

the  OoU^  de  France      He  had  been  made  a  mem-  «"ke^el  in  Kirchenlex,  CFrdhmg.  1887)  II;   Hmr™,  iV«K 

ber    of    the    Soci^t^    Phllomathique,    in    1812.     In  mendator  annsbruck,  1892).  I:  Hefelb.  ConeOiengeich.  (Frei- 

1843.  he   was  elected   to  succeed   Laoroix   in   the  burg,  1873).  I;  Hartzheim,  Btbl^Coion. (Freiburg,  1747),  296. 

Academic  des  Sciences,  of  which  he  was  a  most  Francis  J.  Schaefer. 
active  member  and  had  become  president  at  the 

time  of  his  death.  Binet  was  a  man  of  modest  Binterim,  Anton  Joseph,  b.  at  DOsseldorf, 
manner  and  a  devout  CathoUc.  19  September,  1779;  d.  at  Bdk,  17  May,  1855;  a 
To  mathematics,  mechanics,  and  astronomy,  Binet  theologian  of  repute  and  for  fifty  years  parish-pneat 
contributed  omuy  valuable  articles  on  a  greiat  va-  of  Bilk.  He  attended  the  Jesuit  sdbool  m  his  native 
riety  of  topics.  These  articles  were  published  in  the  town,  and  then  entered  the  Franciscan  Order  at 
"Bulletins  de  la  Soci^t^  philomathique",  in  the  DQaseldorf,  8  May,  1796.  After  his  studies  at  Dilren 
"Comptes  rendus  de  rAcad^mie  des  sciences",  in  and  Aachen  (Aix-larChapelle),  he  was  ordained 
the  "Journal  dee  Math^matioues"  (Liouville)  and.  priest  at  Cologne,  19  September.  1802.  On  the  sup- 
chiefly,  in  the  "Journal  de  TEcole  polytechniaue.''  pression  (18(3)  of  the  Franciscan  monastery  to 
He  also  rewrote,  to  a  large  extent,  the  second  volume  which  he  was  attached,  he  was  fon^  to  retire  from 
of  the  "Mtomique  analytique"  of  Lagrange  for  the  rdigious  life;  after  the  usual  e^taminationa,  be 
the  edition  of  1816.  A  few  of  his  principal  ar-  was  appointed  pastor  of  Bilk,  21  June,  1805,  and  ad- 
tides  are:  "M^moire  sur  la  thdorie  des  axes  oon-  ministered  the  parish  until  his  death.  Father 
jugu^  et  des  moments  d'inertie  des  corps '^  enun-  Bintenm  was  the  author  of  numerous  theological 
ciating  the  principle  sometimes  called  Binet's  treatises  in  defence  of  the  Chureh  against  the  attacks 
Theorem  (Joum.  de  TEc.  poL,  IX,  1813;  "M^moire  of  the  rationalists  of  the  day.  drawing  his  material 
sur  la  determination  analytique  d'une  sphere  tan-  from  ancient  ecclesiastical  ana  literary  sources.  His 
gente  k  quatre  autres  spheres"  (ibid.,  X^  1815);  many  successes  in  controversy  gained  him  numerous 
"  M^moire  sur  la  determination  des  orbites  des  enemies  and  particularlv  the  hatred  of  the  partisans 
plan^tes  et  des  comdtes"  (ibid.,  XIII,  1831);  "M^  of  Hermes  who  accused  nim  of  imlawful  intngae  with 
moire  sur  lee  int^grales  d^finies  euieriennes  et  sur  Rome,  evil  transactions  with  the  Jesuite,  and  treason- 
leur  application  k  la  th^orie  des  suites  ainsi  qu'k  able  practices  against  the  Government.  At  one  pe- 
r^valuation  des  fonctions  des  grands  nombres"  riod,  tie  sufiferea  imprisonment  for  six  months  in  the 
(ibid.,  XVI,  1839;  Paris,  1840);  ^'M^moire  sur  les  citadel  of  Wesel.  Father  Bintenm  wrote  indefatl- 
iD6g%\i*4a  s^culaires  du  mouvement  des   plan^tes"  gably  against  the  existing  evil  of  mixed  manitgee  and 


Biooimcsis 


671 


niMwy^ff^^ 


the  Pruaman  legislation  of  17  August,  1825,  on  such 
marria^,  depriving  the  mother, of  all  rights  in  the 
education  of  her  childj  he  advised  the  formation  of 
societies  to  protest  against  such  abuses,  and  urged  on 
pastors  the  duty  of  warning  the  young  of  the  evils 
following  upon  marriages  with  Protestants.  Resist- 
ing all  offers  of  preferment,  he  remained  in  his  parish 
until  his  death.  He  left  his  large  library  to  the  people 
of  his  parish. 

Binterim's  writing  are  chiefly  remarkable  for  their 
depth  of  research  mto  the  sources  of  ecclesiastical 
histoiy  and  literature.    In  particular  his  principal 
work,   "Die  vorzOflichsten    DenkwUrdiekeiten   aer 
christkatholischen  Kirche  mit  besonderer  Bertkcksich- 
tigung  der  Disciplin  derselben  in  Deutschland,  frei 
bearbeitet  nach  der  Schrift  des  Neapolitaners  Pel- 
liecia  >(de  christian^,  ecclesise  prinue  medise  et  no- 
viasimffi  aetatis  politiA)"  (7  vols.,  17  parts,  Mainz, 
1825-41),  is  illustrative  of  many  points  of  Christian 
Archsology.    In  addition  to  this  mention  may  be 
made  of:  "  Pragmatische  Geschichte  der  deutschen 
Concilien"  (7  vols.,  Mainz,  1835-49);  and  "Die  alte 
undneueErzdidceseKdh)''  (Mainz,  1828-30),  a  treatise 
on  the  geofiraphy,  statistics,  and  history  of  the  Arch- 
diocese of  Cologne.    He  also  wrote  a  large  number  of 
smaller  works  on  theological,  historical,  controversial, 
and  apologetic  subjects^  such  as  matrimonial  ques- 
tions; the  use  of  Latin  in  the  church  ritualj  the  dis- 
cussion as  to  whether  St.  Peter  was  ever  m  Rome, 
or  was  Bishop  of  Rome;  the  Maniia  Secrela  of  the 
Jesuits  (Dtlsseidorf,  1853),  an  old  myth  revamped 
in  Northern  Germany:  the  sale  of  Hosts  in  Germany 
and  France  (2d  ed.,  DQsseldorf,  1852). 
Keuel  in  Kirchenlex.,  II,  848. 

WHiUAM  Devlin. 

Biogenesis  and  Abiogenesis.— According  to 
their  Greek  derivation  these  two  terms  refer  to  the 
origin  of  life.  Biogenesis  is  the  theory  that  life 
originates  only  from  pre-existing  life;  whilst  the  the- 
ory of  abiogenesis  implies  that  life  may  also  spring 
from  inorganic  matter  as  such. 

Some  philosophers  maintain  that  life  existed  prior 
to  inorganic  matter.  Thus  Fechner  considers  the 
stars  and  the  imiverse  as  conscious  or^nic  beings 
of  a  higher  order,  which  in  the  course  of  time  differen- 
tiated themselves  to  organisms  of  an  inferior  kind. 
W.  Preyer  imagines  the  present  world  of  organisms 
as  a  last  remnant  of  gigantic  primeval  organisms, 
whose  breath,  perchance,  was  luminous  iron-vapour, 
whose  blood  was  liquid  metal^  and  whose  fooa  me- 
teorites— a  fantastic  conception  which  offers  no 
solution  of  the  proHem.  Others,  again,  as  Liebig, 
Helmholtz,  W.  Thompson,  E.  Dubois-Reymond, 
assume  the  transference  of  small  living  germs  from 
other  cosmic  globes  to  our  cooling  earth  by  means 
of  meteorites — ^an  evasion  of  the  question  at  issue, 
with  the  additional  difficulties  arising  from  the 
nature  of  meteorites.  Lastly,  others  admit  that 
life  must  have  originated  somewhere  and  at  some 
time,  since  our  earth  and  all  the  celestial  spheres 
wm  once  in  a  state  of  fusion,  incapable  of  sustaining 
living  germs.  But  here  opinions  diverge.  Those 
who  deny  a  special  directive  principle  assert  that 
matter  and  energy  as  such  are  sufficient  to  account 
for  the  oriein  of  life.  Vitalists,  on  the  other  hand, 
maintain  that  life  is  generated  from  living  beings 
only;  ite  origin  must  ultimately  be  sougnt  in  a 
creative  act  of  God,  who  endowed  matter  with  a 
force  stii  generis  that  directed  the  material  energies 
towards  the  formation  and  development  of  the 
first  organisms.  Hence  the  distinction  between 
abiogenesis  and  biogenesis.  Let  us  examine  which 
view  harmonixes  b^  with  the  facts  actually  ob- 
served. 

A  most  careful  and  universal  research  has  proved 
b^ond  prudent  doubt  that  all  visible  organisms 
arise  only  from  germs  of  the  same  kind  ana  never 


from  inorganic  matter.  Omne  viimm  ex  vivo,  How-> 
ever  the  conditions  of  the  experiment  be  varied^ 
provided  the  receptacles  and  materials  are  free 
from  living  germs,  results  always  verify  Pasteur's 
wdl-known  aphorism:  La  gHUrtUion  aparUanie  est 
vne  ehdnibre.  The  attempts  of  J.  B.  Burke  to  pro- 
duce small  living  ceUs  from  inoi^anic  matter  by 
means  of  radium  were  unsuccesstul;  the  radiob^ 
produced  were  merely  bursting'  gas  bubbles  of 
microscopic  size.  Sinnlarly,  PflOger's  cyanic  acid, 
which  he  compared  to  half-living  molecules,  is  but 
a  dead  chemical  compound.  The  formation  of  cells 
by  a  process  of  crystallization,  as  was  assumed  by 
the  founders  of  the  cell-theory,  has  likewise  proved 
unfounded.  In  short,  Virchow's  statement,  Omnie 
eeUxda  ex  cellvld,  has  become  an  axiom  of  biology. 
Now,  it  is  a  principle  universally  acknowledged 
that  the  laws  derived  from  present  observations 
of  nature  are  applicable  also  to  past  phenomena. 
How,  then,  can  the  defenders  of  aoiogenesis  uphold 
their  theory  in  the  face  of  contrary  facts? — Two 
explanations  are  offered.  Many  authors,  such  as 
Halliburton,  Verwom,  Rosenthal,  assimie  that  the 
conditions  of  the  earth  during  earlier  periods  were 
perhaps  more  favourable  for  the  origin  of  life  than 
those  which  come  under  our  experience.  Others 
call  the  spontaneous  origin  of  life  from  inorganic 
matter  a  loeicai  necessity,  and  add  as  explanation 
that  the  oefl  must  consist  of  more  primitive  units 
of  ^ife,  which  will  ever  remain  invisible,  and  whose 
spontaneous  origin  from  matter  is  thus  withdrawn 
from  observation.  These  imits  of  life  have  re- 
ceived various  names:  Weismann,  for  instance, 
calls  them  "biophorids  '. 

But  these  assumptions  are  arbitrary.  Scientific 
research  has  established  the  cell  as  the  simplest 
and  lowest  unit  of  visible  independent  life.  No 
living  organism  has  as  yet  been  discovered  that 
did  not  contain  at  least  two  essential  elements  of 
great  complexity:  a  granule  of  chromatin  and  some 
amoimt  of  c3rtoplasmic  substance.  Deprived  of 
these  constituents  no  cell  continues  to  live.  Hence, 
if  life  ever  originated  from  inorganic  matter,  it  haa 
to  appear  in  the  form  of  an  organized  celL  Invisible 
biophorids  are  no  more  capable  of  life  than  the 
visiole  chromatin  granules,  whose  parts  thev  are 
supposed  to  be.  Even  if  such  entities  as  biophorids 
could  live  independently,  they  could  not  have  origi- 
nated spontaneously;  for  however  primitive  an  or- 
ganism DC  imagined,  it  must  at  least  be  capable 
of  nourishing  itself,  of  propagating  its  kind,  and  of 
evolving  into  higher  specific  forms.  But  such  a 
diversi^  of  function  supposes  a  differentiation  of 
structure,  made  up  of  different  chemical  compounds 
of  high  tension  and  continuouslv  unstable  e<iuihbrium. 
Besides,  there  must  be  in  tne  most  primitive  U- 
ophoridi9  a  perfect  correlation  of  pavts  and  a  pur* 
poseful  anticipation  of  future  ends,  tending  towards 
the  gradual  perfection  of  individual  and  species. 
But  crystals,  as  well  as  all  chemical  combinations 
and  physical  mixtures,  show  clearly  that  inorganic 
matter  as  such  tends  toward  stability  of  equilibrium 
and  homogeneity  of  structure.  How,  then,  did 
those  comfSicated  chemical  compounds  of  unstable 
equilibrium  which  composed  the  first  organisms 
onginate,  especially  since,  at  the  begiiming,  the 
crust  of  the  earth,  totally  burnt,  was  in  the  desolate 
condition  of  perfect  oxidation?  Besides,  it  is  hard 
to  see  how  tne  energy  of  the  sun  could  serve  to 
reduce  the  ashes,  since  to-day  that  action  depends 
on  the  presenoe  of  chlorophyll  and  similar  sub- 
stances, which  again  are  products  of  cells.  Even 
if  some  form  of  energy  would  all  at  once  commence 
continually  to  unite  the  atoms  to  such  unstable 
and  complicated  bodies  as  the  phosphoric  proteids, 
there  is  still  wanting  a  directive  to  build  up,  by 
means  of  existing  matter  and  energy,  the  chemical 


L_ 


BIOLOCPr                               572  BIOLOaT 

* 

oompounds  into  correlated  structures,  and  to  make  (sometimes  called  ctcciogy)  observes  how  an  organiflm 
them  active  organisms.  acts  with  regard  to  its  environment^  that  is,  it  de- 
Matter,  then,  can  never,  not  even  under  the  most  scribes  the  mode  of  nutrition,  dwelling-place  (olitf), 
favourable  circumstances,  produce  either  living  propagation,  care  of  offspring,  peculiar  relation  to 
cells  or  liArin^  biophorids,  and  hence  we  conclude  certain  classes  of  other  organisms  (symbiosis), 
that  life  owes  its  origin  to  Qod,  the  Creator  of  matter  geographical  and  geolo^cal  distribution,  and  so 
and  energy.  forth.  Physiology  explains  in  detail  how  the  sin^e 
Von  Hartmann,  Dom  PrchUm  dea  L«btn%  (Bad  Sachaa,  organs,  tissues,  and  cells  discharge  their  manifold 
i^^'r^2v^^'iifS2?&2i)f^iA?*KX"WX&  functions    how  a  muscle  contracto,  how  a  ri«.d 

Biolooie  und  die  EntwieklunpstfuKme  (FreibuiTg;.    1906),   182;  pOUrs  OUt  its  secretion,  and  whether  SUCh  functions 

RoeBNTHALM<2^«m0inePAutto2<>(nie(LKiipuff.  1901).  552:  wEia-  are  due  to  physical  and  chemical  forces,  whether 

}tl^^J^S[^iS%'%S:^^^1^2:T^^^^'^''  and  how  far  they  are  subfect  to  a  special  ««rective^ 

H.  MucKERMANN.  Thirdly,  the  several  biological  sciences  which  de- 
scribe the  development  of  organisms  are  comprised 

Biology   (from  /Slot,  life,  and   X6709,  reason,  ao-  under  the  ^[eneral  name  of  morphogeny  (jiop^  and 

count,  reasoning)  may  be  defined  as  the  science  on  ytptd^  " origin '')»  or  biogeny.    The  two  branches  of 

life  and  living  organisms.    It  is  essentially  a  science  morphogeny   are  ontogeny   (drr — .  participial  stem, 

of  observation  and  experiment  and  comprises  the  "being")  and   phytogeny  (^wXof,  "race",  "stock'*), 

study  of  the  structure,  origin,  development,  functions,  The  former  traces  the  gradual  development  of  a 

and  relation  to  environment  of  plants  and  animals,  single  individual  from  the  egg  to  the  perfect  bdng; 

discussing  at  the  same  time  the  causes  of  these  tiie  latter,  that  of  the  so-called  "systematic  species 

phenomena.      Biologjy    is    obviously    divided    into  from  Its  ultimate  ancestor,  from  which  it  is  sup- 

soology    (rt^o''»    "animal")     and    botany     (/Sordny,  posed  to  have  been  derived  by  evolution.    Embry' 

"herb''))  according  as  the  organism  is  either  an  ology  is  a  special  branch  of  ontogeny,  and  describes 

animal  or  a  plant.     The  biolo^  of  man  is  called  the  gradual  differentiation  of  the  fertilized  ovum 

anthropology  (dpSptawotj   "man'O  which,  as  far  as  imtil  it  has  attained  the  structure  peculiar  to  the 

it  concerns  man's  body^  is  a  subdivision  of  zoology,  particular  organism. 

The  science  of  insects  is  called  entomology  i^rrofMw,  Supplementary  to  the  biological  sciences  above 

"insect").    Biology  is  not  a  science  of  yesterday,  but  enumerated  is   the  science  of  palacnlology,  which 

is  as  old  as  the  human  race.    Its  main  development,  describes   the  fossil   forms  of  plants   and  animals 

however,  took  place  during  the  last  centuries.     As  buried  and  petrified  in  the  strata  of  the  earth.   The 

a  result  of  this  development  a  great  number  of  sciences   of   pathology,    teratology,    and   numerous 

daughter-sciences  have  sprung  into  existence,  each  others,  which  pertain  rather  to  medicine,  cannot  be 

commanding  its  own  more  or  less  distinct  field  of  considered  here. 

research,  and  all  united  again  to  approach  more  II.  Thb  Historical  Development  of  the  biologi- 

and  more  the  nature  of  life  and  to  give  us  a  clearer  cal  sciences  may  aptly  be  divided  into  four  great 

and  more  comprehensive  idea  of  the  variety  and  periods:  the  first  centring  around  Aristotle,  Galen, 

causes  of  vital  phenomena.  and  AJbertus  Maignus;  the  second  commencing  with 

An  organism,  be  it  plant  or  animal,  iad>y  be  con-  Vesalius;  the  thira,  with  Linnsus;  the  last  with  the 

sidered  under  a  threefold  aspect:  either  in  its  struo"  theory  of  the  cell,  established  by  Schwann. 

tvrey  or  in  its  hmctionsy  or  in  its  development.     And  First  period, — ^Aristotle   (384-322  b.  c.)  laid  the 

the  science  of  biology  is  divided,  correspondingly,  foundations  upon  which  the  magnificent  edifice  of 

I.  Branches    and    Subdivisions.— The    science  biology   has   been   constructed.      His   works,  "De 

which  describes  the  structure  of  organisms  is  called  histon&    animalium",   "De    partibus    animalium", 

morphology  (ftap^y  "shape").     This  may  be  either  and  "De  generatione  animalium",  contain  the  first 

external  or  internal,  and  either  simply  descriptive  scientific  attempt  to  classify  animals  and  to  explain 

or  comparative.    But  in  every  case  morpholoff]^  con-  their  various  biological  and  physiolo^cal  functions, 

cems  itself  only  with  structure,  in  so  far  as  tms  is  a  Aristotle  enumerates  in  his  works  about  500  kinds 

definite  arrangement  of  matter.  of  animals.     He  distinguished    groups  (7^^)  fron> 

External  morphology  treats  of  the  size  and  shape  species    (cf^n),   divided     all    animals    into   animals 

of  external  parts  and  organs.     Its  chief  purposes  with    blood    (Imu/mi)   and    animals    without  biood 

are,  first,  the  identification  of  plants  and  animals  (ApaifUL)^  and  again  into  eight  principal  groups,  and 

according  to  certain  systems  ot  classification  and,  thus  established  a  system  of  classification  wnich  is 

secondly,  to  facilitate  the  study  of  the  functions  of  still  maintained,  at  least  in  a  corresponding  form, 

the  various  organs  which  it  describes.     It  is  prac-  in  our  own  days.    He  also  knew  many  physioio^cal 

tically  the  same  as  systematic  biology,  which  treats  facts,  and  made  several  discoveries  in  bionomics 

of  the  kingdoms,  classes,  orders,  families,  genera,  whicn  were  rediscovered  only  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 

species,  and  varieties  of  organisms.  tury.     llie  influence  of  the  great  Stagirite  upon 

Internal  morphology  studies  the  interior  structure  posterity  was  very  great,  and  for  neariy  2,000  years 

of  organisms  and  their  parts;  that  is,  organs,  tissues,  most  students  of  biology  were  more  or  less  satisfied, 


ture   ot    organisms,  nistoiogy  ^(<rrot,  "weD";,  witn  ology,   nowever,  a  consioerabie  aavanoement  was 

the  minute  structure  of  the  tissues,  and  cytoloay  made  by  Claudius  Galen,  who  was  bom  in  A.  D.  131. 

(K&rot^  **  cell "),  with  that  of  the  cells,  which  are  the  Qalen  was  a  Greek  by  birth  and  later  on  a  wdl-known 

ultimate  structural  and  functional  units  of  life.  physician  in  Rome.    He  was  the  first  to  define  physi- 

Secondly,  there  are  two  sciences  which  refer  to  ology  as  the  science  which  explains  the  functions 

the  fundionSf  or  activities,  of  organisms,  according  of  the  single  parts  (usus  partium)  of  an  oiganism. 

as  these  are  pef  formed  by  the  single  parts  of  the  Together  with  Aristotle's  worlffl  Galen's  morphdog- 

or^anism  or  by  the  organism  as  a  whole.    The  latter  leal   and   physiolodcal   teachings   reigned  supreme 

science  is  called  bionomics;  the  former  physiolo^,  in  all  the  schools  m  the  Middle  Ages  ull  the  time  of 

Both  physiology  and  bionomics  not  only  descnbe  Vesalius.     Only  among  the  princes  of  Scholastic 

and  compare,  out  also  inquire  into  the  proximate  philosophy  were  there  any  ^vho  stepped  out  of  the 

causes  of  the  various  activities,  and  are  thus  intimately  narrow  circle  of  Aristotelean  biology  and  commenced 

related  to  physics  and  chemistry,  and  at  the  same  to  study  and  interpret  anew  the  living  book  of  nature, 

time  are  of  paramount  importance  for  the  philosophy  We  refer  here  mainly  to  the  Dominican,  Blessed 

of  life  APd  of  plant  and  animal  activity.    Bionomics  Albertus   Magnus  (1193-1280)  and   to  his  pu^nla 


BIOLOQY                               573  BIOLOGY 

Thomafi  of  Chatimpr^  and  Vincent   of    Beauvais.  tention  was  too  much  occupied  with  the  new  scienoe 

Blessed  Albertus  wrote  seven  books  on  plants  and  of  geology,  which  he  had  founded,  to  leave  him  much 

twenty-six  books  on  animals.    Of  the  latter  works,  time  for  other  investigations.    The  introduction  of 

some  are  based  on  original  research,  while  others  chemical  methods  in  biological  studies  had  already 

contain  manv  new  and  accurate  observations  which  been  accomplished  by  Jan  Baptista  van  -  Helmont, 

to-day  are   becoming  more  and  more  highly  ap-  b.  at  Brussels  in  1677,  who  in  his  turn  was  greatly 

predated  by  scientists.  influenced    by    the    fantastic    pilgrim    Paracelsus 

The  second  period  began  with  the  Belgian  anato-  (Theophrastus    Bombast    von    Hohenheim),    and 

mist  Andreas  Vesalius,  b.  at  Brussels^  1  January,  through  him  by  the  Benedictine  monk  Basil  Valen- 

1515.    Vesalius  was  the  first  who  dared  to  oppose  tine.   The  latter  lived  about  the  time  of  Johannes  Gu- 

enei]^tically-  the  authority  of  Galen  in  certain  ana-  tenberg  and  is  known  as  the  last  alchemist  and  the 

tomical  questions  and  to  insist  that  in  such  matters  first  chemist. 

not  the  method  of  interpretation,  but  that  of  dis-  Van  Hehnont's  important  work,  "Ortusmedicinee" 

section  and  of  personal  ooeervation  alone  could  lead  appeared  four  years  after  his  death,  but  it  was  the 

to  truth  and  progress.    In  1537  Vesalius  was  made  first  of  its  kind  and,  like  Borelli's  book,  exercised  an 

Doctor  of  Medicine  in  the  University  of  Padua,  where,  important  influence  on  future  investigations.    The 

during  tl^e  following    five  years  he  conducted  the  most  valuable  idea  of    the   "Ortus  medicinso"  is 

public  dissections.    At  the  end  of  this  time  he  pub-  the  exjManation  of  digestion  by  fermentative  proo- 

lished  an  illustrated  folio  on  the  structure  of  the  esses.    Perhaps  the  most  influential  of  van  Helmont's 

human  body,   "Fabrica  humani   corporis",  which  intellectual    descendants    was    Franz    de    la    Boe, 

appezired  at  Basle  in  1543.    In  this  famous  volume  or    Franciscus    Sylvius,    professor   of   medicine   at 

Vesalius  corrected  many  errors  of  Galen,  introduced  Leyden  from  1658  till  his  death  in  1672.    Sylvius  was 

bis  new  method  of  dissection  and  experiment  in  the  the  teacher  of  such   brilliant  men  as   Steno   and 

study  of  anatomy,  and  thus  became  the  founder  of  Rc^er  de  Graaf ,  to  whom  we  owe  several  important 

modem  anatomy.    The  attempt  of  Vesalius  to  over-  biological  discoveries.     Without  making  any  great 

throw  traditional  methods  met  with  much  encourage-  discoveries  himself  he  succeeded  in   directing   the 

ment,  but  much  more    opposition,  apparently,  for  attention  of  physiologists,   much  more   than    van 

a  year  after  the  publication  of  his  '*Fabrica''  he  Helmont  had  done,  to  the  importance  of  chemistry 

accepted  the  post  of  court  physician  offered  to  him  for  the  solution  of   biological   problems.    Thus  he 

by  Charles  V.      In  1563  he  made  a  pilgrimage  to  became  the  founder  of  the  iatro-chemical  school 

Jerusalem,  and  on  his  way  back,  in  1564,  died  on  which,  in  opposition  to  the  iatro-physical  school 

the  island  of  Zante.  of  Borelli's  followers,  attempted  to  explain  all  vital 

One  of  the  greatest  successors  of  Vesalius  was  processes  by  mere  cnemistry. 
William  Harvey,  b.  at  Folkestone,  England,  in  1578.  The  work  of  Malpighi  both  closes  this  second 
Harvey  studied  medicine  at  Padua  at  the  time  when  period  in  the  history  of  biology  and  reaches  far  out 
the  Tuscan  Fabricius  ab  Aquapendente  (1537-1619)  mto  modem  times.  Marcello  Malpighi  was  bom  at 
held  the  chair  of  anatomy  and  wrote  his  exposition  Crevalcore  near  Bolo^a,  in  1628,  the  year  in  which 
of  the  Galenic  doctrine  concerning  the  circulation  Harvey  published  his  essay  on  the  circulation  of 
of  the  blood.  In  1604  he  joined  the  Royal  College  the  blood.  He  did  more  for  the  ^neral  advancement 
of  Physicians  in  London.  Later  on  he  became  of  biology  than  any  other  scientist  since  the  days  of 
phydcian  to  Charles  I,  and  died  3  June,  1667.  The  Vesalius.  With  the  Englishman  Nehemiah  Grew, 
importance  of  Harvey's  work  for  biology  consists  he  laid  the  foundation  of  vegetable  morphology, 
in  the  demonstration  of  the  true  circulation  of  the  His  work  on  the  silkworm  argues  him  a  remarkable 
blood  through  the  arteries  and  veins.  This  demon-  anatomist,  and  his  description  of  the  development 
stration,  wmch  he  developed  for  the  first  time  in  of  the  hen's  egg  entitles  him  to  be  considered  the  first 
his  anatomical  lectures  at  the  Royal  College  in  the  embryologist.  But  his  most  important  work  con- 
year  1615,  was  published  in  1628  imder  the  title  of  sists  in  the  discovery  of  the  capillaries  and  the  air- 
Exercitatio  de  cordis  motu''.  Together  with  the  sacs  in  the  lungs,  and  of  the  structure  of  glands  and 
discovory  of  the  Ijmiphatics  by  Aselli  (1623),  to  glandular  organs.  During  the  greater  part  of  his 
which  it  eave  rise,  it  constitutes  the  bc^nnine  of  splendid  career  Malpighi  was  professor  of  medicine 
modem  physiology  whose  existence  and  devdop-  at  Bologna.  In  1691  Pope  Innocent  XII  called  him 
ment  is  m  no  small  depee  due  to  the  purely  ex-  to  Rome  to  be  the  papal  physician;  Malpighi  com- 
perimental  method  definitely  introduced  by  Harvey,  plied  with  the  invitation,  and  died  at  Rome,  28  No- 

Meanwhile  Galileo  Galilei  had  made  his  aiscoveries  vember,  1694.     A  great  part  of  Malpighi 's  success 

in  physics,  and  it  was  not  lon^  before  these  dis-  was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  microscope,  one  of  the 

coveries  be^an  to  exercise  their  influence  upon  bio-  most   important  scientific   instruments   of   modem 

logical  studies.    It  was  especially  Giovanni  Alphonso  times,  had  just  been  invented. 

Borelli,  b.  at  Naples,  28  January,  1608,  who  sue-  It  is  noteworthy  that  nearly  all  the  great  pioneers 

cessfully   attacked   the   mechanical   problems   sug-  of  biological  progress  during  this  second  period  were 

gested  by  muscular  movement.    When  professor  of  devoted^  Catholics.     The  Church  never  hampered 

mathematics  at  the  University  of  Pisa  he  became  these  great  scientists,  so  long  as  they  proceeded  by 

acquainted   with   Marcello    Afalpighi,   of    Bolo^a.  way  of  exact  demonstration,  and  kept  within  their 

through  whom  he  became  interested  in  anatomical  own  province,  but  left  them  perfectly  free  in  their 

studies,  and  soon  set  about  preparing  a  treatise  on  investigations.     The   exceptional  ecclesiastics  who 

animal  motion,  ''De  motu  animalium'',  which  was  assum^  an  unfriendly  attitude  towards  scientific 

the  first  of  the  great  contributions  to  physical  phjrei-  enlightenment  may  well  be  excused  when  we  con- 

dogy.     This   influential    work   appeared   in    1680,  sider,  as  a  mere  physiological  fact,  how  deeply  in- 

shortly  after  the  death  of  its  author.    While  Borelli  herited  conceptions  take  root  in  the  individual  mind, 

was  still  at  work  on  his  "De  motu",  another  anato-  and,  moreover,  how  easily  any  novel  idea  may  be 

mist,   Nicolaus   Stenson,    or   Steno    (1638-86)    de-  misinterpreted  as  conflicting  with  religious  truth, 

veloped  in  the  same  line,  together  with  his  friend  But  the  most  determined  opponents  of  biological 

Malpighi,  the  special  physiology  of  glands  and  tissues,  innovations   were   indeed   not   ecclesiastics   at   all, 

Steno,  a  convert  from  Lutheranism  to  Catholicism,  but  professors  of  biology  who  found  it  hard  to  give 

was  professor  of  anatomy  in  Copenhagen,  his  native  up  the  ancient  traditions  of  their  lifelong  study, 

city,  and  afterwards  a  priest  and  bishop  in  Hanover.  Third  period.— Of  Linnseus  (Karl  von  Linn4)  it. 

He  was  on^of  the  first  to  recognize  the  importance  has  been  said  that  he  found  natural  science  a  chao€ 

of  the  rising  science  of  chemistry,  although  his  at-  and  left  it  a  cosmos.    The  son  of  a  Protestant  minis- 


BIOLOGY 


574 


BIOLOOT 


ter,  he  was  b.  23  May.  1707,  at  Rashult  in  the  south 
of  Sweden;  d.  1778.  In  1741  he  was  made  professor 
of  medicine,  and  a  little  later  of  botany,  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Upsala,  of  which  he  was  an  alumnus.  His 
main  work,  "Systema  naturae",  was  published  for 
the  first  time  in  1735.  Its  most  complete  ^edition 
is  the  17th,  which  appeared  ten  years  after  the 
author's  death.  As  its  title  indicates,  the  work  is 
essentially  a  system  of  classification,  comprising  all 
the  minerals,  plants,  and  animals  known  in  Linnseus' 
time,  arranged  according  to  classes,  genera,  and 
species.  The  value  of  this  classification  is  mainly  due 
to  the  •precision  of  its  new  nomenclature.  According 
to  this  '' binomial''  nomenclature  each  plant  or  ani- 
mal received  a  generic  and  a  specific  name,  as,  for 
instance,  Fdia  catus  and  Fdis  leo^  indicating  at  once 
the  systematic  relation  of  the  organism.  Linnaeus 
exercised  a  vast  influence  upon  the  biologists  of  his 
time  and  considerably  furthered  the  c<Mlection  of 
numerous  morphological  facts  which  served  the  great 
scientists  of  the  following  century  aa  the  foundation 
of  their  various  theories. 

To  the  Frenchman,  Marie-Fran9oi8-Xavier  Bichat 
(1771-1802),  morphology  owes  its  position  as  a  logi- 
cally co-ordinated  science.  Bichat  was  the  first  to 
introduce  into  biolosy  the  distinction  between 
systems  composed  of  heterogeneous  organs  and 
s3rBtems  composed  of  homogeneous  tissues.  In  a 
system  of  the  former  class  all  the  organs  serve  some 
particular  group  of  vital  functions,  as,  for  instance, 
the  digestive  G^tem.  The  latter  class  of  systems 
compnses  all  tissues  which  have  an  identical  struct 
tiu^,  as,  for  instance,  the  system  of  secretion.  To 
the  scientific  principle  established  by  Bichat  two 
others  were  soon  added  which  are  of  still  greater 
importance  in  morphology.  These  are  the  laws  of 
correlation  and  of  nomology  of  organs.  According 
to  the  law  of  correlation  there  is  a  certain  inter- 
depend^ice  of  all  the  organs  of  an  animal,  so  that 
from  the  peculiar  structure  of  one  organ  we  may 
conclude  as  to  the  structure  of  most  other  organs. 
The  law  of  the  homology  of  organs  maintains  that 
all  organs  constructed  according  to  the  same  pattern 
must  have  similar  functions.  But,  as  the  same 
fimction  is  not  necessarily  bound  to  the  same  struc- 
ture (e.  g.,  the  function  of  breathing,  which  may  be 
accomplished  by  gills  as  well  as  bv  lungs),  the  law 
was  complemented  by  the  principle  of  the  analogy 
of  organs. 

These  highly  suggestive  laws  were  chiefly  estab- 
lished by  George  Dagobert  Cuvier — like  Linnaeus, 
a  devout  Protestfimt — ^who  was  b.  in  1769  at  Mdmpel- 
gardt,  WOrtemberg,  and  died,  a  peer  of  France,  in 
1832.  His  chief  works  were  written  when  he  was 
professor  of  comparative  anatomy  at  the  Jardin  des 
rlantes  in  Paris.  In  CXivier's  mind  originated  the 
celebrated  theory  of  types,  which  was  established 
in  the  year  1812.  Takm^  the  principle  for  the  new 
division  of  the  animal  kingdom  from  the  peculiar 
organization  of  the  animal,  Guvier  comprises  the 
cl^es  of  mammals,  birds,  and  reptiles  under  the 
name  of  vertebrates  ^  which  had  shortly  before  been 
introduced  by  Lamarck.  The  other  classes  of  animals 
were  divideci  into  three  provinces  (embranehemerUs)^ 
the  molluscs,  the  articulates,  and  the  radiates.  As 
the  doctrine  of  the  constancy  of  species,  Cuvier's 
system  was  opposed  by  Etienne-Geoffroy  Saint- 
Hilaire  (1722-1844),  who  emphasized  the  imiversal 
unity  of  the  plan  of  structure  pervading  the  animal 
kingdom.  Guvier  also  made  an  extensive  study  of 
the  petrified  organisms  of  prehistoric  ages,  and  thus 
became  the  founder  of  the  science  of  palaeontology. 
Cuvier's  system  was  further  developed  by  G.  E.  von 
Baer  (1792-1876),  who  discovered  the  mammalian 
ovum,  and  through  his  studies  of  the  development 
of  the  chick  laid  the  foundations  to  the  science  of 
comparative  morphogeny. 


During  the  same  period  of  the  ei^teenth  centuiy 
the  science  of  physiology  made  considerable  progress 
through  the  work  of  Boerhaave,  Stahl,  and  HaUer. 
Hermaom  Boerhaave  (1668-1738)  was  for  a  long 
time  professor  of  medicine  at  Leyden.  He  was  an 
adherent  neither  of  the  extreme  cnemical  nor  of  Uie 
extreme  physical  school,  but  tried  to  reconcile  both 
doctrines.  His  main  work,  ''Institutiones  medicae", 
was  published  in  1708.  A  similar  position  as  to  the 
causes  of  physiological  phenomena  was  assumed  by 
George  Ernest  von  Stahl  (1660-1734),  famous  in  the 
annals  of  chemistry  for  his  phlogiston  theory.  Stahl's 
views  were  embraced  by  a  pupil  of  Boerhaave, 
Albrecht  von  Haller  (1708-77),  who  united  in  his 
voluminous  work,  "Elementa  Physiologiae  corporis 
humani",  all  the  theories  and  discoveries  known  to 
his  time,  and  grouped  them  in  a  new  manner,  so 
that  his  book  may  oe  called  the  first  modem  text- 
book of  physiology.  About  the  time  when  Haller 
died  Antoine-Laurent  Lavoisier  (who  was  guillotined 
by  the  Gonvention  in  1794)  added  to  the  sum  of 
physiological  knowled^  by  solving  the  problem  of 
oxidation  and  respiration. 

Fourth  period, — Meanwhile  another  important 
discovery  had  been  made  which  gradually  maugu* 
rated  the  fourth  and  most  splendid  period  of  biology, 
the  chief  activities  of  which  centre  about  the  struc- 
ture and  functions  of  the  cell,  and  about  individual 
and  specific  evolution.  During  the  same  period  im- 
mense progress  has  been  made  in  bionomics,  palaeon- 
tology, morphology,  physiology,  and,  indeed,  all 
biological  sciences.  The  fact  has  already  been  al- 
luded to  that,  towards  the  dose  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  a  native  of  Holland,  Zachary  Janssen,  had 
invented  the  microscope,  which,  after  it  had  been 
considerably  improved  oy  Francesco  Fontana,  of 
Naples,  ana  Gomelis  van  Drebbel.  of  Holland,  was 
used  by  Malpighi,  Jan  Swammeraam  (1627-80)  of 
Amsterdam,  tne  Englishmen  Hooke  and  Grew,  and  by 
Antonius  von  Leeuwenhoek  (1632-1723),  the  famous 
discoverer  of  the  infusorians.  Robert  Hooke  (1635- 
1702)  was  the  first  to  represent  in  his  ''Micrographia" 
a  group  of  cells  which  he  had  discovered  with  his 
microscope  in  plants;  but  Malpighi  and  Grew  are 
generally  credited  with  having  discovered  the  cell 
About  a  century  later  Kaspar  Friedrich  Wolff  pub- 
lished his  important  "Theoria  generationis"  (1759). 
which  clearly  shows  that  he  must  have  observd 
cells  in  plants  as  well  as  in  animals.  All  this,  however, 
was  but  preliminary;  the  new  era  in  biology  was 
fairly  opened  only  when,  in  the  years  1838  and  1839, 
the  botanist  Schleiden  and,  especially,  the  zoologist 
Schwann,  established  the  first  theory  of  the  cell: 
that  the  cell  is  the  ultimate  strudural  and  functional 
unit  of  life.  Theodor  Schwann  was  b.  at  Neuss,  near 
Gologne,  in  1810  and  became  professor  of  anatomy 
at  Louvain  in  1839,  and  at  Lidge  in  1848,  and  died  in 
1882.  He  was  a  faithful  Gatholic  throughout  his  life. 
Schwann's  theoiy  was  further  developed  by  F.  Ley- 
dig  (1857),  by  M.  Schultze  (1861),  and  by  a  host  of 
such  eminent  scientists  of  the  present  generation, 
as  J.  ReinJce,  G.  Hertwig,  Waldeyer,  Edmund  B. 
Wilson,  and  many  others.  The  name  histolo^ 
(see  d^nitions  at  beginning  of  this  article)  was  in- 
troduced by  K.  Meyer  in  1819,  whilst  John  B.  Carney, 
who  died  in  1899  as  a  Gatholic  priest  and  professor 
at  Louvain,  is  the  acknowledged  author  and  able 
promoter  of  cytology. 

Together  with  cytology  there  came  into  prominence 
the  science  of  ontogeny  which  has  led  many  biologists 
of  to-day  back  to  a  vitalistic  conception  of  the 
phenomena  of  life.  This  science  it  was  tnat  suggested 
E.  Hllckers  biogenetic  law,  to  which  it  also  gave 
the  deathblow.  According  to  Hackel's  theory,  on- 
togeny is  said  to  be  a  short  and  rapid  repetition  of 
phylogeny.  The  first  to  trace  the  entire  deveJopment 
of  all  the  tissues  from  the  germ  ceUs  was  Schwann. 


mOMDO  575  BIOHDO 

The  question:  whether  the  embiyo  was  preformed  looiogists  Cuvier,  C.  T.  E.  yon  Siebold  (1848),  and 

in  the  egg  and  originated  by  a  simple  evolution;  R.  Leuckart  (1847).    The  greatest  of  modem  mor- 

or  whether  it  hod  to  oe  developed  l^  an  entirely  new  phologists  since  the  time  of  Albrecht  von  Hailer  are 

fbraiation,  or  epigenesis;  was  maixu^  solved  bjr  the  Richi^  Owen  (1870-92),  the  comparative  anatomist. 

theory  of  epigenetic  evolution  established  by  Dnesch  Johann  MCkller,  the  father  of  German  medicine,  ana 

and  numerous  colabourers.    The  science  of  phylog-  Claude  Bernard,  the  prince  of  physiologists.    MQller 

eny  began  when  Lamarck,  the  founder  of  the  modem  was  b.  14  July,  1801,  at  Coblenz,  andd.  28  April, 

theory  of  descent,  controverted  the  immutability  1858,  as  professor  of  anatomy  and  physiology  in 

of  species  on  scientific  grounds.  the  University  of  Berlin.     He  was  the  teacher  of 

Tne  Chevalier  de  Lamarck  (Jean-Baptiste-Pierre-  such  well-known  men  as  Virchow,  Emil    Dubois- 

Antoine  de  Monet  de  Lamarck)  was  bom  in  1744.  Reymond,    Helmholtz,   Schwann,    LieberkQhn,    M. 

At  the  age  of  forty-nine  he  became  professor  of  the  Schultse,  Remak,  Reichert,  all  of  whom  have  done 

Booiog^  of  invertebrates  in  the  Jaroin  dee  Plantes  magnificent  work  in  various  departments  of  biology. 

at  Pans.    His  theorjr  of  evolution  was  fully  explained  MttUer  was  chiefly  an  experimental  physiologist,  and 

for  the  first  time  m  his  ^^  Phiiosophie  zoologique"  established  a  vast  niunber  of  facts  which  he  de- 

and  later  in  his  "Histoire  naturelle  des  animaux  sans  scribed  with  great  accuracy.    At  the  same  time  he 

vert^bres''.    During  the  last  seventeen  years  of  his  defended  with  energy  the  existence  of  a  special  vital 

life  Lanmrck  was  blind  and  lived  in  extreme  poverty,  force,  which  directs  the  various  physical  and  chemical 

The  last  two  volumes  of  his  ''Histoire  naturelle"  forces  for  the  attainm^it  of  specific  structures  and 

he  dictated  to  an  affectionate  daughter,  who  re-  functions.    In  the  present  generation  biologists  are 

mained  at  her  father's  side  till  his  death  in  1829.  gpulually  returning  to  MiUler's  views,  which  for  a 

During  its   first  period  of  energetic   development  time  they  had  more  or  less  completely  abandoned. 

the  theoiy  of  evolution,  as  proposed  bv  LamarcK  and,  The  great  iphysiologist  lived  all  his  life,  as  he  died. 

in  a  modified  form,  bv  Saint-Hilmre,  failed  to  super-  a  faithful  Catholic.    The  same  may  almost  be  said 

sede  the  theory  of  the  constancy  of  species,  which  of  his  contemporary  in  France,  Claude  Bernard,  b. 

was  defended  by  such  influential  men  as  Cuvier;  nor,  in  1813,  at  St.-Julien,  not  far  from  Lyons,  and  d. 

indeed,  were  the  facts  known  at  that  time  in  any  in  1880.     Bernard's  main  discoveries  refer  to  the 

way  sufficient  to  ensure  its  acceptance.     However,  phenomena  of  nervous  inhibition  and  internal  glandu- 

after  Charles  Darwin  had  publisoed  his  "Origin  of  tar  secretion.    For  a  time  he  vielded  to  the  materialis- 

^secies",  in  1859,  the  new  science  progressed  with  tic  philosophy  of  his  age,  but  he  soon  abandoned 

the  greatest  rapidity,  and  at  the  present  day  there  it,  perhaps  through  the  influence  of  his  friend  Pasteur. 

are  but  few  prominent  naturalists  who  do  not  con-        Louis  Pasteur  (d.  28  September,  1895),  the  father 

tribute  their  share  to  phyloffeny.    At  the  same  time  of   preventive   medicine,   was   probably   the   most 

it  has  gone  through  a  considerable  intrinsic  develop-  gifted  and  influential   biologist  of  the  nineteenth 

ment,  mainly  with  respect  to  the  rise  and  decline  c^itury.     His  discoveries,  which  are  inscribed  on 

of  the  theory  of  natural  selection  as  the  chief  factor  his  tomb,  in  the  Institut  Pasteur,  at  Paris,  extend 

in  the  development  of  species.    Charles  Darwin  was  from  1848  to  1885,  and  relate  to  the  nature  of  fer- 

bom  at  Shrewsbury  in  1809.    He  studied  at  the  uni-  mentations,   to   the   minutest   organisms   and   the 

versittes  of  Edinburgh  and  Cambridge,  from  1831  question  of  abiogenesis,  to  the  diseases  of  silkworms. 

to  1836  accompanied  an  English  scientific  expedition  to  the  propagation  of  diseases  by  microbes,  and 

on  board  the  ^'Beagle'',  and  passed  the  rest  of  his  above  all  to  the  sufnremely  important  principle  of 

life  in  the  village  of  Downe,  Kent,  where  he  produced  experimental    immunity    to    pathogenic    bacteria. 

the  numerous  works  which  had  such  an  incalculabJe  Pasteur  was  a  model  Catholic,  the  most  ideal  scien- 

influence  on  his  a^e.    Among  Darwin's  fellow-workers  tist  known  in  the  history  of  biology. 

Alfred  Russel  Wallace  (b.  1822)  occupies  the  first        Manv  more  prominent  biologists,  such  as  Ramon 

place,  since  he  was  the  co-discoverer  of  the  principle  y  CajiU,  Wundt,  Brooks,  Strassburser,  Wasmann, 

of  natural  selection.    Other  distinguished  men  who  have  dcme  and  are  still  doing  admirable  work  in  the 

took  part  in  the  development  of  this  branch  of  mterest  of  biological  sciences. 

biology    were     Huxley,    Lyell,     Nilgeli,    Weismann,  ^  Foster,  LeOwrea  on  the  History  of  Phytu^  during  the 

Aha  Otjiv      Pmhahlv  tll«  rnnaf  imnortanf  dinravpnAfl  ^^*^»  ^^^^  «^  ^^  Centunea  (Cambridge.  1901):  Knbller. 

Asa  Uray.     rropapiy  tne  most  important  OlSCOVeneS  jy^  ChristerUum  und  der  Vertreter  der  neueren  Natunntsen- 

were  those  made  by  Huso  De  Vnes  and  by  Qregor  »a^aft  (Freiburg.  1903^;  Wasmann,  Die  modeme  Biolooie  und 

Johann  Mendel,  Abbot  ofthe  AugUStinian  Monastoy  *?  BntviMwn^theone  (FreiburgjlOOej;  Walsh.  Makera  of 

at  AltbrOnn   where  he  died  in  Il84.    Mendel'8  Jawe  ^^  ^^piSS'lJ^  ^J!"^  S^^SfSS  t 

of  heredity,  based  as  they  lu^  on  a  splendid  array  Darwin  (New  Yoi^,  1006). 

of  facts,  will  be  of  especial  influence  upon  future  H.  Muckkrmann. 

theories  of  heredity  and  development. 

Together  with  phylogeny  the  science  of  palseon-  Bioiido,  Flavio,  a  distinguished  Italian  archsolo- 
tology,  founded  by  Cuvier,  developed  mainly  ^ist  and  historian,  b.  at  ForI\  in  1388;  d.  at  Rome 
through  the  influence  and  personal  activity  of  such  m  1463.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  science  of 
men  as  Joachim  Barrande  (1799-1883),  Jean-Bap-  archsolonr  and  of  Christian  and  medieval  topog- 
tiste-Julien  d'Omalius  d'Halloy  (1783-1875),  James  raphy.  He  studied  under  Ballistario  of  Cremona 
Dwight  Dana  (1813-95)  ^  Oswald  Heer  (1809-^),  and  was  remaricable  for  learning  even  in  his  youth, 
and  many  more.  These  giants  in  the  natural  sciences  He  lived  for  some  time  at  Milan,  where  he  discovered 
were  at  the  same  time  faithful  Christians,  the  first  and  copied  the  only  manuscript  of  Cicero's  dialogue 
two  being  Catholics.  Still  more  impressive  than  "Brutus".  In  1^  he  became  secretary  to  Pope 
the  progress  of  palseontology  is  that  of  sjrstematic  Eugenius  IV,  who  was  afterwards  driven  out  of 
biolc^  and  bionomics,  branches  to  which  a  thousand  Rome.  Biondo  accompanied  the  pope  in  his  exile, 
modem  scientists  have  devoted  the  entire  energy  was  his  secretary  at  Ferrara  and  Florence,  and  re> 
of  their  lives.  The  result  of  all  this  scientific  activity  turned  to  Rome  with  him.  Later  he  served  in  the 
is  i^parent  in  the  immense  collections  preserved  in  same  capacity  under  Popes  Nicholas  V,  C!alixtus  III, 
the  museums  of  Washington,  London,  New  York,  and  Pius  II.  An  earnest  student  of  antiquities 
and  other  large  cities,  anain  the  simple  fact  that  the  and  a  man  of  wonderful  erudition,  he  applied  him- 
systematic  species  scientifically  described  amount  self  with  indefatigaUe  industry  to  the  task  of  collect- 
to  no  fewer  than  500,0(X)  animals  and  2(X),000  plants,  ing  materials  for  his  historical,  archsological,  and 
The  Liimsean  S3rstem  of  classification  was  perfected  topographical  works.  He  gathered  his  materials 
in  many  ways,  especially  by  the  botanists  A.  L.  von  from  original  sources.  Biondo  was  the  author  of 
Jusdeu  (17^),  A.  P.  Decandelle  (1813),  and  by  the  three  encyclopedias,  which  have  formed  the  basis 


BZOT  576 

of  all  subsequent  dictionaries  of  Roman  ardueology  in  i^txxl  health  and  led  to  a  ripe  old  age.    His  mental 

and  antiquities.    His  works,  which  were  edited  after  attitude  may  be  indicated  by  his  opposition  to  the 

his  death  by  his  sons,  include:  ''Rom®  Instauratn  open  meetings  of  the  Academy;  he  feaied  the  in- 

Libri  Tres"  (1482),  dedicated  to  Pope  Eugenius  IV,  fluenoe  of*  the  vulgar  public  upon  the  scientific  tone 

a  valuable  study  of  the  ancient  monuments  of  Rome,  of  the  Institute.    Since  he  was  brought  up  in  the 

the  first  attempt  at  a  topographical  description  of  turbulent  times  of  the  Revolution,  it  is  not  surprising 

the  city,  giving  also  a  complete  list  of  the  principal  to  find  him  among  the  insurgents,  in  1795,  atteinpt- 

Christian  chiu-cnes  and  chapels,  when  and  by  whom  ing  to  overthrow  the  Convention.    Againrin  18u4, 


I  protested 

Illustrata"  (1474),  a  description  of  Italy  in  fourteen  political  matters  into  the  deliberations  of  a  scientific 
rq^ons,  with  an  accurate  list  of  the  cities,  etc.  body.  His  religious  views  became  more  pronounced 
Biondo's  historical  researches  bore  fruit  in  a  great  towards  the  end  of  his  life.  He  is  said  to  have  re- 
work entitled  "Historiarum  ab  Indinatione  Roman-  ceived  the  Sacrament  of  Confirmation  at  the  hands 
orum  Imperii,  Decades  III,  Libri  XXXI"  (Venice,  of  his  own  grandson. 

1483),  covering  the  period  from  the  fall  of  the  Roman       The  more  elaborate  works  of  Biot  are:  "Traits  de 

Empire   to   the   author's   own   time    (1440).    The  gtometrie  analytique",  1802  (8th  ed.,  1834);  "Trait6 

work  was  divided  into  decades,  but  Biondo's  death  de  physique    exp^rimentale    et    math^matique",  4 

prevented  him  from  completing  the  vast  undertaking  vols.,   1816;   "Precis  de  physique'',  2  vols.,  1817; 

after  he  had  written  three  decades  and  the  first  ''Traits  d'astronomie  physique",  6  vols,  with  atlas, 

book  of  the  fourth.  »  1850;  ''Melanges  scientifiques  et  litt^raires",  3  vols. 


EnMTTND  Rttrkib  Beuve.  Nouvmux  Lundta  (Pana,  1879).  IL  ^ 

Blot,  Jean-Baptiste,  phjrsidst  and  mathemati-       Birds  (in  Symbolism). — Many    kinds    of   binis 

cian,  b.  at  Paris,  France,  21  April,  1774;  d.  there,  are  used  in  Christian  symbolism.    The  first  to  be  so 

3  February,  1862.    He  studied  at  first  at  the  College  employed  was  the  Dove  ;  it  stood  for  the  Third  Fenoa 

of  Louis-le-Grand;  in  1793  he  joined  the  artillery  of  of  the  Blessed  Trinity,  for  when  Jesus  was  baptized 

the  Army  of  the  North,  but  soon  left  the  service  to  the  Holy  Ghost  descended  in  bodily  shape  as  a  dove 

enter  the  Ecole  Polytechnique.    After  going  to  Beau-  upon  Him  (J^uke,  iii,  22).    It  was  also  used  as  a 

vais  as  a  professor  in  the  central  school  of  that  city,  symbol  of  peace,  because  a  dove  brought  to  Noe  a 

he  returned  to  Paris,  in  1800,  to  occupy,  at  the  age  bough  of  an  olive-tree  as  a  sign  that  the  deluge  of 

of  26,  the  chair  of  mathematical  physics  m  the  Coli^  wrath  was  at  an  end.    In  early  Christian  art  the 

de  France.    He  had  the  distinction  of  ultimately  Apostles  and  the  faithful  were  generally  represented 

belonging  to  three  of  the  classes  of  the  Institute;  as  doves,  the  first  because  they  were  the  instruments 

in  1803  he  was  admitted  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences;  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  carrying  peace  to  the  world;  the 

in  1841,  to  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles-  second  because  in  their  baptism  they  received  the 

Lettres;  and  in  1856,  to  the  French  Academv.    After  sift  of  reconciliation,  entering  with  the  dove  (the 

beginning  his  career  as  a  mathematician  and  astrono-  Holy  Ghost)  into  the  Ark  of  God,  the  Church.    Soine- 

mer,  he  was  assigned  to  the  section  of  geometry  in  times  in  sjrmboUcal  writing  it  stands  for  rest:  Who 

the  Academv  of  Sciences.     Among  the  interesting  will  give  me  wings  like  a  dove,  and  I  will  be  at  rest?— 

incidents  in  his  career  may  be  cited  his  ascension  in  (Ps.,  liv,  7);  often  for  simplicity,  innocence,  and  low: 

a  balloon  with  Gay-Lussac  in  1804.    They  rose  to  Be  ye  therefore  wise  as  serpents  and  simple  as  doveu 

a  height  of  13,000  feet  for  the  purpose  of  studying  (Matt.,  x,  16);  Open  to  me.  my  sister,  my  love, 

the   magnetic,   electrical,    and    chemical   condition  my  dove,  my  undefiled;  One  is  my  dove,  my  periect 

of  the  atmosphere  at  various  elevations.  one.     (Cant.,  v,  2:  vi,  8.)    The  EagU  is  a  sjrmbol  of 

Biot  was  actively  engaged  in  the  various  branches  Christ  and  His  Divine  nature,  of  regeneration  by 

of  the  geodetic  work  involved  in  the  famous  measure-  baptism;  it  is  also  an  emblem  of  St.  John  the  Evange- 

ment  of  the  c|uadrant  of  a  meridian,  for  the  purpose  list.    As  the  eagle  can  gaze  upon  the  shining  orb  of 

of  standardizing  the  length  of  the  new  unit,  the  meter,  the  sun  with  steadfast  eyes,  so  can  Christ  gaze  un- 

As  a  member  of  the  Bureau  of  Longitudes  he  went,  dazzled  iipon  the  refulgent  glory  of  God  the  Father, 

in  1806,  with  voung  Arago,  to  Formentera,  in  the  Dante  refers  to  the  strong  eye  of  the  eagle  (Parad., 

Balearic  Islands,  to  resume  the  measurement  of  a  i,  47,  48): — 

degree  of  the  meridian,  interrupted  by  the  death  of  I  saw  Beatrice  tum'd,  and  on  the  sun 

Mechian.    In   1808  he  determined,  with  Mathieu,  Gazing,  as  never  eagle  fix'd  his  ken. 

the  length  of  the  seconds  pendulum  at  Bordeaux  — ^It  was  a  popular  delusion  among  the  ancients  that 

and  Dunkirk.    In  1817  he  went  to  Scotland  and  the  ea;|gle  could  renew  its  youth  by  plunging  three 

the  Shetland  Islands  to  verify  the  geodetic  operations  times  into  a  spring  of  pure  water,  a  belief  alluded  to 

of  the  English  imder  Ck)lonel  Mudge.    In  1824  he  by  David:   Tny  vouth   shall   be  renewed  like  the 

returned  to  Italy,  Sicily,  and  Spain,  in  order  to  correct  eagle's  (Ps.,  cii,  6),  hence  the  primitive  Christians, 

some  of  the  observations  of  the  year  1808.    He  and  later  the  medieval  symbohzers,  used  the  eag^ 

contributed  more  than  250  memoirs  to  various  socie-  as  a  sign  of  baptism,  the  well-spring  of  salvation,  in 

ties  and  periodicals.    This  enormous  work  covers  whose  water  the  neophyte  was  dipped  three  ^imes, 

the  entire  field  of  experimental  and  mathematical  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy 

physics,  as  well  as  ancient  and  modem  astronomy.  Ghost,  in  order  to  wash  from  his  soul  the  old  man  of 

He  was  the  champion  of  the  corpuscular  theory  of  sin  and  put  on  the  youth  of  a  child  of  hght.     Tins 

light  which  he  extended  to  some  most  ingenious  bird  was  used  as  the  emblem  of  St.  John,  because  in 

explanations  of  the  very  complex  phenomena  of  his  Ciospel  St.  John  dwells  particularly  upon  the 

polarization.    Biot  discovered   the  laws  of  rotary  Divinity  of  the  Redeemer  and  contemplates  with 

polarization  by  crystalline  bodies  and  applied  these  the  unflinching  eye  of  an  eagle  the  highest  truths, 
laws  to  the  analysis  of  saccharine  solutions.    His        The  Pelican  is  a  symbol  of  the  atonement  and  the 

fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  work  in  polarization  and  Redeemer.    It  was  supposed  to  wound  itself  in  ordo* 

double  lefraction  of  light.  to  feed  its  young  with  its  blood  and  to  bring  to  life 

Regular  habits  of  study  and  recreation  kept  him  those  who  were  dead — the  "pelicane  who  stxicketb 


Uood  out  of  its  owne  bodjna  to  do  otben  a 

?Mj,  Euphues).    AUuaon  la  made  to  tbis  bd 
Hamlet''  (act  iv)>- 


ITierefo 


To  his  good  friend  thus  wide  111  ope  my  arms 
And,  like  the  kind,  life-4«nderiiig  pelii — 
Repadt  them  with  my  blood. 
Vrefore  it  was  deemed  s  fitting  symbol  of  the 
viour,  the  nostra  pelicano  of   Dante,  Who  shed  His 
bkxjd  in  Older  to  eive  eternal  life  to  the  obildreQ  of 
men.    Skelton  in  his  "Armorie  of  Birds"  says; — 
Then  sayd  the  Pellycan: 
When  my  Byrdta  tie  slayne 
With  my  bloude  I  them  revyve. 
Scripture  doth  reoord 
The  same  dyd  our  Lord 
And  rose  from  deth  to  lyve. 
The  Phignix  is  a  symbol  of  the  Resurrection  and  of 
eternity.     According   to   legend   this  mythical   hird 
eould  never  die;  on  attainii^  its  five-hundredth  year 
it  committed  itoelf  to  the  flames-  of  a  funeral  pyre, 
only  to  rise  reborn  from  its  own  ashes.     Dante  used 
it  as  a  symbol  of  the  souls  of  the  damned  (Inf., 
ixiv,  197-208). 

The  Peacock  in  Byzantine  and  early  Romanesque 
art  was  used  to  signify  the  Resurrection,  because  its 
Stsh  was  thought  to  be  incorruptible.  (St.  August 
tine,  C^ty  of  Ood.  xxi,  e,  iv.)  It  was  also  a  symbol 
of  pride.  Tile  Raven  is  a  symbcd  of  the  Jews,  of 
roofesBion  and  penance.  The  Cock  is  a  symbol  of 
vigilance,  and  also  an  emblem  of  3t  Peter.  The 
Vuflure  has  always  typified  ((reed.  Many  other  birds 
were  used  during  the  Middle'  Aess  for  symbolic  and 
ecclesiological  purposes;  while  the  preacheis  of  these 
eenluries  developed  the  symbolism  of  each  one  of 
these  emblems  to  a  degree  that  now  seems  far-fetched 
and  often  obscure,  nevertheless,  they  made  it  clear 
that  religious  instruction  can  be  gained  from  birds 
and  even  from  the  common  things  of  Ufe. 

LiDCHEBT.  OuetuUt  do  Phvaotomi  (Strubinv.  1880); 
CuiE*.  ilOaao—  d'arOUol.  (Paru,  1847-66);  Nsu.  and 
WcBB,  7^  SumAoIuiii  <rf  Chardirt  and  Church  OrTinimnii 
fflmrVor^    ■*"'    " -.-..■—-    .-  - 


1861):  Et* 


Isimal  Sunabotitm  in  EixUriattuiU  Ai^Haetura 


tartkiUctun  /roncaiu  du    XI'  ( 

BlTfltta,  a  square  cap  with  thiea  ridges  or  peiJts 
on  its  upper  surface,  now  commonly  worn  by  clerics 
of  all  glides  from  cardinals  downwards.  The  use 
of  such  a  cap  is  prescribed  by  tbe  rubrics  both  at 
•olemo  Mass  and  in  other  eocleBiastical  functions, 
Etymologicatly,  tbe  word  tnreila  is  Italian  in  origin 
and  would  more  correctly  be  written  beretta  (cf.  bow- 
ever  the  French  barette  and  the  Spanish  birela).  It 
Cibly  comes  from  Wrrus,  »  rough  cloak  with  a 
,  from  the  Greek  rufipii,  flame-eoloured,  and 
the  birretttm  may  ori^nally  liare  meant  the  hood. 
We  hear  of  the  birettum  in  the  tenth  century,  but, 
like  most  other  questions  of  costmne,  the  history  is 
extremely  perplexed.  The  wearing  of  any  head- 
covering,  other  than  hood  or  cowl,  on  state  occasions 
within  doois  seems  to  have  originally  been  a  dis- 
tinction reserved  for  the  privil^d  few.  The  oon- 
stitutiona  of  Cardinal  Ottoboni  issued  by  him  for 
England  in  1208  forbid  the  wearing  of  caps  vulgariy 
called  "coyphffi"  (cf.  the  coif  of  the  Berjeant-aMaw) 


n  uncovered.  From  this  law  the  higher 
KToduates  of  the  univertuties  were  excepted,  thus 
Giovanni  d'Andrea,  in  his  ^oss  on  the  Clementine 
Decretals,  declares  (c.  1320)  that  at  Bologna  the 
insignia  of  the  Doctorate  were  the  cathedra  (chair) 
and  the  birettum. 

At  tiiat  the  birettum  was  a  kind  of  skull  cap  with  a 
small  tuft,  but  it  developed  into  a  soft  round  cap 
easily  mdented  by  the  fingers  in  putting  it  on  and 
off,  and  it  aoquiired  in  tois  way  tbe  rudimentary 


otitline  of  its  preaent  three  peaks.  We  nuj  find 
such  a  cap  delineat«d  in  many  drawings  of  me  fif- 
teenth century,  one  of  which,  representing  univetsity 
dignitaries  at  tike  Council  of  Constance^  who  are 
described  in  the  accompanying  text  as  bursdott,  is 
here  reproduced. 
3a-  The  some  kind 
of  cap  is  worn  l^ 
the  cardinals  sit- 
ting in  conclave 
and  depicted  in 
tbe  same  contem- 
poraij  series  of 
drawmgB,  as  also 
by  preachers  ad- 
dressing the  as- 
sembly.  The 
privilege  of  wear- 
ing some  such 
huid-dreas  was 
extended  in  the 
course  of  the  six- 
teenth century 
to  the  lower 
grades  of  tiie  cler- 
gy, and  after  a 
while  the  chief 
distinction  be- 
cante  one  of  col- 
oar,  the  cardinals 
alwajra     wearing 

red  birettas,  and        .,  ^  r. 

bishops    Violet  of  L*«a  we*b.no  Bibfita.  *.d. 

The  shap    dur-  1352 

ing  the  sixteenth 

and  seventeenth  centuries  was  everywhere  con- 
siderably modified,  and,  though  the  question  is 
very  complicated,  there  seems  no  good  reason 
to  reject  the  identification,  proi>osed  by  several 
modem  writ«rB.  of  tbe  old  doctor's  birettum  with 
the  square  college  cap,  popularly  known  as  the 
"mortar-board",  of  the  modem  English  universities. 
The  coUe^  cap 
and   ecclesiasti- 


cal biretta  have 
probaUy  devd- 
oped  fram  the 
same  original, 
but  along  dif- 
ferent lines. 
Even    at    the 

Eresent  day 
irettas  vary 
considerably  in 
shape.  Those 
worn  by  the 
French,  Qei^ 

iah  clergy  as  a 
rule  have  four 
peaks  instead  of 
three;  while 
Roman  custom 


W'K  % 


retta  should 
have  no  tasseL 
As  r^ards  us- 
age in  wearing  the  biretta,  the  reader  must  be 
refesred  for  details  to  some  of  the  works  mentioned 
in  tbe  bibliography.  It  ma^  be  said  in  general  that 
the  biretta  is  worn  in  processions  and  when  seated,  as 
also  when  the  priest  is  performing  any  act  of  iurisdic- 
tion,  e,  g.  reconciling  a  convert.  It  was  forrnerly 
the  rule  that  a  priest  should  always  wear  it  in  giv- 
ing absolution  in  oonfession,  and  it  is  raobabje  that 
^\}f<  ajDcient  usage  which  requires  ui  I'^gKHh  judA 


BnuUDA                              578  BzamNOBAU 

to  asBume  the  "  bUek  cajt"  in  pronounaiig  aeaUatM  and  i^rituaL    He  induced  Birkowaki  to  itj&im  (ha 

of  death  is  identical  in  origin.  court  when  it  waa  trajufeired  to  WarsKw.     He  alio 

appointed  him  coml-preacher  to  hia  eon  WladiElsT. 

In  the  eniaadea  of  1617  and  1618  againat  Turicer, 

Ruaaia,  and  Walaohia,  the  friar  took  no  amall  port, 

and  some  of  bis  best  aennons  were  ddivered  to  ibe 

aoldiflTB.    Two  years  before  his  death  he  retired  to 

hia  mooasteiy  and  never  left  it  save  to  preach  on 

aome  great  occasion  or  in  behalf  of  charity.    Birkov- 

iwr).  3^1,  oiu.  DI4.  ^^  '^  COnoidwedone  oF  the  greateet  aratorsof  Pojand. 

Herbert  TauBfrros.  Hi^  contemporariee  spoke  of  him  aa  the  "SannatJan 

w  _ij     Tu  _i^  Tu  _i^       n      1.              r,  Chi7»ologus",  and  posterity  has  not  found  anyone 

Wrglda,  Birgit,  Blrgitt*.     See  Bridqot,  Saint.  auperior  to  hun  in  purity  of  diction  in  the  aixteenth 

BirinuB  (Berik),  Saint,  Confessor,  fiiat  Biahan  of  century.     He  uaea  scripture  quotationa  very  often, 

Dorchester  (in  wbat  is  now  the  County  of  Qicford.  though  he  also  refers  frequently  to  Vii^,  Horaee, 

not    Dorchester,    the    capital    of    Doraetahire),  ana  and   Homer,   and   among   later   writ«ia   to   Juatus 

Apoetie  of  Weasex;  date  of  birth  unknown;  d.  3  De<  Lipeius.     He  has  no  respect  for  the  learning  and 

camber,  650,  at  his  see  and  waa  buried  in  hia  own  temper  of  Erasmus.    Of  bis  sermons  only  a  few  havs 

church  there.    Later    (680)    hia   remains  were  do-  been  published.    There  are  throe  volume' of  aermona 

powted    by  Bishop   Headda   in    the   cathedral   at  for  Sundaya  and  Holy  Days,  beudea  paoegyrica  on 

Winchester,  where  finally  (4  September,  972)  Bishop  St.  Joaaphat,  Sigismund  III,  his  wife  Conatsntia,  and 

Ethelwold  enshrined  them  in  adver  and  ^d.    Ac-  sermons  on  the  Blessed  Virgin  delivered  in  camp. 

cording   to    Bede,    Birinua   came    to    Britaui   on    the  Qutnr  ahd  Echisd.  Strict,  ord.  Pnai..  II.  M2;  Uacan- 

advice  of  Pope  faonoriua  I   (625-638),  having  been  """"'■""'■  """^"■^•^"V'^s^'L^ertneb 

consecrated    Ubop    by    Asterius    at    Genoa.     He  '°°^-  "■  »chwertneb. 

[winuBed  "to  aow  the  seed  of  the  holy  faitb  in  the  Biimin^iani,   DiocEas  op  (BiRmNOHAUiA,  Bib- 

inner  parts  beyond  tiie  English ",  but  on  hia  arrival  muoHAMiBtreiB). — One    of    the    thirteen    dioceses 

(634)    found   the   Weet   Saxons   so   pagan   that   he  erected  by  the  Apostolic  Letter  of  Fius  IX,  27  Seo- 

decided    to    devote    hia    miniatry    to    them.     God  tember,   1850,   which   restored   a   hierarchy   to  the 

bleaaed  his  zeal  by  the  conversion  of  their  king  Catholic  Church  in  England.    It  comprises  the  coua- 

Cync«ils  (635),  of  hia  aon  Cwichelm   (636),  and  of  ties  of  Oxford,  Stafford,  Warwick,  and  Worcester.    It 

CWichelm's  son  Cuthred  (639).     Cynegila'  daughter  takes  ita  name  from  the  municipal  city  of  Binning- 

(Cvneburga?)   was  also   baptized,   and  Oswald,  the  hijn  in  Warwiokahire,  the  largest  town  of  the  four 

holy  King  of  Northumbria,  who  had  come  to  Cynegila  counties.     Previous  to  18S0,  these  same  four  oountiei 

in  suit  of  her  hand,  was  sponsor  to  her  father  and  were  included,  firet  in  the  Midland,  then  in  the  Cen- 

wedded  her.   Doubtlees  his  presraice  helped  Birinua  trsl,  District  or  Vicariate,  which  had  been  governed 

much  in  hia  first  ^iritual  conquests.     Immediately  by  vicats-Apostolic  aince  1688,  of  whom  by  far  the 

aft«r  this,  Oswald  and  CVnegils  gave  him  Dorcic,  or  moat  illustrious  was  Bi^op  Hilner  (1803-26)^  man 

Dorchester,  the  capital  ol  Weaaez,  for  hia  see,  where  equally  learned  in  polemics,  ecclesii.stica]  history,  and 

"he  built  and  consecrated  many  churches  and  by  his  aacred  arclueology.     To  hia  untiring  energies  and 

labours  called  many  to  the  Lord".  undaunted  front  against  a  strongly  oreanized  scbia- 

Birinus  had  great  dsvotion  for  the  Body  of  Our  maUcal  opposition,  the  Church  in  England  owes  its 

Lord,  as  is  shown  in  the  account  of  his  walking  on  present  atability  and  its  solid  ecclesiastical  unity, 

the  aea  to  procure  the  corporal  given  him  by  Pope  Under   Milner,    whose    epistopal   residence   was   at 

HonoriuB,  wherein  he  ever  carried  the  Blessed  Eu-  Wolverhampton    (Staffordshire),    thia    vicariate   be- 

chariat.     Field  strangely  disposes  of  this  miracle  and  came  the  starting-point  and  then  the  centre  of  the 

others  as  allegorical   or  fabricated,   after  allowing,  Catholic  Movement,  or  Revival,  in  the  last  century 

however,  that  their  chroniclera  had  some  common  (1800-~SO).     Ita  prominence  as  welt  as  its  lustre  was 

source  of  information  lost  to  us  now.     Many  mir-  due  not  merely  to  its  central  position,  but  chiefly  to 

acles  took  place  at  the  diaoovery  of  Birinus's  relics,  Milner'a  brilliant  talents,  his  magnetic  influence,  and 

and  Huntingdon  among  others  speaks  of  "the  great  clear  foresi^t.    Its  two   educational  establiahmenls 

miradea  of  Birin".     At  present,  there  is  a  growing  — Sed^ey    Park    School,   Wolverhampton,   and   St, 

devotion   to   him   in   the   Established   Church,   due  Mary's  CoU«^,  Oacott,  Birmingham — presided  over 

probably  to  the  connexion  of  the  royal  family  with  and  staffed  by  exceptionally  able  men,  lent  their  aid 

Cerdic,  a  side  branch  of  whose  stock  was  Cj^egils.  also  to  this  great  movement  by  supplying  a  zealous 

Field  enumerates  many  modem  Protestant  memo-  body  of  clergy  and  a  laity  thoroughly  grounded  in 

rials.     The  Catholics  of  Dorchester  honoured  their  Catholic   principles.      When,   later   on,   the   Oxford 

patron,  in,  1S49,  with  a  beautiful  ohapd.  movement  led  to  ao  many  converaiona,  Oscott  Col- 

Baos,  tfjrt.  BaJ„  III    vii;  IV.  lii;  Bdtlim.  tiw.  ^  *«  lege  became  the  raUying  point  for  the  Catholic  torctB, 

S'r;L*i;.^SS>M'S^^4'^ttV'f^"ViS'^i^  i"-™'"«h   -   its   then   preddent     Bishop   Wisem«. 

The  AjxMU of  VcuaiLoadon  tad  >ieir  York  1902):  Hakox.  (1840-17),  was  the  acknowledged  leader  and  mt«^ 

Calalogae  ofMaleriaU  for  Engliih  Hitlmy  in  R.  8.,  XLVllI;  pretcr.     To  Oecott  John   Henry  Newman  had  CMBB 

Si^'Ssfc«2Kn^"'                         '^**''  ^""°  LitUemore  after  his  reception  into  the  Chureh, 

Chari^bb  L.  Kimball.  '^'^  many  other  distinguished  converts  besides. 

The  last  vioar-Apostolic  of  this  henceforth  historic 

Birkowikl,  Fabian,  Polish  preacher,  b.  at  Lem<  vicariate  was  William  Bernard  Ullathorne,  O^B., 

berg,  1566;  d.  at  Cracow,  1636.     He  completed  hia  who  waa  consecrated  21   June,  1846.     After  rulmg 

studies  at  the  University  of  Cracow,  where  he  also  the  Western  Vicariate  for  a  short  time  he  waa  traaa- 

began  to  teach  philoaopny  in  1587.     After  having  lated  to   the  Centnd   District,   to   become  the  fiiat 

taught  there  for  nve  years  he  entered  the  Dominican  Biehop  of   the  newly  created   See  of   Birmingham. 

Order  (1592),  and  devoted  himself  for  some  time  to  a  Next  to  Wiseman,  he  had  done  most  to  promote  the 

deeper  study  of  tbeoloey.    Thereupon  he  began  hia  restoration  of  the  hierarchy.    On  27  October,  1850, 

career  aa  a  preacher  in  the  church  of  the  Holy  Trinity  Bishop    Ullathorne   was    enthroned    in    St.   Chad's 

at  Cracow  where  the  king  attended  Divine  wor^p.  Cathedral,  Birmingham,  when  Dr.  Newman  Meacbed 

During  fourteen  years  hu  fame  as  a  preacher  drew  hia   oelebratod   aennon    "Chriat  on   the   Watera", 

immenae  crowds.   Sigismund  III  was  much  attached  second  only  to   the   "Second  Spring"  delivered  at 

to  him  and  often  ccmsulted  him  on  matteia  temporal  tha  First  novincial  Synod  of  Wesbnmater  at  Oscott 


Iftij,  1852).    The  cathedral  and  bi^op's  bouse  had 
been  erected  in  Bishop  Walsh's  vicariate  (21  June, 


1840)  from  designs  drawn  by  Au^tus  Welby  Pugin, 
(be  foremost  promoter  of  the  revival  of  Gothic  archi- 
tecture, who,  through  the  munificence  of  John,  16Ui 
Eul  of  Shrewsbuiy,  adorned  the  diocese  with  many 
ecdeaiastical  builciings.  Over  the  high  altar  of  St. 
Qmd'i  Cathedral  rest  the  relics  of  its  patron  which 
bd  been  enshrined  till  the  Reformation  in  Licbfidd 
CatliedraL  On  24  June,  1S52,  the  cathedral  chapier, 
consiBtinK  of  a  provoat  <uid  ten  canons,  was  duly' 
erected,  xo  which  three  honorary  canons  have  unca 

l)een  added.     The  first  and  third  provosxa,  reapec-  John  Caswbli. 

lively,  were  Mgr.  WeedaU,  D.D.,  and  Dr.  Northcote,         «      ^  „  < 

both  preaidentfi  of  Oscott.    The  first  olocesaji  synod         BlTBDMim,  Hbinhich   (also  known  as  De  Piro, 

*M  held  9  and  10  November,  1853,  since  which  time  tbe  latinued  form  of  his  German  name),  a  pioua  aod 

Ibere  have  been  thirteen  othw  synods  (1853-1906).  learned  Carthusian  monk,  b.  in  1403;  d.  19  February, 

In  1873,  owing  to  refusal  to  renew  the  lease,  Sedgley  iiT^-     Little  is  known  of  him  before  his  entrance 

PaA  School  was  transferred  to  St.  Wilfrid's,  Cotton,  into    the    Carthusian    monastery    at    Cologne    on 

Staffoidflhire,  formerly  the  residence  of  Father  Fab»  1*  Mareh,  1436,  at  the  age  of  32  years.     On  account 

and  the  Oratorians.    In  the  October  of  the  same  year  of  his  edifjdng  example  in  the  observance  of  the 

St.  Bernard's   Diocesan  Seminary  was  opened  at  rule  and   hia  extensive  scriptural  and   theological 

Olton,  Warwickshire,  of  which  the  first  rector  was  learning  he  was  highly  esteemed  by  his  coofi«res, 

the   Rev.    Edward   Ilsley,   Bucceseively    canon   and  and  as  early  as  143S,  only  three  years  after  his  en- 

biahop-auxiliary  (December  4,  1879).  trance  into  the  order,  he  became  prior  of  the  monas- 

In  July,  1887,  Bishop  Ullathome  resigned,  become  teiy  of  Mont  Saint  AndrS  at  Touinai  (Doomik)  in 

ing  Titular  Archbishop  of  Cabasa.     He  retired  to  Belgium.    The  desire  for  a  reform  of  the  religious 

Oscott,  where  he  died  21  March,  1889.    Two  persons  orders,  which  animated  many  great  men  of  the  fi(- 

rtand  forth  cocspiouous  in  the  history  of  the  Birming-  teenth   century,  had  also   penetrated  the  soul  of 

iuun  diocese  whose  relations  with  Bishop  Ullathome  Birabaum,     Beinga truereformer.hesoonsucceeded, 

were   exceptionally    close.    Cardinal    Newman    and  by  the  irresistible  force  of  hie  own  pious  example,  in 

Mother  Margaret  Hallaijan.     The  former  lived  and  abolishing  the  few  abuses  that  bad  found  admittance 

died  at  the  oratory,  Edgbaslon,   Birmingham,  and  into  the  various  monasteries  over  which  he  became 

the  new  basilica  opened  QOctober,  1906,  wLl  perpetu-  prior,  and  in  restoring  the  austere  monastic  discipUne 

ale  his  memory.    The  latter  was  the  foundress  of  the  established -by  the  founder  St,  Bruno.     After  Iiolding 

English  Congr^ation  of  Nuns  of  the  Third  Order  of  the  position  of  prior  at  Mont  Saint  Andrfi  for  eleven 

St.  Dominic,  who  have  convents  and  hospitals   at  years,  he  was  active  in  the  same  office  successively 

Stoke  on  Trent  and  Stone.    The  latter  is  the  burying  »*■  Wesel  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  until  1457;  at  Rettel  in 

place   both   of  Archbishop   Ullathome   and   Mother  Lorraine,  until  1459;  at  Trier,  until  1461;  and  at  Dieat 

Margaret.     The  large  number  of  communities  of  inBelgium,  until  1463.    In  1463  he  was  appointed 

women  who  have  found  a  home  in  this  diocese  at-  prior  at  LiSge,  but  ill  health  forced  him  to  resign 

tracted  by  the  personality  of  Bishop  Ullathome  in-  ^■^  position  and  retire  to  the  Carthusian  mouastei^ 

dude    Benedictines    (2    abbeys,    3    priories),    Poor  *'  Cologne,  where  he  had  spent  the  first  days  of  his 

Clarw,  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  Siatera  of  Meroy  monastic  Ute.     The  remainmg  tea  yeare  of  his  life 

and  of  St.  Paul— the  latter  introduced  from  Chartres  Birabaum  spent  in  writing  several  ascetic  works  and 

by   Mother    Genevieve    Dupuis.    Another    religious  m  preparingforahappydeath.     There  werewith  him 

force,  specially  characteristic  of  the  diocese,  lias  been  »'  *"»'  ti™"  i°  the  Carthusian  monastery  of  Cologne 

the  annual  reunions  in  the  Town  Hall,  Birmingham,  someot  the  most  learned  and  saintly  men  of  Germany, 

which,  begun  in  1855,  have  been  presided  over  by  such  as  Hermann   Appeldam    (d.    1472),   Hermann 

aninent  Oatholica,  and  have  tended  to  keep  the  clergy  Gretken  (d.   1480),  Hcinrich  von  Dissen.  (d.   1484), 

and  Uiity  m  touch  with  one  another.     Mention,  too,  *"•'  Werner  Rolewmk  (d.  1502).     Birabaum  wrote 

must  be  made  of  John  Hardman  of  Birmingham,  for  ttio  instruction  and  direction  of  the  members  of 

vhoae  firm  has  done  so  much  in  promoting  eccTesias-  hi*  order  a  number  of  works,  many  of  which,  how- 

tlcal  art,  noUbly  stained-glass  and  metal  work,  and  ever,  have  not  yet  been  put  in  print,  also:  "Defensio 

whose    benefactions    to    the    cathedral    choir    have  pro  Immaculato  Conceptu  B.  M.  V.",  and  "Bxoerpta 

enabled  it  te  reach  a  standard  of  excellence  in  churoh  ^^  """'o   wanato   cum   nonnullis   conjunctia".     Ho 

music  which  places  it  firat  among  Catholic  choirs,  has  often  been  confounded  with  bis  uncle  of  the 

On  17  February,  1888,  Dr.  Haley  became  the  second  s*™^  name,  one  of  the  most  learned  jurista  of  the 

Bishop  of  Birmingham,  and  at  once  took  in  hand  the  fifteenth  century,  who  was  for  some  time  provost  of 

difficult  task  of  protecting  and  rescuing  the  destitute  St.  Kunibert's  at  Cologne,  and  who  died  in  1439.     See 

Catholic  children  of  the  diocese.    St.  Inward 's  Home  "Le  Grand  Dictionnaire   Historique"   (Amsterdam, 

for  bomeleas  boys  was  opened  at  Coleshill  (Warwick-  1698),  III,  138;  also  JAcher,  "Gelehrten  Lexicon", 

shire),  6  November,   1906,  with   branch  houses  for  ^IJ;  i58a, 

bojs  and  girls,  similarly  situated,  in  various  centres,  B^m^''THer  n^"^!^  0««*«Am  dt 

besidesallomefprWorkinKBoyBanda  Night  Refuge,  '     '    '       '  MiCHABL   Orr. 

both  in  Birmingham.     In  July,  1889,  Oscott  CoUege 

was  closed  to  lay  students  and  reopened  as  a  Central         Birtfa,  Thx  DEfxor  oy  (ItrLEorrmACr),  a  canonical 

Seminary   tor   ecclesiastics   only.      The   progress   of  impediment  to  ordination.     When  used  in  this  con- 

Catbolicism  since  1850  is  gauged  by  a  comparison  of  nexion,  the  word  ilUgitimale  has,  in  canon  law,  b 

a  few  statistics  for  the  years  1851  and  1906,'  reapec-  well-defined  meaning,  which  is:  "  bora  out  of  lawful 

livd|fr:  clergy,   124  and  297;  churebee,  82  and  189;  wedlock".     IU«itimate  birth  is  an  impediment  to 

rellgioua  communities,  19  and  07.  the  reception  of  ordere,  and  inhibits  the  ex(     ' 

Tt,  C-iOuJic  Dir^dmi  (1800-1907);  B-irminoham  CaAoUc  t^^  functions  ot  orders   already  received. 

Ctiaidar  and  Dindorv  (190O-07y.  Amhirst,  Ilutorv  of  Catho-  canomc"'  immxlimeiit    Viocaiino  ™li.Wiiilir..1  . 

Ke  Smoncisatuin  [LoDdciD,   1S8B):  Uixatrobme,  RaloraHon  down  il 

af  HUrarthy  (London,  1881);  Tht  O.cotun  (3d  scrJH):  Huben-  „t™„„i 

«mi,i^B  rf«*wr  (Dublin.  1862);  Idih,  Mm/ Jtf^.WnrfoU  "^f."  — ---  ,    ---  r- _- -.  

Maaaati,  1800):  Dbahb,  Latm  of  Abu.  C/SdiAiinw  (l,oHlon.  Validity  Of  orders,  but  makes  the  reception  of  tbem 


BIBTHA  68D 

• 

Effidt.  It  extends  to  first  tonsure.  The  inhibition  of  legittmacion  at  apfdicable  only  to  natural  illegiti- 
that  is  set  up  is  restricted  to  the  functions  that  belong  mates.  And  these,  though  legitimized  by  the  sub- 
exclusively  to  the  clergy.  In  the  early  ages  of  the  sequent  marria^  of  the  parents,  or  even  by  an  Apes- 
Church  no  law  prevented  the  ordination  of  illegiti-  tohc  dispensation,  are  forever  excluded  from  the 
mates.  They  were  then,  sometimes,  debarred  from  dignity  of  the  cardinalate.  (2)  A  rescript  of  the 
ordination,  but  only  because  of  a  real  or  supposed  pope  confers  legitimacy  in  so  far  as  it  is  required 
depravity  of  life.  Pope  Urban  II  (108S-99)  pro-  for  smritual  affairs  throu^out  the  universal  Church, 
hibited  the  ordination  of  the  illegitimate  offspring  (3)  Keligious  profession  m  an  approved  order  cures 
of  clerics,  unless  thev  became  members  of  approved  the  defect  of  illegitimacy.  Reugious  profession  is 
religious  orders.  The  Council  of  Poitiers,  under  the  taking  of  the  solemn  religious  vowa;  but  the 
Paschal  II  (1099-1 118)^  extended  this  prohibition  simple  vows  taken  after  the  novitiate  in  some  ciders 
to  all  persons  of  illegitmiate  birth.  These  regula-  produce  a  like  effect.  This  mode  of  legitimation  only 
tions  were  later  approved  by  other  popes  and  councils,  renders  illegitimates  capable  of  ordination.    It  can- 

The  law  as  laid  do^ti  in  the  Decretals  of  Gregory  not  be  extended  to  dignities  or  even  to  r^ular  prda- 

IX  (I,  X)  mentions  only  the  offspring  of  clerics  and  cies.    Hence,  illegitimates  thus  legitimized  me  still 

those  begotten  in  fornication.     But  in  the  sixth  book  debarred  from  the  position  of  abbot;  and  women  of 

of  the  Decretals  all  persons  of  ill^timate  birth  are  illegitimate  birth,  for  like  reasons,  catmot  hold  the 

expresedy  included.    These  may  be  ranged  in  the  position  of  ahbe^  or  prioress.     (4)  A  dispensation 

following  classes:  (1)  Natural  illegitimates,  or  the  ^ranted  by  a  lawful  superior  removes  the  defect  of 

offspring  of  parents  who  at  the  time  of  the  birth  or  ul^timate  birth,  but  only  for  some  express  purpose, 

conception  of  such  offspring,  were  capable  of  contract-  It  is  not  a  mode  of  absolute  legitimation.    The  pur- 

ing  christian  marriage.     (2)  Spurious  illegitimates,  poses  for  which  it  is  granted  must  be  specified;  as 

or  those  bom  of  a  known  motner  and  an  unknown  for  promotion  to  minor  orders,  to  major  orders,  to 

father — unknown  because  the  mother  had  carnal  a  specified  benefice. 

relations  with  several  men.     (3)  Adulterine  illegiti-        A  dispensation  of  this  kind  runs  counter  to  the 

mates,  those  begotten  of  parents,  one  or  both  of  common  law.    It  is  of   strict   interpretation,  and 

whom,  at  the  time  of  the  conception  and  birth  of  such  therefore  cannot  be  extended  from  like  to  like  or 

offspring,  were  lawfully  mamed  to  a  third  persoiL  from  greater  to  less,  unless  the  one  is  included  in, 

(4)  Incestuous  illegitimates,  or  persons  whose  parents  and  presupposes,  the  other.     Such  is  the  case  when 

could  not  marry  because  of  an  invalidating  impedi-  a  dispensation  is  conceded  to  an  iUe^timate  to  re- 

ment  of  consanguinity  or  affinity.     (5)  Sacrilegious  ceive  Holy  orders.     Such  orders  require  a  title,  and 

illegitimates,  or  the  offspring  of  parents  who  are  this  title  is,  in  canon  law,  a  benefice.    The  pope  is 

restrained  from  marriage  because  oi  the  iinpediment  the  lawful  superior  for  the  universal  Church,  and  as 

of  Holy  orders  or  solenm  religious  vows.     The  prac*  such  he  can  dispense  in  all  cases  where  a  dispensation 

tice  of  the  present  day  also  holds  as  illegitimates  is    possible.     Bishops    and    other    prelates   having 

abandoned  children  of  unknown  parentage.     Legiti-  quasi-episcopal  jurisdiction  can  dispense  their  own 

macy  may  not  be  presumed  nor  established  by  nega-  subjects,  in  this  matter,  for  first  tonsure,  minor  orders, 

tive  proof.     Positive  documentary  evidence  must  oe  or  a  simple  benefice;  but  not  for  major  orders,  even 

adduced.  though  the  illegitimacy  be  occult.    This  episcopal. 

The  law  of  illegitimacy  directly  debars  all  the  fore-  or  quasi-episcopal,  jurisdiction  does  not  extend  to  a 

going  classes  of  persons  u'om  promotion  to  orders,  and  benefice  which  was  immediately  possessed  by  the 

the  exercise  of  the  functions  proper  to  the  orders  father  of  the  person  seeking  the  dispensation,  nor  to 

already  received;   and  it  indirectly   prevents  such  a  benefice  which  by  custom  or  privilege  requires  its 

persons  from  obtaining  a  benefice.     Directly,  also,  possessor  to  be  in  major  orders, 

it  prevents  them  from  obtaining  certain  benefices,  ^Fbhrarib.    Prompta    Bibliotheca,-    ScrhauorObis,   Ju» 

for  the  Counca  of  Trent  (S^.  25,  c  15  de  ref.)  decreed  frS^H^'l^lf 'S^V^^SS^  J^^  ^fS^S 

that  the  lUegitmiate  children  of  clencs  should  be  i84l):  Sabetti,  Theoh^  Moralia  (New  York.  1889);  Koh- 

inca^>acitated  from  obtaining  any  kind  of  a  benefice  wos.  The<aogta^Moralta  (Boston,  1874);  Bo^iKaRAi^n. 

in  the  Church  where  theu-  fathers  held  one;  from  Traciattu  Jundvco-canon.  ie  """^^^^J^^^JM^^Jff  >• 
Tendering  any  service  in  said  church;  and  from  re-  ^  j      as     .  um 

ceiving  any  pensions  on  the  revenues  of  the  paternal        Birtha,  a  titular  see  of  Osrhaene,  probably  idoi- 

benefice.    Tnis  law  is  not  established  and  laid  down  tical   with   Birejik    (Ze^a)   on  the   left  bank  of 

as  a  punishment  for  the  person  to  whom  it  is  applied,  the  Euphrates,  c.  62  miles  west  of  Orfa  (Edessa), 

It  safeguards  the  honour  and  dignity  of  Holy  orders,  and  95  miles  north  of  Aleppo.    Birtha  (Aramsan, 

The  clerical  state  which  has  the  dispensing  of  the  Btrlhd  "castle")  is  spoken  of  as  a  castle  bv  ancient 

mysteries  of  God  must  be  beyond  reprowjh.     No  authors  (Hierocles.  716,  2).    There  was  also  a  see 

stain  should  be  upon  it,  no  blame  possible.    There-  called  by  the  Greeks  Macedonopolis,  the  foundation 

fore  the  Church  raises  the  barrier  of  illwritimacy  of  the  city  being  attributed  by  l^end  to  Alexander 

before  the  entrance  to  the  priesthood.    Thus  the  the  Great    (Amm.    Marcell.,   Xa,   vii,   17).    That 

crime  of  the  parents  is  held  up  to  just  reprobation,  Macedonopolis  and  Birtha  are  one  see  is  proved  by 

and  is  condemned  even  in  the  Bves  of  their  offspring,  the  subscriptions  at  the  Council  of  Nicsea,  where  we 

The  danger  of  the  father's  incontinence  being  con-  see  that  Bjri^  in  both  Syriac  and  Arabic  lists  oorre- 

tinued  in  the  life  of  the  son  is  greatly  lessen^^  for  sponds  with  Macedonopolis  in  Greek  and  Latin  lists 

strong  indications  of  purity  of  life  must  be  given  (Gelzer,   Patrum    Niccenorum   nomina.   242).     TTie 

before  the  door  of  God  s  ministry  can  be  opened.  true  name  of  the  bishop  present  at  the  councH  is 

Tlje  defect  of  illegitimate  birth  may  be  cured  in  Mareas,  not  Marcus.  Daniel,  Bishop  of  Macedanop- 
four  ways:  (1)  By  the  subsequent  marriage  of  the  olis,  is  said  to  have  been  present  at  the  Council  of 
parents;  (2)  By  a  rescript  of  the  pope;  (3)  By  religious  Qiaicedon  (451).  From  the  sixth  century  only  the 
profession;  (4)  By  a  dispensation.  (1)  The  subse-  name  Birtha  survives  (Georgius  Cyprius,  n.  899). 
quent  marriage  of  the  parents  of  an  illegitimate  has,  Emperor  Anastasius,  after  his  victories  over  the 
by  a  fiction  of  law,  a  retroactive  power  which  carries  Persians  in.  505,  entrusted  Sergius,  Bishop  of  Birtha^ 
the  marriage  back  to  the  time  of  the  birth  of  the  off-  with  the  work  of  repairing  the  city  (Wright^  ed., 
spring  and  covers  it  with  lawful  wedlock.  In  order  The  Chronicle  of  Joshua  the  Stylite,  XCI,  Ixxi),  an 
that  the  fiction  of  law  may  produce  this  effect,  the  imdertakin^  that  was  completed  by  Jiistinian  (Pro- 
parents,  at  the  time  of  the  conception  or,  at  least,  at  cop.,  De  semfic.  Just.,  II,  4).  The  eldest  "Tactieon** 
the  birth  of  such  offspring,  must  have  been  capable  of  the  Patriarchate  of  Antioch,  issued  under  Anasta- 
of  contracting  lawful  mamaffo.    Thonefore,  this  mode  sius  I  (599)  places  Birtha  first  among  the  »iSraffm 


BI8A00IA                               581  BI8B0P 

sees  of  Edessa  (Kerameus,  ed.,  ^kpMcra,  *BXXi^4y  relating  to  the  primitive  ecclesiastical  hierarchy. 
Ixv):  the  name  is  written  B^pnj  in  a  later  redaction  Thejr  are  most  easily  foxmd  in  the  work  of  von  Ihmin- 
(ibidf.,  Ixix),  and  Virehi  in  an  old  Latin  translation  Borkowski,  on  the  latest  researches  concerning  the 
(ToUer  ana  Molinier^  Itinera  Hierosolymltana,  I,  origin  of  the  episcopate  (Die  neueren  Forschungen 
322).  Birtha  was  destro3red  by  Timour-Leng  in  the  fkber  die  Anf&nge  des  Episkopats,  Freiburg,  1900). 
fourteenth  centmy.  Birejik  is  to-day  the  chief  The  Apostolic  and  consequently  the  Divine  origin 
town  of  a  caaa  in  the  vilayet  of  Aleppo  with  10,<X)0  of  the  monarchical  episcopate  has  always  been  con- 
inhabitants,  including  1,500  Christians,  all  Armeni-  tested  but  especially  so  since  Protestantism  put 
ans,  one-half  of  whom  are  Catholics.  forward  the  doctrine  of  a  imiversal  Christian  priest- 
Ptolemy  (V,  xViH,  xix)  speaks  of  a  fortress  Birtha  hood.  At  the  present  day,  rationalistic  and  Protes- 
OD  the  Tigris  in  Southern  Mesopotamia  and  of  an-  tant  writers,  even  those  who  belong  to  the  Anglican 
other  in  Arsibia  on  the  Euphrates  below  Thapsacus.  Churdi,  reject  the  Apostolic  institution  of  the  episco- 
The  site  of  the  first  is  unknown,  the  latter  is  at  E)d-  pate;  many  of  them  relegate  its  origm  to  the  second 
Deir  (Rifeter,  Erdkunde,  XI,  691),  but  perhaps  both  century.  Li6ning  attempts  to  prove  that  originally 
are  the  same  as  Birtha  or  Macedonopolis.  there  were  several  di£ferent  organizations,  that  some 
Lbqoto,  OrioM  C&rirt..  II.  085;  CuiNirr,  La  TwavM  d'Ane,  Christian  communities  were  administered  by  a  body 
L^^LSSS^^  Ctfbius.  6d.  Qblzee,  tH;  Qaub,  ^f  presbytera,  others  by  a  coUege  of  bishops,  others 

L.  Pbht.  again  by  a  single   bishop.     It  is  the  last  iiamed 

form  of  organization,  he  declares,  which  has  pre- 

Bisacda.    See  Sant'  Anqelodb'Lombardi.  J?i}?d    (Gemeindeverfassung    des    Urchristentums, 

BlMTchio,  DiociaB  OP,  situated  m  Sardinia,  m  ^^"^'.  ^^^'    Holt«nann  t&mks  that  the  pnmitive 

.t       •  T**"»  *o         •   j'*A  •  X    ^vr        «**ivu««^  "*  organization    of    the    churches    was    that   of    the 

^epro«nceofSa«an,di8tnctof  Nuoro  andsufira.  j^  synagogue;  that  a  college  of  presbytere  or 

^A^  the  Archdi«>ceBe  of  Saaeaxu     The  epwcopal  bishops  Wonymous  woitk)  ^vemeS  the  Judieo- 

imdence,  however,  is  at  Ozwn.     Nothing  la  knowa  chrisSan  \jSmminitiee;  that  kter  this  organization 

M  to  the  eariy  history  of  Camstianity  m  either  the  ^^  ^^    ^^  ^   the  G^tile  churches.    In  tTie  second 

city  0*  DiocMe  of  Bwarchio.    The  fost  bishop  men-  century  one  o!  these  presbyter-bishops  became  the 

boned  IS  OMtantmo  Madrone  (c.  IIW),  who  was  m«>  njiin^fahop.    The  ca^  of  this  lay  ^  the  need  of 

ceeded  in  1116  by  Bishop  Pietro,  •  The  biBhoj.'?  reel-  „„.^  »  ^^.^^  „„„;f«rt«H  if«>lf  when  in  the  second 
denoe  was  changed  several  times, 
and  again  to  Araera.    In  1503, 


*^t^'{^"'"^t^      u-P       »  •     OA       -i,      11A  towns,  the  whole  financial  admi^tation  was  cen- 

The  Diocese  of  Bisarchio  contains  24  panshee,  1 16  ^    ,j^  j^  ^^  y^^  ^^  ^^^  ^^^h  officer,  who  soon  be- 

churches,  chapels,  and  oratonee,  78  scoi^  pneste,  ^^      ^     bishop  (The  Organiiation  of  the 

%1^^'i:^iiL^?^''ry^&  AnnuoHo  Earjy  Christi^fjhurch^,  h^iordTm).    Ac^rding 

•erf.  (Roifie,  3906).                        v       -«.         /.  ^  Hamack  (whose  theory  has  varied  several  times)^ 

U.  Bbnigni.  it  was  those  who  had  received  the  special  gifts  known 

as  the  charismata   (x«p'tf'/«iTo),  above  all  the  gift 

Blsoefl^e.    See  Traivi  and  Barletta.  of  public  speech,  who  possessed  all  authority  m  the 

Bishop  (A.  S.  Biscap,  Bisceop,  Ger.  Bisi^f;  from  primitive   community.     In   addition   to   these   we 

Or.  hrwKowo9, 

It.  vescovo; 

"New  Eng. 

of   an   ecclesiastical   dignitary   who   possesses   the  tion  and  Divine  worship.    The  members  of  the  com- 

fuilness  of  the  priesthood  to  nue  a  diocese  as  its  chief  munity  itself  were  divided  into  two  classes:  the 

pastor,  in  due  submission  to  the  primacy  of  the  pope,  elders     (vptapi6T€poi)    and     the     youths  >  {ycdrr^poi). 

It  is  of  Catholic  faith  that  bishops  are  of  Divine  m-  A  college  of  presbyters  was  established  at  an  early 

stitution.     In  the  hierarchy  of  order  they  possess  date  at  Jerusalem  and  in  Palestine,  but  elsewhere  not 

powers  superior  to  those  of  priests  and  deacons*  in  before  the  second  century;  its  members  were  chosen 

the  hierarchy  of  jurisdiction,  by  Christ's  wiU,  tney  from  among  the  Tpea^epoi,  and  in  its  hands  lay 

are  appointed  for  the  government  of  one  portion  of  all  authority  and  disciplinary  power.    Once  estab- 

the  faithful  of  the  Church,  under  the  direction  and  lished,  it  was  from  this  college  of  presbyters  that 

authority  of  the  sovereign  pontiff,  who  can  deter-  deacons   and  bishops  were   chosen.     When   those 

mine  and  restrain  their  powers,  but  not  annihilate  officials  who  had  been  endowed  with  the  charismatic 

them.     They  are  the  successors  of  the  Apostles,  gifts  had  passed  away,  the  community  delegated 

thougji  they  do  not  possess  all  the  prerogatives  of  several  bisnops  to  replace  them.    At  a  later  date, 

the  latter.    (Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  XXIII,  ch.  iv;  the  Christians  realized  the  advantages  to  be  derived 

can.  vi,  vii.    See  Cglleqe,  Apostolic.)    The  episco-  from  entrusting  the  supreme  direction  to  a  single 

pate  is  monarchical.     By  the  will  of  Christ,  the  bishop.    However,  as  late  as  the  year  140,  the  oreani- 

supreme  authority  in  a  diocese  does  not  belong  to  a  zation  of  the  various  communities  was  still  widely  di- 

college  of  priests  or  of  bishops,  but  it  resides  in  the  vergent.    The  monarchic  episcopate  owes  its  oridn 

single  personality  of  the  chief.     The  subject  will  to  the  need  of  doctrinal  unity,  which  made  itself  felt 

be  treated  under  five  heads:  I.  Historical  Origin;  at  the  time  of   the  crisis   caused   by  the  Gnostic 

n.  Present  Larislation;  III.  Rights  and  Powers  of  heresies.     (Von  Dimin-Borkowski,  100-101.) 

the  Bishop;  IV.  Obhgations  of  the  Bishop;  V.  Non-  J.  B.  Lightfoot,  who   may   be   regarded   as  an 

Catholic  use.  authoritative  representative  of  the  Anglican  Church, 

I.  Historical  ORiaiN. — ^The  historical  origin  of  holds  a  less  raoical  system.    The  Primitive  Church, 

the  episcopate  is  much  controverted;  very  diverse  he  says,  had  no  organization,  but  was  venr  soon 

hypotheses  have  been  proposed  to  explain  the  texts  conscious  of  the  necessity  of  organizinjB^.  ^  At  fost 

of  the  inspired  writings  and  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers  the  apostles  appointed  deacons;  later,  m  imitation 

II.— 37 


BXBHOP 


582 


BX8B0P 


of  the  organization  of  the  syna^gue,  they  appointed 
presbyters,  sometimes  called  bisEope  in  the  Gentile 
churches.  The  duties  of  the  presbyters  were  two- 
fold: they  were  both  rulers  and  instructors  of  the 
congregation.  In  the  Apostolic  age,  however,  traces 
of  the  highest  order,  the  episcopate  properly  so 
called,  are  few  and  indistinct.  The  episcopate  was 
not  formed  from  the  Apostolic  order  through  the 
localization  of  the  imiversal  authority  of  the  Apostles, 
but  from  the  presbyteral  (by  elevation).  Tne  title 
of  bishop  ori^maUy  common  to  all  came  at  length 
to  be  appropriated  to  the  chief  among  them.  Within 
the  period  compassed  by  the  Apostolic  writings, 
James,  the  brother  of  the  Lord,  can  alone  claim  to  be 
regarded  as  a  bishop  in  the  later  and  more  special 
sense  of  the  term.  On  the  other  hand,  though  es- 
pecially prominent  in  the  Church  of  Jerusalem,  he 
appears  m  the  Acts  as  a  member  of  a  body.  As  late 
as  the  year  70,  no  distinct  signs  of  epis^rpal  govern- 
ment had  yet  appeared  in  Gentile  Christendom. 
During  the  last  three  decades  of  the  first  century, 
however,  during  the  lifetime  of  the  latest  surviving 
Apostle,  St.  John,  the  episcopal  office  was  establishea 
in  Asia  Minor.  St.  John  was  cognizant  of  the  position 
of  St.  James  at  Jerusalem.  When,  therefore,  he 
found  in  Asia  Minor  manifold  irregularities  and 
threatening  symptoms  of  disruption,  he  not  unnat- 
urally encouraged  in  these  Gentile  churches  an  ap- 
E roach  to  the  organization,  which  had  been  signally 
lessed  and  had  proved  effectual  in  holding  to- 
gether the  mother-church  of  Jerusalem  amid  dangers 
no  less  serious.  The  existence  of  a  council  or  college 
necessarily  supposes  a  presidency  of  some  kind, 
whether  this  presidency  be  assumed  by  each  member 
in  turn,  or  lodged  in  the  hands  of  a  single  person. 
It  was  only  necessaiy,  therefore,  to  give  permanence, 
definiteness,  stability  to  an  office  the  germ  of  which 
already  existed.  There  is  no  reason,  however,  for 
supposing  that  any  direct  ordinance  was  issued  to 
the  churches  by  St.  John.  The  evident  utility  and 
even  pressing  need  of  such  an  office,  sanctioned  by 
the  most  venerated  name  in  Christendom,  would 
be  sufficient  to  secure  its  wide  though  gradual  re- 
ception. The  earliest  bishops,  however,  did  not 
hold  the  position  of  indepenaent  supremacy  which 
was  and  is  occupied  by  tneir  later  representatives. 
This  development  is  most  conveniently  grasped  in 
connexion  with  three  great  names:  Ignatius,  Iremeus, 
and  Cyprian,  who  represent  as  many  successive  ad- 
vances towards  the  supremacy  ultimately  attained. 
By  Ignatius  the  bishop  is  regarded  as  the  centre  of 
unity;  to  Irenseus  he  is  the  depositary  of  primitive 
ianxta;  to  Cyprian,  he  is  the  absolute  viceflsrent  of 
Christ  in  things  spiritual  (Lightfoot,  The  Christian 
Ministry,  181-^9,  in  his  commentaiy  on  St.  Paul's 
Epistle  to  the  Philippians,  London,  1896). 

Catholic  writers  agree  in  recognizing  the  Apostolic 
origin  of  the  episcopate,  but  are  much  divid^  as  to 
the  meaning  of  the  terms  which  designate  the  hier- 
archy in  the  New  Testament  writings  and  the  Apos- 
tolic Fathers.  One  may  even  ask  if  originally  these 
tenns  had  a  clearly  defined  significance  (Bruders, 
Die  Verfassun^  der  Kirche  bis  zum  Jahre  175,  Mainz, 
1904).  Nor  IS  there  greater  unanimity  when  an 
attempt  is  made  to  explain  why  some  churches  are 
found  without  presbyters,  others  without  bishops, 
others  again  where  the  heads  of  the  community  are 
called  sometimes  ^  bishops,  sometimes  presbyters. 
This  disagreement  increases  when  the  question  comes 
up  as  to  the  interpretation  of  the  terms  which  desig- 
nate other  personages  exercising  a  certain  fixed 
authority  in  the  early  Christian  communities.  The 
following  facts  may  be  r^arded  as  fully  established: 
(1)  To  some  extent,  in  this  early  period,  the  words 
bishop  and  priest  (irtffKorot  and  Tp^r/StW-cpot)  are 
synonymous.  (See  the  principal  interpretations  in 
tbe  article:  Collbgs.  Apobtouc.)    (2)  These  terms 


may  designate  either  simple  priests  (A.  MicJiiels,  Lei 
oridnes  de  VitpiacopAtt  Louvain,  1900.  218  sqq.)  or 
bisnoj^  possessing  the  full  powers  or  their  oraer. 
(BatinoL  Etudes  d'histoire  et  de  th^lo^e  positive, 
Paris,  1902.  266  sqq.;  Duchesne,  Histoire  ancienne 
de  r^ise,  Paris,  1906,  94.)  (3)  In  each  community 
the  authority  may  orisinally  have  belonged  to  a 
college  of  presbyter-bisnops.  This  does  not  mean 
that  the  episcopate,  in  the  actual  sense  of  the  term, 
niay  have  been  plural,  because  in  each  church  the 
college  of  presbyter-bishops  did  not  exercise  an  in- 
dependent supreme  power;  it  was  subject  to  the 
Apostles  or  to  their  delegates.  The  latter  were 
bishops  in  the  actual  sense  of  the  term,  but  they  did 
not  possess  fixed  sees  nor  had  they  a  special  title 
(Batiffol,  270).  Since  they  were  ess^itially  itina'ant, 
they  confided  to  the  care  of  some  of  the  better  edu- 
cated and  highly  respected  neophytes  the  fixed  neces- 
sary functions  relating  to  the  daily  life  of  the  com- 
munity. (4)  Sooner  or  later  the  missionaries  had  to 
leave  the  young  communities  to  themselves,  where- 
upon their  direction  fell  entirely  upon  these  local 
authorities  who  thus  received  the  Apostolical  suc- 
cession. (6)  This  local  superior  authority,  which 
was  of  Apostolic  origin,  was  conferred  by  the 
Apostles  upon  a  monarchic  bishop,  such  as  is  under- 
stood by  the  term  to-day.  This  is  proved  first  by  the 
example  of  Jerusalem,  where  James,  who  was  not 
one  of  the  Twelve  Apostles,  held  the  first  place,  and 
afterwards  by  those  communities  in  Asia  Minor  of 
which  Ignatius  speaks,  and  where,  at  the  be^nning 
of  the  second  century  the  monarchical  episcopate 
existed,  for  Ignatius  does  not  write  as  though  the 
institution  were  a  new  one.  (6)  In  other  communities, 
it  is  true,  no  mention  is  made  of  a  m<Hiarchic  ^isco- 
pate  until  the  middle  of  the  second  century.  We  do 
not  wish  to  reject  the  opinion  of  those  wno  believe 
that  there  are  in  several  documents  of  the  second 
century  traces  of  the  monarchic  episcopate,  that  is  to 
say,  of  an  authority  superior  to  that  ot  the  college  of 
the  presbytei^bishops.  The  reasons  which  some 
writ^  allege,  in  order  to  explain  why,  for  example, 
in  the  Epistle  of  Polycarp  no  mention  is  made  of  a 
bishop,  are  veiy  plausible.  The  best  evidence,  how- 
ever, for  the  existence  at  this  early  date  of  a  monarchi- 
cal episcopate  is  the  fact  that  nowhere  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  second  century  is  the  least  trace  to  be 
found  of  a  change  of  organization.  Such  a  change 
would  have  robbed  the  supposed  college  of  presbyt^ 
bishops  of  their  sovereign  authority,  and  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  comprehend  how  this  body  would  have 
allowed  itself  to  be  everywhere  despoiled  of  its 
supreme  authority,  without  leaving  in  the  contem- 
porary documents  the  least  trace  of  a  protest  against 
so  important  a  change.  If  the  monarchical  episcopate 
began  only  in  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  it  is 
impossible  to  comprehend  how  at  the  end  oi  the 
second  century  the  episcopal  lists  of  several  impor- 
tant bishoprics  nvii^g  the  succession  of  monarchic 
bishops  as  far  bade  as  the  first  century  were  generally 
known  and  admitted.  Such,  for  instance,  was  the 
case  at  Rome.  (7)  This  theory,  it  must  be  carefully 
noted,  does  not  contradict  the  historical  texts.  Ac- 
cording to  these  documents^  there  was  a  college  of 
presbyters  or  of  bishops  which  administered  several 
churches,  but  which  had  a  president«who  was  none 
other  than  the  monarchic  bishop.  Although  the 
power  of  the  latter  had  existed  from  the  beginning 
it  became  gradually  more  conspicuous.  The  part 
played  by  the  presbyteriumy  or  body  of  priests,  was  a 
very  important  one  m  the  earlier  days  of  the  Qiristian 
Church;  nevertheless  it  did  not  exclude  the  existence 
of  a  monarchic  episcopate  (Duchesne,  89-95). 

During  the  first  three  centuries,  the  entire  r^i^ous 
life  of  the  diocese  centred  around  the  person  m  the 
bishop.  The  priests  and  deacons  were  his  auxiliaries, 
but  tney  worKed  under  the  immediate  direction  w 


BISHOP                                 583  BISHOP 

* 

the  bishop.    In  large  cities,  however,  like  Rome,  it  '  cfoired  an  extensive  civil  jurisdiction  not  only  over 
was  soon  found  necessary  to  hand  over  permanently  his  clergy  but  also  over  the  laity  of  his  diocese 
to  the  priests  and  deacons  certain  definite  functions.  (VioUet,  Histoire  des  institutions  politiques  de  la 
Moreover,  as  a  result  of  the  spread  of  Christianity  Prance,  Paris,  1890,  I,  380-409).    Such  an  exalted 
outside  the  great  centres  of  population,  the  bishop  position  was  not  without  its  difficulties.    One  of  the 
gradually  left  to  other  ecclesiastics  the  administra-  gravest  was  the  interference  of  the  lay  authority  in 
tion  of  a  fixed  portion  of  the  diocesan  territory.    In  the  election  of  bishops.    Until  the  sixth  century,  the 
the  East,  at  first  bishoprics  were  created  in  all  dis-  clergy  and  the  people  elected  the  bishop  on  condition 
tricts  where  there  was  a  considerable  number  of  that  the  election  should  be  approved  oy  the  neigh- 
Christians.    But  this  Gfystem  presented  great  incon-  bouring  bishops.    Undoubtedly,  the  Christian  Roman 
veniences.    To  distant  or  rural  localities,  therefore,  emperors  sometimes  intervened  in  these  elections, 
the  Church  sent  bishops,  who  were  only  the  delegates  but  outside  the  imperial  cities  only,  and  generally 
of  the  bishop  of  the  city,  and  who  did  not  possess  the  in  the  case  of  disagreement  as  to  the  proper  person, 
r^ht  of  exercising  the  most  important  powers  of  a  As  a  rule  they  contented  themselves  with  exercising 
bishop.    Such  bishops  were  known  as  Charepiacorti  or  an  influence  on  the  electors.    But  from  the  beginning 
rural  bi^ops.     Later  on,  they  were  replaced  by  of  the  sixth  centtuy,  this  attitude  was  modified.    In 
priests  (Giliman,  Das  Institut  der  Chorbischdfe  im  the  East,  the  clergy  and  the  pnrrm^,  or  chief  citizens. 
Orient,  Mvmich.  1903).   The  estaHishment  of  parishes  nominated  three  candidates  from  whom  the  metro- 
from  the  fourtn  and  the  fifth-  century  on  gradually  politan  chose  the  bishop.   At  a  later  date,  the  bishops 
freed  the  bishops  from  many  of  their  originiu  charges;  of  the  ecclesiastical  province  assumed  the  exclusive 
they  reserved  to  themselves  only  the  most  important  right  of  nominating  the  candidates.    In  the  West, 
affairs,  i.  e.  those  which  concerned  the  whole  diocese  the  kings  intervene  in  these  ejections,  notably  in 
and  those  which  belonged  to  the  cathedral  church.  .  Spain  and  Gaul^  and  sometimes  assumed  the  right  of 
However,  above  all  other  affairs  the  bishops  retained  direct  nomination    (Funk,    "  Die   Bischofswanl   im 
the  right   of   supervision   and   supreme   direction,  christlichen  Altertum  und  im  Anfang  des  Mittelal- 
While  this  chan^  was  taking  place,  the  Roman  ters"  in  "  Kirchengeschichtliche  Abhandlungen  und 
Empire,  now  Christian,  granted  oishops  other  powers.  Untersuchungen",  Paderbom,  1897, 1, 23-39 j  Imbart 
They  were  eitclusivdy  empowered  to  take  cognizance  de  la  Tour,  "  Les  Elections  ^piscopales  dans  I'ancienne 
of  the  misdemeanours  of  clerics,  and  every  lawsuit  France",  Paris,  1890).    Tnis  interference  of  princes 
entered  into  against  the  latter  had  to  be  brought  and  emplerors  lasted  until  the  quarrel  about  Investi- 
before  the  bishop's  court.    The  Emperor  Constantme  tures,  which  was  especially  violent  in   Germany, 
even  permitted  all  Christians  to  carry  their  lawsuits  where  from  the  ninth  to  the  eleventh  centuries  abbots 
before  the  bishop,  but  this  right  was  withdrawn  at  and  bishops  had  become  real  temporal  princes.    (See 
the  end  of  the  fourth  century.    Nevertheless,  they  Intestiturb.)    The  Second  Lateran  Council  (1139) 
continued  to  act  as  arbitrators,  which  office  the  earliest  handed  over  to  the  chapter  of  the  cathedral  church 
C^iristians  had  committed  to  them.    More  important,  the  sole  right  of  choosing  the  bishop,  and  this  legisla- 
perhaps,  is  the  part  which  the  Roman  law  assigns  to  tion  was  sanctioned  by  the  Decretals   (Decretum 
the  bishops  as  protectors  of  the  weak  and  oppressed.  Oratiani,  P.  I.,  Dist.  Ixiii,  ch.  xxxv;  ch.  iii,  De  causd 
The  master  was  permitted  to  legally  emancipate  his  possessionis  et  proprietatis,  X,  U,  xii;  ch.  liv,  De 
slave  in  the  bishop's  presence;  the  latter  had  also  the  electione  et  electi  potestate^  X,  I,  vi;  Friedberfi;, 
power  to  remove  young  giris  from  inmioral  houses  Corpus  Juris  Canonici,  Leipzig,  1879-^1,  I,  247,  II. 
where  their  parents  or  masters  had  placed  them,  and  95,  276).    The  bishops  of  the  Middle  Ages  acquired 
to  restore   them  to   liberty.     Newly  bom  infants  much  temporal  power,  but  this  was  accompanied  by 
abandoned  by  their  parents  were  legally  adjudged  a  corresponding  diminution  of  their  spirited  au- 
to those  who  shelterea  them,  but  to  avoid  abuses  it  thority.    By  the  exercise  of  the  prerogative  of  the 
was  required  that  the  bishop  should  oertifV  that  the  primacy  the  Holy  See  reserved  to  itsdf  all  the  most 
child  was  a  foundling.    The  Roman  law  allowed  the  important  affairs,  the  so-called  causa  majores,  as  for 
bishops  the  right  to  visit  prisons  at  their  discretion  instance  the  canonization  of  saints  (ch.  i,  De  reliquiis, 
for  the  purpose  of  improving  the  condition  of  prisoners  X,  III,  xlv;  Friedber^,  II,  650);  the  permission  to 
and  of  ascertaining  whether  the  rules  in  favour  of  venerate  puHicly  newly  discovered  relics,  the  absolu- 
the  latter  were  observed.     The  bishops  possessed  tion  of  certain  ^ve  sms,  etc.    Appeals  to  the  pope 
great  influence  over  the  Christian  emperors,  and  against  the  judicial  decisions  of  the  bishops  became 
though  in  the  Eastern  Church  these  intimate  rela^-  more  and  more  frequent.    The  religious  orders  and 
tions  between  Church  and  State  led  to  Csesaropapism,  the  chapters  of  cathedral  and  collegiate  churches 
the  bishops  of  the  West  preserved  in  a  great  measure  obtainea  exemption  from  episcopal  authority.    The 
their  independence  of  the  Empire  (Lining,  Qesohichte  cathedral  chapter  obtained  a  very  considerable  in- 
des  deutschen  Kirchenrechts,  Strasburg,  1878, 1, 314-  fluence  in  the  administration  of  the  diocese.    The 
331 ;  Troplong,  De  Tinfluence  du  christianisme  sur  le  pope  reserved  also  to  himself  the  nomination  to  many 
droit  civil  des  Romains,  Paris,  1842,  new  ed.,  1902).  ecclesiastical    benefices    (C.    Lux.   Constitutionum 
The  authority  of  the  bishop  was  even  greater  after  apostolicarum  de  generali  beneficiorum  reservatione 
the  barbarian  invasions;  among  the  Germanic  peoples  collectio  et  interpretatio,  Breslau.  1904).     He  also 
he  soon  became  an  influential  and  powerful  personage,  claimed  the  right  to  nominate  the  oishops.  but  in  the 
He  inspired  confidence  and  commanded  respect.    He  German  Concordat  of  1448  he  granted  to  tne  chapters 
was  beloved,  for  he  protected  the  young  and  the  weak,  the  right  of  electing  them,  while  in  that  of  1516  he 
he  was  the  friend  of  the  po<)r,  was  accustomed  to  permitted  the  King  of  France  to  nominate  the  bishops 
intercede  on  behalf  of  the  victims  of  injustice,  and  of  that  nation.    Subsequently  the  Coimcil  of  Trent 
esp^sially  on  behalf  of  orphans  and  women.   Through  defined  the  rights  of  the  bishop  and  remedied  the 
his  influence,  in  many  spheres,  the  bishop  became  abuses  which  had  slipped  into  tne  administration  of 
the  real  master  of  the  episcopal  city.    The  only  funo-  dioceses  and  the  conduct  of  bishops.     The  council 
tionaries  whose  authority  was  comparable  with  that  granted  them  the  exclusive  right  of  publishing  in- 
of  the  bishop  were  the  dukes  and  counts,  representa-  dulgences;  it  also  impressed  upon  them  the  obligation 
tives  of  the  king.    In  certain  districts  the  pre-emi-  of  residence  in  their  dioceses,  the  duty  of  receiving 
nence  showed  itself  clearly  in  favour  of  the  bishop;  consecration  within  three  months  after  their  elevation 
in  some  cities  the  bishop  became  also  count.     In  to  theepiscopate,  of  erectine^  seminaries,  of  convoking 
FVance,  as  a  general  rule,  this  state  of  affairs  did  not  annual  diocesan  synods,  of  assisting  at  provincial 
continue.   Wt  in  Germany  many  bishops  became  s^ods.  and  of  visiting  their  dioceses.    It  also  forbade 
temporal  loroa  or  princes.    Finally,  ibe  bisnop  ac-  xnem  to  cumulale  bcmefices,  etc.    The  same  council 


Bumop  564 

« 

diminished  exemptions  from  ^iscopal  outhoritsr,  and  Spain,  In  Portugal  and  in  Peru,  the  Govemmait  pro- 
delegated  to  the  oishops  some  of  the  rights  which  in  aents  to  the  soveieign  pontiff  the  candidates  for  the 
the  past  the  Holy  See  had  reserved  to  itself.  Sub-  episcopate.  It  was  so  in  France,  and  in  several  South 
Be<^uent  pontifical  acts  completed  the  Tridentine  Amfirioan  R^ublioe  before  the  rupture  or  denuncia- 
legislation,  which  is  still  valid.  Protestantism  and  tion  of  the  concordats  between  these  states  and  the 
at  a  later  date  the  French  Jlevolution  destroyed  all  Apostolic  See.  By  the  cessation  of  these  concordats 
temporal  power  of  the  bishops;  thenceforth  they  were  such  states  lost  all  right  of  intervention  in  the  nomi- 
free  to  consecirate  themselves  with  greater  earnestness  nation  of  bishops;  this  does  not,  however,  prevent  the 
to  the  duties  of  their  spiritual  ministiir.  Government  in  several  South  American  Republics 
II.  Present  Legislation. — ^Two  classes  of  bishops  from  reoomiBending  candidates  to  the  sovereign  pon- 
must  be  distinguished,  not  with  regard  to  the  power  tiff.  The  cathedral  chapter  is  authorised  to  cJ^t  the 
of  order,  for  all  bishops  receive  the  fullness  of  the  bishop  in  several  dioceses  of  Austria,  Switserland, 
priesthood,  but  with  r^ard  to  the  power  of  juris-  Prussia,  and  in  some  States  of  Germany,  notably  in 
diction:  the  diocesan  bishop  and  the  titular  bisho|>or,  the  ecclesiastical  province  of  the  Upper  Khine.  The 
as  he  was  called  before  1882  the  episcojma  in  partibua  action  cMf  the  electors,  however,  is  not  entirely  free. 
infidelium.  The  former  is  here  considered.  Those  For  example,  they  may  not  ohoose  persons  distastc^- 
bcdonging  to  the  second  class  cannot  perform  ai^  ful  to  the  Goyemment  (Letter  of  the  Cardinal  Secr&- 
episcopaT  function  without  the  authorization  of  tary  of  State  to  the  Chapters  of  Germanv,  20  July, 
the  diocesan  bishop;  for  as  titular  bishops  they  have  1000;  Ganoniste  Contemporain,  1901,  XXIV,  727). 
no  ordinary^  jurisdiction^  They  can,  however,  aet  as  Elsewhero  the  pope  himself  nominates  bishops,  but 
auxiliary  bishops,  i.  e.  they  may  be  appointed  b^  the  in  Italy  the  Giovemment  insists  that  they  obtain 
pope  to  assist  a  diocesan  bishop  in  the  exorcise  of  the  royal  exequatur  before  taking  possession  of  the 
duties  arising  from  the  episcopal  order  but  entailing  episcopal  see.  In  missionary  countries  the  pope 
no  power  of  jurisdiction.  (See  Auxiliary  Bishop.;  generally  permits  the  "recommendation"  of  can- 
Sucn  a  bishop  is  also  called  vicariua  in  pofUifiealiims,  didates,  but  this  does  not  juridically  bind  the  bov- 
i.   e.   a   representative  in   certain   cer^nonial  acts  ereign  pontiff,  who  has  the  power  to  choose  the  new 

E roper  to  the  diocesan  bishop,  sometimes  suffragan  bishop  from  persons  not  included  in  the  list  of  recom- 
ishop,  epiacopua  suffraganeus.    In  the  proper  sense  mended  candidates.    In  England  the^canous  of  the 
of  the  term,  nowever,  the  suffragan  bishop  is  the  cathedral  select  by  a  majority  of  votes,  at  three 
diocesan  bishop  in  his  relations  with  the  metropolitan  successive  ballots,  three  candidates  for  the  vacant 
of  the  ecclesiastical  province  to  which  he  belongs,  episcopal  see.    Their  names,  arranged  in  alphabetical 
while  the  bishop  who  is  independent  of  any  metropoli-  order,  are  ta*ansmitted  to  the  Propaganoa  and  to 
tan  is  called  an  exempt  bishop,  eviacajma  exemptvs,  the  archbishop  of  the  province,  or  to  the  senior 
The  titulajT  bishop  may  also  be  coaajutor  bishop  when  suffragan  of  tne  province,  if  the  question  is  one  of 
he  is  appointed  to  assist  an  ordinary  bishop  in  the  the  electbn  of  an  archbishop.    The  bishops  of  the 
administration  of  the  diocese.    Sometimes  he  is  in-  provinee  dMcnBs  the  merits  of  the  candidates  and 
correctly    called    auxiliaiy    bishop.      He    possesses  transmit    their   observations    to    the    Propaganda, 
some   powers   of   jurisdiction    determined    by   the  Since  1874  the  bishops  are  ^npowered,  if  t&v  so 
letters  Apostolic  appointing  him.    Often  also,  notably  deore,  to  propose  other  names  tor  the  choice  of  the 
in   missionary   countries,   the   coadjutor  bishop   is  Holy  See,  and  a  decision  of  the  Propa^;anda  (25  April, 
named  cum  jure  siuxesaionis,  i.  e.  with  the  right  of  3  Biay,   1904)  confirms   this  practice   (Instruction 
succession;  on  the  death  qf  the  diocesan  bishop  be  of  Propaganda,  21  April,  1852;  ''Collectanea  S.  C. 
enters  on  the  ordinary  administration  of  the  diooese  de  Propaganda  Fide'',  Rome,  1803,  no.  42;  Taunton, 
(Taunton,  The  Law  of  the  Church,  London,  1906,  ^-88).   Analogous  enactments  are  in  force  in  Ireland. 
55,  204,  617).  The  canons  of  the  cathedral  and  all  the  parish  priests 
The  Council  of  Trent  determined  the  conditions  free  from  censure  and  in  actual  and  peaceful  pos- 
to  be  fulfilled  by  candidates  for  the  episcopate,  of  session  of  their  parish  or  united  parishes,  choose  in 
which  the  following  are  the  principal:  birth  in  lawful  a  sin£^  ballot  three  ecclesiastics.     The  names  of 
wedlock,  freedom  from  censure  and  irregularity  or  the  three  candidates  who  have  obtained  the  greatest 
any  defect  in  mind,  purity  of  personal  morals,  and  number  of  votes  are  announced  and  forwarided  to 
good  reputation.    The  candidate  must  also  be  fully  the  Propaganda  and  to  the  archbishop  of  the  province, 
thirty  years  of  age  and  have  been  not  less  than  six  The  arehbishop  and   the   bishops  of  the  province 
months  in  Holy  orders.    He  ought  also  to  have  the  cive  the  Holy  See  their  opinion  on  the  candidates, 
theological  degree  of  Doctor  or  at  least  be  a  licentiate  If  they  judge  that  none  of  the  candidates  is  c^^le 
in  theology  or  canon  law  or  else  have  the  testimony  of  fulfilling  the  episcopal  functions  no  second  reoom- 
of  a  public  academy  or  seat  of  learning  (or,  if  he  be  a  mendation  is  to  be  made.    If  it  is  a  question  of  the 
religious,  of  the  highest  authori^  of  his  order)  that  nomination  of  a  coadjutor  bishop  with  the  right  of 
he  is  fit  to  teach  others  (c.  vii,  De  electione  et  electi  succession  the  same  rules   are  followed,  but   the 
potestate,  X,  L  vi;  Friedberg,  II,  51.     Council  of  presidency  of  the  electoral  meeting,  instead  of  being 
Trent,  Sess.  aXII,  De  ref.,  ch.  ii).    The  Holy  Office  given  to  the  metropoUtan,  his  delegate,  or  the  a^iior 
is  charged  with  the  examination  of  persons  called  bishop  of  the  province,  belongs  to  the  bishop  who 
to  the  episcopate,  with  the  exception  of  the  territories  asks  for  the  c<Muljutor  (Instruction  of  Propaganda, 
subject  to  the  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda  or  17  Se]>tanb€r,  1829,  and  25  April,  1835;  "  CoUecta- 
to  the  Congregation  of  Extraordinary  Ecclesiastical  nea,"  nos.  40  and  41).    In  Scouand,  whcai  there  is  a 
Affairs,  or  of  those  countries  where  the  nomination  chapter  of  canons,  they  follow  the  same  rules  as  in 
of  bishops  is  governed  by  special  laws  and  concordats  En^and;  and  when  there  is  no  chapter,  the  bishops 
("  Motu  proprio "  of  Pope  Pius  X,   17  December,  of  Scotland  and  the  archbishops  of  Edlinbuiigh  and 
1903 ;  ''  Acta  sancta  Sedis,  1904,  XXXVI,  385).    We  Glasgow  oboose  by  a  triple  ballot  the  thi^  candidates, 
have  said  that  the  Decretals  recosniee  the  right  of  The  names  of  these  latter  are  communicated  to  the 
the  cathedral  chapters  to  elect  the  bishop.     This  Holy  See  together  with  the  votes  which  each  candi- 
right  has  been  long  withdrawn  and  is  no  fon^  in  date  has  obtained.    At  the  same  time  is  traasmitted 
force.     In  virtue  of  the  second  rule  of  the  rapal  useful  information  about  each  of  them  according  to 
Chancery  the  choice  of  bishops  belong  exclusively  the  questions  determined  by  the  Propaganda  (In- 
to the  pope  (Walter,  Pontes  juris  ecdesiastici  antiqui  sitruction  of  the  Propaganda,  25  July,  1883;  "Col- 
et  hodierni,  Bonn,  1861,  4£3).     Exceptions  to  this  leetanea",  no.  45).    In  the  United  States  of  America 
rule,  however,  are  numerous.    In  Austria  (with  the  the  diocesan  consultors  and  the  irremovable  rectors 
exception  of  some  episcopal  sees),  in  Bavaria,  in  of  the  diocese  assemble  under  the  presidency  of  the 


BISHOP  585  BSBOT 

archbbhop  or  tlie  senior  bishop  of  the  provinoe,  and  Sunday  or  on  the  feast  of  an  Apostle,  by  preferenoe 

choose  three  candidates,  the  first  dignisHmtis,  the  in  the  cathedral  church  of  the  diocese  or  at  least 

second  dignior,  and  the  third  dianus.    Their  names  within  the  ecclesiastical  province  (Council  of  Trent, 

are  sent  to  the  Propaganda  and  to  the  archbishop  Sess.,  XXm,  De  ref.,  ch^  ii).    Before  consecration, 

of  the  province;  the  archbishop  and  the  bishops  of  the  bishop  must  take  an  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  Holy 

the  province  examine  the  ments  of  the  candidates  See.     (For  the  formula  of  this  oath  for  the  l^ishops  of 

proposed  by  the  clergy  and  in  their  turn,  by  a  secret  the  United  States  of  America  see  **  Acta  et  Decreta 

ballot  propose  three  candidates.   If  they  choose  other  cone.  Ren.  Bait.,  Ill",  Baltimore,  1886,  Appenchx, 

candidates  than  those  designated  by  the  clergy,  they  202.)    Consecration  by  a  single  biahop  would  not  be 

indicate  their  reasons  to  the  At>paganda.  ^m  the  invalid  but  would  be  illicit.    Hpwever,  the  bishops 

case  of  the  nomination  of  a  coadjutor  with  right  of  of  South  America  have  the  privilege  of  being  oonse- 

miccession.  the  meeting  of  the  clergy  is  presided  over  crated  by  one  bishop  assisted  by  two  or  three  briests, 

by  the  bishop  who  demands  a  coadjutor.    If  it  con-  if  it  prove  difficult  for  them  to  obtain  three  bishops 

cems  a  newly  created  diocese^  the  consultors  of  all  (Letters  Apostolic  of  Leo  XIII,  "Trans  Oceanum  *, 

the  dioceses  from  whose  territory  the  new  cfiocese  ISApril.  1897; "Acta SanctceSedis",  1896-97, XXIX, 

was  formed  and  all  the  irremovable  rectors  of  the  659).    Episcopal  consecration  has  the  effect  of  ^ving 

new  diocese  choose  the  tbree  candidates  of  the  clei^gy.  to  the  bishop  the  ftlll  powers  of  Order.     (See  Molt 

Finally,  if  it  is  a  matter  of  replacing  an  archbishop  Orders.) 

or  of  giving  him  a  coadjutor  with  right  of  succession,  III.  Rights  and  Powers  of  the  Bishop. — The 
all  the  metropolitans  of  the  United  States  are  con-  bishop  possesses,  as  already  stated,  the  powers  of 
suited  by  the  Propaganda  (Decree  of  Propaganda,  order  and  jurisdiction.  The  power  of  order  comes 
21  January,  1861,  modified  mr  that  of  21  September,  to  him  through  episcopal  consecration^  but  the 
1885;  Collectanea,  no.  43).  In  Canada  by  a  decree  of  exercise  of  this  right  depends  on  his  power  of  juris- 
2  December,  1862,  the  Church  still  follows  the  rules  diction.  The  sacerdotal  ordination  performed  bjr 
laid  down  by  the  Propaganda  on  21  January,  1861,  every  duly  consecrated  bishop  is  undoubtedly  valid, 
for  the  United  States  (Collectanea,  no,  43;  Collectio  yet  the  bishop  can  ordain  only  in  conformity  with  the 
Lacensis,  Freiburg,  1875,  III,  684,  688).  Every  enactments  of  canon  law.  Only  the  bishop  can  con- 
three  years  the  bishops  must  communicate  to  the  fer  major  orders.  The  question  has  been  discussed. 
Propaganda  and  to  the  metropolitan  the  names  of  as  to  whether  the  pope  could  delegate  to  a  priest, 
the  pnesta  they  think  worthy  of  episcopal  fimctions.  for  example  the  aboot  of  a  monastery,  the  power 
In  tuidition,  each  bii^hop  must  designate  in  a  secret  to  ordain  a  deacon.  The  bishop  is  the  only  ordinary 
letter  three  ecclesiastics  whom  he  believes  worthy  minister  of  the  Sacrament  of  Confirmation  ^Council 
to  succeed  him.  When  a  vacancy  occurs,  all  the  of  Trent,  Sess.  XXIII,  can.  vii).  Ecclesiastical  law 
bishops  of  the  province  indicate  to  the  archoishop  or  has  reserved  certain  benedictions  and  consecrations 
to  the  senior  bishop  the  priests  whom  they  consider  to  him,  viz.,  those  which  are  performed  with  holy  oil. 
mcommendable.  The  bishops  then  discuss  in  a  The  following  functions  are  reserved  to  the  bishop: 
meeting  the  merits  of  each  of  the  priests  recom-  the  dedication  of  a  church,  the  consecration  of  an 
mended,  and  proceed  to  the  nomination  of  the  candi-  altar,  of  chalices  and  patens,  and  generallv  of  the 
dates  by  secret  vote.  The  acts  of  the  assemblv  are  articles  serving  for  the  celebration  of  Holy  Mass, 
transmitted  to  the  Propaganda.  In  Austraua,  &  the  reconciliation  of  a  desecrated  church,  the  beno- 
method  similar  to  that  m  use  in  the  United  States  diction  of  bells,  the  benediction  of  an  abbot,  the  bene- 
is  followed.  Two  d£fferences.  however,  are  to  be  diction  of  the  holy  oils,  etc.  A  bishop  is  forbidden 
noted:  first,  the  bishops  still  signifv,  every  three  to  exercise  the  PontifioaHaj  i.  e.  to  perform  episcopal 
years,  to  the  metropolitan  and  to  the  Propaganda  functions  in  another  diocese  without  the  consent  of 
tjie  names  of  the  priests  Whom  they  consider  worthy  the  ordinary,  i.  e.  the  proper  bishop  (Council  of  Trent, 
of  the  episcopal  office.    Second,  when  the  nomination  Sess.  VI,  De  ref.,  ch.  v). 

of  a  coadjutor  bishop  is  in  question,  the  presidency        Besides  the  power  of  order,  bishops  possess  that  of 

over  the  assembly  of  consultors  and  irremovable  jurisdiction;  they  have  the  right  to  prescribe  for  the 

rectors  belongs  not  to  the  bishop  who  demands  a  faithful  the  rules  which  the  latter  must  follow  in  order 

coadjutor,  but  to  the  metropolitan  or  to  the  bishop  to  obtain  eternal  salvation.   The  power  of  jurisdiction 

delegated    by    him     (Instruction    of    Propaganda,  is  of  Divine  origin,  in  the  sense  that  the  pope  is  held 

19  BEsiy,  1866,  modified  by  the  decree  of  1  May,  1887;  to  establish  m  the  Church  bishops  whose  mission  it  is 

Collectanea,  no.  44).  to  direct  the  faithful  in  the  way  of  salvation.    The 

Whatever   the   manner   of   his   nomination,,  the  Ushops  have  then  in  their  dioceses  an  ordinary  juris-* 

bishop  possesses  no  power  until  his  nomination  has  diction,  limited,  however,  by  the  rights  that  the  pope 

been  confirmed  by  the  Holy  See,  whether  in  consistory  can  reserve  to  nimself  in  virtue  of  nis  primacy.    But 

or  by  pontifical  letters.     Moreover,  he  is  forbidden  this  jurisdiction  is  independent  of  the  will  and  consent 

to  enter  on  the  administration  of  his  diocese  before  of  the  faithful,  and  even  of  the  derpr.    In  certain 

taking  possession  ot  his  see  by  communicating  to  important  matters,  however,  the  bishop  must  at 

the  catnedral  chapter  the  letters  Apostolic  of  his  times  seek  the  advice,  at  other  times  the  consent,  of 

nomination  (Const.  "ApostoUcsB  Sedis",  12  October,  the  cathedhil  chapter.     In  certain  countries,  where 

1869,  V,  i;  "Collectanea'',  no.  1002).    From  this  mo-  chapters  are  not  established,  the  bishop  is  bound  to 

meni,  even  before  his  consecration,  the  new  bishop  is  consult  in  some  specified  cases  the  consitUorea  deri 

entitled  in  his  diocese  to  aQ  rights  df  jurisdiction.    He  diceceminif  or  diocesan  consultors  fl'hird  Council  of 

is  required  to  make  the  prescribed  profession  of  faith  Baltimore,  nos.  17-22,  33,  179).    On  the  other  hand, 

in  the  first  provincial  imiod  held  after  his  elevation  certain  classes  of  persons,  especially  the  regulars 

(Councilof  Trent,  Sess.  XXV,  De  ref.,  ch.ii).    Finafly,  propjeriy  so  called,  are  exempt  from  episcopal  au- 

ne  is  obeyed  within  the  space  of  three  months  to  thority,  and  certain  matters  are  removed  from  the 

receive  episcopal  consecration.    The  right  of  conse-  bishop's  jurisdiction.     Moreover,  he  has  no  power 

crating  a  oi^iop  belongs  to  the  sovereim  pontiff,  who  itfainst  the  will  of  a  superior  authority,  i.  e.  the  pope, 

generally  permits  the  newly  elected  to  be  consecrated  tne  councils,  whether  general,  plenary,  or  provinciaL 

bv  three  bishops  of  his  own  choice.     However,  if  The  bishop  possesses  also  other  important  powers 

the  consecration  takes  place  in  Rome,  he  must  select  throu^  "del^^ted"  jurisdiction  which  is  accorded 

a  cardinal  or  one  of  the  major  patriarchs  residing  to  him  either  by  law,  whether  written  or  established 

at  Rome.    If,  however,  his  own  metropoMtan  is  at  by  custom,  or  by  grant  of  the  sovereign  pontiff 

that  time  in  Rome,  he  would  be  obliged  to  choose  through  the  Roman  Oonpegations.    The  last  named 

Urn.     The  consecration  ought  to  take  place  on  a  jurisdiction  he  exercises  m  the  name  of  the  ApostoUo 


BISHOP  586  BISHOP 

See  (see  below).    Certain  writ^B  attribute  to  the  of  special  supervision  over  the  manuals  used  in 

biiriiop  a  third  kind  of  jurisdiction  which  they  call  educational  establishments,  and  as  far  as  possible 

"ouasi-ordinary"  jurisdiction,  but  there  are  wide  he  will  encourage  the  publication  of  good  books  and 

differences  as  to  the  definition  of  this  kind  of  juris-  good  newspapers  CThird  Council  of  mltimore,  nos. 

diction.    Several  writers  (such  as  Wemz,  11,  10:  Bar-  201,  220,  221, 225,  226).    The  bishop  is  the  Inqidsiior 

giUiat,  "Piplect.  jur.  can.*',  Paris,  1900, 1,  164;  and  nattts  or  protector  of  the  faith  for  his  diocese.    He 

amon^  the  older  canonists,  Bouix,  "De  princip.  juris  has  not,  it  is  true,  the  right  to  define,  outside  an  cbcu- 

canomci",  Paris,  1852,  530)  think  that  this  distino-  menical  council,  controverted  questions  with  regard 

tion  is  useless;  the  jurisdiction  known  as  quasi-ordi-  to  faith  and  morals,  but  when  a  heated  discussion 

nar^  is  nothing  else  than  an  ordinary  or  delegated  arises  in  his  diocese,  he  can  impose  silence  upon  the 

jurisdiction  granted  by  written  law  or  by  custom.  parties  concerned  while  awaiting  a  decision  from  the 

It  is  a  controvertea  c|uestion  whether  the  bishops  Holy  See.    If  anyone,  however,  denies  a  ix>int  of 

hold  their  jurisdiction  directly  from  God  or  from  the  doctrine  defined  bv  the  Churchy  even  though  it  be  an 


.jch.  m).    He  must  hkewise  ^ar 

tion  of  the  Church,  which  seems  to  demand  that  there  the  faithful  of  his  diocese  against  dangerous  societies 

should  be  no  power  in  the  Church  not  emanating  condemned  by  the  Holy  See  C^hird  Council  of  Balti- 

immediately  from  the  sovereign  pontiff.     Authors  more,  nos.  244-255). 

who  hold  the  contrary  opinion  say  that  it  is  during        B.  Governing  AtUhorUy, — (1)  Legislative  Power.^ 
the  episcopal  consecration  that  bishops  receive  from  The  bishop  can  enact  for  his  diocese  those  laws  which 
God  their  power  of  jurisdiction.     But  habitually  he  considers  conducive  to  the  general  ffood.    Though 
before  their  consecration  the  bishops  have  alreadv  he  is  not  bound  to  convoke  a  synod  for  this  purpose  his 
aU  powers  of  jurisdiction  over  their  dioceses  (Barfl;il-  legislative  power  is  not  absolute.    He  cannot  legislate 
liat,  I,  442-445).    Another  question  also  discussea  is  contra  jus  commune  A.  e.  enact  a  law  contrary  to  the 
whether  the  potestas  magieterii,  or  teaching  authority,  general  law  of  the  Church,  written  or  established  by 
is  a  consequence  of  the  power  of  order  or  of  jurisdic-  custom,  or  to  the  decisions  of  general,  plenary,  or  pro- 
tion  (Stonilller,  Lehrbuch  des  katholischen  Kirchen-  vincial  ooimcils.    This  is  on  the  prmciple  that  an 
rechts,  Freiburi,  1900-04,  24-25).     Whatever  the  inferior  cannot  act  contrary  to  the  will  of  his  superiors 
conclusion,  teaching  authority  will  here  be  ranked  (ch.  ii,  De  electione  et  electi  poteetate",  I,  iii,  in  the 
among  the  powers  of  juriscuction.     The  teaching  Clementines^  Friedberg,n,  1135^     He  can,  however, 
fkithority  of  the  bishop  and  his  governing  authority  enact  laws  juxla  jus  commune,  i.  e.  he  can  urge  the 
{fotestas  regiminis)  will  now  be  successively  con-  observance  of  provisions  of  the  common  ecclesiastical 
sidered,  the  latter  comprising  the  le^lative,  dispen-  law  by  penalizing  the  violation  of  the  same  (ch.  ii, 
sative,  judicial,  coercive,  and  administrative  powers.  De  constitutionibus,  VI,  I,  ii;  Friedberg,  II,  937). 
A.   Teaching  Authority, — By  Divine  law  bishops  He  can  determine  the  common  ecclesiastical  law,  i.  e. 
have  the  right  to  teach  Christian  doctrine  (Matt.,  he  can  permit  or  forbid  that  which  the  common  law 
xxviii,  19;  Uouncil  of  Trent,  Sess.  XXIV,  De  ref.,  ch.  neither  forbids  nor  permits  with  certitude,  and  can 
iv;  Encyclical  of  Leo  XIII,  "  Sapientisa  christianffi",  apply  to  the  particular  needs  of  his  diocese  tne  general 
10  January,  1890;  ''Acta  SanctffiBedis",  1890.  XXII,  enactments  of  the  pontifical  laws.    Many  writers  say 
385).    At  the  same  time,  the  obli^tion  of  instructing  that  the  bishop  has  also  the  power  to  enact  laws 
the  faithful  either  personally  or,  if  hindered,  through  praeter  jus  commune,  i.  e.  to  rebate  those  matters 
other  ecclesiastics  is  incumbent  upon  them.    They  concerning  which  the  common  ecclesiastical  law  is 
are  bound  also  to  see  that  in  the  parish  churches  the  silent,  or  at  least  particular  points  unforeseen  by  the 
parish  priests  fulfil  the  requirements  of  preaching  common  law.    In  any  case,  if  the  bishop  wishes  to 
and  t'jaching  which  the  Council  of  Trent  imposes  add  to  the  enactments  of  the  common  law  (and  the 
upon  them  (Ses^.  V,  De  ref.,  ch.  ii;  Sess.  XXI Y,  De  same  principle  is  valid  when  it  is  a  question  of  apply- 
ref.,  ch.  iv).    The  bishop  must  aJso  supervise  the  ing  to  the  needs  of  his  own  diocese  a  general  law  of 
teaching  of  Christian  doctrine  in  the  seminaries,  as  the  Church),  he  must  take  care  to  make  no  enactments 
well  as  in  secondary  and  primary  schools   (Cone,  on  matters  which  the  common  law,  in  the  intention 
Bait.  Ill,  nos.  194  s^q.;  Const.  ''Romanospontifices".  of  the  supreme  legislator,  has  completely  regulated. 
8  May,  1881;  op.  cit..  Appendix,  212).    In  virtue  oi  The  common  law  implicitly  forbids  any  episcopal 
this  right  of  superintendence,  and  because  of  the  action  in  such  matters.   Thus,  e.  g.,  the  bishop  cannot 
intima^  relations  which  exist  between  instruction  introduce  new  irregularities.    In  nis  diocesan  legisla- 
and  education,  the  bishop  is  empowered  to  forbid  tion  the  bishop  must  not  ffo  beyond  the  purpose  in- 
attendance  at  undenominational  schools,  at  least  in  tended  by  the  common  ecclesiastical  law.    Thus,  the 
those   districts  where  Catholic  schools  exist,  and  latter  forbids  the  clergy  to  take  part  in  gamee  of 
where  attendance  at  the  former  schools  is  dangerous,  chance  (ludi  aleatorii),  the  aim  of  the  law  oeing  to 
In  virtue  of  the  same  right  he  will  very  often  be  oound  condemn  the  love  of  lucre  and  to  avoid  scandal;  at 
to  erect  Catholic  schools  or  favour  their  establish-  the  same  time  the  bishop  caimot  forbid  in  private 
ment  H^hird  Council  of  Baltimore,  nos.  194-213).  houses  other  games^  which  are  not  games  of  chance- 
No  one  is  allowed  to  preach  Christian  doctrine  with-  On  the  other  hand^  if  it  be  a  matter  concerning  which 
out  the  consent  of  the  bishop,  or  at  least  without  his  the  common  law  is  silent,  the  bishop  may  take  aO 
knowledge  if  it  is  a  question  of  exempt  relieious  necessary  measures  to  prevent  and  put  an  end  to 
preaching  in  their  own  churches  (Council  of  Trent,  abuses  and  to  maintain  ecclesiastical  discipline.     He 
Sess.  V.  De  ref.,  ch.  ii;  Sess.  XXIV,  De  ref.,  ch.  iv).  must  abstain,  however,  from  imposing  on  his  dexigy 
The  bishop  has  power  to  supervise  writings  published  extraordinary  charges  and    obligations,  and    from 
or  read  in  his  diocese;  works  regarding  the  sacred  imusual  innovations.    The  le^lative  power  of  the 
sciences  are  subject  to  his  approbation;  he  may  forbid  bishop  praster  jus  commune,  is,  therefore,  far   from 
the  reading  of  dangerous  oooks  and  newspapers,  bemg  aosolute  (Claeys-Bouuaert,  De  canonic^  cleri 
He  exercises  a  special  control  over  the  publications  sseciuariB  obedientid,  Louvain.  1904, 69-77).  Canoni- 
of  the  secular  clergy,  who  are  bound  to  consult  him  cal  writers  discuss  the  right  of  the  bishop  to  abrogate 
before  undertaking  tne  direction  of  newspapers  or  of  a  local  custom  contrarv  to  the  enactments  of  the 
publishing  works  even  upon  profane  matters  (Const,  common  ecclesiastical  law.     He  probably  has  not 
of  Leo  XIII,  "Officiorum  et  munerum",  25  January,  the  right,  provided  that  the  custom  be  juridical,  L  c. 
1897;    Vermeersch,    "De    prohibitione    et    censurft  a  reasonable  one  and  legitimately  prescribed.     As 
Uhrorum",  4th  ed.,  Rome,  1906).    He  has  the  right  this  custom  obtains  only  because  of  pontifical  ooed- 


BISHOP  587  BISHOP 

sent,  it  does  not  belong  to  the  bidhop  to  act  contraiy    foreseen  by  the  law  (Instruction  of  Propaganda, 
to  the  will  of  the  pope.    The  power  of  granting  dis-    20  October,  1884;  Cone.  Bait.  Ill,  AppencQx,  298). 


cases  only,  from  the  laws  of  provincial  and  plenary  tions  sanctioned  by  certain  penalties  (Constitution, 

synods;  any  dispensation  from  these  laws  would  be  "Ciun  Magnopere    nos.  4  and  8).    He  has  also  the 

next  to  impossible,  if  it  were  necessary  on  all  such  lawful  power  to  remove  the  penalties  inflicted  by 

occasions  to  convoke  a  fresh  provincial  or  plenary  him.    Bishops  can  also  grant  mdulgences:  cardinals 

synod.    The  bishop,  however,  cannot  dispense  from  200,  archbishops  100,  and  bishops,  50  days'  indul- 

enactments  that  relate  directly  to  himself,  and  impose  gence  (Decree  of  Congregation  of  indulgences,  28  Au* 

obligations  upon  him,  or  from  enactments  that  accord  gust.  1903;  Acta  Semctse  Sedis,  XXXVI,  318). 

rights  to  a  third  party.    The  bishop  cannot  dispense  (4)  AdminiatroHve  Power. — ^The  matters  to  which 

from  laws  made  oy  the  sovereign  pontiff.    To  this  the  administrative  power  of  the  bishop  extends  can 

there  are,  however,  some  exceptions.     In  certain  only  be  briefly  indicated  here:  (a)  The  foremost  is 

matters,  the  written  law  or  custom  has  granted  this  the  supreme  direction  of  the  cieigy.    At  the  present 

right  to  the  bishop.    He  may  also  dispense  from  such  dav,  generally  speaking,  it  might  be  said  that  the 

laws  in  virtue  of  an  expressly  delegated  power,  or  bisnop  has  the  right  to  retain  in  his  diocese  a  priest 

even  sometimes  in  virtue  of  the  consent,  presumed  to  whom  he  has  entrusted  ecclesiastical  functions 

or  tacit,  of  the  sovereign  pontiff.    These  cases  in  real-  and  given  the  means  of  subsistence  (Claeys-Bouuaert, 

ity  are  determined  by  custom.     Canonical  writers  200-244).    In  case  of  necessity  or  great  utility,  e.  g. 

also  admit  that  a  bishop  may  grant  a  dispensation,  given  a  scarcity  of  priests,  the  bishop  mav  compel 

when  there  is  a  doubt  whether  a  dispensation  is  re-  an   ecclesiastic   to    accept   ecclesiastical   jfimctions, 

quired,  though  in  such  a  case  it  may  be  a  question  but  he  wiU  require  a  pontifical  indult  to  impose  upon 

whether  any  dispensation  at  all  is  requisite  (Bargil-  him  the  cura  animarum,  or  cure  of  sotds.     Eccle- 

liat,  I,  483-491).  siastics  ordained  titulo  miasionia  (see  Holy  Orders, 

(2)  Judicial  Power, — ^This  power  is  exercised  in  Missions)  take  upon  themselves  special  obligations 

two  wa)rs:  without  legal  apparatus  {extra  judicialiter)  in  this  matter.     (See  Instruction  of  Propaganda, 

or  in  a  judicial  process  (jiuHdaHter),    In  his  diocese  27  April,  1871.  and  the  Reply  of  4  February,  1873; 

the  bishop  is  judge  in  the  first  instance  in  all  trials.  Cone.   Plen.  Bait.  Ill,  Appendix,  204-211;  decree 

civil  and  criminal,  that  pertain  to  the  ecclesiastical  "De  seminariorum  alumnis",  22  December,  1905; 

tribunal,  imless  the  persons  be  exempt    from  his  "Acta  Sanctse  Sedis",  1905,  aXXVIII,  407.)    The 

authority,  or  the  matters  reserved  for  other  judges:  bishop  may  also   nominate   to   the   benefices  and 

such,  e.  g.,  are  the  process  of  canonization  reserved  ecclesiastical  fimctions  of  his  own  diocese.    Certain 

to  the  pope  or  the  misdemeanours  of  a  vicar-general,  nominations,   however,   are  reserved  to  the   Holy 

which  fall  imder  the  cognizance  of  the  archbishop.  See,  and  in  several  countries  the  right  of  patronage 

Oph.  vii,  De  officio  judicis  ordinarii,   VI,  I,  xvi;  still  exists,     (b)  The  bishop,  moreover,  intervenes 

Friedbeig,  II,  988;  Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  XXIV.  in    the   administration    of   ecclesiastical    property. 

De  ref.,  ch.  xx.)     In  ecclesiastical  trials  he  must  No  alienation  whatever  of  ecclesiastical  goods  is 

conform  to  the  ^neral  or  special  provisions  of  the  possible  without  his  oonsent,  and  he  exercises  su- 

law.     (For  matnmonial   trials   see   ''  Instructio   de  preme  supervision  over  their  administration,    (c)  He 

judidis  ecclesiajsticis   circa   causas   matrimoniales"  nas  a  special  right  of  intervention  in  all  matters 

m  "Acta  et  decreta  Concilii  Plenarii  Baltimorensis  relating  to  Divine  worship  and  to  the  sacraments: 

ni".  Appendix,  262;  for  trials  of  ecclesiastics  see  the  he  authorizes  and  supervises  the  printing  of  liturgical 

Instruction  of  the  Propaganda,  "Cum  Magnopere",  books,   regulates   public  worship,   processions,   ex- 

which  reproduces  substantially  the  Instruction  of  position  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  celebration  of 

the  Congr^ation  of  Bishops  and  Regulars  of  11  Jime,  the  Holy  Mass,  celebration  of  Mass  twice  on  the  same 

1880,  op.  cit.,  287;  see  also  S.  Smith,  "  New  procedure  day  by  tne  same  priest  (see  Bination),  and  exorcisms; 

in  criminal  and  disciplinary  causes  of  ecclesiastics",  his  consent  is  required  for  the  erection  of  churches 

3d  ed.,  New  York,  1898.)    The  bishop  has  also  ju-  and  oratories;  he  authorizes  the  public  veneration 

dicial  power  which  he  exercises  extra  jxtdidaliter  both  of  the  relics  of  saints  and  of  those  who  have  been 

m  faro  extemo  (publicly)  and  in  foro  intemo  (in  con-  beatified;  he  exercises  supervision  over  statues  and 

science).    He  has  the  power  to  absolve  his  subjects  images  exposed  for  the  veneration  of  the  faithful; 

from  all  sins  and  censures  not  reserved  to  the  Holy  he  publishes  indulgences,  etc.    But  in  all  these  matters 

See.     Moreover,  the  absolution  from  a  censure  in-  his  power  is  not  unlimited;  he  must  conform  to  the 

flicted  by  an  ecclesiastical  judge  is  always  reserved  enactments  of  the  canon  law. 

to  the  latter  or  to  his  superiors  (Bull,  " Sacramentum  Bishops   have   also   a    ''delegated  jurisdiction", 

Poenitentise  ",  1  June,  1741  in  "Benedicti  XIV,  Bui-  which  tney  exercise  in  the  name  of  tne  Holy  See; 

larium ".  Venice,  1778,  I,   22;   Const.   "  ApostolicsB  this  power  is  granted  to  them  a  jure  or  ab  homine, 

Sedis",  "Collectanea  S.  C.  P.",  1002).    On  the  other  Ecclesiastical    law   frequently   accords   to   bishops 

hand,  the  bishop  may  reserve  to  himself  absolution  delegated  powers;  but  it  would  be  wrong  to  say,  for 

from   certain  sms    (Council   of  Trent,   Sess.   XIV,  instance,  that  every  power  of  dispensation  granted 

"De   pcRnit.",   ch.   vii;   Third   Plenary  Council  of  by  a  general  law  of  the  Church  is  a  delegated  one. 

Baltimore,  nos.  124,  127).  Such  power  is  perhaps  quite  as  often  an  ordinary 

(3)  Coercive  Power, — ^The   right  to  punish  is  a  power.    But  when  the  law  accords  a  power  of  juris- 

neoessary  consequence  of  the  n^ht  to  judge.    For-  diction  to  the  bishop,  tanquam  Sedis  apoetoliaB  dele- 

merly  the  bishop  could  and  did  mfiict  even  corporal  gatuSf  it  is  a  delegate  power  that  he  receives.    (See, 

punishments  and  fines.     These  are  no  longer  cus-  for  exani^e.  Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  V^De  ref.,  ch.  i, 

tomary,  even  for  ecclesiastics.    The  usual  penalties  iij  Sess.  VI,  De  ref.,  ch.  iii;  Sobs.  VII,  De  ref.,  ch.  vi, 

for  the  laity  are  censures;  for  ecclesiastics,  religious  viii,  xiv,  etc.)    Writers  do  not  agree  as  to  the  nature 

^^rciaes,  confinement  for  a  time  in  a  monastery  of  the  power  accorded  to  the  bishop  also  as  delegate 

Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore,  nos.  72-73),  of  the  Apostolic  See,  etiam  tanquam  sedis  apostoUcas 

ktion  to^  an  ofiice  of  less  importance  (privatio  delegatus.    Some  maintain  that  in  this  case  the  bishop 

n  ecc^endstici),  and  censures,  especially  suspension,  has  at  the  same  time  both  ordinary  and  delegated 

!    bishop   may   inflict   suspension   ex   informatd  power,  but  only  relative  to  such  persons  as  are  sub- 

tonsctenHd,  i.  e.  on  his  personal  responsibility,  and  ject  to  his  lurisdiction  (Reiffenstuel,  Jus  canonicum 

without  observing  any  legal  formality,  but  in  cases  universum.  Paris,  1864»  tit.  zxix,  37);  others  contend 


BI8BDP  588  BI8R0P 

that  in  this  case  the  bishop  has  ordinary  jurisdiction  diooesan  oonsultors  whenever  he  wished  to  convoke 
with  regard  to  hid  subjects,  and  only  a  delegated  one  a  synod  (Acta  et  decreta,  no.  20).  It  is  then  unnec- 
with  regard  to  those  who  are  exempt  (Hinschius,  essary  for  the  synod  to  assemble  every  year.  How- 
System  deskatholischen  Kirchenrech^,  Berlin,  1869,  ever  in  missionary  countries  the  Holy  See  desires 
1, 178;  Scherer,  Handbuch  des  Kirchenrechtes,  Qraz,  that  these  synods  should  be  rather  fre<]uent  and 
1886,  I,  421,  note  36);  others  again  maintain  that  dispenses  the  bishop  from  the  observation  of  the 
the  bishop  has  at  the  same  time  both  an  ordinary  and  formalities  difficult  to  fulfil,  e.  g.  the  convoking  of 
a  delegated  power  over  his  subjects,  and  a  delegated  all  ecclesiastics  who  ought  to  be  present  at  the  synod 
power  over  those  who  are  exempt  (Wenus;  11,  816):  (Letter  of  Propaganda  to  the  Bishop  of  Milwaukee, 
finally,  others  see  in  this  formula  only  a  means  of  29  July,  1889,  '^  Collectanea,  S.  C.  P.  ,  no.  117).  It  is 
removing  any  obstacles  which  might  prevent  the  evident,  finally,  that  the  bishop  cannot  fulfil  the 
bishop  from  using  the  power  accord^  to  him  (Santi,  duties  of  his  office  unless  he  observes  the  law  of 
Prselect.  jur.  can.,  New  York,  1898,  I,  259).  The  residence.  The  bishop  is  obliged  to  reside  in  his 
delegated  powers  ab  homine  are  at  the  present  of  diocese  and  it  is  proper  that  he  should  be  in  the 
very  ^reat  importance,  especially  in  missionary  episcopal  city  on  the  principal  feast  days  of  the  year, 
countnes.  The  Apostolic  Penitentiary  grants  those  He  cannot  be  absent  from  nis  diocese  for  more  than 
which  are  only  concerned  with  the  forum  of  conscience,  three  months,  except  for  grave  reason  approved  of 
The  others  are  granted  by  the  Congregation  of  the  by  the  Holy  See  (Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  VI^  De  ref., 
Propaganda,  lliey  are  called  facuUates  habittudes,  en.  i;  Sess.  XXIII,  De  ref.,  ch.  i;  Benedict  XIV, 
because  not  granted  for  a  determined  individual  case.  "  Ad  universae  christians  *%  Z  September,  1746; 
These  factdties  are  no  longer  accorded  only  to  the  Letters  of  Propaganda,  24  April  and  24  August,  1861; 
bishop  in  his  own  person  but  to  the  ordinaries,  that  "Collectanea,  S.  C.  P.",  nos.  103, 105). 
is  to  say,  to  the  bishop,  to  his  successor,  to  the  ad-  The  bishop  has  also  obligations  regarding  the  Holy 
ministrator  pro  tern,  of  the  diocese,  and  to  the  vicar-  See.  Throughout  his  entffe  administration  he  must 
general,  to  vicars  Apostolic,  prefects,  etc.  (Declaration  conform  to  the  general  legislation  of  the  Church  and 
of  the  Holy  Office,  26  November,  1897,  22  April,  the  directions  of  the  pope.  In  this  respect  two  special 
1898,  25  June,  1898,  5  September,  1900;  Acta  Sanctse  obligations  are  incumbent  upon  him:  he  must  pay  the 
Sedis,  1897-98,  XXX,  627,  702;  1898-99.  XXXI,  VUSaiio  ad  limina  Apoatohrum,  and  present  the 
120;  1900-01,  XXXIII,  225).  As  a  general  rule  the  ReUUio  de  statu  duBceaiSf  I.  e.  he  mus^  visit  the  shrines 
bishop  can  subdelegate  these  powers,  provided  that  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul  at  Rome  and  present  a  report 
the  faculties  do  not  forbid  it  (Holy  Office,  16  De-  on  the  condition  of  his  diocese.  In  the  time  of 
cember,  1898;  Acta  Sanctse  Sedis,  1898-99,  XXXI,  Paschal  II  (1099-1118),  only  metropolitans  were 
635).  For  further  information  see  Putzer-Konings,  bound  to  pay  this  visit.  The  Decretab  imposed  this 
**  Commentarium  in  facultates  apostolieas  "  (5th  ed.,  obligation  u]>on  bishops  whose  consecration  the  pope 
New  York,  1898).     On  the  other  hand,  the  bishop  reserved  '     '  *       --    ^    -      "*- 


can  always  ask  the  Holy  See  for  such  delegated  po 

powers  as  are  necessary  in  the  administration  of  his  die»v<»   ,  ^^,  «.  ^m.^.^.,  v..  ..,     ^^  ^vu^»»^^.^^  ,  ^>, 

diocese.    The  bishop  is  also  the  ordinary  and  habitual  II,  xxiv;  Friedoerg,  II,  49,  201,  360}.    It  has  become 

executor  of  the  dispensations  which  the  Holy  See  general  since  the  fifteenth  century,  and  Sixtus  defi- 

grants  in  foro  extemo,  i.  e.  for  public  use  or  appli-.  nitely  ruled  in  favour  of  this  obligation  (Bull,  "Ro- 

cation.  manus  Pontifex*',  20  December,  1685;  "Bullanim 

IV.  Obligations  op  the  Bishop. — In  describing  amplissima  collectio*',  ed.  Coc^uelines,  Borne,  1747. 

the  rights  of  bishops  we  have  already  in  great  meas-  IV,  iv,  173^.    According  to  this  Bull  the  bishops  ot 

ure  indicated  what  their  obligations  are.    All  their  Italy  and  the  neighbouring  islands^  of  Dalmatia  and 

efforts  must  aim  at  preserving  the  true  faith  and  a  Greece,  must  maEe  the  visit  ad  hmina  every  three 

high  moral  tone  among  the  people^  thev  attain  this  years;  those  of  Germany,  France,  Spain,  England, 

end  by  sood  example,  b)r  preachmg,  by  daily  so-  Portugal,  Belgium.  Bohemia,  Hungary,  Poland,  ana 

hcitude  tor  the  ^od  administration  of  the  diocese,  the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  every  four  years: 

and  by  prayer.    Bishops,  in  effect,  are  bound  bv  the  those  of  other  parts  of  Europe,  of  North  Africa,  and 

Divine  law  to  implore  the  help  of  God  for  the  faith-  the  isles  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  situated  to  the  east 

ful  committed  to  their  care.    Canon  law  has  deter-  of  the  New  World,  every  five  years;  those  of  other 

mined  more  fully  this  obligation,  and  imposes  upoir  parts  of  the  worid  every  ten  years.    The  bishops  of 

the  bishops  the  obligation  of  celebrating  Mass  for  Ireland,  in  virtue  of  a  privilege  of  10  May,  1631,  are 

the  faithful  of  their  dioceses  (miaaa  jjro  grege)  every  bound  to  pay  this  visit  only  every  ten  years.    Even 

Sunday,  on  the  feast  days  of  obligation  and  on  the  in  the  case  of  more  recently  erected  sees  the  years 

abrogated  feast  days  (Const.  Leo  XIII  "  In  supremd '',  are  counted  from  20  December,  1585,  date  of  the 

10  June,  1882; ''  Collectanea,  S.C.P.^',  no.  112).   The  aforesaid  Bull  (Instruction  of  Propi^anda,  1  June, 

bishop  is  bound  to  take  special  care  of  the  education  1877;  ''  Collectanea,  S.  C.  P.'^  no.  110).    The  bishops 

of  youth  and  of  the  training  of  his  clergy;  he  must  must  pay  this  visit  personally  and  for  this  purpose 

exercise   continual    vigilance   over   the   latter   and  are  allowed  to  absent  themselves  from  their  oioceses, 

assist  them  with   his   counsels.     The   Church   has  the  bishops  of  Italy  for  four  months,  other  bishop 

imposed   as   special   obligations   upon  bishops  the  for  seven  months.     The  Holy  See  sometimes  dis- 

canonical  visitation  of  the  diocese  and  the  holding  penses  a  bishop  from  the  obligation  of  paying  this 

of  an  annual  diocesan  synod.    The  bisho{)  is  bound  visit  personally,  and  permits  nim  to  send,  as  his 

to  visit  each  year  the  greater  part  of  his  diocese,  delegate,  a  pnest  of  his  diocese,  eej)ecially  one  of 

either  personally  or,  if  prevented,  through  his  dele-  those  who  have  been  nromoted  to  a  nigh  omoe  (dig- 

gates.    This  visit  will  peirmit  him  to  administer  the  niiates)^  or  a  priest  of  tne  diocese  sojourning  at  Rome, 

Sacrament  of  Confirmation  (Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  or  even  the  ^ent  of  the  bidiop  in  that  city,  if  an 

XXrV,  De  ref.,  ch.  iii).    The  Third  Pl^iary  Council  of  ecclesiastic.    While  this  visit,  as  stated  above,  ought 

Baltimore  ^;rants  the  bishop  three  years  for  making  to  be  paid  the  third,  fourth,  fifth,  or  tenUi  year,  the 

this  visitation  (Acta  et  decreta,  no.  14).    The  Councu  rule  suffers  freauent  exceptions  in  practice  (Wemi, 

of  Trent  ordered  that  an  annual  diocesan  synod  II,  914).    The  VisUatio  Liminum  includes  a  visit  to 

should  be  held  (Sess.  XXIV,  De  ref.,  ch.  ii).    At  the  tombs  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  an  audience  with 

present,  the  Holy  See  no  longer  urges  the  strict  the  Holy  Father,  and  a  written  report  which  the 

observation  of  tms  legislation  (Santi,  Prselect.  Jur.  bishop  ought  to  present  to  the  Congregation  of  the 

can.,  I,  360).    The  Third  Council  of  Baltimore  de-  Council  (CangregaHo  specialie  super  statu  ecclesiarvm 

creed  that  the  bishop  should  take  counsel  with  th^  also  called  Concilietto)  according  to  the  formula  of 


33»-341  and  pi 


.  ID  1725  (A.  Lucidi,  De  Visitatione 

.^.ijiuu.  .mm,  Sth  ed.,  Rome,  I8S3). 

Biabops  subject  to  tbe  Propaganda  present  this  lo^^j  ^uiue,  /i  nvmu  n 

statement  to  the  latter  congregation   (the   proper  32*.  5^  "id  jjouim;  (wi 

formula  is  in  "Acta  Sancta  Sedis'',  1891-92;  XXfv,  ^^J^^  ^^  (1 

382,  "Collectanea",  no,  104),     la  addition  they  ought  dinu,  ^1ob\h,  £«■«  m  1 

also  to  send,  every  five  years,  a  report  to  the  Propa-  ^  lA*  Borii;  IriA  C\arck  (                        •   v      h 

ganda  according  to  the  formularr  dl^wn  up  by  tbia  A.  VAN  Hovm 

(Decrew  of  Propaganda,  31  October^  1838,  27  Sep-  Wwop.  CoAnjOTOR,  See  Aohliabt  Bishop, 
tember,  1843,  and  23  March,  1S44;  Collectanea,  noe.  Bishop,  Williau,  the  Brat  superior  in  England 
97-99;  Third  Couiuul  of  Baitimore,  no.  14),  in  epiacopal  orders  since  the  old  hierBrch}[  died  out  in 
Finally,  taontion  raay  he  made  of  certain  privilegee  tbe  rci^  of  Elizabeth,  born  c,  1553  at  Brailes,  in  War- 
enjoyed  t^  bishopH.  They  do  not  fidl  under  suspen-  wickahire,  where  his  family  continued  to  reside  until 
mans  and  interdicta,  lata  senLentia,  \.  e,  iocurred  i-pio  recent  times;  d.  16  April,  1624.  He  went  to  Clou- 
jado,  unless  express  mention  of  them  is  therein  made;  ceater  Hal!,  Oxford,  in  1670;  but  retired  abroad 
those  who  are  guilty  of  assaults  upon  them  are  pun-  tour  years  later,  and  joined  Allen  at  the  English 
isbed  with  an  excommunication  reserved  ajieciali  College,  Douai.  From  thence  he  went  to  Rome, 
modo  to  the  soverei^  pontiff;  tbey  possess  the  right  and  after  completing  his  studies  and  being  ordained 
of  Iiaving  a  domestic  chapel  and  enjoy  the  privil^e  priest,  we  find  him  once  more  in  England,  where 
of  the  aSare  'portdbUe,  or  portable  altar,  etc,  be  was  called  upon  to  endure  many  and  great 
V.  Nok-Gatbouc  Use.— The  title  of  bishop  is  still  hardships.  -  On  at  least  two  occasions,  he  was  apr 
retained  in  craiain  Protestant  churches.  For  its  use  prebended,  imprisoned  Tor  some  years,  and  then  ban- 
in  the  Ane^can  Church  iee  Sir  R,  Phillimore.  "Eccle-  isbed.  It  was  during  one  of  these  periods  of  banish- 
siastical  Law  in  the  Church  of  England"  ^w  ed.,  ment  that  he  went  to  Paris  and  took  tbe  dt^ree  of 
1995);  P.  Hakowar,  "Verfassung  der  Kircbe  von  Docter  of  Divinity  at  the  Sorbonne.  Dr,  Bishop  took 
Eiuland"  (1894),  and  the  "Encvd.  Britannica"  a  leading  part  in  the  unfortunat«  disputes  between 
(9th  ed.).  Ill,  788-789;  cf.,  aUfo,  O.  J.  Reiohd,  "A  aecularB  and  regulars  at  that  time,  Tbe  latter  party, 
Short  Manual  of  Canon  Law"  (I\m  Sacraments),  by  means  of  their  influence  at  Rome,  had  secured  tbe 
London,  1896,  283-298.  For  its  use  in  ihts  national  appointment  of  an  "archpriest"  aa  superior  of  tbe 
Protestant  Churches  of  Denmark  and  Bweden,  see  English  mission.  The  secular  clei^  resented  this, 
articles  treating  of  thjse  countries,  and  for  its  history  oalhng  out  for  the  restomtion  of  episcopal  govem- 
and  use  in  the  Evangelical  churches  of  Prussia  and  ment  in  some  fotrn.  They  became  known  as  "tbe 
tbe  European  contment,  Jacohsoo-Friedberg  in  Appellants",  and  were  favoured  by  Elizabeth,  who 
"Real-Encycl,  f.  prot,  Theol.  und  Kirche"  (3a  ed.,  contrived  to  assist  them  secretly  to  prosecute  their 
1897)  HI  246-247.  For  its  use  in  Protestant  appeals.  In  1598  BUhop  himseU  went  to  Rome, 
churches  of  the  United  States  see  BAPTiara,  Mbtb-  with  another  priest,  to  lay  their  case  before  the  Holy 
ODiBTs,  MoRUONs,  The  antiquities  aod  constitutjoo  See.  On  their  arrival,  however,  they  found  the 
of  the  Greek  episcopate  are  treated  by  J,  M.  Heineo-  Jesuit  influence  still  supreme,  and  by  order  of  Card!- 
cius  in  "Abbildung  der  alten  und  neuen  griechischen  nal  Cajetan,  Protector  of  England,  they  were  im- 
Kirche''  (Leipzig,  ITU),  and  in  Milasch-PessiiS,  priaoned  at  the  English  Coll^ie,  under  Father  Per- 
"Das  Kirchenrecht  der  morgenliindischen  Kirohe  sons.  After  three  months'  confinement,  they  were 
(Germ,  tr.  of  2nd  ed,,  Mostar,  1905)-  the  actual  con-  dismissed,  but  with  a  strict  injunction  not  to  go  back 
ditioos  of  the  Greek  episcopate,  Catnolic  and  OrtLo-  to  England.  It  was  not  until  there  had  been  further 
dox  (Schismatic),  are  described  in  Silbemagl-Scbnit-  re^vesentations  and  another  deputation  te  Rome 
ler,  Verfassung  und  Ke^nwOrtiger  Bested  s&mt-  thiit  four  yaais  later  this  injunction  was  removed, 
licher  "Kirchen  des  Onenla"  ^nd  ed.,  RatisboD,  Soon  after  his  return,  in  1603,  Bishop  drew  up  tbe 
1904),  passim.  famous  "Protostation  of  Aiieciance"  to  Queen 
PiaAHuB,  Tract,  dt  ord.,  i-aritHa.  n  retidtnt.  tpUc.  (Veiiica,  Elisabeth,  signed  by  twelve  otner  priests  besides 
18TO);  F11.MACU8,  D*  Mm)  epim^onim  ourtpriwi*  lP«ri»,  himself,  in  which  tbey  definitely  took  up  their  stand 

!S,,'ss£.£,'x;r'.ffi''BS.,a;'*&ss:  v>ft<-  <^.  "^  ■^^  f-^^ «»»«« oi  En,. 

""--'"■jtnu  fin  d*  o^ao  tt  polalalt  epitcepi  Iriparcild  de-  land  by  poUtlCsJ  means.      At  least  one  of  these  priests 

(LyD,iu,  1M8);   PiAc»inB,  Front  cfucDpo/H  et  eair-  (Roger  Cadwallador)  was  afterwards  martyrKi  and 

*™"  "Mffiar»i?,'"S=tr»:",SS;  p~b.bly  .Uo  .  «»,«d  (KobertDrurv)   thouzh  tl„„ 

■{h    (Vbdics,     1T05X    BKNtDicT    XIV.    Dt  IS  some  doubt  about  his  identity.     Ehzabeth  never 

I  ^Lwiv«in,  1783);  Andbeccci,  HuTarAja  gaw  the  "Protestation",  tor  on  the  very  day  on 

IS.  1706):  G AVI NTi,  Endiridian  hu  manuaie  to  be  her  last  illness.    It  was  violently  denounced 

rouHmonm,  (Vaiioe   1769)-  THOMASBiHyBiMfli;  bom  Eve.  by  the  opposing  party;  but  it  Would  aeem  that  Rome 

frf&.riKis;!rMii':s«ffit'i£ii.'ij  »•■  wg=Hm.M  ..ough ««  »  »ad«nn  u,  to, 

Pfamr  md  drrm  OehOten  und  SMtertrtUt  ^Pubu*.  1832);  when  more  than  twenty  years  later  the  petition  of 

^■na.TtartatM  de  epifovo  ««  f  derutwda  duieeiand  (^m  the  cierey  was  at  length  granted,  and  a  vicar  Apos- 

I,  M3  (sood  hibUc«™pliy);  MELcams,  D«  nmmial  Ainau  "*""    "'„f^'^„,^^    appointed    Wltn    episcopal 

titiiatione   cum    mipendia    dt    lintolwu   KuTOrwn   lininum  powers.   William   Bishop  was  chosen  for  the  office. 

(^•fKne.  iemy,  DKBKABitiDxii^tmt  eanmiei  eompendium  He    became    nominally    Bishop    of    Chalcedon,     in 

EtiirnatiUal  Lata  [New  York,  issi),  1,  271-356;  Tjuntob.  Vicar  Apostohc  for   ten   months;    but   dunng  that 

n*  Law  o/  .rt*.  CAunA  {i«ndon,  1900),  7B-iai:  VivEa  r  short  time  he  organised  a  systematic  form  of  ec- 

ssi.?»6'?ri:.?dSSr,f'3sisr,j.«S's:  otai-M  fov.™,™.  „o,i.tiD«  „/  nv,  ,jm- 

Vnie.    BuJIetui  (1906),  Xtl.  363,  364.    The  siitjqiuti»  of  general.   asBiated   by   archdeacons  and   rural   deans 

^   bWiop'.   o«M   art   oolleotoct   in    T^oBAmiK.  op,  «it-;  throughout    the    countiy.     He    also    instituted    a 

S^s,'rKL!»;i.'  S!i,;r,s°;i,°nJ;  ot-pif  ?•  i.»ij-/=«r  ™.».~,  .j... ..»  »  „um. 

363^^7:  BiNOHui,  AnUqiiititi  of  Oe  Chrittian  CkurcK  (new  jurisdiction  whenever  there  should  be  for  any  reason 

ed.,  Oxford,  1865).  I,  (io«(m  (»■  indsj  in  Vol  X).    For  tbe  no  vicar  Apostolic,  which  happened  at  one  time  tor 

SiSfaKJSlSiSSSSJr^rfiffiniw.ISS;  Ibityn.™.    hu  right  y,  «.]»  .uch  m.u.uti» 

»niBu,  Cimiiiiutionai  HitUmi  "I  Englmid  (LondoD,  ISBl),  has  often  been  questioned,   but  durmg  the  penod 


B- 


BI8H0PBI0  590 

referred  to,  Rome  recognized  their  jurisdiction.    On  brought  to  the  attention  of  Parliament,  but  nothing 

the  restoration  of  the  nierarchy  in  1850.  when  dioc-  was  done  for  his  relief.    He  was  never  tried  or  r^ 

esan  chapters  were  erected,  the  ''Old  Chapter"  did  leased,  and  finally  died  in  prison, 

not  dissolve,  but  changed  its  name,  and  as  the  "  Old  Gillow.  Bibl.  Diet,  Eno.Cafh,,  I,  ^. 

Brotherhood  of  the  Secular  Clergy"  it  exists  to-day,  Thob«as  Gafpnby  Taaffb. 

a  lasting  memorial   to   the  work  of  the  first  vicar        «    .  —    ^  -, f«..    *  b  ^    .>       .i 

Apostolic.    An   oU   paintmg   of   Bishop   hangs   at  Black  Fwt,  THB.--This  form  of  fasting,  the  most 

Archbishop's  House,  Westminster,  London,  a  print  rigorous  m  the  history  of  church  legislation,  was 

of  which  appeared  in  the  "Catholic  Directory'*  for  marked  by  austerity  r^arding  the   quantity  and 

1810.    The  works  of  Bishop  are:  "  A  Reformati<m of  a  quahty  of  food  permitted  on  fastmg  days  as  well  as 

CathoUcke  Deformed,   in  answer  to  W.   Perkins"  ^^  ^^le  wherem  such  food  mi^t  be  legitimately 

"Answer  to  Mr.  Perkins's  taken. 


fence  of  King's  Title":  "Pitts,  de  lUustribus  Anglia  ^  IV,  cap.  vi;  TruUan  Synod,  Canon Tvi).    Besides 

Scriptoribus^  (1619);  '' Protestation  of  Loyalty"  (see  ^}^^  rwtnctions  abstinence  from  wine,  e8i)eciiUly 

above):  pamphlets  on  archpriest  controversy,  etc.  durmg  Lent,  was  enjomed   (Thomassm,  Trai^  des 

EtoDD,  CK  HuL  of  Eng^  ed.  Tiernbt;  Douay  Diariet;  jeOnes   de   I'E^ise,    II,   vu).     Furthermore,   during 

QiLLow,  BM.  DieL  of  Eng.  Cfatholie»:  Butlbr,  HUl  Memovrw  Holy  Week  the  fare  consisted  of  bread,  salt,  herba, 

Oiru^nror^^.^.T^'^orST^^il^^'i^:  ^  l'^^'  (Laymaim,.Theoloria  MoraU,,  Tr..  Vni; 

LAw.JemnUandS^eularainReiiniofElizaUthii889y,Ma,ui^  De  observatione  jejumorum,  i).    Fmally,  this  meal 

in  WMtminiter  Arohives,  London.  was  not  allowed  until   sunset.    St.   Ambrose  (De 

Bernard  Ward.  EUa  et  jejunio,  sermo  viii,  in  Psahn  CXVIIl},  St 

Chrysostom  (Homil.  iv  in  Grenesim),  St.  Basil  (OraUo 

Bishopric.    See  Diocese.  i,  D*e  jejunio)  furnish  unec^uivocal  testimony  ooncem- 

«M.i.^.»-  t% ^1-     o     n  hig  the  three  characteristics  of  the  black  fast.    The 

BUhop  8  Orook.    See  Crosier.  keynote  of  their  teaching  is  sounded  by  St.  Bernard 

BisignaaOy  Diocese  op.   See  San  Marco,  Diocese  (Senno.  iii.  No.  1,  De  Quadragesima),  when  he  says 

OP.     ^  hitherto  we  have  fasted  only  until  none "  (3  p,  m.) 

...                   X      i_   .                   1  ** whereas,  now"  (during  Lent)  ''kings  and  princes, 

Bisomos,  a  tomb  large  enough  to  contem  two  clergy  and  laity,  rich  and  poor  wiU  fast  until  evening", 

bodies.    Thp  ordmary  tombs  (loct)m  the  ^enes  of  it  is  quite  certain  that  the  days  of  Lent  (Muller, 

the   Roman    catacombs   contamed   one   body.    It  Theologia  Moralis,  II,  Lib.  II,  Tr.  ii,  {  165,  no.  11) 

sometimes  happened,  however,  that  a  space  iuve  as  well  as  those  preceding  ordination  were  marked  by 

enough  to  contain  two  bodies  was  excavated.    Such  the  black  fast.    This  repme  continued  untU  the  tenth 

a  double  grave  is  referred  to  m  mscnptions  as  Uxms  century  when  the  custom  of  taking  the  only  meal  of 

Monms.    An  inscnption  from  the  catacomb  of^St.  the  day  at  three  o'clock  was  introduced  (Thomassin, 

Cahjrtus,  for  mstence,  mforms  us  that  a  oertam  loc.  cit.).     In  the  fourteenth  century  the  hour  of 

Boniface,  who  died  at  the  age  of  twenty-tbw  years  taking  this  meal  was  changed  to  noon-day  (Muller, 

"J.,  u^u   °^?^"*^^'  ^'^  mterred  m  a  double  grave  loc.  cit.).    Shortly  afterwards  the  practice  of  taking 

which  hwl  been  prepared  for  himself  and  for  Ins  a  collation  in  the  evenmg  bewn  to  gam  ground 

father   (Bonifacius,   oui   vixit  annis  XXIII  et  II  (Thomassin,  op.  cit.,  II,  xi).    FinaUy,  the  custom 

(mens)  es,  positus  m  l>isomum  m  pace,  sibi  et  patr.  of  taking  a  crust  of  bread  and  some  coffee  in  the  mom- 

f^^-^'      u   »^urth-oentury   mscnption   tells  of    two  ing  was  introduced  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth 

ladies  who  had  purchased,  for  the^  future  mterm^t,  century.     During  the  past  fifty  years,  owing  to  ever 

abisomus  m  a   'new  crypt"  which  contained  the  changing  ciroumstances  of  time  and  place,  the  Church 

Doay  ol  a  tsamt:  j^ag  gradually  relaxed  the   severity  of   penitential 

IN  CRTPTA  NOBA  RETRO  SAN  requirements,  so  that  now  little  more  than  a  vestige 

crus  SMERVif  vrvAS  BALER  of  former  rigour  obtams. 

RA  ET  8ABINA  MBRUM  LOO  -  ^-   T^^^Ji^l,.  ^Ji;^^-  ^^^-^  Ihr^' J^'   ^iA'l'   S'*'*'"**^ 

V  ATonM  AH  Aonrkwn  wn  a  ■a»»**C***«**  ^  ^  Chrxthan  Church  (London.  1844);  GuivNoro. 

V  BI80M  AB  APRONE  ET  A  ThePaachal  or  Uni  Fatt  (Oxford.  1846). 

BiATORE  J.  D.  O'Neill. 

Like  so  many  pious  but  rather  superstitious  persons 

of  that  age  ''Balerra"  and  "Sabma"  wished  to  be  Blackfoot  Indians,  an    important  tribe  of   the 

buried  in  the  closest  proximity  to  a  martyr,  retro  Northern  Plains,  constituting^  the  westernmost  ex- 

aanctoSf  a  privilege  which,  as  we  learn  from  another  tension  of  the  great  Algonquian  stock.    Instead  of 

inscription,  "many  desire  but  few  receive"   (guod  being  a  compact  people  with  a  head  chief  and  centi^l 

muUi  cupiunt  et  rari  acdpiurU),  government,   they  are   properly   a  confederacy  of 

NaaBiTT   in   Did.  Christ,   Ant.,  m.  v.:  Northcotk  and  three  sub-tnbes  speaking  the  same  language,  namely: 

?wA^i£I^^S;SL^iL^H^i^^iS?^^  Siksika   or   Blackfoot   proper-    Kaina    O^na),   or 

dare*.  c*r^.  notumM  g4n.  (P*"-' l^^^              HAsawrr  Bl«>d;  Piktlni,  or  Piegan,  VeAi  of  which  sub-teibes 

IS  again  subdivided  into  bands,  to  the  number  of 

Bitonto,  DiocBSB  OP.    See  Ruvo.  some  fifty  in  aU.    In  close  aUiance  with  them  are  the 

ni.    1.       CI      /^                   n              rk  Atsina,  or  Grosventres,  a  branch  of  the  more  southern 

Bkarka.    See  Gibail  and  Batrun,  Diocese  op.  Arapahoe,  and  the  Sassi,  a  detached  band  of  the 

Blackbnma,  Robert,  an  English   Catholic   who  Beaver  Indians  farther  to  the  north.    As  is  usually 

suffered  imprisonment  in  the  closing  years  of  the  the  case  with  Indian  etymologies,  the  origin  of  the 

seventeenth,    and   during   the   earlier   half   of   the  name  is  disputed.    One  tradition  ascribes  it  to  the 

eighteenth,  centuries,  d.  1748;  was  a  son  of  Richard  blackening  of  their  moccasins  from   the  ashes  ot 

Blackbume,  of  Thistleton,  Lancaster.    The  Black-  prairie  fires  on  their  first  arrival  in  their  present 

bume  family  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  respected  country.     It  may  have  come,  however,  fhon  the 

Catholic  families  in  Lancashire.     Robert  Blackbume  former  wearing  of  a  black  moccasin,  such  as  dis- 

was  arrested  in  1696  on  suspicion  of  being  connected  tinguished  certain  southern  tribes.    The  name  is  also' 

with  what  was  known  as  tne  Lancashire  Plot.     He  that  of  a  prominent  war-society  among  ^bes  of  the 

was  never  brought  to  trial,  although  kept  in  prison  Plains. 

for  fifty-three  years.    The  case  was  more  than  once  As  indicated  by  linguistic  affinity,  the  Blackfeet 


BLA€K                                 591  BLAOKWOOD 

are  immigrants  from  the  East.    About  one  hundred  tribal  ceremony  was  the  Sun  Dance,  held  annually 
years  affo,  and  until  ^thered  upon  reservations,  in  the  summer  seajson.    The  marriage  tie  was  easily 
they  held  most  of  the  immense  tOTritory  stretching  broken,  and  polygamy  was  permitted.     The  dead 
from  the  southern  headwaters  of  the  Missouri,  in  were  usually  deposited  in  trees,  or  sometimes  in 
Montana,  almost  to  the  North  Saskatchewan,  in  tipis  erected  (or  the  purpose  on  prominent  hills. 
Oanada,  and  from  about  105  ^^  W.  longitude  to  the  In  physique  the  Blackfeet  are  tall  and  finely  built; 
base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.    They  are  now  settled  in  temper,  aggressive,  unruly,  and  uncertain, 
on  three  reservations  in  the  Province  of  Alberta,  The  earliest  missionarv  work  among  the  Blackfeet 
Canada,  and  one  in  Montana,  U.  S.,  being  about  was  that  of  the  French  Jesuits  who  accompanied 
equally  divided  between  the  two  governments.    The  the  explorer  Verendiye  in  the  Saskatchewan  region 
Atsfna  are  also  now  settled  in  Montana,  while  the  Sassi  in  1731-42.    Among  these  may  be  named  Fathers 
are  in  Alberta.  Nicholas  Gonnor,  Cnarles  Mesaiger,  and  Jean  Aul- 
Most  of  the  early  estimates  of   Blackfoot  popular  neau.    Nothing  more  was  done  until  the  establish- 
tion  are  unreliable  and  usually  exageeratea.    The  ment  of  the  R^  River  colony  by  Lord  Selkirk,  who, 
estimate  made  by  Mackeniie  (about  ^e  year  1790)  in  1810,  brought  out  Fathers  Dumoulin  ana  Pro- 
of 2250  to  2550  warriors,  or  perhaps  8500  souls,  is  vencher  from  Montreal  to  minister  to  the  wants  of 
probabhr  very  near  the  truth  for  that  period.    In  the  colonists  and  Indians.    Their  Indian  work,  at 
1780, 1837,  1845,  1857,  and  1869,  they  suffered  great  first  confinied  to  the  Crees  and  Ojibwa,  was  afterwards 
losses  by  smallpox,     in  1883-84  some  600  on  the  extended,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Oblates,  to  the 
Montana  reservation  died  of  starvation  in  conse-  Blackfeet  and  Assiniboin.     Among  the  most  noted 
quenoe  of  a  simultaneous  failure  of  the  buffalo  and  of  these  Oblate   missionaries  were   Father  Albert 
reduction  of  rations.     In  addition  to  these  whole-  Lacombe  (1848-90),  author  of  a  manuscript  Black- 
sale  losses,  they  suffered  a  continual  wasting  from  foot  dictionary,  as  well  as  of  a  monumental  ^ammar 
wars  with  the  surroundinff  tribes — Oee,  Assiniboin,  and  dictionary  of  the  Cree,  and  Father  Emile  Legal 
Sioux,  Crow^  Flathead,  Kutenai — ^for  the  Blackfeet  (1881-90),  author  of  several  important  manuscripts 
were  a  particularly  warlike  and  aggressive  people,  relating  to  the  Blackfoot  tribe  and  language.    Protes- 
and,  with  the  exception  of  the  two  small  tribes  tant  mission  work  in  the  tribe  was  begun  by  the 
living  under  their  protection,  they  had  no  allies.  Wesleyan  Methodists  about  1840  (though  without 
The  official  Indian  report  for  1858  gives  them  7300  any  regular  establishment  until  1871),  and  by  the 
souls,  but  a  careful  unofficial  estimate  made  about  Episcopalians  at  about  the  same  date, 
the  same  time  puts  them  at  6720.    In  1906  they  were  Gewneix.  Blackfoot  l^doe  Tale*  (1892);  Hayden,  J?«^ 
officially  reoorted  to  number  in  all  4617  as  foUowr.  ^fHiS^,^}lt!SSSoM 

Blackfoot  Agency,  Alberta,  842;  Blood  Agency,  Al-  Siksika,  etc.,  in  Reports,  Bureau  of  Am.  Ethnology  (1907); 

berta,  1204,  Piegan  Agency,  Alberta,  499:  Blackfoot  Mackenzie,    Voyaaes   (1801);    Filling.    Bibliooraphy  of   the 

Affnntf«tr   fPie^trorA     M/^ntjana     9079  Alaonquin  Uinguage8,»,in,  BlockfooU  LoconUie,  Leffal.TdcLeon, 

Agency   (negan),  Montana.   ^U7^.  yj;^    in  Reports,  B.  Am.  Ethn.  (1891);  Wissler,  Blackfoot 

In    their    culture    the    Blackfeet    were    a    typical  Indians  in  Ontario  Arehaological  Report  for  1906  (Toronto. 

Plains  tribe,  living  in  skin  tipis,  roving  from  place  ^?9^)}A^^  Reporu  of  the  Commisnoner  of  Indian  Affain 

to   place    without   permanent    habita^on,    wifliout  (U.  S.)  and  ^upmnftmden*  i^ /ndian  .4 /3Paw^(Cima^a) 

pottery,  basketry,  or  canoes,  having  no  agriculture 

except  for  the  planting  of  a  native  tobacco,  and  Black  Friars.      See  Dominicans;   Canons  and 

depending  almost  entirely  upon  the  buffalo  for  sub-  Canonesses  Regulak  op  St.  Augustine:  Hermits 

sistence.    Their  traditions  go  back  to  a  time  when  qf  St.  Augustine. 

they  had  no  horses,  hunting  the  buffalo  on  foot  by  »i««vi/^^  i^xr^m/.^      a««  t[7«t«,«  t««^*,.= 

meins  of  driveways'  constructed  of  loose  stones;  but  B^^^kloa,  Thomas.     See  Whitb,Thomas. 

as  early  as  18(X)  they  had  many  horses  taken  from  Black  Monks.    See  Bbnedictinb  Order;  Canons 

the  southern  tribes,  and  later  became  noted  for  their  and  Canonesses  Regular  of  St.  Augustine;  Her- 

great  herds.    They  procured  guns  and  horses  about  hits  of  St.  Augustine. 

the  same  time,  and  were  thus  enabled  to  e^d  Black  Sisters  (Augustini an  Nuns).    ScoAlexian 

their  incursions  successfully  over  wide  areas.    While  js^^jr                  v«.v^«v^oxii^*Ai^  i^u«oy.    k^c^  .t^ju^i^a^ 

generally  friendly  to  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  ^1!,  *     _      .          ^     « 

toaders,  they  were,  in  the  earlier  penod,  usually  Black  Sunday.    See  Passion  Sunday. 

hostile    towards   Americans,  although  never  re^-  Blackwood,  Adam,  author,  b.    at   Dunfermline, 

lariy  at  war  with  the  government,    upon  ceremonial  Scotland,  1639:  d.  1613.     He  was  a  great-nephew  ot 

occasions  each  of  the  three  principal  tribes  camped  Robert  Reid,  Bishop  of  Orkney  (1541-58),  who  pro- 

m  a  great  circle,  as  usual  among  the  Plains  tribes,  vided  for  his  education^  both  his  parents  oeing  dead, 

the  tipis  of  each  band  occupying  a  definite  section  ot  at  the  University  of  Paris.     On  the  bishop's  death, 

the  circle,  with  the  '' medicine  lodse",  or  ceremonial  Queen  Mary's  generosity  enabled  Adun  to  complete 

sacred  structure,  in  the  centre  of  the  circle.    The  lus  studies  at  Paris  and  Toulouse.     He  taught  philos- 

assertion  that  these  smaller  bands  constituted  exo-  ophy  at  Paris  and  published  there  a  funerm  poem  on 

gamic   clans  seems  consistent  with  Plains  Indians  King  Charies  IX  (1574)  and  a  work  on  the  relation 

custom.    There  was  also  a  military  society  consisting  between   r^igion   and   government    (1575).    Arch- 

of  several  subdivisions,  or  orders,  <A  various  rank,  bishop  James  Beaton  recommended  him  to  Mary  for 

from  boys  in  training  to  the  retired  veterans  who  the  office  oi  Judge  of  the   Parliament  of  Poitiers 

acted  as  advisers  and  directors  of  the  rites.    Each  (Poitou  was  under  her  jurisdiction  as  Dowager  of 

of  these  orders  had  its  distinctive  uniform  and  equip-  France),  and  here  he  married  Catherine  Courtinier. 

ment,  songs  and  dance,  and  took  charge  of  some  Blackwood  cc^ected  a  good  librarv,  and  wrote  several 

special   fimction  at  public  gatherings.     There  were  books,  one  an  "Apology  for  Kings",  denouncing 

also   the  ordinary  secret  societies  for  the  practice  Buchanan's  views  with  much  bitterness,  and  another 

of  medicine,  magic,  and  special  industrial  arts,  each  a  vigorous  def^ioe  of  Queen  Mary,  published  in  Paris 

society  usually  having  its  own  sacred  tractition  in  the  (nominally  in  Edinburgh)  after  her  death.    Other 

keepini^  of  a  chosen  priest.     The  industrial  societies  works  by  him  were  a  book  of  pious  meditations  in 

were  usually  composed  of  women.    The  ordinary  dress  prose  and  verse  and  an  ascetic  commentary  on  the 

in  old  thnes  was  of  prepared  deerskins;  the  arms  wei«  nftieth  Psalm.     Blackwood  died  in  1613,  and  was 

the  bow,  knife,  dub^  lance,  and  shield,  and,  later,  buried   at  Poitiers.     His  widow  married    Francois 

the  gunk    The  principal  deity  was  the  sun,  and  a  de  la  Mothe  le  Vayer,  and  one  of  his  daughters  be- 

supematural  being  known  ^ as  Napi^  "Old  Man" —  came  the  wife  of  Geor^  Crichton,  Regius  Professox 

p^haps  an  incarnation  of  the  same  idea.    The  great  of  Greek  in  the  University  of  Paris. 


BLAZ8  592  BLAHHWARD 


C&n$imnimopd„  ed.  I>blahate  (Bnmeb,  1902),  458:  Uhsio. 

BlaiB,  Andrew.      See  RiMOUSKI,  Diocese  of.  fiSL>?UC  ^^^  Nd0^erm  Thsol,  Quartatsdtr^  (TQbingen, 

««,   .         ,^              Nn«^i*i.               J          _^  1888).  72  sqq.;  Ntcxx>LAi,  Memone  sUirieke  ax  8.  Biagto,  mtooto 

Blaise     (BlasiUS),   Saint,    bishop    and  martyr. —  #  martin,  proMton  dOa  rwpublica  di  Rafuaa  (Rome.  1752); 

The  ninth-century  martyrologies  of  Europe  in  their  V^  *  "^SK^^r*?  '^rr^*°^»  J?~*^  ^*  -Srfcwte  (Monia,  isaj); 

liste.  which  are  a«K>mpam«r  bv  historical  notice^  g^JS  |*Ji^t8g.tf?3b  »q.f IS^l^riT!?.  5l^ 

give  on  15  Februaiy  the  name  of  St.  Biasius,  Bishop  ^v^gwe  dt  SAaate  (Tovioiue,  iMl). 

of  Sebaste  and  mfurtvr.    The  Greek  synaxaria  men-  J.  P.  Kibsch. 
tion  him  under  11  February.    In  the  oldest  known 

recension  of  the  so-called  martyrology  of  St.  Jerome  Blano,  Anthont,  fifth  Bishop,  and   first  Arch* 

the  name  of  St.  Blasius  does  not  appear:  it  is  only  bishop, of  New  Oileans,  La.,  U.  S.  A.,  b.  at  Sury.  near 

in  the  later,  enlarged  catalogues  that  he  is  men-  j^^^y  France,  11  Oct.,  17^;  d.  at  New  Oneaos, 

tioned.     The  historical  notices  concerning  him  in  20  June,  1860.    He  was  one  of  the  first  ecdesiasti- 

the   above-mentioned  martyroloffies  and  synaxaria  cal  students  after  the  restoration  of  the  Church  in 

rest  on  the  legendary  Acts.    All  the  statements  agree  France,  and  was  ordained  priest  on  22  July,  1816, 

that  St.  Biasius  was  Bishop  of  Sebaste  in  Armenia  by  Bishop  Dubourg  of  New  Orleans,  in  the  S^ninaiy 

and  most  of  the  accounts  place  his  martyrdom  in  the  at  Lyons,  during  a  visit  of  that  prdate  in  search  of 

reign  of  Licinius  (about  310).    As  these  reports  may  help  and  volunteers  for  the  American  mission.    He 

rest  on  old  traditions  which  are  bound  up  with  the  came  to  America  in  September,  1817,  landing  at 

veneration  of  the  saint  in  the  Church  liturgy,  they  Annapolis,   Md.,   with  several  young  seminanaoB, 

are  not  to  be  absolutely  rejected.    It  can  perhaps  and  was  entertained  until  the  end  of  October  bv 

be  assumed  that  St.  Blasius  was  a  bishop  and  that  Chaiies  Camll  at  Carrolton.    He  then  went  with 

he  suffered  inart3n*dom  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  Bishop  Dubourg  to  New  Orleans  and  for  neariy 

century.     All   the   particulars   concerning   his   life  fifteen  years  led  the  arduous  .Ufe  of  a  missionary  over 

and  martyrdom  which  are  found  in  the  Acts  are  the  wide  field  oi  the  Mississippi  Valley.    In  1831, 

purely  legendary  and  have  no  claim  to  historical  Bishop  De  Neckere  api>ointed  him  his  vicar-general 

worth.     There    are    besides   various  recensions  of  and  wanted  to  make  him  his  coadjutor,  but  he  re- 

the  text  of  the  Acts.     According  to  the  legend  fused  the  promotion.    When  the  Bishop  died,  in 

Blasius  was  a  physician  at  Sebaste  before  he  was  1853,  Father  Blanc  was  named  administrator,  and 

raised  to  the  episcopal  see.    At  the  time  of  the  perse-  was  consecrated  bishop  of  the  diocese,  22  November, 

cution  imder  Licinius  he  was  taken  prisoner  at  the  1835.    His  jurisdiction  extended  over  the  States  of 

command  of  the  governor,  A|B^colaus.    The  hunters  Louisiana  and  Mississippi,  and  in  1838  Texas  was 

of  the  governor  found  him  in  the  wilderness  in  a  added.    In  1842  he  came  into  conflict  with  the  by 

cave  to  which  he  had  retired  and  while  in  prison  he  trustees  of  the  Cathedral  over  his  right  to  appoint 

performed  a  wonderful  cure  on  a  bo^r  who  had  a  its  rector,  in  the  course  of  which  contest  he  nad  to 

fishbone  in  his  thrpat  and  who  was  in  danger  of  interdict  the  church.     Liti^tion  in  the  courts  and 

choking  to  death.    After  suffering  various  forms  of  appeals  to  the  State  Legislature  dragged  out  the 

torture  St.  Blasius  was  beheaded;  the  Acts  relate  oontroversv  for  more  than  a  year,  but^l  the  issues 

also  the  martyrdom  of  seven  women.   The  veneration  were  decicfed  in  favour  of  the  Bishop.    In  1838  he 

of  the  Oriental  saint  was  brought  at  an  earlv  date  estabUshed  a  diocesan  seminary  and  introduced  into 

into  Europe,  as  is  shown  by  the  recitals  in  the  his-  the  diocese  the  Lasarists,  the  Jesuits,  the  Redemp- 

torical  martyrologies  of  the  ninth  century,  and  the  torists,  the  Christian  Brothers,  the  Sisters  of  Chanty, 

Latin  recension  of  the  legend  of  St.  Blasius;  so  that  the  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  tne  Sisters  of  the  Good 

Blasius  became  one  of  the  most  popular  saints  of  Shepherd,  and  the  Congregations  of  Our  Lady  of 

the  Middle  Ages.    The  actual  reason  for  the  unusual  Mount  Carmel  and  of  the  Holv  Cross.    He  attended 

veneration   has  not  yet   been   made   clear.     Most  the  First  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore,  and  was  one 

probably  one  ^und  was  that  according  to  the  le^nd  of  the  few  American  prelates  present  in  Rome  when 

ne  was  a  physician  and  wonderful  cures  were  ascribed  the  dosma  of  the  Inunaculate  Conception  was  pro- 

to  him;  for  this  reason  the  faithful  sou^t  his  help  claimed  (8  Dec",  1854).    New  Orleans  was  made  an 

and   intercession   when   ilL      Numberless   churches  archbishopric,  19  July,  1850,  and  he  received  the 

and  altars  were  dedicated  to  him  and  many  localities  pallium,  10  February,  1851.    During  his  tenure  of 

gTaranto,  Ragusa,  the  Abbey  of  St.  Blasius  in  the  the  see  many  old  abuses  were  corrected;  the  number 
lack  Forest,  etc.)  claimed  to  possess  some  of  his  ^  diurches  was  increased  from  26  to  73,  of  priests 
relics.  He  was  also  one  of  the  Fourteen  Holy  Mar-  from  27  to  92,  and  many  schools,  academies,  colleges, 
tyrs.  In  many  places  on  the  day  of  his  feast  the  convents,  and  asylums  testified  to  his  zeal  and  la- 
blessing  of  St.  Blasius  is  given:  two  cancttes  are  con-  hours.  He  died  suddenly  at  his  residence  in  New 
secrated,  generallyr  by  a  prayer,  these  are  then  held  Oiieans,  discharging  with  activity  to  the  last  the 
in  a  crossed  position  by  a  priest  over  the  heads  of  arduous  duties  of  ms  office. 

the  faithful  or  the  people  are  touched  on  the  throat  „flH«A.  HiH.  CaO^  Ch.  inU.  8.(H«mYotk,  1904);  Rots, 

with  them.  .  In  otS^  places  oU  b  consecrat«i  in  ^^..^.rl^  MS^^ 

which  the  wick  of  a  small  candle  is  dipped  and  the  CatkoHe  Almanac  laei;  Delta  (filet,  Nott  OriMns,  23  June, 

throats  of  those  present  are  touched  with  the  wick.  iSfiO). 

At  the  same  time  the  following  blessing  is  given:  Thomas  F,  Msehan. 

"Per  intercessionem  8.  Blasii  liTOret  te  Deus  a  malo  «     t     t* 

gutteris  et  a  quovis  alio  malo"  (May  God  at  the  in-  Blanc,  Le.    See  Lb  Blanc. 

tercession  of  St.  Blasius  preserve  you  from  throat  Blandurd  (Duchebns).  Jean-Baptibtb,  a  Fr^ich 

troubles  and  every  other  evil).     In  some  dioceses  Jesuit  and  educator,  b.  12  October,  1731,  at  Tourteron 

is  added:  "in  nonnne  Patris  et  Filii  et  Spiritus''  and  in  the  department  of  Ardennes;  d.  15  June,  1797. 

the  priest  makes  the  sign  of  the  cross  over  the  faith-  In  1746  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  later 

ful.    In  the  Latin  Church  his  feast  falls  on  3  February,  iras  professor  at  Metz,  Verdmi,  and  Pont-MfpuasoiL 

in  the  Oriental  Churches  on  11  Fel»iiary.     He  is  At  tne  time  of  the  suppression  of  the  Society  he 

represented  holding  two  crossed  candles  in  his  hand  changed  his  name  of  Duchesne  to  that  of  Abb^ 

(the  Blessing  of  St.  Blasius),  or  in  a  cave  surrounded  Blanchard,  under  whidi  his  works  were  published 


He  left  the  order,  tiowerer,  in  1762,  before  it  was  by  portAges,  in  barges,  on  honeback,  and  in  tiAt 

juppressed,  retirea  to  Belgium,  and  for  seven  yean  boats.     It  took  them  nine  days  to  cross  the  BocW 

remained   near   Namur,  occupied  with    pedagogical  Mountains,  on  the  summit  of  which,  at  three  o'clock 

auestions.     Ha  wrote  "Le  t«nple  dee  Husee  labu-  in  the  morning  of  18  October  Father  Blanchet  cete- 

listes"    (Li^,    1776,    2   vtAa.)    and    "L'Eoole   des  braled  Maes.     They  arrived  at  Fort  Vimmuver  on 

m^EUis"    (Namtir   and   Paris,   1775,   2   vols.).     The  24   November.     The  territory  saaigned   lo   the  two 

latter  wortc  was  first  published  without  the  author's    priests    embraced  . 

name  under  the  title,  "Le  poMe  des  meeurs,  ou  les  about      375,000 
maximes  de  la  sageese  .  .  .      (1771),  and  later  was  square  miles.     It 
reprinted  several  times  witJi  the  title  "Maximes  de  extended      from 
lionnfte  homme,  ou  le  po^te  des  mceure".     Blanch*  California  lo  Alaar 
»rd'a  main  work  was  published  after  his  death  by  ka,  and  from  the 
Bruyset:  "Pr^ceptes  pour  I'Mucation  des  deux  sexes  Rocky  MountainB 
A  I'usage   des   families   chritiennes"    (Lyons,    1803,  to     the     Pacifio 
2  vols.);  a  new  edition  in  1S07  was  entitled  "Educa-  Ocean. 
tion  chrfitienne  k  I'usage  de  I'un  et  de  I'autre  sexe".  For  four  years 
Blanchard  adapts  to  Cnristian  education  the  princi-  they     laboured 
pies  found   in  Rousseau's   "Emile".     In   the  work  atone,  going  from 
there  is   little   originali^;   yet,   besides   judiciously  settlement  to  set- 
choaen  quotatjons,  we  find  very  useful  suggestions  tiement,    facing 
sod  good  criticisms  of  Rousseau's  views.     It  is  di-  every   peril  of  a 
rided  into   three   parts:   physical   education,   moral  wild   country,  re- 
education, and  education  of  giris,     Great  irnportance  calling   the    scat- 
is  attached  to  physical  culture,  health,  hygiene  of  the  tered    faithful    ta 
whole  organism,   and   of   the   special   seose-organs.  the     practice     of 
Useful  ndes  are  given  for  the  forrnation  of  ttte  in-  religion    and    in- 
tellect, feelings,  and  will.     Oood  pronunciation  and  atructing    the  ab-         u„_,  n_  ».._„„  w^...... 

reading  are   msisted  on.     Blanohard  riahUy  rejects  origines.     Then                          bLEJ^S? 

the  principle  of  nwitive  education  advocated  by  two  other  priests 

Roumeau.     It  would  be  very  harmful   to  wait  till  from   Canada,   the   Revs.    A.   Langlois  and  Z.  B(^- 

reason  is  dev^oped  in  order  to  make  the  child  exer-  due,  came  to  their  assistanoe.     In   1S44  they   were 

rise  it;  on  the  contrary,  it  must  be  developed  try  reinforced     by    the    great    missionarv.   Father    De 

proper  exercise   and  under    proper   guidance.      lo  Smet,  with  four  other  Jesuit  priests,  three  lay  broth- 

start  for  a  long  journey,  he  says,  the  traveUer  does  ers,  and  six     Sisters  of  Notre    Dame    de    Namur. 

not  wait  till  the  sun  is  high  in  the  sky,  but  rather  The  immense  territory  of  the  Or^n  mission  wm 

jHofits  by  the  first  rays  of  light;  so  must  it  be  with  made   an  Apostolic    \-icariate    1    December,    1S43; 

the  chilci.     As  to  the  education  of  women,  Blanch-  Father  Blanchet  was  named  its  first  vicar  Apostolio 

ard's  views  seem  rather  narrow  to-day.     Woman  is  and  titular  Bishop  of  Philadelphia,    The  letters  from 

made  for  dependence.     Her  instruction  must  be  hm-  Rome  arrived  in  August.  1844.    To  receive  episcopal 

iled  to  a  few  elementary  notions;  Fdnelon's  principles  oonsecration    he   started    for   Canada   5   Deoember, 

and  the  "Avis  d'une  m^re  &  sa  fille"  of  Madame  de  boarded  a  steamer  on  the  Colmnbia  River,  touchea 

Lambert,  which  Blanchard  reproduces,  must  form  at  Honolulu,  doubled  Cape  Horn,  landed  at  Dover, 

the  basis  of  her  moral  education.  Gn^and,  went  by  rail  to  Liverpool,  took  a  vessel  to 

Bounjjn,  Bioaravliie  ardmnaiK;  CouFXTsfi  in  La  arande  Bocrton  and  thence  proceeded  by  rail  to  Montreal,  a 

i;St*i^2si'i,"<i.".'S3rsss,'i.'WK5:'a  fe™?,;;  ^j"!»,rl?;.j?",T>,'°rT',^,  ^ 

BJ..  Brusnli  aod  Puis   isgoi.  I   1&38:  DicAmTwin  df  iru-  Bishop  Bourget  m  the  Cathedral  of  Montreal  26  July, 

mv"  onmyuM  tt  pieadmgma  (Pari*.  ISM)  72B^  lg45.    Later  he  returned  to  Europe,  visiting  Rome, 

C.  A.  DcrBBAT.  France,  Belgium|  Germany,  and  Austria  in  the  in- 

_                                                 „     n              n     r  terests  of   his   diocese.      He   gathered   together  six 

W»aiChB.GOTrAVB,Eudiflt.    SeeGoLrorST.LAw-  secular  prieets,  four  Jesuit  prieats,  three  lay  brothera, 

RENCi,  ViCAHiATB  AposTOUC  OF.  and  seven  Sistera  of  Notre  Dame.    They  sailed  from 

Bluicbet,    FRANfoiB    Norbebt,  missionary  and  Brest  22  February,  1847,  and  reached  the  Columbia 

first  Archbishop  of  Orafon  City,   U.   S.   A.,  son  of  River  on  12  August.    The  bishop  was  translated  to 

Pierre  Blanchet,  a  Canadian  farmer,  b.  30  September,  the  See  of  Draza  by  letters  of  4  May,  1844,  to  avoid 

1795,  near  Saints  Pierre,  Rivi&re  du  Sud,  Province  of  the  confusion  of  his  former  title  with  that  of  Phila- 

Quebec;  d.  18  June,  1883,  at  Portland,  Oregon.    After  delphia,  U.  8.  A.     The  Vicariate  was  erected  into  a 

three  years  in  the  village  school  he  went  in  1810,  with  province  24  July,  184Q.     Bishop  Blanchet  was  made 

his  brother  Augustin  Slagloire,  later  the  first  Bishop  Archbishop   of   Orwon   City,   nis   brother   Magloire 

of  Ncsqually,  to  the  Seminary  of  Quebec,  where  he  became  Bishop  of  Walla  Walla,  and  Father  D«nen 

was  ordainKl  priest  18  July,  1819.    He  was  stationed  Bishop  of  Vancouver's  Island, 

at  the  cathedral  for  a  year  and  was  then  sent  to  The  archbishop  was  indefatigable.    He  summoned 

Richibucto,  New  Brunswick,  as  pastor  of  the  Hicmao  hie  first  provincial  council  in  1848;  attended  the  Fi^ 

Indians  and  Acadian  settlera,  among  whom  he  spent  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  in  1852;  went  in  185fi 

seven  yeara  of  missionary  apprenticeship,  enduring  to  South  America  and  coltecled  for  two  years  in  Chile, 

poverty,  isolation,  and  innumerable  hardships.     In  Peru,  and  Bolivia;  returned  to  Canada  in  1850  ana 

1S37   ne   was   recalled   to   Montreal   and   appointed  took  hack  to  Or^on  31  priests,  sisters,  and  servants. 

pastor  of  St,  Joseph  de  Soulanges,  a  parish  of  2,000  He  attended  the  ^cond  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore 

■oula.     During  the  cholera  epidemic  of    1832  Father  in  1866;  celebrated,  10  July.  1869,  the  golden  jubilee 

Blanchet  attended  the  stricken  so  fearlessly  that  the  of  his  ordination,  and  in  the  following  October  set 

Protestants  of  the   place  presented  him  with  a  testi-  out  for  Rome  to  assist  at  the  Vatican  Council,  where 

monial.     In  1837  he  was  appointed  vicar-generai  by  he  voted  for  the  definition  of  the  dogma  of   Pafml 

Archbishop  Signay  for  the  Oregon  mission,  a  vast  re-  Infallibility.    He  was  still  in  the  city  26  September, 

gion  never  before  visited  by  a  priest,  and  he  set  out  on  1870,  when  the  temporal  power  of  the  papacy  was 

3  May,  1838,  accompanied  by  the  Rev.  Modeste  Dcm-  overthrown.     When   Bishop  Sobers  was  made  his. 

erawith  the  annual  express  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Com-  coadjutor  in  1879  he  retired  to  the  hospital  of  the 

pany.    ITie  journey  from  Lachine  to  Fort  Vancouver  Sisters  of  Providence  at  Portland,     He  wrote  tjje 

a  distance  of  about  5,000  miles,  was  made  in  canoes,  atoiy  of  the  Oregon  mission  (Historical  sketobes  of 


BLANDnrA  594  BLAMS 

Catholicity  in  Oreeon)  in  a  series  of  papers  published  death  we  have  the  touching  report  sent  by  the  Church 
in  the  "Catholic  ^sntinel"  of  that  city.  In  1880  he  of  Lyons  to  the  Churches  of  Asia  Minor  (Eusebius, 
resided  and  was  appointed  titular  Archbishop  of  Hist.  eccL,  V,  2).  The  fanaticism  of  the  heathen 
Amida.  He  consecrated  three  bishops — ^Demers,  populaoe  in  Lyons  had  been  excited  against  the 
D'Herbomez,  and  Seghers.  He  found  on  the  Pacific  Christians  so  tnat  the  latter,  when  they  ventured 
coast  a  wilderness,  spiritual  as  well  as  material;  he  to  show  themselves  publicly,  were  harassed  and  ill- 
left,  after  torty-eix  years  of  heroic  work,  a  well-pro-  treated.  While  the  imperial  legate  was  away  the 
vided  ecclesiastical  province.  His  name  will  be  for-  chiliarch,  a  military  commander,  and  the  duumvir, 
ever  illustrious  in  the  history  of  the  Church  in  America  a  civil  magistrate,  threw  a  number  of  Christians, 
as  the  first  archbishop  of  the  North-west  and  the  who  confessed  their  faith,  into  prison.  When  the 
Apostle  of  Oregon.  legate    returned,    the    imprisoned    believers   were 

Blanchet,  Auoustin  Maoloire,  brother  of  pre-  brought  to  trial.  Among  tnese  Christians  was  Blan- 
ceding,  first  Bishop  of  Walla  Walla-Nesqually,  State  dina,  a  slave,  who  had  been  taken  into  custody 
of  Washington,  U.  S.  A.,  b.  22  Aug^t.  1797,  on  his  along  with  her  master,  also  a  Christian.  Her  corn- 
father's  farm  near  the  village  of  Saint-Pierre,  Rividre  panions  greatly  feared  that  on  account  of  her  bodily 
du  Sud,  Canada;  d.  25  February,  1887,  at  Fort  Van-  frailty  she  might  not  remain  steadfast  under  tor- 
couver,  Washington.  After  attending  the  village  ture.  But  although  the  legate  caused  her  to  be 
school  for  three  years^  he  was  sent  to  Quebec,  witn  tortured  in  a  horrible  manner,  so  that  even  the 
his  brother  Francois  Nujoert,  to  study  for  the  priest-  executioners  became  exhausted  ''as  they  did  not 
hood.  He  was  ordained  3  June,  1821.  After  a  twelve-  know  what  more  they  could  do  to  her",  still  she  re- 
month  as  assistant  pastor  at  St.  Gervais,  he  was  sent  mained  faithful  and  repeated  to  every  question  "I 
as  missionary  to  the  Isles  de  la  Madeleine  and  later  am  a  Christian  and  we  commit  no  wrongdoing." 
to  Cape  Breton  Island.  He  gave  foiu*  years  of  min-  Through  fear  of  torture  heathen  slaves  had  testiSed 
istry  to  the  Gulf  provinces.  Then  he  was  recalled  against  their  masters  that  the  Christians  when  as- 
to  the  vicariate  Apostolic  of  Montreal  and  was  sue-  sembled  committed  those  scandalous  acts  of  which 
cessively  pastor  of  four  parishes,  in  one  of  which  thejr  were  accused  by  the  heathen  mobj  and  the  legate 
he  was  the  successor  of  his  elder  brother.  In  1846  desired  to  wrin^  confession  of  this  misconduct  from 
while  a  canon  of  the  Montreal  cathedral,  he  was  ap-  the  Christian  prisoners.  In  his  report  to  the  eniperor 
pointed  Bishop  of  the  new  Diocese  of  Walla  WaUa  the  legate  stated  that  those  who  neld  to  their  Ohris- 
m  what  is  now  the  State  of  Washington.  He  was  tian  Mief  were  to  be  executed  and  those  who  de- 
consecrated 27  September.  1846.  In  the  following  nied  their  faith  were  to  be  released;  Blandina  was, 
spring  he  set  out  overland  for  his  distant  see  with  one  therefore,  with  a  number  of  companions  subjected 
priest.  Rev.  J.  A.  B.  Brouillet,  and  two  students.  At  to  new  tortures  in  the  amphitheatre  at  the  time  of 
Pittsburgh  he  declared  his  intention  to  become  a  citi-  the  public  games.  She  was  bound  to  a  stake  and 
sen  of  the  United  States.  At  St.  Louis  the  party  was  wild  beasts  were  set  on  her.  They  did  not,  however, 
increased  by  Father  Richard,  two  deacons  and  touch  her.  After  this  for  a  number  of  days  she  was 
Brother  Blanchet,  all  members  of  the  Order  of  Mary  led  into  the  arena  to  see  the  sufferings  of  her  corn- 
Immaculate.  Fort  Walla  Walla  was  reached  on  panions.  Finally,  as  the  last  of  the  martyrs,  she 
5  September,  1847  The  Bishop  located  at  The  Dalles  was  scourged,  placed  on  a  red-hot  grate,  enclosed 
and  thence  multiplied  his  apostolic  labours  through-  in  a  net  and  tlurown  before  a  wild  steer  who  tossed 
out  the  vast  temtory  under  his  care.  He  endured  her  into  the  air  with  his  horns,  and  at  last  killed  with 
the  many  hardships  of  a  pioneer  country  and  braved  a  dagger.  Her  feast  is  celebrated  2  June, 
all  the  perils  of  a  region  infested  with  wild  beasts  .  Acta  SS.,  June,  I,  161  sqq.;  Allaro,  HUtoire  dea  pertiof 
and  still  more  savage  men.  He  was  fuU  of  aeal.  He  **^^  ^^»™''  ^^®2).  1, 397  sqq.  Kirsch 
established  missions;  he  built  churches;  he  founded  *  ivirsch. 
academies  and  colleges;  he  started  schools  for  the 

Indians;  he  b^ged  for  priests  in  Canada  and  abroad;  .  Blane  (or  Blaan),  Saint,  Bishop  and  Confessor 

he  obtained  sisters  to  open  hospitals  and  other  in*  ^^  Scotland,  b.  on  the  island  of  Bute,  date  un- 

stitutions.  known;  d.  590.    His  feast  is  kept  on   10  August. 

In  1850  the  See  of  Walla  Walla  was  suppressed  and  He  was  a  nephew  of  St.  Cathan,  and  was  educated 

that  of  Nesqually  was  erected  in  its  stead,  with  head-  ^  Ireland  under  Sts.  Comffall  and  Kenneth;  he  be- 

quarters  at  Fort  Vancouver.    The  bishop  built  there  «anae  a  monk,  went  to  Scotland,  and  eventually  was 

a  cathedral  of  logs,  and  a  house  for  himself  out  of  bishop  among  the  Picts.    Several  miracles  are  related 

the  same  material.    In  1852  he  attended  the  First  of  hinij,  among  them  the  restoration  of  a  dead  boy  to 

Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore,  but,  on  account  of  We.    The  Aberdeen  Breviary  gives  these  and  other 

infirmities,  he  was  unable  to  go  to  Rome  for  the  details  of  the  saint  s  hfe,  which  are  rejected,  however, 

Vatican  Council.     In  1879,  after  thirty-two  years  by  the  BoUandists.     There  can  be  no  doubt  that 

of  arduous  service  in  Washington,  he  resigned  his  devotion  to  St.  Blane  was,  from  early  times,  popular 

see  and  was  named  titular  Bishop  of  Ibora.    Worn  ^  Scotland.    His  monastenr  became  the  site  of  the 

out  with  labours,  he  spent  his  last  eight  years  in  Cathedral  of  Dunblane.    There  was  a  church  of  St. 

prayer  and  suffering.     His  peaceful  death  was  a  Blane  in  Dumfries  and  another  at  Kilblane.     The 

fittmg  close  for  his  life  of  sacrifice.    He  is  revered  year  of  the  saint's  death  is  variously  riven  as  446, 

as  the  Apostle  of  Washington.  o90.  and  1000;  446  (Butler,  Lives  of  the  Samts)  is 

Db  Smet,  Oreoon  Musiont  and  Travis  in  the  Rockv  Maun'  evidently  incorrect;  the  date  1000,  found  in  Adam 

«atn«;  MuRRAT,l>opu^r  HiaL  of  the  Cath.  Church  vi  the  U.  3,  King,  "Kalendar  of  Scottish  Saints"  (Paris,  1588), 

i?JS:7lJ^'fN'^^^^^  ^hn^'^^^'^n  m  Dempster^/'Menolo^^um  Scotorum"  (Bonn  1622)^ 

Richardson,  Life,  Lettere,  and  Travele  of  Fr,  Pierre  Jean  De  and  m  the  "Acta  SS.  ',  seems  tO  have  CTCpt  m  by 

Smet  (New  York,  1906);  Shea,  HUtoryof  the  Catholic  Church  confusmg   St.    Kenneth,   whose   disciple   BUne   was, 

^"i&c'WSS!Sl^'irJy's.'cS^iic«fir*^'SL?IJ^:  withTjenneth  who  w«  King  of  Scotland  about 

Livee  of  Deceased  Btehopa  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  A.  D.  1000.     The  highest  authorities  sav  the  saint  died 

Statee  (New  York.  1888).  t    w  p  ^^'    ^^^  ^^  ^  ^^  church  at  Kingarth^  Bute. 

L.  W,  Keillt.  where  his  remains  were  buried,  are  stiU  standing  ana 

Blandina,  Saint,  virgin   and   martyr.— She  be-  (orm  an  object  of  great  interest  to  antiquarians;  the 

longs  to  the  band  of  martyrs  of  Lyons  who,  after  beU  of  his  monastery  is  preserved  at  Dunblane.  ^^ 

some  of  their  nmnber  had  endured  the  most  fright-  ^F^^/ZhlS^Xofd'SS^^  K 

ful  tortures,  suffered  a  fflonous  martyrdom  m  the  Ado  iSS.,  10  August,  XXXVI,  560. 
reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius  (177)  and  concerning  whof^  M.  J,  O'Maua. 


595  BLA8PHXMY 

Blarer  of  Wartensae.     See  St.  Gall,  Abbet  op.  qm  k  dear,  when  the  anger  is  vented  upon  God. 

BUsendorf.    See  Fooaras,  Diocese  op.  ^i!*^°^  ?°  1^®  ^  ^^®^  blasphemous  speech  is 

'       ,  uttered  inadvertently,  through  force  of  habit,  a  grave 

BUipAMXiy  (Qr.  fiXdTTM,  "to  iniure",  and  ^iJaai?,  sin  is  not  committed  as  long  as  earnest  resistance  is 

'wputation")  iignifies  etymologically  gross  irrever-  made  to  the  habit.    If.  however,  no  such  effort  is 

noe  towards  any  person  or  thing  worthy  of  exalted  put  forth  there  cannot  but  be  grave  guilt,  though  a 

it««ii.  In  this  broad  sense  the  term  is  used  by  Bacon  mortal  ^n  is  not  committed  on  the  occasion  of  each 

fhea  in  m  "  Advaneement  of  Learning'^  he  speaks  of  and  every  blasphemous  outburst.    It  has  been  said 

blasijhemy  agalnijt  learning '^     St.   Paul  tells  of  that  heretical  blasphemy  besides  a  content  directed 

'^  '^             ----           -     * -                                                      apposed  to  the 

Y  blasphemy 
forms  of  the 

at  large  (11  Kings,  xxi,  21;  I  Par.,  xx,  7)  or  against  sin  being  specifically  distinct  from  the  simpler  kind, 

individuals  (I  CJor^  x,  30;  Tit.,  iii,  2).  it  is  necessary  to  specify  their  character  in  confession. 

I.  Meaning. — While     etymologically    blasphemy  Whether   blasphemy  has   been   direct  or  indirect, 

may  denote  the  derogation  of  the  honour  due  to  a  however,  caUs  not  for  specification  on  the  part  of 

creature  as  well  as  of  that  belon^ng  to  God,  in  its  the  penitent,  since  both  these  forms  are  8i>ecifically 

strict  acceptation  it  is  used  onhr  m  the  latter  sense,  the  same,  though  clearly  differine  in  the  degree  of 

Hence  it  has  been  defined  by  Suarez  as  "any  word  malice.    The  question  has  been  raised  whether  blas- 

of  malediction,  reproach,  or  contumely  pronounced  phemy  against  the  saints  differs  in  kind  from  that 

against  God"  (De  Rdig.,  tract,  iii,  lib.  I,  cap.  iv,  n.  uttered  immediately  agiinst  God.    While  De  Lugo 

ly.   It  is  to  be  noted  that  according  to  the  definition  thinks  that  such  a  dperence  obtains  (De  Poenit., 

(1)  blasphennr  is  set  down  as  a  word,  for  ordinarily  disp.  xvi,  n.  178  sqq.)  the  opposite  opinion  of  St. 

it  is  expressed  in  speech,  though  it  may  be  committed  Alphonsus  seems  more  tenable,  for  as  the  latter 

in  thought  or  in  act.     Being  primarily  a  sin  of  the  theologian  observes,  the  saints,  ordinarily  speaking, 

tongue,  it  will  be  seen  to  be  opposed  directly  to  the  are  not  blasphemed  because  of  their  own  excellence 

religious  act  of  praising  God.     (2)  It  is  said  to  be  but  because  of  their  close  relationship  to  God  (Theol. 

a^nst  God,  though  this  may  be  only  mediately,  as  Moral.,  lib.  IV,  n.  132). 

when  the  contumelious  word  is  spoken  of  the  saints  The  Penalties  Attached   to  Blasphemy. — In 

or  of  sacred  things,  because  of  the  relationship  they  the  Old  Law/ the  blasphemer  was  punished  by  death, 

sustain  to  God  and  His  iservice.     Blasphemy,  by  So  God  appointed  on  the  occasion  of  the  blasphemy 

reason  of  the  significance  of  the  words  with  which  it  of  Salumitn's  son:  "The  man  that  curseth  His  God, 

is  expressed,  may  be  of  three  kinds.    (1)  It  is  heretical  shall  bear  his  sin:  And  he  that  blasphemeth  the  name 

when  the  insult  to  God  involves  a  declaration  that  of  the  Lord,  dying  let  him  die:  all  the  multitude  shall 

is  against  faith,  as  in  the  assertion:  "God  is  cruel  and  stone  him,  whether  he  be  a  native  or  a  stranger.    He 

unjust"  or  "The  noblest  work  of  man  is  God".    (2)  that  blasphemeth  the  name  of  the  Lord,  oyine  let 

It  is  imprecatory  when  it  would  cry  a  maledy;tion  him  die"  (Lev.,  xxiv,  15-16).    Upon  hearing  blas- 

upon  the  Supreme  Being  as  when  one  would  say:  phemy  the  Jews  were  wont  in  detestation  of  the  crime 

"Away  with  God".     And  finally  (3),  it  b  simply  to  rend  their  clothes  (IV  Kings,  xviii,  37,  xix,  1; 

contumelious  when  It  is  wholly  made  up  of  contempt  Matt.,  xxvi,  65). 

of,  or  indignation  towards,  God,  as  in  tne  blasphemy  Among  the  Athenians  blasphemy  was  actionable 
of  Julian  the  Apostate:  "Thou  hast  conquered,  O  and  according  to  Plutarch^  Aicibiades  was  made  to 
Galilsean".  Again  blasphemy  may  be  (1)  either  direct,  suffer  the  confiscation  of  his  goods  for  ridiculing  the 
as  when  the  one  blaspheming  formally  intends  to  rites  of  Ceres  and  Proserpine  (Plutarch,  Aicibiades). 
dishonour  the  EHvinity,  or  {2)  indirect,  as  when  Among  the  ancient  Romans  blasphemy  was  pimish- 
without  such  intention  blasphemous  words  are  used  aUe,  though  rot  by  death  (Manutius,  "De  Legibus 
with  advertence  to  their  import.  Romania",  quoted  by  Disney,  "A  view  of  Ancient 
II.  The  Malice  of  Blasphemy. — Blasphemy  is  a  Laws  against  Immorality  ana  Profaneness",  p.  826). 
sin  against  the  virtue  of  reli^on  by  which  we  render  In  the  time  of  Justinian  we  find  most  severe  enact- 
to  Ci^  the  honour  due  to  Him  as  our  first  beginning  ments  against  this  sin.  In  a  constitution  of  a.  d.  538 
and  last  end.  St.  Thomas  says  that  it  is  to  be  re-  the  peo^e  are  called  upon  to  abstain  from  blasphemy, 
garded  as  a  sin  against  faith  inasmuch  as  by  it  we  which  provokes  God  to  anger.  The  prefect  of  the  city 
attribute  to  God  that  which  does  not  belong  to  Him,  is  commanded  to  apprehend  all  such  as  shall  p>ersist> 
or  deny  Him  that  which  is  His  (II-II,  Q.  xiii,  art.  I),  iii  their  offence  after  this  admonition  and  put  them 
De  Lugo  and  others  deny  that  this  is  an  essential  to  death,  that  so  the  dty  and  the  empire  may  not 
element  in  blasphemy  (De  just,  et  jure  cseterisque  suffer  because  of  their  impiety  (Auth.  Col.,  Tit.  vii, 
virt  card.,  lib.  II,  c.  xlv,  disp.  v,  n.  26),  but  as  Esco-  7  November).  Among  the  Visigoths,  anyone  bias- 
bar  CTheol.  mor.,  lib.  xxviii,  c.  xxxii,  n.  716  sqq.)  phemin^  the  name  of  Christ  or  expressing  contempt 
observes,  the  contention  on  this  point  concerns  words  of  the  Trinity  had  his  head  shorn,  was  subjected  to  a 
only,  since  the  followers  of  St.  Thomas  see  in  the  con-  hundred  stnpee,  and  suffered  perpetual  imprison- 
tempt  expressed  in  blasphemy  the  implication  that  ment  in  chains  (LI.  Wisigoth.,  lib.  All,  tit.  iii,  1.  2). 
God  is  contemptible — an  implication  in  which  all  Amon^  the  Franks,  according  to  a  law  enacted  at 
will  allow  there  is  attributed  to  God  that  which  does  the  Diet  of  Aachen,  a.  d.  818,  this  sin  was  a  capital 
not  belong  to  Him.  What  is  here  said  is  of  blasphemy  offence.  In  the  Gospels  blasphemy  is  described  as 
in  general  manifestly  that  form  of  the  sin  described  one  of  "the  things  that  defile  a  man"  (Matt.,  xv,  20; 
above  as  neretical  is  not  only  opposed  to  the  virtue  Mark,  vii,  21-23). 

of  religion  but  that  of  faith  as  well.  Blasphemy  is  of  Medieval  canon  law  pimished  the  blasphemer  most 
its  whole  nature  (ex  toto  genere  suo)  a  mortal  sin,  the  •  severely.  By  a  decree  of  the  thirteenth  century  one 
gravest  that  may  be  committed  against  religion,  convicted  of  blasphemy  was  compelled  to  stand  at 
The  seriousness  of  an  affront  is  proportioned  to  the  the  door  of  the  church  during  the  solemnities  of  the 
dignity  of  the  person  towards  whom  it  is  directed.  Mass  for  seven  Sundays,  and  on  the  last  of  these  days. 
Since  then  the  msult  in  blasphemy  is  offered  to  the  divested  of  cloak  and  shoes,  he  was  to  appear  with  a 
ineffable  majesty  of  God,  the  degree  of  its  heinousness  rope  about  his  neck.  Obligations  of  fasting  and  alms- 
must  be  evident.  Nevertheless  because  of  slight  or  giving  were  likewise  imposed  under  heaviest  penalties 
no  advertence  blasphemy  may  be  either  a  venial  sin  a)ecret.,  lib.  V,  tit.  xxvi).  The  rigours  of  the  ancient 
only  or  no  sin  at  all.  Thus  many  expressions  voiced  oiscipline  were  insisted  upon  by  Pius  V  in  his  Con- 
in  ai^ger  escape  the  enormity  of  a  grave  sin,,  except,  stitution  "Cum  primum  apostolatus"  ({  10).    Ao* 


BLASPHEMY  596  BLEMMIDA 

cordixig  to  the  law  herein  laid  down,  the  layman  found  vri^dXiop  (ruader),  soon  became  extensively  emj^yed. 

guilty  of  blasphemy  was  fined.   The  fine  was  increased  and  is  still  used  in  the  Greek  Chimsh,  as  is  evidenoea 

upon  his  second  offence,  and  upon  his  third  he  was  by  the  fact  that  an  edition  of  the  work  in  six  volumes 

sent  into  exile.    If  unable  to  pay  the  fine,  he  was  upon  was  published  in  Athens  from   1852  to  I860,  un- 

the  first  conviction  condenmed  to  stand  before  the  der  the  aiispices  of  the  Holy  Synod.     This  editioti 

door  of  the  church,  his  hands  tied  behind  him.    For  bears  the  title:  26rrayfm  rdy  Beluw  koX  ItpQw  Kavbwvw. 

the  second  offence  he  was  flogged,  and  for  th6  third  .This  work  is  also  foimd  in  the  Synodicon '  of  Bev- 

his  tongue  was  pierced,  and  he  was  sentenced  to  the  eridge  (P.  G.,  CXLIV,  CXLV)  pttblished  at  Oxford 

galleys.    The  blasphemous  cleric,  if  possessed  of  a  in   1672.     There  are  also  attributed   to   Blastares 

benefice,  lost  upon  his  first  offence  a  year's  income:  a  tract  on  matrimonial  cases,  and  two  poems  pub- 

upon  his  second  he  was  deprived  of  his  benefice  ana  lished  l^  Goar  in  Greek  and  Latin^  one  on  the 

exiled.    If  enjoviM  no  benefice,  he  was  first  subjected  offices  of  the  Church  of  Constantinople,  the  other 

to  a  fine  and  bodily  punishment;   on  repeating  the  on  the  court.    His  "Syntagma",  like  other  medieval 

offence  he  was  imprisoned,  and  still  persisting,  he  law-books  of  the  Greeks,  breathes  a  spirit  inimical 

was  degraded  and  condemned  to  the  galleys.  to  the  Roman  Church. 

Blasphemy  in  Civil  Law. — Blasphemy  cogniz*       MOhleb  in  KirchenUx.;  V&rtno,  Ltiwhmch  deM  Kvrthenr.,  17; 

able  by  common  law  is  defined  by  Bbckstone  to  be  ^^^^^^  ^^«^  d^  Kirchenr,,m,  79,  80:   Beveriikjb. 

"denying  the  being  or  providence  of  God,  contume-  Oexh.  der  bi/taru,  Litt.  (Munich.  1897),  607. 
lious  reproaches  of  our  Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  profane  A.  B.  Meehan. 

scoffing  at  the  Holy  Scripture,  or  exposing  it  to  con-        -^,    ^  ^  ,..,.,*.,  ,    « 

tempt  or  ridicule '\     In  the  United  States  we  find  .   wathmac,  Saint,  a  distinguished  Irish  monk,  b. 

many  penal  statutes  against  blasphemy,  which  have  ^^  Ireland  about  750.     He  suffered  martyrdom  in 

been  declared  constitutional  as  not  subversive  of  the  lona,  about  835.     He  is  fortimate  in  having  had  his 

freedom  of  speech  or  liberty  of  the  press  (Am.  and  biography  written  by  Strabo,  Benedictine  Abbot  of 

Eng.  Ency.  of  Law,  Vol.  IV,  582).    In  the  American  Reichenau  (824-849),  and  thus  the  story  of  his  mar- 


Scriptures  are  pimishable  at  common  law".  Accord-  Sanctorum"  (Paris,  1624).  A  scion  of  a  noble  family 
ingly  where  one  uttered  the  following  words  "Jesus  ^^  e^^-rly  showed  a  religious  turn  of  mind,  and  lon^ 
Cfiist  was  a  bastard  and  his  mother  was  a  whore",  ^  ^  enrolled  in  the  noble  army  of  martyrs,  a  fnah 
it  was  held  to  be  a  public  offence,  punishable  by  the  which  was  afterwards  fulfilled.  His  name  was  latin- 
common  law.  The  defendant  found  guilty  by  the  i*^  Florentius  (from  the  fact  of  the  Irish  word  BkUh 
court  of  common  pleas  of  the  blasphemy  above  meaning  a  flower),  and  as  a  religioue.h©  was  most  ex- 
quoted  was  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  three  emplary,  finally  becoming  abbot  In  824  he  joined 
months  and  to  pay  a  fine  of  five  hundred  dollars.  wie  commumty  of  Columban  monks  at  lona,  and  not 
St.  Thomab  Aquinas,  Sum,  Theol.,  II-II,  Q.  xiU,  a.  3;  Q.  long  afterwards  the  Danes  ravaged  the  island.  One 
cy.  a.  2«i,  3«n:  Q.  Ixxx,  a.  S.-.I-II,  Q.  x.  a.  2;  St.  Liatjow,  morning,  as  he  was  celebrating  Mass,  the  Scandlna- 

22^;X3fe'i^q7*.oSS'i^/^w!'iib:f1ir'iwrS-»i^  vian  roye«  entered  the  mon^^c  churdx  and  put  the 

A  View  of  Ancient  Lawe  aqainat  Immorality  and  ProfanenesB;  monks  to  death.      St.  Blathmac  refused  tO  point  OUt 

Oblet  in  Diet,  de  thSol.  eath.,  b.  v.  Blap>hhne.  the  shrine  of  St.  CJolumba,  which  was  really  the  obiect 

John  Webster  Meix>dy.  ^f  plunder,  and  he  was  hacked  to  pieces  on  the  altar 

Blasphemy  against  the  Holy  Spirit.    See  Holt  step.    His  body  was  afterwards  reverentlv  int^rti 

Ghost.  where   the   scene   of   martyrdom   took   place,   and 

Blastares,  Matthew,  a  monk  of  the  Order  of  numerous  nurades  are  claimed  to  have  been  wrought 

St.   BasQ,  hving  in   the  fourteenth   century,  who  through  his  intercession.    The  date  of  his  death  is 

applied  himself  to  the  study  of  theology  and  canon  fjven  by  the  "Annals  of  Ulster"  as  825,  although 

law.    Through  the  labours  of  John  the  Scholastic,  Mabillon  places  it  thirty-«x  years  earher. 

Photius.  Zonaras,  Balsamon,  and  others  the  Greek  rr^J'^'^/r*  ^^''^'T^J^n^^^"^   ^^^^»   &'JES'*°''**' #  ^T 

xuvKiuo,  «^ucM«w>,  A^«Mo«»iuvrM,  «»u^»  vruu«^»D   v»*«  v^x^^<v  jiio^grf    (Dublin,    1866);    MBSBiNaHAM.    FlorHcoxum    Ineulm 

Church    possessed    some    collections    of    laws    and  Sanctomm  (ParU,  1624);  Mabillon.  AnntOeM  Ordinie  S.  Bene- 

commentaries.    Thwe    was,    however,    need    of    a  dtc«i,  ni;  p.  <5.,CXIII;  i4»na/»  of  l/'itter  (Rolls  Series);  Healt, 

more  comprehensive  work,  and  one  better  adapt^  i^^S^ZI^^U'lSS^dS^^f!'  **^'^'  **°"*"' 
to  the  needs  of  the  time.    It  appeared  about  1335,  W.  n.  Grattan  Flood. 

in  the  "Sjmtagma"  of  Blastares,  a  collection  of 

ecclesiastical    constitutions    in^  alphabetical    order,        Blammida  (BLEMBfTBEs)  Nicephorus,  a  learned 

written  in  Greek.    The  full  title  might  be  trans-  monk  and  writer  of  the  Greek  Church,  b.  about  1198, 

lated   into   Latin   thus:    ''Sjmtagina   alphabeticum  at  Constantinople;  d.  1272.    After  tl^  estabUahment 

rerum  omnium,  quse  in  sacns  divinisque  canonibus  of  the  Latin  E^mpire   (1204)  his  family  emigrated 

comprehenduntur,   elaboratum    pariter    et    compo-  to  Asia  Minor.     Blemmida  there  received  a  careful 

situm  per  minimum  ex  hieromonachis  Matthaeum  training  and  was  soon  reputed  one  of  the   most 

Blastarem".    The    collection,    which    contains    a  learned  men  of  his  time.     About  1223  he  became 

long  preface,  is  arranged  alphabetically^  by  means  one  of  the  Byzantine  clergy,  at  that  time  establislied 

of  the  initial  letters  of  the  words  which  indicate  in  Nicsea.     But  owine  to  difificultteB  and  jealoiisies 

the  subject-matter  of  each  chapter;  several  chap-  he  renounced  all  worldly  prospects,  became  a  monk, 

ters  are  thus  found  under  one  letter.     For  example  and  built  a  monasteiy  near  Ephesus,  ova*  which 

under  the  Greek  F:  Thoughts  concerning  the  degrees  he  presided  until  his  death.     In  this  condition  he 

of  relationship  in  reference  to  matrimony,  concern-  fdt   free   from   all   entanglements  and  on  variouB 

ing    marriages    permitted    and    prohibited.     Under  occasions  exhibited  independence  and  courage.     At 

A:  Thoughts  on  last  testaments,  deacons,  justice,  one   time   he   dismissed   from   the   church    of    his 

ecclesiastical  trials,  etc*  monastery  the   Princess   Marcemna,  a  mkstress   of 

In  each  chapter  the  author  first  gives  the  law  the    Emperor    John    Ducas     Batatzes    (122^-54), 

of  the  Church  on  the  subject  and  then,  if  there  be  and  in  justification  of  his  conduct  wrote  an  encyc- 

any,  the  civil  law  also,  setting  forth  the  sense  rather  lical  letter.     Again,  when  the  Patriarch  Joe^^  of 

than  the  exact  wording  of  either,  and  contenting  Constantinople    (1268-75)    sought   to    obtain    reo- 

himself   with   noting   where    the    constitutions   re-  ognition    a^inst    the    former    Patriarch   Ars^iius 

ferred  to  may  be  found.     The  "Syntagma*',  com-  (1255-66),    he   met   with   a   straight   refusal    from 

monly    called    "Nomocanon*'    or,    by    metaphor,  Blenmiida.     Neverthelesfi    Blemmida    was   held    in 


007  BLESSED 

high  esteem  by  the  contemporaiy  Qreek  Emperors,  generotu  to  ttie  poor.    He  waa  buried  fai  St.  Augus- 

The  aforementioned  John  JLhicas,  far  from  venting  tine's  Cemetery,  8.  Boston. 

his  ^Tath  on   him,   accented   the  rebuke  as   weU  PinrsR  J.  BLBNtciKsop  was  b.  in  Dublin,  19  April, 

merited.     When  the  Patriarchal  See  of  Constant!-  1818;  d.  hi  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania,  5  November, 

nople  fell  vacant,  in  1265,  it  was  offered  to  Blem-  1896.    He  studied  at  Georgetown  College,  Washing- 

mida  by  Emperor  Theodore  II,  Lascaris  (1254-58);  ton,  D.  C,  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1834,  and 

but  he  preferred  his  cmiet  monastic  Hfe.  was  ordained  by  Archbishop  Bccleston  26  July,  1846, 

The  reputation  of  Blemmida  was  really  due  to  He  was  President  of  Holy  Cross  College,  Worcester, 

his  vast  learning.     Many  a  Greek  youth  of  high  Massachusetts,  from  1854-57,  which  he  rebuilt  after 

estate  learned  from  him  the  beauty  of  letters,  or  its  destruction  by  fire.    He  was  also  pastor  at  Fred« 

the  secrets  of   philosophy   and   theology.    Among  erick,  Maryland,  St.  Joseph's  Church,  Philadelphia, 

his  pupils  were  the  learned    Georgius  Acropolites  and  was  stationed  at  various  times  in  the  Jesuit  ool- 

and   the  royal  prince,  afterwards  emperor,  Theo-  leges  at  Worcester,  Georgetown,  and  Philadelphia, 

dore  II,  Lascans.     Blemmida   was   the  author  of  Catherine  Blenkinsop,  b.  in  Dublin,  18  April, 

several  poems,  of  letters,  of  a  work  on  the  duties  1816;  d.  at  Emmitsburg,  Maryland.    She  entered  the 

of   an    emperor,   of   two   autobio^aphies,   of   two  Sisters  of  Charity  at  the  latter  place  in  May.  1831,  at 

geographical    works,    of   philosophical    writings   on  the  age  of  fifteen.     She  took  the  name  of  Euphemia  • 

logic  and  physics,  and  of  a  rule  of  life  for  his  monks,  with   the   religious   habit   and   was  stationed  suo- 

Among  his   theological   works  may  be   mentioned  cessively  at  St.  Joseph's  School,  New  York,  St.  Peter's 

a  commentary  on  the  Psalms,  a  discourse  on  the  School,  Baltimore,  St.  Mary's  Asylum  in  the  same 

Trinity  and  Christology,  and  two  orations  on  the  city^  and  in  1855,  at  the  mother-house,  as  assistant. 

Holy  Ghost.    One  of  these  orations  was  addressed  During  the  Civil  War  she  was  entrusted  with  the 

to   Jacob,   Archbishop   of   Bulgaria;   the  other  to  delicate  mission  of  directing  the  institutions  of  the 

Theodore    Lascaris.     In    both    he     proved,    from  Sisters  of  Charity  in  the  South,  and  was  the  main- 

E^  of  Athanasius,  Basil.  Gregory  Naziamfien,  stay  of  the  Sisters  in  their  arduous  labours;  in  1866 

ry  of  Nyssa,  Cyril  of  Alexandria  and  other  she  was  appointed  visitatrix  of  the  community,  which 

rs,   that   the  procession   of   the   Holy  Ghost  she  continued  to  direct  until  her  death, 

from  Father  and  Son,  or  from  the  Father  through  ^McOot,   Hietory  of^  Sprwafield  ptoeew  (Boeton..  1900); 

the  Son,  was  genuine  Catholic  doctrine.    In  this  HEA^j^^rm<w  Preach  an  l>«rtfc  o/ Afo*^ 

precisely  consists  his  importance.     He  was  among  *          '                                              1^.1,  Devht. 

the   few   Greek  writers   who   recognized   that   the  •»,         -      «     tt 

jAtin   Church   was  correct  in   its   belief.    This   is  Blessed.    See  Hbavbn. 

evident  not  only  from  his  own  writings,  but  also  Blessed,  The. — There  are  at  present  two  ways 

from  the  explicit  contemporary  evidence  of  such  in  which  the  Church  allows  public  worship  to  be  paid 

men  as  Beccus,  Pachymeres,  and  Nicephorus  Greg-  those  who  have  lived  in  the  fame  of  sanctity  or  died 

oras.     It  was  through  the  reading  of  the  works  of  as  martyrs.     Of  these  some  are   beatified,  otherR 

Blemmida  that  Beccus  was  converted  to  the  teach-  are  canonized.     (See  Beatification  akd  Canoniza- 

ing  held  by  the  Latin  Church,  and  induced  to  write  tign.)      Beatification    is    a    permission    for    public 

in   its  defence.     Most  of  the  works  of  Blenmlida  worship  restricted  to  certain  places  and  to  certain 

so  far  published  are  found  in  Migne's  "Patrologia  acts.     In  the  more  recent  discipline  of  the  Church, 

Gneca  jCXLII  (Paris,  1855),  or  in  the  ** Blbliotheca  the  pope  alone  can  beatify,  though  formerly  bishops 

Teubneriana"  (Leipzig,  1896).  coula  grant  the  honour  of  beatification  to  those  of 

Geohgtos   AcBOPOLirp,  Xniw&a  to  p.  g,.  (^L  (Paris,  the  faithful  who  had  shed  their  blood  for  Christ  or 

!^a«'^«l!'?LS'V747f  iV/si.  Sra'i''K5^S;J^S:  «^  'JY^  of  hemic  i^rtue.    AU  th«e  pennteiona 

Oe9ch,  der  bj/zanL  Literatur  (Munich,  1897).  for  public  worship  which  m  the  early  ages  ©f  the 

Francis  J.  Schasfer.  Church   were  granted   to   particular  churches  and 

_^-     -    _          __               a     XT       /-w               A  spread  thence  \^ith  the  sanction  of  other  bishops 

Blenk,  James  Hubert.  See  New  Orleans,  Arch-  to  other  congregations,  to  be  finallv  made  a  matter 

snocEBE  OP.  of  precept  for  the  universal  Churcn  by  the  Roman 

Blankinaop,    Peter,   Catholic    publisher,   b.   in  pontiff,  constituted  beatification  and  canonization 

Ireland;  married  a  sister  of  Archbishop  Oliver  Kelly  m  the  exact  sense  6f  the  word.    It  was  only  beatifica- 


of  Tuam  and  emigrated  with  his  family  from  Dublin     tion  while  the  cult,  of  the  martyr  for  instance,  was 


the  Church",  5  vols.,  and  began  the  "Metropolitan",  tion  and  beatification  lies  in  the  presence  or  absence 

a  monthlymagazine  (1830).    Blenkinsop  had  three  of  two  elements  which  are  found  united  in  canoniza- 

chilclren:  William  A.,  Peter  J.,  and  Catherine.  tion  and  either  separate  or  entirely  absent  from 

William  A.  Blenkinsop  was  b.  in  Dublin,  1819;  beatification,  though  ^nerally  only  one  is  lacking. 

d.  8  January,  1892,  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  U.  S.  A.  These  elements  are:  (1)  the  precept  regarding  pubhc 

He  studiecf  at  St.  Mary's  (College,  Baltimore,  from  worship,  and  (2)  its  extension  to  the  whole  Church. 

1833-39,  taught  there  (1839-44)  taking  the  degree  In  exceptional  cases  one  or  other  of  these  is  wanting; 

of  A.  M.,  and  was  ordained  by  ^chbishop  Eccleston  sometimes  the  cult  of  the  beatified  is  not  only  per* 

in  1843.    He  went  with  Bishop  Chanche  to  Natchez  mitted  but  enjoined,  though  not  for  the  universal 

and  laboured  on  the  Mississippi  mission  for  seven  Church,  and  in  other  instances  it  is  permitted  for 

years;  in  1850  he  became  affiliated  to  the  Diocese  the  whole  Church  but  not  enjoined.     The  case  of 

of  Boston  and  was  appointed  pastor  of  Cabotsville  St.  Rose  of  Lima  is  an  instance  of  the  occurrence  of 

(now  Chicopee),  where  he  built  a  church,  one  of  both  elements,  though  that  did  not  of  itself  sufiioe 

the  finest  in  the  State;  his  pastoral  charge  included  for  her  canonization,  as  one  of  the  elements  was  not 

a  large  part  of  the  CJonnecticut  Valley  in  Massachu-  really  complete.     When  Clement  X  chose  her  as 

setts.     When  offered  the  position  of  Vicar-General  patron  of   all   America,   the   Philippines,  and  the 

of  Natchez,  he  responded  that  he  had  more  people  Indies,  and  by  the  same  act  allo^v^  her  cultus  in 

in  his  parish  than  were  in  the  whole  Diocese  of  the  entire  Church,  it  was  clearly  a  ease  where  a  cultus 

Natchez.    In  1864,  he  became  pastor  of  the  Church  was  enjoined  in  America  and  merely  allowed  for  the 

of  sits.  Peter  and  Paul,  Boston,  where  he  remained  remainder  of  the  Church. 

for  twenty-eight  years.    He  was  a  model  of  priestly,  The  nature  of  beatification  makes  it  evident  that 

virtue,  courtly  in  manners,  simple  as  a  child,  and  the  worship  of  the  blessed  is  restricted  to  certain 

11.-^ 


HIJailTO                               S98  BLES8BD 

plaoes  and  penMMOs,  and  may  be  given  only  after  by  the  Holy  See  and  that  their  relics  should  not  be 

permission.    Such  permission  is  usually  granted  to  carried  in  procession.    It  must,  however,  be  observed 

those  persons  or  places  which  have  in  some  way  been  here  in  passing  that  Alexander  VII,  as  he  especiully 

connected  with  the  blessed.    In  the  case  of  a  religious,  declares  in  his  decree^  did  not  intend  to  do  away 

it  is  granted  to  the  members  of  the  order  or  congre-  with  any  cultus  that  had  been  rendered  to  the  ble&icJ 

gation  to  which  he  belonged;  if  a  canon  of  a  church,  w^^  ^®  common  consent  of  the  Church,  or  (toxi 

tnat   church   or   chapter   receives   the   permission;  time  immemorial,  or  approved  by  the  writings  o( 

if  a  martyr,  a  bishop,  or  resident  of  some  place  for  a  the  Fathers  and  the  saints,  or  even  one  which  had 

long  period,  the  concession  is  made  to  the  place  of  been  iolerat^  by  the  Holy  See  and  the  different 

his  martyrdom  or  to  his  see  or  to  the  place  that  he  ordinaries  for  more  than  a  hundred  years.    In  addi 

adorned  with  his  virtues.    In  some  cases  the  place  tion  to  all  this,  we  have  other  decrees  of  the  Congre- 

of  his  birth  or  burial  is  included.    And  in  all  these  gations  of  Rites,  such  as:  that  the  names  of  the  ble^ed 

instances  it  may  be  that  the  concession  is  made  onl^  are  not  to  be  enrolled  in  the   martyrology;  that 

to  the  mother  church,  or  to  the  church  in  which  his  neither  altars  nor  churches  may  be  dedicated  to  them; 

body  lies,  or  it  may  be  extended  to  the  whole  city  that  they  may  not  be  chosen  as  local  patrons.    It 

or  diocese.    With  Benedict  XIV  (De  canonizatione  must  not  be  forgotten  that  exceptions  may  be  made 

de  SS.,  Lib.  IV,  part.  II,  cap.  i,  n.  12)  we  may  add  by  indult  even  m  these  cases.     Recently,  to  quote 

that  such  n-ants  are  afi&xed  to  the  day  on  which  the  an  instance,  Pius  X  at  the  request  of  the  Enklish 

blessed  died  or  to  some  other  determined  day.    When  bishops>  in  the  matter  of  the  English  martyrs  wnom 

this  cultus  is  allowed  to  certain  persons  or  places  Leo  AlII  had  beatified,  granted  that  in  each  diocese 

it  is  still  further  restricted  with  respect  to  the  maimer  an  altar  might  be  erected  to  each  of  the  nine  principal 

in  which  it  is  to  be  given,  and  not  all  acts  of  worship  martvrs  whose  names  are  mentioned  in  the  decree, 

which  the  customs  and  discif>line  of  the  Churcn  the  cnurches  in  which  they  were  to  be  erected  being 

allow    to  be  paid  canonized  saints  may  be  used  in  designated  by  the  bishops.     Beatification  is  an  en* 

the  worship  of  the  beatified.     Benedict  XIV   Ooc.  tirely  different  matter  from  canonisation,  and  is 

cit.,  c.  ii)  treats  the  question  at  length  and  with  re-  but  a  step  to  it^  beinff  in  no  wise  an  irreformable 

gard  to  the  inquiry  as  to  whether  a  votive  Mass  may  decision  of  ecclesiasticsu  authority.    The  observation 

be  said  in  honour  of  the  blessed  in  places  where  the  of  Ben^ict  XIV  then  goes  without  saying,  that  the 

cultus   has  been  granted  decides  in  the  negative  blessed  are  not  to  be  given  the  title  of  saint;  further 

against  Castropalao  and  Del  Bene.    His  opinion  has  that  the  distinctive  signs  which  ecclesiastical  use 

since  been  confirmed  by  the  decree  of  Alexander  VII  has  made  c  Ji^  mary  in  regard  to  statues  and  pictures 

of  27  September,  1659,  in  which  decree  the  pope  set-  of  sain^    cannot  be  used  m  the  case  of  blessed,  who 

tied  many  questions  regarding  tho  worship  of  the  are  not  to  be  represented  with  the  aureola,  but  with 

blessed.    It  may  be  remarked  that  ordinarily  votive  rays  above  (op.  cit..  Lib.  I,  c.  xxxvii). 

Masses  cannot  be  said  in  honour  of  the  blessed.  To  conclude,  we  may  observe  that  in  the  cultus 

though  for  several  centuries  they  have  been  said  in  of  the  bleased  great  attention  must  be  given  to  the 

virtue  of  special  indults.     The  oldest  indult  which  indult  which  in  each  specific   instance  determines, 

Benedict   XIV   quotes   in   this   connexion   is   that  according  to  the  wishes  of  the  sovereign  pontifi. 

granted  by  Clement  VII  to  the  Dominicans  of  the  the  restrictions  with  regard  to  persons,  places,  ana 

Convent  of  ForH,  25  January,  1526,  to  celebrate  acts  of  worship.     This  matter,  and  very  Justly  so, 

the  Mass  of    Blessed   James    Salomonio  "  as  often  has  b^n  made  the  subject  of  special  ie^siation  on 

durinff  the  year  as  their  devotion  may  move  them  to  the  part  of  the  Congregation  of  Kites  which  decreed 

do  so  .    Besides  this  indult  there  is  another  granted  on  5  Octoba*,  1652,  that  no  one  could  go  beyond  the 

by  Alexander  VII  at  the  request  of  Ferdinand  Gon-  limits  set  by  the  words  of  the  indults  of  the  Holy 

saga.  Prince  of  Castiglione,  on  22  May,  1662,  "to  See  in  regard  to  beatification.     The  solenmities  of 

celebrate  votive  Masses  in  honour  of  Blessed  Aloysius  beatification   cannot    be   compared   with   those   of 

(Gonzaga)  in  the  colle^ate  mother  church  ol  the  canonization.    Thejr  are  briefly  as  follows:  On  the 

town  of  Castiglione  during  the  year''.    And  this  in-  day  on  which  beatification  takes  place  Mass  is  said 

dult,  a  few  months  afterwards,  was  extended  so  as  in  St.  Peter's  in  presence  of  the  entire  Congregation 

to  allow  "votive  Masses  of  the  same  Blessed  Alovsius  of  Rites.    After  tne  Gospel,  instead  of  a  homilv,  the 

to  be  celebrated  in  the  church  of  the  Regular  Clerics  secretary  of  the  Congregation  reads  the  pope  s  de- 

of  the  Society  of  Jesus  during  the  year  on  days  not  cree,  on  the  conclusion  of  which  the  painting  of  the 

impeded  by  the  rubrics".  newly  beatified,  which  stands  over  the  altar,  is  un- 

Alexander  VII   further  ordered   that  images  of  covered  and  the  Mass  is  finished.    About  the  hour 

the  blessed  should  not  be  exposed  in  any  cnurch,  of  Vespers  the  Holv  Father  comes  down  to  the 

sanctuary,  or  oratory  whatever,  and  especialhr  in  basilica  to  venerate  the  new  blessed.    After  the  beati- 

those  in  which  Mass  or  other  Divine  services  are  neld,  fication  permission  is  granted  to  celebrate  solenm 

without  previous  consultation  with  the  Holy  See.  triduums,  and  by  a  special  decree  Mass  and  Office 

This  rule  is  of  such  strict  interpretation  that  in  virtue  are  allowed  to  be  said  yearly  on  a  fixed  day,  but 

of  the  granting  of  this  indult  it  cannot  be  presumed  with  restrictions  as  to  place,  and  it  is  permitted  to 

that  permission  is  had  toplaoe  the  images  of  the  insert  the  name  in  the  special  martvrologies.    The 

blessed  upon  the  altars.    They  may  be  placed  upon  expenses  of  a  beatification  from  the  nrst  steps  to  its 

the  walls  of  the  church  only.    However,  an  indult  conclusion  approximate  100,000  lire  ($20,000).    (See 

permitting  a  contrary  use  is  not  of  altogether  rare  Beatification  and  Canonization.) 

occurrence  in  the  recent  discipline  of  the  Church,  For  bibliography  see  Beatification  and  Canonuation. 

and  it  is  to  be  remarked  that  even  in  the  time  of  Camillds  Beccari. 

Alexander  VII  a  decree  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites  Blessed  Sacrament,     Congregation  of  the,  an 

of  17  April,  1660,  declared  that  the  concession  of  an  enclosed  congregation  and  a  reform  of  the  Doinini- 

indult  to  say  the  Mass  and  Office  of  a  blessed  implied  can  Order  devoted  to  the  perpetual  adoration  of  the 

permission  to  place  his  picture  or  statue  upon  the  Blessed  Sacrament.    It  v/as  founded  in  the  face  of 

altar,  though  tne  opposite  does  not  hold.    Tne  same  great  oppositicn  by  Father  Anthony  Le  Qmeu,  a 

pope  also  decided  that  the  names  of  the  blessed  French  Dominican,  whose  canonization  was  stopped 

should  be  entered  in  no  catalogue  except  those  proper  by  the  French  Revolution.     Bom  in  1601  at  Pans, 

to  the  persons  who  had  received  permission  to'honour  he  entered  the  Order  of  Friars  Preachers  in  the 

them  with  cultus  and  a  Mass  and  Office.    He  ruled  Rue  St.   Honor^,  in    1622,  and   was   in  due  time 

too  that  no  prayers  should  be  addressed  the  blessed  made  master  of  novices  first  in  his  own  monasteiy 

in  public  services  except  those  granted  and  improved  and  afterwards  at  Avignon  C1634).    While   at  toe 


latter  place  (1639)  he  began  to  lay  ths  fbundatiaD  thus  founded,  towards  the  cloee  of  1899,  the  nucleus 

oF  the  institute  ha  desired  to  eetablnh,  but  it  wsh  not  of  the  new  community.    In  ordw  to  be  well  grounded 

tQl  twenty  years  later  (1659)  that,  after  great  diffi-  in  the  principlea  of  the  religious  life,  the  first  membc^ 

cultf .  the  first  house  was  openM  at  Uaroeilles  for  made  a  two  years'  novitiate  with  the  Sisters  of  Mercy. 

the  tiuee  ladiee  whom  the  aaintl^  founder  had  be>  After  this,  they  continued  their  period  of  preparation 

gun  to  train  at  Avignon.     The  Biahop  of  Maxseillee  ita  the  old  Dt«xel  bomeetead,  Torr^dale, qi-:i~ 

-         -     ,    /Thad 

drawn  up,  and  erected  them  into  a  simple  congr^jfr* 
tEao.  It  was  not  til!  after  the  death  of  the  founoer, 
who  lived  to  aee  another  foundation  made  at  Boll^ne, 
that  the  constitutions  were  approved  by  Pope  Inno- 
cent XII  (1693),  who  authonsed  the  nuns  to  take 
solemn  vowa  and  bound  them  to  enclosure.  This 
was  the  first  coiiKregatioa  instituted  for  the  perpet* 
ual  adoration  of  the  Blessed  Sacrajnent;  it  is  not  an 
auEtere  one,  but  the  decree  of  perfection  put  before 
the  rnemberB  by  the  founder  is  very  high.  The 
original  mother-houae  at  MarseilleB  was  suppressed 
at  the  French  Revolution,  when  the  nuns  were  dis- 
peraed,  but  it  was  reopened  in  1816;  the  BoU^ne 
noiue  suffered  more  severely.  Thirteen  of  the  nuns 
endured  martyrdom  under  the  Commune;  their 
cause  of  beatification  is  now  before  the  Holy  See: 
the  remainder  of  the  Boll^ne  community  returned 
to  their  convent  and  resumed  their  work  of  perpet- 
ual adoration  in  1802.  The  BoU^ne  nuns  sent  three 
of  their  niunber  with  one  lay  sister,  under  the  were  opened  at  Maud,  Pennsylvania,  adjoining  which 
Reverend  Mother  Emilie  Peltier  to  England,  to  found  was  erected  a  manual  trunlng  and  boarding  school 
a  bouse  at  Cannington  (1863),  a  community  which     for  coloured  boys  and  girls. 

was  afterwards  moved  to  Taunton  in  Somersetshire,  The  distinctive  spirit  of  this  institute  is  the  con- 
vbere  it  has  since  remained.  There  is  also  a  house  secrationof  itsmemoers,  bodj^and  soul,  to  the  service 
at  Oitford,  and  another  near  Newport.  After  Father  of  Jesus  Christ  ever  present  in  the  Holy  Eucharist. 
Le  Quieu's  death  foundations  were  made  in  the  south  Hia  Eucharistic  life  is  to  be  the  inspiration  of  the 
of  France,  and  after  the  French  Revolution  other  entire  varied  activity  of  the  sisters.  BesideB  the  vows 
houses  were  founded  in  the  same  locality.  Since  usual  in  all  religious  communities,  the  sisters  pledge 
then  a  house  has  been  established  in  Normandy,  themselves  to  work  exclusively  for  the  spiritual  and 
from  which  another  convent  has  been  opened  at  temporal  welfare  of  the  Indian  and  coloured  races. 
Hal  in  Belgium.  There  are  no  houses  of  this  congre-  By  their  rule,  the  Sisters  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament 
gation  in  America.  '        may  (1)  undertake  all  kinds  of  educational  works; 

Pjillot.  Vw  du  Pin  AnioSne  Le  Ouuu  (IStT):  Stbeli,     (2)  they  may  care  for  orphans  or  spiritually  or  cor- 

C<««*nu  «l  Ore-u  Briiam  (St.  Louis,  i«K).  Iir  porally  destitute  chUdren;    (3)  they  may  attend  the 

Francbbca  M.  Sti;m,b.         ^^^   i^^,   ^i^,        t^em   in   their  homes  or   by  con- 

BlMBsd  Sacnment,  Sisters  or  the,  one  of  ducting  hospitaU-  (4)  they  may  sliclter  destitute 
the  most  recent  congregations  of  religious  women  in  and  deserving  women;  (5)  they  may  visit  and  in- 
the  Catholic  Church  and  one  of  entirely  American  struct  inmates  of  prisons  and  reformatories;  (6)  they 
origin,  founded  by  Miss  Katharine  Drexel  at  Fbila~  may  eetablisb  and  conduct  homes  for  the  ageo; 
delphia,  Fa.,  in  1889,  for  missionary  work  among  (7)  they  may  establish  schools  and  classes  outside 
the  Indians  and  coloured  people  of  the  United  States,  their  own  houses,  visit  tlie  poor  in  order  to  look  after 
The  formal  approbation  of  the  Holy  See  was  given  their  relidous  welfare  and  also  to  teach  them  habits 
*-  ''  ■'-     "n  July,  1907.  of  good  living,  neatness,  and  thrift — in  short,  to 

_    .     _  .  J  Council  of  Baltimore  gave  a    make  them  self-suBtaining  men  and  women. 

V  impetus  to  missionary  work  among  the  colouied       The  sisterhood  now  iiumt>ers  one  hundred  and 


The  Third   Plenaiy  Council  of  Baltimore 


and  Indian  racce  and  as  one  of  the  results  of  its  twelve  members.  In  1894,  St.  Catharine's  boarding 
recommendations.  Right  Reverend  James  O'Connor,  and  industrial  school  for  Pueblo  Indians  was  opened 
Bi^p  of  Omaha,  acting  in  conjunction  with  Uiss  at  Santa  F6,  New  Mexico;  in  1899,  the  Institute  of 
Katharine  Drexel,  daughter  of  the  late  Fi«ncis  A,  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  Rock  Castle,  Va.,  a  boarding 
Drexel  of  Philadelphia,  decided  with  the  approval  academy  and  industrial  school  was  opened  for  the 
of  the  Most  Reverend  P.  J.  Ryan,  Archbishop  of  training  of  Southern  coloured  girls;  in  1902,  St. 
Philadelphia,  to  form  a  new  conurbation  of  religious  Michael's  Mission,  Arizona,  for  the  education  of 
womenoevotedexclusively  to  missiooary  work  among  Navajo  Indians,  a  boarding  and  industrial  school, 
these  two  races.  For  some  years  previous  to  this  was  completed  and  opened.  The  Academy  of  the 
step,  Miss  Drexel  had  been  very  active  in  re-estati-  Immaculate  Mother,  Nashville,  Tenn.,  was  opened 
lining  and  supporting  schools  in  many  of  the  Indian  in  1905.  In  this  school  girls  are  also  trained  to  be- 
reservations.  The  greater  portion  of  the  income  come  teacheis,  while  others  not  desiring  to  teach 
which  she  derived  from  her  father's  estate  was  used  may  take  a  full  course  of  domestic  science  and  dress- 
in  maintaining  and  furthering  these  missionary  making.  In  1006,  the  sisters  commenced  work  at 
projects.  At  this  period  a  survey  of  the  Held  of  work  Carlisle,  Pa.,  by  instnictiug  the  Indian  pupils  of  the 
revealed  about  250,000  Indians  n^lected.  if  not  Government  School,  and  conducting  a  day  school  for 
practically  abandoned,  and  over  nme  millions  of  coloured  chQdren, 
negroes  still  strutting  through  the  aftermath  of  Sister  Mercedes. 

The  piteous  condition  of  these  two  races  derided  Bluslng. — In  its  widest    acceptation  this  word 

Miss  Droxel  to  devote  both  her  fortune  and  her  life  has  a  vanety  of  meanings  in  the  sacred  writing: 

to  them.     With  the   approval  of   high  church  su-  (1)  It  is  taken  in  a  sense  that   is  synonymous  with 

tiwritice  in  the  United  States  she  gathered  araimd  praise;  thus  the  iWnust,  "I  will  bless  the  Lord  at 

her  young  women  imbued  with  the  same  ideas,  and  all  times,  his  praise  efaall  be  always  in  my  mouth" 


BUMnra  600  Butuva 

(P».  xxxiii,  1}.  (2)  It  is  used  to  oxpwws  a  wish  or  wMeh  has  nothing  to  recommend  it  but  Hw 
desire  that  all  sood  fortmie,  especially  of  a  spiritual  of  personal  sanctity.  The  ordinary  greetings  and 
or  supernatural  kind,  may^go  with  the  person  or  salutations  that  take  place  between  Cnristians  and 
thing,  as  when  David  says:  "Blessed  art  thou,  and  CathoticSy  leavened  by  mutual  wishes  for  a  share 
it  shaXL  be  well  with  thee"  (Ps.  cxxvii,  2).  (3)  It  of  heavenlv  grace,  must  not  be  confounded  with 
signifies  the  sanctification  or  dedication  oi  a  person  liturgical  blessings.  St.  Gregory  first  definitely 
or  thing  to  some  sacred  piupose;  "Christ  took  taught  that  the  an^ls  are  divided  into  hierarchies 
breadj  and  blessed,  and  broke  (Matt.,  xxvi,  26).  or  orderSi  each  havmg  its  own  rAle  to  play  in  tJie 
(4)  Fmally.  it  is  employed  to  designate  a  gift;  so  economy  of  creation.  Similarly  the  Church  recog* 
Naaman  aadresses  Eliseus:  "L  bes^h  thee  there-  nices  different  orders  or  grades  among  her  ministers, 
fore  take  a  blessing  of  thy  servant"  (IV  Kings,  assigning  to  some  hieher  functions  than  to  others, 
vi,  15).  With  these  various  significations  it  is  not  The  woncyig  out  of  tms  idea  is  seen^  in  the  case  of 
the  present  purpose  to  deaL  Coming,  then,  to  its  conferring  Messing.  For  while  it  is  true  that  a 
strictly  liturgical  and  restricted  sense,  blessing  may  priest  can  ordinardy  give  them,  some  Uessings  are 
be  described  as  a  rite,  consisting  of  a  ceremony  reserved  to  the  Supreme  Pontiff,  some  to  biNiope, 
and  prayers  performed  in  the  name  and  with  tne  and  some  to  parish  priests  and  religious.  The  first 
authority  of  tne  Church  by  a  duly  qualified  minister,  class  is  not  large.  The  pope  reserves  to  himself  the 
by  which  persons  or  things  are  sanctified  or  dedi-  right  to  bless  the  palliimi  for  archbishops,  AspiMBr 
cated  to  Divine  service,  or  by  which  certain  marks  T^iSf  the  Golden  Kose,  the  Royal  Sword,  and  also 
rf  Divine  favour  are  invoked  u]x>n  them.  The  to  give  that  benediction  of  persons  to  wmch  an  in- 
following  aspects  of  the  subject  will  be  discussed:  dulgence  of  some  days  is  attached.  He  may,  and 
(I)  Antiquity;  (II)  Minister;  (III)  Objects;  (IV)  in  uie  case  of  the  last  mentioned  often  does,  depute 
Efficacy;  ana  (V)  Rite  employed  in  administering,  others  to  give  these.    To  bishops  belongs  the  privi- 

I.  ANTiQurrY. — ^The  custom  of  giving  blessings  lege  of  blessing  abbots  at  their  installation,  priests 
^oes  back  to  the  very  eariiest  times.  In  the  mom-  at  their  ordination,  and  vii^ns  at  their  consecration: 
ing  of  Creation,  on  the  completion  of  each  day's  of  blessing  churches,  cemeteries,  oratories,  and  all 
work,  God  blessed  the  living  creatures  that  came  articles  for  use  in  connexion  with  the  altar,  such  as 
from  His  hands,  bidding  them  increase  and  mul-  chalices,  vestments,  and  cloths,  military  standards, 
tiply  and  fill  the  earth  (Gen.,  i-ii).  When  Noe  soldiers,  arms,  and  swords;  and  of  imparting  all 
emerged  from  the  Ark,  he  received  God's  benediction  blessings  for  which  Holy  Oils  are  required.  Some 
(Gen.,  ix,  1),  and  this  heritage  he  transmitted  of  these  may,  on  delegation,  be  performed  by  in- 
through  his  sons,  Sem  and  Japneth.  to  posterity,  feriors.  Of  the  blessings  which  pnests  are  generally 
The  pages  of  the  Old  Testament  testify  abundantly  empowered  to  grant,  some  are  restricted  to  those 
to  the  great  extent  to  which  the  practice  of  blessing  who  have  external  jurisdiction,  like  rectors  or  parish 
prevailed  in  the  patriarchal  ages.  The  head  of  each  priests,  and  others  are  the  exclusive  prerogative  of 
tribe  and  family  seemed  to  be  privilcffed  to  bestow  persons  belonging  to  a  religious  order.  There  is  a 
it  with  a  special  unction  and  fruitfulness,  and  the  rule,  too,  by  which  an  inferior  caimot  bless  a  su- 
priests  at  tne  express  direction  of  God  were  wont  perior  or  even  exercise  the  ordinary  powers  in  his 
to  administer  it  to  the  people.  "Thus  shall  you  presence.  The  priest,  for  instance,  wno  says  Mass 
bless  the  children  of  Israel  .  .  .  and  the  Lord  at  which  a  bishop  presides  i8  not  to  give  tne  final 
will  turn  His  countenance  and  ffive  them  peace*'  blessing  without  permission  from  the  prelate.  For 
(Num.,  vi,  23-26).  That  great  value  was  attributed  this  curious  custom  authors  cite  a  text  from  the 
to  blessings  is  seen  from  the  stratagem  adopted  by  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews:  "And  without  all  contra- 
Rebecca  U>  secure  Jacob's  blessing  tor  her  favourite  diction  that  which  is  less  is  blessed  by  that  wfakh 
son.  In  general  estimation  it  was  regarded  as  a  is  greater"  (vii,  7).  It  would  seem  an  overstraining 
mark  of  Divine  complacency  and  as  a  sure  way  to  of  the  passa^  to  say  that  it  affords  an  alignment 
secure  God's  benevolence,  peace,  and  protection,  for  mamtainin^  that  an  inferior  minister  cannot 
The  New  Dispensation  saw  tne  adoption  of  this  rite  bless  one  who  is  his  superior  in  rank  or  dignity,  for 
by  Our  Divine  Lord  and  His  Apostles,  and  so,  ele-  the  text  either  merely  enunciates  an  incident  of 
vated,  ennobled,  and  consecratea  by  such  hi^h  and  common  usaee,  or  means  that  the  inferior  by  the 
holy  usage,  it  came  at  a  verv  early  stage  m  the  fact  that  he  blesses  is  the  greater,  since  he  acts  as 
Church's  history  to  assume  aefim'te  and  concrete  the  representative  of  God. 

shape  as  the  chief  among  her  sacramentals.  III.  Objects. — The  range  of  objects  that   come 

II.  Minister. — Since,  then,  blessings,  in  the  sense  under  the  influence  of  the  Church's  blessing  is  ia 
in  which  the^r  are  being  considered,  are  entirdy  of  comprehensive  as  the  spiritual  and  temporal  in- 
ecclesiastical  institution,  the  Church  has  the  power  tere£ts  of  her  children.  All  the  lower  creatures  have 
to  determine  who  shall  have  the  right  and  duty  to  been  made  to  serve  man  and  minister  to  his  needs, 
confer  them.  This  she  has  done  by  entrustine  As  nothing,  then,  should  be  left  undone  to  enhance 
their  administration  to  those  who  are  m  sacerdotal  their  utiUty  towards  this  end,  they  are  placed  in  a 
orders.  The  solitarv  case  in  which  one  inferior  to  a  special  way  under  the  direct  providence  of  God. 
priest  is  empowered  to  bless,  is  where  the  deacon  'TEvery  creature  of  God  is  good  .  .  ."  ,  as  St.  Paul 
blesses  the  paschal  candle  in  the  ceremonies  of  Holy  says,  "  for  it  is  sanctified  by  the  word  of  God  and 
Saturday.  This  exception  is  more  apparent  than  prajrer"  (I  Tim.,  iv,  4-5).  There  is  also  the  re- 
real.  For  in  the  instance  referred  to  the  deacon  acts  flection  that  the  effects  of  the  Fall  extended  to  the 
by  way  of  a  deputy,  and,  moreover,  employs  the  inanimate  objects  of  creation,  marring  in  a  manner 
grains  of  incense  already  blessed  by  the  celebrant,  the  oririnal  aim  of  their  existence  and  making  them, 
Priests,  then,  are  the  ordinary  ministers  of  blessings,  in  the  hands  of  evil  spirits,  ready  instruments  for  the 
and  this  is  only  in  the  fitness  of  things,  since  they  are  perpetration  of  iniquity.  In  the  EpisUe  to  Uie 
ordained,  as  the  words  of  the  Pontifical  run;  "ut  Romans  St.  Paul  describes  inanimate  nature,  Ui^ted 
qusecumque  benedixerint  benedicantur,  et  ouse-  by  the  primal  curse,  groaning  in  travail  and  anx- 
cumque  consecraverint  consecrentur"  (That  wnat-  iously  awaiting  its  deliverance  from  bondage.  "The 
ever  they  bless  may  be  blessed,  and  whatever  they  expectation  of  the  creature  waiteth  for  tne  revdar 
consecrate  shall  be  consecrated).  When,  therefore,  tion  of  the  Sons  of  God.  For  the  creature  was 
lavmen  and  women  are  represented  as  blessing  made  subject  to  vanity,  not  willingly,  but  by  reason 
others  it  is  to  be  understood  that  this  is  an  act  of  good  of  him  that  made  it  subject,  in  hope"  (viii,  19-20). 
will  on  their  part,  a  wish  or  desire  for  another's  From  this  it  will  be  easily  seen  how  very  reasonable 
spiritual  or  temporal  prosperity,  an  i^peal  to  God  is  the  anxiety  of  the  Church  that  the  tningB  which 


BLEgSmd                              601  BXJUMZHd 

we  use  in  dally  life  and  particulady  in  the  servioe  liveraaoe.    (d)  The  Ritual  has  l^esBinfpi  for  houses 

of  religion,  should  be  rescued  from  oontaminatiiu^  and  sehodls  and  for  the  laving  of  their  foundation 

influences  and  endoTved  with  a  potency  for  goo<l  stones;  for  staUes  for  the  lower  animals  and  every 

The  principal   lituigical   blessings  recognized  and  other   building  of    any  description  for  which  no 

sanctioned  by  the    Church    are  contained  in  the  special  formula  is  at  hand.    There  is  also  a  special 

Roman    Ritual    and    the   Pontifical.    The   Missal,  blessing  for  the  bridal  chamber,     (e)  Lastly,  inani> 

besides  the  blessing  given  at  the  end  of  Mass,  contains  mate  tnings  that  subserve  the  equitaUe  needs  and 

only  those  Uessings  associated  with  the  great  funo-  conveniences  of  society  ma}^  receive  from  the  Church 

tions  incidental  to  certain  days  of  the  7&&r.  such  as  the  stamp  of  her  benechction  before  they  are  sent 

the  blessing  of  palms  and  ashes.    In  the  Pontifical  on  their  way  to  do  their  appointed  tasks.    Such, 

are  found  the  blessings  that  are  performed  de  jure  for  instance,  are  new  ships,  new  railways  with  trains 

bv  bisfa^>p6.  such  as  the  solemn  blessing  of  persons  and  carriages,  new  brioges,  fountains,  wells,  com- 

auready  referred  to,  the  forms  for  blessing  kings,  mills,  limcfilns,  smelting-fumaces,  telegraphs,  steam 

emperors,  and  princes  at  their  coronation,  and  those  engines,  machines   for  producing  electncity.    The 

before  mentioned  as  of  episcopal  jprero^tive.       ^  many  serious  accidents  that  occur  explain  the  con- 

The    jreat    treasury    of    ecclesiastical    blessings  oem  of  the  Church  for  those  whose  lives  are  exposed 

is  the  Roman  RituaL     (1)  Fcrmul<B   for  bleuing  to  dang^  from  these  various  sources. 

persona.     First  comes  a  ble^ing  for  pQ^ims  to  the  IV.  Efficacy. — ^The  inquiry  will   be  confined   to 

Holy  Land,  on  their  departure  and  retujm,  contain-  the  Uessincs  apnroved  of  by  the  Church.    As  has 

iDg  beautiful  prayers  and  apt  allusions  to  the  Magi  been  said,  uie  value  of  a  Uessing  given  by  a  private 

journeying  throi^  the  Antbian  desert  under  the  person  in  his  own  name  will  be  commensurate  with 

guidance  of  the  Star,  to  Abraham  leaving  his  own  his  acceptableness.  before    God   by  reason  of  his 

country  and  setting  his  face  towards  the  distant  individual  merits  and  sanctity.    A  blessing,  on  the 

land  of  Canaan,  to  the    Angel   companion   of   the  other  hand,  imparted  with  the  sanction  of  the  Church 

younger  Tobias,  and,  finally,  an  appeal  to  God  to  has  all  the  weight  of  authority  that  attaches  to  the 

prove  to  the  wayfarers  a  solace  on  their  journey,  voice  of  her  who  is  the  well-beloved  spouse  of  Christ, 

a  shade  from  summer  heats,  a  shdter  in  storm,  and  pleading   on   behalf  of   her   children.    The   whole 

a  haven  of  safety.    Next  follow  blessings  of  persons  efficacy,  therefore,  of  these  benedictions,  in  so  far 

with  H(dy  Water  before  Mass,  for  an  adult  who  is  as  they  are  liturgical  and  ecclesiastical,  is  derived 

sick,  for  a  number  of  sick  people,  one  for  a  woman  from  the  prayers  and  invocations  of  the  Church 

on  the  I4>proach  of  confinement  and  another  after  made  in  her  name  by  her  ministers.     Blessings  may 

childbirth,  blessings  for  infants,  for  children  come  be   divided   into   two   classes,  viz:   in  vocative  and 

to  the  use  of  reason  and  for  those  arrived  at  years  of  constitutive.    The  former  are  those  in  which  the 

discretion,   for   children   on    their   presentation    in  Divine  benignity  is  invoked  on  persons  or  things. 

Church,  that  they  may  lead  good  Christian  lives,  for  to  bring  down  upon  them  some  temporal  or  spiritual 

boys  and  girls  on  the  Feast  of  the  Ho^  Infancy  that  good,  without  changing  their  former  condition.    Of 

they  may  grow  up  to  imitate  the  virtues  of  the  this  kind   are  the  uessings  given  to  children,  and 

Saviour  and  reach  salvation  under  His  guidance,  to  articles  of  food.    The  latter  class  are  so  called 

(2)  Blessings  for  things,  (a)  In  addition  to  the  because  they  permanently  depute  persons  or  things 
blessings  alrc^y  mentioned  for  articles  destined  for  to  Divine  ser>ace  by  imparting  to  them  some  sacred 
altar  purposes,  the  Roman  Ritual  has  formulae  for  character^  by  whicn  they  assume  a  new  and  dis- 
blessing  crosses,  images  of  Our  Lord,  of  the  Blessed  tinct  spiritual  relationship.  Such  are  the  blessings 
Virgin  and  saints,  church  organs,  processional  given  to  religious  at  their  profession,  and  to  churches 
banners,  new  bells  for  church  uses  and  for  other  and  chalices  by  their  consecration.  In  this  case  a 
purposes,  dreas  and  cinctures  worn  in  honour  of  certain  abiding  quality  of  sacredness  is  conferred 
Our  Lady  and  of  other  saints,  monstrances,  reliqua-  in  virtue  of  which  the  persons  or  things  blessed  be- 
ries,  vessels  for  Holy  Oils,  church  ornaments,  come  inviolably  sacred,  so  that  they  cannot  be 
derical  habits,  medals,  pictures,  and  crosses  for  the  divested  of  their  religious  character  or  be  turned  to 
Stations,  rosaries  of  all  the  recognized  kinds,  water,  profane  uses.  Again,  theologians  distinguish  bles- 
candles,  the  Trisagion  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  the  sings  of  an  intermediate  sort,  by  which  thin^  are 
different  scapulars  of  Our  Lady,  of  Our  Lord,  of  the  rendered  si>eciid  instruments  of  salvation  without 
Blessed  Trinity,  of  St.  Joseph.  St.  Michael  the  at  the  same  time  becoming  irrevocably  sacred,  such 
Archangel,  and  other  saints.  Moat  of  the  objects  as  blessed  salt,  candles,  etc.  Blessings  are  not 
just  enumerated,  as,  for  instance,  rosaries  and  scap-  sacraments;  they  are  not  of  Divine  institution:  they 
ulars,  recdve  what  is  called  an  indulgenoed  blessing,  do  not  confer  sanctifying  grace;  and  they  do  not 
that  is  to  say,  by  the  pious  employment  and  use  oi  produce  their  effects  m  virtue  of  the  rite  itself,  or 
them  persons  are  enabled  to  gam  an  induljgence.  ex  opere  operato.  They  are  sacramentals  and,  as 
(b)  The  following  articles  of  food  have  benedictions  such,  produce  the  following  specific  effects:  (1)  Ex- 
aasL^ed  to  them:  paschal  lamb,  eggs,  oil,  wine,  citation  of  pious  emotions  and  affections  of  the 
lard,  cheese,  butter,  dripping,  salt,  and  water  which  heart  and,  by  means  of  these,  remission  of  venial 
is  used  as  an  antidote  to  rabies.  There  is  also  a  sin  and  of  the  temporal  punishment  due  to  it; 
form  for  everything  that  WAy  be  eat^i.  The  fruits  (2)  frecMlom  from  power  of  evil  spirits;  (3)  prcserva- 
of  the  earth,  such  as  grapes^  com,  and  the  garnered  tion  and  restoration  of  bodily  health:  (4)  various 
harvest,  aeeas  that  are  put  mto  the  earth,  wine  and  other  benefits,  temporal  or  spintuaL  All  these  effects 
the  vintage,  herbs  and  grasses,  may  all  in  fitting  and  are  not  necessarily  inherent  in  any  one  blessing; 
appropriate  language  Be  '' sanctified  by  the  word  some  are  caused  by  one  formula,  and  others  by 
oF  God  and  prayer  '.  (c)  The  lower  animals  which  another,  according  to  the  intentions  of  the  Church, 
minister  to  the  reasonable  rec^uirements  of  the  Neither  are  these  effects  to  be  r^arded  as  infalli- 
human  family  may  have  blessings  mvoked  upon  them  bly  produoed,  except  in  so  far  as  the  impetration  of 
in  order  that  the  measure  of  their  usefulness  may  be  tfa^e  Chureh  has  tms  attribute.  The  religious  ven- 
increased.  Thus,  birds  of  the  air,  beasts  of  the  neld,  eration,  therefore,  in  which  the  faithful  r^;ard 
be«s  that  afford  such  examples  of  industry  to  man,  blessings  has  no  taint  of  superstition,  since  it 
horses  and  oxen  broken  to  the  yoke,  and  other  beasts  depencfi  altogether  on  the  Church's  suffrages 
of  burden  are  included  in  the  formularies  of  the  offered  to  GcS  that  the  perscms  using  the  things 
Ritual.  The  Creator  is  invoked  to  mjot  to  the  she  blesses  may  derive  from  them  certain  super- 
brute  strength  and  health  to  bear  his  burthen  and,  natural  advantages.  Instances  are  alleged  in  the 
if   attackecT  by  sickness  or  plague,  to  obtain  de-  lives  of  the  saints  where  miracles  have  been  wrought 


BLSSSINO                               602  BLOMXVEITHA 

by  the  blessings  of  h(^y  men  and  women.    There  is  Cher  to  the  Diocese  of  Orleans,  and  in  1822  the 

no  reason  to  limit  the  miraculous  interference  of  Diocese  of  Blois  was  re-established.    Monseigneur  de 

God  to  the  early  ages  of  the  Church's  history,  and  Thtoiines,  who  was  Bishop  of  Blois  in  1776  and  died 

the  Church  never  accepts  these  wonderful  occur-  in  exile  in   1829,  was  one  of  the  most  obetinate 

rences  unless  the  evidence  in  support  of  their  au-  enemies  of  the  Concordat.    St.  Solennius,  Bishop 

thenticity  is  absolutely  imimpeachaWe.  of  Chartres  under  Clovis,  is  a  patron  of  Blois;  m 

V.  Rite  employed. — Before  a  minister  proceeds  to  relics  were  preserved  by  a  miracle, 

impart  any  blessing  he  should  first  satisfy  himself  Owing  to  the  pro»mity  of  the  monasteries  of 

that  it  is  one  which  he  is  duly  qualified  to  give,  Micy  and  Marmoutier,    Blois  counts  among  its  saints 

either  by  his  ordinary  or  delegated  powers.     He  a  number  of  monks;  Lubinus,  Bishop  of  Chartres 

should   next  use   the   prescribed   rite.     As  a  rule,  in  the  sixth  century;  Laumerus,  Abbot  of  Corbion  in 

for  the  simple  blessings  of  the  Ritual,  a  soutane,  the  Diocese  of  Chartres  (d.  about  590),  whose  body 

surplice,  and  stole  of  the  requisite  colour  will  be  was  transported  to  Blois,  at  the  time  of  the  Noraian 

sufficient.     A  clerk  should  be  at  hand  to  carry  the  invasions,  by  fugitive  monks,  who  founded  in  that 

Holy  Water  or  incense  if  required,  or  to  prepi^re  a  city  the  Abbey  of  St.  Laumer;  St.  Deodatus,  the 

lighted  candle.    The  blessings  are  ordinarilv  given  anchorite,  also  called   St.  Di^  (sixth  century),  who 

in  a  church;  but,  if  necessary,  they  can  be  lawfully  assured  Clovis  of  the  victory  at  Vouill^  (507);  the 

administered  elsewhere  according  to  the  exigencies  solitaries    Victor    and    Leonardus;    and   Aigulphus 

of  place  or  other  circumstances  or  privileges,  and  (seventh  century),  a  native  of  Blois  and  Abbot  of 

without  any  sacred  vestment.  L4rins,  who  was  assassinated.    Peter  of  Blois,  who 

Patrick  Mobribrob.  came  from  the  Abbey  of  St.  Laumer,  was  conspicuous 

Blessing,  Apostolic,  the  solemn   blessing  (urU  ^  <^he  twelfth  century  for  his  defence  of  St.  f  homas 

et  orbi)  which,  before  1870,  the  Holy  Father  Idmself  ^^^^^  ^4  ^^^^'^^"f^g  devotion  to  the  Blessed 

■    -              -  .   »-  -      .    J  -                 .  -  Virgin.    The  Venerable  Charies  of  Blois,  killed  in 

was  the  son  of  Guy,  Count 

jLjauciau     uu    sxoiivnoiyju.    x^c*v       cmiu    ui     omii/a    luebria  '  ^^  SCVCral  great  abbeVS 

Maggiore,  on  the  feast  of  the  Assumption  of  the  in  tWs  dipc^,  one  at  Mles-sur-Cber,  b^  m  e^^ 
B.  Y.  M.  The  popes  very  often  delegated  to  others  ^J'^^  ^J"^^  century  by  the  hermit,  St.  Eusinus. 
the  power  to  give  this  bluing  in  answer  to  petitions  *^  ajiother  at  Pontlevoy,  now  a  coUege.  The 
froni  princes  at  the  close  of  missions,  and  on  6uch  ^^^^7.  ^^,^i^®  Bleeaed  Trmity  at  yenddme, 
occasions.  This  power  was  restricted  by  Clement  dedicated  in  1040,  was  also  qmte  celebrated.  The 
XIII,  3  SeptembS-,  1762,  to  patriarchs,  primates,  Oratonans  Jean  Monn  and  Jer6me  Viguier,  learned 
archlJishops;  and  bishops,  who  petition  the  AppstoUc  ^cctesiastics  of  the  seventeenth  century,  were  natives 
See  for  it;  they  can  give  the  Apostolic  blessing  on  ri^?"  i  ^  ^u  « n^^  xi.  -n.-  ^  t>i  • 
Easter  Sunday  and  on  some  oth^  feasts.  Prefates  ,  ^*  ^^^  «^ff.^^  *^®o?f\''ol^<i  the  Diocese  of  Blois 
who  have  the  use  of  the  pontificalia  and  jurisdiction  ^  a  population  of  275,638;  28  pastorates  266  mis- 
over  a  certain  territory  cin  give  it  only  once  a  year.  ?{?"  chmrches.  and  8  curacies  with  subventions  from 
A  certain  formula  is  pr^cribSi.  The  superiors  of  cer-  J»^e  State.  Accordmg  to  the  latest  statistics,  the 
tain  religious  orders,  especially  the  Fr^iscans,  can  ^^"?^f  institutions  are  to  be  found  m  the  diocese: 
give  it  twice  a  year  in  thVchur^hes  of  their  own  order;  ^.  '"^^^  «S**^.**  conducted  by  asters;  2  oiphanaws 
they  must  use  a  formula  and  ask  permission  of  the  ?,^®^  farmmg  is  taught  conducted  by  the  Fr^r^  de 
ordinary  (30  August,  1763).  The  f^ty  is  occasion-  gj*  Francois  lUgis  and  the  Soeurs  du  Protectorat  de 
aUy  granted  to  plrticular  priests,  regular  or  secular,  to  St  Joseph :  7  prls  orphanages  conducted  by  asters; 

give  the  ApostiUc  blessing  upoi  riturn  from  Rome,  },  ^^"^f.  9^  "^^W  S^^y^S°«  ^TT' i^''^!'^^^ 
Et  the  clos^  of  missions  or  iSreats;  in  this  case  no  ^^®  Rehgieuses  de  Notre  Dame  de  la  Chants ;  5  pot- 
solemn  rite  is  required.  The  Apostolic  blessing  is  a  ^^f",  ^^  P|p"'.  ^  P^T^^?*'  Romorwitm;  8 
sacramental  with^  which  is  granted  a  plenary  Tndul.  *^J>8P>tals  and  hospic^  conducted  by  sisters;  5  houses 
gence  (under  the  usual  conditions),  but  no  aliolution  of  retreat  conducted  by  sisters;  5  commum ties  of 

From  ecclesiastical  censures.     During  a  jubilee  this  ««^™  T^Zi?^"^  ^a""  *^5  "f^^  u  ^^^1''  ^''°'^'  ^^  ^ 

blessing  cannot  be  given.    A  speciaT  feature  of  this  *^T®^,SJi*'?^  ^  conducted  by  sisters, 

blessing  is  the  Apostolic  benediction  in  ariicxdo  moHis.  ^fj^  .r^  followmg  congregations  were  repre- 

This  bfessing  is  ^ven  to  those  who  are  in  danger  of  ^"^  ^  ^^«  diocese:  the  Capuchms  at  Blois  and 

j._i.i_  I y.A°.i.^                  ^1               .      J  *        »P        <  PremonRtratenniAnR    at    Anfhnn       Amnnir    tht*    local 


inwke  the  name  of  Jesus,  and  to  be  resigned  to  the  "' "T*"*"  "f J'*""'?-    -i""  "'"»»'  ^V'^'ffV        K^-  I 

will  of  God.    In  missionarir  countries  the  Bishops  can  ?**^T^r.I?.  ^''*''^  ^iST  ^t^  ^^^t^'^^i  ^^  ^l 

subdelegate  every  priest   to  grant  this  indulgence  ^°^%    Others  are  Notre   Dame  de  N^teuil  at 

(5  April,  1772).    It  i^not  suspended  by  a  jubUe?  Montrichard    Notre  Dame  d^  Aydes  at  Blois  and 

Berinoer.  Die  Abldsse,  ihr  Wcien  und  Oelratich  (Germ.  tr..  Notre  Dame  des  Blanches  at  Pontlevoy,  a  sajictuary 

13th  ed.,  Paderborn.  1905).  built  at  the  end  of  the  tenth  century  by  Gildum, 

Frederick  G.  Holwbck.  opponent  of  Foulques  Ntrra. 

m««.«.i«.^  «.#  AVV^4..  »m^A  AW^— ^-       o         A  Gallia    ckrigiiana    (1744).    VIII.    1343-1407;    In$irumenia. 

Blessing  of  AODOtS  ana  ADDeSSeS.     See  Abbot;  412-478;  DuprA.  Notice  $w  U*  tainU  de  BUria  (Bloia,  1860): 

Abbess.  Chevalzeb,  Tapolnbl.,  421.  422. 

Blind,  Education  op  the.     See  Education  op  Georges  Gotau. 

THE  Blind;  Ha^.  BloiB,  Francois-Louis  de.    See  Blosius. 

Blois  (Blesensis),  Diocese  op,  coextensive  with       Blomeyenna,  Peter  (Peter  a  Letdis),  a  Car- 

the  civil  department  of  Loir-et-Cher  and  a  suffragan  thusian,  b.   at    Leyden,  m    Holland,    in    1466;    d. 

of  Paris.    On  1  July,  1697,  Innocent  XII  canonically  30  September,    1536.    Owing  to   the  avarice   and 

erected  the  Bishopric  of  Blois,  that  territory  having  cruelty  of  his  parents  and  relatives,  his  early  years 

theretofore  been  aependept  on  the  Diocese  of  Char-  were  spent  in  poverty  and  hardship.    But  he  led 

tres.    Prior  to  the  Revolution,  the  Diocese  of  Blois  withal  a  singularly  pure  and  devout  life.    EIntering 

was  less  extensive  than  at  present,  almost  the  entire  the    Carthusian    Order,    he    distinguished    himself 

arrondissement  of  Romorantin  being  subject  to  the  by  his  absorption  in  heavenly  things  and  his  seal 

Bbhopric  of  Origans,   and  the  Bas-Vend6mois  to  for  the  glory  of  God.    In  1506  he  was  elected  prior 

that  of  Mans.    The  Concordat  of  1802  gave  Loir-et-  of  the  Carthusian  monastery  of  Cologne,  a  post 


BXiOHDUh  603  iLOOD 

^hieh  he  held  \mtil  his  death,  twentv-nme  years  when  they  entered  into  a  treaty  with  the  Canadian 

later.    His  long  term  of  office  enabled  him  to  do  Government,  they  have  been  settled  on  ibe  tract 

much  to  promote  strict  religious  observance  both  of  land  known  as  the  Blood  Reserve.    This  reserve, 

in   his    monastery   and   throughout    the    Rhenish  lying  near  the  Belly  Buttes,  which  had  always  been  a 

province,    of    which  he  had  been  named    visitor,  favourite  resort  of  the  tribe,  is  bounded  on  the  west 

besides  his  active  work  among  his  brethren,   he  by  the  Belly  River,  on  the  north  by  the  Belly  River 

found  time  for  the  composition  of  several  treatises  and  the  Old  Man  River,  on  the  east  by  the  St.  Mary 

which  have  a  certain  value  as  ascetic  and  controver-  River,  and  on  the  soutn  by  the  Mormon  settlement 

sial  literature.    In  his  ''Enchiridion  Sacerdotum"  of  Cardston. 

(1532)  he  enlarges  upon  the  august  mystery  of  the        Like  most  prairie  Indians,  the  Bloods  are  very 

Holy  Eucharist.    His  "De  Bonitate  DivinA"  is  a  proud  and  superstitious.     In  their  own  way  they 

valuable  work  for  preachers  of  the  word  of  God.  are  a  very  rehgious  p>eople,  religion  bein^  a  part  of 

In  1513  he  translated  into  the  Latin  tongue  the  every  important  act  of  their  lives.    Their  religious 

Franciscan  De  Herp's    ascetic    treatise   "Directo-  system  closely  resembles  that  of  other  Algonquins, 

rium  Aureum  Contemplativorum",  adding  thereto  but  especisdly  of  the  Oees.    It  centres  in  the  worship 

explanatory  notes.    He  also  edited  several  volumes  of  the  sun  (Natos),  the  moon  (Kokomi-kisum),  some 

of  Denis  the  Carthusian  (Dionysius  ci  Rickel)  and  constellations,  ana  also  some  minor  deities--genii 

wrote   vigorously  against  the  then  nascent  Prot-  of  the  mountains^  forests,  and  streams.    The  most 

estant  hereefy.    Among  Blomevenna's  oontroveiBial  important  of  their  rdigious  practices  is  the  sun- 

works    are    "Candela    Evangelica"    (1536);    ''As-  dance  (okan),  an  elaborate  ceremonial  performance 

sertio  PurEatorii"  (1534);  "  De  Auctoritate  Ecclesice"  which  needs  months  of  preparation  and  ends  with  a 

(1535);  "  I>e  Vario  Modo  adorandi  Deum,  Sanctos  week  or  so  of  festivities,  m  which  fasting,  self-torture, 

eteorum  Imagines"  (1535).  and  self-mutilation  are  joined  with  rejoicings  ana 

Huvm,  NommeUuor  (laiubniok,  1899),  IV,  1140^^  frolics  of  every  description.    This  practice,  although 

E.  J.  DsviNa.  dying  out,  is  still  revived  from  time  to  time.    Other 

a     -B  «»-  superstitious   dances   and   performances   are   parts 

Bumdus,  Flavtus,    See  Biondo,  Flavio.  of  the  same  curious  and  intncate  system. 

Blood   Indiana,    a   group   of    Ncnrth  American       While  the  tribe  was  constantly  roamiiig  from 

aborigines  forming  part  of  the  Blackfeet  Tribe,  which,  place  to  place  in  the  immense  territory  which  now 

with  the  Arapahoes  and  Cheyennes,  constitute  the  forms  the  States  of  Montana  and  the  Dakotas,  and 

Western  division  of  Uie  great  Algonquin  family,  the  Province  of  Alberta,  they  were  but  rarely  and 

(See    Blackfoot    Indians.)      The    Blood    Indian  irregularly  visited  by  Catholic  missionaries,  amons 

(iC(Fiia)  group  is  now  subdivided  into  several  K»tmcheB,  whom  were  Fathers  de  Smet  and  Imoda,  S.  J.,  ana 

or  clans,  the  most  important  of  which  is  (1)  the  Father  A.  Lacombe^  O.  M.  I.    After  the  settlement 

Ini-poyex  (Standin^bunaloes),  which  is  sub-divided  of  the  tribe  on  their  reserve,  however,  in  1877,  it 

into  (a)  Keay-etapix  (Bear  people),  (b)  Noto-spitax  became   possible   to  establish   permanent   missions 

(All-tall-people),  (c)  Mami-sJioyin  (Fisn-eaters),  (d)  among  them.    Of  the  three  denominations — Catholic. 

Ayom-okeksuc     (Closely-camped),     (e)     Ak»-pokax  Anglican,   and   Methodist — which    had   establishea 

(Many-children),  (f)  Apikax  (Scabby).    Other  clans  missions  among  the  Bloods  in  1881,  the  first  and 

of  the  group  are  (2)  the  Six-immokBOC  (Black-elks),  second  have  remained  in  the  field.    They  maintain 

(3)   Al^namax    (Many-scabbed-mouths),   and    (4)  industrial  and  boarding  schools,  and  have  educated 

aid  Tsi-sokasimix  (Buffalo-coats).  a  number   of  Indian   children.     The   promss   of 

The  language  of  the  Blood  Indians  Is  like  that  of  Christianity   has   been   slow.     Unfortunately,   the 

the  other  two  groups  of  the  Blackfeet,  with  but  few  example  of  many  of  the  whites  has  not  been  of  a 

and  unimportfmt  peculiarities.     It  is  called  Black*  nature  to  attract  the  Indians  to  the  white  man's 

foot,  and  is  classed  as  one  of  the  branches  of  the  religion;  yet  there  is  a  goodly  number  (about  35)  of 

Algonquin,  though  it  possesses  only  a  very  limited  youn^  Catholic  families,  mostly  made  up  of  the  boys 

number  of  words  in  common  with  the  other  branches  and  girls  educated  in  tne  Catnolic  schools.    Besides, 

of  the  same  family.    The  aboriginal  name,  Kcena,  most  of  the  children  are  baptized  Catholics  when 

might,  it  seems,  be  translated  "Already-chief";  but  young,  and  when  these  have  oeen  trained  and  edu- 

ihe  true  meaning  is  in  fact  altogether  lost,  and  no  cated  the  number  of  Catholic  families  will  increase. 

one,  even  among  these  people  themselves,  could  There  are  also  a  few  Protestant  families.    At  the 

now  nve  a  satisfactory  interpretation  of  it.    In  the  present  time  there  are  two  Catholic  priests  on  the 

sign  language,  the  gesture  for  Ksena  is  made  by  Hood  Reserve,  with  a  neat  little  church,  a  residence, 

rapidly  passing  the  right  hand,  palm  downward,  and  a  boarding  school  conducted  by  seven  Sisters 

in  front  of  the  mouth,  of  which  gesture  the  exact  with  some  forty  pupils.      Children  are    also    sent 

siniification  is  also  lost.  to  the  industrial  school,  which   is   established   at 

In  the  year  1882  the  Bloods  were  supposed  to  a  place  about  100  miles  distant  from  the  Reserve, 

niunber  about  1800  souls;  they  now  number  not  more  and  is  open  to  all  the  Blackfeet  tribes.    On  the  re- 

than  1200.    The  former  of  these  estimates  may  have  serve  there  is  a  hospital  conducted  by  Sisters  of 

been  exaggerated,  as  it  was  difficult  at  that  tune  to  Charity  for  the  exclusive  benefit  of  the  Indians,  an 

obtain  statistics  of  mortality,  but  it  is  undoubtedly  instituuon  which  was  probably  unique  of  its  kind 

true  that  the  numbers  of  these  people  have  con*  at  the  time  of  its  foundation,  in  1893.    Polygamy 

sideraUy  diminished  in  the  last  twente-five  ^ears,  has  been  almost  entirely  eradicated,  yet  the  bulk 

and  that  they  are  still,  slowly,  but  steadily,  diminish*  of  the  adult  population — over  thirty  years  of  age, 

ing.    They  used  to  be,  as  a  rule,  well-developed  and  that  is — are  still  pagans,  and  can  be  thoroughly 

powerful  phyirical  specimens  of  humanity,  some  of  habituated  to  Catholic  practices  only  in  a  very 

uie  men  Dems  over  6  feet  6  inches  in  height,  the  limited  number  of  cases.     One  most  remarkable 

women  genially  shorter,  but  strong  and  healthy*  case  of  this  kind  was  that  of  Chief  Red-Crow  (3/iA> 

looking.    Their  present  pnysical  condition,  however,  ahesUnv).  who  was  converted  and  lived  the  life  of  a 

shows  the  melancholy  constitutional  effects  of  con*  practical  Catholic  for  several  years  preceding  his 

sumption  and  scrofula.     The  country  over  which  death,  which  occurred  in  1890. 

the  Bloods,  with  the  other  Blackfeet  tribes,  formeriy        The  progress  of  civilization  among  the   Bloods 

roamed  extended  from  the  basin  of  the  Missouri,  on  during  the  last  twenty-five  years  may  be  regarded 

the  south,  northwards  to  the  Red  Deer  River  in  the  as  marvellous  in  the  extreme.     At  first  they  were 

Canadian   Province   of   Alberta,   with   the   HocW  trained  to  become  farmers;  but  this  occupation  was 

Mountains  as  its  western  boundary.     Since  1877.  xiot  to  their  liking,  and  little  pro^cress  was  made. 


In  pursuance  of  Utia  later  policy,  the  Indiuis    penafca    consolantes".     — —       - - 

have  been  set  to  ranching  and  cattle-raising — a  coa-  first  published  at  Lou  vain  in   156S  and  have  been 

genial  occupation.    Many  of  them  now  have  herds  many  times  reprinted  and  traoBlated.     Of  English 

of  their  own,  and  are  e^f-supporting.     Noteworthy  editiou,  beeides  the  "Mirror  for  Monks",  there  are 

progTcsehasalsobeenactiieveaintheirdresa.boiuutig,  "A  Book  of  Spiritual  Instruction''  (London,  1900) 

preparation  of  food,  treatment  of  wives,  and.  Ken-  and    "Comfort    for    the    Faint-hearted"    (London, 

eraUy,  In  their  ideas  of  social  relations;  so  much  ao  1902),  both  tranalal^d  by  Father  Bertrand  Wilber- 

that  the  Blood  Indian  of  to-day  may  be  considered  foroe,  O.P. 

an  entirely  different  being  from  hii  predecewor  of  .^f",^^!  \^^i^'H^lT^"s^,^^d^^hm^^ 

twenty-five  years  ago.                 Emili!  J.  Lmai..  iSai,  1,  43;  fli  Stoit,  vl'Bmafiri.;.  of  «.fli«*mi*c«*i.*; 

Blood  of  St.  JftDUariua.     Jsee  JurutBlDi,  9r.  ti.  Itavxr  (Uwdoo.  1878).                 ^^ 

Blood  RftlaUonahlp.    See  Conbanooikitt.  ^-  C""*^^  Aiaros. 

Bloody  Sweat.     See  Aodnt  of  CaHiar.  BIyiMn,  Hmnkiot,  b.  at.  Colonie  or  Bonn,  Oe»- 

Blolu.  (or  n.  B^.^,  ^^^^^t^  a  Ben.  ^ fci^ ^J  i^^^^St^Ca'S' aS^S 

dicUne  abbot  and  spmtua^™t*r^^b^^^  hi.  logic  i«i  his  ki,wledge  of  theol<W,'»^t  him 

nearU£ge,Flandera,IS06;d  atLie^   15M^  with  aeren   other  Jeeuitato   BohemiTto   combat 

par^nta  were  noblea  of  Hainault,  his  father  be.ng  heresy  there,  and  to  Hustain  a  public  disputation  with 

SieurofJunugny.     He  became  pageto  the  Archduke  the  disciples 'of  Luther  and  Hus*:    ThougSonlytwenty- 

Jl      P    ™.  five  years  of  age,  ho  acquitted  himselT  with  honour. 

^hI^l    v\^\^.t  w<*  '1   1556  he  became  professor  of  thetJogy  and 

liv^    thi    A^  Hebrew  at  the  Jesuit  college  at  Prague.     StilFmain- 

^T^f     I  i™-«  taining  hia  controversiea  with  the  heretics  of  Bohemia, 

-^„    ™l„    ^!r,,  ha  published   a  collection  of   theses:   "De   cibormn 

W^      Wfili>.J«Si  deiectuatquejejunio"  (Prague,  1550).    To  continue 

r^;^«T!  ™  tfae  w»A  <rf  P«Wio  lectures  «i.ich  he  had  begun,  hs 

tnT^at^vTt  P™  »  Sunday  oourse  of  polemics  t»  the  .l^^  and 

tli«  TIniverMtv  of  '"*T'     Appointed  rector  of  the  college  at  Prague  in 

i^.,V=T^v,L«  IMl.  1»  was  transferred  in  1570  to  the  college  at 

fc        ^=Tl^^  Gnu.   where    he   vigoroudy   continued    his   lecture* 

it<)7    .ifv^™  on  theology.    Attacked  by  Jacob  Heerbrand  on  bis 

J^iutor  to    Se  doctrine^oceming  the  durtjh,  he  published  a  de- 

Abbnt      fMlles  'enee   of   hii   thesis:    "Defensio    assertionum   theo- 

n.ttZ.?,,'\,i^  ^iJfi  logicanun   de   vertl   et    aacroaanctA    Christi,   quam 

^l£^'  M     B^h  ^^ '°  *^"'  *^'«''"'*  ™litaat«"  angolstadt.  1577). 

Sh^      MnfIrS  **'■  '*^  ^<*   principal   work   "De   uno  geminoque 

kl^D..n  ^t  c™  aacne  oudiaristiw  synaieos  salubriter  perctpienda 

S^,J    m      Thr^  ritu  ac  usu"  was  puirfished  Ongolstadt,  15855  when 

fi^    i;\         ?!  be  was  provincial  of  Austria. 

Fb*mco».Lo™  Blouub               y??J?,    l*ter,    in  Oblahbini.  Hut  Sot.  J«u  {Rome,  1614).  XII.  J8S;  XVI. 

1530,  he  succeeded  age;  Socbbi,  Hulona  pn».  Autr.  Soc  J«u  (Viuuu).  V" 

Gippus  as  thirty-fourth  Abbot  of  Liessiea.and  received  SaO:  Schmiiit.  nuuria  &k.  Jau  prou.  BtOunnia:  (P™ue,  11 

nrSViation  and  th«  ahbatlftl  blBssine  in  the  same  vear.  !■  5Mi  BomiHivoaBL,  BM.  dtlae.dt  J.  IIMO).  1. 


His  first  care  v 


E  HOREIBA. 


true  monastic  spirit  and  strict  discipline,  which  had  BIftb,  Franoib,  English  Carmelite,  reviser  of  the 
somewhat  declined  under  his  predoceesors.  He  had  Douay  Bible,  txim  c.  1705;  d.  in  London,  11  Deoem- 
hardlv  settled  down  to  the  work  of  reform  before  ber,  1772.  Though  bom  of  Protestant  parents,  he 
Flanders  was  immersed  in  war  owing  to  its  invaeion  joined  the  Cathohc  Church  while  yet  a  youth,  and 
by  Francis  I  of  France,  which  occurred  in  1537.  entered  the  Carmelite  novitiate  at  Modena  in  1723, 
Liessies,  being  on  the  frontier,  become  in  consequonee  taking  the  name  Simon  Stock  of  the  Blessed  Trinity. 
an  imsafe  haoitation  and  Blosiua  proposed  a  move  Having  obtained  a  diBpeneation  from  irregularity 
to  the  priory  of  Ath,  in  the  interior,  but  most  of  his  on  account  of  a  defect  in  vision,  he  proceeded  to 
monlra,  being  ojipoBed  to  his  reform,  either  elected  Malta  for  a  course  of  studies,  and  after  ordination 
to  remain  at  Liessies  or  else  went  to  other  laxer  returned  to  England,  in  November,  1730,  where 
monasteries.  The  abbot,  hou-cver,  with  three  monks,  he  first  served  a  mission  in  Wiltahlrv.  Id  1741 
retired  to  Ath  and  there  he  at  once  restored  the  prinii-  he  became  assistant  chaplain,  and  in  1756  chaplftin- 
tive  observance  of  the  rule.  In  spite  of  opposition  major  to  the  Portuguese  embassy  in  London,  where 
the  refonn  gained  ground  and  numbers  mcreaaed  he  remained  until  his  death.  From  1742  tilt  175S,  he 
rapidly.  Whea  a  return  to  Lieasiee  became  possiUe,  also  was  Vicar  Provincial  of  the  English  Canneltles. 
in  1545,  the  reform  was  accepted  by  those  that  had  While  in  London,  he  assumed  the  name  of  Courtney, 
remained  there  and  was  confirmed  by  a,  Bull  of  Pope  The  chapels  of  the  various  embassies  being  recog- 
Paul  111.  Bloeius  next  b^an  a  restoration  aMd  nised  as  places  of  worship  for  Catholics,  the  chap- 
enlargement  of  the  abbey  buudings,  which  were  only  lains  held  a  position  not  unlike  that  of  parish  priesta, 
completed  after  his  death.  In  1556  Charles  V  offered  and  Father  BIyth  distinguished  himself  by  his  clo- 
him  tlie  Archbishopric  of  Cambrai  and  the  abbacy  of  quent  and  zealous  preaching.  The  first  ambnssBdor 
Tournai,  both  of  which  he  refused  in  order  that  he  under  whom  Father  Blyth  served  was  Dom  Sebastiio- 
might  remain  at  Lieesies.  In  personal  character  Joafi  de  Carvalho  e  Mello,  afterwards  Marquei  de 
be  was  distiuKuished  for  his  gentleness,  his  genooaity  Pombal  (173D-15),  whom  he  wa^,  ot  a  later  peiioa, 
.  to  the  poor,  his  love  of  chastity,  and  nis  devotion  to  accused  of  bavinc  aided  in  high-handed  proceed' 
the  Mother  of  God.  He  was  a  dQigent  stud^it,  ings  against  the  Jesuits.  He  indignantly  protested 
especially  of  the  Scriptures,  the  works  of  the  Fathers,  against  the  calumny.  Blyth  was  bunco  in  (he 
and  the  mystical  writers  of  the  fourteenth  century,  cemetery  of  St.  Pancras,  London,  and,  being  a  mwi 
Bis  own  writings  were  numerous,  the  chief  being  of  great  lit«rary  attainments  and  author  of  bobJ 
'Speculum  Monachorum",  written  in  Ijatin,  tians-  woncs,  a  memorial  was  raised  there  in  bis  himcur. 
lated    into    French    1726,    and    into    Ei^liRh    1872  Hia  chief  labour  was  the  revision,  in  ccojunctim 


BOAST  605  BOBBIO 

with  Bishop  CSialloner,  of  the  so-called  Donay  Bible;  chapels,  served  hy  80  secular  priests.    The  cathedra! 

while  adhering  closely  to  the  text  of  the  Vulgate,  chi4>^^^  consists  of  a  provost,  archpriest,  and  ten 

the  revisers   sacrificed   the   energetic   language   of  canons.    In  the  diocesan  seminary  there  are  at  pres-^ 

the  older  translators  for  a  much  weaker  one  which  ent  40  students.    Under  Bishop  Gianelli  a  cougre-* 

frequently   lacks   dignity.    His  other  works   com-  gation  of  priests  was  formed  in  1839  under  the  title 

prise  expositions   of   the   Penitential   Psalms   and  of  Oblates  of  St.  Alphonsus  Liguori.    They  devote 

other  portions  of  Holy  Scripture,  sermons,  and  con-  themselves  especially  to  hearing  confessions  in  prisons 

troversial  writings.  and  hospitals,  as  well  as  to  spreading  good  literature 

The  W^M  TesteanenLwilh  Atm^^       (London,  1738);  among  the   people.     Bobbio    also    possesses   a  Con- 

si^  (SJicS^i^)  3^'*   •       •  Z°«««^.  C*"^ »«  TOgation  of  daughters  of  Mary,  popukr^own  as 

B.  ZnoaBRiiAN.  Gwidliane. 
«     «,  HisTOEY. — ^The  origin  of  the  See  of  Bobbio,  indeed 

Boast,  John.     See  Trithemiub.  of  the  town  itself,  is  due  to  the  establishment  of  a 

Bobadilla,  Nicolas,  b.  at  Valencia,  Spain,  1511;  monastery  here  b^  the  Irish  saint,  Colmnban,  in  614. 

d.  at  Loretto,  Italy,  23  September,   1590.    After  The  Lombards,  with  other  savage  tribes,  had  invaded 

having  taught  philosophy  in  nis  native  country,  he  northern  Italy  under  their  leader  Alboin  in  568. 

w^t  to  Paris  to  aoquire  a  more  perfect  knowledge  A   half-Anan,   half-heathen   horde,   wherever   they 

of  Greek   and    Latin.  .  Here   he   met   Ignatius   of  passed  all  the  horrors  of  wanton  destruction  and 

Loyola,  join^  him  in  his  plans  and  was  amon^  the  cruelty  marked  their  track.     But  at  length  the  new 

first  seven  followers  of  the  saint  to  consecrato  tbem*  barbarian  ruler,  Agilulph,  became  less  hostile  and  bv 

sieves  to  God  in  the  Society  of  Jesus,  at  Montmartre,  degrees  even   not   unfavourably   disposed   towaros 

15  August,  1534.     Hereafter  Bobadilla's  career  was  the  Catholic  Faith.    Queen  Theodelmda,  whom  he 

a  very  active  one,  as  a  most  sealous  worker  in  the  married  in  590,  was  a  fervent  Catholic;  she  had  won- 

cause  of  the  Catholic  Faith.     While  serving  the  sick  derful  influence  over  her  consort,  and  at  last  he  was 

in  the  camp  of  the  army  of  Chaiies  V  about  Katisbon,  converted  by  the  preaching  of  Columban.     From 

he  himself  cauffht  the  plague.     Here  too,  about  this  the  day  of  his  baptism,  Agilulph  displayed  great 

time,  1546,  asne  was  returning  from  the  oamp  into  zeal  for  the  conversion  of  his  subjects,  and  for  this 

the  city  he  was  waylaid  by  assassins  and  severely  purpose  gave  St.  Columban  a  ruined  church  and 

wounded.    At  another  time  he  barely  escaped  with  devastatid  district  known  as  Ebovium,  which,  before 

his  life  from  an  attempt  to  poison  him.  the  Lombards  seized  it,  had  formed  part  of  the  Patri- 

B^  order  of  the  Sovereign  Pontiff  Paul  III.  Boba-  mony  of  St.  Peter.    Columban  had  set  his  heart  on 

dilla  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Diets  of  Nurem-  this  secluded  place,  for  while  intent  on  instructing 

bei^,  1543,  and  of  Speyer,  1543,  as  well  as  in  that  of  the  Lombards  he  chose  solitude  for  his  monks  and 

Ratisbon,  1546.     Shortly  after  this  an  incident  oo-  himself.    By  the  side  of  this  little  church,  which 

curred  which  forced  him  to  leave  Germany.    In  154S,  was  dedicated  to  St.  Peter,  soon  arose  the  walls  of 

the  "Interim"  of  Auesbui^g  was  puUished  by  the  an  abbey.    Here  the  nucleus  of  what  was  to  be  the 

Emperor,  Charles  V.    It  was  a  tentative  document  most  celebrated  library  in  Italy  was  formed  by  the 

intended  to  suggest  a  basis  of  agreement  between  MBS.  which  Columban  had  brought  from  Ireland 

Catholics  and  ^x»testants  until  their  reti^oas  diffex^  and  the  treatises  of  which  he  himsel/  was  the  author, 
ences  could  be  definitely  settled.     But  as  it  seemed  in        The  sainted  founder  of  Bobbio  was  soon  afterwards 

the  eyes  of  many  Catln^cs  to  go  too  far,  and  in  ihd  laid  to  rest   (23  November,  615),  but   his  crosier 

eyes  of  many  Protestants  not  tar  enough,  it  satisfied  passed  into  worthy  hands.    The  names  of  St.  Attala 

neither  party.     Bobadilla  opposed  it  m  speech  and  (627)  and  St.  Bertulf  (640)  will  live  forever  in  ecclesi- 

in  writing,  and  so  vigorously,  that  although  he  was  astical  history.    Both  were  conspicuous  for  holiness 

highlv  esteemed  in  the  imperial  court,  he  was  obliged,  and  learning,  and  both  inheritea  Columban's  apos- 

bv  the  Emperor's  order,  to  retire  from  Germamr.  tolic  spirit.    It  was  indeed  sorely  needed,   for  a 

He  was  a  most  popular  preacher,  as  is  evidenced  by  reaction   towards   Arianism   set  in,  which   became 

the  fact  that  he  delivered  sermons  in  seventynseven  formidable  under  the  Arian  king,  Rotharis  (636-652). 

archbishoprics  and  bishoprics  in  Italy,  Germany,  Arioald,  the  inmiediate  predecessor  of  Rotharis,  who 

and  Dalmatia.  became  a  Catholic,  had  before  his  conversion  caused 

The  writings  of  Bobadilla  cover  a  wide  range  of  St.  Bladulf,  a  monk  of  Bobbio,  to  be  assassinated, 
topics.  Among  them  are  commentaries  on  some  because  Bladulf  would  not  salute  him,  as  being  an 
chapters  of  Genesis  and  other  portions  of  the  Old  and  Arian.  It  is  said  that  Attala  restored  Bladulf  to 
New  Testaments;  annotations  on  the  Gospels;  life  and  delivered  Arioald  from  a  diabolical  posses- 
treatises  on  predestination,  the  sacramente  and  their  sion,  the  punishment  of  his  crime;  and  that  this  two- 
use,  against  the  Lutherans,  cases  of  conscience;  a  fold  miracle  led  to  Arioald's  conversion.  In  628, 
defenoe  of  ^  Council  of  Trent  against  Melanchtihon  when  St.  Bertulf  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome,  Hono- 
and  Calvin,  ete.     The  last  survivor  of  the  seven  first  rius  I  exempted  Bobbio  from  episcopal  jurisdiction. 


companions  of  Ignatius  of  Loyola.  Bobadilla  took    thus  making  the  abbey  immediately  subject  to  the 
part  in  the  election  of  four  generals  of  the  Society    Holy  See.^Under 


the  next  abbot,  Bobolen,  the  rule 

of  Jesus.  of  St.  Benedict  was  introduced.    At  first  ite  observ- 

.^■^'  ^^  '^^Jf^jf^  ^^  ^'  Nicola  BohadiHa,  deUa  c.  ance  was  optional,  but  in  course  of  time  it  superseded 

?^;^,rDS..'!?Sl'JrJ'ZT8'?';il6*'i7t '''•*"'■•'•  the  mo«  austere  rule  hitherto  in  use,  ancTBobbip 

JoBSPH  M.  Woods.  jomed  the  Congre^tion  of  Monte  Cassmo.    In  643, 

at  the  request  of  Rotharis  and  Queen  Gundelberga, 

Bobbio,  Abbbt  ani>  Diocbse  of. — ^The  diocese  Pope  Theodore  I  granted  to  the  Abbot  of  Bobbio  the 

(Eboviumf  or  Bchium;   Diatcesis  Eboviensis,  or  Bob-  use  of  the  mitre  and  other  pontificals.     It  has  even 

ien&ia),  which   is   suffragan   to   the   Archiepiscopal  been  asserted  that  Bobbio  had  a  bishop,   named 

See  of  Genoa,  is  contermmous  with  the  civil  district  Peter'  Aldus,  as  early  as  the  seventh  century,  but 

of  Bobbio.    This  district  is  situated  in  the  Province  according  to  the  best  authorities   (Ughelli,  Gams, 

of  Pa  via  and  contains,  besides  Bobbio,  ite  chief  town,  and  others)  the  See  of  Bobbio  was  not  founded  till 

only   two  small   villages  and  eighteen  communes,  four  centuries  later,  although  recent  investigation 

The   diocese   was  suppressed   from   1803   to   1817,  has  shown  that  the  name  of  ite  first  bishop  really 

during  whieh  time  it  was  annexed  to  Alexandria,  wis  Peter  Aldus  (Savio,  158). 

then  to  Caaala.    Pius  VII  re-established  it  in  1818.  From  the  seventh  century  on,  in  the  midst  of 

The  population,  entirely  Catholic,  is  (1907)  about  widespread  turmoil  and  ignorance,  Bobbio  remained 

30.000.    There  are  52  parishes  and  105  churches  or  a  home  of  pie^jty  and  culture.    Through  the  efforte 


BOOOAOOZirO  606  BOOOAOODIO 

Df    St.    Oolumban'a    disciples,    

of  the  Lombards  were  received  i  , 

But  during  the  first  half  of  the  aeveiith  century,  (2)    the    leanied    canonist    Giovanni    de    Mondtuii 

the  large  tract  of  country  lying  between  Turin  snd  (1477-82),    whose   temainB   were    found    iDconuot 

Verona,  Genoa  and  Milan,  was  in  a  very  irreligioua  in  1614;  and  (3)  Venerable  Antonio  Gianelli  (1838- 

and  disturbed  state;  and  even  idolatry  waa  not  un-  40),  whose  cauae  has  been  introduced.    St.  (3^um- 

known.     In  tact  not  until  the  reign  of  the  usurper  b^'a  abbey  and  church  were  taken  from  the  Bene- 

Grimoald    (663-673),    himself   a   convert,    was    the  dictines  by  the  French  soldiers  in  1803;  what  remuns 

bulk  of  the  nation  brought  into  the  Cbureh.    But  of  the  abbey  is  now  used  as  a  municipal  school,  aad 

from  that  time  Arianism  disappeared  in  the  West,  the   church,    where    the   relics    ot   Efts.    Columban, 

The  historians  of  the  abbey  rcgud  as  one  of  its  chief  Attala,    Bertuif,    Cummian,    and    others    repose,  ie 

glories  the  prominent  part  which  it  took  in  the  final  now  a  parish   church,  served  by  secular  priests, 

contest    with    this   heresy.     Theodelinda's   nephew.  The  altars  and  the  sarcophagi  in  the  crypt  present 

the  pious  Arribert  (653-663),  restored  all  the  lands  beautiful  specimens  of  the  interlaced  omamentstioQ 

of  Bobbio  which  belonged  by  right  to  the  Prince  of  which  is  characteristic  of  Irish  art.    In  the  Cathedral 

th»  Apostles.    Arribert   II   also   gladly  confirmed  of  Bobbio  there  is  a  beautiful  tabernacle  in  the 

this  restitution  to  John  VII  in  707.  The  unruly  ~ 
Lombards  soon  dispossessed  the  pope,  but  in  75d 
Aiatulf  was  compelled  bv  Pepin  to  give  up  the  lands. 
In  774  Charlemagne  mooe  liberal  grants  to  the  abbey. 
In  1153  Frederick  Bari)aroBsa  confirmed  bV  two 
charters  various  rights  and  possessions.  Iriua  it 
came  to  pass  that  the  abbota  were  for  centuries 
entrusted  with  a  large  administration  of  temporals. 

The  fame  of  Bobbio  reached  the  shores  of  Ireland, 
and  the  memory  of  Columban  was  dear  to  the  hearts 
of  his  countrymen.  Bobolen's  successor  was  St. 
Comgall  who  had  rosinied  his  see  in  Ireland  in  order 
to  become  a  monk  of  Bobbio;  St.  Chimmian  who  did 
the  same  died  i  ' 
Egger  in  "  Mon,  ' 
Dungal  (d.  after  827)  bequeathed  to  the  abbey  his 
valuable  library,  consisting  of  some  seventy  volumes, 
among  which  was  the  famous  "  Antiphonarjr  of  Ban- 
gor". A  tenthnientury  catalogue,  pubhshed  by 
Muratori,  shows  that  at  that  penod  every  branch  of 
kmiwledge,  divine  and  human,  was  represented  in 
this  library.  Many  ot  the  books  have  been  lost. 
the  rest  have  long  since  been  dispersed  and  are  still 

reckoned  among  the  chief  treasures  of  the  later  col-  k,.„,„        ur    «• 

lections    which    possess    thom.    In    1616    Cardinal  ±tnjiNAjj)  wamb. 

Fedcrigo  Borromeo  took  for  the  Ambrosian  Library        Boccacdlio,     BocCACao,     an     eminent      ItaUan 

of  Milan  eighty-six  volumes,  including  the  famous  piunter,  b.  at  Cttsnona,  1460,  and  d.  probatdy  in 

"Bobbio  Missal",  written  about  911,  tne  "Antipho-  1625  rather  than  in  1518,  the  dat«  usually  given. 

nary  of   Bangor",  and  the  palimpsests  of  Ulfilaa's  He  studied,  it  is  thought,  with  followers  of  Han- 

Golliic  version  of  the  Bible.    Twenty-six  volumes  tcgna,  at  Ferraia,  and  was  a  pupil  or  feUow-student 

were  given,  in  1618,  to  Paul  V  (or  the  Vatican  Library,  of  Domenico  PanetlJ.     At  Cremona  be  painted  in 

Many  others  were  sent  to  Turin,  where,  besides  those  Stmt'  Agostino  a  series  of  frescoes.    He  nad  as  an 

in  the  Royal  Archives,  there  were  seventy-one  in  aswstant    Bcnvenuto  Garofalo,   who  left  hhn  and 

the  Univeraity  Library  until  the  disastrous  fire  of  went  to  Rome.     The  master  followed  and  painted 

26  January,  1904.    As  scholars  of  later  ages  have  a  "Ckironation  of  the  Virgin"  in  Santa  Maria  in 

owed  a  great  deal  to  the  Bobbio  MSS.,  so,  too,  did  Trastevere.     This,    however,    was    so    ridiculed    by 

those  of  the  tenth  century.    Gerard  of  Aurillac,  for  the  public,  which  had  expected  much  of  one  who 

example,  who  was  afterwards  Pope  Sylvester  II,  be-  had  nad  tne  hardihood  to  criticise  Michael  Angdo, 

came  Ahbot  of  Bobbio  in  082;  and  with  the  aid  of  that  the  disappointed  artist    returned  to  Cr«nona 

the  numerous  ancient  treatises  which  h3  found  there  where,  among  his  moat  appreciated  works,  is  a  friew 

be  composed  his  celebrated  work  on  geometry.     And  in  the  cathedral,  showing  the  "  Birth  of  the  Virgin  " 

indeed  it  appears  that  at  a  time  when  Greek  was  al-  and  other  subjects  from  tne  life  of  Our  Lady.     Ltuui, 

most  unknown  in  western  Europe,  the  Irish  monks  who    considered    Boccaccino    as    the    beet    modem 

of  Bobbio  read  Aristotle  and  Demosthenes  in  the  among  the  ancients  and  the  best  ancient  among  the 

original  tongue.  modems,  compares  his  work  in  these  ^roducticMiB 

Li  the  year  1014,  the  Emperor  Henry  II,  on  the  with  that  of  Pemgino,  treating  it  as  inferior  in  some 

occasion  of  his  own  coronation  in  Rome,  obtained  qualities  while  superior  in  others, 
from  Benedict  VIII  the  erection  of  Bobbio  as  a  see.        The  works  of  Boccaccino  possess  much  cham, 

Peter  Aldus,  its  first  bishop,  had  been  Abbot  of  Bob-  and   a  number  of   them  greatly  resemble  those  of 

bio  since  999,  and  his  episcopal  successor  for  a  long  Peruinno.     This  is  notably  so  in  his  "Marriage  of 

time  lived  in  the  abbey,  where  many  of  them  had  been  the  Virgin"  and  "The  Madonna  with  St.  Vinorait 

monks.     According  to   Ughcili   and  others,   Bobbio  and  St.  Anthony"  in  the  cbureh  of  San  Vinoenio 

was  made  a  suffragan  see  of  Genoa  in  1133;  but  ai  Cremona,  which  have  often  been  assumed  to  be 

Savio   finds  this   subordination   mentioned   for   the  the  work  of  the  greater  painter,     Amon^  Boccaccino's 

fimt  time  in  a  Bull  of  Alexander  III,  dated  10  April,  works  in  the  cathedral  at  Cremona,  m  addition  to 

1161.     From  time  to  time  disputes  arose   between  those  already  spoken  of,  are:  "The  Appearance  of 

the  bishop  and  the  monks,  and  m  1199  Innocent  III  the  Angel  to  Joachim";  "The  Meeting  of  Joachim 

issued  two  Bulls,  restoring  the  abbey  in  spirituals  and  Aima";  "The  Circumcision";  "Christ  Reason- 

and  temporals,  and  empowerinc  the  bishop  to  depose  ing  with  the  Doctora";  and  "Christ  with  the  four 

an  abbot  it  within  a  certain  time  he  did  not  obey.  Patron   Saints  of  Cremona"      At  the  Acadeni"  ~ 

Bobbio's  greatest  bishops  have  been  (1)  Blessed  Venice  i*  his  much  admired  "Marriage  of  St.  ( 


BOOOAOOI0                             607  BOOOAOOIO 

erine"  and  "Virgin  and  Child  in  a  Landscape ",  and  Arcite  which  Chaucer  used  for  his  ''Knight's 

and  in  the  church  of  San  Giuliano,  in  the  same  city.  Tale". 

IB  his  "Virgin  and  Child  with  four  Saints",  The  The  "Filostrato",  written  in  the  samfe  year  and 
Louvre  possesses  a  "Holy  Family":  the  London  Ukewise  in  o^va  nma,  tells  of  the  love  of  Troilus  for 
National  Gallery  a  "Procession  to  Calvary",  for-  Chryseis.  The  subject  may  have  been  suggested 
meriy  in  a  Cremona  church;  and  the  Ferrara  Pini^  to  Boccaccio  by  his  adventure  with  Fiammetta. 
ooteca  a  "Death  of  the  Virgin".  Light  ^y  eyes  The  "Ninfale  Fiesolano",  a  short  poem  in  oUava 
outlined  with  a  dark  rim  are  characteristic  of  the  rima,  is  the  best,  in  st^le  and  invention,  of  the 
pictures  of  Boccaccino.  minor  works  of  Boccaccio.  The  "Fiammetta"  i& 
BoccACCiNO,  Camillo,  a  short-lived  but  brilliant  one  of  the  best  written  of  his  works,  the  most  original 
painter,  b.  at  Cremona,  1511:  d.  1546.  He  was  and  the  most  personal.  Panfilo,  the  hero  and  lover 
the  son  and  pupil  of  Boccaccio  boccaccino,  whom  he  of  Fiammetta,  is  supposed  to  represent  Boccaccio 
surpassed,  taJdng  care,  it  is  pointed  out,  to  avoid  the  himself.  The  "  Corbaccio "  (1354)  has  had  its  ad- 
errors  into  which  his  father's  self-esteem  had  led  him.  mirers,  but  it  is  one  of  the  most  bitter  and  indecent 
He  earlv  showed  both  originality  and  strength,  and  satires  ever  written  against  woman.  The  "  Vita  di 
his  wora:  has  been  consi(&red  to  approach  that  of  Dante"  (about  1364),  based  chiefly  on  information 
Correggio,  notably  his  "Four  Evangelists"  in  the  fiunished  by  contemporaries  of  Dante,  remains  one 
niches  of  the  cupola  of  San  Sigismondo  near  Cre-  of  the  best  fives  of  the  poet.  The  "  Commento  sopra 
mona,  which  are  thoroughly  in  the  Correggio  style  La  Commedia",  the  fruit  of  his  public  lectures  on 
and  were  painted  when  the  artist  was  only  twenty*  Dante,  was  planned  to  be  a  colossal  work,  but 
dz.  Camulo  Boccaccino  is  thought  by  Lanzi  to  be  Boccaccio  had  commented  onlv  upon  the  first 
the  greatest  artist  of  the  Cremonese  school.  Two  seventeen  cantos  when  it  was  broken  off  by  his 
of  his  works  at  Cremona  are  "The  Raising  of  Laz-  death. 

arus  "  and  the  ''  Adulteress  before  Christ  *\  surrounded  Boccaccio  shares  with  Petrarch  the  honor  of  being 

by  friezes  showing  many  angels.  the  earUest  humanist.    In  their  time  there  were  not 

.  CHAjfPLDi  AND  PwRKms,  CycfopoKo  of^  Paintert  and  Path*-  a  dozen  men  in  Italy  who  could  read  the  works  of 

^i^'i&l^t^^X^i'^i^i^!^.'"^''^ '^  the  Greek  autho«  in  the  original.    Boccaccio  had  to 

AuQUSTUS  VAN  Cleef.  support  at  his  house  for  three  years  a  teacher  of 

Greek,  with  whom  he  read  the  poems  of  Homer. 

Boccaccio,  Giovaxni,  Italian  novelist,  b.  in  Paris,  Of  Boccaccio's  Latui  works  the  following  are  to  be 
1313;  d.  in  Certaldo,  21  December,  1375.  His  mentioned:  "De  genealogiis  deorum  eentilium"  (be- 
father,  a  mercluuit  from  Certaldo  and  a  man  of  some  tween  1350  and  1360),  but  published  first  in  1373. 
prominence  in  Florence,  had  gone  into  business  in  This  dictionary  of  classical  mythology  shows  re- 
Paris.  Shortly  afterwards  the  elder  Boccaccio  de-  markably  wide  reading  and  a  very  eooa  understand- 
serted  Giannma,  the  mother  of  Giovanni,  and  ing  of  the  works  of  the  ancients  andj  in  spite  of  errors 
brought  the  boy  to  Florence,  where  he  put  him  to  wmch  it  cotdd  not  but  contain,  it  continued  for 
school  until  he  was  ten  years  old,  when  he  took  him  several  himdred  years  to  be  an  authority  for  the 
into  business.  In  1327  Giovanni  was  sent  to  Naples  student  of  classical  anti(^uity.  Two  biographical 
to  study  law.  But  he  gave  himself  u{>  almost  en-  works:  "De  clans  mtdienbus"  and  "De  casibus 
tirefy  to  literature,  and  became  intimately  ac-  virorum  illustrium"  (Jbetween  1357  and  1363)  are  of 
quamted  with  some  of  the  most  prominent  men  little  interest,  since  they  tell  of  men  and  women  of 
and  women  of  the  court  of  Anjou.  It  is  supposed  ancient  times  and  but  rarely  of  the  author^s  con- 
that  it  was  in  1334  that  he  saw  for  the  first  time  temporaries.  There  remain  the  Latin  letters  and 
Maria  d' Aquino,  a  married  woman  and  natural  eclogues,  which  are  not  of  much  worth,  and  eight 
daug^hter  of  King  Robert.  She  was  the  inspiration  or  ten  unimportant  works  which  have  been  ascribed 
of  his  earlier  works,  and  the  heroine  of  whom  he  to  Boccaccio. 

tells  under  the  name  of  Fiammetta.    In  1340  we  The  book  with  which  Boccaccio's  name  is  in- 

find  him  back  in  Florence;  on  the  death  of  his  father  sei>arably  linked  is  the  "Decameron",  which  was 

in  1348,  he  became  the  guardian  of  a  younger  brother,  finished  m  1353,  but  part^f  which  had  probably  been 

He  held  certain  pubfic  offices  in  Florence  and  was  en-  written  before  the  "  Black  Death  "  reached  its  height 

trusted   with   diplomatic   missions   to   Padua,   the  in  1348.    The  "Decameron"  opens  with  a  masterly 

Romagna,    Avignon,    and    elsewhere.    After    1350  description  of  the  terrors  of  the  pest,  and  we  are  then 

began  his  friendship  with  Petrarch,  which  lasted  introduced  to  a  gay  company  of  seven  ladies  and 

until  the  latter 's  death  in   1374.    In  spite  of  his  three  young  men  who  have  come  together  at  a  villa 

advanced  age  and  the  poUtical  dissensions  in  Florence  outside  Naples  to  while  away  the  time  and  to  escape 

which  afflicted  him  sorely,  he  began,  in  1373,  his  the  epidemic.    Each  in  turn  presides  for  a  day  over 

course  of  lectures  in  that  city  on  the  poems  of  Dante,  the  company  and  on  each  ot  the  ten  days  each  of 

He  died  two  years  later  at  his  ancestral  home  in  the  company  tells  a  story,  so  that  at  the  end  one 

Certaldo.  hundred  stories  have  been  told.    It  is  difficult  to 

The  earliest,  longest,  and  perhaps  the  weakest  of  say  whether  such  a  company  as  Boccaccio  describes 

Boooaccio's  works  is  the   "Filocolo",  written  be-  ever  met.    At  all  events,  he  says  that  he  has  taken 

tween  1338  and  1340:  it  is  a  version  of  the  story,  pains  to  conceal  the  real  names  of  the  persons  men- 

widesiH^ad  in  the  Middle  A^,  of  Floire  and  Blsmche-  tioned  in  the  stories.    There  are  reasons  to  believe, 

fleur,  and  contains  a  cunous  admixture  of  pagan  however,  that  Fiammetta  is  the  same  lady  to  whom 

myths  and  Christian  legends.    The  "Ameto",  writ-  Boccaccio   has  given   that  nsime  in  other  works, 

ten  in  the  two  following  years,  is  an  allegorical  novel,  while  Dioneo  may  well  represent  Boccaccio  himself. 

telling,  among  other  love-adventures,  the  sad  story  The  great  charm  of  the  "Decameron"  lies  in  the 

of  the  life  of  Boccaccio's  mother.    The  "Amorosa  wondeitul  richness  and  variety  of  the  adventures 

Visione ",  in  praise  of  love,  dates  from  about  the  which  he  relates,  in  the  many  types  of  character  and 

year  1342,  ana  consists  of  fifty  cantos  in  terzine,  and  the  close  analysis  of  all  shades  of  feeling  and  passion, 

the  initial  letters  of  the  verses  form  an  acrostic  of  from  the  basest  to  the  noblest.    The  style  is  now 

two    sonnets    and    one    haUata,    The    "Teseide",  Ciceronian,  now  that   of   the  everyday  speech  of 

probably  of  the  year  1341,  is  the  first  artistic  work  Florence.    The  sentence-structure   is,   to   oe  sure, 

m   oUava  rima*    It   contains   many   imitations   of  often  involved  and  inverted,  and  it  often  requires 

antiquity,  and  was  widely  read  up  to  the  sixteenth  several  readings  to  enjoy  a  full  understanding  of  the 

century.    Tasso  thought  so  highly  of  it  that  he  phrase.    Boccaccio  found  the  germs  of  hb  novelU 

annotated  it.    The  subject  is  the  stoiy  of  Palemon  m  other  literatures,  in  historic  events,  and  in  tradi- 


BOOKEN                                  608  BODET 

tion.  but,  like  Shakeepjeare,  whatever  he  borrowed  he  Iai|^  work,  to  the  third  volume  of  which,  in  an  i»- 

made  his  own  and  living,  by  placing  the  adventures  pendlz,  he  dso  added  a  lengthy  disquisition  "De 

in  the  lives  of  his  contemporaries.    The  indecency  prsscriptionibus".    A  reprint  of  the  "Commente- 

which  is  the  greatest  blot  on  the  "Decameron",  but  'rius"  appeared  at  Paris  in  1776.     BOcken's  work, 

to  which  it  undoubtedly  owes  not  a  little .  of  its  like  that  of  the  Salzburg  canonists  generally,  is  one 

celebrity,  is  no  greater  than  is  to  be  found  elsewhere  of  definite  value.    B5cken  held  rather  extreme  views 

in  medieval  literature,  and  is  due  as  much  to  the  time  on  the  subject  of  the  veneration  due  the  saints.    He 

and  the  circle  in  which  the  work  was  written  as  to  maintainea  that  the  special  veneration  and  invocar 

the  temperament  of  the  author.     He  himself  in  his  tion  of  the  saints,  particularly  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 

•  later  years  expressed  deep  repentance  for  the  too  Mary,  is  absolutely  necessary  for  salvation.    A  ser- 

free  works  of  his  youth;  moreover,  his  jibc«  and  mon  which  he  preached  on  this  subject  in  1740  pre- 

anecdotes  at  the  expense  of  clerics  did  not  impair  cipitated  an  acrid  discussion  at  the  university  be- 

his  belief  in  the  teacihmgs  of  the  Church.    Boccaccio's  tween  the  members  of  the  "  Old  School "  and  the 

cliaracter  was  by  no  means  a  despicable  one.  .  He  "New  School"  of  theology,  between  the  SycovhanUB 

was  a  steadfast  friend,  a  son  who  felt  tenderiy  for  and  the  lUuminaU  as  they  were  oaHed.    The  ser- 

'  his  mother  and  never  foreave  his  father  for  having  mon  appeared  also  in  print,  with  annotations  wherein 

abandoned  her.     He  8|>eaKs  with  affection  of  his  Bdcken  characterized  as  erroneous  the  contrary  opin- 

daughters  who  had  died  in  childhood:  it  is  not  known  ion  of  Muratori. 

who  their  mother  was.     He  was  a  scholar  of  the  first  „  Chronicon  novw.  mona9UrU  8,  Petri,  674-677;  Sattlbr. 

'^}  ^^liP  ^"^?^*  "^"^  ^^  independent  character,  fSfflK^^^ 

and  a  good  patnot.  1754),  III,  484,  486. 

No  autograph  copy  of  the  "  Decameron "  exists,  Thomas  Oestreich. 
but  there  are  three  manuscript  copies  dating  from 

the  fourteenth  century.    The  first  edition  was  not  Boddng  (or  Bokktno),  Edward,  English  Bene- 

printed  until  1470  in  Venice,  and  since  then  numerous  dictine,  b.  of  East  Anglian  parentage,  end  of  fifteenth 

editions  have  appeared,  but  there  is  as  yet  no  critical  century;  d.  20  April,  1534.    He  graduated  B.  D.  at 

edition.     Of  tiie  modem  editions  P.  Fanfani's  is  Oxford,  in  1513,  and  D.  D.  in  1518,  was  for  some 

convenient  (2  vob.,  reprinted  Florence,  1904).    An  time  Warden  of  Canterbury  College  there,  and  be- 

excellent  school  edition  of  selected  noveUe  with  notes  came  a  monk  at  Canterbury  1526.    When  Elizabeth 

is   that   of   R.    Fomaciari    (Florence,    1890).    The  Barton,  "The  Holy  Maid  of  Kent*',  commenced  her 

"Decameron"    has    been    translated    into    nearly  alleged  Divine  revelations,  Bocking,  with  another 

eveiy  European  tongue;  the  first  complete  English  monk,  was  sent  to  examine  and  report  upon  their 

edition  dates  from  1620.  authenticity,  and  he  is  said  to  have  induced  her  to 

The  beat  edition  of  the  Italian  works  of  Boccaccio  is  Mou-  declare  herself  an  inspired  emissary  for  the  over^ 

?iSSi.''(?Kn/^Srf  c/tJS^  TS?  ^eiJ::^'.  throw  of  Protestanttem.and  the  pre^nHon  of  the 

Landau,  Die  OtusUen  de%  Dekameron  (Stuttgart,  1884);  for  divorce  of  Queen  Cathenne.    To  further  this  scheme 

Boccaccio's,  life  and  works  in  general,  LANDAUjOwponm  he  had  her  removed  to  the  Convent  of  St.  Sepulchre 

Fkrhari,  Bibliografia  Boeeaecetca  (Florence.  1888).  chief  instigator  m  the  contmuance  of  her  career  of 

Joseph  Dunn.  deception.    His  sharo  in  the  affair,  though  it  cannot 

be  excused,  must  be  ascribed   to  a  mistaken  zeal 

Bdcken  (BOckhk),  Placidus,  a  German  Bene-  for  the  preservation  of  the  ancient  Faith.    After  the 

dictine,  canonist,  and  Vice-Chancellor  of  the  TJnl-  divorce  of  Queen  Catherine  and  Hemy's  marriage  to 

versity  of  Salzbui^,  b.  at  Munich,  in  Bavaria,  13  July.  Anne  Boleyn  in  1533,  Cromwell  had  Elizabeth  Barton 

1690:  d.  at  Salzburg,  9  February,  1752.     He  entered  arrested,  together  with  Bocking  and  others.    Bocking 

the  Order  of  St.  Benedict  at  an  early  age,  made  his  confessed  the  imposture  and,  with  his  a<MM>mplices, 

religious  profession  at  the  Abbey  of  St.  Peter,  Salz-  did  public  penance  at  Paul's  Cross.     He  and  six 

burg,  in  1706,  and  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  in  others  were  hanged  at  Tyburn. 

1713.     Having  been  made  a  Doctor  of  Canon  and  Documeruaftwn  Couonian  MSS.in  Wriqb^^ 

Civil  Law  ri715),  he  was  sent  to  Rome  and  on  his  re-  ^S^TPV'J^P/^-'aio^nk^n^.'JI&'&te'Sf 


mained  for  a  period  of  twenty  years.     He  proved  18W),  l!  iv;  Stephens  and  Hunt,  History  of  the  EnffliU 

himself  a  brilliant  jurist,  and  an  exceptionally  gifted  Church  (London,  1902),  IV,  144.         ^^ 

teacher.    In  1729  he  was  appointed  vice-chancellor  ^'  Cyprian  Alston. 

of  the  university.    He  was  also  attached  to  the  •%  j          ^^      «     ■«-                   a               t» 

theological  faculties  of  Salzburg  and  Fulda,  was  secre-  BoddliiUlil.    See  Karlbtadt,  Andreas  Rudolf. 

tary  of  the  university,  and  a  valued  ecclesiastical  Bodey,  John,  Venerable,  martyr,  b.  at  Wells, 

councillor  of  four  successive  archbishops  in  the  See  of  Somerset,  1549:  d.  at  Andover,  Wilts..  2  November, 

Salzburg  and  of  the  Prince-Abbot  of  Fulda.     Event-  1583.     He  studied  at  Winchester  and  New  College, 

ually  he  appears  to  have  incurred  the  displeasure  of  Oxford,  of  which  he  became  a  Fellow  in  1668.    In 

Archbishop  Leopold  of  Salzburg,  and  in  consequence  June,  1576.  he  was  deprived,  with  seven  other  Fd- 

ofrepeatea  friction  resign^  his  position  in  1741.     He  lows,  by  the  Visitor,  Home,  Protestant  Bishop  of 

was  then  made  pastor  of  Dombach,  a  suburb  of  Winchester.    Next  jrear  he  went  to  Douay  College  to 

Vienna,  and,  two  years  later,  superior  of  Maria-Plain  study  civil  law,  returned  to  England  in  February, 

near  Salzburg,  where  he  spent  the  last  nine  years  of  1578,  and  prrobably  married.    Airested  in  1580,  he 

his  life  as  confessor  to  the  many  pilgrims  frequenting  was  kept  in  iron  shackles  in  Winchester  gaol,  and  was 

that  famoxis  shrine.  condemned  in  April,  1583,  toj^ther  with  John  Slade. 

The  **Commentarius  in  Jus  Canonicum  universum**  a  schoolmaster,  for  maintaining  the  old  rdigion  ana 

which  Bdcken  published  at  Salzbure  (1735-39),  and  denying  the  Roval  Supremacy.    There  was  appar- 

dedicated  to  his  friend  and  patron  the  Prince-Abbot  ently  a  feeling  that  this  sentence  was  unjust  and  il- 

of  Fulda,  is  his  most  important  work.    He  had  legal,  and  they  were  actually  tried  and  condemned 

previously  (1722-28)  issued  a  number  of  separate  again  at  Andover,  19  August,  1583,  on  the  same  in- 

treatises  on  the  five  books  of  the  Decretals,  all  written  dictment.    Bodey  had  a  controversy  with  Humph- 

with  great  learning  and  care;  these,  now  thoroughly  reys,  D^in  of  Winchester,  on  the  Nicene  Council,  and 

revis^  and  supplemented,  were  incorporated  in  his  the  martyr's  notes  from  Eusebius  still  exist.    After 


BODIH  €09  SOXCOE 

his  decond  trial,  he  wrote  from  prison  to  Dr.  Humph-  Hemj  IV.  This  superstitious  believer  in  soroery 
rey  Ely,  *'We  consider  that  iron  for  this  cause  borne  left  in  manuscript  a  work  known  as  "Colloquium 
on  earth  shall  surmount  gold  and  precious  stones  in  Heptaplomeres"  which  propounds  a  certain  ra- 
Heaven.  That  is  our  mark,  that  is  our  desire.  In  tionalistlc  spiritualism.  Though  a  ^civil  magistrate 
the  mean  season  we  are  threatened  daily,  and  do  look  and  a  partisan  of  the  Lieue,  his  writings  exhibit  him 
still  when  the  hurdle  shall  be  brought  to  the  door.  I  as  one  of  the  earliest  advocates  of  the  theory  of  re- 
beseech  you,  for  God's  sake,  that  we  want  not  the  ligious  toleration.  Bruneti^re  assigns  Bodin  a  place 
good  prayers  of  you  all  for  our  strength,  om*  joy^  and  in  French  literature  beside  Henri  Estienne  and 
our  perseverance  unto  the  end.  .  .  .  From  our  school  Amyot;  at  a  time  when  men  looked  to  antiquity  for 
of  patience  the  16th  September,  1583.  '^  guidance  only  in  the  domain  of  good  taste,  all  three 

At  his  martyrdom,  Bodey  kissed  the  halter,  saying,  snowed  that  from  the  same  source  could  be  drawn 
"0  blessed  chain,  the  sweetest  chain  and  richest  that  lessons  in  history,  politics,  and  morality, 
ever  came  about  any  man's  neck',  and  when  told  he  Though  Bodin  never  abandoned  the  Catholic  re- 
died  for  treason,  exclaimed,  ''You  may  make  the  ligion,  and  was  buried  in  the  Franciscan  Church  at 
hearing  of  a  blessed  Mass  treason,  or  the  saying  of  an  Laon,  his  writings  often  betray  an  un-Catholic  temper, 
Ave  Maria  treason  .  .  .  but  I  nave  committed  no  ^^en  they  are  not  more  or  less  openly  hostile  to  the 
treason,  sdthoiigh,  indeed,  I  suffer  the  punishment  due  existing  ecclesiastical  order.  In  reli^on  he  inclines 
to  treason".  He  exhorted  the  people  to  obey  Queen  to  an  abstract  theism.  In  keeping  with  the  Gallican 
Elizabeth  and  died  saying,  "Jesu,  Jesu,  eko  mihi  legists  of  France  he  champions  the  absolute  supremacy 
Jesus* \  His  mother  made  a  great  feast  upon  the  of  the  State,  though  he  bases  it  on  the  Divine  will  and 
occasion  of  her  son's  happy  death,  to  which  she  in-  the  natiutd  law;  his  ideal  prince  is  not  an  impious 
vited  her  neighbours,  rejoicing  at  his  death  as  his  and  unjust  ruler  of  the  Machiavelli  type.  All  the 
marriage  by  which  his  soul  was  happily  and  eternal^  works  of  Bodin  were  placed  on  the  Inaex  in  1628; 
espoused  to  the  Lamb.  the  edition  of  1900  continues  the  prohibition  of  his 

Account  of  the  tota/  cnud  execution  of  John  Slade,  •^ooUnaater,  «  UniverssB  natursB  theatrum ' '.    Catnolic  theologians, 

S^il't^^k'^L?■sS*'id!'S^^S"t5:^n3S:  Uke  Poa^vin  have  noted  and  refuted,  in  the  "FW- 

1877);  Pollen,  Acia  of  Enaluh  Martyrs  (London.  1801);  publicfue  '  certam  errors  and  anti-Chnstian  subtleties. 

Wawewright,  Two  Ewdish  Mcafyrt:  Body  and  MundeniTjon'  "  To  judge  by  his  writings,"  say«  Toussaint  (Diet,  de 

don.  Cath.  Truth  Soc.);  Knox,  Douay  i>t<in««  (London,  1S78);  tTiXnl    nAth     TT   Qlft^   "Ha  wnj»  V  HiVapw*    innnnAtAnf 

Allen,  A  true,  eincere,  and  model  defence  of  BngHeh  Caiho-  ^°^0»-  catn.,  11,  »!»;,     ne  was  a  Dizarre,  moonstant, 

tiquee  (Reims,  1584).  and  superficial  '  man. 

Beds  CamH,  Baudrillabt,    Jean   Bodin   et  ton   imnpe   (Paris,    1853); 


Bodin,  Jean,  b.  at  Angers,  1520,  probably  w.  .xr.»».  ^^^  ^,^j*m  u^  »mmh««  t;»<»irw»<'  i»  <^t^t»  ^*  »««^ 

Jewish  origin:  d.   at  Laon,   1596.      He  studied  and  ^J^ondee  (l.  March,  IIIOT);  Gramiot-Wbinand  in  StaaiMUxikon 

taught  law  at  Toulouse,  where  in  1559  he  pronounced  (M  ed.,  J-mbnrg.  1901).  I,  946-962. 

his^  Oratio  de  instituendA  in  republic^  juventute '',  on  Georohb  Go yau. 
the  public  instruction  of  youth.    At  the  age  of  fortv, 

he  went  to  Paris,  his  name  being  still  obscure.     Bv  Bodleian  Oodez*    See  Mss.  op  the  Bible. 

his  "Methodus  ad  facilem  historiarum  comitionem  '  BodonOi  a  titular  see  of  Albania.    The  name  is  a 

(1566)  he  laid  the  foundation  of  the  philosophy  of  dialectic  form  of  Dodone,  in  Epirus,  near  Janina  at 

history,  and  set  forth  his  theory  of  the  effect  of  chmate  the  foot  of  Mount  Tomaros,  or  Tmaros,  the  present 

on  society  and  government,  likewise  his  theory  of  Qlitwka  (C.  Carapanos.  Dodone  et  ses  mines,  Paris, 

progress,  both  of  which  were  later  expanded  m^'La  1378).     At  an  early  date  a  Christian  church  was 

Rtoublique  ".    In  his  "  R^ponse  aux  paradoxes  de  M.  built  here  on  the  site  of  the  temple  of  Zeus.    Theodo- 

de  Malestroit,  touchant  le  fait  des  monnaies  et  I'en-  ^ug^  a  Bishop  of  Dodona,  was  present  at  Ephesus, 

chfirissement  de  toutes  choses"  (1568),  he  developed  in  431;  Philotheus  appeared  at  Chalcedon  in  451: 

his  thesis  on  the  necessity  of  free  trade.    The  "R^  Uranius,  in  458,  signea  the  letter  of  the  bishops  of 

publique"    in    sfac     books    (French,    1577;    Latin,  Epirus  Vetus  to  Emperor  Leo;  Philippus  in  516  sub- 

1586)  was  written  to  defend  the  principle  of  au-  scribed  a  synodal  report  of  the  bishops  of  Epirus  to 

thority  and  to  describe  the  ideal  commonwealth,  pope  Hormisdas  concerning  the  election  of  John 

Bodin  represents  a  reaction  a^inst  Machiavelli  in  to  the  See  of  Nicopolis,  the  metropolis  of  the  province 

the  field  of  moral  and  political  science.     Unlike  Cujas  (Hkioeles,  Syneodemos,  651,  5).    When  Naupactus 

and  the   "Romanist^   jurisconsults,  who  confined  ^aa  substituted  for  Nicopolis  about  the  end  of  the 

themselves  to  the  observation  of  Greek  and  Roman  tenth  centuiy,  Dodona  was  the  first  suffragan  see; 

antiquity,  he  drew  upon  the  modem  histoty  of  Ger-  the  "  Nova  Tactica  "  (Georgius  Cyprius,  ed.  Gebcer, 

many,  England,  Spain,  and  Italv.     His  theonr  of  166I)  has  Uoiv^r^a,  but  this  is  an  evident  mistake 

the  influence  of  clunates  foreshadows  that  of  Mon-  fQ^  BodrJirfa,  a  form  derived  from  Bodone  ^arthey, 

teequieu.    Bodin  collects  carefully  numerous  small  Notit.episcop.,App.48).    In  fact  the  later  "Notitia" 

facts,  definite  and  concrete  information;  daily  ex-  wrote  only  Bounditza  (ibid.,  Ill,  524),  or  Bonditza 

perience  and  the  observation  of  current  events  are  (Jbid.,  X,  616;  XIII,  467).    John,  Bishop  of  Bonditza, 

the  sources  of  his  almost  "scientific"  researches  con-  signed  a  synodal  act  in  1229  (P.  G.,  CXIX,  797). 

cemmg  the  laws  of  political  life.    It  is  somewhat  sur-  fge  present  name  is   Bonitza.    When   the   Greek 

prising  to  note  that  as  earlv  as  1580  this  thoughtful  residential  bishopric  dis^peared  is  unknown;  the 

writer  wrote  a  work  (La  Demonomanie  des  Sorciers)  Roman  curia  used  for  a  long  time  the  forms  Bodona 

to  demonstrate  the  existence  of  sorcerers  and  the  and  Bodonensis,  and  a  decree  of  1894  directed  this 

legality  of  their  condemnation,  on  the  basis  of  "ex-  see  to  be  suppressed  at  the  death  of  its  titular, 

perience"  and  respect  for  res  judicaUje  or  the  relia-  Lsqotbn,  6r,  CkriH.,  1,  189:  Qama.  Series  eviecop.,  429; 

bility  of  the  courts.    This  belief  in  witchcraft  rests  ^^»ant«o»,  Chronognphy  of  Epirue,  Gr.  (Athens,  1867). 

on  the  s^me  arguments  as  his  theory  of  civtt  govern-  "•  ***                                                         j^  Petit 
ment. 

4uty'l?  &r r^n^^^e^'SS^  Jfy-  IU»..«u^0H  OP  ,«..    See  R«,chb«> 

General  of  Blois  where  he  championed  the  cause  of  the  -» * .     „                    «     t* 

Reformers,  thereby  incurring  the  royal  displeasure.  ^V*  Spibitual.    See  Rbburrbction. 

Fourteen  years  later  (1590)  as  Attorney-General  at  Bdeee    (ate    Botcb    and    Bobthius),    Hsctor, 

Laon,  he  sided  with  the  "Lisue",  persuaded  the  cfaronieler  and  one  of  the  founders  of  the  University 

citijseDs  to  do  likewise,  and  finidly  went  over  to  of  Abmdeen,  b.  at  Dundee  0.  1465;  d.  1586.    At 


BOEBI  610  BOETHinS 

Paris  he  was  a  student,  then  Bachelor  of  Divinity,  office  and  entrusted  the  temporal  and  spiritual  ad- 

and  finally  a  professor  at  the  College  of  Montaigu,  ministration   of    Orvieto    to   Thomas   ae   Jarente, 

whose  (burse  had  been  reorganized  on  the  principks  Bishop  of  Grasse.    Boeri  died  shortly  afterwards, 

of  monastic  poverty  and  severe  routine  by  James  He  was  the  author  of  two  commentaries  on  the  Rule 

Standone  of  Brabant,  at  one  time  rector  of  the  of  St.  Benedict;  in  one,  written  when  he  was  Abbot 

university.    At  the  college,  Boece  formed  a  lasting  <rf  St.  Chinian,  he  deals  with  the  Rule  from  the  point 

friendship  with  Erasmus.    From  about  1495,  Boece  of  view  of  the  canonist;  in  the  other,  written  in  the 

was  zealously  aiding  Wm.  Elphinstone,  the  learned  Sacro  Speco  at  Subiaco  when  he  was  Bishop  of 

Bishop  of  Aberdeen,  to  carry  out  the  provisions  of  Orvieto,  he  deals  with  it  more  from  the  point  of  view 

a  Bull  of  Alexander  VI,  obtained  at  the  request  of  of  the  ascetic.     He  dedicate  the  later  commentary 

James  IV,  chartering  a  university  with  all  faculties  to  Charles  V,  King  of  France.    He  also  wrote  a 

in  the  city  of  Aberoeen.    Finally,  in  1505,  having  commentary  on  the  Constitution  "Pastor  bonus" 

received  help  from  various  sources,  they  founded  of  Benedict  XII;'  "Speculum  Monachorum":  "De 

the  collegiate  church  of  St.  Mary  of  the  Nativity,  Signis  locutionum";  "Notae  in  Damasi  Pontincale" 

later  known  as  King's  College,  and  regular  teaching  (an  annotated  copy  of  the  "Liber  Pontificalis",  like- 

took  the  place  of  the  occasional  lectures  of  the  canons,  wise  dedicated  to  Cliarles  V)*  and  began  at  Rouen 

The  organization  was  modelled  upon  that  of  the  in  1379  a  treatise  on  the  question  of  caUinff  a  general 

Universities  of  Paris  and  Orleans.    The  foundation  council  with  a  view  to  ending  the  deplorable  schism 

was  to  support,  on  meagre  stipends,  four  doctors  in  then  distracting  the  Church.    This  treatise  remained 

the  respective  faculties,  two  teaching  masters,  five  unfinished.     With   the  exception  of   "In  Regulam 

student  masters,  thirteen  poor  scholars,  eight  chap-  S.  P.  Benedict!  Commentanum"   (ed.  Dom  Leone 

lains,    and    four   choristers.    Boece  was    principal  AUodi,  Subiaco,  Rome),  and  '*  Notse  in  Damasi  Ponti- 

and   read   lectures  on   divinity  and   on   medicine,  ficale "  Boeri's  works  nave  never  been  printed. 
History  was  not  regularly  taught,  but  both  Elphin-         Eubbl.  Hierarchia  cathol.  med,  avi  (Monster,  1898-1901). 

stone   and    Boece   made    collections   of   materials.  /fafSluS^iJS?' I^^6^- ^' 7?7^S^^^ 

In  1527,  Boece  received  a  pension  of  £50  Scots,  and,  i£.  Quea.u,  Liu!  <Us  kaiimist^' Rechu  (1875-80).  II.  266; 

from  1529  to  1534,  a  like  amount,  to  be  paid  annually  Valois,  La  France  et  U  Grand  Schi^me  (Paris,  1896),  I,  325. 

until  he  should  obtain  a  benefice  of  100  marks  Scots.  ??6.  3W;  II,  129;  Zieoixbaubr.  Hirt.  ret  ttter^         s. 

uuvu  lAc  ouvutvL  v/kfi;atu  o  ^M^ww  V*  A vF^uAAA Ao  i^vA^Ms.  j^^^g^^y^  (AugsbuTg,  1754),  I,  77;  III,  613;  IV,  681,  702. 
Besides  his  pnncipalship,  he  held  the  offices  of  Canon  ^^   *         /.  .     .    n^  j^  bKSTREicH. 

of  Aberdeen  and  Rector  of  lyne.  «.         ^  • 

Boece  published  at  Paris,  1522,  "  Lives  of  the       Bamenan  Oodex.    See  Mas.  op  thb  Bible;  Lb 

Bishops  of  Murthlack  and  Aberdeen",  about  a  third  Long,  Jacques. 

of  which  is  devoted  to  Elphmstone  (d.  1514).    In        Boethias,  Anicius  Manlius  Severinus,  Roman 

1527 appeared, alsoat Paris, his" ScotorumHistorifls''  statesman  and  philosopher,  often  styled  "the  last 

in  seventeen  books.    Boece  was  preceded  in  the  of  the  Romans",  reearoed  by  tradition  as  a  Christian 

field  of  published  Scottish  history  only  by  the  learned  martyr,  b.  at  Rome  in  480;  d.  at  Pavia  in  524  or  525. 

work  of  Mair.    The  Scottish  translation  of  this  work  Descended  from  a  consular  family,  he  was  left  an  or- 

by  Bellenden,  in  1536,  was  later  used  by  Holinshed  phan  at  an  early  age  and  was  educated  by  the  pious  and 

and  thus  indirectly  by  Shakes[>eare.    As  a  historian,  noble-minded  Symmachus,  whose  daughter,  Rusti- 

Boece  has  been   praised  for  elegance,  patriotism,  ciana,  he  married.    As  early  as  507  he  was  known 

and  love  of  freedom;  and  most  severely  arraigned,  as  a  learned  man,  and  as  such  was  entrusted  by 

even  by  contemporaries,  for  his  credulity  in  the  King  Theodoric   with  several  important  missions, 

matter  of   historic   origins.    His   literary  honesty,  He  enjoyed  the  confidence  of  the  king,  and  as  a 

attacked  in  his  own  day,  has  more  recently  been  de-  patrician  of  Rome  was  looked  up  to  by  the  repre- 

fended.    The  impetus  which  he  gave  to  historical  sentatives  of  the  Roman  nobility.    When,  however, 

studies  at  Aberdeen  has  been  of  lasting  effect.  his  enemies  accused  him  of  disloyalty  to  the  Ostro- 


and  by  New  SpaJdiM  Cltg>.  1895.  with  tr.)-  Ths  Hxttory  and  noUe  buiih  nor  his  great   poi 

CVW  of  Scoflan^.  tr.  B,..^oj, ^im)^  He  w^cast  into  pr^ncgAemned  unheard,  and 

u.  T*«v  *  v/AvwxiJu.  executed  by  order  of  Theodoric.  During  his  im- 
Boeri  (Bohier),  Petrus,  a  French  Benedictine  can-  prisonment,  he  reflected  on  the  instability  of  the 
onistandbishop,b.  during  the  first  quarter  of  the  four-  favour  of  princes  and  the  inconstancy  of  the  de- 
teen  th  century  at  Laredorte,  department  of  Aude.  can-  votion  of  his  friends.  These  reflections  su^^gested  to 
ton  of  Peyriac  Minervois;  d.  probably  1388.  Of  his  him  the  theme  of  his  best-known  philosophical  work, 
eariy  life  nothing  is  known.  In  1350,  when  he  is  first  the  "De  Consolatione  Philosophise", 
mentioned,  Boeri  was  Abbot  of  St.  Chinian  {St,'  Tradition  began  very  eariy  to  represent  Boethius 
AnianuSf  H^rault)  in  the  small  Diocese  of  Saont-  as  a  martyr  for  the  Christian  Faith.  It  was  believed 
Pons  de  Tomi^res  (SancU  Pontii  Tomeriarum)  which  that  among  the  accusations  brought  aj^inst  him  was 
at  that  time  formed  a  part  of  the  Metropolitan  devotion  to  the  Catholic  cause,  which  at  that  time 
Province  of  Narbonne.  By  his  virtue  and  learning  was  championed  by  the  Emperor  Justin  against  the 
he  attracted  the  favourable  notice  of  Urban  V,  who  Arian  Theodoric.  In  the  eighth  century  uiis  tradi- 
appointed  him  Bishop  of  Orvieto,  16  Nov.,  1364.  A  tion  had  assumed  definite  slmpe,  and  in  man^  places 
few  years  later  (7  Oct.,  1370)  he  was  transferred  by  Boethius  was  honoured  as  a  martyr,  and  ms  feast 
the  same  pontiff  to  the  See  of  Vaison,  near  Avignon  observed  on  the  twenty-third  of  October.  In  recent 
in  France.  But  in  1371,  shortly  after  Urban's  times,  critical  scholarship  has  cone  to  the  opposite 
death,  he  returned  to  Orvieto  and  remained  in  pos-  extreme,  and  there  have  not  oeen  wanting  critics 
session  of  that  see  until  28  June,  1379,  when  he  was  who  asserted  that  Boethius  was  not  a  Qiristian  at 
deprived  of  his  bishopric  by  Urban  VI  for  having  all,  or  that,  if  he  was,  he  abjured  the  Faith  befcMre 
espoused  the  cause  of  the  Antipope  Robert  of  his  death.  The  foundation  for  this  opinion  is  the 
Geneva,  then  reigning  at  Avignon  as  Clement  VII.  fact  that  in  the  "Consolations  of  Phflosophy"  no 
Upon  his  subsequent  withdrawal  to  France  he  served  mention  is  made  of  Christ  or  of  the  Christian  religion. 
Charles  V  in  the  capacity  of  ambassador  to  the  A  saner  view,  which  seems  at  the  present  time  to  be 
pontifical  court  at  Avignon.  (Duchesne,  Liber  mrevalent  among  scholars,  is  that  Boethius  was  a 
Pontificalis,  II,  27-28.)  However,  31  August,  1387,  Christian  and  remained  a  Christian  to  the  end. 
Clement  VII  likewise  deposed  him  from  his  episcopal       That  he  was  a  Christian  is  proved  by  his  theological 


BOOADXHX8                             611  BOOOMIU 

trftcts,  some  of  which,  as  we  shall  see,  are  undoubtedly  tion  of  the  so-called  "Anecdoton  Holderi"  (ed.  by 
genuine.    That   he    remained    a   Christian    is    the  Usener,  Leipzig,  1877)  brought  to  light  a  new  argu- 
obvious  inferehce  from  the  ascertained  fact  of  his  ment  for  their  genuineness.    For,  as  Cassiodorus  ought 
continued  association  with  Symmachiis;  and  if  the  certainly  to  have  known  which  works  of  Boethius  were 
"Consolations  of    Philosophy"  bears  no   trace  of  genuine,  when  he  wrote  "([Boethius]  scripsit  Ubrum  de 
Chrifltian  influence,  the  explanation  is  at  hand  in  the  SanctA  Trinitate  et  capita  qua^dam  dogmatica  et 
fact  that  it  is  an  entirely  artificial  exerdae,  a  philo-  librum  contra  Nestorium",  he  settled  the  question 
sophical  dialogue  modelled  on  strictly  pagnm  ,pro-  as  far  as  four  of  the  treatises  are  concerned, 
ductions,  a  treatise  in  which,  accordmg  to  the  iaeas  Boethius'  best-known  work  is  the  "CJonsolations 
of  method  which  prevailed  at  the  time.  Christian  of  Philosophy"  written  during  his  imprisonment — 
feeling  and  Christian  thought  had  no  proper  place,  ''by  far   the   most  interesting  example  of  prison 
Besides,    even   if    we    dLn'egard    certain    allusions  literature  the  world  has  ever  seen. "    It  is  ia  di^ogue 
which  some  interpret  in  a  Christian  sense,  there  are  between  Philosophy  and   Boethius,  in  which   the 
passages  in  the  treatise  which  seem  plainly  to  hint  Queen  of  Sciences  strives  to  console  the  fallen  states- 
that,  after  philosophy  has  poured  out  all  her  consola-  man.    The  main  argument  of  the  discourse  is  the 
tions  for  the  benefit  of  the  prisoner,  there  are  more  transitoriness  and  unreality  of  all  earthly  greatness 
potent  remedies  (validiora  remedia)  to  which  he  may  and  the  superior  desirabiuty  of  the  thmss  of  the 
nave  recourse.    There  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt,  mind.    There  are  evident  traces  of  the  influence  of 
then,  that  Boethius  died  a  Christian,  though  it  is  not  the  Neo-Platonists,  especially  of  Proclus,  and  little, 
easy  to  show  from  documentary  sources  that  he  died  if  anything,  that  can  be  said  to  reflect  Christian 
a  martyr  for  the  Catholic  Faith.    The  absence  of  influences.    The    recourse    to    Stoicism,    especially 
documentary  evidence  does  not,  however,  prevent  to  the  doctrines  of  Seneca,  was  inevitable,  consider- 
us  from  giving  due  value  to  the  constant  tradition  ing  the  nature  of   the   tneme«      It  does  astonish 
on  this  point.    The  local  cult  of  Boethius  at  Pavia  the  modem  reader,  although,  strange  to  say,  it  did 
was  sanctioned  when,  in  1883,  the  Sacred  Conjgrega-  not  surprise  the  medieval  student,  that  Boethius, 
tion  of  Rites  confirmed  the  custom  prevailing  in  a  Christian,  and,  as  everyone  in  the  Middle  Ages 
that  diocese  of  honouring  St.  Severinus  Boethius,  believed,  a  Christian  martyr,  should  have  failed,  in 
on  the  23d  of  October.             ^  his  moment  of  trial  and  mental  stress  to  refer  to  the 
To  the  science  of  mathematics  and  the  theory  of  obvious  Christian  sources  of  consolation.    Perhaps 
music  Boethius '  contributed  the  "De  Institutione  the  medieval  student  of  Boethius  understood  better 
Arithmetic^   Libri   II",   ''De   Institutione   Music&  than  we  do  that  a  strictly  formal  dialogue  on  the 
Libri  V",  and  ''Geometria  Euclidis  a  Boethio  in  consolation  of  philosophy  should  adhere  rigorously 
Latinum  translata".    The  last-mentioned  work  is  to  the  realm  of  "naturiu  truth"  and  leave  out  of 
found  in  various  MSS.  of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  consideration   the   lesson    to  be  derived  from  the 
centuries.    There  is  also  foimd  among  the  MSS.  a  moral  maxims  of  Christianity — ''supernatural  truth". 
work  "De  Geometric",  which,  in  its  extant  form^  is  The  work  takes  up  many  problems  of  metaphysics 
considered  to  be  a  ninth-  or  tenth-century  elaboration  as  well  as  of  ethics.    It  treats  of  the  Being  and  Nature 
of  a  work  of  Boethius.    How  far  the  work  is  genuine,  of  God,  of  providence  and  fate,  of  the  origin  of  the 
and  to  what  extent  interpolations  have  crept  in,  is  a  universe,  and  of  the  freedom  of  tne  will.    In  medieval 
Question  of  more  than  ordinary  interest  for  the  stu-  times,  it  became  one  of  the  most  popular  and  in- 
dent of  general  history,  for  on  the  answer  to  this  fluential  philosophical  books,  a  favourite  study  of 
Question  depends  the  determination  of  the  date  of  statesmen,  poets,  and  historians,  as  well  as  of  philoso- 
tne  first  use  of  ArSbic  numerals  in  Western  Eurone.  phers    and    theolodans.    It    was    translated    into 
Boethius'  philosophical  works  include:  (a)  transla-  Ando-Saxon  by  lung  Alfred  the  Great,  and  into 
tions  from  the  Greek,  e.  f,  of  Aristotle's  logical  Old  German  by  Notker  Teutonicus;  its  influence 
treatises   (with  commentanes)   and  of  Porphyry's  may  be  traced  m  Beowulf  and  in  Chaucer,  in  Anglo- 


on 

Victorinus, 

kttical     treatises,    "De    Categoricis    ^UogiBmiB",  in  Dante's  mental  struggle  after  the  death  of  Beatrice 

"Introductio    ad    Sylloffismos    Categoricos  ,    "De  is  described  in  the  '^onvito",    where,  strange  to 

Divisione"    (of   doubtfm    authenticity),   and    "De  say,  it  is  referred  to  as  "a  book  not  known  to  many". 

Differentiis  Topicis".    These  exercised  very  ^reat  Echoes  of  it  and  citations  from  it  occur  frequently 

influence  on  the  development  of  medieval  tenmnol-  in   the    "Divina   Commedia".    For   instance,    the 

ogy,  method,  and  doctrine,  especially  in  logic.    In  lines  which  Tennyson  paraphrases  by  "a  sorrow's 

fact,  the  schoolmen,  down  to  the  banning  of  the  crown  of  sorrow"  are  themselves  at  least  a  haunting 

tweLFth  century,  depended  entirely  on  Boethius  for  memory  of  Boethius'  "In  omni  adversitate  fortune 

their    knowledge    of    Aristotle's    doctrines.    They  infelicissimum  eenus  est  infortunii  fuisse  felicem" 

adopted  his  definitions  and  made  them  current  in  CDe  Consol.   Phil.,  11,  Pros.  IV).    That  the  "De 

the  schools;  for  instance,  the  definitions  of  "person",  Consolatione"  was  a  favourite  study  of  the  theolo- 

"  eternity ' ',  etc.  gians  as  well  as  of  the  poets  is  evidenced  by  the  numer- 

The  theological  works  of  Boethius  include:  "De  ous  imitations  under  the   title   "De  Consolatione 

Trinitate";  two  ^ort  treatises  (ovuacida)  addressed  Theologise"  which  were  widely  read  during  the  later 

to  John   the   Deacon    (afterwaros   Pope  John  I);  Middle  A^es.    The  complete  works  of  Boethius  were 

"liber  contra  Eutychen  et  Nestorium";  and  "De  first  published  at  Venice  in  1497:  the  best  edition  is 

Fide   Catholidl"   (generally  regarded  as  spurious,  in  P.  L.  LXm,  LXIV.    A  good  edition  of  the  De 

although  the  only  argument  affainst  its  genuineness  ConsokUiane  is  that  of  Pbiper  in  Teubner  Collection, 

is  the  lack  of  manuscript  auUiority).    These  were  where  are  also  to  be  found  the  conunentaries  on 

much  studied  in  the  early  Middle  Ages,  as  is  testified  Abistotle,  ed.  Meiser. 

by  the  number  of  glosses  foimd  in  the  MSS.  as  far  ^  Brvw abt jBoeOiivMjJxyndon,  lS9l):  Bosiaio,  SulcaUolw^ 

Sck  as  the  ninth  (»ntunr  (e.  g  glo8j«  by  John  Sootus  ^J;^t^i^'^),^^V^J'B^^^Z^*s^„% 

Engena  and  Remi  of  Auxerre).     To  the  theologians  gum  Chri*UrUhum  (Lobau,  1879);  Acta  Sa,  Sedis  (Rome.  1883). 

of  3i©  Middle  Ages  generally  they  appealed  be  the  XVI,  302. 803.                                w            t 

eenuine  works  m  the  Christian  martyr,  Boethius.  William  Turner. 

in  modem  times,  those  who  denied  tnat  Boethius  •»       ^,           a     in- 

waa  a  Christian  were,  of  course,  obliged  to  reject  all  BogadlneB.    See  Franciscans. 

the  apu8cula  as  spurious.    However,  the  publlca-  Bogomili,  a  Neo-Manichsean  sect,  found  in  the 


BOGdTA  612  fiOHXICU 

later  Middle  Ages  at  Constantinople  and  in  the  doctrfneB;  new  condemnations  were  issued  by  tbi 

Balkan  States.     Doctrinal  Principles. — ^The  adml»-  synods  of  Constantinople  in  1316  and  1325.    The 

sion   of   a    twofold    creative   principle,   one   good,  fiogomili,   however,   remained   until   the   conquest 

the  other  evil,  formed  the  basis  oif  the  doctrinal  of  the  Balkan  States  by  the  Mussulmans  in  the 

system  of  the  Bogomili,  as  of  all  Manicluean  sects,  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries. 

Originally,  they  seem  to  have  claimed  eternity  for  ,^thtmius  Zyqabenus,  PanopUa  Dofpnatica  in  P.  G.. 

these  two  principles,  but  their  teaching  in  its  fuller  ?S^^'  *?S:}^t'  ^^  ^>Kf '^a*  ^'««a».  ©d.  ReiffenO^ 

development  was  less  dualistic.    God  the  Father,  fl«cMMuiiich.  iSftO),  1, 34-51:  Uwbr,  L'A^^tw 

accordmg  to  them,  had  a  human  appearance  but  mil«v.de«tfi«ek.Ai«/.  (1870),  VIII,  479-617:  Funk  in /urc*«n- 

w«  incorporeal     He  had  two  som.  ttTteVborn.  '^iii^i^^S^'-' ^l^^^' '^i;^;;^t1^)^\ 

Satanael,  and  the  younger,  Jesus  Christ  or  Michael.  549-<»52.  >  ■•  > 

Satanael,  thoueh  seated  at  the  right  hand  of  the  N.  A.  Weber. 

Father  and  endowed  with  creative  power,  rebelled        m^     4."   /«  v     •  o 

and  was,  with  some  of  the  angels,  his  followers,        ^^^^^  <®^^*™S»)'  Archdiocesb    of  Santa 

cast  out  of  heaven.    He  created  a  second  heaven  *^m.— The  city  of  Bogota,  capital  of  the  republic 

and  a  second  earth,  and  formed  man  out  of  earth  of  Colombia,  is  situated  (m  a  plateau  8700  feet  above 


erty.    God  donsented  and  thus  man  is  the  pro-  M  aU  sides  eroept  to  the  southwest,  where  the  River 

duction  of  two  creators.    Eve,  created  in  a  siiilar  ^"£0^  cute  its  way  to  Magd^ena,  Arming,  a  few 

manner,    was    seduced    by    Satanael.    In    punish-  mites  from  the  city,  the  faUs  of  Tequendana  475  feet 

ment     of     this    sin,    Satanael    lost    his    (^tive  '»  ^^^\    Two  other  nvera   the  S.  Frencisw)  and 

power,  but  retained  sway  over  his  own  creation  *«,  »•  il**^'*"^'  *^«  . ^"^ ^^i,*y-  j^^"  '^ 

Jmd  strove  successfully  for  the  ruin  of  man.    To  ?*^.i.*^  **??  Spaniards  m  15M  and  became    in 

save   mankind,   God   iiept   His  second  son,  Jesus,  iSW,  the  capital  of  Nueva  Grenada,  which  was  then 

who  penetrateJl  the  right  ear  of  Maiy  and  took  »  vioerepl  province,  and  in  IMS.  when  Colombia 

from  her  the  sembland^  of  a  human  body;  indeed,  became  in<fependent  of  Spai-   »—♦ '  —•  -""*-  ♦•- 


everything  material  in  Him  was  merely  appearance.  {»?>'»'  o'  J°«  "^w  repuoiic.    pogOT«  is  a  q™in*  c^y. 

Jesui   vaSquished   Satanael,   who   lost   fcjsdivine  •*;  lack  rf  easy  communication  with  othw  foreign 

name  K,  and  was  henceforth  called  Satan.    His  «*'«  hajing  perpetuated  itoMicient  Spanish  chai- 

place  in  lieaven  waa  now  occupied  by  his  conqueror.  «»«*«;  .Though  the  capital  of  the  r^uMic,  it  has  « 

the  Holy  Ghost  was  sent  forth,  but  dwells  only  population  of  only  100,(WO  inhabitanto. 

in  the  BJgomili.     Both  He  and  Jeius  will  ultimately  The  Arohdiooese  of.  BogoW,  the  pnmatiai  seeof 

be  absorBed   by  the   Father,   the  only  surviving  99*«»^'*-  ^»f  ?«"^  ^^  ^^P*  ^™  ^^  in  15M. 

person  in  God.    The  sect  rejected  the  Old  Test^  At  first  it  had  sit  suffragans,  but,  on  account  of  the 

ment,  except  the  Psalter  and  the  Prophetical  books,  tremendous  nowth  of  the  populati^  of  the  diocese, 

Instelid  of  baptism  by  water,  it  adJnitted  only  a  ^?^_l^,  ^™^'  .'»  1^'  *^":*^  }^  Bishopric 

spiritual  baptum;  it  denied  the  Real  Presence  in  ^.  M«teHtn  from  it,  and  erected  it  mto  a  provmoe. 

tlie  Eucharist,  condemned  marriage,  rejected  images,  The  actual  suffragan  sees  of  B^oW  are:  Antioqws 

and  prohibit^  the  eating  of  miat.  ^tioqmenms),  which  wm  erected  a  bidiopnc  l^ 

Hi«ton/.-The  name   of  the  BogomUi   has  been  T'^^VjI'   '^^  August     1^,   re-erocted  ^  Pope 

traced  by  some  to  Bog  MUui  (G5d  have  mercy),  JfoJ"/  }^JT'V'  ^^'^W^  "Ja^'-S^ 

a  (ormulk  of  prater  bSieved  to  have  been  in  ff^  reestablished  by  Pius  IX   29  Janua^,  1873     Th«, 

quent  use  anJon^   them;   othere   have  sought  its  Wshopnc  contains  21 1  .OWCatholies,  89  Protestante, 

origin  in  Bo(7<wrf^(belov^  of  God),  which  is  also  75  secular  pne«t«    and  80  churches  and  chapdi 

said  to  have  been  the  name  of  a  p^minent  repro-  Ibagu^  (Thaguenvji)   of  which  no  accurate  statwba 

sentative  of  their  doctrine  in  the  tenth  century.  «">  be  given,  as  the  diocese  has  <«ly  lately  .bem 

Other  names  were  also  applied  to  the  members  of  created.     It  was  formerly,  with   the  bishopric  of 

the  sect  by  its  adversarilsj  but  they  called  them-  Gar«on,  suffragan  to  the  see  <rf  Tolima  and  at  tta 

selves    ChHstians.    The     6ogomiU    probably    de-  ertinctiOTof  thissee  wwassipied  tothe  MetropohUn 

veloped   from    the    Euchites    and,   iSthougK  they  "J  ^J*-    ^}  "^^  i°Vn  ^^w^  ^  ^^ r"^^, 

l^iJ^  „r„„in.,«W    ^Bm»   int^    nmmin,.n«^  in  tli,  of  NoTth  and  Central  Colombia.    Nuew  Pamplona 

into  a  bishopric  by 
It  contains 

aenniie    n.iow.euge'  regarding'  them  was   obtained  '""/^  "j^wnouos,  o  «»«"»•;  P"««.  '  regukr  priests, 

when  their  leader  BasS.  moSc  and  physician,  who  "2^*^  «'>'^^.  "!4  °*«P^Sooorro  (3*  Sj^^ 

had  surrounded  himself  with  twelve  apostle^,  bo-  f^  *»  ».  '"^^"PJ^'^^^i^JF.^'  ^  ***J± 

came    known   at   Constantinople   to   tfiT  emperor  1?***' **"^'"  ^^W  Catholics     Tunia(rw.«^ 

Alexius    I.    Comnenus    (1081?-1118).     The    iTtter  f*>>^'??**^  "  •* '22S'2S*ri°*u'''?I' ^SM^.^^ 

cleverly  obtained  from  BasU  a  frank  exposition  of  If»  XIIJ.  **'*^,'S,^'    k  ^*?'V«'  ^?^  P"*^' 

the   doctrine   of   the   sect.    Having   rec«ved   this  53  Mnshes,  and  159  churches  and  chapds.        , 

information,   he   demanded   from   the   leader  and  ,  The  religious  ^^J*  men  i«pn»ented  in  the 

those  of    his  followers  who  could  be  seized  a  tb-  Arohdioeese  of   BogotA   are:   Jesmte,   Franciscan, 

tractation   of    their   errors.    Some   compUed   with  Aupistimans,  SalesiMW,  and  the   Brothers  of  the 

this  demand  and  were  released;  others*^  remained  Sfc™.*"*" S'^S'v- w°^ '^  T^!?^'lfiS!,S 

obstinate  and   died   in  prison.       BasQ  alone  was  gbwity.  of  the  Visitation,  of  tiie  Go«l  Siephwd 


de8t^tion°!)f  ^t^Tro^ti^^  tf^^e^is'of  IJfe  «^  ««}  the  archdiocese  1  «nunaiy,  30  colleges 

the  ^;  in  l^^S,  t£b£h£of'^nad^^^^  •^"SS^TSifirlSS'f'l^ii^!!!^  P«t 

deposed  for  embracing  its  tenets;  and  ttie  favour  ctuh.                                                M.  db  Mobkira. 
extended  to  one  of  its  adherents,  the  monk  Niphon, 

caused    the    deposition    of    Cosmas,    Patriarch    of  BohMnia   (Germ.   Bdhmen,  or  formeriy  Bdheim; 

Constantinople    (1147).    The    Patriarch    Oermanus  Lat.  Bohemia  or  Bojohemum),  a  cideithan  (i.  e.  west 

(1221-39)    continued    to    combat    the    pernicious  of  the  River  Leitha)  crown  province  of  the  Austro 


BOHEMIA  613  BOHEMIA 

tiongarian  Monarehy,   which  until   1526  was   an  ravia  Spitihney  I  succeeded  in  uniting  the  vaikiai 

independent  kingdom.  ^  tribes  of  Czechs  under  his  rule.    From  his  time 

Physical  Charactebistics. — Bohemia  has  an  area  there  is  an  unbroken  succession  of  dukes  of  the 

of  20,058  square  miles.    It  is  boimded  on  the  north-  Premysl  line.    One  duke  of  this  line,  Wratislaw  II, 

w^t  by  Saxony,  on  the  north-east  by  Prussian  Silesia,  received  the  title  of  King  for  life  from  the  German 

on  the  south-east  by  Moravia  and  the  Grand  duchy  Emperor,  Henry  IV.    Alter  1158  the  title  of  Kin^ 

of  Lower  Austria,  on  the  south  bv  the  Grand  duchy  became    hereditary.    Ottokar    I    and    Ottokar    II 

of  Upper  Austria,  and  on  the  south-west  b^  Bavaria,  were  the  most  conspicuous  nilers  of  the  Premysl 

It  is  enclosed  on  three  sides  by  mountain  ranges,  dynasty.    Aiter   this   line   became   extinct    (1306) 

namely:  the  Bohemian  Forest   (B6hmerwald),  the  Bohemia  came  imder  the  sway  of  John  of  Luxem- 

Ore  mountains  (Erzgebiree),  and  the  Sudetic  moun-  bourg   (1310-46).     The    Bohemian    rulers    of    the 

tains.    The  highest  peaks  of  these  ranges  seldom  Luxembourg    line,    from    Charles    I,    of    Bohemia 

rise  above  4,593  feet.    On  the  fourth,  or  south-  (the  Emperor,  Charles  IV).  until  the  extinction  of 

eastern,  border  Bohemia  is  separated  from  Moravia  the  dynasty  at  the  death  ot  Si^ismund  (1437).  were 

by  a  moderately  high  range  called  the  Bohemian-  all  German  emperors.    Bohemia  reached  the  neij^ 

Moravian  highlands  (about  1,968  feet  high).    The  of  its  prosperity  under  the  Emperor  Charles  lY,^ 

ooimti^  resembles  the  flat  bottom  of  a  trough  with  a  who  conquered  Silesia  and  also  occupied  for  a  time 

depression  towards  the  north.    The  average  height  the  l^fark  of  Brandenbuig  and  the  Up|)er  Palatinate, 

above  sea-level  is  1,460  feet.     Bohemia  is  drained  In  1348,  Charles  founded  the  University  of  Prague, 

bv  the  Elbe,  which  rises  in  the  Iseigebirge,  a  range  the  first  university  on  German  soil.    By  his  Golden 

of  the  Sudetic  mountain  system.    After  receiving  Bull,  Charles  IV  gave  Bohemia  the  highest  secular 

the  waters  of  the  Moldau,  a  stream  from  the  south,  electoral  dignity  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire.    Aiter 

the  Elbe,  now  greatly  increased  in  size,  passes  out  1437,  Bohemia  was  ruled  by  kings  of  various  lines 

of  Bohemia  at  Tetschen  near  the  most  northern  untQ  the  death  of  Ludwig  II,  of  the  Jagellon  dynasty, 

point  of  the  ooimtry.    Besides  the  Moldau,  which  who  was  King  of  Bohemia  and  Hungary.    He  fdl 

may  be  called  the  most  important  river  of  Bohemia,  in  the  battle  of  Moh^cz  (1526).    Both  Bohemia  and 

the  chief  tributaries  of  the  Mbe  are  the  Iser  ana  Hungary  after  this  battle  came  into  the  possession 

the  Effer.  of  Ferdmand  I  of  Hapsburg  who  had  married  the 

Geou)gieally  the  country  forms  the  so-called  sister  of  Ludwig  II.  (For  the  fuxther  histoiy  of 
Bohemian  system  of  mountain  ranges,  the  spurs  Bohemia  see  Aubxro-Hunoa&ian  Monarght.) 
of  which  run  into  Moravia  and  Silesia.  The  greater  Introduction  of  Christianity. — ^Fritigil.  Queen 
part  consists  of  old  crystalline  rocks;  in  the  south  of  the  Marcomanni,  in  396  applied  to  Amorose  of 
gneiss  predominates,  in  the  north  the  formation  is  Milan  for  instruction  in  the  doctrines  of  Christianity, 
chiefly  cretaceous  sandstone,  with  tertiary  deposits  In  846,  fourteen  princes  of  the  Czechs  were  bap- 
due  to  the  action  of  water  from  the  south.  This  tized  at  Ratisbon.  Although  the  two  brothers, 
part  of  the  country  also  shows  volcanic  action,  Cyril  and  Methodius,  the  Apostles  of  the  Slavs, 
as  in  the  Bohemian  mineral  springs.  The  climate  never  entered  Bohemia,  yet  Methodius  was  able 
is  moderate  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  mountain  to  win  over  the  Bohemian  Duke  Borziwoi  to  Chris- 
districts,  does  not  show  great  variations  of  tempera-  tianitv  when  the  latter  was  at  the  court  of  Swatopluk, 
ture.  The  mean  temperature  of  the  year  is  about  Grand  Duke  of  Moravia.  In  878,  Borziwoi  was 
46.4^  Fahrenheit.  Bohemia  has  much  mineral  baptized  by  Methodius  at  Welehrad.  Soon  after 
wealth:  it  is  especially  rich  in  silver,  tin,  lead,  semi-  this  Borziwoi 's  wife,  Ludmilla,  and  most  of  his 
preciotti  stones,  such  as  Bohemian  garnets,  hard  relations  were  also  baptized.  The  ^andson  of 
coal,  and  lignite.  Borziwoi  and  Ludmilla,  St.  Wenzel  I  (Wenceslaus), 

Population. — ^According  to  the  last  census  (31  De-  was  murdered  in  935  at  Alt-Bunzlau  by  his  brother 
cember,  1900),  Bohemia  has  a  population  of  6,318,697.  and  successor  Boleslaw  I.  Relidous  and  national 
It  is  one  of  the  most  thickly  settled  provinces  of  motives  prompted  this  act.  Christianity  made 
the  monarchy,  having  315  inhabitants  to  the  square  such  progress  m  Bohemia  that  in  the  latter  part 
mile.  The  Czechs  form  63  per  cent  of  the  population,  of  the  tenth  century  (973)  the  German  Emperor 
and  the  Germans  36  per  cent.  The  Germans  live  Otto  I  gave  the  country  a  bishop  of  its  own  with 
chiefly  near  the  boundaries  of  the  country,  especially  his  see  at  Prague,  the  capital  of  the  countiy.  Bo- 
near  the  northern  and  north-western  boundanes.  hemia  had  imtil  then  formed  a  part  of  the  Diocese 

National    History. — Bohemia    (home    of    the  of  Ratisbon.    In  1344,  the  Diocese  of  Leitomlschl 

Boii)  owes  its  name  to  the  Boil,  a  Celtic  people  was  foimded,  while  Prague  was  made  an  archbishop- 

which  occupied    the  country  in  prehistoric  times,  ric  with  the  Diocese  of  OlmQtz  as  suffragan.    The 

About  78  B.  c.  the  land  was  occupied  by  a  Suevic  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  may  be  called 

people,  the  Marcomanni^  while  the  related  tribe  of  the  the   golden   age   of  Christianity  in   Bohemia.    In 

Quadi  tettled  in  Moravia  and  that  part  of  Hungary  1384, 240  ecclesiastics  were  attached  to  the  Cathedral 

adjoining  Moravia.    Some  years  after  the  birth  of  of  Prague.    Bohemia  contained  at  that  time  1,914 

Cfanst,  Marbod.  King  of  the  Marcomanni,  imited  parish  priests  with  many  assistants;  there  were  one 

the  German  tribes  as  far  as  the  North  Sea  and  the  hundred  monasteries,  and  almost  a  third  of  the  land 

Baltic  to  fonn  a  great  confederation  which  menaced  belonged  to  the  Church.    But  when  John  Hus  was 

the  Roman  Enipire.    When  the  Marcomanni  and  condemned  by  the  Council  of  Constance  for  spread- 

the  Qutadi  left  Bohemia  and  Moravia  in  the  sixth  ing  the  errors  of  Wyclif ,  and  was  burned  at  the  stake 

century,  there  came  in  from  the  north-east  a  Sla-  in  1415  by  the  secular  authorities,  the  Hussite  wars 

vonic  people  which  was  soon  to  appear  in  history  followed  (1420-34)^  and  the  Church  in  Bohemia  met 

under  the  genmd  name  of  Cechen  (Czechs).    Before  with  losses  which  it  took  centuries  to  repair, 
the  close  of  the  sixth  century  this  Slavonic  people        The  causes  of  this  religious-national  movement 

came  under  the  domination  of  the  Avars  of  Hungary,  were  the  excessive  numbers  and  wealth  of  the  clergy, 

^t  eaiiy  in  the  seventh  century  they  regained  their  moral  decay,  and,  in  addition,  the  national 

theff  freedom  with  the  aid  of  the    Frank,  Samo,  reaction  against  the  disproportionate  power  of  the 

whom  tiie  Czechs  elected  as  their  king.    In  796,  Germans,  and  the  weakness  of  the  secular  govern** 

Bohemia    paid    tribute    to    Charlemagne.    Eighty  ment.    Notwithstanding  the  death  of  the  leaders, 

years  later  Borziwoi,  Grand  Duke  of  the  Cechen  Hus  and  Jerome  of  Prague,  the  fire  of  revolution 

(Csedis),  seems  to  have  been  tributary  to  Swatopluk,  broke  out  when  the  foflowers  of  Hus  demanded 

Kmg  ol  Great  Moravia.    In  the  confusion  which  the  Lord's  Supper  under  both  kinds  (Utraquists). 

fdlowed  the  break-up  of  the  Empire  of  Great  Mo-  Those  in  revolt  encamped  with  their  leaders,  ZiBka» 

n.— 39 


BOHEMIA 


614 


BOHllffU 


P^ooophifi  the  Great,  and  Procopius  the  Less,  upon 
Mount  Tabor,  and  from  1419  to  1434  they  made 
marauding  expeditions  from  that  point  in  all  di- 
rections. The  army  of  Sigismund,  in  the  Fifth 
Crusade,  accomplished  nothing.  An  agreement  was 
finally  made  with  the  moderate  Utraquists  (called 
CaUxtines)  in  1433.  By  this  agreement,  which  is 
called  "the  Compactata  of  Basle  ',  or  "of  Prague", 
the  cup  was  granted  to  the  laity;  at  the  same  time 
the  teaching  of  the  Church  as  to  the  Real  Presence 
of  Christ  under  each  form  was  insisted  upon.  From 
the  descendants  of  the  r^cal  Tabontes  sprang 
later  the  Bohemian  and  Moravian  Brethren. 

A  sreat  number  of  parishes  and  other  cures  of 
souls  nad  been  obliterated  during  the  Hussite  wars; 
in  those  which  still  remained  there  was  a  woeful  lack 
of  priests,  especially  for  the  German  population. 
It  was,  therefore,  easy  for  Protestantism  to  make 
rapid  advances,  especially  as  it  was  looked  on  with 
favour  by  both  the  nobility  and  the  people.  De- 
sertion of  the  Church  was  accompanied  by  treason 
against  the  hereditary  dynasty.  In  1547,  a  large 
part  of  the  population  took  sides  with  the  Lea^e 
of  Smalkald,  and  in  1618  Bohemia  was  the  starting 
point  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  which  broueht  sum 
terrible  disasters  upon  the  whole  of  Uermany. 
During  this  war  the  population  of  Bohemia  fell 
from  three  millions  to  ei^t  hundred  thousand. 
The  Hapsburg  dynasty  finally  sained  the  victory. 
The  nobility  were  punished  for  tneir  treason,  either 
by  execution  or  by  banishment,  with  confiscation 
of  property;  the  rebellious  cities  lost  their  freedom: 
the  common  people  either  emigrated  or  returned 
to  the  Cathohc  Faith.  In  1655,  the  See  of  Leit- 
meritz  was  founded;  in  1644  the  Emperor  Ferdi- 
nand IV  erected  a  new  bishopric  at  K5niggr&tz, 
to  take  the  place  of  Leitomischl,  which  had  dis- 
appeared during  the  Hussite  wars.  Finally,  in 
1784,  the  Emperor  Joseph  II  made  the  new  Bishop- 
ric of  Budweis  out  of  the  southern  part  of  the  Arcn- 
diooese  of  Prague. 


PoPULATIOir  07  DiOCBBBB  BT  DBNOlCmAlI0IN» 


DiooeM 

Year 

1905 
1905 
1906 
1906 

GathoUes 

Non- 
GathoUea 

Jews 

Totel 

Prague 
Leitmeritz 
Budweis 
KOniggrfttz 

2,062,683 
1,561,432 
1,109,625 
1.476,645 

54,235 

50,778 

4,020 

56,159 

50,493 
18,016 
12,559 
11,689 

2,167,411 
1,620,281 
1,126,204 
1,544.493 

6,210,385 

165,192  1  92,75716,458^ 

Statistigb  op  Bohsmian  Clbrqt 


I 


EVague 

(Archd.) 
Leitmeritz 
K6nigg[rfltz 
Budweis 


1905 
1906 
1906 
1905 


^ 


1,385 
955 
993 
858 


1,219 

126 

40 

890 

38 

27 

932 

46 

15 

822 

36 

? 

413 

131 

88 

133 


4,191  I  3,863  I  246     |     82     |  765 


Chxtrch  LrviNos  in  Bohemia 


Prague 
Leitmerits 
Budweis 
KOniggrftti 


I 


8 


£ 


8 


ii 


GO  • 


1905 
1905 
1906 
1906 


3 
3 
2 
3 


45 
37 
53 
38 


639  334 

392  346 

371  I  281 

404  I  474 


11         173    I  1,706  11.435 


Present  State  op  Diocbsbb. — Bohemia  is  di» 
vided  ecclesiastically  as  follows:  The  Archdiooese 
of  Prague  inchides  the  north-western  and  central 
parts  of  the  coimtry,  the  Diocese  of  Leitmeritz 
embraces  the  northern  part,  the  Diocese  of  KOnig- 
grfttz  takes  in  the  eastern  part,  and  the  Diocese 
of  Budweis  the  southern  part  ot  the  oountry.  Id 
addition  to  its  share  of  the  territory  of  Bcmemia, 
the  Archdiooese  of  Prague  also  includes  the  count- 
ship  (Grafschaft)  of  Glatz  in  Prussian  Silesia. 

ReHoiotis  Orders. — ^There  are  in  the  ardidiooese 

14  orders  for  men,  having  35  houses;  the  total 
number  of  members  of  the  orders  is  704,  of  these 
416  are  priests,  135  are  clerics  preparing  for  the 
priesthood,  and  153  are  lay  brothers.  Special 
mention  should  be  made  of  the  Benedictines  at 
Emaus,  of  the  Jesuits  at  Prague,  and  of  the  Pre- 
monstratensians  at  Tepl.  There  are  also  21  orders 
for  women,  with  1,51/  members.  The  Diocese  of 
Leitmeritz  has  13  orders  for  men,  with  31  houses. 
The  members  of  these  orders  indude  136  priests, 

15  clerics  preparing  for  the  priesthood,  and  49  lay 
brothers.  The  Cistercian  Abbey  of  Osseg  and  the 
Jesuit  collie  at  Mariascheim  are  worthy  of  spedal 
mention.  There  are  10  orders  for  women,  with 
62  houses  and  651  m^nbers.  The  Diocese  of  K6nig- 
gr&tz  has  9  orders  for  men,  with  88  priests:  and  8 
orders  for  women,  with  442  members.  The  Diocese 
of  Budweis  has  13  orders  for  men,  in  32  houses; 
these  orders  include  131  regular  priests;  the  orders 
for  women  are  7,  with  419  members.  The  Cist^xsttLn 
Monastery  of  Hohenfurt,  founded  in  1259,  iliould 
be  mentioned  in  connexion  with  this  diocese. 

Educational  and  Charitable  JnstituHons, — ^In  the 
Archdiocese  of  Prague  there  are:  1  seminaiy  for 
priests,  1  private  gymnasium,  3  homes  for  univenity 
students  preparing  for  the  priesthood,  52  hospitals, 
homes  for  the  poor,  orphan  asylums,  etc.,  over 
200  endowments  for  the  aid  of  the  poor,  and  34  asso- 
ciations of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul.  In  the  Diocese 
of  Leitmeritz  there  are:  1  theological  school,  1  high 
school  for  boys,  5  homes  for  university  students 
preparing  for  the  priesthood,  11  Cath<^o  primary 
schools,  2  grammar-schools,  8  boarding-schools, 
18  industrial  and  advanced  schools,  20  orpbanagea, 
7  asylums  for  children,  14  kindeiigartens,  20  crtehes, 
and  over  130  homes  for  the  poor,  hospitals,  etc., 
as  well  as  13  Conferences  of  St.  Vincent  de  PauL 
In  the  Diocese  of  KOniggrfttz  there  are:  1  theolog- 
ical school,  1  seimnary  mr  priests,  1  boys'  seminaiy, 
7  boarding-schools  for  girls,  2  U^ning-echools  for 
women  tochers,  10  other  echoed  for  eiris  and 
young  women,  21  institutions  for  the  care  of  chiklrai« 
67  orphanages,  hospitals,  etc.,  8  conferences  oi 
St.  Vmcent  de  Paul,  and  numerous  eaidownients 
for  the  aid  of  the  poor.  In  the  Diocese  of  Budweis, 
besides  1  theological  school  and  1  seminary  for 
priests,  there  are  imder  ecclesiastical  contrd:  1  bo^ 
seminary,  1  home  for  university  students  preparing 
for  the  priesthood,  12  public  and  industrial  schoob 
23  kindergartens,  7  boarding-schools,  about  140  sti- 
pends for  students,  99  hospitals,  homes  for  the  aged 
and  the  poor,  and  8  conferences  of  St.  Vincent  d* 
Paul. 

Relations  of  Church  and  ^tatb. — ^nce  tbt 
last  yean  of  the  reign  of  Maria  Thoresa  and  e»» 


BOHEMIA  615  BOHEMIA 

pedally  since  the  time  of  Joseph  11,  the  Catholic  these  impediments  rest  on:   (1)  lack  of  consent: 

Church  in  Austria  has  suffered  from  state  inter-  (2)  lack  of  ability  for  the  married  state,  and  0) 

ferenoe.    According  to  existing  laws,  the  State  at  lack  of  the  necessary  formalities.    Under  the  first 

present  guarantees  to  the  recognized  denominations  head  are   (a)  impediments  from  inability  to  give 

ireedom  from  molestation  in  the  management  of  consent,  as  mental  disease  (violent  mania,  lunacy, 

their   intern^    affairs.    The    State    avoids    every  imbecility);    minority,  and   control    of    guardians, 

mterference  in  matters  of  faith,  of  ritual,  and  of  or  lack  of  free  choice;  (b)  impediments  resting  on 

eodesiastical  discipline,  but  it  also  claims  that  the  lack  of  actual  consent,  as  compulsion  through  well* 

religious   associations,   like   all   other   associations,  grounded  fear,  seduction,  mistake  in  the  identity 

are  subject  to  the  general  state  laws  in  their  ''out-  of  the  future  consort,  pregnancy  of  the  woman 

ward   legal    relations".    The    sore    point    in    this  before   marriage    by   another   i>erson.    Under    (2) 

condition  of  affairs  is  this^  that  the  State  assumes  belong  (a)  the  impediment  of  impotency  and  (b) 

for  itself  the  right  to  define  the  boundary  between  impemment  from  the  lack  of  moral  ability,  such 

internal  and  external  l^d  relations.    At  present  as  an  unexpired  sentence  of  imprisonment  for  Mony; 

state  ccmtrol  shows  itseu   in  the  appointment  of  a  still  existing  previous  marriage;  consecration  to 

ecdesiaatical  officials,   in  the  co-operation  of  the  Holy  orders,  or  a  solemn  vow  of  celibacy;  difference 

State  in  detennining  and  collecting  church  dues  in  religion  (e.  g.  the  marriage  of  a  Christian  and  a 

and  taxes,  in  measures  for  the  protection  of  the  non-Cnristian);   relationship  in  the  ascending  and 

propc^y  of  the  Church,  and  in  a  certain  supervision  descending    line,    or    close   family   connexion    (as 

of  the  church  press,  which  is  hardly  perceptible,  brothers  and  sisters,  cousins,  uncle  and  niece,  aunt 

The  legal  position  of  the  Cathddc  Church  in  Austria  and  nephew);   degrees  of  affinity  parallel  to  the 

rests  on  the  Imperial  Patent  of  8  April,  1861,  and  forbidden  degrees  of  consanguinity;  adultery  proved 

tiie  Law  of  7  May,  1874.  before  the  contracting  of  the  new  marriage;  and 

Incorporcdion   of   Churches. — ^In   the   Archdiocese  murder   or   attempted  murder   of   a   consort.     In 

of  Prague  there  arc  32  parishes  incorporated  with  (3)  are  (a)  the  impediments  arising  from  the  lack 

the   P^monstratensian    foundation    at   Tepl,    the  of  publication  of  the  banns,  and  (b)  those  from 

other  orders  in  the  diocese  have  28  parishes  incorpo-  lack  of  the  prescribed  formalities  of  a  marriage 

rated  with  them;  i|i  the  Diocese  of  Leitmeritz  the  contract.    Lastly,  there  should  also  be  mentioned 

Cistercians  at  Osseg  control  11  parishes,  the  other  the  impediments,  enacted  by  the  Catholic  Church 

onkrs  for  mea,  12;  in  the  Diocese  of  Kdni^^tz  (for  Catholics),   of  participation  in   the  cause  of 

there  are  10  parishes  united  with  the  Beneoiotine  divorce,  and  tne  impediment  caused  by  the  lack 

houses,  and  6  with  the  Premonstratensian;  in  the  of  a  certificate  of  birth.    A  temporary  impediment 

Diocese  of  Budweis  the  Monasteiv  of  Hohenfurt  exists  for  widows,  who  are  not  allowed,  as  a  rule, 

controls  16  piurishes,  the  other  orders  have  13  in-  to  marry  again  before  the  expiration  of  six  mon^ 

corporated  with  their  foundations.  ^  after  the  death  of  the  husband.    Some  of  these 

Ttaation  of  Churches. — Churches,  pubdlc  chapels,  ecclesiastical  impediments  to  marriage  can  be  set 

and  cemetenes  are  exempt  from  the  income-tax,  aside;  others  are  irremovable.    Among  the  latter 

ground-  and  dwelling-tax.  are  all  those  which  would  give  an  appearance  of 

Privileges    of    the    Clergy. — ^Theological    students  guilt  to  a  marria^  contracted  under  tne  existinjg 

are  exempt,  both  in  war  and  in  peace,  from  all  circumstances.    Dispensation    from    these    impedi- 

forms  of  military  service,  from  military  training,  ments  are  granted  by  the  civil  authorities.    Catholic 

exercise   with   weapons,   and  reserve  service;   but  married  couples  can  be  separated  from  bed  and 

after  they  have  been  ordained  they  can  be  called  board.    A  dissolution  of  the  bond  of  marriage  does 

upon  to  serve  as  army  chaplains  in  case  of  the  not  take  place;  that  is,  no  married  Catholic,  either 

mobilization   of   the   whole   army.    Parish   priests  husband  or  wife,  can  enter  upon  a  new  valid  marriage 

are  exempt  from  paying  the  direct  and  the  local  before  the  death  of  the  consort. 

taxeSj   and  from  jury  duty.    Parish  priests  have       Testamentary  Laws. — A  secular  cleric  has  the 

the  right  to  accept  an  election  to  communitv  and  right  to  free  disposal  of  his  property  both  in  hfe 

district    boards    of    commissioners.    Regiilarfy   in-  and  at  death.    The  bishop  of  a  diocese  has  no 

stalled  ecclesiastics  have  the  right  of  legal  residence  testamentary    control    over    those    objects    which 

in  that  community  in  which  tney  live  permanently,  belong  to  his  office,  and  which  by  law  descend  to 

Without  regard  to   the  actual  payment  of  taxes  his  successor,  such  as  mitres,  vestments  intended 

they  are  entitled  to  vote  for  the  local  boards,  for  to  be  worn  during  Mass,  etc.    In  consequence  of 

the  provincial  diet  and  for  the  imperial  parliament  the  vow  of  poverty,  members  of  religious  orders 

(Reichstag);  as  a  rule  they  are  included  in  the  first  are  incapable  of  inheriting  or  disposing  of  property. 

class  df  the  electoral  body.    Only  one-third  of  the  Large  legacies  to  a  church,  a  religious  or  cnan table 

fees  of  a  parish  priest  can  be  attached  for  debt;  foundation,  or  a  public  institution  must  be  announced 

besideB  this,  his  mcome  cannot  be  reduced  below  at  once  by  the  court  to  the  governor  or  president 

1,600  kronen   ($320),  nor  the  income  of    a  retired  of  the  province.    A  half-yearly  list  of  smaller  le^- 

priest  below   1,000  kronen   ($200).     According   to  cies  must  be  sent  to  these  authorities.    Legacies 

the  Law  of  1898,  which  was  intended  to  ec^ualize  for  the  benefit   of   the    poor,  those   intended   for 

clerical  salaries,  the  salary  of  a  parish  priest  at  religious  or  charitable   foundations,   for  churches, 

Prague  was  set  at  2,400  kronen  ($480);  in  the  sub-  schools,    parishes,    public    institutions,    or    other 

nrbe,  up  to  a  distance  of  over  nine  miles  from  the  religious   and   benevolent  purposes  must  be  paid 

capital,  and  in  cities  with  over  5,000  inhabitants,  over  or  secured  before  the  heirs  can  inherit  the 

at  1,800  kronen  ($360);  in  other    places  at  1,600  property. 

kronen  ($320)  or  1,400  kronen  ($280).     In  Prague        Burial   Laws. — Old   graveyards   are   ordinarily 

the  salary  of  an  assistant  priest  was  set  at  800  regarded   as   dependencies   of   the   parish   church, 

kronen  ($160)  or  700  kronen  ($140).  and  as  such  are  considered,  even  by  the  Law  of 

Mabbiaob  and  Divorcb. — Marriage,  for  Catholics,  30  April,  1870,  as  being  ecclesiastical  institutions. 

rests  on  the  Law  of  25  May,  1868,  with  which  the  But  m  sanitarv  regards,  as  places  of  burial,  they 

second  main  section  of  the  civil  code,  treating  of  are  controlled  by  the  police  regulations  of  the  com- 

the  law  of  marriage,  came  again  into  force.    Ac-  munity.    Denominational    cemeteries    can    be    en- 

oorduii^  to   this  anyone  can  enter  into  a  marriage  larged  or  laid  out  anew.     For  this,  however,  the 

contract  when  there  is  no  lepal  impediment.    Aps^  consent  of  the  civil  authorities  and  of  the  parties 

fpDm  the  impediments  ariong  from  the  duties  of  interested    is    necessary,    although,    if    the    parish 

'  *     potiUoDB  and  those  due  to  the  army  laws,  community  refuses  to  enlarge  the  cemetery,  the 


BOHCMUK  616  BOBBMU* 

responsibility  for  providing  a  proper  burial-place  land  by  OathoUo  rukw;  the  latter  prospered  in  tty 

falls  on  the  civil  community.     But  a  parish  com-  hernia,  thanks  to  royal  and  national  support.   The 

munity  or  a  church  vestry  cannot  be  compelled  by  burning  of  John  Hus  at  the  stake  for  his  stubborn 

Uie  authorities  to  enlarge  or  lay  out  a  church  ceme-  adherence  to  the  oondemed  doctrines  of  Wydif  (at 

tery.    If   in   the   same   community   both   a   town  CJonstance,  6  July,  1415)  was  considered  an  in8u|t 

cemetery  and  a  Catholic  cemetery  exist,  the  burial  to  the  faith  of  the  Boheniian  nation,  which,  sinoe 

of  the  dead  in  the  public  cemetery  is  not  obligatory,  its  first  conversion  to  Christianity,  had  never  swerved 

butj  every  Catholic  has  the  right  to  bury  the  mem-  from  the  truth.     The  University  of  Prague  came 

bers  of  his  family  in  the  Catholic  cemetery.    When  boldly  forward  to  vindicate  the  man  and  his  doo- 

a  Catholic  cemetery  serves  also  for  the  burial  of  trines;  the  party  which  hitherto  had  worked  at  re- 

non-Catholics,  a  part  of  the  cemetery  is  to  be  set  forming  the  Church  from  within  now  rejected  the 

apart   for   the   exclusive   use   of   the   non-Catholic  Churclrs  authority  and  became  the  Hussite  sect, 

community.    Where  a  part  of  a  Catholic  cemetery  Divisions  at  once  arose  amongst  its  members.   Some 

is  used  for  non-Catholic  burial  without  the  formal  completely  set  aside  the  authority  of  the  Clnut^  and 

separation  of  the  parts,  the  non-Catholic  clergyman  admitted  no  other  rule  than  the  Biblej  others  only 

must  follow  the  reflations  of  the  law;  he  may  con-  demanded  Commimion  under  both  kmds*  for  the 

duct  the  burial  with   prayer  and  benediction,  but  laity  and  free  preaching  of  the  €k>8pel,  witii  some 

there  can  be  no  singiujg  nor  address.  minor  reforms.    The  former,  who  met  for  wordiip  at 

ScHiNDLER  ed..  Dot  BonaU  Wirken  der  katholUchen  Kw^  "Mount  Tabor",  were  called  Taborites:  the  latter 

f^iSSn^j?  ^i'Li^J'^'E^J^'f:^  S/f^  ^iy^  th«  name  of  CWixtinw,  i.  e.  the  party  of  the 

iwi2)iEsT>Ls:R,IHeDtdze9e  L^ertu  (Vienna,  1903);  Bbnks,  Chalice.    As  long  as  they  had  a  common  enemy  to 

Die   DidMeae   KtHtimriUz  (Vienna,  1897);    Kirchhopf  ed.,  fight  they  f ought  together  under  the  leadership  of 

^'iS^^^ThlSerk^  IdllJSj'sip'S;^  that  extraordinary  ma^,  John  Troc«iowski,  known 

OetUrreich-Ungam  (Vienna  and  Pnwue,  1889):  Die  dBterreich,-  as  Zizka   (the  one-eyed),  and  for  fuUy  fifteen  yesis 

uiwariaehe  Monarehie  in  Wort  una  Bild  (1894-96):  Bdhmen  proved  more  than  a  match  for  the  imperial  amuee 

'^Z:^  ""iT'iJkJ^JSSI^^'o^^^^^Tt^  ""d  P»PfJ  cru8ade«  sent  to  mid.  them.    Peace  w« 

■ociety;  Frind,  Kirchenoeachichte  BOhmens  (Prague.  1866-78);  at  length  obtained,  not   by  force  of  anns,   but  by 

Id.,  Oeadiiehte  derBiecMfe  xmd  ErOnechdfe  von  Frag  (Prague,  skilful  negotiations  which  resulted  in  the  "Compao- 

}i!l;  ^rS^^Ht^G^eJ^J^:^.  ""^^  ^*'"^'  *»*»  1.^1*;  <-^,  November,  1433).    Tte  compMt 

Karl  Klaar.  ^*^^  chiefly  due  to  the  concessions  made  by  the 

Calixtine  party;  it  found  little  or  no  favour  with  the 

Bohemian  Brethren  (Moravian  Brbthrbn,  or  Taborites.  Tne  discontent  led  to  a  feud  which  ter- 
Unftas  Fratrum). — Definition  and  Doctrinal  minated  at  the  Battle  of  Lippau  (30  May,  1434)  with 
Position. — Bohemian  Brethren,  Moravian  Brethren  the  death  of  Procopius,  the  Taborite  leader,  and  the 
are  the  current  popular  designations  of  the  Unitas  almost  total  extinction  of  his  party.  Tne  small 
Fratrum  foundea  in  Bohemia  in  1457,  renewed  by  remnant,  too  insignificant  to  play  a  r61e  in  politics, 
Count  Zinzendorf  in  1722,  and  still  active  in  our  own  withdrew  into  private  life,  devoting  all  their  energies 
day.  Placing  life  before  creeds,  the  Moravian  Church  to  religion.  In  1457  one  section  formed  itsdf  mto 
seeks  "  to  exemplify  the  living  Church  of  Christ  con-  a  separate  body  under  the  name  of  the  "  Brethren's 
stituted  of  regenerated  men  and  women,  while  it  Union"  (Unitas  Fratrum),  which  is  now  generally 
affords  a  common  meeting-point  for  Christians  who  spoken  of  as  the  Bohemian  Brethren.  Th^  con- 
apprehend  dogmas  variously".  Personal  faith  in  temporaries  coined  for  them  several  opprohrioui 
tne  crucified  Saviour  constitutes  the  chief  foundation  desi^ations,  such  as  Jamnici  (cave-dw^lers)  and 
for  the  fellowship  thus  established.  Scripture  is  the  Pivnicnici  (beerhouse  men),  Bimalau  Brethi^ 
only  rule  of  faith,  but  "nothing  is  posited  as  to  the  Picards  (corrupted  to  Pickarts),  etc. 
mode  of  inspiration,  for  this  partakes  of  the  mysteries  The  originator  of  the  new  sect  was  a  certain  Gregory, 
which  it  has  not  pleased  God  to  reveal".  The  Trinity,  a  nephew  of  the  leading  Calixtine  preacher,  iUAy- 
the  Fall.  Original  Sin,  and  "Total  Depravity"  are  zana,  whose  mind  was  imbued  with  the  conviction 
admitted,  but  "discussion  about  them  is  shunned",  that  the  Roman  Church  was  helplesslv  and  hope- 
The  Love  of  God  manifested  in  Christ — without  lessly  corrupt.  Gregonr  therefore  decided  to  foimd 
theories  about  the  mode — is  the  centre  of  Mo-  a  new  Church  in  accordance  with  his  imcle's  and  his 
ravian  belief  and  practice.  Justification  by  faith  own  ideas  of  what  a  perfect  Church  diould  be. 
alone  and  the  necessity  of  regeneration  "are  posited  Through  Rokyzana's  influence  he  obtained  leave 
as  facts  of  personal  experience".  Sanctifying  grace,  from  the  governor  George  von  Podiebrad  to  organise 
the  need  of  prayer,  and  other  public  means  of  grace,  a  commimity  in  the  village  of  Kunwald  near  Senften- 
a  complete  ritual,  a  strict  discipline,  "the  orders  of  berg.  Michael,  the  pariim  priest  of  Senftenberg,  and 
the  ministry  with  no  conception  of  the  functions  of  Matthias,  a  farmer  of  Kunwald,  joined  Gregory,  and 
the  episcopate",  i.  e.  bishops  ordain,  but  the  episco-  soon  the  community  counted  several  thousand  mem- 
pal  office  implies  no  further  ruling  or  administrative  bers.  Their  distinguishing  tenets  at  this  early  period 
power  (see  infra  in  regard  to  Zinzendorf),  Baptism  were  rather  vague:  abohtion  of  all  distinctions  of 
and  the  Lord's  Supper  as  the  only  sacraments,  and  rank  and  fortune,  the  name  of  Christian  being  the 
the  common  Christian  eschatology:  Resurrection,  one  all-sufficient  dignity;  abolition  of  oaths,  of  mili- 
Judgjnent,  Heaven,  Hell;  such  are  the  tenets  from  tary  service,  etc.  Governor  von  Podiebrad  kept  a 
which  Moravians  are  expected  not  to  depart,  whilst  vigilant  eye  on  the  growing  oommumty.  In  1461 
they  are  allowed  to  speculate  about  them  on  Scrip-  he  had  Gregory  and  several  other  persons  arrested 
tural  lines  with  entire  liberty.  on  suspicion  of  reviving  the  heresies  of  the  Taborites. 

History  of  the  Ancient  Unit  as  Fratrum  (1457-  The  accused  admitted  that  they  did  not  bdieve  in 

1722). — The  Bohemian  Brethren  are  a  link  in  a  chain  the  real  presence  of  Christ  in  the  Holy  Eucharist, 

of  sects  beginning  with  Wyclif  (1324-84)  and  coming  but  had  partaken  of  the  bread  and  wine  at  their 

down  to  the  present  day.    The  ideas  of  the  English-  nocturnal  meetings  as  of  common  food.    They  were 

man  found  favour  with  Hus,  and  Bohemia  proved  a  set  free,  but,  to  avoid  further  interference,  Grefpry 

better  soil  for  their  growth  than  England.     Both  and  his  companions  fled  into  the  Lordship  of  Reidie- 

Wyclif  and  Hus  were  moved  by  a  sincere  desire  to  nau,  where  they  lived   hidden  in  the  mountam*. 

reform  the  Church  of  their  times;  both  failed  and.  There,  in  1464,  was  held  a  secret  assembly  oonnitnig 

without  intending  it,  became  the  fathers  of  new  of  Brethren  from  Bohemia  and  Mcwavia,  who  '^ 


"^retical  bodies — the   Lollards    and    the    Hussites,    cepted  as  basis  of  their  creed  the  doctrine  that  ji 
'^he  Conner  ^ere  persecuted  out  of  existence  in  Eng-    ficatlon  is  obtained  through  faHh  and  charity  and 


BOHEMIAN 


617 


BOHEMIAN 


confers  the  hope  of  eternal  salvation.    The  rich  were 
requested  to  abandon    their    wealth    and  worldly 

g)mp  and  to  live  in  voluntary  poverty.  The 
rethren  were  to  eive  up  private  property  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Brotherhood.  Anyone  not  observing 
the  brotherhood  of  faith  and  practice  was  to  be 
seoarated  from  the  community. 

Meanwhile  the  persecution  continued.  The  Utra- 
cniiist  (Calixtine)  priests  refused  the  Sacrament  to  the 
Brethren.  These,  therefore,  were  forced  to  consti- 
tute a  priesthood  of  their  own  belief.  A  bbhop  and 
a  number  of  priests  were  chosen  by  lot,  and  the 
separation  from  the  Utraquists  became  an  accom- 
plished fact.  TWe  head  of  the  Austrian  Waldenses, 
who  was  believed  to  have  received  consecration  from 
a  real  bishop,  gave  episcopal  orders  to  the  ex-parish 

Siest,  Michael,  and  Michael  consecrated  his  friend, 
attmas,  bishop  and  ordained  several  priests.    The 
new  Bishop  Matthias  of  Kunwald  then  reordained 
his  consecrator,  to  make  him  a  true  priest  of  the 
Brotherhood.    This  happened  in  1467  at  the  synod 
of  Lhotka,  near  Reichenau,  where  also  all  those 
present  were  rebaptized.      The    breach  with  both 
Catholics  and  Utraquists  was  now  completed,  and 
the  Brethren  began  to  order  their  community  on 
the  model  of  "the  primitive  Church".    The  govern- 
ing power  centred  m  a  council  presided  over  by  a 
judge.    Four  seniors,  or  elders,  held  the  episcopal 
power.    The  priests  nad  no  property  and  were  en- 
couraged to  celibacy.     The  strictest  morality  and 
modesty  were  exacted  from  the  faithful.    All  acts 
subservient  to  luxury  were  forbidden;   oaths  and 
military  service  were  only  permited  in  very  excep- 
tional cases.    Public  sins  had  to  be  publicly  confessed, 
and  were  punished  with  ecclesiastical  penalties  or 
expulsion.    A  committee  of  women  watched  with  re- 
lentless severity  over  the  behaviour  of  their  sisters. 
A  new  persecution  quickly  followed  on  the  synod 
of  I(hotka.    The  Brethren  defended  their  cause  in 
copious  writings,  but  in  1468  many  of  them  were 
imprisoned  and  tortured,  one  was  burnt  at  the  stake. 
The  death  of  the  governor  Georee  von  Podiebrad  in 
1471  brought  some  relief.    Brotner  Gregory  died  in 
1473.    From  1480  Lucas  of  Prague  was  the  leading 
man.    Thanks  to  him,  and  to  toleration  granted  the 
Brethren  by  King  Ladislaus  II,  the    Brotherhood 
rapidly  increased  m  numbers.      JBy  the  end  of  the 
fifteenth  centmy  there  were  400  communities.    Pope 
Alexander  VI 's  endeavour  to  reconvert  the  Brethren 
fin  1499)  proved  futile.    About  this  time  an  internal 
feud  in  the  "Unitv  of  Brethren"  led  to  a  renewal 
of  persecution.    Tne  Amosites,  so  called  from  their 
leader.  Brother  Amos,  accused  their  more  moderate 
Brethren  of  fomenting  violent  opposition  to  the  Gov- 
ernment in  imitation  of  their  spiritual  ancestors, 
the  Taborites.    King  Ladislaus  II  thereupon  issued  a 
decree  prohibiting  the  meetings  of  the  Brethren  under 
heavy   penalties.     In  many   places,  however,  the 
decree  was  left  unheeded,  and  powerful  landowners 
continued  to  protect  the  Brotherhood.     Once  more 
the  king'resorted  to  milder  measures.    In  1507  he 
invited  the  chiefs  of  the  Brethren  to  meet  the  Utra- 
quists in  conference  at  Prague.    The  Brethren  sent 
a  few  rude,  unlettered  fellows  unable  to  give  answers 
to   the  questions  of  the  professors.     The  king  re- 
garded tnis  as  an  insult  and  ordered  all  the  meetings 
of  the  "Pickarts"  to  be  suppressed,  all  their  books  to 
be  burnt,  and  the  recalcitrants  to  be  imprisoned  (1508). 
The  Brethren  now  began  to  look  for  foreign  sym- 
pathy.   Erasmus  complimented  them  on  their  knowl- 
edge of  truth,  but  refused  to  commit  himself  further. 
leather  objected  to  their  doctrine  on  the  Euchar- 
ist, to  the  celibacy  of  their  cler^,  to  the  practice 
of    rebaptizing,  and  to  the  belief  in  seven  sacra- 
menta.     Brotner  Lucas  answered  in  a  sharp  pamph- 
let   and,  having   ascertained  the   low  stanaard  of 
church  discipline  among  the  Lutherans  of  Witten- 


timc 


berg,  ceased  all  attempts  at  union.  At  the  same 
(1525)  Lucas  rejected  the  Zwinglian  doctrines  which 
some  Brethren  were  trying  to  introduce.  After 
the  death  of  Lucas  (1528 J  the  government  of  the 
Brotherhood  passed  into  the  hands  of  men  fond  of 
innovations,  among  whom  John  Augusta  is  the  most 
remarkable.  Augusta  reopened  negotiations  with 
Luther  and  so  modified  his  creed  that  it  ^ned  the 
Reformer's  approbation,  buf  the  union  of  the  two 
sects  was  again  prevented  by  the  less  rigid  morals 
of  the  Lutherans  m  Bohemia  and  Moravia.  Augusta 
pleaded  for  stricter  church  discipline,  but  Luther  dis- 
missed him,  saying:  "Be  you  tne  apostle  of  the  Bo- 
hemians, I  will  be  the  apostle  of  the  Germans.  Do 
as  circumstances  direct,  we  will  do  the  same  here*' 
(1542).  Soon  afterwards  the  Bohemian  Estates  were 
requested  to  join  Charles  V  in  his  war  a^nst  the 
Smalkaldic  league.  Catholics  and  old  Utraquista 
obeyed,  but  the  Bohemian  Protestants,  having  met 
in  the  house  of  Brother  Kostka,  established  a  kind 
of  provisional  government  composed  of  ei^t  mem- 
bers, four  of  whom  belonged  to  the  Brotherhood, 
and  appointed  a  general  to  lead  the  armed  rebels  into 
Saxony  against  the  emperor.  Charles's  victory  over 
the  Smalkaldians  at  Mtthlber^  (1547)  left  the  rebels 
no  choice  but  to  submit  to  tneir  king,  Ferdinand  I. 
The  Brethren,  who  had  been  the  chief  instigators  of 
the  rebellion,  were  now  doomed  to  extinction.  John 
Augusta  and  his  associate,  Jacob  Bilek,  were  cast 
into  prison;  the  Brethren's  meetings  were  interdicted 
throughout  the  whole  kingdom;  those  who  refused  to 
submit  were  exiled.  Many  took  refuge  in  Poland 
and  Prussia  (1578):  those  who  remained  in  the 
country  joined,  at  least  pro  formdf  the  Utraquist 
party.  Owing  to  Maximilian  II  s  leniency  and  Protes- 
tant propensities,  the  Bohemian  diet  of  1575  could 
draw  up  the  "Btohemian  Confession  of  Faith"  in 
which  tne  principles  of  the  Brethren  find  expression 
along  with  those  of  the  Lutherans.  Under  Kudolph 
II  (1584)  persecution  was  a^gain  resorted  to,  and 
lasted  with  more  or  less  intensity  down  to  1609,  when 
Rudolph's  Charter  granted  the  free  exercise  of  their 
religion  to  all  Protestants.  No  sooner,  however,  did 
external  oppression  relent  than  internal  dissension 
broke  out  in  the  Protestant  ranks.  The  Consistory, 
composed  of  I  utherans  and  Brethren,  was  unable  to 
maintain  peace  and  union  between  tne  two  parties. 
Ferdinand  II,  after  his  victory  over  the  rebellious  Bo- 
hemians at  the  White  Mountain  near  Prague  (1620). 
offered  them  the  choice  between  Catholicism  ana 
exile.  Many  Brethren  emigrated  to  Hungary,  but  a 
greater  number  to  northern  Poland,  where  they 
settled  in  Lissa  (now  in  Prussian  Posen),  Even  to 
this  day  there  are  in  that  district  seven  conmiunities 
calling  themselves  Brethren,  although  their  confes- 
sion of  faith  is  the  Helvetic.  In  Prussian  Silesia  there 
are  also  three  communities  of  Brethren  claiming 
descent  from  the  Bohemian  Brotherhood. 

The  Bohemian  Brethren  and  England. — ^Dup- 
ing the  reign  of  Maximilian  II  and  Rudolph  11  the 
Bohemian  Brethren  enjoyed  a  period  of  prosper- 
ity which  allowed  them  to  establish  relations  with 
younger  Protestant  churches.  They  sent  students  to 
Heidelberg  and  one  at  least  to  Oxford.  In  1683 
"Bernardus,  John,  a  Moravian",  was  allowed  to 
supply  B.  D.  He  had  studied  theology  for  ten  years 
in  German  universities  and  was  now  going  to  the 
universities  of  Scotland.  This  Bemardus.  however, 
has  left  no  trace  but  the  entry  in  the  Kegister  of 
Oxford  just  quoted.  The  man  who  brought  the 
Brotherhood  prominently  before  the  AngHcan  Churdi 
was  Johann  Amos,  of  Comna,  generally  known  as 
Comenius.  As  a  scholar  and  «iucatienist  he  was 
invited  by  his  English  friends  to  assist  in  iniproving 
the  state  and  administration  of  the  tmiversities.  then 
under  consideration  in  Parliament.  The  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War  brought  all  these  plans  to  nau^ht^ 


BOHIMIAH 


618 


BOHXMXAN 


and  Comeniu8  returned  to  Germany  in  1642.  Hb 
influence  in  England  allowed  him  to  set  on  foot  sev- 
eral collections  for  his  severely  persecuted  church 
in  Poland:  the  first  three  were  failures,  but  the  fourth, 
authorized  by  Cromwell,  produced  £5,900,  of  which 
sum  Cambridge  University  contributed  £56.  This 
was  in  1658-59.  Intercourse  with  the  Anghcan 
Church  was  kept  up  uninterruptedly  until  the  rem- 
.  nants  of  the  ancient  Brotherhood  had  dwindled  away 

\  and  been  swallowed  up  by  other  Evangelical  con- 
fessions. When  the  renewed  •  Brotherhood  was  es- 
tablished in  Ekigland  it  benefited  by  the  memory  of 
former  friendly  relations. 

History  op  the  Renewed  Brotherhood. — Per- 
secution from  without  and  dissension  within  well- 
nigh  brought  about  the  total  extinction  of  the  Bo- 
hemian Brethren.  The  small  but  faithful  renmant 
was,  however,  destined  to  blossom  into  a  new  and 
vigorous  rellnous  body  under  the  name  of  Moravian 
Brethren.  The  founder  and  moulder  of  this  second 
Unitas  Fratrum  was  the  pious  and  practical  Count 
Zinzendorf  (b.  1700,  d.  1760).  In  1722  the  Lutheran 
Pastor  Rothe,  of  Berthelsdorf  in  Upper  Lusatia,  in- 
troduced to  the  Count,  from  whom  he  held  his  living, 
a  Moravian  carpenter  named  Christian  David.  This 
man  had  been  deputed  by  his  co-religionists  to  look 
out  for  a  concession  of  land  where  they  could  freely 
practise  their  religion.  Zinzendorf  was  so  far  un- 
acQuainted  with  the  history  and  the  tenets  of  the 
Bonemian  Brethren,  but  in  his  charity,  he  eranted 
them  the  desired  land,  on  the  slopes  of  the  Hutberj; 
in  the  parish  of  Berthelsdorf.    In  a  short  time  enu- 

Sants  Irom  Moravia  founded  there  a  coloinr,  called 
ermhut.  The  colonists  worshipped  at  the  Lutheran 
psuish  church.  Two  years  later,  there  arrived  from 
Zauchenthal  in  Moravia  five  young  men  fully  con- 
scious of  being  true  members  of  the  old  "Bohemian 
Brotherhood".  At  once  religious  quarrels  arose, 
to  the  annoyance  of  Count  Zinzendorf  and  his  friends, 
llie  count  was  not  slow  in  perceiving  that  the 
colonists,  all  simple  labourers  and  craftsmen,  were 
more  concerned  with  church  discipline  and  Christian 
rules  of  life  than  with  do^a.  Accordingly  he  set 
about  elaborating  a  constitution  for  a  community 
of  which  reli^on  Siould  be  the  chief  concern  and  bona 
of  union.  He  left  Dresden  and,  with  the  pastor's 
leave,  be^gan  to  work  as  a  lay  catechist  among  the 
Brethrcoi  at  Hermhut.  The  community  met  for  their 
religious  services  in  their  own  hall  where  one  of 
the  Brethren,  either  chosen  by  lot  or  elected  by  the 
assembly,  acted  as  minister.  In  1731  they  seceded 
from  the  parish  church  and  added  to  their  usual  ser- 
vices the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  They 
were  divided  in  ''choirs"  according  to  age,  sex,  and 
calling;  each  choir  was  ruled  by  elders  (male  and 
female),  pastors,  and  administrators  chosen  amons 
its  members.  The  female  choirs  were  distinguished 
by  their  dresses.  Widows,  unmarried  young  men, 
and  yoimg  women  formed  separate  choirs  under  the 
supervision  of  elders.  Everything  at  Hermhut  was 
controlled  by  the  College  of  Elders,  even  matrimony, 
subject  to  the  sanction  of  the  lot.  Provision  was 
made  for  the  poor  and  the  sick^  for  prayer  meet- 
ings and  80  forth.  Deacons,  actmg  for  the  Elders, 
acmiinistered  the  property  accruing  to  the  community 
from  donations.  Great  care  was  given  to  the  educa- 
tion of  the  young,  Zinzendorf  being  anxious  to  raise 
a  generation  that  would  perpetuate  his  work.  The  or- 
canization  of  the  renewed  Brotherhood  was  complete 
m  1731.  It  bore  the  stamp  of  the  personality  of  its 
founder,  a  man  deeply  religious,  nurtured  in  opener's 
Pietism  by  the  two  noble  ladies  who  brought  him  up, 
and  well  aqquainted  with  Catholic  life  from  his  so- 
journ in  Paris.  As  soon  as  the  foundations  were 
solidly  laid  at  Hermhut  Zinzendorf  began  to  think 
of  missionaiy  work.  His  personal  connexion  with 
the  Danish  Court  led  him   to  choose  the  Danish 


ions  in  the  West  Indies  and  in  Greenland 


ror  the  field  of  his  labours.     His  first  missionarieB 
were  sent  out  in  1732  and  1733.    Feeling,  however 
that  as  a  simple  layman  he  could  not  well  eonfer 
missionanr  powers,  he  took  orders  at  Tubingen  in 
1734  and,  moreover,  received   episcopal  consecra- 
tion from  the  Reformed  court-preacher  Jablonslqr  of 
Berlin,  in  whose  family  the  Moravian  episcopacy, 
originated  in  1467  by  a  validly  ordained  Waldensian 
bishop,  had  been— or  was  said  to  have  been— re- 
served.   Persecution  was  not  long  in  coming.    The 
orthodox    Lutherans    became    the    Brethren's  bit- 
terest enemies.    The  Imperial  Government  in  Vienna 
strongly  objected  to  their  propaganda  in  Bohemia, 
which  caused  Austrian  subjects  to  emigrate  ana 
sowed  discontent  in  the  country.     Under  imperial 
pressure  the  King  of  Saxony  banished  Zinzendorf 
"for  ever".     The  zealous  count  put  his  exile  to  good 
use.    During  the  ten  years  (1737-47)  of  his  ab^ce 
from  Saxony  he  founded  congregations  in  Holland, 
England,  Ireland,  America;  new  ones  also  arose  in 
Germany  at  Herrenhag,  Neuwied,  Gnadenfrei,  Gnad- 
enberg,  and  Neusatz.     Zinzendorf  showed  a  special 
predilection  for  the  London  establishment.    In  1750 
ne  fixed  his  residence  in  the  English  capital  and 
from  there  ruled  the  whole  "Unity  of  Brethren". 
But  in  1756  he  returned  to  Hermhut,  which  now  be- 
came and  remained  the  centre  of  the  whole  adminis- 
tration.    To  the  present  day  the  "  Provincial  Board 
of  Elders  for  Germany"  occupies  Zinzendorf 's  own 
house  at  Berthelsdorf.    The  nnishin^  touch  of  the 
new  church  system  is  the  liberty  enjoyed  by  those 
who  join  it  to  retain  the  Lutheran,  the  Keformed,  or 
the  Moravian  Confession  to  which  they  belonged, 
and  to  be  placed  under  the  rule  of  Elders  of  the  same 
belief.     Tnis  peculiar  feature  shows  the  founder's 
disregard  for  dogma  and  the  great  value  he  attached 
to  Christian  practice  and  ecclesiastical  discipline. 
He  held  that  faith  and  justification  could  only  be 
found  by  individuals  who  were,  or  became,  members 
of  a  religious  community.    However  mudi,  in  this 
and  in  other  points,  he  copied  the  Catholic  Church, 
yet  he  was  to  the  end  a  faithful  adherent  of  the 
Augsburg  Confession  and  obtained  from  the  Consis- 
tory in  Dresden  an  official  acknowledgment  that  the 
Moravian  Brethren  were  followers  of  the  same  faith. 
He  also  succeeded  after  a  long  strugde  in  securing 
for  the  Brotherhood  recognition  by  the  Saxon  gov- 
ernment.   When,  reg^tt^  by  all,  he  died  in  1760, 
his  work  and  his  spirit  lived  on   in   the  stronsly 
organized  body  of  the  "Unity  of  Brethren".     No 
material  changes  have  taken  place  since.    In  1775 
the  Brethren,  assembled  in  a  synod  at  Bar  by,  adopted 
the  following  statement  of  principles: — 

"The  chief  doctrine  to  which  the  Church  of  the 
Brethren  adheres,  and  which  we  must  preserve  as  an 
invaluable  treasure  committed  unto  us,  is  this:  lliat 
by  the  sacrifice  for  sin  made  by  Jesus  Christ,  and  by 
that  alone,  grace  and  deliverance  from  sin  are  to  w 
obtained  for  all  mankind.  We  will,  therefore,  with- 
out lessening  the  importance  of  any  other  article  of 
the  Christian  faith,  steadfastly  maintain  the  fol- 
lowing five  points:  (l)  The  doctrine  of  the  universal 
depravity  of  man:  that  there  is  no  health  in  man,  and 
that,  since  the  Fall  he  has  no  power  whatever  left 
to  help  himself.  (2)  The  doctrine  of  the  Divinity  of 
Christ:  that  God,  the  Creator  of  all  things,  was  mani- 
fest in  the  flesh,  and  reconciled  us  to  Himself;  that 
He  is  before  all  things  and  that  in  Him  all  things 
exist.  (3)  The  doctrine  of  the  atonement  and  satis- 
faction niade  for  us  by  Jesus  Christ:  that  He  was 
ddivered  for  our  offences  and  nused  again  for  our 
justification  and  that  by  His  merits  aUme  we  re- 
ceive freely  the  forgiveness  of  sin,  faith  in  iemaB 
and  sanctincation  in  soul  and  body.  (4)  The  doe- 
trine  of  the  Holy  Spirit  and  the  operation  of  tCj 
grace:  that  it  is  He  who  worketh  in  us  conviction  of 


619  BOHEMTiW 

in,  faith  hi  Jesusi  and  purenees  m  heart.    (5)  The  cused  the  Brethren  of  holding  false  doctrinef  and 

doctrine  of  the  fruits  of  faith:  that  faith  must  evi-  left  the  hall  exdaiming:  "Let  those  who  agree  with 

denoe  itself  by  willing  obedi^ice  to  the  command-  me  follow  me."    Some  ei^teen  or  nineteen  of  the 

wesaia  of  God,  from  love  and  gratitude. "  members  went  out  after  him,  the  rest  called  upon  the 

Faith  in  the  Redemption  and  entire  surrender  of  Brethren  to  be  their  leaders.    Thus  a  religious  to- 

self  to  Christ  (with  Whom  in  1741  a  spiritual  cove-  ciety  of  the  Church  of  England  became  a  society  of 

nant  was  made)  are  held  to  be  the  very  essence  of  the  Brethren.    After  their  rupture  with  Wesley  the 

rdi^on.     The  will  of  Christ  was  ascertained   b^^  Brethren  began  to  work  on  their  own  account  in 

OKtAUft  of  lots  as  the  final  sanction  in  case  of  mar-  England.      Professor    Spangenberg    organised    the 

rbge  (until  1820),  in  the  dection  of  superiors  (until  young;  chturch  with  rare  talent,   and  its  activity 

1889),  etc.    Zinzendorf  ruled  as  bishop  over  all  the  spread  far  and  wide  in  the  provinces,  even  to  Scot- 

oommunities,  both  in  Europe  and  America,  but  since  land  and  Ireland,  but  their  success  was  greatest  in 

his  death  the  episcopal  office  has  remained  a  mere  Yorkshire.    They  also  came  in  for  some  persecution 

title.    In  1857  the  British  and  American  Unity  be-  from  people  who  stiU  confused  them  with  the  Metho- 

came  indepMident:  the  only  bond  of  imion  being  now  dists.    The  Ic^  status  of  the  Brotherhood  was  now 

the  Greneral  Synod  held  once  every  ten  years.  to  be  determined.    They  did  not  wish  to  be  classed 

Ths  MoRAViANa  IN  England. — The  be^nnings  of  as  Diss^iters,  which  would  at  once  have  severed 

the  Brethren's  Church  in  England  are  an  mteresting  them  from  the  Anglican  Church,  and,  on  the  othm 

chapter  in  the  oonmierce  of  thought  between  Ger-  hand,  the  Ai^can  Church  disowned  them  because 

many  and  that  coimtry.     The  Crerman  dynasty  on  they  neither  had  Andean  orders  nor  did  they  use 

the  English  throne  had  attracted  a  strong  colony  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.     Archl^hop  Potter 

their  countrymen;  towards  the  middle  of  the  eigh-  would  grant  them  no  more  than  tiie  toleration  ac- 

teenth  century  London  alone  numbered  from  4000  corded  to  foreign  Protestants.    To  obtain  a  license 

to  5000  Cermans  among  its  inhabitants.     These  from  a  Justice  of  the  Peace  they  had  to  adopt  a  name, 

would  naturally  be  in  sympathy  with  the  Brethren,  and  Spangenberg  decided  on  "Moravian  Brethren, 

But  the  "Rehgious  Societies''  founded  by  Doctor  formerly  of  the  Anglican  Communion".    This  name 

Smithies,  ciu^te  of  St.  Giles,  and  Dr.  Homeck,  of  implied  a  new  denomination  and  led  to  the  immediate 

the  Lower  Palatinate,  togetner  with  the  writings  formation  of  the  first  congregation  of  Brethren  of  Eng- 

of  William  Law — the  father  of  the  religious  revival  lish  nationality  (1742).     Zinzendorf  greatly  objected 

of  the  ei^teenth  century — had  prepar^  the  minds  to  the  name  of  Moravians  bein^  given  to  his  Brethren 

of  many  Englishmen  for  stronger  spiritual  food  than  whom  he  considered  as  an  ecdesiola  in  ecdend,  a  se- 

that  offered  by  the  established  religion.     Homeck  lect  snoall  church  within  a  greater  one^which  might 

was  a  German  Pietist,  and  William  Law,  in  his  exist  in  almost  any  denomination.     The  proposed 

"Serious  Call",  sets  up  a  standard  of  perfection  little  designation,  "Old  Lutheran  Protestants",  was  dis- 

tiboTt  of  Catholic  monasticism.    John  Wesley,  who  tasteful  to  English  members.    They  resolutely  clunff 

confesses  that  he  was  stimulated  into  activitv  b^  to  the  names  ''United  Brethren"  and  "Moravians" 

William   Law,   at   first  sought   satisfaction   oi   his  as  their  official  and  popular  designations,  and  the 

spiritual  cravings  in  the  Moravian.  Brotherhood.    He,  ''  Bill  for  encouraging  the  people  known  by  the  name 

with  three  other  Oxford  Methodists,  met  the  Mo-  of  Unitas  Fratrum  or  United  Brethren  to  settle  in 

ravian  Bishop  Nitschmann  and  twenty  Brethren  at  His  Majesty's  colonies",  passed  in  1749,  gives  official 

Gravesend,  where  they  were  waiting  for  the  vessel  sanction  to  the  old  name,  recognizes  that  the  Bfe^tii- 

that  was  to  carry  them  all  to  Georgia  (1736).    The  ren  belonged  to  an  "ancient  protestai;it  and  episcopal 

Enj^ishmen  were  favomutdy  impre^ed  with  the  re-  Church",  and  maintains  their  connexion  with  Ger^ 

li^ous  fervour  of  the  Germans,  and  a  fruitful  friend-  many. 

mlp  sprang  up  between  them.     As  earl;^  as  1728  Beginnings  of  the  Moravian  Church  in  Amer- 

2Knzendorf  haa  sent  to  Endand  a  deputation  headed  ica. — ^In  1734  Zinzendorf  obtained  for  thirty  fam- 

by  the  Moravian  JohannnTdltschig  ''to  tell  such  as  ilies    of    banished    Schwenkfelders    ^idherents    of 

were  not  blinded  by  their  lusts,  but  whose  eyee  God  Kaspar  von  Schwenkfeld)  a  home  in  Georgia  which 

had  opened,  what  God  bad  wrought".     Countess  had  just  been  carved  out  of  the  Carolina  grant  "to 

Sophia  von  Schaumburs-Lippe,  Lady-in- Waiting  at  serve  as  an  asylum  for  insolvent  debtors  and  for 

the  English  Court,  used  her  influence  in  their  behalf,  persons  fleeing  from  religious  persecution".    These 

but  was  unable  to  counteract  the  opposition  of  the  exiles,  however,  found  it  preferable  to  join  an  older 

Lutheran    court-chaplain    Ziegenhagen.      The    em-  colony  in  Pennsylvania.     The  Brethren  now  con- 

baasy  had  httle  or  no  result.    Other  visits  followed  ceivea  the  plan  of  securing  for  themselves  in  Geor^a 

at  intervals,  most  of  them  by  missionaries  and  emi-  a  home  of  refuge  in  time  of  persecution.     The  gov* 

grants  on  their  way  to  Amenca.    On  the  occasion  of  emor  general,  Oglethorpe,  granted  them  500  acres, 

such  a  visit  Zinzendorf  himself  induced  some  young  and  Spangenberg,  the  negotiator,  received  a  present  of 

people  to  f6rm  a  society  for  the  reading  of  the  Bible,  50  acres  for  himiself ,  a  part  of  the  site  on  which  the 

mutual  edification,  abstention  from  theoloncal  con*  city  of  Savannah  now  stands.    The  first  eleven  immi- 

troversy,  brotherly  love,  etc.    It  was  the  first  step  grants  reached  Savannah  17  April,  1734,  led  by  Span* 

towards  realizing  his  ideals  in  England.    The  next  genberg.    Bishop  Nitschmemn  brought  over  anoth^ 

step  was  Peter  Boehler's  zealous  preaching  to  the  twenty,  7  February,  1736.     The  work  of  evange- 

"ruigious  societies"  and  the  working  classes.  lizing  and  colo^^g  was  at  once  vigorously  tal^n 

It  was  Boehler  who  founded  the  religious  society  in  in  hand  and  cai^Rpn  with  more  courage  than  suo- 

Fetter  Lane  of  which  John  Wesley  became  a  mem-  cess.      The   cUraKe.   wars,   enmities   fiom  within 

her,  and  for  which  he  framed  most  of  the  rules;  it  and  without,  checked  the  ^wth  and  cramped  the 

seems  also  due  to  the  influence  of  Boehler  that  John  or^nization  of  the  Brotheihood. 

andCharlesWesley" found  conversion"  (June,  1738),  Present  Condition  op  the  Moravian  Bodt. — 

yet  not  a  conversion  exactly  of  the  Moravian  type.  The  outcome  of  their  faithful  strug^es  during  175 

A  visit  of  John  Wesley  to  the  German  centres  inade  years  is  shown  in  the  subjoined  statistics,  ana  may 

it  dear  that  the  Brotherhood  had  no  room  for  two  be  read  in  detail  in  the  "  Transactions  of  the  Moravian 

men  like  Zinzendorf  and  Wesley,  both  being  bom  Historical  Society,"  Vol  VI: — 

leaders  of  men,  but  having  little  else  in  common.  StaHsHcs  for  America  (from  'The  Moravian,"  13 

Little  by  little  Wesley  beaime  estranged  from  the  March,  1907). — On  the  1st  of  January,  1907,  there 

Brethren,  and  his  former  friendship  turned  to  open  were  in  the  nve  northern  districts  of  America  96  con- 


hostility  (12  November,  1741.  according  to^Wesley's    gregations  with  13^59  communicants,  1,194  noncom- 
jouxnal}.    At  a  meeting  in  Fett 


etter  Lane  Wesley  ac-    municants,  and  5|316  children;  a  total  membership 


B0HXMIAH8  620  MBOXUatB 

of  20,369;  an  inoreade  of  228  over  the  previous  year,  ond  of  these  Bohemian  emigrants,  Filip,  or  Phi. 

In  Simday  schools  there  were  9,666  pupus  under  1,156  lipps  as  he  is  commonly  known,  was  Hkewise  a  man 

officers  and  teachers,  a  total  membership  of  10,822,  oi  prominence  and  his  descendants  played  no  8m«U 

Effainst  II2PI2  in  the  preceding  year,  implying  a  loss  part  in  the  development  of  New  ^ansterdaoL    He 

of  187. — ^Keceipts  from  all  som^ies:  31   December,  was  bmied  in  the  cemeteanr  of  ^eepy  Hollow,  near 

1906,  $145,517.67;  a  decrease  of  $8,006.19  on  1905.  Tarrytown,  New  York.  Though  historical  proof  is 
Expenses  exactly  balance  receipts.  In  the  Southern  lacking,  without  doubt  many  other  Bohenuans,  of 
Province  of  America  there  were  on  the  1st  of  January,  similar  religious  convictions,  emigrated  to  this  coun- 

1907,  3,703  communicants,  320  non-communicants,  tyy  at  the  same  time.  Their  families  either  died  out, 
1,819  children;  total,  5,842.  Sunday  schools  containea  or,  as  is  m<»e  probable,  were  entirely  assimilated  t^ 
3.883  pupils,  323  officers  and  teachers;  total,  4,206. —  the  American  people  so  that  they  have  left  no  trace. 
Total  membership  in  both  provinces:  26,211  against  Of  late  3rears  emigration  from  Bohemia  has  been 
25,877  in  1906 — an  increase  of  334.  chiefly  caused  by  political  conditions.     Many  Bobe- 

in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  the  Moravian  Church  mian  patriots,  especially  during  the  stormy  year  of 

numbered  on  the  31st  of  December,  1906,  41  congre-  1848,  sought  refuge  beyond  the  fea  to  evade  the 

gations,  with  a  total  membership  of  6,343;  an  increase  consequences  of  patriotic  zeal,  as  the  courts  showed 

of  211  on  1905:  5,072  pupils  attended  Sunday  schools,  littie  mercy  to  those  accused  of  political  crimes.    A 

with  568  ^teacners;  there  were  also  213  pupUs.  with  similar  state  of  affairs  existed  l&ter  on  when  the  reins 

5  teachers,  in  5  day  schools,  and  305  scholars,  with  of  the  Austrian  Government  passed^  into  the  hands 

38  teadiers,  in  5  boarding  schools.  of  the  enemies  of  Bohemia,  who  punished  every 

The  Oerman  Province,  31  December,  1905,  had  25  patriotic  act  as  high   treason  to  Austria.    These 

congregations,  with  total  membership  of  7,958,  of  political  conditions,  coupled  with  the  Austro-Prussian 

whom    5,795   were  communicants;    50    nussionary  war  of  1866,  in  which  Bohemia  suffered  great  Ion  of 

centres  mmistered   to   about  70,()00  persons   (the  life  and  property,  forced  manv  to  seek  their  fortunes 

"Diaspora").  h^  the  land  of  freedom.    The  greater  number  of 

The  Mission  Fidda  of  the  Moravians:  In  North  emigrants,  however,  came  to  this  country  on  account 

America,  Labrador,  begun  1771  j  Alaska,  1885;  Cali-  of  poverty,  brought  on,  for  the  most  part,  by  the 

fomia,  1890. — ^In  Cent^  Amenca,  Mosquito  Coast,  failure  of  the  Government  to  interest  itaeA  in  the 

1849. — ^In  South  America,  Surinam,  1735,  Demerara,  welfare  of  certain  parts  of  Bohemia,  especially  the 

1878. — ^In  the  West  Indies,  Jamaica,  1754 ;  St.  Thomas,  southern  and  eastern  parts,  where,  for  lack  of  industay, 

1732,  St.  Jan,  1754:  St.  Croix,  1740;  Antigua,  1756;  the  people  were  forced  to  depend  for  their  livelihood, 

St.   IQtts,  1777;   Barbadoes,   1765:  Tobago,   1790:  almost  exclusively,  on  the  fruits  of  the  fields.    This 

Trinidad,  1890. — ^In  Africa,  Cape  Colony,  East  ana  poverty  was  increased  by  overtaxation  and  frequent 

West,  1736;  German  East  Africa,  1891. — In  Asia,  lailures  of  crops.    It  was  preciselv  these  parts  of 

West   Himalaya,    1853;    Jerusalem,   Leper   House,  Bohemia  that  sent  thousands  of  tneir  best  citizens 

1867. — In  Australia,  Victoria,  1849;  North  Queens-  to  America  about  1870,  and  are  sending  a  still  greater 

land.  1891.   The  work  is  carried  on  by  470  missionaries  number  at  the  present  time. 

of  whom  76  are  natives.    Bohemia  and  Moravia  are       It  will  be  impossible  to  ^ive  the  exact  number  of 

also  counted  among  the  mission  fields.    The  mission  Bohemian  immigrants  to  uie  United  States,  as  the 

work  there,  like  that  of  the  foreign  missions,  is  a  joint  Immigration  Bureau  up  to  the  year  1881  enrolled 

undertaking  of  all  the  Provinces  of  the  Church.    In  all  immigrants   that  came  from  any  province  of 

December,  1905,  the  total  membership  was  984;  in-  Austria  as  Austrians.  and  even  aft^  1881,  man^ 

come  (of  which  £111  was  from  the  British  Province),  Bohemians  were  listea  as  Austrians.    As  later  immi- 

£1761, 16/4;  outlay,  £1,991, 10/9.  gration  reports  in  which  Bohemians  were  entered 

CAMBKAaros,  Hutorica  narratio  de  Fratrum  orthodoxorum  separately  show  that  one-thlrd  of  all  immigrants 

A  HxHoiy  of  the  Moravian  Church,  or  the  Unitae  Fratrum  (Beth-  of  Bohemians  who  came  tO  this  country  before  1881 

Ij^em.  Pft.,  1000):  Waubr,  The  Beginningeof  the  BreOtren'e  may  be  estimated  approximately.    It  must  be  stated, 

^'d^  SlSc^o^^^,'rT^''irZ'^^'^J^  however,  that  after  1881  many  mimijsnmto  f««n 

in  America):  The  Moravian  3f ewenaer.— See  also  BiUiography  Moravia  and  Silesia,  Austrian  provmces  m  which  the 

prefixed  to  Scbwknits,  Uittory  of  iha  Uniiaa  Fntrusn,  Bohemian  language  is  spoken,  were  enrolled  as  Bohe- 

J.  WiLHELM.  mians.    Taking  all  these  facts  into  oonaderation, 

Bohemians   of    the    United   States,   Thb. — ^A  it  is  safe  to  give  the  number  of  foreign  bom  Bohe- 

traveUer  who  has  seen  the  natural  beauties  of  Bo-  mians  in  the  united  States  as  222^000.    The  number 

hemia,  its  vast  resources,  and  the  thrift  of  its  people,  of    American-bom    Bohemians  is   about   310,000. 

will,  no  doubt,  be  surprised  at  the  comparatively  making  the  total  Bohemian  population  of  the  United 

ffreat  number  of  persons  who  have  emigrated  to  the  States  about  522,000.    It  is  worthy  of  note  that  these 

United  States  of  America.  The  causes  for  this  are  figures  are  almost  equally  divic(ed  betwe^i  males 
political,  religious,  and  economical.    Religious  dis- '  and  females,  which  shows  that  the  Bohemian  immi- 

sensions  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeentn  craitury  grants  have  come  to  this  country  to  stay.    Statistics 

induced  many  to  leave  their  native  countr]^  and  even  prove  that  only  a  very  small  number  of  Bohemians 

to  cross  the  ocean.    The  religious  revolution  stirred  return  to  their  native  country  to  live.  .  In  1906, 

up  by  the  preachings  and  tead^gs  of  John   Hus  12,958  Bohemian  immigrants  were  received,  edipsing 

gave  birth  to  several  religiom^Jp  in  Bohemia,  the  the  record  of  all  previous  3rears.    Tl^  latest  report 

suppression  of  which,   after  4v  battle  of  White  of  the  Commissioner  of  Immigration  shows  only  two 

Mountain  near  Prague  (1620),  caused  many  to  emi-  per  cent  of  Bohemian  immigrants  illiterate,  as  com- 

ffrate  to  other  countries  and  several  even  as  far  as  pared  with  four  per  cent  of  Germans  and  still  hi^^ier 

America.    Of  the  latter  August^  Hefman  (d.  1692)  proportions  for  other  nations.    The  following  table 

and  Frederick  Filip  (d.  1702)  are  the  most  important  ^ves  the  approximate  Bohemian  population  acoord- 

from  an  historical  standpoint.    Hehnan  must  have  ing  to  states: — 

bera  a  man  of  good  education,  for  Governor  Stuy-  Number  of      Foragn 

vefsant,  of  New  Ainsterdam,  entrusted  him  with  many  ^  BohemianB        bom 

important  missions.    He  made  the  first  map  of  the  Illinois  115,000        40,000 

State  of  Maryland,  of  which  one  copy  is  still  preserved  New  York 45,000        17,700 

in  the  British  Museum  and  anotner  at  Richmond,  Ohio •    •    .    43,000        16,200 

in  the  archives  of  the  State  of  Virginia.    Hefman  Maryland     ••••..•..    11,000 

always  puUidy  proferaed  his  nationaUty.    The  (>ec-  Nebraska     .••.•••.    60,000        18,000 


^     \ 


B0HSMUH8                             621  BOfiiBMIANS 

* 

Ninnber  of    Formga  mians.     The  strongest  of  these  is  the  Bohemiaii 

^        .                                          Bohemians       bom  Slavic  Benevolent  Sodetv  (Ce«fe>^i<wafwikd  Podpom- 

WiBConsm 43,000        14,900  jid  Spolecnod),   established  at  St.  Louis  in  1864. 

Minnesota 36,000        12,500  which  has  a  memberahip  of  about    15,000.    11118 

Texas 40,000        12,000  organization  is  chiefly  responsible  for  the  loss  of 

^^^ 35,000        10,800  faith  amongst  many  Bohemians  of  this  country, 

5P*^.  •    •    • P*999  having  enticed  thousands  of  well-meaning  peoi^e  to 

Jjjssoun  ;  ^.    .    .   , :^»XxS  jo^  i*«  ranks  under  the  pret^t  of  strict  neutrality 

North  and  South  Dakota    .    .    .     15,000  Jn    religious   matters.    By    association    with   free- 

Micnigan 2'\5a  thinkers,  and  under  other  evil  influences,  thousands 

renn^lvania ' 'XxS  P*^  lukewarm  in  the  performance  of  their  reh'gious 

New  Jersey 6,000  duties  and  finally  lost  their  faith  entirely.    ThS  op- 

Massachusetts yfSSt  ganization  is  atheistic  in  spirit  and  propagates  athe- 

^™"^^ o  inn  **°^  amongst  its  members.     A  similar  tendency  iff 

Califomia ?'i99  exercised  by  the  gynmastic  or  athletic  societies  com- 

i^rado }»300  monly  called  the  Sokol  (tuipers);  by  the  Western 

Jj^diai^. 1»800  Benevolent  Society  (Zdvdni  Ceskd  Bratrakd  Jednota), 

Connecticut 1,300  which  has  a  membership  of  about  7,000;  by  the 

Arkan^ ^'999  Society  of  Bohemian  Ladies  (Jednota  Ceskych  Dam), 

Other  States 5,000  with  a  membership  of  about  15,000,  as  well  as 

Of  the  larger  cities  Chicago  has  a  Bohemian  popula-  several  minor  organizations  of  the  same  type, 

tion  of  about  100,000;  New  York,  40,000;  Cleveland,  Schools. — ^Wherever  it  is  possible  Bohemian  Cath- 

40flOO;  Baltimore,  8,500;  Omaha,  8,000;  Milwaukee,  olics  endeavour  to  build  a  school.     Love  of  their 

5,500^  St.  Paul,  6,000;  and  St.  Louis,  8,000.  faith  as  well  as  love  of  their  native  .ton^e  impels 

It  IS  in  the  farming  districts  that  the  Bohemian  them  to  send  their  children  to  these  schools,  it  being 

inunigrants  have  attained  the  greatest  d^ree  of  the  desire  of  Bohemian  parents  that  their  children 

success.    It  is  here  that  we  3an  Mst  see  the  great  learn  at  least  to  read  and  write  the  language  of  their 

^lare  they  had  in  building  up  the  United  S&tes.  parents.    Experience  shows  that  without  such  schools 

Coming  for  the  most  part  from  rural  districts,  accus-  children  are  soon  estranged  to  the  langua^  and  lose 

tomed  to  hard  labour,  and  ever  willing  to  undergo  many  of  the  good  characteristics  of  their  parents, 

the  hardships  of  pioneer  life,  the  Bohemians  have  The  number  of  Bohemian  Catholic  parochial  schools 

attained  an  honouraUe  place  amongst  the  Western  in  this  coimtry  is  seventy-five,  with  a  total  attendance 

farmers.    There  is  a  saying  amongst  the  Western  of  about  14,000.    There  is  also  an  institution  of 

farmers  that  if  anyone  can  wrest  crops  from  the  soil,  higher  education,  St.  Procopius  CoU^  at  Lisle.  Illi-> 

it  is  the  Bohemian  farmer.    About  naif  of  the  Bo-  nois,  founded  and  conducted  by  the  Sohemian  Bene- 

hemian  immigrants  have  cast  their  lot  with  farming  dictine  Order.    The  object  of  this  institution  is  not 

communities.  only  to  train  candidates  for  the  priesthood,  but  to 

SodBTiES. — ^Amongst  the  ^-eat  number  of  Bohe-  give  young  men  in  general  such  an  education  as  to 

mians  in  this  country,  there  is  no  one  organization  enable  them  to  become  leaders  of  their  people  in  the 

uniting  them  into  one  national  body.    This  may  be  various  walks  of  life. 

exjdained  by  the  fact  that  they  are  divided  into  two  Press. — ^The  first,  and  for  a  long  time  the  only,  Bo- 
stron^y  antagonistic  camps:  Catholics  and  athebts  hemian  Catholic  newspaper  published  in  the  United 
or  free-thinkers.  The  latter  are  chiefly  those  who  States,  was  the  "Hlas"  (Voice)  of  St.  Louis,  pub- 
have  apostatized  from  the  faith  of  their  fathers,  lished  semi-weekly.  After  its  establishment  in  1873 
Only  an  insignificant  percentage  of  Bohemians  are  ad-  it  was  edited  and  managed  for  many  years  by  its 
herents  of  Irotestant  sects,  though  Protestants  have  venerable  founder,  Monsignor  Joseph  Bfessoun,  pas- 
expended  great  labour  and  large  sums  in  proselytiz-  tor  of  St.  John's  Church,  St.  Louis,  who  save  it  a 
ing  amon^  the  Bohemians.  The  two  camps  are  special  prestige  among  the  Bohemian  Cathoucs  of  the 
eirtirely  separate,  each  with  its  own  fraternal  or-  United  States.    In  the  year  1890  the  "PJfftel  Dftek" 


RinukO'Katolickd  Ustredni  Jednota)  j  founded  in  1877  CThe  Catholic)  was  founded,  published  twice  a  week, 
at  St.  Louis,  has  a  membership  of  11,505;  the  Catholic  and  by  far  the  best  periodical  in  the  Bohemian  Ian- 
Workman  (Katolicky  D&nik),  founded  in  1891, 3,225;  guage  in  this  country.  The  "Katolfk"  was  followed 
the  Bohemian  Roman  Catholic  Central  Union  of  Uie  by  the  daily  "NArod"  (Nation)  and  the  "Hospoddr- 
State  of  Wisconsin  (ceskd  Rimsko-Katolickd  Os-  sk6  Listy"  (Agricultural  News),  established  in  1898, 
^edni  Jedfwta  ve  Stdtu  Wisconsin)  founded  in  1888,  which  appears  twice  a  month.  All  of  these  papers 
ly380;  the  Bohemian  Catholic  Union  of  the  State  of  are  puUisned  by  the  Bohemian  Benedictine  Order  of 
Texafl  (KatoHckd  Jednota  Texaskd),  founded  in  1889,  Chicago.  In  addition,  there  are  the  following  Bo-^ 
1,900;  <to  Western  Bohemian  Catholic  Union  (Zd-  hemian  Catholic  papers:  "Novy  Domov"  (The  New 


founded  in  1899,  1,800;  the  Bohemisji  Catholic  Cen-  by  the  Redemptorist  Fathers  of  New  York  once  a 
tnX  Union  of  American  Women  (Ustredni  Jednota  month.  All  of  these  puUications  are  doing  inesti- 
Zen  Americkych)  established  in  1880.  14,100;  the  mable  service  in  the  cause  of  religion. 
Bohemiaii  Catholic  Union  of  Women  of  The  State  of  The  freethinking  press  is  no  less  powerful.  Four  Bo- 
Texas  {Ceskd  Rhnsko-KatoUckA  Jednota  Zen  ve  Stdtu  hemian  dailies  are  ex  professo  hostile  to  religion,  while 
Texas)  likewise  a  large  membership.  All  these  or-  two  others,  though  posing  as  neutral  and  independent 
ganlsations  are  thoroughly  Catholic  in  spirit,  and  not  papers,  are  in  reality  anti-religious  in  their  e^rmpa^ 
only  practise  benevolence  and  charity  towards  their  thies  and  tendencies.  Three  Bohemian  dailies  are 
members,  but  have  been  the  right  hand  of  the  clergy  published  in  Chicago,  two  in  New  York,  and  two  in 
in  building  Catholic  churches  and  schools  and  in  foster-  Oeveland.  There  are  in  addition  four  bi-weekliei^ 
ing  the  spirit  of  religion  amongst  their  countrymen,  ten  weeklies,  and  several  smaller  publications. 

Opposed  to  these  Catholic  organizations  are  the  Communities  and  Churches. — ^There  are  three  Bo- 
fraternal  oiganizations  of    the   freethinking  Bohe-  hemian  religious  communities  in  the  United  States 


BOUITO  622  BOZ&BDO 

TttefintUuloldeet,  the  Bohemian  Benedictine  Order    not  onlv  encouraged  them  to  peraeveranoe  by  Ui 
of  Chicago  was  founded  in  1887  by  the  Right  Rev.     editoriHls  in  the  '^ilaa",  but  he  often  sacrificed  hit 
last  cent  to  aesiHt  in  the  building  of  Catholic  churches 


Bcotty,  Pennsvlvania.     This  apostolic  man,  pereeiv-     Furthermore,  he  did  everything  that  lay  in  hie  powcf 
lug  the  great  dearth  of  priests  among  the  Bohenuans     to  procure  priests  for  his  people.     Whenever  neces- 

in  the  United  9tat«s,  invited  Bohemian  young  men     aity  demanded  he  visitod  the  Bohemian  pariehee  witb- 


to  his  abbey,  educated  them  free  of  charge,  ana  fitted  out  Bohemian  pdeeta.     In  hia  old  age  he  v, 

them  for  exer<4BinB  the  ministry  amongst  their  own  versally  called  ndS  talic^k  (our  litUe  father).     Among 

oountiTmen.     At  nis  request  the  po^  eranted  per-  other  Bohennian  priests  who  have  laboured  with  un- 

for  the  establishment  of  an  independent  or  tiring  zeal  for  the  salvation  of  the  £ 


canonical  Bohemian  priory,  in  St.  Procopiua  Prioiy    «>untry  must  be  mentioned  the  Very  Rev.  William 
of  Chicago,  which  in  1894  was  raised  by  His  Hdi-    Coka,  Vicar-General  of  Omaha,  b,  at  Cernovir,  Ho- 
nevLeoXlII  to  the  dignity  of  an  abbey;  the  Right    ravia;  d.  1002;  the  R«v.  Father  Sul^.S.  J.,  of  C3ucago, 
Rev.  John  Nepomuk  Jsger,  0.  S.  B.,  was  elected  the     the  oldest  Bohemian  miasionary-  the  Right  Rev.  John 
fint  abbot.     The  Bohemian  Benedictine  Fathers  have     Nepomuk  Jsger,  Abbot  of  the  Bohemian  Benedictine 
ohai^  of  three  Bohemian  and  two  Slovak  congr^a-    Order  of  Chicago;  the  Rev.  Wcncealaus  Kocirafk, 
O.S,B,,  of  Chicago;  the  Rev.  John  Vrdnek  of  Omaha, 
a  Bohemian  poet  of  great  abiUCy  and  merit.     Above 
all  there  is  the  noble  pioneer  of  Bohemian  prieata 
on  the  soil  of   the  new  world,  the  saintly  John  Ne- 
pomuk Neuman,  fourth  Biahop  of  Philadelphia,  b.  at 
Prachatitz,  Bohemia,  1811;  d.  1860. 

The  Bohemians  all  over  the  woHd  are  renowned 
for  thdr  musical  gifts.     In   Bohemian  churchea  of 
thia  country  church  music  has  attained  a  hi^  dE^ree 
,  of  excellence,  especially  noticeable  by  the  oonio^a- 

tionalaingiogin  thelargerchurches.  NotafewBoEe- 
mian  priests  are  finished  muskoans.  The  feasts  of  the 
national  patrons,  those  of  St.  John  Nepomuk  and 
of  St.  Wenceelaus,  the  first  Christian  Pnnce  of  Bo- 
hemia, are  celebrated  with  special  pomp,  according 
to  the  usages  of  Bohemia.  Good  Friday  is  likewise 
Si.  FBocoFnra  CoLLBas.  Ijsli.  Illinois  observed  with  a  solemnity  unusual  in  tnis  countiy. 

The  Resurrection  of  Our  Lord  ia  celebrated  with  gte^t 
tiona  in  the  city  of  Chica^,  amongst  them  the  con-  pomp  in  the  evening  of  Holy  Saturday,  wboEver 
gregation   of  St.    Ptocopius,   the   mrgcst   Bohemian     posaible  in  the  open  air. 

panah  in  the  United  States,  with  a  membership  of  ,„?"r™''  "f  ^fisft^"  '•^'"ientim  into  At  U.  S..  ISt0-l9OS 
S:^ut  10,000.  .  The^  have  likewise  a  large  modern  S^^TfcmS-  (wlSbi.^r?  bIlS".  SSTSS^ 
prmting  plant  m  which  four  leading  Bohemian  Cath-  hm  ai  fit  SoiJm  in  Ckantia  (New  York,  1000);  BaD»r, 
olic  newspapers  are  printed.     Theorder  has  13  priests,     i^I^  Si"*"  ™%rW-  o*"*."  Spoj.  SUtiA  (St.'  I;^>, 

3d=ri»rj:vi«.,.'„<iioi.y-b™th™,  Th.^„nj  ]is:i|,r BftS&'t^.Ji^s^'te !« 

purely  Bohemian  rehgioua  commumty  la  that  of  the  Bouccf,  Jak  jt  v  Anthaf  (Onutu.  1906);  CArn,  PamOtk^ 

Bohemian  Benedictine  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart  e^ttiiA  mignnta  v  Am>ria  lOnaia^  19(^1.    ^, 

at  Chicago,  estabUshed  in  1894.    These  sisters  are  J""-  SInkkajeb. 

also  in  charge  of  St.  Joseph's  Orphanage  at  Lisle,  BoUno,  Diocese  or,  in  the  province  of  Beao- 

lUinota.      A  second    Bohemian    oiphanage  is  to  be  vento,  Italv,  sufTragan  to  the  ArcDbisbo|M{c  of  Bea»- 

eataUished  at  St.  Louis,  in  connexion  with  St.  John's  vento.     The   city,   situated  at   the   foot   of  Hont« 

church,  the  oldest  Bohemian  pariah  in  the  United  Matese,  occupies  the  site  of .  the  ancient  Roman 

Statea.    The  Bohemian  Benedictine  Sisters  have  at  colony  of  Bovianum,  or  Bobianum.     Cappelletti  has 

present  27  sisters,  7  novices,  and  1  candidate,  and  demonstrated  the  error  of  Ughelli  (Italia  Sacra  VIII, 

wach  in  several  Bohemian  schools.     Besides  these  241)  who  thought  he  recognized  a  bishop  of  this  see 

two  exclusively  Bohemian  religious  communities  we  in  a  certain  Laurentius  at  the  beginning  of  Uie  sizth 

have  the  Bohemian  Redempteriat  Fathers  of  New  century.     The  sec,   however,   is  decidedly  aucienU 

Yoik  and  Baltimore,  who  do  not,  however,  form  in-  Its  first  recorded  bishop  ia  Adalherto  (1071).    Othera 

dependent  communities,  but  are  directly  under  the  worthy   of   note   are:   Foliziaao    (1216)   who  conse- 

provincial  who  is  at  the  head  of  all  Redemptorist  crated  the  cathedral;  Giovanni  (1226), whodecoimted 

oommunitiee    belonging   to    the    Eastern    provinoe,  the  fagade  at  his  own  expense,  as  recorded  in  an  in- 

Th^  are  in  charge  of  the  church  of  Mary  Help,  New  scription-   Silvio   Pandou   (1489),  who  restored  the 

York  City,  wliich  has  four  Bohemian  priests,  and  of  worK  of  Giovanni;  Cardinals  Franciotto  Orsini  (1519) 

St.  WenceslauB  Church,  Baltimore,  which  has  three,  and  Carlo  Carafa  (1572),  who  adorned  the  catnedzv 

There  are  in  the  United  States  138  Bohemian  Cath-  with   costly  furnishings;   Celeetino   Bruni   (1653),    a 

olio  churches  with  resident  pastors  and  about   129  distinguished   theologian   and   [nvacher.      After  the 

nusBions;many  of  the  missions,  however,  are  attended  death  of  Bishop  Nicold  Roaetti   (electod  in  1774), 

from  churehea  of  different  nationalitiee.     The  num-  differences  between  the  Holy  See  and  tJie  court  of 

ber  of  Bohemian  pricstf  in  the  United  States  is  208;  Naples  prevented  the  appointment  of  a  suceessor 

S6  niinister  to  non-Bobemian  parishee,  30  of  them  to  until  1836,  when  Giuseppe  Riccardi  was  appointed. 

Slovak  congregations.  The  most  notable  sacr^   edifice  ia   the  cathsdrai, 

DianNOUtBHED  Representatives.— The  name  of  dedicated  to  St.   Bartholomew  the  Apostle.    TIm 

the  VeiT  Rev.  Monsignor  Joseph  Hessoun  (b.  1830;  diocese  has  a  population  of  90,300,  witb  33  paiiahea, 

d.  4  July,  1906),  lat«  pastor  of  the  church  of  St.  134   churahes  and  chapels,   173  secular  pnesta,    10 

John  Nepomnk,  St.  Louis,  is  held  in  grateful  re-  regulars,  and  62  seminaiiaas. 

niembrance  by  the  Bohemian  Catholic  people  of  the  „  CAPFELLsm  L.  chiae  d'luuu,  i^'^fSSSi  'S**''  ^'^  "*** 

United  States.     Bom  at  Vrcovic,  Bohemia;  he  came  »*"*►"""■  '<"''■  P«^  "*■  <P«™.  ^«"i-  „  „„__ 

to  the  United  States  in  186fi,  eleven  years  after  hU  ^-  ■""""'^ 

Ofdination,  and  up  te  his  death  worked  with  untiring  Bolatdo,    Hattbo    Hahia,    an    Itfdian    poet,    b. 

seal  among  his  people.    The  fniila  of  his  labours  about  1434,  at,  or  near,  Scandiano  (Reggio-Emi li»); 

wen  fdt  by  Bohemians  throughout  the  country.    He  d.  at  Reggio,  20  December,  1494.    The  son  of  Gio- 


BOIL 


623 


B0I8B 


yanni  d!  Feltrino  and  Lucia  Strozzi,  he  was  of  noble 

lineage,  ranking  as  Count  of  Scandiano,  with  seigni- 

orial  power  over  Arceto,  CajsalerandCi  Gesso,  and 

Torrioella.    Boiardo  was  an  ideal  t^pe  of  the  gifted 

and  accomplished  courtier  possessmg,  at  the  same 

time,  a  manly  heart  and  deep  humanistic  learning. 

Up  to  the  year  of  his  marriage  to  Taddea  Gonzaga, 

the  daughter  of  the  Count  of  Novellara  (1472),  he 

had  received  many  marks  of  favour  from  Borso 

d'Este,  Duke  of  Ferrara,  having  been  sent  to  meet 

Frederick  III  (1469),  and  afterwards  visiting  Pope 

Paul  II  (1471),  in  the  train  of  Borso.    In  1473  he 

joined  the  retinue  which  escorted  Eleonora  of  Aragon, 

the  dau^ter  of  Ferdinand  I,  to  meet  her  spouse, 

Ercole.  at  Ferrara.    Five  years  later  he  was  invested 

with  the  governorship  of  Kegp;io.  an  office  which  he 

filled  with  signal  success  till  his  aeath,  except  for  an 

interval  (1481-86)  during  which  he  was  governor  of 

Modena. 

His  ^reat  poem  of  chivalry  and  romance  "L'Or- 
lando    innamorato"    (Scandiano.    1495),   consisting 
ot  sixty-eight  cantos  and  a  half,  was  begun  about 
his  thirty-eighth  year,  interrupted  for  a  time  by  the 
Venetian  war,  then  resumed,  to  be  left  imfinished 
on   acooimt   of   the   author's   death.    To   material 
largely  auarried  from  the  Carlovingian  and  Arthurian 
cycles  tne  Count  of  Scandiano  added  a  gorgeous 
superstructure  of  his  own.    As  the  plot  is  not  woven 
aroimd  a  single  pivotal  action,  the  inextricable  maze 
of  most  cunmngly  contrived  episodes  must  be  linked, 
first,  with  the  quest  of  beautiful  Angelica  by  love- 
smitten  Orlando  and  the  other  enamoured  uii^hts, 
then  with  the  defence  of  Albracca  by  Angehca's 
father,  the  King  of  Cathay,  against  the  beleaguering 
Tartars,  and,  finally,  with  the  Moors'  siege  of  Paris 
and  their  struggle  with  Charlemagne's  army.    The 
whole,  in  spite  of  a  lack  of  finish  and  simdry  rhyth- 
mical deficiencies,  formed  a  magnificent  work  of  art, 
echoing  from  every  oUava  the  poet's  ardent  devotion 
to  Love  and  Loyalty,  shedding  warmth  and  sunshine 
wherever  the  lapse  of  ages  had  rendered  the  legends 
colourless   and   cold,   and   opening   a   path   which 
Ariosto  and  Tasso  were  soon  to  tread.    Still,  the 
poem,  after  sixteen  editions,  was  not  to  be  repub- 
lished for  nearly  three  centuries.    Francesco  Bemi's 
TitacimerUOf  or  re-casting  of  ^"  L'Orlando  "  appeared 
in  1542,  and  from  that  date* till  1830,  when  Panizzi 
revived  it,  Boiardo's  name  was  well-nigh  forgotten. 
A  similar  fate  had  befallen  the  count's    "Kime" 
(Scandiano,  1499),  which  Panizzi's  edition  (London, 
1835),  soiatched  from  oblivion.    In  his  youth  Boi- 
ardo had  been  a  successful  imitator  of  Petrarca's 
love  strains.    Evidence  of  his  more  severe  attain- 
ments is  furnished  in  an  ''Istoria  Imperiale",  some 
versions  from  Nepos,  Apuleius,  Herodotus,  Xenophon, 
etc.,   and  by  his  Latin  Eclogues.    A  comedy,  ''II 
Timone"    (1487?),   adds  little  to  his  credit.    See 
Bebni. 

8oL.Biin,  L»  Pottie  votgori  e  laHne  di  MatUo  MaHa  Boiardo 

(Boloc>u^    18M);  80UBRTI,  Orlando   Furioto  di   Ariotto,  ed. 

AjfTOMio  Panizzi  (London,  1830);  Fkrrari,  Campanimi,  amd 

OTHKRS,    Studi  9U  MoUeo   Maria  Boiardo   (Bologna,   1894); 

Tatpvrt,  BUder  tind  VerfAeiche  au9  dtm  Ortando  inrunnorato 

(Marburg,  1886);  Nkppi,  La  pluralith  degii  amori  caniati  dal 

Boiardo  ml  eanxonUret  in  Oiomale  tiorico  di  UU,  ltal»t  XLII, 

300-373 :    Razzoli,  Per  U  fonti  dell*  Orlando  innamorato  (Milan, 

1901).      XJoo  Fobcolo'b  views  on  the  poet  are  found  in  Q. 

lUnr.,  n.  62.  A27;  and  Lzioh  Hunt's  in  Storieefrom  Ae  Italian 

PoaU  (London.  1846).     Alsop  (New  York,  1806)  and  Robe 

(Edinburgh,  1823)  have  published  fracmentary  tranzlationB  of 

Berm's  recast. 

Edoardo  San  Giovanni. 

Boll»  Bernardo.    See  Buil,  Bbrnardo. 

Bollaan-DMiNr^aiiz,  Nicholas,  French  poet,  b. 
at  Paris.  1  November,  1636;  d.  there,  13  March, 
i711.  He  was  educated  at  the  college  of  Beauvais 
and  'WBB  at  first  destined  to  enter  the  Church,  but 
soon  abaiKloned  the  study  of  theology  and,  to  please 
him  fatlier,  prepared  himself  for  the  Bar.    Tnough 


admitted  as  counsellor-at-law  (December,  1656),  he 
never  practised  and  his  father  having  died  leaving 
him  enough  to  satisfy  his  wants,  he  devoted  himsS 
entirely  to  poetry.  He  was  then  twenly-one  years 
old.  Four  years  later  he  published  his  mat  satirical 
poem:  "Aoieux  d'un  poete  k  la  ville  de  Paris"; 
immediately  after  this  he  published  six  others: 
"Les  embarras  de  Paris",  "la  satire  k  Moliftre", 
"Le  repas  ridicule",  "La  noblesse",  and  two  others 
of  minor  importance.  In  these  satires  not  only  did 
Boileau  parodv  and  attack  such  writers  as  Cotin, 
Chapelain,  ana  Le  Voyer.  but  he  also  developed  the 
practical  capabilities  of  tne  French  language.  Prose, 
m  the  hands  of  such  writers  as  Descartes  and  Pascal, 
had  proved  itself  a  flexible  instrument  of  expression, 
while  with  the  exception  of  Malherbe,  there  had  been 
no  S3rstem  in  French  versification. 

Enfin  Malherbe  vint  et,  le  premier  en  France, 

Fit  sentir  dans  les  vers  \me  juste  cadence. 

Above  all,  these  satires  inaugurated  in  France  a 
systematic  literary  criticism  for  art's  sake,  where 
previously  criticism  had  been  nothjne  but  the  ex- 
pression of  envy  or  anger.  Indeed,  in  these  imitations 
of  Juvenal  and  Horace,  one  recognizes  a  judse  of 
his  own  masters,  who  judged  them  by  a  hieher 
standard  than  his  personal  tastes.  In  16G0  Boileau 
published  the  "Epistles",  more  serious  in  tone  and 
also  more  polishea  in  style.  In  1674  appeared  "Le 
lutrin"  which,  lighter  in  tone,  still  deserves  a  certain 
degree  of  admiration.  It  furnished  the  model  for 
the  "Rape  of  the  Lock",  but  the  English  poem  is 
superior  in  richness  and  imagination.  His  master- 
piece,  however,  and  that  of  the  didactic  school  in 
French,  was  without  doubt,  "L'art  po^tique". 
This  was  also  the  first  code  of  French  versification. 
It  comprises  four  books,  the  first  and  the  last  con- 
taining general  precepts;  the  second  treating  of  the 
pastoral,  the  el^y,  the  ode,  the  epigram,  and  the 
satire;  and  the  third  of  tragic  and  epic  poetry.  His 
later  publications  were  chiefly  poems  which  he  com- 
posed to  defend  himself  against  the  numerous  enemies 
his  satires  had  raised  up  asainst  him. 

The  end  of  Boileau's  li&  was  sad.  He  suffered  a 
great  deal  from  an  operation  which  he  imderwent 
while  young,  and  which,  together  with  deafness, 
obliged  him  to  retire  from  public  life  and  even  from 
the  society  of  his  friends.  The  death  of  Racine,  his 
very  best  friend  (1699),  affected  him  deeply  ana  his 
thoughts  turned  strongly  towards  religion.  He  was 
preparing  a  new  edition  of  his  worlS  when  death 
called  him  away.  He  holds  a  well-defined  place  in 
French  literature  as  the  first  to  introduce  a  regular 
system  into  its  method  of  versification. 

Desmaibeaux.  La  vie  de  Boileait-DeepriauT  (1712);  Alem- 
BERT,  Elope  de  Deapr£aux  (1779);  CwAvrtPit,  DicHonnetire, 
8.  V.  Boileau:  Qarnirr,  CEuiree  complHee  (I8(K)):  Fabre, 
Eloges  de  Boileau  Deepriaux  (1805);  Portxen,  Eaeat  $%tr  Boi- 
leau Deepriaux  (1805) 

M.  DE  MOREIRA. 

Boise,  Diocese  op  (Xylopolitana)^  created  by  Leo 
XIII,  25  August,  1893,  embraces  the  whole  State  of 
Idaho,  U.  S.  A.,  an  area  of  84,290  square  miles.  In 
1842  a  mission  was  started  among  the  Coeur  d'Al^e 
Indians  (whom  Father  De  Smet,  S.J.,  had  recently 
visited)  by  Father  Nicholas  Point,  S.J.,  and  Brother 
Charles  Huet,  S.J.  Father  Joset  followed  next. 
The  first  Catholic  church  in  Idaho  was  built  sixteen 
miles  from  Coeur  d'Altoe  Lake  by  the  Jesuit  Fathers 
Qazzoli  and  Ravalli,  aided  by  the  red  men.  ,  In  its 
construction  wooden  pegs  were  used  instead  of  nails. 
In  1863,  the  pioneer  secular  priests,  the  Rev.  Tous- 
Mdnt  M^li^,  a  Frenchman,  and  the  Rev.  A.  Z.  Pou- 
lin,  a  Canadian,  were  successively  sent  to  the  placer 
miners  of  Bois^  Basin  bv  Archbishop  F.  N.  Blanchet, 
first  administrator  of  Idaho  Territory.  Within  six 
months  they  built  the  first  churches  erected  for 
white  people  in  Idaho  City,  Placerville,  Centerville, 
and  Pioneer;  and  later,  a  school  at  Idaho  Qty,  of 


BOIBOUJN  624  SOnWlfTW 

wh!ch  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Names,  from  Portlandi  firmness,  great  ascendancy,  wisdom,  and  generosity, 
Oregon,  took  charge.  Father  J.  M.  Cataldo,  S.J.,  proved  its  saviour.  The  mob  had  pillaged  the  pubuc 
made  misuccessful  advances  to  the  Nez  Perc^  in  granaries,  and  had  answered  bv  insults  the  summons 
1867.  Recalled  by  them  in  1872,  he  soon  baptized  of  authority;  Boisgelin  assembled  the  ma^strates, 
three  hundred  'of  these  fierce  warriors.  In  1876,  chief  citizens,  and  merchants,  dispelled  their  fears, 
Father  Gazzoli  drew  many  to  the  Faith  by  his  re-  and  prevailed  upon  these  men  to  procuj^  for  Aix  an 
markable  medical  skill.  Interrupted  by  the  Nez  abimdant  supplv  of  grain,  towaras  the  payment  of 
Py^n^  war  (1877),  the  work  has  since  been  success-  which  he  contributed  one  himdred  thousand  livres. 
fully  carried  on,  Archbisho|)  Seghers'  visits  in  1879-  He  issued  a  pastoral  letter  to  his  clergy,  asking  them 
63  having  given  it  a  new  impetus.  The  Holy  See,  to  urge  the  people  to  restore  to  the  granaries  the 
3  March,  1868,  established  Idaho  as  a  vicariate  grain  they  had  carried  awav.  Where  law  had  failed, 
Apostolic  and  placed  it  in  charge  of  the  Right  Rev.  religion  and  pietv  tritunphed.  The  people  obeyed 
Louis  Lootens  who  was  consecrated  Titular  Bishop  and,  flocking  to  tne  cathedral,  expressed  m  touching 
of  Castabala,  at  San  Francisco,  9  August,  1868.  terms  their  gratitude  to  the  archbishop  who  was  so 
Bom  in  Bruges,  Belgium,  17  March,  1827,  he  emi-  absolutely  devoted  to  their  welfare, 
grated  to  Victoria  in  1852,  and  spent  nine  years  as  a  Boisgelin  was  elected  to  represent  the  higher 
missionarv  in  Vancouver  Island  and  six  in  Call-  clergy  of  his  province  at  the  States-General,  1789. 
fomia.  The  new  vicar  Apostolic  reached  Idaho  In  tnat  famous  assembly  his  practical  political 
in  January,  1869,  and  took  up  his  abode  at  Granite  wisdom  and  moderation  appeared  on  many  occasions* 
Creek.  In  1870  the  first  Catholic  church  was  he  voted,  in  the  name  of  tne  clei^,  for  the  union  of 
erected  in  the  capital  by  Fathers  Mespli^  and  Poulin,  the  three  orders,  the  abolition  of  feudal  rights,  and 
on  a  site  donated  by  John  A.  OTarrell,  Col.  A.  St.  offered  400,000  livres  to  the  public  treasury;  but  he 
Clsir,  commander  of  Fort  Bois^,  being  the  priests'  opposed  the  abolition  of  tithes  and  the  confiscation 
main  helper  in  this  laborious  work.  It  was  scarcely  of  church  property.  His  political  saeacity  and 
dedicated,  however,  when  it  was  burned  down.-  eloauence  made  him  the  recognized  leader  and 
Bishop  Lootens  resigned  16  July,  1875,  and  died  spokesman  of  thirty  bishops,  his  colleagues  in  the 
13  January,  1898.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  second  assembly.  He  spoke  the  language  of  Bberty  and 
vicar  Apostolic,  the  Right  Rev.  Alphonsus  Joseph  that  of  religion  with  equal  eloquence;  he  would  have 
Glorieux,  consecrated  at  Baltimore,  Maryland,  every  citizen  share  in  the  establishment  and  main- 
titular  Bishop  of  Apollonia,  19  April,  1885.  He  tenance  of  the  government,  with  his  political  rights 
found  in  his  territory  about  2,500  Catholics  with  as  indestructible  as  his  natural  ana  civic  rights, 
ten  churches  attended  by  two  secular  and  several  The  majority  of  the  assembly  voted  fpr  the  civil 
Jesuit  priests.  When  Boise  was  made  an  episcopal  constitution,  a  constitution  subversive  of  the  govern- 
see  he  was  transferred  thither  as  its  first  bishop,  26  ment  of  the  Church,  and  of  its  discipline,  a  constitu- 
August,  1893.  tion  that  denied  the  supreme  jurisdiction  of  the  pope. 

The  diocese  has  fifty-four  churches  and  chapels,  subjected  ecclesiastics  to  the  civil  power,  and  decreed 

34  priests,  7  academies,  and  5  parochial  schools,  with  that  all  the  members  of  the  clergy,  beginning  with 

950  pupils;  2  industrial  and  reform  schools  with  150  those  in  the  assembly,  should  take  the  oath  of  alle- 

inmates;  3  hospitals  and  a  Catholic  population  of  giance  to  the  constitution,  under  penalty  of  exile 

about  15,000,  mostly  of  Irish  and  uerman  i^acial  and  the  forfeiture  of  their  salaries.    This  lejgislation 

affiliations,  a  sprinlding  of  Canadians,  and  4,000  placed  the  clergy  between  two  evils,  schism  and 

Indians.    On  11  November,  1906,  the  comer-stone  dishonour  on  one  side,  dire  poverty,  exile,  if  not  death, 

of  a  fine  cathedral  was  laid  near  the  new  episcopal  on  the  otlier.    Boldly  and  firmly  Boisgelin  rose  to 

residence.    Among   the    pioneer    priests    wno    did  champion  the  cause  of  the  Church:  ''Let  the  law'', 

splendid  msssionary  work  nere  were  Fathers  L.  Ver-  he  exclaimed  in  the  assembly,  "  leave  us  our  honour 

haag,  £.  Nattini,  F.  Hartleib,  W.  Hendrickx,  and  C.  and  liberty;  take  back  your  salaries."    It  was  he 

Van  der  Donckt,  the  last  being  the  first  priest  or-  who  wrote  the  famous  •Exposition  of  Principles", 

dained  for  Idaho  in  1887,  and  stationed  at  Pocatello  signed  by  all  except  four  of^the  bishops  of  France, 

since  June,   1888.    ■  The   academies  and  parochial  condemning  the  Civil  Constitution  ol  the  Clergy; 

schools  are  conducted  respectively  by  the  Sisters  of  it  was  he  who  in  the  name  of  his  colleagues  corres- 

the  Holy  Cross,  of  St.  Joseph,  of  the  Visitation,  of  ponded  during  two  years  with  Rome,  1^  who  in  a 

Charity,  of  Providence,  of  St.  Benedict,  and  of  the  etter,  dated  3  Ma^,  1791,  proposed  to  the  bishops  to 

Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary.  lay  their  resignations  at  the  feet  of  Plus   Vi;  in 

\ AN  prnDoKCKT,  The  Founder$  of  the  Church  in  ld(^  1801  he  effectively  made  to  Pius  VII  the  sacrifice 

the  Eccles.  Revuw,  XXXll,  Nos.  1,2.3;  Shea.  Htst.Cath.  Ch.  x  on/»pnf#»H  hv  Piiia  VT       WVi^n  rtArRM>iifmnfl  Hmv» 

in  U,  8.  (New  York,  1894);  Reuss,  Biographical  Encycl,  of  the  ??^  acceptea  Dy  nus  VI.      WUen  persecutions  Orove 

Caih,  Hierarchy  (Milwaukee.  Wisconain).  him  out  of  France  he  went  to  England.    In  his 

C.  Van  der  Donckt.  answer  to  a  letter  from  Edmund  Burke  in  which 

the  orator  expressed  his  admiration  for  the  spirit 
Boisgelin,  Jean  de  Dieu-Ratmond  de  Cuci:  nE,  of  disinterestedness  and  dignity  of  character  of  the 
French  prelate  and  cardinal,  b.  of  an  ancient  family  at  French  episcopacy,  he  complains  that  he  is  exp>eUed 
R4mnes  in  Brittany,  27  February,  1732;  d.  22  August,  from  France  m  the.  name  of  that  liberty  he  had  in 
1804.  Destined  from  his  early  youth  to  the  ecclesias-  perfect  faith  contributed  to  establish,  and  under 
tical  state,  he  achieved  remarkable  success  in  his  whose  protection  he  hoped  to  end  Yds  days, 
studies.  The  death  of  his  elder  brother  made  him  Boisgelin  returned  to  France  when  Napoleon 
the  head  of  his  family,  but,  giving  up  his  birthright,  restored  peace  to  the  Church  and  to  France  by  his 
he  consecrated  his  life  to  the  Church.  First  made  Concordat,  15  July,  1801.  In  1802,  he  was  raised 
Vicar-General  of  Pontoise,  he  was  in  1766  raised  to  to  the  archiepiscopal  See  of  Tours  and  soon  after 
the  Bishopric  of  Lavaur,  and  in  1770  to  the  archiepis-  created  cardmal.  Boisgelin  who  had  displayed 
copal  See  of  Aix  in  Provence.  In  this  last  position  administrative  qualities  of  a  high  order  at  Aik,  was 
he  won  for  himself  the  name  of  skilful  administrator  no  less  remarkable  for  his  literary  and  oratorical 
and  princely  benefactor.  Provence  owes  to  him  the  talents.  Simplicity,  grace,  and  pathos  chamcteriie 
digging  of  a  canal  bearing  his  name,  several  works  his  eloquence.  In  1776  hie  was  chosen  member  of 
of  public  utility,  such  as  a  bridge  at  Lavaur  and  the  French  Academy.  His  works  include:  "Collec* 
educational  institutions  for  poor  children.  When  tion  de  diverses  pieces  en  vers"  (1783);  "L'art  de 
in  a  time  of  scarcitv  and  of  political  ferment,  at  the  juger  d'aprds  I'analogie  des  id6es"  (1789);  "Con- 
outset  of  the  French  Revolution,  Aix  was  threatened  sid^rations  sur  la  paix  publique  adresste  aux  chefii 
with  violence  and  famine,  the  archbishop  by  his  de  la  Revolution"  (1791);  "Ezpositicm  des  prindnes 


B0I8IL  625  vBOKENHAM 

BUT  la  constitutioD  du  clerg^ ''  (1791); '' Le  Fsalmiste,  applied  with  all  possible  rigour  in  the  hope  of  ex- 

tradaciion  des  Psaumes  en  vers"  (1799);  "  Traduo-  tirpating  the  ancient  Faith.     Catholic  priests,  how- 

tion  des  H^oldes  d'Ovide  "  (1784).     His  oomplete  ever,  continued  secretly  their  niinistry  of  preaching 

works  appeared  in  Paris,  1818.  and  their  administration  of  the  sacraments,  while  their 

Db  Baussvt.   Notice  hutarique  «ur  Boiegdin  in  Biographie  flocks    met   with    invincible    patience   the   storm   of 

miKTMlU     (Paris.     1812)5     RoHitBAGHWt.     HiaUrire    vniveraeUe  r>*»rflPMifinn       Th#»  rlinnPRP   hpoAtnP  n.  mmnlp   misainn 

<k  VSglise  catholique  (Pam,  1874);  Sicard.  Uancien  dttrgi  de  persecuwon.     me  aiocese  Decame  a  Simple  mission, 

France,  awtru  et  pendant  la  Revolritwn  (Paria,  1902);  Di  Fellhr.  governed  by  a  vicar-Apostolic,  nearly  -always,  how- 

Biogfaphie  unweraeUe  (Paris,   1847);  OuBRiN,   Didwnnaire  dee  ever,  a  titular  bishop. 

dictumnairee  (Paria.  1802).  t    ir  Tv/r   r.  ^  Bois-le-Duc  was  administered  m  this  fashion  until 

1..  u.  M.  uuMONT.  jg53     Napoleon  had  tried  (1810)  to  create  another 

Boisil,  Saint,  superior  of  Melrose  Abbey,  d.  664.  diocese  under  that  name,  inclusive  of  the  territory 

Almost  all  that  is  known  of  St.  Boisil  is  learnt  from  known  as  Bouches  du  Rhine,  and  had  even  obtained 

Bede  (Eccles.  Hist.,  IV,  xxvii,  and  Vita  Cuthberti).  a  titular  for  the  new  see  m  the  person  of  the  imperial 

He  derived  his  information  from  Sigfrid,  a  monk  of  courtier,  Monsignor  Van  Camp,  but  the  latter  was 

Jarrow,  who  had  previously  been  trained  by  Boisil  at  despised  by  all  good  Catholics,  and  the  arbitrary  act 

Melrose.    St.  Boisil's  fame  is  mainly  due  to  his  con-  of  the  emperor  was  doomed  to  failure.     A  similar 

nexion  with  his  great  pupil,  St.  Cuthbert,  but  it  is  failure    awaited    the    attempt,    authorized    by    the 

plain  that  the   master  was  worthy  of  the  disciple.  Concordat  of  27  August,  1827,  to  divide  all  Holland 

Contemporaries  were  deeply  impressed  with  Boisil's  into  two  large  dioceses,  Amsterdam  and  Bois-le-Duc. 

supernatural  intuitions.     When  Cuthbert  presented  The  ancient  see  was  finally  revived  by  Pius  IX  on 

himself  at  Mebose,  Boisil  exclaimed  **  Behold  a  serv-  the  occasion  of  the  restoration  of  the  hierarchy  in  Hol- 

ant  of  the  Lord  ",  and  he  obtained  leave  from  Abbot  land,  where,  since  1848,  the  revised  constitution  has 

Eata  to  receive  him  into  the  community  at  once,  assured  to  Catholics  full  political  and  religious  liberty. 

When  in  the  great  pestilence  of  664  Cuthbert  was  Together  with  three  other  Dutch  sees,  Bois-le-Duc 

stricken  down,   Boisil   declared  he   would  certainly  ^as  re-established  by  the  pontifical  Brief  of  4  March, 

recover.     Somewhat  later  Boisil  himself,  as  he  had  i853,  and  with  its  former  limits;  all  four  sees  were 

foretold  three  years  before,  fell  a  victim  to  this  terrible  niade  sufifragan  to  Utrecht.     The  Right  Rev.  Jan 

epidemic,  but  before  the  end  came  he  predicted  that  Zwysen,  a  native  of  the  diocese  and  it«  most  illustri- 

Cuthbert  would  become  a  bishop  and  would  eflfect  ©us  son,  hitherto  vicar-Apostolic,  was  the  first  bishop 

great  things  for  the  Church.     After  his  death  Boisil  of  the  re-established  see,  though  temporarily  he  was 

appeared  twice  in  a  vision  to  his  former  disciple,  known    as    administrator-Apostolic,    since    he    was 

Bishop    Ecgberht.      He    is    believed,    on   somewhat  already  Archbishop  of  Utrecht,  with  which  oflSce  he 

dubious  authority,  to  have  written  certain  theological  was  to  imite  the  government  of  Bois-le-Duc. 
works,  but  they  have  not  been  preserved.     St.  Bos-        in  1865  the  first  provincial  synod  was  held  there, 

well's,     Roxburghshire,    commemorates    his    name,  the  decrees  of  which  form  the  actual  ecclesiastical 

His  relics,  like  those  of  St.  Bede,  were  carried  ofif  to  discipline  in  all  the  dioceses  of  Holland,  and  exhibit 

Durham  in  the  eleventh  century  by  the  priest  iElfred.  Archbishop    Zwysen   as   the   true   organizer   of   the 

In  the  early  Calendars  his  day  is  assigned  to  23  Feb-  ecclesiastical  order  in  that  country.    In  1868  he  was 

ruary,  but  the  Bollandists  treat  of  him  on  9  Septem-  allowed  to  resign  the  archiepiscopal  See  of  Utrecht. 

a'L    cc    r  TT     J  **     V  TTT    ^  _.    oo  n       o      TT  Thenceforth,   until  his  death  in   1877,   he   devoted 

JlSS;^4iJi^ZlHi^.^'^lS^.rH\^ia^DJ.li-atSii'^  ^^^^ ^  the  administration  of  his  beloved  See  of 

KuiiMEK  in  Bede'a  Bedee.   Hiet.   (Oxford,    1896);  Staiiton,  Boi8-le-Duc.     He  was  succeeded  by  the  Right  Rev. 

Mtndoffy  (London.  1802),  318.  Adrian  Godschalk,  who  died  in  1892,  leaving  the  see 

Herbebt  Thubston.  to  be  filled  by  Bishop  William  van  den  Ven.     The 

Bois  le-Duc,  The  Diocese  OF  (BuscoDUCENSis)  lies  cathedral  of  Bois-le-Duc,  dedicated  to  St.  John  the 
within  the  Dutch  province  of  Brabant,  and  is  suf-  5^*?.^®!^*V  '^  ^^^  ^^^^\  monument  of  medieval 
fragan  of  Utrecht.  The  city  of  Bois-le-Duc  (s'Her-  ^tn'c  m  the  possession  of  the  Catholics  of  Holland, 
togenbosch,  or  Hertaogenbusch— /Sy/t>o  Duds)  was  Though  it  was  almost  entirely  rebuilt  after  the  con- 
founded in  1184,  but,  with  the  surrounding  territory,  Aagration  of  1419,  it  had  again  suffered  notable 
was  included  in  the  Diocese  of  LiSge  until  12  March,  ^^^ay  ^^  succeeding  centuries.  A  thorough  restora- 
1561.  At  that  time,  and  in  order  to  check  the  spread  ^^^  ^^  **^®  edifice,  however,  was  later  begun.  Bois- 
of  Protestantism,  Pius  IV  raised  it  to  the  dignity  of  le-p^c  had  a  collegiate  chapter  as  early  as  1360, 
a  see,  and  made  it  suffragan  to  Mechlin.  The  first  which  was  made  a  cathedral  chapter  in  1561.  The 
bishop  was  the  illustrious  theologian  Francis  Sonnius  above-mentioned  miraculous  statue  of  the  Blessed 
(1562-69),  afterwards  transferred  to  the  See  of  Virgin  has  been  restored  to  the  cathedral  and  is  once 
Antwerp.  His  successors  suffered  not  a  little  amid  ^^^  ^^^  object  of  general  devotion.  There  are  two 
the  political  disorders  and  the  disastrous  wars  of  diocesan  seminaries,  one  at  St.  Michiels-Gestel  for 
the  last  quarter  of  the  sixteenth  century.  When  preparatory  studies  and  the  other  at  Haaren  for 
Wter  a  long  siege  the  city  was  captured  by  Prince  philosophy  and  theology.  The  diocese  includes 
Frederic  Henry  (14  Sept.,  1629)  and  held  in  the  name  451,670  Catholics,  260  parishes,  625  priests,  143 
of  the  States-General,  the  sixth  bishop,  Michael  charitable  institutions,  and  476  free  (Catholic) 
Ophorius,  was  obliged  to  abandon  his  see,  which  he  schools, 
did  in  a  solemn  procession,  surrounded  by  his  clergy  lyffiT^;, Ji"^«''tXSJJn,^irJrSS^ 

and   beanng  with  mm  a  famous  miraculous  statue  of  genboech    (Bois-le-Duc.    1840-44).    i-iv;    HEZKNMAN*a.    De    St. 

the  Blessed  Virgin  which  he  placed  in  safety  at  BrUS-  Janefeerk  te  s'Hertogenboech   en   hare  geschiedenU   (Bois-le-Duc, 

oaU  1866).   Albbrs.   Oesehiedenie  van   hei   heratel   der  hietrarekie  in 

J         u    J      T>  •  /tfioo  JT\  11      11x^1  **«    Nederlanden  (Nymegen.   1903-1904),  i-ii.    Neerhmdia  cath- 

Joeeph  de  Bargaigne  (1638-47)  was  really  little  oiica  (Utrecht,  1888).  ^^  , 
more  than  bishop  in  name.    He  was  unable  to  assert  Gilbert  Buom. 

his  right  to  the  office,  and  lived  an  exile  from  the  see 

to  which  he  was  deeply  attached,  but  which  he  be-        Boismeno,  Alan  de.    See  New  Guinea,  Vicariate 

held  in  thfe  power  of   Dutch   Calvanists.     By  the  Apostolic  of. 

Treaty  of  Westphalia  (1648)  the  entire  territory  of  Bokenham  (or  Bokenam),  Osbern,  English  Au- 
'  Bois-le-Duc  was  recognized  as  a  permanent  conquest  gustinian  friar  and  poet,  b.  1393  (the  year  in  which 
oi  the  seventeen  united  provinces,  and  made  directly  the  most  famous  of  English  Augustinians,  John  Cap- 
subject  to  their  jurisdiction,  i.  e.  to  the  States-  grave,  was  also  born);  d.  probably,  in  1447.  The 
General.  The  exercise  of  the  Catholic  religion  was  assertion  of  Horstmann,  his  German  editor,  that 
forbidden  by  law,  and* the  pertinent  decrees  -"vere  Bokenham  was  born  at  Bookham,  Surrey,  appear^ 


BOLAHDEK                                  626  BOLGEHI 

to  be  contradicted  by  the  friar's  own  statement  that  or  Croes  *\  **  Night  of  St.  Bartholomew  ",  "  Savon- 

his  birthplace  was  in  the  vicinity  of  a  "  pryory  of  arola  '*,  "  Crusades  ",  "  Wambold  ",  **  Charlemagne", 

blake  [black]  canons  "  which  Mr.  Sydney  Lee  (Diet.  **  Otto  the  Great  ",  "  Pillar  of  Truth  ". 

Nat.  Biog^.,  V,  314)  identifies  with  a  famous  house  His  noveb  and  romances,  though  not  all, of  equal 

of  Augustinian  canons  at  Bokenham,  now  Old  Buck-  worth,  are  written  for  the  people,  brilliant  in  con- 

enham,  Norfolk.    Bokenham  may  or  may  not  have  ception,  simple  in  style.     He  fearlessly  defends  the 

got  some  early  schooling  from  these  ''  blake  canons  ",  Catholic  standpoint  and  supports  his  position  by 

but  he  certainly  spent  five  years  as  a  young  man  in  frequent  quotations  from  original  sources.     But  in. 

Italy,  chiefly  at  Venice,  making  frequent  pilgrimages  discussing  questions  of  the  day  his  criticisms  are 

to  the  great  Italian  centres  of  devotional  life,  Rome,  often  severe  and  unjust.    His  works  are  widely  read 

of  course,  among  them.    His  long  residence  in  Italy,  and  have  been  truislated  into   Kggli«h  and  other 

in  a  generation  to  which  the  memory  of  Petrarch  European  languages, 

(d.  1374)  was  still  recent,  must  have  been  in  itself  The  Cafholic  W<M,  XVII,  308;  Kwtbb,   Kaihcii$cke  Br- 


something    of    a    liberal  education.     Bokenham  is    ^*^'  ^^^* 
known  to  have  read  both  Cicero  and  Ovid — classical 


B.  DiERINOER 


accomplishments  not  by  any   means  a   matter-of-  Boleslaw.    See  Poland. 

course  with  young  Englishmen  destined  to  the  eccle-  Bolgeni,  Giovanni  Vincbnzo,  theologian  apd  con- 

siastical  state  m  those  days.     Lydgate  '(d.   1451?)  troversialist.  b.  at  Bergamo,  Italy,  22  January,  1733; 

was  among  his  contemporaries;  Gowe^  (d.  1402)  and  a.  at  Rome,  3  May,  1811.     He  entered  the  Society 

Chaucer  (d.  1^)  l^d  been  living  in  England  in  his  of  Jesus,  31  October,  1747,  taught  philosophy  and 

boyhood,  and  had  demonstrated  the  splendid  possi-  theology  with  marked  success  at  Macerata  and  was 

bilities  of  a  language   which  for  more   than  three  ^  member  of  the  Society  when  it  was  suppressed  by 

centuries  had  been  a  mere  rustic  vernacular.     His  Clement  XIV.     Henceforth  he  devoted  himself  to 

admission  to  the  Order  of  Hermit-Fnars  of  St.  Au-  controversy  and  m  recognition  of  his  signal  services 

gustine,    whatever    the    exact    date,    certamly    fell  against  Jansenism  and  JosepWnism,  Pius  VI  appointed 

within  the  period  of  that  order's  greatest  mtellectual  him  Theologian-Penitentiary,  an  office  of  which  he 

activity  in  England,  when  Dr.  John  Lowe  (d.,  Bishop  ^^s  deprived  by  Pius  VII  on  account  of  the  Jacobin 

of  Rochester,  1436)  was  making  such  valuable  ad-  principles  he  tolerated  and  advocated  during  the 

ditions  to  the  great  Austm-Friars  bbrary  m  London,  occupation  of  Rome  by  Napoleon  I. 

Bokenham   finally  became   a  professed  reUgious  in  of  Bolgeni's  theological  writings,  the  best  known 

the   Augustmian  convent  at  Stoke  Clare,   Suffolk,  ^nd  at  the  same  time  the  least  fortunate  was  his 

His  writing^  were  chiefly  rel^ious  m  theme  and  a  j^\\^  ^ariU  o  amor  di  Dio  "  (Rome,  1788).    In  it 

feeling.    A     Dialogue      (printed  m  vol.  VI  of  Dug-  he  endeavoured  to  refute  the  Dominican,  de  Rubeis, 

dale  8      Monasticon    ),  on  the  genealogy  of  a  great  by   demonstrating   that   the    theological    virtue  of 


Voraigne.    These  are  the  lives  of  tw-elve  female  samts,  ^f  Teofilo  Cristiani,  fictitious  author  of  "  Lettera  teo- 

with  an  account  of  the  legendary     11,000  virgms  ".  bgico-critica  suU'  amore  di  Dio  "  (1791)  and  opposi- 

Though  valuable  m  a  devotional  sense,  the  "  Lyiys  tion  from  his  former  Jesuit  comrades,    MaiEarelU 

of  Seyntys     cannot  be  very  seriously  considered  by  (1790-91),  Regono  (1791),  Cortes  (1790-93),  Chantec 

modern  Imgiologists;  but  as  mustratmg  the  evolution  y  Herrera  (1790-92)  and  Gentilini  (1803).    Against 

of  Enghsh  hterature,  theu-  historical  value  is  mesU-  Oistiani  he  successfuUy  disposed  of  the  charge  that 

J?*^^  o  x/^^®,  language,  described  by  its  author  as  he  held  purely  servile  fear  a  sufficient  motive  for 

of  Suthfolke  speche    ,   is  forced  mto   the  exotic  attrition,  but  the  arguments  of  his  other  adverwries 

form  of  oUavanma.     This  work,  preserved  among  he  met  at  first  with  more  subtlety  than  precision, 

the  ^ndel  MSS.  m  the  British  Museum,  was  prmted  a^d  i^ter  with  silence.    He  did  not  attempt  to  answer 


illustrated  by  his  using  the  names  of  several  con-  fermaiione  e  difesa  della  sua  dissertasione  "  (Rome, 

temporary  ladies  of  high  rank  as  noma  de  plume  to  1788;  Foligno,  1790),  and  "Apologia  deU'  amor  di  Dio 

cover  his  own  authorship.  ^  detto  di  concupiscenza  "  (Foligno,  1792).     Though 

Did.  QfNat.Biogr.  (London  and  New  York,  1886),  V.  a,  v.;  practically  defeated  in  this  dispute  Bolgeni's  presen- 

Stbblb.  Moruutenea  and  RdtQwuB  Houses  (London,  New  York,  r«i.:^„  ,vf  k;=  «-o«  •^*^,»^/9  4l«<k4-  k^  woa  AT«/l^a»M4  with 

etc.,   1903).     The  two  printed  editions  of  Bokenham's  poem  ^^^^  of  his  case  proved  that  he  was  endow^  wiUl 

furnish  material  for  critical  study  of  the  author.  controversial  talents  of  no  mean  order,  and  these  ne 

E.  Macphebsgn.  used  with  telling  effect  in  his  writings  on  moral  sub- 
jects and  on  matters  which  may  be  classed  as  po- 

Bolanden,  Conrad  yon  (Joseph  Bischoff),  a  Ger-  litico-theological.  As  Theologian-Penitentiary  he 
man  novelist,  son  of  a  rich  merchant,  b.  9  August,  edited  a  novel  defence  of  probabilism  imder  the 
1828,  at  Niedergeilbach,  a  village  of  the  Palatinate,  caption  ''  II  posesso,  principio  fondamentale  per  de- 
He  attended  the  Latin  school  at  Blieskastel,  the  cidere  i  casi  morali  ".  The  second  part  of  this  work, 
seminary  at  Speyer,  and  in  1849  entered  the  Uni-  ''  Dissertazione  seconda  fra  le  morali  sopra  gli  atti 
versity  of  Munich  to  study  theology.  Ordained  umani "  (Cremona,  1816;  Orvieto,  1853),  together 
priest  in  1852  he  was  appointed  assistant  pastor  at  with  a  treatise  on  usury,  published  under  his  name 
the  cathedral.  Two  years  later  he  became  pastor  but  probably  not  written  by  him,  appeared  after  his 
at  Kirchheim  Bolanden  whence  his  pen  name  ''  Con-  death.  The  defence  of  probabilism  aroused  a  storm 
rad  von  Bolanden  ".  The  following  year  he  was  trans-  of  controversy,  and  among  the  noted  anti-probabil- 
ferred  to  Bdrrstadt  and  three  years  later  to  Berg-  ists  who  engaged  in  the  discussion  may  be  mentioned 
hausen.  During  this  time  he  wrote  his  first  four  works:  the  Bishop  of  Assisi  (1798),  Agapitus  de  Palestrina,  O. 
"A  Wedding  Trip  ",  "  Queen  Bertha  ",  "  Historical  Min.  Ref.  (1799),  Cajetan  Maria  de  Fulgore  (1798), 
Tales  of  Frederick  II  ",  and  "  Gustav  Adolf  ".  In  Canon  John  Trinch  of  the  Cathedral  of  Tivoli  (1850), 
1870  he  resigned  his  parish  to  devote  himself  ex-  and  Montbach  (1857).  Of  these  Trinch  added  to  his 
olusively  to  literary  work,  and  lived  in  strict  retire-  "  II  Bolgenismo  Confutato  "  a  "  digression  on  the 
ment  at  Speyer.  He  published  numerous  novels  of  necessity  of  confessing  all  mortal  sins,  whether  oer- 
which  the  most  noteworthy  are:  "  Canossa  ",  "  Trowel  tain  or  doubtful,  just  aa  tjiey  are  in  conscience." 


627  BOLITU 

The  resDAiiiing  productions  of  Bolgeni  are  chiefly  at  1,816,271,  or  a  little  more  than  five  paraoiu  to 
devoted  to  attacks  on  Janseiuam,  JoeephiiuBm,  and  every  two  square  milea.  Of  these,  231,088  are 
jftcoU&ism.  Not  long  after  the  lut^pressioii  of  the  reported  as  whites;  484,611  aa  mestizos,  and  792,850 
Socio^  of  JeeuB  he  entered  the  lista  with  the  Society's  as  Indians.  Besides  these,  there  were  about  4,000 
traditional  enemy,  Jansenism,  In' publishing  "Esanie  negroes,  and  the  residue  are  of  unascertained  ongin. 
della  vera  idea  della  Santa  Seae  (Macerata,  1785;  The  proportion  of  Catholics  to  aan-CatlKilics  is 
Foligno,  1791),anorkundertalcen  in  refutationof  the  approximately  as  seventy-two  to  one.  AU  tfaeee 
Jansenistic  doctrines  contained  in  "La  Vera  Idea  della  figures  are  to  be  taken  with  reserve,  since  the  efforts 
Santa  Sede"  by  Pietro  Tamburini,  a  celebrated  pro-  at  serious  statistics  are  but  very  recent, 
fesaor  of  the  University  of  Favia.  Seveid  replies  to  Since  the  close  of  the  war  with  Chile  in  1881, 
the  criticisms  of  Tamburini  and  to  the  censures  of  the  Bolivia  has  had  no  sea-coast.  It  is  Iwunded  on  the 
Archpriest  Guadagnini  were  published  in  rapid  suo-  west,north-west,andnorthbyPeru;  onthenorth-eest 
ceasion.  In  1787,liewrote  "Stato  de'bambimmorti  and  east  by  Brazil;  on  the  south-east  by  Paraguay; 
senza  battesimo",  and  in  it  scored  th«  rigid  doctrine  on  the  south  by  the  Argentine  Republic,  and  on  the 
of  Guadagnini  that  infants  dying  without  baptism  are  south-west  by  Chile.  Its  oommunications  with 
doomed  U>  the  torments  of  Hell.  This  controversy  the  outer  world  were  still  defective  in  1005.  A 
over,  he  devoted  his  pen  to  defending  the  juridical    lino  of  steamers  on  Lake  Titicaca  then  plied  between 

Swers  of  the  hierarchy,  cataloguing  the  errors  of  the  the  Peruvian  port  of  Puno  and  the  Bolivian  of 
y,  and  combatine;  the  principles  of  Josephinism  in  Huaqui,  and  stage  lines,  between  La  Paz  and  the 
Austria  and  of  the  Revolution  m  France.  His  publi-  Chilian  frontier.  On  the  east  side  of  the  Andes, 
cations  at  this  period  were:  "Fatti  dommatioi  ossia  in  the  Basin  of  the  Amazon,  rivers,  which  are  often 
deil'inf^ibiiit&dellaChiesaneldeciderefiulladottrina  interrupted  in  their  upper  course  by  rapids  (eaekue- 
buona,  o  cattiva  de'  libri"  {Brescia,  1788);  "Speccliio  l<"),  afford  the  only  means  of  transit.  Bolivia  had 
ietoricodaserviredi  preflervativocontraglierrori  cor-  two  short  railroad  lines  of  its  own,  besides  ^e 
renti"  (1789):  "L'episcopBto  osaia  della  potesti  di    Chilian  line  to  Oruro,  of  which  the  terminus  ie  upon 

Kvemare  la  Chiesa. "  {1789).  These  literary  labours 
1  to  his  appointment  by  Kus  VI  as  Theoliwian- 
Penitentiary  and  in  this  capacity  he  issued  a  defence 
of  "L'episcopato"  (Rome,  179l!jand  "  Dissertazione 
Sulla  giurisduioneeccleaiastica"  (Rome,  I701),arefu- 
tation  of  George  Sicard's  contention  that  the  powers 
of  orders  and  jurisdiction  were  identical.  About  the 
same  time  he  renewed  his  attacks  on  Guadagnini  and 
Tamburini,  refuting  the  former's  state-deityin^  pro- 
clivities in  "L'Economia  della  Fede  (>istiana" 
(Brescia,  1790),  and  the  latter's  anti-ecclestasticiam 
in  "Problema  se  i  Giansenisti  siano  Giacobini" 
(Rome,  1794).  "L'Economia  della  Fede  Cristiana" 
was  of  such  merit  that  it  was  incorporated  by  Migne 
in  his  " D&nonstrations  Evang^iques'',  vol,  XVIII. 
The  last  phase  of  Bolgeni's  life  is  to  say  the  least 
a  strange  one.  After  Napoleon  I  had  seized  Rome, 
Bolgeni,  with  wellnigh  unintelligible  inconsistency, 
favoured  the  anti-regal  oath  of  allegiance  imposed  by 
the  conqueror.  This  change  of  front  he  defended 
vigorously  and  subtly,  but  vainly.  He  was  obliged 
to  make  a  retractation  in  the  presence  of  the  cardinals 
assembled  at  Vierma  for  the  ettction  of  a  pope; 
"Ritrattaiione  di  Gio.  Vincenso  Bol^ni  diretta  a 
Honsignor  Illmo.  e  Rmo.  Vicegerents  di  Roma ' '.  His 
writings  during  this  unfortunate  stage  of  his  career 
were7"Parere  sul  giuramento  civico_  (Rome,  1798); 
"Sentimenti  de'  professori  della  universitj^  del  Col- 
kno  Romano  sopra  il  giuramento  prescritto  dalla  Re- 
publica  Romana''  (Rome,  an.  VII):  "Sentimenti  aul 
nuiamento  dvico"  (Rome,  an.  VII);  "Metamorfosi 
3d  dott.  Gio.  Marchetti,  da  peniteniiere  mutato  in 
penitente"  (1600):  "Parere  .  ,  .  sull'alienazione  de' 
beni   ecclesiaatici'  :   "Schiarimenti"  to   confirm  the 

nreceding.     After  nis  death  a  work  was  edited,  be-  A  Bnxmr  m  L*  Fas 

Ueved  by  some  to  be  from  his  pen,  "Dei  limiti  delle 

diiBpot«Bt4ecolesiasticaesecolare'' (Florence,  1849),  Bolivian  soil.  The  two  Bolivian  railroads  werfl 
and  it  was  put  on  the  Index  donee  BonigaiuT.  It  is  trunk-lines,  with  an  aggregate  length  of  siirty-five 
most  probably  unauthentic  miles.     Work  was,  however,  progressing  on  several 


•  ?"?*tf^-B'"-  '^'  ^-^*^f3-  ^'  ^    other'newly  begun  lines. 


fcrti  difot.  <i<y.,  II,  70;BtBNABDmZ>ic(.  AKifeJ.  cart.,  mv.i  ""„"■'•  ^"jj'  .  ■         j        _  ^  j 

^im-roaa..  BM.  dt  la  c.  de  J..  Z.  1161;  Civim  allelie^  Bolivia    is    divided    mto    nme    departments    and 

iiaso),  II.  *61;  P^i't'xai,  Dt  paniutuia,  23*.  a  "National  Territory  of  Colorjies  ,   the  area  of 

J.  T.  Lanoan.  which  covera  somewhat  less  than  one-third  of  the 
whole  surface  of  the  repubUc,  wlule  its  population 

BoUTift,   a  South  American    repubUc  which   lies  is  only  one-sixtieth  of  the  whole.     Of  the  nine  de- 

betwecm  longitudes  west  of  Greenwich  67°  30'  and  partments.   La   Paz   is   the   most   populous.     Since 

74",   and   latitudes  8°  and  22°  CC  south.    These  1899  the  national  capital  has  been  La  Paa  de  Aya- 

figures  are,  however,  still  subject  to  treaty  changes,  cucho,  with  a  population  of  59,014  souls,  situ^ed 

AszA,    PopuiuiTiox,    »rc. — The    republic    covers  in  this  department.     Next  to  La  Pal  in  importance 

aoareaof  702,767  sq.  miles  (1,822,334  sq.  kilometers)  is    Cocbabamba    with    21.886    inhabitants.    Suwe 

and  ranks  as  third  in  rise  among  the  Soutb  American  and   PotosI   are   reported   with   20,900  each,   and 

oountries.     In   1905  its  population  was  estimated  Santa  Gnu  de  la  Sierra  with  18,000,  while  tbs  im^ 


BOUTIA  628  BOUTU 

tmitent  miniiig  OKitra  of  Oniro  hae  a  tittle  over  able  ores.    Gold  is  Dot  generallr  distributed,  and 

15,000 inhabitants.  it  extTaot«d  mainly  by  "placer"  mining,  as  for  in- 

NATTtRAL  F&ATDBBS  AND  Resocrcbs. — The  Bouth-  stutce  at  Chuquiaguilu),  near  La  Pai.    In  the  fim 

western  third  of  the  countiy  liee  at  a  great  altitude  half  of  the  nineteeath  centuiy  the  Tipuaui  district, 

above  the  PaciGo  Ocean.     The  Puna,  or  table-land  so  difficult  of  access,  was  productive  ot  gold  of  gi«at 

comprised  witbin  the  Departments  of  La  Pai,  Oruro,  fineness,  and  in  ijuantities  verf  considerable  for  that 

and    Patost,    has   an   average   elevation   of   nearly  time,  and  the  Tipuani  mines  are  even  now  £ar  from 

13,000  feet.    Two  loftj^  mountain  ranges  form  natural  exhausted.    ^uartR  gold  is  worked  at  Araca.    Silver 

breastworks   to    Bolivia:    in   tbe   West,    the   Coast  is   very  plentiful,   and   is   extensively  extracted   in 

Cordillera   (Chilian   frontier)  and,  in  the  East,  the  places.     Native  copper  is  mined  at  Corocoro,  where 

Bolivian  chain,  consisting  of  the  Andes  of  Caraoaya  it  crops  out  in  veins  of  unusual  ricbnees  and  width, 

and  Apolobamba  towards  the  North,  and  the  Royal  but  other  copper  ores  are  found  in  abundance  also. 

Cordillera  or  central  Bolivian  range,  with  its  southern  Of  late  it  haa  men  establisfaed  that  Bolivia  is  probably 

ramifications   and   prolongations   to   the   Argentine  one  of   the  countries  in  the  world,  where  tin  (cas- 

lines.     The  mountamous  section  of  Bolivia  has  no  Biterit«)  ia  most  abundant,   and  the  same  may  be 

important  rivers.    Its  drainage  is  in  the  North  to  said  of  bismuth.    While  on  the  eastern  slope  of  tbe 

Lake  Titicaca,  which  itself  empties  to  the  South  Andes    the  existence  of  gold   and  other  mineral 

into  the  Lugo  (Lake)  Po6p6,  which   has   no   visible  wealth  has  been  proved,  the  attention  of  proif>ectars 

outlet.    Towards  the  East  mountain  streams  de-  and  miners  has  been  turned  chieSy  towards  the  moun- 

eoend  abruptly  into  the  Basin  of  the  Amazon.     But  tains    themselves.     The    processes    of    mining    and 

the  mountainous  section  has  the  two  largest,  and  treatment  of   the  ores  are  still,   in  manjr  piiUKm, 

also  most  elevated  lakes  of  South  America:  Titicaca,  nidimentary  and  primitive,  but  with  the  influx  at 


UissioN  CoNTsm  o«  m  Bivib  Bnn 

12,500feet  above  sea-level,  138  miles  long  from  north-  forei^  capital  and  the  introduction  of  Diachinw?, 

west  to  south-cast,  and  of  varying  width,  and  Po6po,  conditions  are  rapidly  improving.    On  the  shores 

farther  Eoutli.     The  eastern   two-thirds  of   Bolivia,  of    Lake   Titicaca   bituminous   ooal   is   found   both 

that  section  lying  towiirds  the  Atlantic,  is  traversed  east  and   west  of  that   lake.     Besides  mining,    the 

by  mighty  streams  (e.  g.  the  Bcni  and  Mamor£)  and  chief  industry  of  the  mountain  region  is  agriculture. 

their  affluents,  all  of  which  rise  in  the  central  Bolivian  As  this  branch  is  almost  entirely  in  tbe  hands  at  tbe 

1*1^"'",     BoUvia  hasproperly  but  twoseasona:  winter,  Indians,  it   will   be  treated   in   connexion  with  the 

corresponding  in  time  to  summer  ai^d  part  of  fail  and  ethnography   of   Bolivia.                              ' 

spring  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  and  aununer  em-  The  Amazon  Basin  and  its  foresta,  as  wdl  as  o^n 

bracing  tbe  rest  of  the  year.  spaces  with  high  grass,  are  full  of  animal  life,    "tbe 


The  mineral  resources  of  this  republic  are  known  large  rivets,  as  everywhere  in  tropical  South  Amenca, 

to  be  very  important,  but  as  yet  they  have  been  only  teem  with  fish,   crocodiles,   enaxea,  and  other  am- 

euperficially    prospected.    Difficulty    of    access    to  phibia,    and    the    manatee    also    occurs.    Aqustie 

the  country,  unsettled  political  conditions  in  former  birds,   parrots,   etc.,   are   abundant.     The   fauna   of 

times,   and   cumbersome,    primitive  transportation  the  mountain  districts  is   more  in  evidence,    but 

have  been  the  main  cause  of  this  backwardnees.  much  poorer  in  species  and  individuals,  than  in  tbe 

The  upper  regions  of  the  Amazonian  Basin  are  known  adjacent  countries.     The  llama  and    its  congeuen, 

to  contain  coal,  but  there  attention  has  been  given  the  alpaca,    vicuJla,   and  guansco,   belong  to   tbe 

ofaiefly  to  the  vegetable  resources,  the  India  rubber  Bolivian  fauna.    The  llama  and  a^iaca  are  domesti- 


tree  having  rendered  possible  the  establishment  of  a  cated  by  the  Indian.     Beasts  of  prey  are  not  _^__ 

highly  important  and  growing  industry.     The  same  ous  and  are  fotmd  only  within  the  mnit^  of  arboreal 

•ection,  also,  produces  both  coffee  and  sugar,  and  vegetation.     Lower   down    the    great    ant-eater    i> 

to-day  the  coca  shrub  is  a  staple,  while   calisaya  occasionally  seen,  the  puma  and  the  bear  ([/n«s 

Ittrk   is   returning   into   favour.     The   highlands   in  omatus).     In   southern   Bolivia,   as  well  aa  to   tbe 

tbe  departments  of  La  Fas,  Oruro,  Potosf,  parts  of  esstem  aectious,  the  American  oetiioh  oocura,   aitd 

Coohabamba  and  Tarija  abound  in  a  variety  of  valu-  a  tiny  armadillo  has  its  home  in  the  cold,  uid  Puitfi 


BOUTU  629  BOUTU 

touih  of  Lftke  Titicaca,    Over  the  hi^ieHt  peaks  mi^,    perbwpa   be   about   equally  numeroua.    The 

foare  the  condor,  Quichua  occupy  wrtithem  Bolivia  and  the  Andean 

OovESKMENT,  THB  Church,  amd  Education. —  diatricta  adjacent  to  Lake  Titicaca  on  the  Eaat; 
Bolivia,  then  the  Sfjaniah  oolony  of  Alio  Peru,  or  Up-  the  Aymaril  hokl  the  upper  vallejs  of  the  Aodta 
per  Peru,  declared  iIb  intention  to  achieve  political  the  West,  and  the  centre.  Physiologically,  no  great 
independence  16  July,  JS09,  and  actualljr  became  an  difference  in  type  eTisla.  They  ar»,  firat  <^  all, 
autonomous  republic  6  August,  1825,  taking  its  name  husbandmen,  m  fact  they  control  agrioultura. 
in  honour  of  Sunon  Bolivar,  its  founder.  The  Con-  Nearly  all  agricultural  lands  being  held  by  whites 
(titution  uiider  whicly  the  republic  is  now  governed  or  raestizos,  who  do  not  themselves  cultivate,  but 
dates  from  28  October,  1880,  and  aims  at  a  "unita-  prefer  to  live  in  settlements  following  some  trade 
rian  republican"  polity.  Under  this  Constitution  or  commerce,  the  Indians,  who  are  settled  every- 
the  l^islative  power  is  vested  in  a  Congrees  which  where,  take  care  of  the  fjelds.  This  they  do,  either 
oompnaes  a  Chamber  of  Deputies  and  a  Senate,  the  in  a  fcind  of  serfdom,  living  on  the  property  and 
former  body  consisting  of  72  members -elected  by  jierforming,  also,  some  personal  services  for  the  pro- 
direct  popular  vote  for  terms  of  four  years,  the  latter  prietora,  or,  ss  Indian  communities  settled  near 
of  16  membere  also  elected  by  direct  popular  vote,  the  land,  they  have  a  tacit  lease  of  it.  The  Indians 
but  for  terms  of  six  years.  The  executive  power  is  organized  in  communities  according  to  their  primi- 
vesled  in  a  president,  elected  by  direct  popuW  vot«  live  customs  control  the  land,  through  their  labour, 
for  a  term  of  tour  yeara.  The  president,  however,  virtually  more  than  tlie  owners,  and  tlius  remain 
can  «2ercise  his  authority  only  throuj^  his  Cabinet,  a  power  in  the  republic,  since  they  are  the  feedere 
which  consists  of  five  MinUtros  d«  Eitado,  jomtly  of  the  people.  Their  serfdom  is  much  motB  apparent 
reeponsible  with  liim  for  all  his  official  acto.  Under  than  real,  for  the  masters  depend  upon  them  for 
this  chief  executive  the  civil  government  of  the  subsistence.  Some  alimentary  plants  in  the  high 
country  is  carried  on  by  prefects  of  Departments,  ap-  regions  are  potatoes,  quinua,  oca,  etc.,  as  well  aa 
pointed  by  it  and  directly  teeponaible  to  it,  and  lliey  maize  in  districts  suitable  tor  its  growth,  with  coarse 
m  turn  iiftve  under  their  jurisdiction  sub-prefects  beans  {kabaa)  and  barley,  the  last  two  being  of 
and  CorregidoreM  forthe  subdivisionB  of  Departments.  European  origin.  The  Indians  raise  cattle  for  tb«n- 
The  revenue  of  the  republic  for  1905  was  stated  at  selves  and  sometimes  for  the  landowners.  All 
7,928,730  bohvianoa  {1  boliviano  =  $0,423  in  United  their  fanning  is  done  in  a  primitive  and  veryslovenly 
Btatea  currency).  way.    Next    to    agriculture,     transportation    ana 

By  Article  2  of  the  Constitution  of  Bolivia,  "  The 
Stat«  recognizes  and  supports  the  Roman  Apostolic 

Catholic  religion,  the  puolic  exercise  of  any  other  , 

worship)  beioK  prohibited,  except  in  the  colonies, 
where  it  is  tolerated".  For  the  support  of  CathoUc 
worship  in  general  the  State  pays  the  sum  of  182,027 
bolivianos  (S76,815  U.  S.  currency),  besides  14,000 
bolivianos  ($5,908)  for  missions  to  the  abori^nal 
tribes.  There  is  one  archbishopric,  Sucre,  or  Char- 
cas,  formerly  La  Plata,  with  146  parishes,  three  col- 
legea  of  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith,  and  five 
monasteries.  The  s^ragan  bishoprics  are:  La  Paz, 
with  102  parishes,  and  b  monasteries;  Cocliabamba, 
«rith  69  parishes  and  4  convents,  and  Santa  Cruz, 
divided  into  73  parishes.  Both  La  Paz  and  Santa 
-  CruB  were  erected  into  bishoprics  in  1605.  the  Arch- 
bishopric of  Charcas  was  founded  1609,  and  the 
Dioc»se  of  Cochabamba  in  1847.  Efforts  are  kept  up 
to  gather  the  unsettled  tribes  of  the  Amazon  Basin 
into  permanent  settlements  (reductions),  a  veiy 
slow  and  difficult  task. 

Tbe  legal  status  of  marriage  is  thus  summed  up  in  CnHamAi.  it  Oofaciibaha 

Art.   90  of  the  Civil  Code  of  Bolivia:   "Matrimony 

being  in  tbe  Republic  elevated  to  the  dignity  of  a  pBrsooal  servife  in  housewortt  are  also  in  the  hands 

sacrament,  the  formalities  necessary  for  its  celehra-  of  tiie  Indians.     In  fact  their  silent  influence  per- 

tioD  will  be  the  same  as  those  which  the  Council  of  yades  the  whole  of  public   and   private  life;  their 

Trent  and  tbe  Church  have  designated."    Bolivian  industrial   methods  are  obsolete,   and    they   resist 

law   recognizes  no   divorce   permitting   re-marriage,  improvemeat  with  the  greatest  tenacity. 
and  all  qoeetions  arising  between  husband  and  wife         As  tbe  Indian  has  majntalned  his  primitive  oivani- 

can  be  decided  only  by  tbe  ecclesiastical  tribunals,  nation  with  few  changes,  he  might  form  a  State 

ErHNoa&APHY. — 'The    comparatively    small    pro-  within  the  State,  and  thus  become  a  grave  dan^r 

portion   of  whites   among   the   Bolivian  population  to  the  whites.     But  as  he  never  had  any  conception 

makes  of  tbe  Indian  the  numerically  preponderant  of  a  State,  being,  moreover,  divided  into  autonomous 

stock.     The   mestizos,    while   not   disclaiming  their  or  independent  tribes,  that  danger  is  much  dimin- 

partly  white  origin,  sometimes  stand,  in  the  country  ished.    Neither  the  Aymari  nor  the  Quichua  could 

and  fUDon^  the  lower  classes  in  towns  and  cities,  but  coalesce  to  form  a  homogeneous  body.     This  tbiey 

■li^tly   higher   than   the   aborigines,   being   distin-  have  shown  ever  since  the  Spanish  occupation,  and 

guiahed  from  the  latter  mostly  by  the  fact  tnat  they  during  tbe  most  alarming  of  their  attempted  up- 

wear   European   costume.     Of   the   Indians  several  risings,  such  »  that  of  1781.     They  would  like  to 

linguistic  stocks  inhabit  the  country.    The  roaming  return  to  their  primitive  coinlition  of  barbarism, 

trioee  of  the  Amazon  lowlands  are  neither  numerous  but  (eel  that,  despite  their  vast  superiority  of  num- 

nor    important   enough    to   deserve    mention    here,  bers,  they  are  virtually  powerless.     In  addition  to    , 

But  in  tbe  mountains  two  powerful  stocks,  seden-  these   two   principal   Indian   groups,   the   mountain 

tuy,  agricultural,  and  pastoral  ever  since  they  have  dietricte  still  shelter  the  Uros,  feeble  remnants  of  a 

been  known  to  the  whites,  form  the  working  lower  tribe  dwelling  among  rushes  and  reeds,   and  CMn- 

elasa  of  the  people  of  Bolivia.    These  stocks  are  the  pamtively  little  known.    Of  the  white  population 

Quichua  ana  the  Aymard.    These  two  large  tribes  of  Bolivia  little  need  be  said  that  is  not  ^jplioable 
IL— 40 


B0LLAHBI8T8                           630  BOLUkKDISTS 

generally  to  the  whites  in  other  South  American  aixteen  vohimes,  besides  two  volumes  of  explanationi 

countries.    They  differ  of  course  from  the  inhabi-  and  tables.    The  first  volume  was  to  present  dooa- 

tants  of  less  mountainous  countries  in  that  thev  ments  concerning  the  life  of  Jesus  Christ  and  the 

have   the   general   characteristics   common   to    all  feasts  established  in  honour  of  the  special  events  cf 

mountaineers.  His  life:  the  second  volume  would  be  devoted  to  the 

(For  special  information  on  the  individual  dioceses,  life  and  the  feasts  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  the 

aboriginal  tribes,   languages,  etc.,  of   Bolivia,   see  third  to  the  feasts  of  the  saints  honoured  with  a 

articles  under  separate  headings.)  more  special  cult.    The  twelve  succeeding  volumes 

Intbrnational  Bureau  op  thb  American  Republics,  were  to  give  the  lives  of  the  saints  whose  feasts  are 

BUiyia  (WaaWnjton.  a  C..  i«^  celebrated  respectively  m  the  twelve  months  of  the 

B<H%wana  (Santiago,  Chile,  1879).     Of  the  latter  very  full  and  ^X         r        ^     u    xv       rrx^i^   ^^i.».j.. 

very  reliable  book  a  BTjpplcment  waa  issued  by  the  author  in  year,   one  volume  for  each   month.      IhlS  calendar 

1899,  and  ValentIn  Abeicia  published  Adicioneg,  in  1902.  arrangement  had  been  prescribed  by  his  superiors, 

IjieeeChUiwipublicationaaren^^^^  in  preference  to  the  chronological  order  Rosweyde 

The  colonial  history  of  Bolivia  is  so  intimately  connected  himself  favoured.     But  this  presented,  eepecUuly  at 

with  that  of  Peru  that  the  earhr  ^sources  touching  the  former  that  time,   formidable  difficulties.     Lastly,  the  six- 

are  ^  those  for  the  latter.    Of  jceneral  ^ojJ»J«>SJfi»«  »«-  teenth  volume  Was  to  set  forth  the  succession  of 

teenth  and  seventeenth  century,  Gomara.  Acosta,  Herrera,  ^^„.t^^^^i^-^   «,u,*^u    u^a    u^^«    :«    .,«-^   .4.   ^:ff<>-<»if 

GarcIa  are  of  course  indi^>en«able  for  consultation.  martyrologies  whicti   haa  been  m  use  at  dmerent 

Ad.  F.  Bandelier.  periods  and  in  the  various  Churches  of  Christendom. 

The  first  of  the  two  supplementary  volumes  was  to 

Bollandints,  The,  an  association  of  ecclesiastical  contain  notes  and  commentaries  bearing  on  the  lives 

scholars  engaged  in  edituig  the  Acta  Sanctorum,  already  published.    It  was  to  be  divided  into  eight 

This  work  is  a  great  hagiographical  collection  begun  books  treating  respectively  of  the  following  subjects: 

during  the  first  years  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  (1)  The  authors  ot  the  lives;  (2)  the  sufferings  of  the 

continued  to  our  own  day.     The  collaborators  are  martyrs:  (3)  the  images  of  tne  saints;  (4)  uturgical 

called  Bollandists,  as  being  successors  of  Bolland,  the  rites  and  customs  mentioned  in  hag^ogr^hical  docu- 

editor  of  the  first  volume.    The  collection  now  num-  ments;  (5)  profane  customs  to  which  allusions  had 

bers  sixty-three  volumes  in  folio,  to  which  must  be  been  made;  (6)  questions  of  chronology;  (7)  names  of 

added  a  supplementary  volume,  published  in  1875  by  places  encountered  in  these  same  documents;  (8)  bar- 

a  French  priest,  and  containing  chiefi;3r  certain  tables  barous  or  obscure  terms  which  might  puzzle  the 

and  directions  facilitating  research  m  the  volumes  readers.    The  other  supplementary  volume  was  to 

which  had  appeared  at  that  time.    Although  Bolland  present  a  series  of  copious  tables  giving:  (1)  the 

has  given  his  name  to  the  work,  he  is  not  to  TO  regarded  names  of  the  saints  whose  lives  had  oeen  pubUahed 

as  its  founder.  ^  The  idea  was  first  conceived  by  Heri-  in  the  preceding  volumes;  (2)  the  same  names  id- 

bert  Rosweyde  (b.  at  Utrecht,  1569;  d.  at  Antwerp,  lowed  by  notes  indicating  the  place  of  the  saint's 

1629).    He  entered  the  Societv  of  Jesus  in  1588.    An  birth,  his  station  in  life,  his  title  to  sanctity,  the  time 

indeiatigable  worker  and  a  fearless  but  judicious  inves-  and  place  in  which  he  had  lived,  and  the  author  of 

tigator,  notwithstanding  his  duties  as  professor  of  phi-  his  hfe;  (3)  the  state  of  life  of  the  various  saints 

losophy  in  the  Jesuit  college  at  Douai  during  the  last  (religious,  priest,  virgin,  widow,  etc.);  (4)  their  posi- 

} rears  of  the  sixteenth  centurv,  Rosweyde  devoted  the  tion  in  the  Church  (apostle,  bishop,  abbot,  etc.); 
eisure  of  his  vacations  and  holidays  to  exploring  the  (5)  the  nomenclature  of  the  saints  according  to  the 
libraries  of  the  numerous  monasteries  scattered  countries  made  illustrious  by  their  birth,  apostolate, 
through  Hainault  and  French  Flanders.  He  copied  sojourn,  burial;  (6)  nomenclature  of  the  places  in 
with  his  own  hand  a  vast  number  of  documents  relat-  which  they  are  honoured  with  a  special  cult:  (7)  enu- 
ing  to  church  history  in  ^neral,  and  to  hagiography  in  meration  of  the  maladies  for  the  cure  of  wnich  th^ 
particular,  and  found  m  the  old  texts  contained  in  are  especially  invoked;  (8^  the  professions  placed  im- 
the  manuscripts  coming  under  his  observation  auite  der  their  patronage;  (9)  tne  proper  names  of  persons 
a  different  flavour  from  that  of  the  revisions  to  Vnich  and  places  encountered  in  the  published  lives;  (10)  the 
manv  editors,  notably  Lippotnano  and  Surius,  then  passages  of  Holy  Scripture  there  explained;  (11) 
the  latest  and  most  (celebrated,  had  believed  it  nee-  points  which  may  be  of  use  in  religious  controv^sies; 
essary  to  subject  them.  Rosweyde  thought  it  would  (12)  those  apphcable  in  the  teaching  of  C^iristian 
be  a  useful  work  to  publish  the  texts  in  their  original  doctrine;  (13)  a  general  table  of  words  and  things  in 
form.  His  superiors,  to  whom  he  submitted  his  plan  alphabetical  order.  ''And  others  still"  adds  the 
In  1603,  gave  it  their  hearty  approval,  and  allowed  author,  ''if  anything  of  importance  presents  itsdf, 
him  to  prepare  the  projected  edition,  without,  how-  of  which  our  readers  may  give  us  an  idea." 
ever,  relieving  him  of  any  of  the  occupations  on  Cardinal  Bellarmine,  to  whom  Rosweyde  sent  a 
which  he  was  expending  his  prodigious  activity,  copy  of  his  little  volume,  could  not  forbear  exclaiming 
So,  for  the  time  being,  he  was  allowed  merely  the  alter  he  had  read  this  programme:  "This  man  counts, 
privilege  of  devoting  his  spare  moments  to  the  then,  on  living  two  hundred  years  longer  1"  He  ad- 
preparation  of  the  work.  Rosweyde  did  not  cease  dressed  to  the  author  a  letter,  the  original  of  whidi  is 
to  pursue  his  project,  which  he  announced  publicly  preserved  in  the  present  library  of  the  Bollandists, 
in  1607,  as  wdl  as  the  plan  he  proposed  to  follow,  signed,  but  not  written,  by  the  hand  of  Bellarmine, 
Under  the  title:  "  Fasti  sanctorum  quorum  vitas  in  in  which  he  intimates  in  poUshed  but  perfectly  plain 
bdgicis  bibliotheds  manuscriptse",  he  gave  in  a  little  language  that  he  regarded  the  plan  as  chimerieaL 
volume  in  16mo.,  published  by  the  Plantin  press  at  Rosweyde  was  nowise  disconcerted  by  this.  From 
Antwerp,  an  alphabetical  list  of  the  names  of  the  various  other  sources  he  received  encouragement, 
saints  whose  acts  had  been  either  found  bv  him  or  enthusiastic  praise,  and  valuable  assistance.  The 
called  to  his  attention  in  old  manuscript  collections,  new  enterprise  found  an  especial  protector,  as  ^e^ 
This  list  filled  fifty  pages;  the  prefatory  notice  in  ous  as  he  was  zealous  and  enlightened,  in  Antmne  de 
whidi  he  indicates  tne  character  and  arrangement  Wyn^he,  abbot  of  the  celebrated  monastery  ot 
of  his  work,  as  he  had  conceived  it,  takes  up  fourteen.  Liessies  in  Hainault.  Venerable  Louis  of  Blois,  ^1^ 
Finally,  the  work  contains  an  appendix  of  twenty-  third  successor  de  Wjmghe  was,  seemed  to  have  be- 
six  pages  containing  the  unpublished  acts  of  the  pas-  queathed  to  him  his  affectionate  devotion  to  we 
lion ofthe  holy  Cihdan  martyrs,  Tharsacus,  Probus,  sons  of  St.  Ignatius  of  Loyola.  The  large  Bympsaj 
and  Andronicus,  which  Rosweyde  regarded — wrongly  of  this  rdigious  Mscenas  manifested  itself  in  ^wfT 
—as  the  authentic  official  report  from  the  pen  of  a  way;  in  letters  of  recommendation  to  the  headsoi 
clerk  of  the  court  of  the  Roman  tribunal.  Accord-  the  various  houses  of  the  great  Benedictine  ^^^ 
iog  to  this  programme  Hoe  ooUection  was  to  oomprise  which  opened  to  Rosweyde  mi  hi^  a^eociates  monastic 


BOLUHDZnt  631 

libnriaa;  in  louu  uid  gift*  of  book*,  of  iBuiiiaoripts,  went  to  Antwerp,  fmniliuiMd  himBelf  with  the  ntftii- 
and  of  eopisBot  monuHripls;  and  ia  peevnUry  MsUt-  uscripta,  and,  while  adioittuig  that  the  work  was 
•nee.  Boaweyde  quite  oounted  oa  ooinpletiiig  by  nUl  merely  a  rough  and  faulty  draft,  gave  reaMns 
his  own  efforts  the  monument  of  whioh  he  had  for  belieTing  that  without  an  undue  expenditure  of 
dreamed,  aud  on  bringiiig  it  to  a  worthy  end.  As  a  labour  it  might  be  brought  to  a  BUooeeBful  oomple- 
matter  of  fact,  he  did  not  get  beyond  the  fint  itagee  tioa.  He  even  Bhowed  himself  disposed  to  takn 
of  the  atructure.  Bis  literary  activity  was  expended  eliarge  o  f  t  h  a 
on  a  multitude  o[  historical  works,  both  religious  and  work,  but  6nly 
potentioal,  some  of  wtiich,  it  is  true,  would  have  later  under  two  oon- 
lormed  a  part  of  the  great  liagiograpliical  oompila-  ditions:first,tbat 
tioQ.  The  majority,  however,  bear  so  relation  what-  he  ahould  be  left 
ever  to  the  work.  The  writings  'which  would  have  free  to  modify 
been  available  aie:  the  edition  of  the  Little  Roman  the  plan  of  Ros- 
Martyrology,  in  which  Hoaweyde  believed  he  reoog-  weyde  aa  he  un- 
nised  the  oolleotion  mentioned  by  St.  Gregory  the  derstood  it;  sea- 
Great  in  his  letter  to  Eulogius  of  Alexandria;  the  edi-  ond,  that  the 
tion  of  the  martyrology  of  Ado  of  Vienoe  (1613);  copies, no tes.and 
the  ten  books  of  the  Lives  of  the  Fathers  of  the  books  which  had 
Desert,  which  he  first  published  in  Uitin  (ISl^  in  been  collected 
fol.)i  dedicating  the  work  to  the  Abbot  of  Liessies,  and  by  Roeweyde 
later  in  Flemish  (1617)  in  fol.,  with  an  inscriptiou  to  should  be  remov- 
Jeanne  de  Baillien court.  Abbess  of  MeseineB.  The  ed  from  tiie  11- 
rest,  however,  as  for  instance  the  Flemish  odition  of  brary  of  the  Pro- 
Ribadeneiro's  "Flowers  of  the  Saints"  (1619,  two  fesaed  House, 
foho  volumes),  the  "  General  History  of  the  Church  "  where  they  were 
(1623),  to  which  he  added  as  an  appendix  the  de-  interspersed 
tailed  history  of  the  Church  in  the  Netherlands,  both  among  the  books 
in  Flemish;  the  Flemish  lives  of  Bt.  Ignatius  and  St..  in  common  use, 
Philip  Neri;  the  Flemish  translation  of  the  first  part  and  set  apart  in 
of  the  "  Treatise  on  Perfection  ",  drew  his  attention  a  place  of  their 
completely  from  what  he  should  have  regarded  as  his  own  for  the  ei- 
principal  task.  It  is  due  to  him,  however,  to  say  elusive  use  of  the 
that  for  several  years  his  superiors,   without  ceas-  new  director  of 

ing  to  encourage  him  in  the  pursuit  of  his  project,  the  undertaking.  Johh  tih  Boluhd.  8.  J. 

were   forced  through  the  necessity  of  fiUing   vacant  The    provincial, 

offices,  to  lay  upon  him  duties  which  did  not  leave  Jacques  van  Btraten,  accepted  with  alacrity  both 
him  the  absolutely  indispensable  leisure.  He  set  offer  and  conditions.  Bolbind  was  removed  from 
this  forth  clearly  himself  in  the  memorandum  ad-  the  college  of  Mechlin  and  attached  to  IJie  Pro- 
dressed  to  them  in  16U,  in  response  to  their  inquiry  fessed  House  at  Antwerp,  to  be  director  of  the 
as  to  how  he  was  progressing  with  the  preparation  of  Latin  Congregation  and  confessor  in  the  church, 
hie  volumes.  But  it  is  not  less  true  that  nearly  all  and  with  the  charge  of  preparing,  in  his  leisure 
his  publications,  the  most  important  of  which  hare  hours  (hcrit  tvbtecieii)  the  Acta  Sanctorum  for  pub- 
been  mentioned  above,  are  of  a  later  date  than  this,  lication.  Happily,  be  had  not  the  least  idea,  any 
and  undoubtedly  Rosweyde  himself  was  cbiefly  to  more  than  bad  the  provincial,  of  all  the  undertaking 
blame  for  the  delay,  which,  however,  may  be  called  involved.  He  fancied  that  he  could  finish  it  by  his 
a  fortunate  one,  since  it  resulted  in  advantageous  own  unaided  efforts,  and  that  after  the  completion 
modifications  of  the  plan  of  the  work.  At  the  time  of  the  work  proper  and  the  preparation  of  historical, 
of  Rosweyde's  death,  then,  which  took  place  in  chronological,  geographical,  and  other  tables,  as  an- 
Antwerp  in  1629,  not  a  page  was  ready  for  the  nounoed  by  Rosweyde,  be  could  complete  the  pub- 
printar.  Moreover,  the  superiors  of  the  order,  on  lication  by  adding  to  it  a  comprehensive  collection 
their  part,  hesitated  to  have  the  work  carried  on  by  of  notices  of  holy  persons  who  flourished  in  the 
attother.  For  mote  thsA  twenty  years,  however.  Church  subsequent  to  the  fifteenth  century,  but  have 
Rosweyde  had  been  extremely  active;  be  had  secured  not  l>een  bonoured  with  a  public  cult.  "And  after 
aecesa  to  a  quantity  of  nxantiscripte  and  bad  enlisted  all  that  is  done  ",  he  wrote  in  his  general  preface, 
the  co-operation  of  many  learned  men  who  had  mani-  at  the  beginning  of  the  first  volume  of  January,  "  if 
fested  the  keenest  intereet  in  bis  undertaldug;  thanks  I  still  have  any  time  to  live,  I  shall  lend  a  charm  to 
to  their  assistance,  he  had  eollected  many  manu-  the  leisure  hours  of  my  old  age  by  gathering  the 
scripts  and  books  relating  to  the  livee  of  the  saints;  asoetical  doctrine  found  in  the  teachings  of  the  saints 
in  a  word,  ha  had  aroused  an  eager  intereet  in  his  recorded  in  this  work."  And  nevertheless,  he  began 
oompilation,  so  great  and  so  Universal  that  it  was  by  outlining  a  plan  of  quite  another  vastness  from 
necessary  to  satisfy  it.  that  of  Rosweyde,  whose  programme  bad  already 
Father  John  van  BoUand  (b.  at  Julemont,  in  Lim-  appalled  Bellarmine.  Rosweyde  had  confined  his 
burg,  1596;  d.  at  Antwerp,  12  September,  1665)  quest  of  original  texts  to  the  libraries  of  Belgium 
was  at  this  time  prefect  of  studies  in  the  eoUege  of  and  the  neighbouring  regions.  He  had  not  gone  be- 
Mechlin,  and  had  charge  of  a  congregation  composed  yond  Paris  to  the  south,  or  Cologne  and  Trier  to  the 
of  the  principal  people  of  the  city.  It  was  called  the  east,  Bolland  made  appeal  to  collaborators,  either 
"  Iifttin  Congregation  ",  because  all  the  exercises,  ser-  Jesuits  or  others,  residing  in  all  the  different  coun- 
moiia  included,  were  conducted  in  that  language,  tries  of  Europe.  Then  Rosweyde  had  proposed 
His  family  either  took  their  name  from,  or  gave  it  to  publish  at  first  only  the  original  texts,  without 
to,  the  Tillage  of  Bolland,  near  Julemont.  Before  oommentaries  or  annotations,  relegating  to  the  last 
making  his  Geological  studies  he  had  taught  belles-  volumes  the  studies  intended  to  enable  one  to  ap- 
lettreM  with  distinction  in  the  three  higher  classes  preciate  tbeir  value  and  to  throw  light  on  tbeir  dU- 
ot  tba  humanities  at  Ruremonde,  Mechlin,  Brussels,  ficultiee.  Bolland  recognised  at  once  how  defective 
aad  Antwerp.  The  superior  of  the  Belgian  province  this  plan  was.  So  he  decided  to  give  in  connexion 
of  the  Society  of  Jesus  bade  him  examine  the  papers  with  each  spint  and  "his  cult  all  the  information  be 
isft  by  Rosweyde,  and  report  to  him  his  opinion  as  had  been  able  to  G^nd,  from  whatever  sources;  to 
to  what  it  was  advisable  to  do  with  them.    Bolland  preface  each  text  with  a  prelimlnarr  study  destined 


B0LLAHSIST8  632'  BOIXAKDISTS 

to  determine  its  author  and  its  historical  value,  and  reluotanee  occasioned  by  his  humility  and  the  pro- 
to  /ippend  to  each  notes  of  explanation  for  the  pur-  found  respect  in  which  he  held  his  master,  to  review 
pose  of  clearing  away  difficulties.  The  duties  of  the  the  copy  already  in  press.  He  held  it  back  for  a 
varioiis  offices  filled  by  Bolland,  added  to  the  for-  considerable  time  to  enable  his  colleague  to  make 
midable  correspondence  imposed  on  him  by  his  re-  the  additions  and  corrections  he  judged  neoessary 
search  into  documents  and  other  sources  of  infer-  or  advantageous.  The  pages  containing  the  mate- 
mation  concerning  the  life  and  cult  of  the  saints  to  rial  for  the  first  six  days  of  January  had  already 
be  treated  in  the  work,  together  with  the  answers  come  from  the  press;  the  pages  which  seemed  most 
to  the  numerous  letters  of  consultation  addressed  defeetive  to  Henschen  were  replaced  by  revises.  His 
to  him  from  all  parts,  concerning  matters  of  eccle-  hand  is  more  clearly  apparent  in  the  following  pages, 
siastical  learning,  left  him  no  leisure  for  the  dis-  although  he  persisted  in  employing  a  reserve  and 
charge  of  his  duties  as  hagiographer.  Thus,  after  watchfulness  which  sometimes  seems  to  have  cost  b»m 
five  years  at  Antwerp,  he  was  forced  to  admit  that  an  effort,  in  order  to  avoid  too  marked  a  difference 
the  work  was  almost  where  Rosweyde  had  left  it,  between  Bolland's  commentaries  and  hb  own.  Pape- 
exoept  that  the  mass  of  material  which  the  latter  broch,  in  his  notice  on  Henschen  printed  at  the  be- 
had  begun  to  classify  was  notably  augmented;  as  a  ginning  of  the  seventh  volume  of  May,  points  out 
matter  of  fact  it  was  more  than  quadrupled.  Mean-  as  particularly  his  the  toil  expended  on  the  acts  of  8t. 
while,  eager  desire  for  the  appearance  of  the  hagi-  Wittikind,  St.  Canute,  and  St.  Raymond  of  Pennafort 
ographical  monument  announced  by  Rosweyde  on  the  seventh  of  January;  of  St.  Attious  of  Con- 
almost  thirty  years  previously  grew  apace  in  the  stantinople  and  Blessed  Laurence  Justinian  on  the 
learned  and  the  religious  world.  There  was  noth-  eighth;  of  Sts.  Julian  and  Basilissa  on  the  ninth, 
ing  left  for  BoUand  but  to  admit  that  the  un-  "  But  from  this  day  on  ",  he  adds,  "  Bolland  left  to 
dertaking  was  beyond  his  individual  slarength  and  Henschen  the  Greek  and  Oriental  saints,  as  well  as 
to  ask  for  an  assistant.  The  generous  Abbot  of  the  majority  of  those  of  France  and  of  Italy,  reserv- 
Liessies,  Antoine  de  Wynghe,  effectually  supported  ing  for  himself  only  those  of  Germany,  Spain,  Brit- 
his  demand  by  volunteering  to  defray  the  living  ex-  ain,  and  Ireland  *',  He  still  desired  to  associate  the 
penses  of  the  associate  who  should  be  assigned  to  name  of  Henschen  with  his  own  on  the  title-pagj 
Bolland,  as  the  Professed  House  at  Antwerp,  which,  of  the  various  volumes,  but  the  humble  religious 
depended  on  the  alms  of  the  faithful  for  its  support,  would  not  allow  it  to  appear  except  as  his  assistant 
could  not  pay  a  man  to  do  work  which  was  not  and  subordinate.  Meanwhile  Bolland,  in  his  general 
strictly  in  the  field  of  its  ministrations.  preface  to  the  first  volume  of  January,  did  not  fail 
The  assistant  chosen,  doubtless  at  Bolland's  sug-  to  tell  what  he  owed  to  his  excellent  collaborator. 
gestion,  for  he  had  been  one  of  his  most  brilliant  He  then  insisted  that  in  the  volumes  of  Februa'^y 
pupils  in  the  humanities,  was  Godfrey  Henschen  and  the  following  ones,  Henschen 's  name  should 
(b.  at  Venray  in  Limburg,  1601;  d.  1681),  who  had  figure  on  the  title-page  as  prominently  as  his  own 
entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1610.  He  was  as-  and,  moreover,  that  in  the  course  of  these  volumes 
signed  to  his  former  master  in  1635  and  laboured  at  all  commentaries  from  the  pen  of  Henschen  should 
the  publication  of  the  Acta  Sanctorum  up  to  the  be  signed  with  his  initials,  claiming,  doubtless  not 
timd  of  his  death  in  1681,  forty-six  years  later,  without  some  foundation,  that  he  received  a  great 
Twenty-four  volumes  had  then  appeared,  of  which  number  of  letters  relating  to  articles  written  by  his 
the  last  was  the  seventh  volume  of  May.  He  had,  colleague,  which  caused  him  difficulty.  The  two 
moreover,  prepared  a  great  amount  of  material  and  volumes  of  January,  containing  respectively,  if  we 
many  commentaries  for  June.  It  may  be  safely  said  take  into  account  the  various  tables  and  preliminary 
that  the  BoUandist  work  owes  its  final  form  to  Hen-  articles,  the  first,  1,300  pages,  the  second,  more  than 
schen.  When  he  arrived  at  Antwerp,  Bolland  had  1,250,  appeared  in  the  course  of  the  same  year,  1643. 
succeeded  in  putting  into  good  order  the  documents  They  aroused  in  the  learned  world  positive  enthu- 
relating  to  the  saints  of  January,  and  had  found  a  siasm,  "^ich  is  easily  understood  when  we  consider 
publisher  in  the  person  of  John  van  Meurs.  Doubt-  how  far  the  new  publication  surpassed  anything  of 
less  for  the  purpose  of  trying  Henschen,  he  bade  him  the  kind  known  up  to  that  time — the  Golden  Legend, 
study  the  acts  of  the  February  saints,  leaving  him  Guide  Bemardus,  Vincent  of  Beauvis,  St.  Antoninus 
every  latitude  as  to  the  choice  of  his  first  subjects  of  Florence,  Peter  de  Katali,  Mombritius,  Lippomano, 
and  the  manner  of  treating  them.  Bolland  then  gave  and  Surius.  There  was  another  marked  difference 
himself  entirely  to  the  printing  of  the  volumes  for  when,  fifteen  years  later,  in  1658,  the  three  volumes 
January.  It  was  well  under  way  when  Henschen  for  February  were  published,  showing  a  notable  im- 
brought  to  Bolland  the  first  fruits  of  his  activity  in  provement  over  those  for  January.  Congratulatu)ns 
the  field  of  hagiography.  They  were  studies  for  the  and  warm  encomiums  came  from  every  side  to  tes- 
history  of  St.  Vaast  and  that  of  St.  Amand,  printed  tify  to  Bolland  and  his  companion  the  admiratran 
later  in  the  first  volume  of  February  under  date  of  aroused  by  their  work.  The  encouragement  was  not 
February  sixth.  Bolland  was  absolutely  astonished,  only  from  Catholics.  Learned  Protestants  of  the 
and  possibly  somewhat  abashed,  by  the  great  scope  foremost  rank  did  not  hesitate  to  praise  highly  the 
and  solidity  of  the  work  which  his  disciple  had  to  truly  scientific  spirit  which  marked  the  new  collec- 
show  him.  He  himself  had  not  dared  to  dream  of  tion.  Among  others  who  had  been  heard  from  even 
anything  like  it.  His  preliminary  commentaries  on  before  the  publication  of  the  February  volumes,  was 
the  acts  of  the  various  saints  of  January  were  prac-  the  celebrated  Gerard  Vossius.  The  editors  had  the 
tically  confined  to  designating  the  manuscript  where  satisfaction  of  seeing  added  to  all  these  approbations 
the  texts  he  was  publishing  had  been  found,  to  an-  ^at  of  Alexander  VII,  who  publicly  testified  that 
notations,  and  a  list  of  the  variants  in  the  various  there  had  never  been  undertaken  a  work  more  use- 
copies  and  the  previous  editions.  The  commentaries  ful  and  glorious  to  the  Church.  The  same  pontiff 
and  annotations  of  Henschen  solved,  or  at  least  tried  and,  at  his  suggestion,  the  General  of  the  Society  of 
to  solve,  every  problem  to  which  the  text  of  the  Jesus,  Goswin  Nickel,  immediately  invited  BoUand 
Acts  could  give  rise,  in  the  matter  of  chronology,  to  Rome,  promising  him  a  rich  harvest  of  materials- 
geography,  history,  or  philological  interpretation,  and  The  invitation  was  equivalent  to  a  command,  though 
all  these  questions  were  treated  with  an  erudition  for  that  matter  this  literary  journey  was  oi  too 
and  a  method  which  could  be  called  absolutely  un-  great  advantage  to  the  work  in  hand  for  BoDand 
known  hitherto.  Modest  and*  judicious  savant  that  to  do  anything  but  gladly  accept  it.  Fmding,  how- 
he  was,  Bolland  at  once  admitted  the  superiority  of  ever,  that  he  was  too  much  enfeebled  by  recent  iO' 
the  new  method  and  desired  Henschen,  despite  the  ness  to  stand  the  fatigues  of  the  journey,  and  that, 


Bm^umaan  633  BeiJLAHBirni 

moreover,  it  was  necessary  for  one  of  the  aditora^to  bei^s^  Nuremberg,  Eichstftdt,  Ingolstadt,  Augsbui^. 

remain  in  Antwerp,  the  centre  of  correspondence,  be  Munich,  and  Innsbruck.    Everywhere  the  name  of 

easily  obtained  permission  from  the  Father  General  Bolland.  ensured  them  an  enthusiastic  welcome  and 

to  send  in  his  place   Henschen,  who  was  already  so  opened  every  library  to  them;  everywhere  they  found 

favourably  known  through  his  oc^aboration  in  the  precious  material  to  take  with  them  for  use  in  the 

volumes  published.  ^  succeedinff  volumes  of  the '^  Acta''.    A  reception  no 

At  this  time,  the  hagipgraphers  were  joined  bv  a  less  friendly  and  a  harvest  even  more  abundant 

new  companion,  who  was  to  accompany  Henschen  awaited  the  travellers  in  Italy,  at  Verona,  Vicenza, 

on  his  journey,  and  who  later  was  to  shed  as  great  Padua,  Venice,  Ferrara,  Imola,  Florence,  Ravenna, 

gloiy  on  the  work  as  had  his  two  pr^eceesors.    This  Forll,  Rimini,  Pesaro,  Fano,    Sinigaglia,    Anconii, 

was  Father  Daniel  von  Papenbroeck,  better  known  Osimo,  Loreto,  Assisi,  Perugia,  Foligao,  and  Spoleto. 

under  the  slightlv  altered  form  of  Papebroch  (b.  at  Thej  arrived  in  Rome  the  day  before  the  Vigil  of 

Antwer|>,  1628;  a.  28  June,  1714).    He  entered  the  Christmas,  and  remained  there  imtil  3  October  of 

Society  in  1646,  after  having  been,  like  Henschen,  a  the  following  year.  1661.    During  aU  this  time  they 

brilliant  pupil  of   Bollard's  in  tne  course  of  the  were  overwhelmea  with  attentions  and  favours  b^ 

humanities.     He  had  just  completed  his  thirty-first  Alexander  VII,  who  in  person  did  the  honours  of  his  ' 

year  when  he  was  called  on,  in  1659,  to  sive  himself  rich  Chigi  library  and  commanded  by  special  Briefs 

entirely  to  the  work  of  hagiograph^,  in  which  he  was  that  all  libraries  should  be  opened  to  them,  and 

to  have  a  remarkably  loxig  and  fruitful  career,  for  it  especially  that  they  should  be  allowed  access  to  the 

lasted  till  his  death,  which  occurred  in  the  eighty-  manuscnpts  of  the  Vatican.    They  were  received 

seventh  year  of  his  age,  and  the  fifty-fifth:  of  ms  with  no  less  courtesy  by  the  cardinals,  the  heads  of 

work  in  this  field.    At  the  same  time  that  they  ap-  the  various  orders,  the  savants    Allatius,  Aringhi, 

g>inted  Papebroch  a  collaborator  to  Bollana  and  Ughelli,  Ciampini,  and  others,  then  shinine  lights  in 
enschen,  tne  superiors  of  the  order,  at  the  instance  the  capital  of  the  Christian  world.  The  five  or  six 
of  important  persons  who  wished  the  publication  of  cop3rists  placed  at  their  disposal  were  kept  con- 
the ''Acta  Sanctorum"  hastened  as  much  as  possible,  stantly  busy  during  the  nine  months  they  were  in 
rdieved  the  Fathers  in  chaige  of  the  work  of  every  Rome  in  transcribing  manuscripts  according  to  their 
other  cegular  occupation,  in  order  that  they  might  directions,  and  this  occupation  was  continued  by 
thenc^orth  devote  their  entire  time  to  the  hagio-  them  a  long  time  after  the  Bollandists'  departure, 
gra^ical  work.  They  were  not  obliged  to  fulfil  any  As  for  the  BoUandists  themselves,  their  time  was 
duties  of  the  sacred  ministry  except  for  the  distrao-  principally  employed  in  collecting  Greek  manu- 
tion  and  rest  that  men  of  such  great  intellectual  ao-  scripts,  in  which  they  were  diligently  assisted  by 
tivity  might  find  in  a  change  of  occupation.  About  the  celebrated  Hellenist,  Laurentius  Porcius,  and  the 
the  same  time  they  were  panted  another  favour,  abbot  Francesco  Albani,  later  cardinal,  and  pope 
We  have  seen  that  Bolland,  in  accepting  the  succes-  under  the  name  of  Clement  XI.  The  learned 
sion  to  Roeweyde's  post,  had  obtained  tnat  a  special  Maronite,  Abraham  of  Eckel,  who  had  just  brought 
place  should  be  set  apart  for  the  manuscript  copies  to  Rome  a  great  number  of  Syriac  manuscripts, 
and  books  collected  by  Rosweyde,  which  had  hitherto  was  willing  to  make  extracts  and  translate  for 
bc^i  scattered  among  the  bookjs  belonging  to  the  them  the  Acts  of  the  Saints  found  therein.  UeheUi 
general  library  of  the  Professed  House.  This  save  them  two  volumes  in  folio  of  notes  which  he 
embryo  of  the  Bollandist  Museum  consisted  of  two  had  collected  for  the  completion  of  his  "ItaUa 
small  muisard  rooms,  lighted  by  dormer  windows  so  Sacra".  The  Oratorians  put  them  in  touch  with  the 
narrow  that  in  the  comers  it  was  impossible  to  see  manuscripts  of  Baronius.  and  a  laige  collection  of 
clearly  enough  to  read  the  titles  of  the  books,  even  lives  of  the  saints  which  tney  had  intended  to  publish 
at  noonday.  Moreover,  the  walls  were  not  fitted  themselves.  On  leaving  Rome  they  visited  Najides, 
with  shelves  where  the  books,  could  be  arranged.  Grotta-Ferrata,  and  Monte  Cassino,  then  Florence, 
They  were  merely  piled  one  above  the  other  without  where  they  remained  for  four  months,  and  lastly 
any  attempt  at  order.  It  required  Bolland's  wonder-  Milan.  Everywhere,  as  at  Rome,  they  left  behind 
ful  local  memory  to  find  anything  in  this  cha6s.  them  copyists  who  continued  for  years  the  work  of 
About  1660.  he  had  the  satisfaction  of  having  a  transcribing  which  had  been  marked  out  for  them, 
spacious  hidl  on  the  first  floor  placed  at  his  disposal.  They  then  spent  more  than  six  months  in  travelling 
where  books  and  manuscripts  could  be  placed  on  through  France,  where  they  halted  successively  at 
shelves  in  methodical  order.  The  library,  or  the  the  Grande  Chartreuse  of  Grenoble,  at  Lyons,  at  the 
"Hagio^raphical  Museum",  as  it  became  customary  monasteries  of  Cluny  and  Clteaux,  at  Diion,  Auxerre, 
to  <3l  it^  had  already  received,  and  continued  to  re-  Sens,  and  lastly  at  Paris.  They  arrived  in  the  great 
ceive  daily,  thanks  to  the  gifts  of  generous  bene-  capital,  11  August,  1662,  and  were  immediately  put 
factors  and  judicious  purchases,  many  acciuisitions,  in  touch  with  whatever  distinguished  savants  Paris 
60  that  Henschen  during  the  course  of  his  literary  could  then  boast  of.  They  found  at  their  command, 
journey  was  able  to  say  that  he  found  very  few  with  unrestricted  leave  to  copy  whatever  served  their 
nistorical  libraries,  public  or  private,  "that  could  purpose,  the  wealth  of  hagiographical  matter  con- 
compare  with  the  "Hagiographical  Museum"  of  Ant-  tained  in  the  rich  libraries  of  Sint-Germain-des-Prds 
werp.  This  library  was  greatly  enriched  some  years  and  St.  Victor,  as  well  as  those  of  the  Celestines 
later  when  Papebroch,  through  the  death  of  his  and  Feuillants,  of  Wion  d'H^rouval,  de  Thou,  de 
father,  a  rich  merchant  of  Antwerp,  was  enabled  to  Siguier,  and  lastly  the  Mazarine  an  the  Royal 
apply  to  the  work  on  which  he  was  engaged  his  laige  Library.  Their  stay  at  Paris  extended  over  three 
inheritance.  ^  months,  every  moment  of  which  time  they  spent  in 
BoUand's  two  companions  began  their  journey^  on  transcribing  and  collating,  besides  enlisting  the  serv- 
thefeastof  St.  Mary  Magdalen,  Z!2J\ily,  1660.  Their  ices  of  several  copyists  during  the  entire  time. 
dd  master  aocompani^  them  as  f sir  as  Cologne,  They  left  Paris  9  November  and  turned  their 
where  they  left  him  after  a  week's  stay.  An  almost  steps  toward  Rouen,  then  went  through  Eu,  Abbe- 
daily  correspondence  kept  up  with  him,  and  preserved  ville,  and  Arras,  omitting,  to  their  great  regret,  the 
neany  entire  at  Brussels,  partly  at  the  Roysd  Library  city  of  Amiens,  because  of  the  impassable  roads, 
and  partly  at  the  Library  of  the  BoUandists,  allows  washed  out  by  rains,  and  the  impossibility  of  secur- 
us  to  follow  each  step  of  their  learned  pilgrimage  ing  means  of  transportation.  They  reached  Ant- 
through  Germany,  Italy,  and  France.  In  Germany,  werp  21  December,  1662.  after  an  absence  of  twenty- 
they  visited  successively  Coblenz,  Mainz,  Worms,  nine  months.  They  not  only  brought  back  with 
Spesrer,  Frankfort,  Asclmffenbuig,  WQrsbui^,  Bam-  them  an  enormous  mass  of  documents  transcribed 


BOLLAMDI8T8  634  BOUJkllMIW 

bv  themselves  and  by  the  copyists  they  had  been  Cknnelfte  Qrder.  and  ^ititled:  ''Exhibitio  erromra 
oBliged  to  engage,  but  they  fouild  awaiting  them  at  quos  P.  Daniel  Papebrochius  Societatis  Jesu  suis  in 
Antwerp  a  like  number  from  the  copyists  whom  they  notis  ad  Acta  Sanctorum  oommisit  contra  Christi 
had  employed  in  the  principal  cities  they  had  visited  Domini    Paupertatem,    iEtatem,    etc.    Smnmorum 
(notabljr,  Rome,  Florence,  Milan,  and  Paris)  and  who  Pontificum  Acta  et  Gesta,  Bullae,  Brevia  et  De- 
were  still  carrying  on  the  labour  with  which  they  had  creta;    Concilia;    S.  Scriptiuram;    Eccteeise  Capitis 
been  charged.  This  long  journey  caused  little  delay  Primatum  et  Unitatem;  S.  R.  £.  Cardinalium  Dig- 
in  the  progress  of  the  work,  for  which,  on  the  other  nitatem  et  authoritatem;  Sanctos  ipsos,  eorum  cm- 
hand,  It  was  so  productive  of  good  results.  Thanks  turn,  Reliquias,  Acta  et  Scripta:    Indulgentiarum 
to  the  incredible  activitv  of  the  three  eminent  hagi-  Antiquitatem;  Historias  Sacras;  Breviaria,  Missalia, 
ographers,  the  three  volumes  for  March  were  given  Martyrologia,   Kalendaria,   receptasque  in  Ecclesia 
to  the  public  in  1668.    They  bore  onlv  the  names  traditiones  ac  revelationes,  nee  non  alia  qtuevis  an- 
of  Henschen  and  Papebroch,  as  Bolland  had  passed  tiqua  Monumenta  Re^orum,  Regionum^  Civitatum, 
to  a  better  life,  12  September,  1665,  thirty^-six  years  ac  omnium  fere  Ordmum;  idque  nonnisi  ex  mens 
after  succeeding  Rosweyde  in  the  preparation  of  the  conjecturis,  argutiis  negativis,  msolentib\|s  censuris, 
''Acta  Sanctorum''.  Seven  years  later,  in  1675,  the  satyris  ac  sarcasmis,   cum  iEthnicis,  Hteresiarchis, 
three  volumes  for  April  appeared,  preceded  by  pre-  Hsereticis  aUisque  Auctoribus  ab  Ecclesia  damnatis. 
liminary  treatises,  the  subjects  of  which  were  re-  — Oblata  Sanctissimo  Domino  Nostro  Innooentio  XII 
spectively:  in  the  first  volume,  the  two  most  ancient  .  .  .  Colonise   Agrippinse,    1693. "    Papebrodi,  who 
collections  of  notices  on  the  popes  (catalogues  of  was  receiving  at  the  same  time  from  the  most  dis- 
Liberius,  and  Felix)  and  the  date  of  St.  Ambrose's  tin^shed  scholars  lively  protests  against  the  at- 
death,  both  by  Henschen;  in  the  second,  the  attempt  tacks  of  which  he  was  made  the  object,  met  them  at 
at  a  diplomatical  treatise  by  Papebroch,  "  whose  first  merely  with  a  silence  which  perhaps  seemed  di»- 
chief  merit ",  as  the  author  himself  was  fond  of  saying  dainful.    But  learning  that  active  steps  were  being 
with  as  much  sincerity  as  modesty,  "was  that  it  taken  at  Rome  to  obtain  a  condemnation  of  the  col- 
nspired  Mabillon  to  write  his  excellent  work:  'De  lection  of  the  Acta  Sanctorum  or  of  some  of  its  vol- 
;re  diplomaticA'";  in  the  third,  a  new  revised  edition  umes,  he  and  his  companions  decided  that  the  time 
of  the  "Diatriba  de  tribus  Dagobertis",  which  had  for  silence  had  passed.     It  was  Father  Janninck  who 
made  the  name  of  Henschen  celebrated  twenty  years  entered  the  lists  in  an  open  letter  to  the  author  of  the 
previously.    The  custom  of  having  these  "Parerga"  "Exhibitio  Errorum",  followed  soon  afterwards  by 
was  kept  up  in  the  succeeding  volumes;  there  was  another  in  which  he  replied  to  a  new  little  book 
even  an  entire  volume,  the  "  Propylaeum  ad  tomos  published  in  support  of  tne  woric  of  Father  Sebastian 
Maii",  filled  with  notes  of  Papebroch  on  the  chro-  of  St.  Paul.    The  two  letters  were  printed  in  1693. 
nology  and  history  of  the  popes  from  St.  Peter  to  They  were  followed  by  a  more  extended  apology  for 
Innocent  XL    Another  happy  thought  first  carried  the  "Acta",  published   by  the  same  Janninck  in 
out  at  that  time  was  the  publication  of  the  Greek  1695;  and  lastly  there  appeared  in  1696,  1697,  and 
acts  in  their  original  text;  previously,  only  Latin  1698  the  three  volumes  of  the  "Responsio  Danielis 
versions  had  been  given.    The  Greek  texts  were  still  Papebrochii  ad  Exhibitionem  Errorum",  in  which  the 
relegated  to  the  end  of  the  volumes  in  the  form  of  vauant  ha^ographer  takes  up  one  by  one  the  charges 
appendices;  it  was  only  in  the  fourth  volume  of  May  hurled  against  him  by  Father  Sebastian  and  confutes 
that  they  were  first  printed  in  the  body  of  the  work,  each  with  an  answer  as  solid  in  argument  as  it  was 
The  firat  three  volumes  of  May  were  published  in  temperate  in  tone.    The  adversaries  of  Papebroch, 
1688.    Besides  the  names  of  Henschen  and  Pape-  feanng  lest  they  should  not  be  able  to  obtain  from 
broch,  the  title-page  bore  those  of  Conrad  Janninck  the  CSurt  of  Rome  the  condemnation  for  which 
and  Frangois  Baert,  who  had  been  appointed  to  the  they  were  begging,  addressed  themselves,  with  the 
work,  the  former  in  1679;  the  latter  in  1681,  at  the  utmost  secrecy,  to  the  tribimal  of  the  Spanish  In- 
same  time  as  Father  Daniel  Cardon,  who  was  carried  quisition,  where  they  won  over  to  their  side  the  most 
ofif  by  a  premature  death  the  second  year  after  his  powerful  influences.     Before  the  writers  of  Antwerp 
appomtment.  nad  any  suspicion  of  what  was  beinff  plotted  against 
Up  to  this  time  Bolland  and  his  first  two  cotnpan-  them,  there  was  issued,  in  November,  1695,  a  de- 
ions  had  met  with  nothing  but  encouragement.    A  cree  of  this  tribunal  condemning  the  fourteen  vol- 
severe  storm  was  soon  to  burst  on  the  one  who  was  umes  of  the  "Acta  Sanctorum"  published  up  to 
now  head  of  the  undertaking  and  on  the  work  itself,  that  time,  imder  the  most  rigorous  qualifications, 
In  the  first  volume  of  April  Papebroch  had  occasion  even  going  so  far  as  to  brand  the  work  with  the 
to  treat,  imder  date  of  the  eighth,  the  Acts  of  St.  mark  of  heresy.    Papebroch  was  painfully  and  deeply 
Albert  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  and  author  of  the  moved  by  the  blow.    He  coula  submit  to  all  tbie 
Carmelite  rule.    In  his  preliminary  commentary  he  other  insults  heaped  upon  him,  but  he  was  obliged 
had  combated,  as  insufficiently  grounded,  the  tra-  to  refute  the  charge  of  heresy.    He  made  the  most 
dition  imiversally  received  by  the  Carmelites,  that  vehements  entreaties  and  had  all  his  friends  in  Spain 
the  origin  of  the  order  datea  baek  to  the  prophet  on  the  alert  to  let  him  know  which  propositions  the 
Elias,  who  was  regarded  as  its  foimder.    Tnis  was  Holy  Office  of  Spain  had  regarded  as  neretical,  in 
the  signal  for  an  outburst  of  wrath  on  the  part  of  order  that  he  might  retract  them,  if  he  was  unable 
these  religious.    From  1681  to  1693  there  appeared  to  furnish  satisfactory  explanations,  or  secure  the 
no  less  than  twenty  or  thirty  pamphlets  filled  with  correction  of  the  sentence,  if  his  explanations  were 
abusive  language  against  the  unfortunate  critic,  and  acceptable.    His  efforts  proved  fruitless.    Havini^ 
adorned  with  titles  often  ludicrous  through  their  very  fallen  seriously  ill  in  1701,  and  believing  himself  at 
efforts  at  violence  :"NovusIsma(il,  cuius  manus  contra  the  point  of  death,  immediately  after  receiving  the 
omnes  et  manus  onmium  contra  eum,  sive  P.  Daniel  last  sacraments  he  had  a  notary-public  draw  up  in 
Papebrochius  .  .  .  ";  "  Amyclse  JesuiticsB,  sive  Pape-  his  presence  and  before  witnesses  a  solemn  protest 

brochius  scriptis  Carmeliticis  oonvictus ";  which  shows  how  greatly  he  was  affected  by  the 

"Jesuiticum  Nihil  .  .  •  ";  "Hercules  Commodianus  condemnation  levelled  at  his  head  by  the  Spanish 

Joaimes  Launoius  .  .  ,  redivivus  in  P  Daniele  Pape-  Inquisition.    "After  forty  two  years  of  assiduous 

brochio  .  .  .  ";"R,  P.  Papebrochius  Historicus  Con-  toil,  devoted  to  the  elucidation  of  the  Acts  of  the 

jecturalis  Bombardizans  S.  Lucam  et  Sanctos  Patres  ";  Saints,  hoping  to  go  to  the  enjoyment  of  their  ao- 

etc.  The  series  culminated  in  the  large  quarto  volume  ciety,  I  ask  only  one  thing  on  earth,  and  it  is  that 

signed  with  the  name  of  Father  Sebastian  of  St.  Paul,  His  Holiness  Clement  XI  be  immediately  implored 

provincial  of  the  Flemish-Belgian  province  of  the  to  grant  me  after  death  what  in  life  I  have  soukbt  in 


BOLLAlfBian  635  BOLLURDIBTS 

vain  from  Innocent  XII.    I  have  lived  a  Catholic,  qui^re  had  but  recently  been  transferred  from  the 

and  I  die  a  Oatix>Iio,  by  the  grace  of  God.    I  have  woric.    The  former,  at  the  time  of  the  suppreflsion 

also  the  right  of  dyin^  a  Catholic  in  the  eyes  of  of  the  Society,  was  superior  of  the  Flemish-BelgiaQ 

men,  which  is  not  pcosible  so  long  as  the  decree  of  province;  the  latter  was  in  charge  of  the  projected 

the  Spanish  Inquisition  shaU  appear  justiv  issued  publication  of  the'' Analecta  Belgica'',  a  collection  of 

and  published,  and  so  long  as  people  read  that  I  documents  relating  to  the  history  of  Belgium,  a  woric 

have  taught  in  my  books  heretical  propositions  fw  for  which  the  funds  of  the  Muste  BeUarmin  were 

which  I  have  been  condemned. "    Papebroch  had  ao-  appropriated.    This  Museum    was    established    at 

oepbed  without  appeal  or  murmur  the  decision  of  Mechlm  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  centuiy, 

the  Roman  Congregation  of  22  December,   1700,  for  the  purpose  of  opposing  the  Jansenists,  but  was 


expressly 

account  of  the  sections  bearing  on  certam  conclaves  of  tiie  professed  Jesuit  Fathers  at  Antwerp,  and  before 
and  requiring  mer^y  the  correction  of  the  passaf^  the  assembled  oommunitv  read  the  Bull  of  suppres- 
in  question.  But  he  did  not  cease  workkig  dunnff  sion  of  Clement  XIV  and  the  imperial  letters  patent 
the  twelve  years  and  a  half  that  he  still  lived ,  both  empowering  them  to  execute  it.  They  then  aSxed 
by  hja  own  efforts  and  those  of  his  friends,  not  only  seals  to  the  entrances  of  the  archives,  libraries,  and 
to  prevent  the  confirmation  by  Rome  of  the  decree  any  rooms  of  the  Fathers  which  contained  money 
of  the  Spanish  Inquisition,  but  also  to  secure  the  or  objects  of  value.  A  like  proceeding  took  place  on 
retraction  of  the  decree.  Father  Janninck  was  even  the  same  day  in  all  the  houses  of  the  Society  then 
sent  to  Rome  with  this  end  in  view  and  remained  existing  in  Bel^um.  Neverthdess  a  special  order 
there  for  over  two  years  and  a  half,  from  the  end  was  issued  enjoining  the  members  of  the  commission 
of  October,  1697,  till  June,  1700.  He  was  completely  charged  with  executing  the  decree  on  the  Professed 
successful  with  respect  to  the  first  object  of  his  mis-  House  at  Antwerp  **  to  smnmon  the  ci-devant 
sion,  as  in  December,  1697,  he  received  the  assurance  Jesuits  employed  in  the  publication  of  the  'Acta 
that  no  censure  would  be  passed  against  the  vol-  Sanctorum  and  to  announce  to  them  that  the 
umes  condenmed  in  Spain.  The  persecutors  of  Pape-  government,  satisfied  with  their  labours,  was  dis- 
broch  were  compelled  to  sue  for  an  injunction  to  posed  to  exercise  special  consideration  in  their  re- 
silence  for  both  parties,  which  was  accorded  them  gard''.  Father  Ghesqui^re  and  his  collaborators  in 
by  a  Brief  of  25  November,  1698,  gratefully  accepted  the  "  Analecta  Belgica"  were  included  in  this  indul- 
by  Papebroch.  More  time  was  necessary,  however,  gence  granted  to  the  Bollandists.  This  favourable 
to  bring  about  a  final  decision  in  the  second  matter,  attitude  of  the  Government  resulted,  after  various 
Whether  it  was  judged  prudent  in  Rome  not  to  tiresome  conferences,  in  the  removal,  in  1778,  of  the 
enter  into  conflict  with  the  Spanish  tribimal,  or  Bollandists  and  the  historiographers  of  Bdgium, 
whether  the  latter  prolonged  the  affair  by  passive  together  with  their  libraries,  to  the  abbey  of  Cauden- 
resistance,  the  decree  of  condemnation  made  m  1695  berg,  at  Brussels.  Each  of  the  Bollandists  was  to 
was  not  revoked  until  1715,  the  year  following  the  receive  an  annual  pension  of  800  florins,  besides  the 
death  of  Papebroch.  As  for  the  "  Propylaeum  Mail ",  600  florins  to  be  given  to  the  community  of  Cauden- 
it  was  not  withdrawn  from  the  Index  of  Forbidden  berg  in  payment  for  their  board  and  lodging.  The 
Books  until  the  last  edition  (1900):  but  this  did  not  same  indulgence  was  accorded  to  Ghesquiire  in  con- 
j»event  the  French  editor,  Victor  Palm6,  from  pub-  sideration  of  his  office  of  historian.  The  results  of  the 
fishing  it  in  his  reprint  of  the  Acta  Sanctorum,  wnich  sale  of  the  volumes  were  to  be  divided  between  the 
he  undertook  about  1860.  abb^  and  the  editors  on  condition  that  the  abbey 
A  grievous  trial  of  another  sort  was  visited  on  should  take  charge  of  the  matter  on  hand,  and  pro- 
Papebroch  during  the  last  years  of  the  seventeenth  vide  a  copyist  to  make  fair  copies  of  manuscripts  for 
century.  A  cataract  affecting  both  eyes  reduced  the  printers,  as  well  as  rehgious  who  should  be 
him  for  about  five  years  to  a  state  of  total  blindness,  trained  under  the  direction  of  the  elder  Bollandists 
which  compiled  him  to  give  up  all  literary  com-  for  the  continuation  of  the  work.  The  other  half 
position.  The  sight  of  his  left  eye  was  restored  in  of  the  profits  was  to  be  divided  in  equal  portions 
1702  by  a  successful  operation.  He  immediately  among  the  writers.  The  four  hagiograpners  took  up 
took  up  his  work  again  and  continued  the  Acta  their  residence  at  the  Abbey  of  Caudfenberg,  and  with 
Sanctorum  as  far  as  the  fifth  volume  of  June,  the  the  consent  of  the  abbot  adopted  two  young  reli^ 
twenty-fourth  of  the  whole  collection,  which  ap-  gious  as  assistants.  One  of  these  soon  left  them  to 
peared  in  1709.  The  weight  of  age — he  was  then  pursue  his  scientific  studies,  feeling  that  he  had  not 
eighty-one — ^and  his  infirmities  compelled  him  to  the  vocation  for  this  work;  the  other  was  John- 
abcmdon  the  more  arduous  work  of  the  Bollandist  Baptist  Fonson,  at  that  time  (1788)  twenty-two 
museiun.  He  lived  for  almost  five  years,  which  he  years  of  a«e,  whose  name  soon  afterwards  appeared 
devoted  to  editing  the  "Annales  Antverpienses"  on  the  title  page  as  editor.  Under  this  new  condi- 
from  the  foundation  of  Antwerp  down  to  the  year  tion  of  thinm  there  appeared  in  1780  Volume  IV  of 
1700.  The  manuscript  of  this  work  comprised  eleven  October  imder  the  names  of  Constantine  Suyskens 
volumes  m  folio,  seven  of  which  are  at  the  Royal  (d.  1771),  Cornelius  De  Bye.  John  De  Bue,  Joseph 
Library  of  Brussels,  the  others  probably  having  been  Ghesquidre,  and  Iraiatius  Hubens,  all  former  Jesuits, 
lost.    An  edition  of  the  volumes  which  have  been  In  1786,  Volume  V  appeared,  signed  with  the  names 

Sreserved  to  us  was  published  at  Antwerp,  1846-48,  in  of  De  Bye,  De  Bue,  and  Fonson.    In  the  interval 

ve  volumes  in  octavo.  between   these  two  voltunes   the  corps  of  hagiog- 

We  shall  not  pmrsue  further  the  history  of  the  raphers  had  lost,  in  1782,  the  youngest  of  the  Ant- 

BoUandist  work  diuing  the  eighteenth  century  iip  werp  members,  Ignatius  Hubens.    He  was  replaced 

to  the  suppression  of  tiie  Society  of  Jesus,  in  1773.  in  October,  1784,  by  a  French  Benedictine,  Dom 

The  pubUcation  continued  regularly,  though  with  Anselm  Berthod,  who  voluntarily  resigned  the  high 

more  or  less  unevenness  as  to  the  value  of  the  com-  positions  he  held  in  his  order  and  those  for  whiefa 

mentaries,  up  to  the  third  volume  of  October,  which  he  was  intended,  so  that  he  might  devote  himself  to 

appeared  In  1770.    The  suppression  of  the  Society  the  learned  work  which  the  Imperial  Government  of 

brought  about  a  crisis  in  which  the  work  neuiy  Vienna  requested  him  to  take  up.    He  was  to  be 

foundered.    The   Bollandists   then   in   office   were  eng^iged  upon  it  only  a  little  more  than  three  yean, 

Cornelius   De  Bye,  James  De  Bue,  and   Ignatius  for  he  died  at  Brussels,  in  Mareh,  1788. 
Hubens.    The  Fathers  Jean  C16  and  Josenh  Ghes-       Two  new  volumes  were  isisued  from  the  rogral  pres* 


BOLLAimmB  636  BOLLA1IDI8T8 

of  Bnisseb,  to  which  had  been  sent  all  the  equip-  that  date,  no  more  payments  should  be  made  to  tiie 

ments    of    the   printing   establishment    which    the  Fathers  De  Bye,  De  Bue,  Fonsony  Ghesqui^,  and 

BoUandists  had  foimded  at  Antwerp  exclusively  for  Ck>melius  Smet  (a  Ibrmer  Jesuit,  associated  first  with 

their  work.    The  printing  expenses  as  well  as  those  Ghesqui^re   in   the   publication   of   the   "Analecta 

of  pensions  and  indemnities  were  largely  made  up  to  Belsica''  and  later  enrolled  among  the  BoUandists) 

the  public  treasury  by  the  confiscation  of  the  capital  of  the  annual  pension  of  800  florins  which  had  been 

amassed  by  the  older  BoUandists  through  the  sale  of  assured  them.    It  was  to  be  decided  later  what  should 

their  volumes,  the  collective  pension  of  2,000  Brabant  be  done  with  the  printing  outfit  and  the  other  ^ects 

florins  received  from  the  government  aU  through  the  of  the  suppressed  establishment.    These  spoils  com- 

eighteenUi  centiuy  up  to  the  suppression  of  the  prised  the  library  of  the  BoUandists  and  the  copies 

S^ety,  and  the  liberaUty  of  certain  benefactors,  of  the  volumes  alreadv  published  which  they  had  in 

Ttds  capital  had  grown  by  1773  to  the  sum  of  130,000  stock.    This  involved  no  slight  annoyance.    Onoe 

Brabant  florins,  ($47,166)  3rielding  an  annual  revenue  the  series  was  abandoned,  it  would  k>e  difficult  to 

of  9,133  florins  snd  18  sous  to  wmch  were  added  the  find  a  purchaser  for  these  works,  and  they  wished  to 

results  of  the  sale  of  the  Acta  Sanctorum  which  realize  as  much  monev  as  possible  from  them.    It 

averaged  2,400  florins  yearly.    The  Empress  Maria  was  decided  to  ask  the  BoUandists  themselves  to 

Theresa  to  the  very  last  showed  favour  to  the  woric  imdertake  the  sale  of  these  effects  for  the  benefit  of 

of  the  BoUandists.    The  same  benevolence  was  not  the  pubUc  treasury.    The  BoUandists  willin^y  ao- 

experienc^d   from   her  successor,   Joseph  II.    The  cepted  the  charge,  hoping  to  keep  intact  the  treas- 

BoUandists  now  felt  the  consequences  of  one  of  the  ures  of  their  Ubrary  and  thus  to  ensure,  in  a  certain 

so-called  reforms  introduced  into  the  ecclesiastical  measure,  the  resumption  of  the  woric,  if  not  at  onoe, 

domain  by  this  imperial  phUosopher.    Among  the  at  least  in  the  near  future. 

reUgious  houses  suppressed  as  useless  was  the  Abbey        GomeUus  De  Bye,  who  had  been  especiaUy  com~ 

of  Caudenberg.    The  decree  of  suppression  was  en-  missicmed  to  conduct  the  sale,  turned  wrst  to  Martin 

forced  in  May,  1786.    The  BoUandists  were  not  at  Gerbert,   the  learned  abbot  of  the  monastenr  of 

fiiBt  involved  in  the  catastrophe,  as  they  were  as-  St.  Blasius  in  the  Black  Forest.     Chi  behalf  of  the 

signed  a  dwelling-place  end  horary  in  a  part  of  the  Government  commissioners  he  named   a  purchase 

buildings  formerly  occupied  by  the  coUege  of  the  price  for  the  Ubrary  and  such  of  the  publisned  vol- 

Sooiety  of  Jesus,  and  were  allowed  to  retain  the  pen-  lunes  as  remained  unsold,  and  offered  to  come  to 

sions  and  privUeges  granted  them  in  1778.    This  was  St.  Blasius  for  some  months  in  order  to  train  some 

only  a  short  postponement,  however,  of  the  com-  of  the  young  rdigious  of   the  abbey  for  the  woric 

plete  destruction  ot  the  work.    Already,  in  1784,  the  of  publishing  the  Acta  Sanctorum.    His  letter,  dated 

Prince  von  Kaunitz,  minister  of  Joseph  II  and  his  11  November,  1788,  remained  unanswered,  whether 

chief  counsellor  in  the  matter  of  religious  reform,  had  as  a  result  of  dispositions  Utile  favourable  to  Uie 

intimated  that  the  Emperor  was  not  content  with  the  Society  of  Jesus,  such  as  had  been  more  than  onoe 

slow  progress  of  the  undertaking,  and  that  for  the  manifested  by  this  famous  abbot,  or  whether,  al- 

future  he  would  expect  to  see  the  publication  of  at  ready  absorbed  by  many  important  works,  he  felt  he 

least  a  volume  a  year,  so  that  the  work  might  be  could  not  think  of  undertaking  yet  another  entirdy 

entirely  finished  in  ten  years.    The  minister  even  new.    About  the  same  time,  i..e.  in  November  imd 

went  so  far  as  to  send  word  to  the  municipaUty  of  December,  1788^  the  Congregation  of  Benedictines 

Brussels  that  "  he  attributed  the  lack  of  activity  on  of  Saint-Maur,  m  France,  of  its  own  accord  made 

the  part  of  the  BoUandists  to  their  desire  to  keep  up  advances  to  the  officials  of  the  Imperial  Government 

forever  [itemiser]  the  profits  accruing  from  the  work,  of   Vienna   for   the   acquisition   of   the   BoUandist 

and  that  if  they  did  not  give  satisfaction  there  was  Ubrary,  with  a  view  to  continuing  the  pubUcation. 

nothing  to  do  but  suppress  the  establishment."    The  This  attempt  was  equaUy  void  of  r^iut.    It  was 

accused  had  no  difficulty  in  justifying  themselves,  with  the  abbey  of  the  Premonstratensians  of  Ton- 

But  the  Court  of  Vienna  had  fully  decided  to  hear  gerloo   that  arrangements  were  finaUy  conduded. 

no  explanation,  and  in  1788  asked  for  a  report  from  By  a  contract  si^ed  11  May,  1789,  the  Government 

the  Court  of  Accounts  concerning  the  expenses  entaUed  transferred  to  this  abbey  the  BoUandist  Ubrary  and 

by  the  work  of  the  BoUandists.    The  condusion  de-  the  BeUarmine  Museum,  together  with  the  furnish- 

duced  from  this  report  was  that  the  suppression  of  in^  appertaining  to  them,  and  the  volumes  already 

this  work  and  that  of  the  historiographers  would  prmted  and  the  printing  equipment.    In  return,  the 

result  in  an  annual  ^ain  to  the  treasury  of  two  abbey  was  to  pay  the  government  for  the  Ubraries 

to  three  thousand  flonns.    The  Chamber,  moreover,  12,000  Brabant  florins  ($4,353.84)  and  for  the  other 

took  it  on  itself  to  say  that  there  was  no  advantage  things  18,000  florins.     HaU  of  the  latter  sum  was 

to  be  gained  by  continuing  it.    The  ecclesiastical  turned  over  to  the  three  hagiographers,  De  Bye. 

commission  and  commission  of  studies  (one  and  the  De  Bue,  and  Fonson.    Moreover,  the  abbey  agreed 

same),  consulted  in  its  turn,  gave  a  decision  to  the  to  pay  a  yearly  salary  to  these  three  as  well  as 

same  effect  (11  October,  1788).     ''The  work  of  the  to   Ghesqmdre   and   Smet.    The   BoUandists  were 

BoUandists",  it  said,  ''is  far  from  completion,  and  scarcely  established  in  their  new  home  when  the 

we  cannot  flatty  ourselves  that  the  end  is  yet  in  Brabantine    Revolution    broke    out:    Nevertheless, 

sight.    This  work  has  no  merit  but  that  of  being  an  they  continued  their  labours  and  in  1794  published 

hStorical  repertory,  filled  with  an  enormous  quantity  the  sixth  volume  of  October,  signed  with  tne  names 

of  details,  wnich  \mi  always  have  but  sUght  attraction  of  Cornelius  De  Bye  and  James  De  Bue,  former 

for  real  savants.     It  is  astonishing  that  at  the  time  Jesuits,  John  Baptist  Fonson,  ex-Canon  of  Caud«i- 

of  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuit  Order,  they  should  berg,  Anselm  Berthed  the  Benedictine,  and  Siard 

have  been  successful  in  interesting  the  Government  van  Dyck,  Cyprian  van  de  Goor,  and  Matthias  Sialz, 

in  such  trash,  and  that  it  is  such  is  proved  by  the  Premonstratensian  canons.     The  same  year  Belgium 

scanty  profit  the  BoUandists  have  derived  from  their  was  invaded  by  French  troops  and  reunited  to  the 

labours.     In  business  parlance,  it  is  a  very  poor  in-  great  Republic:     Ecclesiastical  eoods  were  oonfis- 

vestment,  and  as  it  is  not  better,  regarded  from  a  cated,  priests  and  reUgious  hunted  like  criminals,  the 

scientific  standpoint,  it  is  quite  time  to  put  an  end  Premonstratensians  ofTongerioo  and  the  BoUandists 

to  it."    Strengthened  by  tnis  advice,  the  "Govern-  whom  they  harboured  forced  to  dispn^  and  the 

ment  CoimcU"  notified  the  Court  of  Accounts  by  a  work  of  the  BoUandists  actuaUy  suppressed.    Part 

despatch  dated  16  October,  1788,  that  it  had  been  of  the  treasures  of  the  library  were  concealed  in  the 

decided  to  put  a  stop  to  the  work  of  the  Acta  Sane-  homfiB  of  neighbouring  peasants,  and  the  rest,  hsstOy 

torum,   and  that  in  consequence,   beginning  from  uQediiito  wagons,  were  taken  to  Westohalia.    When 


B0U.AKDX8T8                             637  BOUiAinUffn 

the  storm  of  persecution  had  somewhat  abated,  an  that  by  29  January,  IB37,  he  received  from  Father 
attempt  was  made  to  collect  these  acattered  effects,  van  Lu,  Provincial  of  the  Society  in  Be^um,  aasur- 
Natm^ly,  many  of  them  were  lost  or  deatrtnred.  ance  of  the  appointment  by  the  Society  of  new 
The  remainder  were  restored  to  the  abbey  of  Ton-  BoUandists,  witn  their  residence  at  the  Colleee  of 
eerioo,  where  they  were  undisturbed  until  '  1825.  Saint-Michel  at  BniBsels.  These  were  Fathers  Jean- 
Then,  aa  all  hope  of  resuming  the  Bollandiat  work  Baptjste  Boone,  Joeeph  Van  der  Moere,  and  Proapei 
seemed  lost,  the  canons  of  Tongerloo  disposed  of  a  Coppens,  to  whom  was  added,  in  the  course  of  the 
great  number  of  the  books  and  manuscripts  by  public  some  year.  Father  Joseph  V^^n  Hecke.  The  provin- 
eaie.  Such  as  remtuned  were  ^ven  to  the  Govern-  cial,  in  behalf  of  these  Fathers,  asked  free  access  to 
ment  of  the  Netheriands,  which  hastened  to  in-  public  libmries  and  archives,  and  the  privilege  of 
corporate  the  volumes  into  the  Royal  Library  of  The  taking  home  with  them  from  the  Library  of  Bour- 
Hague.  The  manuscripts  seemed  destined  to  a  like  sogne  and  the  Royal  Library,  such  manuscripts  and 
fate,  but  as  a  result  of  earnest  soUcitations  iheff  were  books  as  they  would  need  tor  reference  in  the  course 
depo::ited  in  the  Library  of  Bourgogne.  Brussels,  of  their  work.  Both  requests  were  immediately 
where  they  still  remain.  Nevertheless,  tno  idea  of  ^nted.  Moreover,  an  annual  subsidy  was  prom- 
resuming  the  publication  of  the  Acta  Sanctorum  ised,  which  was  fixed  in  May,  1837,  at  6,000  francs, 
had  never  been  entirely  abandoned  in  Belgium.  This  subsidy  was  continued  from  year  t^  year  un- 
The  prefect  of  the  department  of  the  Deux  N^thes  der  the  diHerent  governments,  both  Cbtbolic  and 
{province  of  AntweipJ,  in  1801;  the  Institute  of  Liberal,  which  succeeded  to  power,  until  the  parlia- 
I'rancc,  with  the  Minister  of  the  Interior  of  the  mentary  session  of  1868,  in  the  course  of  which  the 
French  Republic  as  mediator,  in  1802;  and  lastly,  Liberal  majority  of  the  Chainlter  of  Deputise  cut  it 
in  1810,  the  Baron  de  Tour  au  Pin,  Prefect  of  the  out  of  the  nudget.  It  has  never  been  te^etabhshed. 
Departnient  of  the  I^le  (Brussels),  at  the  request  The  new  hagiographera  began  by  drawing  up 
of  the  incumbent  of  the  same  important  ofiice,  then  a  list  of  the  sainU  wtioee  acts  or  notices  remained 
theOomitdeHontalivet, Implied tosuchoftheiormer  to  be  pubUshed,  that  ie  to  Bay,  those  who  are  hon- 


Bollondiats  as  were  still  living,  to  induce  tnem  to  oured  in  the  Catholic  Church  on  the  various  days  of 

resume   their  task  once   more.     But   the   attempts  October,  November,  and  December,  beginning  from 

wera  futile.  15  October,  the  day  at  which   the  work  of  their 

MatterarestedhereuntillSSa.     It  was  then  learned  predecessors  had  been  brought  to  a  halt.     This  list 

that    a    hagiceraphical    society    had    been    formed  was  published  in  the  month  of  March,   1838,  with 

jn  France  under  the  patronage  of  several   bishops  an  introduction  containing  a  ^ummajy  of  the  hts- 

aod   of   M.  Guizot,  Miniftter   of   Pubho   Instruction,  toty  of  the  Bollandist  movement,  the  announcement 

sod  that  it  especially  proposed  to  itself  the  resump-  of  the  resumption  of  the  work,  and  an  earnest  appeal 

tk>n  of  the  work  of  the  BoUandists.     The  chief  pro-  to  all  friends  of  religious  learning,  imploring  their 

Iiiot«r  of  the  enterprise,  Abb6  Thtodore  Perrin,  of  assistance  in  securing   what  was  felt   oy  the  new 

IavbI,  came  to  Belgium  that  same  year,  lS3fi,  to  workers  as  the  most  neceiisaiy  thing  for  their  success, 

solicit  the  support  of  the  Government  and  the  col-  namely,  a  hagiographical  librazy.     This  was   pub- 

labotation   of  Belgian   savants.     He   did   not  meet  lished  under  the  title  of  "De  prosecutione  operis 

with  the  reception  lie  had  hoped  for.     On  the  con-  Bollandiani"  (in  octavo,  60  pp.).     The  appeal  was 

trory,  it  aroused  indignation  in  Belgium  that  a  work  heard.     Most  of  the  European  goverrunents,  many 

which  had  come  to  be  regarded  as  a  national  glory  societies  of  learned  men,  and  several  great  publish- 

ehould  pass  into  the  hands  of  the  French.     The  Abbfi  em  sent  copies  of  the  historical  works  undertaken 

de   Rom,  Rector   Maynificua   al    the    University   of  by  them  or  under  their  patronoKe:  private  individ- 

Louvain  and  member  of   the  Royal  Commission  of  uols  made  genravus  donations  of  books,  often  pre- 

Hisloiy,  expt«9sed  this  feeling  in  a  letter  addressed  cious  and  rare  volumes  that  had  adorned  their  11- 

under  date  of  17  October  to  the  Count  de  Theux,  braries.    Everywhere,also,OD  thcirliterajy  journeys. 

Minister  of  the  Interior,  urgently  imploring  him  to  the  BoUandists  were  accorded  the  most  enthusioHtic 

lose  no  time  in  securing  for  thar  mitive  land  of  Bel-  and  flattering  receptions. 

gium  the  honour  of  completing  the  great  hagiograph-  The  first  volume  published  after  the  resurrection 
uad  coUection,  and  engaged  him  to  entrust  the  work  of  Bollandisra,  Volume  VII  of  October,  appeared  in 
to  the  Fathers  of  the  Society  of  Jeeus,  by  whom  1845,  containing  over  2,000  pages  in  fofio.  There 
it  bad  been  begun  and  carried  so  far  in  the  proced-  followed  successively  Volmnes  VIII  to  XIII  of  Go- 
ing centuries.  The  Minister  immediately  took  the  tober,  and  I  and  II  of  November,  besides  the  "Propy- 
fidd  and  conducted  negotiaUons  with  such  energy  heum  Novembris",  an  edition  of  the  Greek  Synaxa- 


BOLUWDUTB  638  BOLLAXDIBTS 

rion  called  "da  Sirmond",  with  the  variants  of  sixty  Royal  Library  of  Bnwsds  (2  vols,  in  octaro),  in  Urn 
manuMiipto  scatterad  through  the  various  public  libraries  of  the  cities,  or  of  the  umvenitiea,  of  Bn»a, 
libraries  of  Europe.  Ghent,  Liige,  and  Namur,  in  Belgium;  of  themumci- 

The  author  of  this  article  does  not  consider  him-  pal  libraries  of  Chartrts,  Le  Mans,  Douai,  and  Rouen 
mil  quaMed  to  give  an  estimate  of  Uie  work  of  m  France;  those  of  The  Hague  in  Holland,  and,  in 
these  later  BoUandiste,  having  himself  been  a  mem-  Italy,  of  Milan  (the  Ambrosian) ,  as  well  as  the  vari- 
ber  of  the  body  for  too  long  a  time.  IIu  is  able,  oub  libraries  of  Rome;  also  in  the  private  Ulmiy  of 
however,  to  cite  the  appreciations  of  the  most  dis-     His  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  at  Vienna,  and 

*: — :.i,„j  ._j uij  gcholate  in  this  Seld,  who    that  of  Alphonaiis  Wins  at  Nivelles;  and  lastly,  o( 

s  putilished  by  the  later  Bol- 
inferior  to  those  of  their  pre- 
rs  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries. 
The  reservations  made  by  cert^n  eminent  critics  in 
th^  oonunendation  are  generally  due  to  the  prolix- 
ity of  the  oommentaries,  which  they  think  is  oft«a 
excessive,  and  to  the  timidity  of  certain  conclusions, 
which  do  not  seem  to  them  to  correspond  with  what 
the  diecuaaions  had  led  them  to  expect.  Another 
class  of  censors  reproach  tlie  BoUandists  for  quite 
the  reverse,  accusing  them  of  not  showing  sufficient 
respect  towards  what  theycidl  tradition,  and  of  being 
too  often  hypercriticaL  The  present  members  of  the 
body  are  firmly  reeolved  to  be  on  their  guard  against 
these  contrary  excesses,  something,  indeed,  which 
becomes  easier  for  them  as  time  posses,  owins  to  the 
constant  projsress  of  good  scientific  methods.  Wo 
may  be  permitted  one  word,  in  conclusion,  as  to  what 
has  been  done  during  these  latter  years  towards  keep- 
ing the  work  up  to  the  high  level  of  contemporary 
historical  erudition.  It  hasbeen  judged  opportune,  in 
the  first  place,  to  publish,  besides  t£e  great  volumes 
of  the  pnncipal  collection  itself,  which  appear  at  un- 
determined mtervals,  a  periodical  review  intended 
chiefly  to  make  known  to  the  learned  public  mat«riBls 
recently  discovered  by  the  BoUandists  or  their  friends, 
which  go  towards  completinj^  either  the  Acts  published 
in  the  volumes  already  printed  or  the  entire  mass 
of  material  to  be  employed  in  the  future  volumes  of 

the  work.      This  review  was  begun  under  the  title  Lraajiar,  Cou.>ob  or  BAiirr-UicHiL,  BaDasBLa 

of  "Analecta  Bollandiana"  in  the  early  part  of  1882. 

At  the  rate  of  one  iiolume  in  octavo  a  year,  it  has  the  Bollandist  Libra^.  Besides  the  "Aoalecta", 
reached  in  the  present  year  (1907)  the  twenty-sixth  there  have  appeared  the  catalogue  of  the  old  (before 
vtdunie.  In  volumee  subsequent  to  the  sixth  there  1500)  Latin  manuscripts  in  the  NationsJ  Library  of 
have  been  insert«d,  besides  unedited  documents,  va-  Paris  (three  octavo  volumes,  also  the  tables)  and  a 
nous  notes  bearing  on  bagiographical  matters.  Since  list  of  the  Greek  manuscripts  in  the  same  library 
the  publication  of  the  tenth  volume,  each  quarterly  (compiled  in  collaboration  with  M.  H.  Oraont).  All 
issue  has  contained  a  "Bulletin  dee  publications  these  publications,  although  certainly  delaying  some- 
bagiographjques"  in  which  are  announcement  and  what  the  appearance  of  succeeding  volumes  of  the 
summary  appreciations  of  recent  works  and  articles  Acta  Sanctorum,  have  gained  for  the  BoUandists 
in  reviews  which  concern  matters  of  hagiography.  warm  words  of  encountgement  and  commendaticot 
Other  auxiliary  worlu  have  exacted  lorig  years  of  from  the  greatest  scholars.  In  view  of  the  impossi- 
laborious  preparation.  They  are  the  "Bibliothacs  bility  of  quoting  at  length  these  flatt«ring  testi- 
Hagii^npnica  Grsca"  and  the  "Bibliotheca  Hagio-  mtmies,  we  shall  confine  ourselves  to  mentioning,  as 
graphicaLatina",  in  which  are  enumerated  under  the  they  come  to  mind,  the  articles  of  Mgr.  Duchesne 
name  of  each  saint,  following  the  alphaljetical  order  (Bulletin  critique,  1  April,  1890);  Lipoid  Delisle 
of  their  names,  all  documents  relating  to  his  or  her  (Biblioth^ue  ae  I'^cole  des  Chartrea,  LI,  1890,  532); 
life  and  cult  written  in  Greek  or  m  I,atin  before  the  M.  Solomon  Reinach  (Revue  Arch&logique,  18fl5,  II, 
bennning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  ttwether  with  the  228);  Krieg  (Litlerarische  Rundschau,  1  DecemW, 
indication  of  all  collections  and  books  where  they  1900);  a  passage  in  the  Belgian  Archives  (1901),  111, 
can  be  found.  The  first  of  these  collections,  whicn  31.  There  is  a  final  detail  which  may  not  be  without 
appeared  in  1895,  numbers  143  pares.  (There  is  now  interest.  The  BoUandists  had  found  themadvee 
in  preparation  a  new  edition  notafly  enlarged.)  TTie  greatly  iiampered  in  the  arrangement  of  their  libraiy 
second,  issued  1898-99,  has  1,387  pages.  It  is  at  their  residence  in  the  Rue  des  Ursulines  at  Bruneia 
hoped  that  a  "Bibliotheca  Hagiographica  Orientals"  wliich  they  had  occupied  since  the  resiunption  of  tte 
will  soon  be  printed.  Moreover,  there  is  a  third  class  work  in  1837.  During  the  latter  part  oi  1005  they 
of  auxiliary  woriis  to  which  the  BoUandists  of  the  were  transferred  to  the  new  Ckillege  of  Saint-Micbd 
present  generation  are  directing  their  activity,  and  on  the  Boulevard  Militaire,  where  ample  and  con- 
that  is  the  careful  preparation  of  catalogues  contain-  venient  quarters  for  the  library  were  assigned  in 
ing  a  systematic  detailed  description  of  the  Greek  the  lofty  buildings  of  the  vast  establishment.  The 
and  Latin  hagi<%TaphicaI  manuscripts  of  various  190,000  volumes  contained  in  their  literary  museum 
great  libraries.  A  great  many  of  these  catalogues  are  most  suitaUy  arranged  here.  A  large  space  was 
have  been  incorporated  in  the"Analecta".  Such  are  also  set  apart  for  histoncal  and  philological  reviews 
the  catalo^ee  of  the  Greek  manuscrHpts  in  the  Ro-  (about  600),  nearly  aU  of  which  are  sent  regularly 
manlibranesof theBarberini, theChigi.andtheVati-  by  learned  societies,  either  gratuitously  or  m  ex- 
ean;  theNationalLibraryof  Naples;  theliliraryof  the  change  for  the  "Analecta  Bollandiona  .  To  class 
University  of  Messina,  and  that  of  St.  Mark's,  in  these  accordi^  to  the  place  of  publication  and  the 
Venice:  oataloguee  of  the  Latin  manuscripts  in  the    language  chiefly  employed  in  their  preparation:  228 


n^^^Y^  WM  *f^ 


639 


BCHXMOfA 


Are  French  (a  oertain  number  of  whioh  are  (mUiahed 
in  Bdffium,  Switzerland,  and  other  countriee  than 
Fiance);  135,  German;  88,  Italian;  55,  English  (of 
which  ten  are  American);  13,  Ruadan;  11,  Dutch; 
7,  Flemish;  7,  Spanish;  7,  Croatian;  4,  Swedish*  3, 
Portuguese;  2,  Irish;  2,  Hun^^arian;  1,  Czech;  l,Po- 
li^;  1,  Rumanian;  1,  Dalmatian;  and  1,  Norwegian. 
Moreov^,  there  are  9  printed  in  Greek.  6  in  Latin, 
4  in  Armenian  and  1  m  Arabic.  Finally,  a  laige 
hall  near  the  library  has  been  s^  apart,  and  after 
October,  1907,  it  will  be  thrown  open  to  foreign 
dtudoits  who  ma^  wish  to  consult  original  sources 
of  information  likely  to  assist  them  m  their  re- 
searches. 

The  quotations  of  the  Acta  Sanctorum  refer  to 
three  different  editions.  The  first,  the  original  one, 
commonlv  called  the  Antwerp  edition,  nas  been 
sufficienuy  described  in  the  above  article.  The  vol- 
umes of  tne  Antwerp  collection  were  first  reprinted 
at  Venice  from  1764  to  1770.  They  reached  then  to 
volume  VI  of  September.  The  main  difference  be- 
tween this  reimpression  and  the  Antwerp  edition  lies 
in  the  fact  that  the  supplementary  additions  to  sun- 
dry commentaries  printed  by  the  BoUandists  at  the 
end  of  the  single  volumes,  or  of  a  set  of  volumes  are 
transposed  in  the  Venetian  edition  and  joined  to  the 
commentarv  to  which  the^  refer;  hence  the  contents 
of  each  volume  are  not  m  close  correspondence  in 
the  volumes  similarly  marked  in  both  editions. 
Moreover,  many  of  the  parerga  or  preliminary  trea- 
tises scattered  through  the  Antwerp  collection  have 
been  brought  together  in  three  separate  volumes. 
But  the  whole  printing  teems  with  typographical 
Uunders.  Lastly  another  reprinting  of  tne  Antwerp 
publication  was  imdertaken  by  the  Parisian  editor, 
Victor  Palm6,  from  1863  to  1869,  and  carried  on  to 
the  tenth  volume  of  October.  This  edition  repro- 
duces exactlv,  volume  by  volume,  the  original  one, 
except  for  the  months  of  January  and  June.  The 
two  big  volumes  of  January  have  been  divided  into 
three,  and  in  the  volumes  of  June  also  some  changes 
have  been  made  in  the  disposition  of  matter,  in 
ord^  to  render  the  use  of  them  easier  to  readers. 
Besides,  to  each  of  the  volumes  of  the  first  four 
months  were  added  a  few  unpublished  short  notes 
(fillinff  from  one  to  six  pages)  of  Daniel  Papebroch, 
foundfin  his  pi^rs  and  relating  to  the  conmientaries 

printed  in  the  volume. 

Bozj:u.in>,  PnghHo  oeneraiu  in  Acta  Sanctorum  (at  the 
bccmninc  of  vol.  I  for  January) ;  Papbbroch,  D«  vitd,  vtrtu^ 
hu$  et  oper^mM  Joannis  BoUandi  (at  the  beginning  of  vol.  I 
for  March);  Papebroch,  De  vitd  .  .  .  Ood^fridi  HenBchenii 
(at  the  bopmninc  of  vol.  VII  for  May):  J.  Pxbn,  De  VUd 
hanielU  Fap^rochii  (at  the  beginning  of  vol.  VI  for  June); 
J.  Van  Hbcke,  De  ratione  univerti  operit  [BoUandian%\  (be- 
g»^»»»<"g  of  vol.  VII  for  October). 

Ch.  Dk  Smxdt. 

B(41andiui  (Holland).    See  Bollandists. 

BoUiff,  JoHANN,  distinguished  Orientalist,  b.  near 
Dtlren  m  Rhenish  Prussia,  23  August,  1821-  d.  at 
Rome  in  1895.  He  studied  theology  and  Semitic 
languages  at  Rome,  where  he  entered  the  Society 
of  3e0U8  hi  1853.  In  1862-63  he  sojourned  in  S^ria 
as  professor  of  theology  for  the  native  seminaries, 
at  the  same  time  pursmng  his  researches  in  Oriental 
literature.  After  nis  return  to  Rome,  he  Tvas  ai>- 
TOinted  professor  of  Arabic  and  Sanskrit  at  the 
Roman  Ck)llege  (afterwards  -the  Gregorian  Uni- 
versity) and  at  the  Sapienza.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  commission  appointed  by  Pius  IX  to  arrange 
the  details  of  the  Vatican  Council  and  acted  as 
pontifical  theologian  dining  tiie  Oouncil.  For  many 
years  he  was  Consultor  cf  the  Congregation  of  the 
Propaganda  for  Oriental  affairs.  In  1880  he  was 
appointed  Prefect  of  the  Vatican  Library,  which 
office  he  held  till  his  death.  Among  his  published 
works  are:  ''Brevis  Chrestomathia  arabica^'  (Rome, 
1882);  "StL  Gregorii  lib.  carm.  iambic",  an  ancient 


Syriao  tran^tion  (Beirut,  1886).    He  left  many  UB 
published  writinn  on  Oriental  pnilology. 

CaktloQUM  of  ^  Rom.  Prov,  8J4  Hkrdbr,  KonooroaHont 
Ux,,  I,  a.  V.  ^    ^ 

B.  GULDNEa. 

Bologna,  Abchdiocbsb  of. — History, — Bologna 
is  the  principal  city  in  the  province  of  the  same 
name,  Italy,  and  contains  about  150,(XX)  inhabitants. 
It  was  founded  by  the  Etruscans,  who  called  it 
Felsina.  Later  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Boii,  a 
Gallic  tribe,  and  from  that  time  took  the  name 
of  Bononia,  whence  the  present  form.  The  regions 
round  about  having  been  laid  waste  by  the  con- 
tinual wars,  in  189  B.  c.  the  Romans  established  a 
colony  there,  "^vdiich  was  enlarged  and  beautified  by 
Augustus.  After  Bysantium  nad  broken  the  power 
of  the  Goths  in  Italy,  Bologna  belonged  to  the  Ex- 
archate of  Ravenna  (536).  By  the  donation  of 
Pepin  Bologna  was  made  part  of  the  patrimony  of 
the  Holy  See,  but  during  the  disturbances  of  the 
ninth  centunr  was  wrested  from  the  popes.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  ninth  oentiuy  it  was  laid  waste 
during  the  incursions  of  the  Hungarians.  Otto  I 
did  much  to  restore  the  city  to  its  U)rmer  condition, 
giving  it  the  privilege  of  enacting  its  own  laws,  ana 
making  it  directiy  dependent  on  the  imperial  au- 
thority. Bologna  was  then  governed  by  consuls. 
Diuing  the  stniggles  between  the  empire  and  the 
popes,  the  city  took  the  part  of  the  latter  and  was 
enabled  to  assert  its  independence,  which  was  defi- 
nitely recognized  by  Henry  V  in  1 122.  Bologna  was 
amon^  the  first  to  join  the  Lombard  League.  From 
1153  It  was  ruled  by  podestas,  who  were  for  the 
most  part  foreigners.  From  the  accession  of  Fred- 
erick II,  Bologna  was  rent  into  the  two  factions  of 
Gudphs  and  Uhibellines,  the  former  being  in  the 
majority.  On  26  May,  1249,  the  inhabitants  of 
Bologna  in  the  battle  of  Foesalto  conc|uered  the 
troop  of  Frederick  II  imder  the  leadership  of  King 
Ensio  of  Sardinia;  Ensio  himself  was  taken  prisoner, 
and  neither  the  threats  nor  the  promises  of  Fred- 
erick availed  to  secure  his  liberty.  He  remained  in 
captivity  until  his  death,  eleven  years  later,  althqugh 
for  the  rest  jie  was  always  treated  with  the  great^ 
consideration. 

In  1276,  in  order  more  thoroughly  to  safeguard 
their  communal  liberty,  the  inhabitants  of  Bologna 
placed  themselves  under  the  protection  of  the  Holy 
see.  and  Pope  Nicholas  III  sent  them  as  le^te  his 
nepnew,  Bertoldo  Orsini,  whom  he  also  commissioned 
to  reconcile  the  opposing  factions.  In  the  fourteenth^ 
century  tiie  preponderance  of  power  was  in  the  hands' 
of  thePepoh  family,  but  later  passed  to  the  Visconti 
of  Milan,  who  alternated  with  the  Bentivoglio  family 
in  holdiiig  the  reins  of  power.  At  intervals  the  popes 
attempted  to  make  tneir  authority  recogniscKi,  or 
else  >tne  city  spontaneously  recogmzed  their  sover^ 
eignty  (1^-34;  134(M7;  136&-76,  through  the 
efforts  of  Cardmal  Albomos;  1377-1401;  1403-11, 
during  tiie  pontificate  of  John  XXIII:  1412-16; 
1420-^,  unaer  Cardinal  Condulmer).  In  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fifteenth  century  there  were  frequent 
popular  uprisings  against  the  nobility.  From  1443 
to  1506  tnree  of  the  Bentivoglio  family  succeeded 
each  other  as  masters  of  Bologna.  In  1506  Julius  11 
incorporated  Romagna  into  the  Papal  States,  Bologna 
included;  the  city,  however,  retained  a  great  degree 
of  communal  autonomy.  The  papal  authority  was 
vested  in  a  l^te,  who  in  the  beginning  was  gen- 
erally a  cardmal,  later,  however ^  only  a  titular 
biihop.  In  1796  Bologna  was  oooupied  by  tiie  French 
and  made  a  part  of  the  Cisalpine  Republic,  and 
afterwards  of  the  Italian  Kingdom.  In  1814  it  was 
seised  by  the  Austrians,  who  in  1815  restored  it  to 
the  pope.  From  the  time  of  its  restoration,  Bologna 
was  the  scene  of  a  series  of  deep-seated  agitations 
and  revolts  against  the  papal  rule.    These  uprisin^i 


were  represaed  by  Austrian  troops.    FtnallT,  in  1889  in  ita  prcflent  form  it  dateafrom  1605,  aecOrdinK  t« 

Romagna,  together  vith  the  Hkrches  and  Umbria,  plana  drawn  up  by  Mscenta,  a  Barnabit«.     Tbe 

was  annexed  to  the  Kingdom  of  Italy.  facade,  however,  was  deaigned  by  Alf.  Tomcgjani, 

CkristiaTiUy   in   Bologrui.—Tba    only   sources    for  who  also  added  the  first  two  chapels  to  the  cburefa. 

the    history   of   the    beginninga    of   Christianity   in  The  majority  of  tbe  paintings  are  by  famous  masters, 

Bologna  are  l^endary  accounts,  acoording  to  which  as,  for  mstance,  Ventura    da    Boloma,  Ercole  Gra- 

St.  Apollinaris,  disciple  of  St.  Peter  and  first  Bishop  dani,  Francesoo  Tadolini,  Onotrio  Zanotti,  del  Ba- 

of  Ravenjoa,  waa  the  first  to  preach  the  Gospel  in  gnacavallo   (Bartolommoo  Ramenghi),  Ludavico  Ca- 

Bologna.    The  first  bishop  is  said  to  have  been  St,  racd,  and  others.    There  is  also  a  tower  church  vitii 

Zama,  who  is  supposed  to  have  been  ordained  by  five  altars.     Worthy  of  note  ii  a  crucifix  of  cedar 

Pope  St.  Dionysius  (270).    However,  it  may  be  main-  wood  dating  front  the  time  of  the  old  cathedral. 

tained  with  certainty  that  Christianity,  and  likewise  The  church  of  San  Petronio,  dedicated  to  the  patron 

the  episcopate,  in  Bologna  dates  back  to  a  more  ro-  of  the  city,  was  built  l^  order  of  the  Secento,  at 

mote  period.     During  the  persecution  of  Diocletian,  public   expense,   JD   1390.     A  competition   was  an- 

Bolo^a  was  the  scene  of  the  martyrdoms  of  Sts.  nounced  for  the   plans,  and  among  all  the  designs 

Vitalis  and  Agricola,  whose  bodies  were  interred  in  "  '  -         ..  .   p   .      .     — . 

a  Jewish  cemetery  and  only  discovered  in  the  time 
of  St.  Ambrose,  in  392,  as  related  by  him  in  a  letter 
(Ep.  Iv),  the  authenticity  of  which,  however,  is 
questioned.  The  fact  is  referred  to,  perhaps,  by 
Paulinus  in  his  life  of  the  saint,  when  he  spe^  of 
Ambrose  taking  to  Florence  some  reJics  of  these 
martyrs.  It  was  possibly  in  the  same  persecution 
that  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Froculus  oconrred.  Tbe 
episcopal  See  of  Bokigna  was  first  subject  to  the 
Metropolitan  of  Milan,  and  later,  probably  after 
Milan  had  fallen  into  tae  hands  of  the  Lombards, 
it  recognized  the  authority  of  tbe  Metropolitan  of 
Ravenna.  In  1106  it  was  placed  immediately  under 
the  Holy  See.  Finally,  in  1582  Gregory  XIII  raised 
the  Biahop  of  Bologna  to  the  dignity  of  a  metropoli- 
tan, assiniing  him  as  suffragans  the  Sees  of  Imola. 
Cervia,  Modena,  Reggio,  Parmaf  Piacenza,  ana 
Crema'  to-day,  however,  only  Imola  and  Faenza 
are  suffragan  to  Bologna. 

Among  the  Bishops  of  Bolt^a  worthy  of  note  are 
Sts.  FaustinianuB,  Basil,  and  Eusebius,  m  the  fourth  Bunju  or  8t.  Pwmanin 

century.  About  400  there  is  record  of  St.  Felix, 
succeeded  about  430  by  St.  Fetrouius,  who  is  ex- 
tolled  for  having  restored   the  church  of  Bologna, 

and  who  later  became  patron  of  the  city.     His  relics  the   original   drawings,   providing  for  an   octagonal 

are  preserved  in  the  church  of  San  Stefano.    A  num-  dome  500  feet  high,  were  not  adhered  to.    The  facade 

ber  of  the  Bishops  of  Bologna  were  later  raised  to  the  still  remains  incomplete,  only  the  lower  part  beini; 

papal  cliair,  as,  for  instance,  John  X;  ,Cosimo  Mig-  covered  with  scolpt^irea  in  marble.    The  omamenta- 

liorati,  who   assumed   the   name   of   Innocent   VII;  tion  of  the  laraer  door  ia  the  work  of  Pietra  della 

Tomaao  Parentuccelli,  later  Nicholas  V;Giuliaiiode11a  Font«;  manv  of  the  figures  compare  favourably  with 

Rovere,  who  became  Julius  II;  Alessandro  Ludovisi,  the  works  ol  an  age  in  which  the  art  was  more  highly 

"  ■""        '  *■  T      ,     ..  .        ,,  developed.    In  toe  arehitrave  is  tbe  Madonna  and 

Child.    '  The   two   naves   are   adorned   with   statuas 

B«dogna.     Other  celebrated  bishops  were:  Cardinal  of  Sts.  Fetronlus  and  Ambrose.    The  carving  of  the 

Filippo  Caraffa  (1378-89);  Cardinal  Antonio  Corror  doors  was  done  by  Sigismondo  Bargelloso,  aided  by 

(1407-12)'  Blessed  NicolA,  Cardinal  Albergati  (1417-  Andrea   Magnani   and  Gabriele   di    Zacoaria.     The 

34);   Cardinid   Lorenzo  Campeggio,  known   fi»'   the  two  side  doors  are  also  adorned  with  magnificent 

many  embaasiee  on  which  he  was  sent  to  Germany  carvings,  the  work  of  other  artists.     It  is  a  tbree- 

ond   England,  in   connexion  with  the  Reformation  naved     church,     the    twentj^-three     chapels    belns 

and  the  marriage  of  Henry  VIII  (1523-25).    After  adorned    with    the    masterpieces    of    distinguished 

B<dogna  became   an    archiepiscopal  see,  almost  all  artists  of  different  ages.    Worthy  of  note  is  the  statue 

the    metropolitans    were    cardinals,    among    whom  of  St.  Anthony  of  Padua  by  Sansovino.     A  sun-dial 

may  be  mentioned:  Gabriele  Paleoti  (1581-57),  who  is  to  be  found  there,  likewise  two  clocks,  among  tfae 

left  the  cathedral  as  it  exists  to-day,  built  the  e)iiB-  first  to  be  made  in  Italy  with  pendulums.    In  Bologna 

copal  palace,  and  endea^'oured  to  put  the  Tridentine  is  also  the  church  of  Corpus  Domini,  founded  by 

reioims  into  execution  in   Bologna;  Vincenfo  Mai-  St.   Catherine   da'   Vigri,   eommonly   known  as  St. 

vezzi    (1764-75),   to   whom   the   cathedral   and   the  Catherine  of  Bologna,  and  adjoiniiw  it  the  monasl^y 

seminary   owed   much;    Carlo    Opizzoni    (1802-55)  |  oi  the  Poor  Clares.     In  one  of  the  chapds  is  pr«- 

MicheieViale  Preli  (1855-60);  Lucido  Maria  Parocclu  served  the  mummified  body  of  the  saint,  together 

(1877-82).     Bologna  was  also  the  birthplace  of  the  with  manv  objects  used  by  her  during  life.    There 

following   popes,   in   addition   to    the   two   already  is  also  a  beautiful  cburefa  of  St.  Dommic,  dose  by 

mentioned:  Honorius  II   (Lamberto  Scannabecchi) ,  the  Dominican  convent  in  which  the  death  of  St. 

Lucius  II  (Gherardo  Caceiauemici  detl'  Orso),  Alex-  Dominic  occurred.     Tbe  tomb  of  the  saint  is  b  itaeU 

ander  V  (Pietro  Filargo),  Gre^iy  XIII  (Ugo  Buon-  a  veritable  museum  of  works  of  art  by  tbe  great 

compagni),  and  Innocent  IX  (Giannautonio  Faochi-  masters.     The  casket  was  carved  by  NicolA  I^aBZK>, 

netti).  and  one  of  the  angels  was  done  by  Michel angela  in 

Churchet. — Chief  among  tbe  saored  edifices  of  Bolo-  his  youth.     The    choir    is  beautifully  inlaid  witli 

en*  is  the  cathedral,  dedicated  to  St.  Peter  and  erected  tinted  wood,  the  work  of  Fra  Damiano  da  Berputia, 

Dg  the  commune  in  910i  to  replace  the  ancient  ca-  a  Dominican  lay  brother.    The  church  is  cninform, 

thedral  which  stood  outside  the  city  walls.     De-  and  in  one  chapel  of  the  croes  is  the  tomb  of  Kkig 

stroyed  by  fire  in  1130,  it  was  but  rebuilt  in  1165;  Ezzelino;  id'another  that  of  Guido  Reni. 


BOLOOHA,  641  BOLOCWA 

Among  the  muiy  other  churciiee,  sll  ric&  in  mon-  Bernardo  Veochietti,  who  treated  him  aa  hia  aon. 

ninents,  mention  wEU  be  made  only  of  Stui  Stefano,  He  was  thorou^ily  Florentine  in  sentiment,  and  in 

made  up  of  a  group  of  chapels  once  uaed  by  andeot  Florence  are  preserved  his  two  maeterpieoes,  "Her- 

Dvmka  from  £«ypt.  who  dwelt  there  before  the  time  cury"  and  the  "Rape  of  the  Sabines".    In  the 

of  St,  Benedict.    The  site  later  pasaed  into  the  handa  former,  in  the  Bargello,  he  has  come  nearer  to  ex- 

of  tiiB  Benedictines  who  erected  there  a  monastery,  pressing  swift,   flashing   motion  and   airy  lightneaa 

which  in  1447  was  reduced  to  the  rank  of  an  abb^  than  has  any  other  artist  of  that  or  a  later  period. 

to  be  held  in  comm^ndam.     In  1493  the  Celeatines  The  figure  of  the  youth  with  winged  feet,  liolding 

took  poBseasion,  and  remained  there  mitil  1797.     A  the  caduceua,  and  borne  aloft  upon  a  head  of  £o1ub, 

tablet  found  there  proves  tliat  this  was  once  the  dta  \b  masterly  in  its  expression  of  earnest  purpose  and 

of  a  temple  of  Isis.     Among  the  different  chapela  Ijxbt.  easy  movement.    Hardly  less  important  is 

should  be  mentioned  Calvary,  or  of   the  Holy  Sep-  tne   ''Rape  of  the  Sabines"   in  marble,  under  the 

iildire;  it  is  octagonal  in  form,  and  contains  a  replica  Lo^a  dei  Lanzi,  in  which  Count  Ginori  posed  for 

b  marble  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  in  Jerusalem;  here  the   figure   of   the    triumphant   youth  who   carries 

was  probaUy  situated  the  baptistery  of  the  ancient  away  a  strug^ing  woman  in  his  embrace.     Other 

cathedr^  which  was  not  far  distant.     The  chapda  works   are   the   group   of   "Herculee  and   Neesus". 

of  San  Giacomo  Maroiore,  built  in  1267;  San  Gio-  the  equestrian  broiize  figure  of  "Duke  Coeimo  I'' 

vanni  in  Monte,  saidto  have  been  erected  by  St.  in  the  PiazEa  Signoria  and  the  bas-relief  of  the  door- 

Petronius  and  renovated  in  1221  and  1824;  Sanlsaia  way  of  the   Cathedral  of  I^sa.     Besides  these,   he 

tile  most  ancient-   Santa  Maria  di   Galliera;   Santa  executed  more  than  one  crucifix,  a  figure  of  "Diana", 

llaria  dei  Servi;  San  Martioo;  San  Paolo;    and  Ban  another  of  "Venus''   and  four  syrena  mmiiar  to  the 

Francesco,-  stjll  incomplete — all  rich  in  monuments  larger  ones  on  the  Bolo^a  fountain.    Va^ari  men- 

of  utigtic  and   historic   interest.      Outside  Bologna  tions  a  bronre  figure  of  "Bacchus",  and  a  "Samson" 

ii  mtuat«d  the  oelebrated  Certosa,  built  in  1334  and  in   combat  with  two  Fliilistines,   both  larger  than 

in  1802  converted  into  a  community  buFyina-ground.  life  size.     Giovanni's  work  is  marked  by  freedom 

The  church  attached  to  the  convent  is  dedicated  to  and  grace,  while  free  from  the  fault  of  exaggeration 

St,   Jerome.      On   the   Monte   della  Guardia   is  the  which  so  mjures  much  of  the  sculpture  of  the  very 

shrine  of  the  Madomia  di  San  Luca,  which  is  con-  late  Renaissance. 

UBCted  with  the  Sarago«a  Gate  by  a  portico  with        DmiAamna.  Lavudt  Jtm  Bouiatm'  (1883). 
635  arehes  11,483  feet  (2.17  miles),  in  length,  con-  Gbobqe  Charles  Wiluambon. 

structed  between  1661  and  1730.    The  shrme  takes        ,„  ,  ,  .         ,.  .         , 

Its  name  from  a  painting  of  the  Madonna  attributed         Bologaa,  The    UnivkhsItt   or.— A   tradition   of 

to  St.  Luke,  winch  waa  brought  her*  in  llfiO  by  the  thirt«-nt>,   r*nt.„r«  Rt.t.r{h„t«!    t.hn  fminHBtim, 

Euthymius,  a  monk  of  Constantjaople.    The  oreseot  P'  this  u 

church  dates  from  1731.  "  ]f^°°   "„    .        t  ,      ^-  ,    r  ,    „    ^ 

With   respect   to   profane   architecture,   the   first  "Habita",  issued  by  Frederick  Barbaroaaa  ii 

thing  to   be   remarked  are  the  porticoes  in   which  was  at  best  only  an  implicit  recognition  of  the  ex- 

nearfy  all  the  roads  terminate.     Noteworthy  also  are  latence  of   the  school  at  Bologna,  and  the  bull  of 

the  towers,  particularly  that  of  the  Asinelli,  320  Clement  lU  (1189),  though  it  speaks  of  '  rnaaters , 

feet  in  height,  erected  between  1105  and  1109,  and,  and  scholars"    has  no  reference  to  a  university  or- 

nsMliy,  that  of  the  Garisendi,  built  in  1110,  the  in-  gamzation.  The  umveraity,  m  fact,  developed  out 
clination  of  which,  it  seems,  was  due  to  a  surwidence 
of  the  earth,  in  the  fourteenth  century,  which  carried 
away  the  uppermost  part  of  the  tower;  it  is  154  feet 
in  height,  and  has  an  inclination  of  7.77  feet.  First 
among  the  palaces  is  that  of  the  Podestd,  a  stru(»> 
ture  dating  back  to  1801,  ^t^ere  the  oonclave  for 
-the  nomination  of  John  XXHI  was  held  in  1410; 
neict  in  importance  are  the  communal  palace,  the 
civic  museum,  aod  the  ArchiginnaBio,  or  ancient 
univeraity. 

The  Archdiocese  of  BologTia  contains  389  paridiee, 
1172  churches,  chapels,  and  oratories,  837  secular 
priests,  119  regular,  311  seminarians,  4S  lay  brothera, 
521  sisterB,  10  schools  for  boys,  21  for  girls,  and  a 
population  of  565,489. 

CxPTKLurm.  Lt  cAuh  d-Tlal<a  CVaiiii»..18M),  III;  SiaoMn 


■  V  (BolognM,   1586), 
u,   Animli   Boha^ti 


id  by  RuBBi  up  to   17ai;  8iTi._,   ._  . 

1.    17&4):    TaOHBA.    Scrit    croaalagiBa    dei    ,    .... 

I,  17S7). 

U.    BSNIONI. 


BoIogiim,GiovAi(m  DA,  Flemish  Renaissance  sculp-  .,■      .,  r. 

tor,  b.Tt  Douai.  in  Fland^,  about  1524;   d,  at  Floi-  T""  P-rvtMrrr  dp  Bou>aNi 

ence  in  1008.    Vaaari  gives  Uttle  information  about 

this  eminent  sculptor.     He  calls  him  "a  youth  of  of  the  "Schools  of  the  Liberal  Arte"  which  fiounahed  , 

Ct  talent  and  of  spirit''  and  says  he  was  one  of  at  Bologna  early  in  the  eleventh  century.     An  im- 

ximpetitors  with  CeUini  for  the  colossal  figure  of  portant  feature  of  the  general  education  given  in 

Neptune  in  his  chariot  drawn  by  sea  horses.      The  theeesohools waalhe jOictoman.orArtof CompositioD 

due,  who  was  to  decide  the  competition,  aithough  which  included  nilea  for  drawing  up  briefs  and  other 

assuTvd  that  Giovanni's  model  was  superior  to  the  legal  documente.    The  stody  of  grammar  and  rhetoric 

others,  did  sot  confide  the  undertaking  to  him,     We  was  closely  connected  witn  the  study  of  law.     At 

can  judge  of  what  he  would  have  made  of  that  com-  the  same  time,  the  political,  commercial  and  intel- 

misEion   from  the  bronze  Neptune  prepared  for  the  lectual  growth  of  the  Lombard  cities  created  a  de< 

fountwn  at  Bologna.  mand  for  legal  insteuotion,    Ravenna,  long  the  home 

Giovanni  was  called  II  Fiammingo  from  the  place  of  iiiriaprudence,  ket  ite  prestige  through  ite  conflict 

of  his  birth.     Ho  studied  in  Rome  and  settled  in  with  the  papacy,  and  Bologna  was  kts  successor. 

Florence,    having    been    ad<^tsd    by    the   wealthy  Towards  tne  close  of  the  eleventh  century  Pqm  is 


fiOlOttTA                             642  aOLOOVA 

mentioned  in  connexion  with  the  revised  studj  of  to  aposition  of  secondary  imj^ortance.    On  the  other 

the ''  Digest '';  bat  it  was  Imerius  who  began  the  study  hand,  two  factors  in  the  sitiiation  favoured  the  Arts 

of  the  entire  "Corpus  Juris  Civilis"  and  organised  and  made  possible  a  new  growth  in  the  university, 

the  school  of  law  as  distinct  from  the  arts  school  namdy,  the  restoration  of  t^  Aristotelean  philo60|^ 

(1100-30).    Along  with  this  revival  of  the  Civil  Law  and    the    introduction    of   mathematics    from   the 

came  the  epoch-making  compilation  of  the  Carnal-  Arainan  schools.     The  physics  and  physiology  of 

doleee  (or  Benedictine)  monk,  Gratian.    The  ''De-  Aristotle  formed  the  basis  of  the  study  of  medicine, 

cretum  Gratiani"   (q.   v.),  published  about   1140,  white  mathematics  opened  the  way  to  astrology, 

became  at  once  the  recognized  textbook  of  canon  and  eventually  to  astronomy.   Among  the  physicians 

law.     Bologna  was  thus,  in  its  origin,  a  "jurist''  of  note  in  Bolcwpa  were  a  number  of  ecdiMiasties, 

university.    The  work  ot  Imerius  and  Gratian  was  one  of  whom,  mcolaus  de  Famham,  became  (1241) 

continued  by  such  men    as  Odopedus   (d.   1300),  Bishop  of  Durham.    Churchmen  were  forbidden  to 

Joannes  Andrea  (1270-1348),  St.  Raymond  of  Penna-  study  medicine  by  Honorius  III  (1219).    But  there 

fort  (1175-1275),  and  Ricaxous  Anslicus,  who  later  was  no  regularly  organized  school  of  medicine  until 

became    Bishop    of   Chichester    (about    middle   of  Thaddeus  of  Florence  besan  his  teaching,  about  1260. 

thirteenth  century).       .  From  that  time  onward  the  medic^  faculty  gjrew 

The  fame  of  its  professors  drew  to  Bologna  students  in  importance.    Surgery  received  special  attention* 

from  all  parts  of  Italy  and  from  nearly  every  coun-  dissection  was  practised,  and  the  foundations  of 

try  of  Europe.    It  is  said  that  their  nmnber  at  the  modem  anatomy  were  laid  by  Mundinus   (1275- 

banning  of  the   thirteenth  century  was   10,000.  1326).    CloseJ^  allied  with  the  work  in  medicine  was 

Bcnogna  was  known  as  the  "Mater  studiorum",  and  the  study  of  astrology.    A  famous  astrologist,  Ceeco 

its  motto,  '^Bononia  docet",  was  literally  true.    The  d'Ascoli  (d.  1327),  declared  that  a  physician  without 

foreign  (non-Bolognese)  students  formed  two  "uni-  astrt^ogy  would  be  like  an  eye  without  the  power 

versities";  that  of  the  Oismontanes  and  that  of  the  of  vision.     The  scientific  study  of  astronomy  was 

Ultramontanes.     The  former  comprised   seventeen  founded  by  the  investigations  of  Novara  and  his 

'I Nations",  the  latter,  eighteen,  including  the  Eng-  discipte    Copemiciis    (1473-1543).      Both    medical 

lish.    The  nations  were  oi^anised  on  a  plan  similar  and  mathematical  studies  were  influenced  l>y  Arabian 

to  that  of  the  guilds.    Each  framed  its  own  statutes,  sehc^arship,  in  particular  by  that  of  Avicenna  and 

elected   its   own   ''Consiliarii,"   and   held   its   own  Averroes.     As  these  were  also    philosophers,  their 

meetings.    The  rector  was  elected  h^  the  students,  theories  came  to  be  part  of  the  Scholasticism  of  Bo- 

The  masters,  also,  were  grouped  in  guilds  or  colleges,  logna,  and  their  authority  was  scarcely  inferior  to 

In  the  examination  of  candidates  for  degrees,  the  tlutt   of  Aristotle. 

authority  of  the  masters  was  supreme;  in  other  Thec^ogy  had  lone  been  taught  in  the  monastic 
matters  the  students  had  full  control.  In  the  con-  scbocrfs;  but  the  faculty  of  theolo^  in  the  university 
flicts  that  often  arose  between  them  and  the  city,  was  established  bv  Innocent  VI  m  1360.  Its  chan- 
the  students  enforced  their  claims  by  emigrating  cellor  was  the  Bishop  of  Bolocna,  and  its  doctors  de- 
to  other  towns — ^Vicenza  (1204),  Arezzo  (1215),  pended  upon  him  rather  than  upon  the  student- 
Padua  (1222),  Sienna  (1321).  Appeal  was  sometimes  oody.  The  faculty  received  many  privileges  from 
taken  to  the  pope,  who  as  a  rule  aecided  in  favour  of  Url>an  V,  Boniface  IX,  and  their  successors.  The 
the  university.  Notable  among  these  papal  inter-  popes,  in  fact,  favouied  the  university  in  every 
ventions  was  the  Bull  of  Honorius  III  (1217).  possible  way.    Gregoiy  IX  and  Boniface  VIII  sent 

Bologna  in  its  earliest  organization  was  a  "stu-  it  the  Decretals  (q.  v.);  Benedict  XIV,  various  bulls 
dent"  university:  professors  were  hired  by  the  and  ^usyclicals.  Among  its  benefactors  were  Mar- 
students  to  give  instruction.  The  lectures  were  tin  V,Eu^^e  IV,  ld»cholasV,PaiiI  II.  Innocent  VIII, 
either  "ordinary"  or  "extraordinary",  a  distinction  Paul  III,  Pius  Iv,  Clement  VIII,  Uroan  VIII,  Inno- 
which  corresponded  with  that  between  the  more  cent  X,  and  Clement  XII.  Gre^ry  XI  founded 
essential  and  the  less  essential  of  the  law-texts  (1372),  in  connexion  with  the  umversity,  the  Col^ 
(Rashdall).  Ordinary  lectures  were  reserved  for  the  hsgium  Oregoriantan  for  poor  students  of  medicine 
doctors;  the  extraordinary  might  be  given  by  a  and  philosophy.  Other  colleges  with  similar  scope 
student  as  part  of  his  preparation  for  the  baccar  were  established  by  laymen  and  ecclesiastics  (see 
laureate.  (See  Arts,  Bachelor  of.)  This  classifica-  list  in  Moroni).  One  of  the  most  important  was  the 
tion  of  teachers  survives  in  the  modem  German  College  of  Spain  (Caea  Spagnuola,  or  CoUegto  Mag- 
university.  At  Bologna,  no  examination  was  re-  gwn)f  which  owed  its  existence  and  endowment  to 
quired  for  the  Bachelor's  degree;  permission  to  lee-  Cardinal  Albomoz  (1364).  The  papal  legates  at 
ture  was  granted  the  student  after  a  five  years'  Bologna  took  an  active  part  in  the  directicm  of  the 
course  in  law.  For  the  Licentiate,  the  candidate  was  univf«ty  and  eventually  became  the  supr^ne  au- 
obliged  to  pass  a  private,  and  for  the  Doctorate  a  thoilw.  In  the  course  of  time,  also,  the  student- 
public,  examination  (ConventuSf  Inceplio).  The  ex-  body  lost  its  control,  and  the  various  schools  were 
aminations  and  the  conferring  of  degrees  belonged  consolidated  in  one  university  organization, 
originally  to  the  masters;  but  in  1219  Honorius  III  In  the  development  of  modem  literature  and 
prescribed  that  no  one  should  receive  the  Doctorate  science  Boloj^na  took  an  important  part.  The 
without  the  consent  of  the  Archdeacon  of  Bologna,  famous  Cardinal  Bessarion,  a  leader  in  the  Ronaie- 
In  1292  Nicholas  IV  decreed  that  all  who  were  li-  sance  movement,  was  legate  from  1451  to  1455. 
censed  doctors  by  the  Archdeacon  of  Bolo^a  should  Under  his  influence  classical  studies  flourished  in  the 
have  the  right,  without  further  examination  or  ap-  university,  and  Humanists  like  Filelfo  (1398-1481) 
probation,  to  teach  everywhere.  These  enactments  and  Gnfurino  were  among  its  professors.  To  these 
not  onhr  enhanced  the  value  of  the  degree,  but  also  shoidd  be  added,  in  more  recent  times,  the  great 
affectea  the  organization  of  the  university.  Fimctions  Mezzofanti  (1774-1849).  In  the  natural  sci^ces, 
hitherto  exercised  by  private  corporations  passed  especially,  Bolcwna  points  to  a  lon^  list  of  distin- 
into  the  hands  of  an  official  commissioned  by  publie  giushed  men:  the  anatomists  Achillmi  (1463-151 2)^ 
authority,  and  that  authority  was  ecclesiastical.  Vesalius  (1514-64),  Varoli  (1542-75),  and  Malpi^ 
The  degree  system  of  Bologna  was  henceforth  the  (1628-94),  the  botanist  Aldrovandi  (1522-1607),  and 
same  as  that  which  had  already  been  established  at  the  pfaysioist  Galvani  (1737-98)  are  among  the  most 
Paris;  and  these  two  schools  became  the  models  upon  illustrious.  The  number  of  wom^i  who  tau^t  at 
which  the  later  universities  were  organized.  Bolocna    is    also    remarkable,    includii^    Novella, 

The  development  of  the  law  schools  at  Bologna  daughter  of  Joannes  Andrea  the  Jurist,  Laura  Baaa 

Jbad  as  one  result  the  induction  of  the  Liberal  Arts  (1711-78),  and  Maria  Agnesi  (1718-99),  mathema* 


ticiaiis,  and  Clotilda  Tambronl  (1758-1817),  professor  Bolsena.    See  Ortibto. 

of  Gieek.  .     ^,      ,      .               ,         .       .         .  Bolsena,  Mibaclb  op.    See  ORVirro. 

r-^?™*  ^*  Napoleonic  ware,  the  univereity  suf-  ^^^,^  Edmund,  historian,  aatiquary,  and  poet 

teed   considerably:    chairs    were   suppressed,    «id  ^o^       j^^g   ^^  •     ^^33     ^^    ^J^^  ^Ho 

dangered.    The  popes,  in  particular  L^  XII,  came  ^^^    j  ^^  eccentric  and  unfortunate  genius  is 

V^  'Z«S;.'^??f!™^n.S'^^  Zt^^c  ««"«»*«»  by  the  second  name  which  app^  to  . 

:?s  *^hr^Jt^i,'trverrc^  whr*^e  ?«^h  Mt,£r^iliL^s*fcaSL^^ 

Paosl  states  were  m^  in  tl^e  present  Kingdom-  ^^iS^^e^mZTish^r'itdSe^'S,^ 

Dlu^^^Z\f^  r?=tit  iTi^'i^,^'  cfflic^Sr-in'fei^Sre'r^iTua^lS.^i 

ff^^L^cinl!*^  ^hSw  Thi^'^:  ^«  of  «r*i'^"^  •"**  position,' for  he  claims  to 

^^re.  and  -giil^nng     The  prof^T^dX  froZ^^SlJ  at'^'Li^S^  fenZTd^'^l 

sfcrfo^^vT^sX^ffi^jr-tS  f^^??5rthrii^''2s3  cls^ciro.^v&ii^ 

250fl&)  volumes.    One. of  L  most. impJ>rtant  m-  ^^ere,    *\^J^'^ ^^"'^^l^^^l^'^^^'-^ 


Raiihdai,l.  The  UniveraiHes  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages  ""^^J^f      i^It:    *  ilZ    j  ..^««K*«   «"^"* 

(OxfowL  1896).  I;  Kirkpatbick,  The  Odocentenary  FesHval  many),  and  the  tone  of  the  drama  and  much  of  the 

of  the  Univentiu  of  Bologna  (Eklinburgh,  1890):  Saviont,  lightly  literature  of  the  late  Elizabethan  and  early 

The  Univenitu ^Bologna  in  tihe  Middle  Aaee  in  AmerJour.  Jacobean  period  flhows  that  the  Bohemian  Bociety 

•/  Bducahan  (1871):  Sarti,  De  clone  QTch%ovrnna8%%  Bononv-  .    /^^Tt^.*^  YT  """""   t*"*"   •^'^  *-»v«w***«c»u  owiwj 

tneie  profeeeonbus  (Bologna.  1760);  Id„  new  ed.  by  Albictoius  mto  which  Bolton  and  his  felloWB  were  thrown  wa« 

(ibid..  188^);  Cassani.  DeU*  Anttco  Studio  di  Bologna  e  eua  often  pronouncedly  papist.     But  while  many  who 

ReehieeOiul^  gu  Bol^na  (Berlin  and  Leipsis.  1888):  Moroni.  Jonson,  ultunately  fell  away,  Bolton,  much  to  hlfl 

Dinonario,  LXXXIV;  Chevalubb,  Topo-Bmig^vhu^,  a.  v,  credit,  remained  stanch  to  his  principles.     Of  hia 

E.  A,  Pace.  ability  and  zeal  in  the  pursuit  of  knowledge  there 
Bolsee,  JtRAu^^HnBuka^  a  theologian  and  phy-  can  be  no  question.    He  was  the  friend  of  Cotton 
sician,  b.  probab^  at  Pans,  date  unknown;  d.  at  and  Camden,  whose  antiquarian  researches  he  iliared, 
Lyons  c.  1584.     He  became  a  Carmelite  monk  at  and  as  a  writer  of  verses  he  was  associated  with 
Paris.     A  sermon  which  he  preached  there  aroused  Sidney,  Spenser,  Raleigh,  and  others  in  the  publica- 
misgivings    in    ecclesiastical    cirdee   r^arding    the  tion   of    ''England's   Helicon".     Many   innuential 
soundness  of  his  ideas,  and  Bolsec  left  Paris.    Hav-  friends,  including  for  example  the  Duke,  then  Mar- 
ing  separated  from  the  Catholic  Church  about  1546  quess,  of  Buckingham,  tried  to  help  him  in  his  pe-\ 
he  took  refuge  at  the  Court  of  Ren^,  Duchess  of  cuniary  embarrassments,  but  there  seems  no  doubt 
Ferrara,  who  was  favourably  disposed  towards  per-  that  his  Catholicism  stood  in  the  way  of  his  making 
sons  holding  Protestant  views.     Here  he  mamed,  a  livine  by  literature.    For  instance,  a  life  of  King 
and  began  the  study  of  medicine,  about  1550  settling  Heniy  il  which  he  had  prepared  for  an  edition  m 
as  a  physician  at  Veigy,  near  Geneva.  ,  A  theolo^cal  Speed's  ''Chronicle'',  then  in  course  of  publication, 
controversy  witJi  Calvm,  whose  doctrine  of  predesti-  was  rejected  on  account  of  the  too  favouraUe  aspect 
nation  he  deemed  an  absurdity,  soon  ensued.     In  in  which  he  had  depicted  St.  Thomas  of  Canterlnny* 
1551,  at  one  of  the  religious  conferences  or  puUic  It  seems,  however,  that  through  Buckingham's  in* 
diseiUBsions,  then  hdd  at  Geneva  every  Friday,  he  •  fluence  he  obtained  some  small  post  about  the  court 
interrupted  the  orator  of  the  day,  Jean  de  Saint  of  James  I,  and  in  1617  he  proposed  to  the  kins  some 
Audr6,  who  was  spe^dng  on  predestination,  and  ar-  scbsme  for  a  royal  academy  or  coU^  of  letters 
gued  against  him.    As  the  triumph  of  his  ideas  would  which  was  to  be  associated  with  the  Order  of  the 
have  moant  the  ruin  of  Calvin's  influence  in  the  Swiss  Garter,  and  which  was  destined  in  the  *inind  of  its 
city,  Bolsec  was  arrested,  and  through  the  influence  of  designer  to  convert  Windsor  Castle  into  a  sort  of 
the  reformer  banished  forever  from  Geneva  (1551).  English  Olympus.     James  I  save  some  encoura^ 
•In  1555  he  was  also  driven  from  Thonon,  in  the  Ber-  ment  to  the  scheme,  but  died  before  it  was  earned 
nese  territory,  whither  he  had  retired.    He  went  to  into  execution.     With  the  accession  of  Charles  I, 
Paris  and  sought  admission  into  the  ministry  of  the  Bolton  seems  to  have  fallen  on  evil  days.    The  last 
Reformed  Church.    But  his  opinions  were  not  found  years  of  his  life  were  mostly  spent  either  in  the  Fleet 
sufficiently  orthodox,  from  a  Reformed  point  of  view,  or  in  the  Marshalsea  as  a  prisoner  for  debt,  to  which 
for  one  wishing  to  hold  such  a  position.   He  was  asked  no  doubt  the  fines  he  incurred  as  a  "recusant  con- 
fer a  declaration  of  faith,  but  refused.    He  went  to  vict"  largely  contributed.     The  exact  date  of  his 
Lausanne  (c.  1563),  but  as  the  signing  of  the  Con-  death  is  unknown.     Besides   his  contributions   in 
feasion  of  Bern  was  made  a  condition  of  his  residence  English  verse  to  "England's  Helicon"  Bolton  wroie 
here,  he  preferred  to  return  to  France.    Shortly  after  a  certain  amount  of  Latin  poetry.    He  is  best  re- 
this,  he  recanted  his  errors,  was  reconciled  with  the  membered,  however,  as  the  author  of  "The  Elements 
Catholic  Church,  and  published  biographies  of  the  of  Armories",  a  curious  heraldic  dialogue  published 
two  Genevan  reformers,  Calvin  and  Beza   (1519-  anonymously  in  1610.  and  of  "Nero  C^sar,  or  Mon* 
1605).     These  works  are  violent  in  tone,  and  find  archie  depraved",  a  oook  of  Roman  history  dealing 
little  favour  with  Protestant  writers.    Their  histori-  in  part  with  the  earliest  notices  of  Britain.   A  transla- 
cal  statements  cannot  iJways  be  relied  on.     They  tion  of  the  "Histories"  of  Florus  which  he  also  pub- 
are  "Histoire  de  la  vie,  des  moeurs  .  .  .  de  Jean  Cal-  lished  is  signed  "Philanactophil"  (L  e.  friend  of  the 
vin"  (Lyons  and  Paris,  1577;  published  in  Latin  at  king's  friend).     Bolton's  'vHypercritica".  a  useful 
Cologne  m  15^:  C^erman  tr.  1581):  "Histoire  de  la  vie  work  of  literary  criticism,  was  published  long  after 
et  des  moeurs  de  Th.  de  B^ze"  (Paris,  1582).     The  his  death. 

life  of  Oalvin  was  edited  by  L.  F.  Chastel  in  1875  with  „Coop>«  }?  ^.  j^2t«^^- V.  326;  Gilw>w,  BibL  DicL 

extracts  from  the  life  of  Beza.  '^'V.  Catholxee.  I.  267-269;  Archaologui.  x«u.  132-149. 

Fbtfs  in  Kirchenlexj  Schafp.  Hietory  of  the  Chrieiian  Church  HERBERT  ThXJRSTON. 

(N«w  York.  1903),  VII,  614-621;  Walker. /oAn  Calvin  (New 

York.  1906).  116-119.  816-820.  N.  A.  Weber.  Boliaiio,    BxRNHARD,    Austrian     mathematician 


BOHBAT  644  BOHBAt 

Mtd  philoBopIier,  b.  at  Prague,  5  October,  1781:  converts.     When    in    1665  the  islaod   was   ceded 

d.  18  December,  1848.    As  &  student  he  devoted  to  the  English,  the  work   was  continued  by  the 

himself  chiefly  to  mathematics  with  marked  sue-  same  order  and   by  secular  clergy  fit»n  Goa.    In 

cess,     AgaiDst   the  wish  of   his  father,   he  entered  1720,  on  political  grounds,  the  Goooese  clergy  wen 

the  ecclesiaalJcal  state  and   was  ordained  in   1805.  expelled  by  tlic  Government,  and  the  Vicar  of  the 

In  the  some  year  he  was  appointed  professor  of  the  Great  Mc^ul  (fonuerly  the  Vicar  of  the  Deccan)  vas 

philosophy  of  religion  in  ti)e  Univer^ty  of  Prague,  invited  to  take  charge  of  the  Catholics.     Although 
His   lectures   and    discourses   were   strongly   tinged  ^ 

with  rationalism,  and  it  was  not  long  before  he  was 
denounced  to  the  ecclesiastical  authonties.  Through 
the  personal  intervention  of  the  Prince- Archbishop 
Sahn-Salm  of  Prague,  he  retained  his  professor- 
ship until  1820,  when  the  long-threatened  dismissal 
was  suddenly  put  into  effect  in  consequence  of 
disorders  that  occurred  in  the  seminaiy  of  Leit- 
meritis  then  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Fe^,  who, 
as  a  disciple  and  friend  of  Bolzano,  was  stronglv 
imbued  with  the  latter's  rationaliiing  spirit.  Bol- 
tano  spent  the  remainder  of  his  llle  m  studious 
retirement,  first  on  the  estate  of  his  friend  Johana 
Hoffmann,  at  Techobuz,  near  Prague,  and  later 
in  the  house  of  his  brother  at  Prague.  A  small 
pension,  and  the  generosity  of  Count  Leo  Than, 
relieved  him  of  all  monetary  care. 

Bolzano  was  alwa3^  a  loyal  son  of  the  CathoUo 
Church.  There  is,  however,  a  strong  rationalizil^ 
tendency    in    his    nTi tings    on    doctrinal    subjects, 

and  his  refusal  to  retract  several  propositions  taken  Cbctcb  or  ibb  Holt  Naiib,  Boub&t 
from  his  printed  works  justified  his  dismissal  from 
the  University  of  Prague.  Bolzano's  contribu- 
tions to  the  science  of  mathematics  are  of  the  high- 
est order.  In  1804  he  published  a  theoiy  of  parallel  Government  to  recover  their  position,  and  in 
fines  which  anticipated  Legendre's  well-known  1794  established  a  "double  jurisaiction ".  At  fi«t 
theory.  He  shares  with  Cauchy  the  hcMiour  of  the  vicariate  extended  indebnitdv  over  the  north 
'  having  developed  the  thwiy  of  functions  of  one  of  India;  but  in  1784  the  nortnem  portion  was 
real  variable.  He  made  notable  additions  tA  the  separated  and  given  over  to  the  Mission  of  Tibet. 
theory  of  differentiation,  to  the  concept  of  infinity,  The  vicariate  then  gradually  be^n  to  be  called  the 
and  to  the  binomial  theoreni.  As  a  philosopher.  Vicariate  of  Bombay.  It  was  under  the  cai*  of  tiie 
Bolzano  had' no  sympathy  for  speculation  as  such.  Carmelite  fathers  from  1720  to  18&4.  When  they 
His  mathematical  bent  made  him  a  partisan  of  resigned  their  charge  the  vicariate  was  divided,  the 
strict,  methodic  inquiry.  His  contributions  to  norfliem,  or  Bombay  portion,  being  taken  over  by  the 
philosophy  comprise  a  textbook  on  the  "Science  Capuchins,  while  the  southern,  or  Poona  portion, 
of  Religion"  {4  vols.,  Sulzbach,  1834),  and  one  was  given  to  the  German  Jesuits.  A  few  years  later 
on  the  "Science  of  Knowledge''  (4  vols.,  Sulzbach,  the  Capuchins  also  resigned,  and  hence  in  1858  the 
1837).  Bolzano's  complete  writings  fill  twenty-  whole  of  the  Bombay-Foona  Mission  came  into  the 
five  volumes.  The  full  hst  is  found  in  the  "Sitzungs-  hands  of  the  German  Jesuits.  Meantime  adistresdng 
berichte''  of  the  Vienna  Academy  (184S).  conflict  over  the  rights  of  jurisdiction  (often  referred 
^J™'-_®'^'!°'/?^*''?'V?'^"'',y'5!l°"i'?E5U^™_"*''."'  to  '1  literature  as  the  Goan  or  Indo-Portugueee 
schism)  was  raging  between  the  Goanese  clergy  of 
the  Portuguese  "padroado"  and  the  vicars  Apostolic 
under  Propaganda,  which,  in  spite  of  certain  in- 
Bombay  (BombatenbisV  Archdiocihe  op,  com-  effectual  negotiations,  continued  till  1886.  In  that 
prises  the  Island  of  Bombay  with  several  outlying  year  a  concordat  with  Portugal  was  entered  into  by 
churches  in  the  neighbouring  Island  of  Salsctte,  and  the  Holy  See,  which  brought  the  quarrel  to  a  doae,  ■ 
a  lai)^  portion  of  the  Bombay  Presidency  stretching  and  at  the  same  time  the  whole  of  India  was  placed 
nortiiwards  from  the  river  Nerbudda  an  far  as  under  a  fully  constituted  hierarchy.  The  Archbiahop 
Qiietta,  including  the  districts  of  Gujerat  CBroach,  of  Bombay  received  territorial  iunsdiction  over  Bom- 
Baroda,  Ahmedabad),  Kathiawar,  Cutch,  Sind  and  a  bay  Island  and  over  the  northern  districts  already 
portion  of  Beluchistan.  Most  of  the  archdiocese  is  described,  with  Poona  as  a  suffragan  diocese.  Man- 
thus  separated  from  its  centre  In  Bombay  Island  by  a  galore  and  Trichinopoly  were  added  as  suSragaD  aees 
distance  of  about  200  miles,  the  intervening  country  in  1893,  in  which  year  the  First  Provincial  Council 
beingassigned  to  the  Diocese  of  Damaun.  TneCatho-  was  held  (Acta  et  Decreta,  Bombay,  1898).  The 
lie  population  under  the  archbishop  is  reckoned  at  Island  of  ^Isctte  and  the  coast  country  as  far  ss.tha 
about  18,000,  of  which  about  8,000  are  in  Bombay  Nerbudda  were  placed  under  the  jurisdictioD  of  the 
Island;  3,500  inSalsette;  2,000 in Guierat,  Kathiawar,  Bishop  of  Damaun  who  also  received  persons]  juris- 
and  Cutch,  and  4,500  in  Sind  and  Beluchistan.  The  diction  in  Bombay  Island  over  all  who  came  from 
archdiocese  is  served  by  50  fathers,  19  Bcholasties,  and  Goa,  or  from  any  other  district  under  the  PortUOTeso 
16  lay  brothers  of  the  German  province  of  the  ecclesiastical  regime.  This  arrangement  is  pqmUriy 
Society  of  Jesus,  and  19  native  secular  priests,  at-  known  as  the  "double  jurisdiction", 
tending  24  churches  and  25  chapels,  besides  Sisters  Succession  op  Prt:late8. — Viear^ApodoUc  of  A* 
of  the  Orders  of  Jcsua  and  Mary  and  the  Daughters  Carmelite  order:  Maurice  of  St.  Teresa,  1718-26; 
of  the  Cross  engaged  in  education  and  chantable  Peter  D'Alcantara  of  the  Most  Hdy  Trinity,  1728- 
work.  45;  Innocent  of  the  Presentation,  1746-W;  John 
History,— In  1534  the  Portuguese  began  to  settle  Dominic  of  St.  Clara,  1755-72;  Charies  of  St,  Con- 
in  Bombay.  They  were  accompanied  by  the  rad,  177.5-85;  Victor  of  St.  Mary,  1787-93:  Peter 
Franciscans,  who  gradually  covered  the  island  D'Alcantara  of  St,  Antony,  17M-1840;  Aioyiai 
with   churches,  monasteries,  and    communities    of  Mary  Fortini,  1840-48;    Jotui    F.  Whelao.    \M& 


1  ZdSm  BcUanot  i.l*'P^.  IS^Bh  Erd* 


to.      Capuchin,    AnaBtauaa     Hartmaim,    1850-68.    published  weeklf  at  the  Examtaaf  Pkh  which  Is  Um 
JuuiU:-   Alexis  Canoi     (administrator) >    1868-61;  '      -'  •' -    -    ■-■-•-i-—.   «mi._   ^      ■..__   ^    . 

WbIUt  SieinB,  18ei-1867;  Leo  MeuHn  (a  writer  and 


Porter  (lirat  archbishop),  1886-89;  Theodore  Dalbol , 
ISei-lQOe;  Bermami  Jurgena,  appointed  28  Uajr, 
coDKcratfld,  14  July,  1007. 

Institdtions. — In  Bombay  Island. — The  High 
School  of  St.  Xsvier  with  1,400  pupils;  the  College 
of  St.  Xavier  with  about  350  students  preparing 
for  Bombay  University  d^reea.  The  majority  oi 
these  pupils  are  non-Christians,  whose  admission, 
hovFcver,  Drings  prestige,  personal  respect  and  esteem 
to  the  Catholic  body,  and  enables  the  College  to  work 
on  s  financial  basis,  making  it  possible  to  provide  a 
Kood  education  tor  Cathohcs.  Further,  St.  Mary's 
High  School  with  190  boarders  and  310  day-scholars, 
mostly EuropeansorEurasians.   Theteachmg  stafiot 


8t.  XAttm's  HiQH  BcoooL 

tbcK  three  institutions  consists  of  Jesuit  fathers  and 
•cholastics,  assisted  by  lav  masters.  For  ^Is,  High 
Schools  at  Clare  Road,  Parel,  and  the  Fort,  and  a 
native  school  at  Cavel,  under  the  Nuns  of  Jesus  and 
Mary.  Other  charitable  institutions:  St,  Joseph's 
Foundling  Home  and  St.  Vincent's  Home  for  poor 
women  and  girU,  under  the  Daughters  of  the  Croas; 
St.  Elizabeth's  Widows'  Home,  under  the  Nuna  oi 
Jesus  and  Mary;  the  Allbless  Leper  Home,  Trombay, 
and  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  Institute  under  a  European 
secular  priest.  Jn  SaltelU:  St.  Stanislaus's  Institu- 
tion, Bandra,  under  the  Jesuit  fathers,  with  240 
native  boarders  and  460  day-scholars;  St.  Joseph's 
Convent,  Bandra,  under  the  Daughters  of  the  Cross, 
for  native  girls,  with  330  boarders  and  220  day- 
scholars,  /n  (A*  ATortAem  DisinW*;  St.  Patrick's  High 
School,  at  Karachi,  with  306  pupils;  St.  Joseph's 
Convent  School,  Karachi,  with  70  boarders  and  300 


J.UU11U1' ,  the  weekly  organ  ch  the  Native  ChrisTiana 
of  Bombay;  a  local  "Supplement"  to  the  Engli^ 
"Messenger";  a  "Meesenger  of  the  Sacred  Brart" 
in  Uarathi,  besides  a  number  of  vernacular  books  hk 
MarathI,  Oujerati,  etc,  publiahed  according  to  need. 

7^  CaAalie  Dvtetory  (Msdnu,  IBOT):  CaUogua  «/  At 
Bomliay  Mitian;  Diuatan  Artkivtt  and  Rxonb  (impublidwd): 
Tht  Siammtr  and  TA*  Fatlond  OautU  (Uw  IstMr  csMsd 
pufaliDMian  to  1901)  £!«■:  Ul*  et  Dr.  Harlmmit  (Calcntla, 
ISdS):  MoKfimmo-  AUxi  Cane*  <Fsris,  1801).  No  prow 
huUnr  ot  ths  Uinion  bu  ytt  beeo  writtan,  Uxiuah  matoriM 
aia  hAit  ooUsotsd  (or  that  puipoM. 

EhnistR.  HuIiI. 

Bonmwl,  Cobnxlios  Richasd  Amtoit  tan,  Kb* 
hop  of  Li^,  was  b.  at  Leyden,  in  Holland,  on 

5  April,  1790:  d.  7  April,  1862.  He  was  educated  at 
the  college  o'  Willingshegge  near  Mtlnster,  and  later 
at  the  advanced  achoal  ot  Borght.  ADUnst  Strong 
opposition  he  entered  the  seminary  of  M(lnst«r  and 
was  ordained  priest  in  1816  by  Bishop  Gaqjard 
DiDsta  de  Vischering,  On  his  return  to  Holland  he 
founded  a  college  for  young  men  at  Hageveld,  near 
Hanrlem.  This  college  was  closed  in  1£^6  in  conse- 
quence  of  the  royal  decree  that  subjected  all  the 
edutMtional  institutions  to  State  control.  King  Wil- 
liam ofiered  van  Bommel  the  president  of  anotbc 
college,  but  meji  with  a  firm  refusal.  'The  Cathohca 
and  Liberals  joined  forces  m  opposing  the  arbitrary 
policy  of  the  Government,  ana  van  fiommel  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  agitation  that  forced  the  king 
to  promulgate  the  Concordat  concluded  with  Leo  Xll 
Under  the  provisions  of  the  Concordat,  van  Bommel 
was  nominated  to  the  See  of  lAigB  and  consecrated 
on  16  November,  1820.  He  took  no  active  part  in 
the  revolution  of  1830,  but  as  Bishop  of  Li^  ne  wad 
forced  to  sever  his  connexion  with  Holland.  In  a 
few  years  lie  remedied  the  evils  which  a  vacancy  of 
more  than  twenty  years  had  occasioned  in  his  dio- 
cese. He  reorganized  the  aeminary,  revived  Catholic 
elementary  education,  and  gave  tLe  firet  impetus  to 
the  foundation  of  a  Catboho  university. 
Bishop  van  Bommel  was  a  zealous  defender  of  ths 


education.  At  the  reorganuatkm  of  public  inatruo- 
tion  in  1S42,  his  educational  views  were  put  in  force 
in  those  ^ymno^  and  technical  schools  which  the 
State  mamtained  wholly  or  in  part.  Hia  writing 
comprise  three  volumes  of  "Pastoral  Letters",  and 
a  number  of  pamphlets  on  ecclesiastioal  and  educa- 


fwtttr*. 


UAnnua  Leiudhleb. 


St.  Joseph's  Convent,  Ahmedabad,  with  100  pupils: 
besideo  smaller  eetablishmentA  of  all  kinds  scattered 
over  the  archdiocese.  There  is  no  diocesan  seminary, 
the  native  secular  clergy  being  trained  at  the  Pa^ 
Seminary  at  Kandy  in  Ceylon.  The  finrat  buildinfp 
in  the  archdiocese  are  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Name 
with  the  archbishop's  residence  and  Convent  School, 
Bombay;  the  Bombay  Cathedral,  a  large  structure  in 
the  Portuguese  style;  St.  Patrick's  Church,  Karachi; 
the  collegiate  buildings  of  St.  Xavier's  and  St.  Mary's, 
Bombay,  to  which  Tatter  St.  Aime's  Church  is  at- 
tached. Local  publications  include  "The  Examiner" 
(ftmnerly  called  the  "  Bombay  Catholic  Examiner  ") 
edited  t^  a  Jesuit  fatb^  cetablisbed  in  lS4d  it  is 

n.— 41 


Bon*,  GiovAifNi,  ft  disUnguished  cardinal  and 
author,  b.  of  an  old  P^ench  family  at  Moodovi  in 
Piedmont,  19  October,  acocNrling  to  some  10  October, 
1609;  d.  at  Rome,  28  October,  1674.  Although  his 
father  favoured  a  military  career  for  him,  after  pass- 
ing some  yeais  at  a  nearby  Jesuit  college  he  entered 
ths  Cistercian  monastery  at  Pignerola,  where,  as  also' 
later  at  Rome,  he  pursued  his  studiea  with  exceptional 
BUccesBL  He  laboured  for  fifteen  yeeie  at  Turin. 
then  as  prior  at  Aati  and  sa  abbot  at.Hondovi,  and 
in  1661  was  called  to  preside  over  the  wbde  congr^ 
cation.  During  hiB.Beven  years  of  officiti  life  in  Rome 
he  modestly  declined  all  further  honours,  at  one  time 
evMi  refusing  the  Bishopric  of  Asti.  He  welcomed 
the  eipirstion  of  his  thinl  term  in  the  scholar's  hope 
that  he  would  be  allowed  to  enjc^  a  life  of  retjranent 
and  study,  but  his  intimate  frioiid.  Pope  AteMnder 
VII,  wisluDg  to  honour  his  learning  and  piety,  made 
him  Oonaultor  to  the  CongregatJon  of  the  Index  aitd 
to  the  Holy  Office.  In  1669  be  was  created  cardinal, 
and  then  the  beauty  at  hia  ohaiacter  was  fully  i»> 


BONAOUM                               646  BOKAL 

sealed;  there  was  no  change  in  his  extremely  simple  puUished  in  which  the  mind  of  the  chapter  renuding 

manner  of  life,  and  eveiy  year  he  dcmated  his  surplus  the  controversy  is  set  forth  at  consideratde  length, 

revenue  to  the  needy  priests  of  the  Missionaiy  College  and   with  unmistakaUe  distinctness;   while   Bona- 

at  Rome.  gratia  was  chosen  to  be  the  representative  of  the 

His  best  known  ascetical  works  are:  "Via  Com-  chapter  before  the  papal  Curia  at  Avignon.     Dis- 

pendii  ad  Deum"  (1657);  "Princijpia  et  documenta  pleased  at  the  action  of  the  chapter  at  Perugia, 

vitffi  Christianae"  (1673);  "Manuductio  ad  coelum"  Pope  John   XXII   published   the   Bull   "Ad   con- 

(1658)'  and  "Horologium  Asceticum"  (Paris.  1676).  ditorem  canonum"  m  which  he  renoimces  the  do- 

The  "Manuductio"  is  often  compared  to  the  "Imita-  minion  of  all  the  eoods  of  the  Friars  Minor  hitherto 

tionof  Christ  "on  account  of  the  simplicity  of  the  style  assumed  by  the  Koman  pontiffs,  and  declares  that 

in  which  the  solid  doctrine  is  taught.    It  has  always  the  owner&ip  of  a  thing    cannot    be    separated 

been  extremely  popular.     Besidai  passing  through  from  its  actual  use  or  consumption.    At  the  pub- 

fourteen  Latin  editions  in  four  decades,  it  has  bcin  lie  consistory  held   in  January,  1323,    Bonagratia 

translated  into  Italian,  French,  German,  Armenian,  appefved  in  the  presence  of  the  pope  and  car&ials, 

,and  Spanish.    The  latest  translation  is  in  English  and    with    more    zeal     perhaps     than    discretion 

by  Sir  Robert  L'Estrange  (A  Guide  to  Eternity,  openly  opposed  the  papal  constitution.    His   bold- 

I/>ndon,  1000).    Shortlv  after  his  ordination  he  col-  ness,    however,  was  of  little    avail,  for    the    Bull 

leoted  together  some  of  the  most  beautiful  passages  "Ad  conditorem"  was  a^n  promulgated  in  lengthier 

in  the  Fathers  on  the  august  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  form,  but  bearing  its  previous  date  of  8  December,  1322, 

and  later  published  them  in  a  booklet,  which  with  and  the  audacious  Bona^ratia  himself  was  cast  into 

certain  adoitions  ctcw  into  his  "De  Sacrifioio  Misste".  prison.    He  was  released  after  a  year's  confinement, 

a   useful    Mass  book.     In    addition    he    composed  and  in  1330  folk>wed  the  Emperor  Louis  of  Bavaria 

several  unpublished  works,  known  as  "Ascetic!  ',  for  to  Mimieh,  together  with  the  Ex-Minister  General 

the  instruction  of  members  of  his  own  order.  Michael  of  O^na  and  William  of  Occam.     StUl 

But  his  fame  does  not  rest  solely  on  his  devotional  under  sentence  of  excommunication,  Bonagratia  died 
writings.  He  was  a  deep  student  of  antiouity,  and  there  and  was  buried  in  the  BarfOsserkirche,  where 
9o  successful  in  treating  of  the  use  of  the  Psalter  in  Michael  of  Cesena  and  William  of  Occam  aiso  found 
the  Christian  Church  (De  DivinA  Psalmodid.,  Paris,  their  last  resting-place.  Among  the  writings  of 
1663)  that  Cardinal  Pallavicini  urged  him  to  imder-  Bonagratia  may  be  mentioned  his  "  Articuli  pro- 
take  the  history  of  the  Sacrifice  of  th^  Mass.  Realis-  bationum'',  composed  in  confutation  of  the  errors 
ing  the  magnitude  of  the  task  he  at  first  declined,  but  of  Ubertino  of  Casale  above  mentioned. 


otuucutB  VI   iibur(^.       x^xs  xxviuua  uivuripwiB       \iMJumf  poMtm;    UTHON    DB    Jfn 

1671).    It  is  a  veritable  encyclopedia  of  historic  in-  1900).  XIX,  188.  190. 

formation  on  all  subjects  bearing  on  the  Mass,  such  Stephen  M.  Donovan. 

asrites  churches,  vestments,  etc.    Not  least  TOTiark-  gonal,   Francois    db.   Bishop   of    Qermont,  b. 

able  about  these  volumes,  besides  the  wealth  of  1734  ^t  the  castle  of  Bonal,  near  Agen;  d.  at  Munich, 

matenal  gathered  toother,  are  the  Classic  purity.  jgOO.     He  had  been  Vicar-General  of    Agen  and 

the  manly  vigour,  and  the  charming  simplicity  of  Director  of  the  Carmelite  Nuns  in  France  when  he 

the  Latin  style.    The  best  edition  of  this  work  is  by  ^^s  made  Bishop  of  Clermont,  1776.    On  the  eve 


works  was  published  at  Antwerp  in  1677.     ^     ,^  as  one  of  the  deputies  of  the  clergy  to  the  Etats- 

l77^l8oS);   xm.'t^^tSS2iir^^  G^n^raux  of  1789,  where  he  distinguished  himself 

(Brescia,  1753-63,  HrPart  III.  1616);  Bertolotti.  Vita  by  his  moderation  and  firmness.    To  Tarret  who 

JoannU  Bona  iAatLim):Qovjvr,  Vie  duca^  spoke  of  the  "God  of  peace"  he  replied  that  the 

the  French  translatioa  of  i>«  pintk^pua  vUa  CArunaiUE  (Fans.  A^j  _*  «^-««  «,«-  -iay>  *t«  nr^A  ^f  ^»^^»  „«^  i**«*i,*^ 

1728);  Dupm.  BiUiotMque  dJi  autm^eeeUe,  du  XVJii  nidi  ^  of  peace  was  also  the  God  of  order  and  justice, 

(Pans.  1708).  III.  66.  From  his  prison  Louis  XYI  sent  for  his  opinion  as 

Leo  F,  O'Nbil.  to  whether  he  should  receive  Paschal  Communion. 

Bonacum,  Thomas.    See  Lincoln,  Diocisb  of.  The  answer  was  full  of  sympathy,  yet  the  unfortu- 

«*««•  wiAmm     &^  i?ATmir  iMitc  monarch  was  advised  to  abstain  "for  having 

Mnaraas.    oeeiJAiTH.  sanctioned  decrees  destructive  of  religion".    BonS 

Bonagratia   of    B^amo  (or  Perg^o),  Fnar  was  aUuding  chiefly  to  the  civU  constitution  of  the 

Minor,  theologian,  and  cwionist,  date  of  birth  un-  clergy.    Having  declined  to  take  the  constitutional 

known:  d.  at  Mumch,  1343.    J^fore  his  entrance  oath,  he  was  compelled  to  leave  his  diocese  and 

into  religion,  he  was  Imown  as  Boncort^,  a  name  country.    He    pa^ed    to    Flanders    and    later    to 

which  was  adopted  at  tunes  by  Qement  V  who  used  Holland,  was  captured  and  sentenced  to  deporta- 

to  caU  him  d^us  filtwsFraUr  Boneartese,  dtdus  tion  by  the  French,  but  succeeded  in  making  his 

Bonagratia  de  Fergamo.    Though  Bonagratia  took  an  escape  and  spent  the  last  yeara  of  his  life  in  various 

active  and  imoortant  part  m  the  controversy  with  cities  of  Germany.    He  is  the  author  of  a  "Testa- 

the  so-called  Spmtual  Friars,  especiallsr  with  Uber-  ment  spirituel". 

tino  of  Casale,  one  of  their  leaders,  his  biography  Fbllto,  Biographic  UniverteOs  (Paris.  1886);  d«  CBfcv*. 

!8  interesting  principally  because  of  hik  connexion  cobur.  Journal  d'Andrim  Duquetnoy  (Paria.  1804). 

with  the  famous  dispute  concerning  the-  poverty  of  J*  F.  Sollikb. 

Christ.    The  contest  began  at  Narbonne  in  1321  Bonal,  Ratmond,  French  theologian  and  founder 

between  the  Dominicans  and  Franciscans,  and  the  of  the  Congr^tion  of  the  Priests  of  St.  Mary  (Bona- 

main  question  at  issue  seems  to  have  been  whether  lists),  b.  at   Villefranche  in  Rouergue,  15  August, 

it  is  heretical  to  assert  that  Christ  and  His  AposUea  1600;  d.  at  Agde,  Herault,  France,  c.  1653.    He 

possessed  no  property  either  in  particular  or  in  studied  classics  and  philosophy  with  the  Jesuits  at 

common.    On  account  of  the  important  bearing  of  Cahors;  theology  and  canon  and  civil  law  at  the 

the  controversy  on  the  rule  of  the  Friars  Minor,  a  Unrveraity  of  Toulouse,  where  he  received  the  degree 

general   chapter   of    the   order   was    convoked   at  of  Doctor  in  Theology  in  1628.    In  1632,  he  oon- 

rerugia,  in  June  of  the  year  1322,  and  the  minister  ceived  the  idea  of  organising  a  community  of  priests 

general,   together  with  the  other  members  of  the  in  whose  life  and  labours  should  be  exemplified  the 

chfi^>ter,  caused  two  letters  ot  communications  to  be  spirit  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales.    With  two  other 


647  BOXALD 

eecIeeiaaUcs,  he  beeon  to  lead  a  commuiiity  life  is  I'E!nn>p«";  in  1817,  "Pens^  mir  diven  stijefs"  in 
a  house  near  the  ehureh  of  Our  I«iy  of  Pi^,  Vill»-  2  -vcAb.  8vo.  C2d  ed.,  PariB,  1887);  in  1818  "RoeWcheB 
fnncbe.  He  was  soon  joined  iiy  ottwra,  and  in  1S30  philosophiquee  hut  lea  premiers  objets  des  ooimais- 
the  parish  of  Foix  in  the  Diocese  of  Panuera  was  en-  sances  morales";  ia  1827,  "  Demonstration  philoao 
Inuted  to  his  communitv,  wliieh  a  few  years  later  phiqne  du  principe  oonstitutit  des  socifitte".  Mean- 
opened  a  senunary  at  Villefranche  with  Bona!  as  its  while  he  collaborated  with  Chateaubriand,  Lamen- 
direclor.  In  1650  he  organized  a  aeminaiy  and  ool-  nais,  and  Beiryer,  in  the  "Conservateur",  and  Iat« 
lege  at  Toulou«  and,  having  gone  to  Agde  with  a  in  the"  Wfenseur"  founded  by  LameiuiMi.  In  1^ 
siznilar  purpose,  in  1653,  felt  a  victim  to  an  epi^  he  Kave  up  his  peerage  and  led  a  life  of  retirement 
demic.  The  congregation  founded  by  Bonalwas  ap-  in  his  native  city. — "There  ia  not  to  be  found  in  tjiia 
proved  in  1665  by  Pope  Alexander  VII,  and  m  long  career",  says  Jules  Simon^  "one  action  wl^ch 
1678  by  King  Louis  XIV.  For  lack  of  subjects,  is  not  consistent  with  his  principles,  one  expression 
however,  the  seminaries  confided  to  the  Bonalists  which  beUee  them."  r  m  a  -r,^ 
languished  and  were  Buccessively  handed  over  to  '^-  "■  »*-^^*- 
the  Congregation  of  the  Mission.  Aft«r  a  little  Bonald,  LomsjACQUES-MAURici!  dk.  Cardinal. 
more  than  a  hundred  years  of  ejustence,  the  con-  b.  at  Millau,  ia  Rouergue  (now  Aveyron),  30  Octo- 
gr^tioD  iteelf  was  absorbed  by  the  Lazansts.  ,  ber,  1787;  d.  at  Lyons,  25  Feb.,  1870.  Hewasthe 
Raymond  Rinal  pubhshed  a  ''Cours  de  thfelo^e  fourth  son  of  the  Vicomte  de  Bonald,  the  celebrated 
Tor  -.L-  *'"  edition  of  which  IS  dated,_  Pans,  Btatesman  and  philosopher.  Destined  for  the  Chureh, 
1685  This  course,  which  was  followed  m  the  he  studied  at  Saini>. 
Sulpiclan  seminaries  at  Toulouse,  Valence,  Thiers,  guipjce  and  was 
and  elsewhere,  was  translated  into  Latin  by  Pierre  ^ined  priest  in 
Laur  (Toulouse,  1674),  under  the  title  "Tbeologia  jgu  H^  was  first 
Moralis  R.  Bonalis".  Another  work  of  Raymond  attached  to  the  im- 
Bonal,  "  Explication  litt^rale  et  mystique  des  rubri-  perial  chapel  and 
ques"  was  publiahedatLyonsm  1679.  after  the  Seatot^ 

UuniEKOT  ID  Diet,  de  tMal.  calA.:  Failldh.  Km  di  M.  Olur  ,,-  „  „„„f  ,„  Hnmo 

(Pah.,  1873),  X;  Mercadieh,  J>«  contit<itim,,  rigttmeiUt  et  *'™  "^^"^  '?  ^°"}^ 

Hfertuvti  de  ia  amuriliation  dee  FrOree  de  Sainle  Aforu  (Mends,  assecretary  tO  Arch- 

IGSS);   Bebtiund,  BMialhtoae  Svlpicimne  (Paris,   IBOO),!;  bishop      cfe       Fres- 

la  amariaat&n  de  jTmun™  CPapie,  MrfTuArihite,  ,mti.>-  Bigny,  who  was  en-    | 

itaUtlParial.B.eTOS,  am.  B7lO;AnMiiea  of  At  CBngrtoaHoa  trusted      by     LoulS    , 

itf  tt*  Jf  i«i<m  (P.™).  US.  IIOI.  XVIII  with  the  task 

F.  V.  NtTQEtrr.  of  arranging  for  a  1 

Bonald,  LoTfi8-GAitiirEi>AMBRoi8J!.  Vicomte    db.  Three    years    later  \ 

French   statesman,   writer,   and    philosopher,   b.   at  Bishop     Latil     of 

Monna,  near  Millau,  in  Rouergue  (Aveyron)  2  Oc-  Chartrea  made  him  ' 

tober,  1754;   d.  at  Paris,  23  November,  1840.      He  his      vicar-general.    : 

was  educated  by  the  Oratorians  at  the  (iillege  of  When    the   Diocese 

Juilly;    joined   the  king's  musketeers,  retum»i  to  of  Puy   was  re-cs- 

his  own   province   in   1770,   was   elected   mayor  of  tablished    (1823) 

Millan  in  1785,  and  in  1790  was  chosen  member  of  Bonald  became  its 

the  departmental  Assembly  for  Aveyron.     He   re-  first  bishop  and  re-         Lotru  Cardinal  di  Bohald 
dgned  in  1791,  emigrated,  became  a  soldier  in  the  mained  there  for  six- 
army  of  Condfi,  and,  when  the  army  was  disbanded,  teen  years,  until  his  promotion  to  the  primatialSeeof 
retired  to  Heidelberg,  where  he  took  chai^  of  the  Lyons  (1839),  and  m  1841  Gregory  XVI  made  him 
education  of  bis  two  dder  sons.  cardinal.     Cardinal  de  Bonald  is  one  of  the  glories 


Bonald  published  at  Constance,  in  1797,  his  first  of  the  French  episcopate.  His  personal  qualities, 
work:  "Throne  du  pouvoir  politique  et  religieux",  as  well  as  the  sahent  features  of  bis  episcopal  career, 
which   was  suppressed  in   France   by  order  of  the     are  most  easily  found  in  the  only  work  we  have  from 


jftlytiquesur  les  lois  natureiles  de  I'ordre  social"  sympathetic,  eloquent,   and   full  of  seal.     His  leal 

(1800);  "Du  divorce"   (1801);  and  "La  lipislation  aeems'to   have   embraced   all   vital    interests,      hi 

primitive"  (1802).     He  also  collaborated  with  C3ia-  point  of  doctrine,  Bonald  contributed  a  lar^  share 

teaubriand  and  others  in  the  "Mereure  de  France",  towards  destroying  all  remnants  of  Gallicanism  and 

contributing  several  articles  which  were  published  in  Jansenism.     The  Janscnistic  interpolations  made  by 

book  form  with  other  studies  in  3819  under  the  title  Montazet  in  the  liturgical  books  of  Lyons  were,  after 

"Manges  lit(4raires,  politiques,  et  philosophiquea  ".  a  long  struggle,  finally  suppressed.     Dupin's  GalKean 

In  1808  ne  declined  to  be  a  member  of  the  Council  of  book,  ''Manuel  de  droit  eccWsiastique  ",  was  severely 

the  University,  but  finally  accepted  in   1810.     He  condemned  by  the  primate,  and  when  the  (Council  of 

refused  to  take  charge  of  tne  education  of  the  son  of  State  declared  him  guilty  of  abuse   (1845),  Bonald 

Louis  Bonaparte,  King  of  Holland,  and  of  the  King  replied  that  the  censure  had  not  even  touched  him 

of  Rome,  the  son  of  Napoleon  I.  because  "when  the  Council  of  State  has  pronounced 

A  moiuirchist  and  royalist  by  nature  and  by  prin-  on  questions  of  doctrine,  the  cause  is  not  finished". 

dples,  Bonald  welcomed  the  restoration  of  the  Bout-  ■  In  matters  of  discipline  (Cardinal  de  Bonald  corrected 

bona.      He  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  Academy  many  abuHes,  and  he  crowned  his  work  by  convening 

by  royal  decree  in   1816.     From   1815   to   1822  he  a  provincial  synod  (18.'>0),  whose  statutes  touched 

served  as  deputy  from  Aveyron,  and  in  1823  became  all   the   main  points   of   church    government.      He 

a  peer  of   France.    He   tnen   directed  his  efforts  always  took  great  interest  in  social  questions,  and 

B^Qst  all  attempts  at  hberalism  in  religion  and  poll-  never  was  more  eloquent  than  when  appealing  for 

Utx.     The  law  against  divorce  was  proposed  by  him  help  in  behalf  of  misery,  as  for  instance  during  the 

in  1815  and  paEoed  in  1816.     He  took  a  prominent  floods  oE  1840  and  1846  and  the  destitution  of  the 

part  in  the  law  of  1822  which  did  away  with  the  Spanish  refugees  (1842).     The  closing  of  silk  factoriea 

uberty  of  the  press  and  established  a  committee  of  in  Lyons  gave  him  an  opportunity  of  showing  not 

censure  of  which  he  was  the  president.     In  1815  he  only  his  liberality  towards  the  needy,  but  also  Ua 

pabliahed  his  "B^flesiona  sur  I'intdrM  g6n4ral  de  brtutd  empathy  for  the  toiling  class  in  geaetaL 


BOVA  648  BONAVIMTUBX 

The  maiiifli>ring  of  Cardinal  de  Bonald'fl  life,  how-  special  mstructionfi  at  the  public  meetuo^s 

ever,  was  his  love  of  the  Church,  which  he  desired  powerfully  to  prepare  for  a  happy  death.    The 

first  of  all  to  have  respected.    In  1825  the  royal  court  conditions  for  membership  are  to  present  oneedf 

of  Paris,  in  rendering  a  verdict,  implied  that  the  to  the  director;  to  express  to  him  one's  desire  to 

whole  body  of  clersy  was  disloyal  to  the  Crown;  become  a  member;  to  receive  from  him  an  outward 

Bonald  in  a  dignifiea  letter  of  protest  to  the  king  sign  of  acceptance,  usually  in  the  form  of  a  certificate 

replied:  ''Were  the  clergy  less  loyal,  they  would  not  of  admission:  and  to  have  one's  name  registered 

be  the  object  of  such  hatred".    He  also  desired  the  in  the  local  Bona  Mors  itegister.    Only  "by  an  un- 

freedom  of  the  Church,  and  his  pastoral  letter  of  usual  and  extraordinary  exception",  says  a  decree 

1846,  "La  liberty  de  I'Eglise",  remains  one  of  his  of   the   Sacred   Congregation   of    Indulgences,  "is 

best  efforts.    Of  all  the  privileges  essential  to  the  it  allowed  to  enroll  those  abeent".    The  director  is 

Church,  that  of  teaching  seemed  to  him  first  and  authorized  to  decide  what  constitutes  such  an  6X« 

foremost.    On  several  occasions  he  wrote  either  to  ceptional  case.     The  practices  of  the   associatioii 

approve  or  to  condemn  the  legislation  concerning  and  the  indidgenoes  granted  to  the  members  are 

schools.     The  royal  ordinance  of  1824  placing  the  specified  in  the  manual  of  the  confraternity  (New 

schools  under  the  surveillance  of   the  bishops  met  York,  1896).  John  J.  Wynne. 

with  his  entire  approval:  but  the  ordinances  of  1828 

establishing  a  new  mode  of  direction  for  primary       Bonaparte,   Charles -Lvcien- Jules -Laurent, 

schools    and    even    interfering    with    ecclesiastical  Prince  of  Canino  and  Musionano,  omitholcM^ist, 

schools  for  secondaiy  education,  as  well  as  the  Ville-  b.  in  Paris,  24  May,  1803;  d.  in  the  same  city  29  «Rily, 

main  educational  biU  of  1844  and  Salvandy's  project  1857.   He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Lucien  Bonaparte,  the 

of  1847,  he  strongly  opposed,  thus  preparing  toe  way  brother  of  Ni4X)leon,  and  was  educated  in  the  uni* 

for  the  law  of  1850.    Having  become,  by  the  con-  versities  of  Italy.    After  his  marriage  to  his  cousin 

stitution  of  1852,  and  bv  virtue  of  his  dignity  as  Zenalde,  daughter  of  Joseph  Bonaparte,  on  29  June, 

cardinal,  a  member  of  the  French  Senate,  Bonald  1822,  he  came  to  the  United  States  where  his  fathe^ 

showed  onoe  more  his  love  of  the  Church  by  throwing  in-law  was  residing.    While  here  he  devoted  himself 

the  whole  weight  of  his  influence  on  the  side  of  the  to  the  study  of  natural  science  and  particulariy  of 

Roman  pontiif  and  the  independence  of  the  Holy  ornithology.    He  undertook  the  completion  of  Wil- 

See.  son's  "Omitholqgy  or  History  of  the  Birds  of  the 

The    long    episcopal    career    of    Bonald    covers  United  States"  in  four  volumes  (Philadelphia,  1825- 

many   successive   political    regimes.    Although   by  33).    In  this  work  he  describes  more  than  one  himdred 

birth  and  education  a  stanch  legitimist,  yet,  as  a  new  species  discovered  by  himself .     He  also  published 

bishop,  he  looked  above  the  changes  of  human  gov-  ''Observations   on    the    Nomenclature   of   Wilson's 

emment  to  the  Church  and  her  welfare.    Because  Ornithology"  (in  the  Journal  of  the  Philadelphia 

the  Revolution  of  February,  1848,  with  its  motto  Academy);  "Synopsis  of  the  Birds  of  the  United 

"Liberty,   Equaility,    Fraternity",   seemed   to   him  States"  (in  the  Annals  of  the  Lyceimi  of  New  York), 

favourable  to  the  biest  interests  of  the  Church,  he  was  etc.    He  returned  to  Europe  in  1828  and  took  up  his 

one 'of  the  first  bishops  to  welcome  it.     He  wrote  to  residence  in  Rome  where  ne  continued  his  scientific 

his  priests:  "Give  to  the  faithful  the  example  of  sub-  work.    Upon  the  death  of  his  father,  Lucien,  in  1840, 

mission  and  obedience  to  the  Republic.     You  have  he  became  Prince  of  Canino  and  Musignano  and  after^ 

long  cherished  the  hope  of  enjoying  the  liberty  which  wards  entered  the  political  arena,  associating  himself 

makes  our  brethren  of  the  Umted  States  so  happy;  with  the  anti-Austrian  party.    He  did  not,  nowever. 

that  liberty  you  shall  have. "    The  same  broadness  lose  interest  in  his  favourite  studies  for  he  organizea 

of  view  he  evinced  when  he  refused  to  side  with  the  and  presided  over  several  scientific  congresses  in 

Abb^  Qaimie  on  the  question  of  the  classics:  "We  Italy.    He  had  been  attached  to  Pius  IX,  but  in  1848 

decline  to  believe  that  the  study  of  pagan  authors  he  joined  the  radical  party  and  in  the  following  year 

has  for  three  centuries  instilled  paganism  into  the  was  elected  deputy  of  Viterbo  and  Vice-President  of 

social  body."  the  Assembly.    After  the  fall  of  the  Republic  he  was 

FiSQUET.  La  France  ponHficale,MHropoledeLvon9  (Paris};  obliged  to  leave  Italy  (July,  1849),  but  his  COUfflD, 

?JSSIi*^2'§Si«*^uf  S?^)  ^ty^i^^^i/IUSi  I*,«?^NapoJeon,  refused  to  permit  h(m  to  enter  ft«.ce 

U  Concordat  juaqu'h  la  SiparaHon  (Pans,  1907).  until  the  followmg  year  when  he  settled  m  Pans.    In 

J.  F.  SoLLiEB.  1854  he  became  director  of  the  Jardin  des  Plantes. 

Bonaparte  had  twelve  children  of  whom  eight  siir- 

Bona  Mora  Oonfratemity,  The  (Happt  Death),  vived  him.    Among  them  was  Luden-Louis^osei^ 

was  founded  2  October,  1648,  in  the  Church  of  the  Napoleon,  who  was  ordained  priest  in  1853  and  was 

QesCk,  Rome,  by  Father  Vincent  Caraffa,  seventh  made  cardinal  in  1868.    Bonaparte  became  an  hon- 

General  of  tne  Society  of  Jesus,  and  approved  by  orarv  member  of  the  Academy  of  Upsida  in  1833,  and 

the  Sovereign  Pontiffs  Innocent  X  and  Alexander  VII.  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Benin  in  1843,  and 

In  1729  it  was  raised  to  an  archconfratemity  and  corresponding  member  of   the  "Institut"  in  1844. 

enriched    with    niunerous    indulgences    by    Bene-  Besides  his  published  works  already  referred  to  may 

diet  XIII.     He  authorized  the  Father  General  of  be  mentioned:  "Specchio  comparativo  delle  omitho- 

the  Society  of  Jesus,  who,  in  virtue  of  his  office,  logie  di  Romaedi  Filadelfia"  (Paris,  1827);  "Icono- 

was  the  director,  to  erect  Bona  Mors  confraternities  ^rafia  della  Fauna  Italica"  (Rome,  1834-41).    This 

in  all  churches  of  his  order.     In  1827  Leo  XII  gave  is  his  principal  work  and  is  illustrated  with  fine 

to  the   director   general    the    power  to  erect  and  coloured  plates.     ''Geographical  and  Comparative 

affiliate  branch  confraternities  m  churches  not  be-  Listof  Birds  of  Europe  and  North  America"  (London j 

longing  to  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  to  give  them  a  1838);   "Catalogo  metodico  deglj  uccelli  Europei'* 

share  m  all  the  privileges  and  indulgences  of  the  (Bologna,  1842);  "Conspectus  systemaUs  omitholo- 

archconfratemity.     The  object  of   the   association  giae"  (Leyden,  1850);    ^'Conspectus  systematis  ich^ 

is  to  prepare  its  members  by  a  well  related  life  thyologiae"   (Leyden,  1850);    "OrnithologiefossQe" 

to  die  in  peace  with  God.    The  longer  title:  "Con-  (Paris,  1858). 

fraternity  of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  dying  on  the  _,  I>«bi>>odr  in  Lo^roaie  en^wc.;    Wouters,  X*t  .5««>psS 

Cross,  4d  of  the,  most  Blessed  Virgin^  Sfary,  His  ^"^Ifif^S^^te /^u^teS^*^^^^ 
sorrowful  Mother",  expresses  the  chief  means  to  H.  M.  Brock. 

attain  that  end,  devotion  to  the  Passion  of  Christ 

and  to  the  sorrows  of  Mary.    Besides  this  the  union        Bonaventure,    Saint,    Doctor    of    the  Church, 

of  prayers  and  good  works  of  the  associates  and  the  Cardinal-Bishop  of  Albano,  Minister  General  of  the 


BONATENTUBX  6^ 

Friaia  Minor,  b.  at  Bagnorea  in  the  vicinity  of 
Viterbo  in  1221;  d.  at  Lyons,  15  July,  1274. 

Nothing  is  known  of  Bonaventure  b  parenU  save 
their  uamea:  Giovanni  di  Fidania  and  Maria  Ritella. 
How  liis  twptiBmal  name  of  John  came  to  be  changed 
to  that  of  Bonaventure  is  not  clear.  An  attempt 
baa  been  made  to  trace  the  latter  name  to  the  ex- 
clwnation  of  St.  Francis,  0  buona  Ventura,  when 
Bonaventure  was  brougbt  as  an  infant  to  I"'"!  to 
b«  cured  of  a  dangerous  illness.  This  derivation  is 
highly  improbable;  it  seems  based  on  a  late  fifteentb- 
ceatury  I^end.  Bona  venture  himself  tells  us 
(Legenda  S.  Francisci  Prolog.)  that  while  vet  a 
child  he  was  preserved  from  death  throuch  tno  in- 
tercMsion  of  St.  Francis,  but  there  is  no  evidence  that 
this  cure  took  place  during  the  lifetime  of  St.  Fran* 
ciaorthat  the  name  Bonaventure  originated  in  any 
prophetical  words  of  St  Francis.  It  was  certainly 
borne  by  others^  before 


venture's  youth  have 
been  preeerved.  He 
entered  the  Order  of 
FriaiB  Minor  in  1238 
or  1243;  the  exact 
year  is  uncertain. 
Wadding  and  the  Bol- 
landista  hold  for  tlie 
later  dat«,  but  the  ear- 
lier one  is  supported 
ter  Sbaralea,  Bonelli, 
Fanfilo  da  Magliano, 
and  Jeiler,  and  appears 
more  probable.  It  is 
certain  that  Bonaven- 
ture was  sent  from 
the  Roman  Province, 
to  which  he  belonged, 
to  complete  his  stud- 
iea  at  the  I'niveraity 
of  Paris  under  Alex- 
ander of  Holes,  the 
great  founder  of  the 
Franciscan  School 
The  latter  died  in 
1245,  according  to  the 
o[>inion  generally  r»- 
oeived,  though  not 
yet  definitely  eetab* 
lished,  and  Bonaven- 
ture seems  to  have 
become  his  pupil  about 
1242.  Be  this  as  it 
may,  Bonaventure  re- 
ceived   in   1248    the 

"Ucentiate"  which  St.  Bokavehtttre  (Dbttah.  i«ob  1 
gave  him  the  right  to 

teach  publicly  as  Maginier  regent,  and  he  continued  to 
lectureat  the  university  with  great  BuccesB  until  12,'),'), 
when  he  was  compelled  to  discontinue,  owing  to  the 
then  violent  outburst  of  opposition  to  the  Mendicant 
ofdenon  the  part  of  the  secular  professors  at  the  uni- 
versity. The  latter,  jealous,  afi  it  seems,  of  the  aca- 
demic eucceesee  of  the  Dominicans  and  Franciscans, 
sought  to  exclude  them  from  teaching  publicly. 
The  smouldering  elements  of  discord  had  b^n  fanned 
into  a  flame  in  1255,  when  Guillaume  dc  Saint- 
Amour  puUished  a  work  entitled  "The  Perils  of 
the  Last  Times",  in  which  he  attaclted  the  Friars 
with  great  bittemeaa.  It  was  in  connexion  with 
this  dispute  tliat  Bonaventure  wrote  his  treatise, 
"De  paupertate  Christi".  It  was  not,  however, 
Bonaventure,  as  some  have  erroneously  stated, 
but  Blewed  John  of  Parma,  who  appeared  before 
Alexander  IV  at  Anagni  to  defend  the  Franciscans 
■gunst  th^  adversuy.    The  Holy  See  having,  as 


9  BOKATXHTTTBl 

is  well  known,  re-established  the  Mendicants  !n  all 
their  privileges,  and  Saint-Amour's  book  having 
been  formally  condemned,  the  degree  of  Doccor  was 
solemnly  t>estowed  on  St.  Bonaventure  and  St. 
Thomas  Aquinas  at  the  university,  23  October,  1257. 
In  the  meantime"  Bonaventure,  though  not  yet 
thirty-six  ^ears  old,  had  on  2  February,  1257,  been 
elected  Minister  General  oE  the  Friars  Minor — an 
office  of  peculiar  difficulty,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
order  was  distracted  by  m  tern  Ed  dissensions  between 
the  two  factions  among  the  Friars  designated  re- 
spectively the  S-piritvalM  and  the  Rdajii.  The 
former  insisted  upon  the  hteral  observance  of  the 
original  Rule,  especially  in  regard  to  poverty,  while 
the  latter  wished  to  introduce  innovations  and  miti- 
gations. This  lamentable  controversy  hadmoreover 
been  aggravated  by  the  enthusiasm  with  which  many  of 
tbe"$iritual"Friars  had  adopted  the  doctrines  con- 
^  nected  witlrthe  name 

of  Abbot  Joachim  of 
Floris  and  set  forth  ia 
the  so-called  "Evai 
liumetemum". 

introductioi.    .. , 

pernicious  book,  which 
proclaimed  the  ap- 
proaching dispensa- 
tion of  the  Spirit 
that  was  to  replace 
the  Law  of  Christ, 
was  falsely  attributed 
to  BL  John  of  Parma, 
who  in  1257  had  re- 
tired from  the  gov- 
enimcnt  of  the  order 
in  favour  of  Bonar 
venture.  The  n^W 
general  lost  no  time 
in  striking  vigorously 
at  both  extremes 
within  the  order,     " 


ttie    < 


Bonaventurp    had,  i 


proceeded  against  ec 
eral  of  the  Joachi- 
mite  "Spirituals"  as 
bcrelJca  before  an  eo- 
desiastical  tribunal  at 
CitUi-dclla-Pieve;  two 
of  their  leaders  were 
condemned  to  perpet- 
mprisonment,  and 
John  of  Parma  was 
inly  saved  from  alike 
fate  through  the  per- 
sonal intervention  of 
Cardinal  Ottoboni,  af- 
terwards Adrian  V. 
On  the  other  hand. 
encyclical    letter    issuea 


lediately  after  his  election,  outlined  a  programme 
for  the  reformation  of  the  Reiaxii.  These  re- 
forms he  sought  to  enforce  three  years  later  at 
the  General  Chapter  of  Narbonne  when  the  con- 
stitutions of  the  order  which  he  had  revised  were 
promulgated  anew.  These  so-called  " Const! tu- 
tionea  Narbonenses"  are  dlatribuled  under  twelve 
heads,  corresponding  to  the  twelve  chapters  of  the 
Rule,  of  whicii  they  form  an  enlightened  and  prudent 
exposition,  and  are  of  capital  importance  in  the  his- 
tory of  Franciscan  legislation.  The  chapter  which 
issued  this  code  of  laws  r^uested  Bonaventure  to 
write  a  "legend"  or  life  of  St.  Francis  which  should 
supersede  tnosc  then  in  circulation.  This  was  in 
Three   years   later   Bonaventure,   having  i 


the  meantime  visited  a  great  part  of  the  onler. 
and  having  assisted  at  the  dedication  of  the  chapel 
on  La  Vema  and  at  the  translation  of  the  remauc 


/ 

BONAVENTUBE           650  BQHAVENTUBE 

of  St.  Clare  and  of  St.  Anthony,  convoked  &  general  any  truth  in  the  popular  story  that  Bonaventure 

chapter  of  the  order  of  Pisa  at  which  his  newly  com-  on  arriving  at  Viterbo  advised  the  citizens  to  lock 

posed  life  of  St.  Francis  was  officially  approved  as  up  the  cardinals  with  a  view  to  hastening  the  election. 

the  standard  biography  of  the  saint  to  the  exclusion  In  1272  Bonaventure  for  the  second  time  convened 

of  aU  others.    At  this  chapter  of  1263,  Bonaventure  a  general  chapter  at  Pisa  in  which,  apart  from  general 

fixed  the  limits  of  the  different  provinces  of  the  order  enactments    to    further   re^ar   ooservances,  new 

and,  among  other  ordinances,  prescribed  that  at  decrees  were  issued  respectm^  the  direction  of  the 

nightfall  a  bell  should  be  rung  in  honour  of  the  An-  Poor  Clares,  and  a  solenm  anmversary  was  instituted 

nunciation,  a  pious  practice  from  which  the  Angelus  on  25  August  in  memory  of  St.  Louis.    This  was  the 

seems  to  have  origmated.    There  are  no  grounds,  first  step  towards  the  canonization  of  the  holy  king, 

however,  for  the  assertion  that  Bonaventure  in  this  who  had  been  a  special  friend  of  Bonaventure,  ana 

chapter  prescribed  the  celebration  of  the  feast  of  at  whose  request  6ona venture  composed  his  "  Office 

the  Immaculate  Conception  in  the  order.    In  1264,  of  the  Passion".     On  23  June,  1273,  Bonaventure, 

at  the  earnest  request  of  Cardinal  Cajetan,  Bona-  much  against  his  will,  was  created  Cardinal-Bishop 

venture  consented  to  resimie  the  direction  of  the  Poor  of  Albano.  by  Gregory  X.    It  is  said  that  the  pope  s 

Clares  which  the  Chapter  of  Pisa  had  entireW"  re-  envoys  wno  brought  him  the  cardinal's  hat  found 

nounced  the  year  before.     He  required  the  Clares,  the  saint  washing  dishes  outside  a  convent  near 

however,   to   acknowledge   occasionally   in   writing  Florence  and  were  requested  by  him  to  hang  it  on  a 

that  the  favoims  tendered  them  by  the  Friars  were  tree  nearby  imtil  his  handis  were  free  to  take  it. 

voluntary  acts  of  charity  not  arising  from  any  ob-  Bonaventure   continued    to   govern   the   Order  of 

ligation  whatsoever.    It  is  said  that  rope  Urban  IV  Friars  Minor  until  20  May,  1274,  when  at  the  General 

acted  at  Bonaventure's  suggestion   in  attempting  Chapter  of  Lyons,  Jerome  of    Ascoli,   afterwards 

to  establish  uniformity  of  observance  throughout  Nicholas  IV,was  elected  to  succeed  him.    Meanwhile 

all  the  monasteries  of  Clares.    About  this  time  (1264)  Bonaventure  had  been  charged  by  Greeory  X  to  pre- 

Bona venture  founded  at  Rome  the  Society  of  the  pare  the  questions  to  be  discussed  at  the  Fourteenth 

Gonf alone  in  honour  of  the  Blessed  Virpin  which,  (Ecumenical  Council,  which  opened  at  Lyons  7  May, 

if  not  the  first  confraternity  instituted  in  tne  Church,  1274. 

as  some  have  claimed,  was  certainly  one  of  the  The  pope  himself  presided  at  the  council,  but  he 

earliest.    In  1265  Clement  IV,  by  a  Bull  dated  23  No-  confided  the  direction  of  its  deliberations  to  Bona- 

vember,    nominated    Bonaventure    to    the  ^  vacant  venture,  especially  charging  him  to  confer  with  the 

Archbishopric  of  York,  but  the  saint,  in  keeping  with  Greeks  on  the  points  relating  to  the  abjuration  of 

his  singular  humility,  steadfastly  refused  this  honour  their  schism.    It  was  largely  due  to  Bonaventure's 

and  the  pope  yielded.  efforts  and  to  those  of  the  Friars  whom  he  had  sent 

In  1266  Bonaventure  convened  a  general  chapter  to  Constantinople,   that   the  Greeks   accepted  the 

in  Paris  at  which,  besides  other  enactments,  it  was  union  efi^ected  6  July,   1274.     Bonaventure  twice 

decreed  that  all  the  "legends"  of  St.  Francis  written  addressed  the  assem^ed  Fathers,  on  18  May,  during 

before   that   of   Bonaventure   should   be   forthwith  a  session  of  the  Coimcil,  when  he  preached  on  Banich, 

destroyed,  just  as  the  Chapter  of  Narbonne  had  in  v,  5,  and  on  29  June,  during  pontifical  Mass  ceie- 

1260  ordered   the  destruction  of  all   constitutions  brated  by  the  pope.     While  tne  council  was  still 

before  those  then  enacted.    This  decree  has  excited  in  session,  Bonaventure  died,  Sunday,  15  July,  1274. 

much  hostile  criticism.    Some  would  fain  see  in  it  a  The  Qxact  cause  of  his  deatn  is  unlcnown,  but  if  we 

deliberate  attempt  on  Bonaventure's  part  to  close  may  credit  the  chronicle  of  Peregrinus  of  Bologna, 

the  primitive  sources  of  Franciscan  history,  to  sup-  Bonaventure*s  secretary,  which  has  recently  (1905) 

press  the  real  Francis,  and  substitute  a  counterfeit  been  recovered  and  edited,  the  saint  was  poisoned, 

m  his  stead.     Others,  however,  regard  the  decree  He  was  biu-ied  on  the  evening  following  nis  death 

in  question  as  a  purely  liturgical  ordinance  intended  in  the  ohurch  of  the  Friars  Minor  at  Lyons,  beine 

to  secure  uniformity  in  the  choir  "legends".     Be-  honoured  with  a  splendid  fimeral  which  was  attended 

tween  these  two  connicting  opinions  the  truth  seenu  by  the  pope,  the  King  of  Aragon,  the  cardinals,  and 

to  be  that  this  edict  was  nothing  more  than  anothe.  the   jther  members   of  the   council.     The  funeral 

heroic  attempt  to  wipe  out  the  old  quarrels  and  o»ation  was  delivered  by  Pietro  di  Tarantasia,  0,P., 

start  afresh.    One  cannot  but  regret  the  circumstances  Cardinal-Bishop  of  Ostia,  afterwards  Innocent  V, 

of  this  decree,  but  when  it  is  recalled  that  the  appeal  and  on  the  following  day  during  the  fifth  session 

of  the  contending  parties  was  ever  to  the  words  and  o^  the  council,  Gregory  X  spoke  of  the  irreparable 

actions  of  St.   Francis  as  recorded  in  the  earlier  loss  the  Church  had  sustained  by  the  death  of  Bona- 

**  legends  ",  it  would  be  unjust  to  accuse  the  chapter  venture,  and  commanded  all  prelates  and  priests 

of  '"literanr  vandjjism"  in  seeking  to  proscribe  the  throughout  the  whole  world  to^  celebrate  Mass  for 

latter.     We  have  no  details  of  Bonaventure's  life  the  repose  of  his  soul. 

between  1266  and  1269.    In  the  latter  year  he  con-  Bonaventure    enjoyed    especial    veneration   even 

voked  his  fourth  general  chapter  at  Assisi,  in  which  during  his  lifetime  because  of  his  stainless  character 

it  was  enacted  that  a  Mass  be  sune  evefy  Saturday  and  of  the  miracles  attributed  to  him.    It  was  Alex- 

throughout  the  order  in  honour  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  ander  of  Hales  who  said  that  Bonaventure  seemed 

not,  however,  in  honour  of  her  Immaculate  Concep-  to  have  escaped  the  curse  of  Adam's  sin.    And  the 

tion   as   Wadding   among   others    has   erroneously  story   of   St.   Thomas   visiting   Bonaventure's   cell 

stated.    It  was  probably  soon  after  this  chapter  that  while  the  latter  was  writing  tne  life  of  St.  Francis, 

Bonaventure  composed  his  "Apologia  pauperum",  and  finding  him  in  an  ecstasy  is  well  known.    "Let 

in  which  he  silences  Gerard  of  Abbeville  who  by  us  leave  a  saint  to  work  for  a  saint",  said  the  Angelic 

means  of  an  anonymous  libel  had  revived  the  old  Doctor  as  he  withdrew.     When,   in    1434,  Bona- 

university  feud  against  the  Friars.    Two  years  later,  venture's  remains  were  translated  to  the  new  church 

Bonaventure  was  mainly  instrumental  in  reconciling  erected  at  Lyons  in  honour  of  St.  Francis,  his  head 

the  differences  amoi)g  the  cardinals  assembled  at  was  found  in  a  perfect  state  of  preservation,  the 

Viterbo  to  elect  a  successor  to  Clement  IV,  who  had  tongue  being  as  red  as  in  life.    This  miracle  not  only 

died  nearly  three  years  before;  it  was  on  Bonaventure 's  moved  the  people  of  Lyons  to  choose  Bonaventure 

advice  that,  1  September,  1271 ,  they  imanimously  as  their  special  patron,  but  also  gave  a  great  imj>etus 

ehose  Theobald  Visconti  of  Piacenza  who  took  the  to  the  process  of  his  canonization.    Ehante,  writing 

title  of  Gr^ory  X.     That  the  cardinals  seriously  long  before,  had  given  expression  to  the  popular  mind 

authorized    Bonaventure    to   nominate   himself,    as  by  placing  feona venture  among  the  saints  in  his  **  Par- 

Ipme  writers  aver,  is  most  improbable.    Nor  is  there  aoiso  ",  and  no  canonization  was  ever  more  ardentt* 


BONAVXIITDmS                         651  BOKAVUTTURX 

or  univeraally  desired  than  that  of  Bomaiventiire.  mig^t  be  founded  onhr  go  to  prove  that  he  did  not 

That  its  mention  was  so  loof  deLa^rnd  was  mainly  re^urd  philoeopl]^  as  the  diief  or  last  end  of  sdentifio 

due  to  the  deplorable  dissensions  within  the  order  research  and  speculation.    Moreover,  it  is  only  when 

after  Bonaventure's  death.     Finally  on  14  April,  eompaved  with  theolocr  that  he  considers  philosophy 

1482,  Bonaventure  was  enrolled  in  the  catalogue  of  an  inferior  order.    Con/iidered  hi  itself,  philosophy 

of  the  saints  by  Sixtvs  IV.    In  1662  Bonaventnre's  is,  aocorchng  to  Bonaventure,  a  true  science,  prior 

shrine  was  plundered  by  the  Huguenots  and  the  in  point  of  time  to  theology.    Again,  Bonaventure's 

um  containing  his  body  was  l^umed  in  the  public  pre-eminence  as  a  mystic  must  not  be  sufitered  to 

BQuare.    His  head  was  preserved  through  the  heroism  oveisfaadow  his  labours  in  the  domain  of  philosophy, 

of  the  superior,  who  hid  it  at  the  cost  of  his  life,  for  he  was  undoubtedly  one  of  the  greatest  philoso- 

but  it  disappeared  during  the  French  Revolution  phers  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

and  every  effort  to  discover  it  has  been  in  vain.  Bonaventure's  philosophy,  no  lees  than  his  theol- 
,    Bonaventure   was   inscribed   among  the   principal  ocy,  manifests  his  pro&und  respect  for  tradition. 
Doctors  of  the  Church  by  Sixtus  V,  14  March,  1587.  m  regarded  new  opmions  witii  disfavour  and  ever 
His  feast  is  celebrated  14  July.  strove  to  follow  those  generally  received  in  his  time. 
Bonaventure,  as  Hefele  remarks,  united  in  himself  Thus,  between  the  two  great  influences  which  de- 
the  two  elements  whence    proceed   whatever  was  termmed  the  trend  of  Scholasticism  about  the  middle 
noble  and  sublime,  great  ana  beautiful,  in  the  Mid-  of  the  thirteenth  century^  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
die  Ages,  viz.,  tender  piety  and  profound  leaminj^.  Bonaventure  ever  remamed  a  faithful  disciple  of 
These  two  qualities   snine  forth  conspicuously   m  Augustuie  and  always  defended  the  teaching  of  that 
his  writings.    Bonaventure  wrote  on  almost  every  Doctor;  yet  he  fay  no  means  repudiated  the  teaching 
subject  treated  by  the  Schoolmen,  and  his  writ-  of  Aristotle.    While  basing  lus  doctrine  on  that  of 
ings  are  very  numerous.    The  greater  number  of  the  old  school,  Bonaventure  borrowed  not  a  little 
them  deal    with    philosophy    and  theolo^.     No  from  the  new.    Though  he  severely  criticised  the 
work    of  Bonaventure's  is  exclusively  pmiosophi-  defects  of  Aristotle,  he  is  said  to  have  quoted  more 
cal,  but  in  his  ''Commentary  on  the  Sentences",  frequently  from  the  latter  than  any  former  Scholastic 
his  ''Breviloquium'',  his  ''Itinerarium  Mentis    in  had  done.    Perhaps  he  inclined  more,  on  the  whole, 
Deum"  and  his  ''De  reductione  Artium  ad  Theolo-  to  some  general  views  of  Rato  than  to  those  of 
giam",  he  deals  with  the  most  important  and  difficult  Aristotle,  out  he  cannot  therefore  be  called  a  Pla- 
questions  of  philosophy  in  such  a  way  that  these  tonist.      Although    he    adopted    the    hylomorphic 
four  works  taken  together  contain  the  elements  theory  of  matter  and  form,  Bonaventure,  following 
of  a  complete  system  of  philosophy,  and  at  the  Alexander  of  Hales,  whose  Summa  he  appears  to 
same  time  bear  striking  witness  to  the  mutual  inter-  have  had  before  him  in  composing  his  own  works, 
penetration  of  philosophy  and  theology  which  is  a  does  not  limit  matter  to  corporeal  beings^  but  holds 
distinguishing  mark  of  the  Scholastic  period.    The  that  one  and  the  same  kind  of  matter  is  the  sub- 
"Commentaiy  on  the  Sentences"  remains  without  stratum  of  spiritual  and   corporeal   beingjs   alike, 
doubt  Bonaventure's  greatest  work;  all  his  other  According  to  Bcmaventure,  materia  prima  is  not  a 
writings  are  in  some  way  subservient  to  it.    It  was  mere  iruSterminattan  ^rtitd,  but  contams  the  rationea 
written,  superiorum   prascepto  (at  the  command  of  aeminales  infused  by  the  Creator  at  the  beginning, 
his  superiors)  when  he  was  only  twenty-seven  and  and  tends  towards  the  aoqtiisition  of  those  ^)ecial 
is  a  tneological  achievement  of  the  first  rank.    It  forms  which  it  ultimately  assumes.     The  substantial 
comprises  more  than  four  thousand  pages  in  folio  form  is  not  in  Bonaventure's  opinion,  essentially, 
and  treats  extensively  and  profoundly  of  God  and  one,  as  St.  Thomas  taught.    Anotnor  point  in  which 
the  Trinity,  the  Creation  and  Fall  of  Man,  the  In-  Bonaventure,  as  representing  the  Franciscan  school, 
carnation  and  Redemption,  Grace,  the  Sacoraments,  is  at  variance  with  St.  Thomas  is  that  which  concerns 
and  the  Last  Judgment,  that  is  to  say,  traverses  the  the  possibility  of  creation  from  eternity.    He  de- 
entire  field  of  Scholastic  theology.    Like  the  other  dares  that  reascMi  can  demonstrate  that  the  worid 
medieval  Summas,  Bonaventure's  ''Commentary"  was  not  created  ab  cBtemo,    In  his  svstem  of  ideology 
is  divided  into  four  books.    In  the  first,  second,  and  Bonaventure  does  not  favour  either  the  doctrine 
fourth  Bonaventure  can  compete  favourably  with  the  of  Plato  or  that  of  the  Ontol^ists.    It  is  only  by 
best  commentaries  on  the  Sentences,  but  it  is  ad-  completely  misunderstanding  Bonaventure's  teach- 
mitted  that  in  the  third,  book  he  surpasses  all  others,  jng  that  any  ontologistic  interpretation  can  be  read 
The  "Breviloquium",  written  before  1257,  is,  as  into  it.    For  he  is  most  emphatic  in  rejecting  any 
its  name  implies,  a  shorter  work.     It  is  to  some  direct  or  immediate  vision  of  God  or  of  His  Divine 
extent  a  summary  of  the  "Commentuy"  contain-  attributes  in  this  life.    For  the  rest,  the  psjrchology 
ing  as  Scheeben  says,  the  quintessence  of  the  thedogy  of  Bonaventure  differs  in  no  essential  pomt  from 
of  the  time,  and  is  the  most  sublime  compendium  of  the  common  teaching  of  the  Schoolmen*    The  same 
doffma  in  our  possession.    It  is  perhaps  the  work  is  true,  as  a  whole,  of  his  theolo^. 
which  will  best  give  a  popular  notion  of  Bonaventure's  Bonaventure's  theological  writing  may  be  classed 
theology:  in  it  his  powers  are  seen  at  their  best,  under  four  heads:  dogmatic,  m^tic,  exegetical,  and 
Whilst  toe  ''Breviloquium"  derives  all  things  from  homiletic.    His  dogmatic  teachmg  is  found  chiefly 
God,  the^'Itinerarium  Mentis  in  Deum"  prooeeds  in  in  his   "Commentary  on  the  Soitences"   and  in 
the  opposite  direction,  bringing  all  things  back  to  his  ''Breviloquium".  Treating  of  the  Incarnation, 
their  Supreme  End.    The  latter  work,  wmch  formed  Bonaventure   does   not   differ   substantiallv    from 
ibe  ddight  of  Gerson  for  more  than  thirty  years,  St.  Thomas.    In  answer  to  the  question:  ^^ Would 
and  from  which  Bl.  Heniy  Suso  drew  so  lu^y,  the  Incarnation  have  taken  place  if  Adam  had  not 
was  written  on  Mount  la  Vema  in  1259.    The  re-  sinned?",  he  answers  in  the  negative.    Again,  not- 
lation  of  the  finite  and  infinite,  the  natural  and  withstanding  his  deep  devotion  to  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
supernatural,  is  again  dealt  with  1^  Bonaventure,  he  favours  the  opinion  which  does  not  exempt  ner 
in  his  ''De  redu^ione  Artium  ad  Theok>pam",  a  from  original  sin,  ^uia  magis  caruonat  fidei  pietaH 
little  work  written  to  demonstrate  the  relation  wmch  et  ionctorum  auctontati.    But  Bonaventure's  treat- 
philosophy  imd  the  arts  bear  to  theology,  and  to  ment  of  this  question  marked  a  distinct  advance, 
prove  that  they  are  all  absorbed  in  it  as  into  a  and  he  did  more  perhaps  than  anyone  before  Scotus 
natural  centre.    It  must  not  be  inferred,  however,  to  desr  the  ground  tor  its  correct  presentation, 
that  philoeophy  in  Bonaventure's  view  does  not  His  treatise  on  the  sacraments  is  laigely  (Htictical 
possess  an  existence  of  its  own.    The  passages  in  and  is  characterised  by  a  distinctlv  devotional  ele- 
Bonaventure's   works  on  which  suoh  an  opinion  ment.    This  appears  especially  in  his  treatment  of 


BONAVSfTUBB  652  BOHAVUrTUBS 

the  Holy  Eucharist.     He  rejects  the  doctrine  of  same  kind,  but  its  title,  which  did  not  originate  with 

physical,  and  admits  only  a  moral,  efficacy  in  the  Bonaventure^  is  somewhat  misleading.    It  consists 

sacraments.    It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  Bona-  of  an  unfinished   course  of  instructions  delivered 

venture's,  views   on   this   and   other   controverted  at  Paris  in  1273.     Bonaventure  did  not  intend  in 

questions  should  be  so  dften  misrepresented,  even  these  twenty-one  discoiuses  to  explain  the  work 

by  recent  writers.     For  example,  at  least  three  of  of  the  six  days,  but  rather  to*  draw  some  analogous 

the  latest  and  best  known  manuals  of  dogma  in  instructions  from  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis,  as  a 

treating  of  such  questions  as'' Peangelorumnatiirft'',  warning  to  his  auditors  against  some  errors  of  the 

''De    scientift  Cnristi'',    ''De  natur&    distinctionis  day.    It  is  an  exaggeration  to  say  that  Bonaventure 

inter   caritatem   et  gratiam  sanctificantem",   ''De  had  reeard  only  to  the  mystical  sense  of  Scripture, 

causalitate   sacramentorum",  and  "De  statu  par-  In  suc£  of  his  writings  as  are  properlv  exegetical 

vulonim  sine  baptismo  morientium'',  gratuitously  he  follows  the  text,  though  he  also  develops  the 

attribute  opinions  to  Bonaventure  which  are  entirely  practical  conclusions  deduced  from  it,  for  m  the  . 

at  variance  with  his  real  teaching.    To  be  sure  Bona-  composition  of  these  works  he  had  the  advantage 

venture,  like  all  the  Scholastics,  occasionally  put  of  the  preacher  mainly  in  view.    Bonaventure  had 

forward  opinions  not  strictly  correct  in  regard  to  conceived  the  most  sublime  idea  of  the  ministry 

questions  not  yet  defined  or  cleariy  settled,  but  even  of   preaching,    and    notwithstanding   his   manifold 

here  his  teaching  represents  the  most  profound  and  labours  in  other  fields,  this  ministry  ever  held  an 

acceptable  ideas  of  his  age  and  marks  a  notable  especial  place  among  his  labours.     He  neglected 

stage  in  the  evolution  of  knowledge.    Bonaventure's  no  opportunity  of  preaching,  whether  to  the  clergy, 

authority  has  always  been  very  gi;eat  in  the  Church,  the  people,  or  his  own  Fnars,  and  BL  Francis  of 

Apart  from  his  personal  influence  at  Lyons    (1274),  Fabnano   (d.  1322),  his  contemporary  and  auditor, 

his  writings  carried  great  weight  at  the  subsequent  bears  witness  that  6onaventure's  renown  as  a  preacher 

councils  at  Vienne  (1311),  Constance  (1417),  Basle  almost  surpassed  his  fame  as  a  teacher.    Reproached 

(1431),  and  Florence  (1438).     At  Tr^it  (1546)   his  before  popes  and  kings,  in  Spain  and  Germany,  as  well 

writing,  as  Newman  remarks  (Apolo^a,  ch.  v)  had  as  in  France  and  Italy.    Neariy  five  hundred  authentic 

a  critical  effect  on  some  of  the  definitions  of  dogma,  sermons  of  Bonaventure   have  come  down  to  us; 

and  at  the  Vatican  Council  (1870),  sentences  from  the  greater  part  of  them  were  delivered  in  Paris  be- 

them  were  embodied  in  the  decrees  concerning  papal  fore  the  universitv  while  Bonaventure  was  professor 

supremacy  and  infallibility.  there,   or   after   ne  had    become  minister  general. 

Only  a  small  part  of  Bonaventure's  writings  is  Most  of  them  were  taken  down  by  some  of  his  audit- 
properly    mysticiu.      These    are    characterized    by  ors  and  thus  preserved  to    posteritv.     In  his  ser- 
brevity  and  by  a  faithful  adherence  to  the  teaching  mons  he-  follows  the  Scholastic  method  of  putting 
of  the  Gospel.    The  perfecting  of  the  soul  by  the  forth  the  divisions  of  his  subject  and  then  expound- 
uprooting  of  vice  and  the  implanting  of  virtue  is  ing  each  division  according  to  the  different  senses, 
his  chief  concern.    There  is  a  degree  of  prayer  in        Besides  his  philosophical  and  theological  writings, 
which  ecstasv  occurs.    When  it  is  attained,  Uod  is  Bonaventure  left  a  number  of  works  referring  to 
sincerely  to  be  thanked.    It  must,  however,  be  re-  the  religious  life,  but  more  especially  to  the  ran- 
garded  only  as  incidental.    It  is  by  no  means  essential  ciscan  Order.    Anions  the  latter  is  his  well-known 
to  the  possession  of  perfection  in  the  highest  degree,  explanation  of  the  Kule  of  the  Friars  Minor;  in 
Such  is  the  general  outline  of  Bonaventure's  mys-  this  work,  written  at  a  time  whoi  the  dissensionB 
ticism  which  is  largely  a  continuation  and  develop-  within  the  order  as  to  the  observance  of  the  Rule 
ment  of  what  the  St.  Victors  had  already  laid  down,  were  so  painfully  marked,   he   adopted  a  conctlia- 
The  shortest  and  most  complete  summaiy  of  it  is  tory  attitude,  approving  neither  the  intenrpretatioQ 
found  in  his  ''De  Triplici  via",  often  erroneously  of  the  ZelanH  nor  that  of  the  Relaxiu    His  aim  was 
entitled  the ''Incendium  Amoris   ,  in  which  he  dis-  to  promote  harmony  in  essentials.     With  this  end 
tinguishes  the  different  stages  or  degrees  of  perfect  in  view,  he  had  chosen  a  middle  course  at  the  outset 
charity.     What  the  "Breviloquium'*^  is  to  Scholas-  and  firmly  adhered  to  it  during  the  seventeen  years 
ticism,  the  "De  Triplici  Via"  is  to  mysticism — a  per-  of  his  generalship.     If  anyone  could  have  succeeded 
feet  compendium  of  all  that  is  best  in  it.    Savonarola  in  uniting  the  order,  it  would  have  be^i  Bonaventure; 
made  a  pious  and  learned  commentary  upon  it.  but  the  via  media  proved  impracticable,  and  Bona- 
Perhaps   the   best  known  of   Bonaventure's  other  venture's  personality  only  served  to  hold  in  check 
mystical  and  ascetical  writing  are  the ''Soliloquium".  the  elements  of  discord,  subsequently .  represented 
a  sort  of  dialogue  contaimng  a  rich  collection  of  by  the  Conventuals  and  the  Fraticelu.     Following 
passages  from  the  Fathers  on  spiritual  questions;  upon  his  explanation  of  the  Rule  comes  Bonaventure's 
the  ''Lignum  vitee".  a  series  of  forty-eight  devout  important  treatise  embodying  the  Ccmstitutions  of 
meditations  on  the  life  of  Christ,  the  "De  sex  alis  Narbonne  already  referred  to.     There  is  also  an 
seraphim",  a  precious  opuscule  on  the  virtues  of  answer  bv  Bonaventure  to  some  questions  concern- 
superiors,  which  Father  Claudius  Acquaviva  caused  ing  the  Rule,  a  treatise  on  the  guidance  of  novices, 
to  be  printed  separatelv  and  circulated  throughout  and  an  opuscule  in  which  Bonaventure  states  why 
the  Society  of  .Tesus;  the  "Vitis  m>^tica",  a  work  the  Friars  Minor  preach  and  hear  confessions,  be- 
on  the  Passion,  which  was  for  a  long  time  erroneouslv  sides  a  nimib^  of  letters  which  give  us  a  special 
ascribed  to  St.  Bernard,  and ''De  rerfectione  vitsB   ,  insight  into  the  saint's  character.     These  indude 
a  treatise  which  depicts  the  virtues  that  make  for  official  letters  written  by  Bonaventin^  aa  general 
religious  perfection,  and  which  appears  to  have  been  to  the  superiors  of  the  order,  as  wdl  as  personal 
written  for  the  use  of  Blessed  Isabella  of  France,  letters  addressed  like  that  ''Ad  innominatum  magia- 
who  had  founded  a  monastery  of  Poor  Clares  at  trum"     to    private     individuals.       Bonaventuie's 
Longchamps.  beautiful  "Le^d"  or  life  of  St.  Francis  completes 

Bonayenture's  exegetical  works  were  highly  es-  the  writings  m  which  he  strove  to  promote  the 

teemed  in  the  Middle  Ages  and  still  remain  a  treasure  spiritual  welfare  of  his  brethren.    This  well-known 

house  of    thoughts    and   treatises.     They    include  work  is  composed  of  two  parts  of  very  imequal 

commentaries   on   the   Books   of   Ecclesiastes   and  value.    In  the  first  Bonav^iture  publishes  the  un^ 

Wisdom  and  on  the  Gospels  of  St.  Luke  and  St.  John,  edited  facts  that  he  had  been  able  to  gather  at  Assisi 

In  addition  to  his  commentaiy  on  the  Fourth  Gospel,  and  dsewhere;  in  the  other  he  merely  abridges  and 

Bcmaventure  composed  "Collationes  in  Joannem",  repeats   what  others,   and   especially   Cdano,  had 

ninety-one  conferences  on  subjects  relating  to  it.  alr^uly  recorded.     As  a  whole,  it  is  essentiall^r  a 

His  "Collationes  in  Hexamenm"  is  a  work  of  Uie  j^9»n<^paas»  compiled  mainly  with  a  view  to  pacifying 


BOHAVSMTima  663  MmAVIMTURX 

the  unhappy  discord  still  ravaging  ihe  order.  St.  Antoninus,  Denis  the  Carthusian,  Louis  of  Granada, 
Bonaventure's  aim  was  to  present  a  ^neral  portrait  and  Father  Oaude  de  la  Colomoi^,  among  others, 
of  the  holy  founder  which,  by  the  omission  of  certain  have  also  noted  this  feature  of  Bonaventure's  writings, 
points  that  had  given  rise  to  controversy,  should  Invariably  he  aims  at  arousing  devotion  as  well  as 
06  aoceptaUe  to  all  parties.  This  aim  was  surely  imparting  Imowledge.  He  never  divorces  the  one 
legitimate  even  though  from  a  critical  standpoint  from  the  other,  but  treats  learned  subjects  devoutly 
i&  work  may  not  be  a  perfect  biography.  Of  this  and  devout  suojects  learnedly.  Bona  venture,  how- 
"Legenda  Major'',  as  it  came  to  be  called, -Bona-  ever,  never  sacrifices  truth  to  devotion,  but  his 
venture  made  an  abridgment  arranged  for  use  in  tendency  to  prefer  an  opinion  which  arouses  devotion 
choir  and  known  as  the  "'  Legenda  Mmor ".  to  a  dr>[  and  uncertain  speculation  may  go  far  towards 
Bonaventure  was  the  true  heir  and  follower  o^  explaining  not  a  littie  of  the  widespread  popularity 
Alexander  of  Hales  and  the  oontinuator  of  the  c^d  his  writings  enjoyed  among  his  contemporaries  and 
Franciscan  school  foimded  by  the  Doctor  Irrefraqo'  in  all  succeeding  ages.  Again  Bonaventure  is  dis- 
bilUy  but  he  surpassed  the  latter  in  acumen,  fertility  tinguished  from  the  other  Scholastics  not  only  by 
of  imagination,  and  originality  of  expression.  His  the  greater  warmth  of  his  religious  teaching,  but  also 
proper  place  is  beside  his  friend  St.  Thomas,  as  they  by  its  practical  tendency  as  Trithemius  notes  (Scrip- 
are  the  two  neatest  theologians  of  Scholasticism,  tores  Ecdee.).  Many  purely  speculative  (questions 
If  it  be  true  that  the  system  of  St.  Thomas  is  more  are  passed  over  by  Bonaventure;  there  is  a  directness 
finished  than  that  of  Bonaventure,  it  should  be  borne  about  all  he  has  written.  No  useful  purpose,  he 
in  mind  that,  whereas  Thomas  was  free  to  give  him-  declares,  is  achieved  by  mere  controversy.  He  is 
self  to  study  to  the  end  of  his  days,  Bonaventure  ever  tolerant  and  modest.  Thus  while  he  himself 
had  not  yet  received  the  Doctor's  degree  when  he  was  accepts  the  literal  interpretations  of  the  first  chapter 
called  to  govern  his  order  and  overwhelmed  with  of  Gienesis,  Bonaventure  acknowledges  the  admissi- 
multifarious  cares  in  consequence.  The  heavy  bility  of  a  different  one  and  refers  with  admiration 
responsibilities  which  he  bore  till  within  a  few  to  the  figurative  explanation  propounded  by  St. 
weeks  of  his  death  were  almost  incompatible  with  Augustine.  He  never  condenms  the  opinions  of 
further  study  and  even  precluded  his  completing  others  and  emphatically  disclaims  anjrthing  like 
what  he  had  be^un  before  his  thirtjr-sixth  year,  finsdity  for  his  own  views.  Indeed  he  asserts  the 
Again,  in  attempting  to  make  a  comparison  between  littleness  of  his  authority,  renoimces  all  claims  to 
Bonaventure  and  St.  Thomas,  we  should  remember  originality  and  calls  himself  a  "poor  compiler", 
that  the  two  saints  were  of  a  different  bent  of  mind;  No  doubt  Bonaventure 's  works  betray  some  of  the 
each  had  qualities  in  which  he  excelled;  one  was  in  defects  of  the  learning  of  his  day,  but  there  is  nothing 
a  sense  the  complement  of  the  other;  one  supplied  in  them  that  savours  of  useless  subtlety.  ''One  does 
what  the  other  lacked.  Thus  Thomas  was  analjrtical,  not  find  in  his  pa^",  writes  Gerson  (De  Examin. 
Bonaventure  synthetical;  Thomas  was  the  Christian  Doctrin.)  ''vain  tnfles  or  useless  cavils,  nor  does  he 
Aristotle,  Bonaventure  the  true  disciple  of  Augustine;  mix  as  do  so  many  others^  worldly  digressions  with 
Thomas  was  the  teacher  of  the  schools,  Bonaventure  serious  theological  discussions".  "This",  he  adds, 
of  practical  life;  Thomas  enlightened  the  mind.  Bona-  "is  the  reason  why  St.  Bonaventure  has  been  aban- 
venture  inflamed  the  heart;  Thomas  extended  the  doncd  by  those  Scholastics  who  are  devoid  of  pie^ 
Kingdom  of  God  by  the  love  of  theology,  Bonaventure  of  whom  the  number  is  alas!  but  too  large".  It 
by  the  theology  of  love.  Even  those  who  hold  that  has  been  said  that  Bonaventure's  mystical  spirit  un- 
Eionaventure  does  not  reach  the  level  of  St.  Thomas  fitted  him  for  subtle  analysis.  Be  this  as  it  may, 
in  the  sphere  of  Scholastic  speculation  concede  that  one  of  the  greatest  charms  of  Bonaventure's  writings 
as  a  mystic  he  far  surpasses  the  Angelic  Doctor,  is  their  simple  clearness.  Though  he  had  necessarily 
In  this  particiilar  realm  of  theology,  Bonaventure  to  make  use  of  the  Scholastic  method,  he  rose  above 


Mystics:   "Having  scaled   the  difficult   heights  of  time,  yet  he  writes  with  an  ease  and  grace  of  style 

speculation  in  a  most  notable  manner,  he  treated  which  one  seeks  in  vain  among  the  other  Schoolmen. 

oi  mystical  theolof;y  with  such  perfection  that  in  To  the  minds  of  his  contemporaries  impregnated 

the  common  opimon  of  the  learned   he   is  facile  with  the  mysticism  of  the  Middle  A^,  the  spirit 

princepa  in  that  field."     (AUocutio  of  11  October,  that   breathed    in    Bonaventure's   wn tings   seemed 

1800.)     It  must  not  be  concluded,  however,  that  to  find  its  parallel  only  in  the  lives  of  those  that  stand 

Bonaventure's  mystical  writings  constitute  his  chief  nearest  to  the  Throne,  and  the  title  of  "Seraphic 

titie  to  fame.    This  conclusion,  in  so  far  as  it  seems  Doctor"  bestowed  upon  Bonaventure  is  an  undenia- 

to  imply  a  deprecation  of  his  labours  in  the  field  of  We  tribute  to  his  all-absorbing  love  for  God.    This 

Scholasticism,  is  opposed  to  the  explicit  utterances  of  title  seems  to  have  been  first  given  to  him  in  1333 

several  pon tilts  and  eminent  scholars,  is  incompatible  in  the  Prologue  of  the  "  Pantheologia"  by  Rayner  of 

with  Bonaventure's  acknowledged  reputation  in  the  Pisa,  O.P.     He  had  already  received  while  teaching 

Schools,  and  is  excluded  by  an  intelligent  perusal  of  in  Paris  the  name  of  Doctor  Devotus. 

his  works.   As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  half  of  one  volume  The  Franciscan  Order  has  ever  regarded  Bona- 

of  the  ten  comprising  the  Quaracchi  edition  suffices  venture  as  one  of  the  greatest  Doctors  and  from  the 

to  contain  Bonaventure's  ascetic  and  mystic  writings,  beginning  his  teaching  found  many  distinguished 

Although  Bonaventure's  mystical  works  alone  would  expositors  within  the  order,  among  the  earliest  being 

si^ce  to  place  him  in  the  foremost  rank,  yet  he  may  his  own  pupils,  John   Peckham  later  Archbishop 

justly  be  called  a  mystic  ANkti  than  a  Scholastic  only  of  Clanterbury,  Matthew  of  Aquasparta.  and  Alex- 

m  so  far  as  every  subject  he  treats  of  is  made  ulti-  ander  of  Alexandria  (d.  1314),  both  of  whom  be- 

mately  to  converge  upon  God.    This  abiding  sense  of  came  ministers  general   of    the    order.     The    last 

God's  presence  which  pervades  all  the  writings  of  named   wrote   a   "Summa   qiwestionum   S.    Bona- 

Bona venture  is  perhaps  their  fundamental  attrioute.  ventm«*\      Other    well-known    commentaries    are 

To  it  we  may  trace  that  all-pervading  unction  which  by  John  of  Erfurt  (d.  1317),  Vorilongus  (d.  l464), 

is  their  peculiar  characteristic.    As  Sixtus  V  aptly  Brulifer  (d.  c.  M97),  de  Combes  (d,  1570),  Trigosua 

expresses  it:  "In  writing  he  united  to  the  highest  (d.  1616),  Ooriolano  (d.  1625),  Zamora  (d.  1649). 

erudition  an  equal  amount  of  the  most  ardent  piety:  Bontemps   (d.    1672),   Hauzeur    (d.    1676),   BonelM 

so  that  whilst  enlightening  his  readers  he  also  touched  (d.   1773),  etc.     From  the  fourteenth  to  the  six- 

their  hearts  penetratinjg  to  the  inmost  recesses  of  teenth  century  the  influence  of  Bonaventure  was 

their  souls"  (Bull,  Triumphantis  Jerusalem).    St.  undoubtedly  somewhat  overshadowed  by  that  ol 


BONAVSNTUBS                          654  BCMrOOMPAQMI 

Ihins  Scotufl,  owing  largely  to  the  promSnenioe  of  the  Spanish  Fraoetscfuiy  Zamorra.  who  flourifihed 

the  latter  as  champion  m   the  Immaculate   CJon-  b^ore  1300,  has  not  been  preserved.    The  references 

ception    in    the  disputes  between  the  Franciscans  to   B(mav«iture's  life  contained  in  the  works  oC 

and   Dominicans,     sixtus  V.  however^  founded  a  Salimbene  (12^) ,  Bemsurd  of  Besse  (c.  1380)  BL 

special  chair  at  Rome  for  the  stud^  of  St.  Bona-  Franciso^Fabriano(d.  1322), AngeloClanBno(d.  1337), 

venture;  such  chairs  also  existed  m  several  imi-  Ubertino  of  Casale  (d.  1338),  Bsrtholomew  of  Pisa 

versities,  notably  at  Ingolstadt,  Salzburg,  Valencia,  (d.  1399)  and  the  "Chronicle  of  the  XXIV  Generals'' 

and  Osuna.     It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  Ci4>uchins  (o,   1368),  are  giv^i  in  vol.  X  of  the  Quaracchi 

forbade  their  Friars  to  follow  Scotus  and  ordered  Edition  (pp.  39^72). 

them  to  return  to  the  study  of  Bonaventure.    The  AetaSS,,  3d  ed..  JiUy.  Ill,  776-822;  Wadding,  Anndu 

centenary   celebrations    of    1874   appear   to   have  fSfe)  fe  i.^2U%S^,Si^^^ 

revived  interest  m  the  life  and  work  of  St.  Bona-  Oaspabb  da  Moinm  Sirrro,  Qesta  e  daunna  del  aenf.  dou,  8, 

venture.    Certain  it  is  that  since  then  the  study  of  Bcmavmtura  (2d  ed.,  Florence,  1874):  BBRTHAUMnp,  HitUnn 

h«  writings  ha«  steadily  increased. V^inir4r&i»'^H'*^ii  *  IXuS-^HS! 

Unfortunately  not  all  of  Bonaventure's  wntmgs  1874);  Isnxmus  a  Buboomaei,  S.  Bonaventura,  O.  P,  M, 

have  come  down  to  us.    Some  were  lost  before  the  «5*»*»'f:  «?»«:«^*«  (Rome.  1874);  Anton.  Maria  da  Vicenza, 

invention  of.  printing.    On  the  ot^  l^J^d   '^veral  §iS.^Si.f5^)TKSrr,^^DrASo^lJ^«^pi^ 

works  have  in  the  course  of  time  been  attributed  to  <&  5.  Franesteo  e  dHJrctnce9eani  (Rome,  1874).  I,  619  and 

him  which  are  not  his.    Such  are  the  "  Centiloquium  ",  paaaim;  Skit,  Liff  cfSL  BontwerUMre  (London,  1889):  L»o  de 

the  "SD^um  Discipline"  wWch  is  proOrfy  the  ^Kk^iTl^Xt^^^it'^^i'^J^^X^ 

work  of  Bernard  of  Besse,  Bonaventure's  secretary;  TiaK*.  La  •eholattiqiu  et  lea  tradituma  frandacainea  (Paris, 

the  rhythmical  "Philomela",  which  seems  to  be  from  I888).  77-163;  ChAbanc*.  S.Bonaven^  (Pans,  ig9):  and 

fhfl  Tv>T>  nf   Tnhn   pA/»lrhom«  +h«  "Sfimiiliia  Amnrifl"  OMBETS  in />«;<.  d«  wA».  co/A.  (Pans,  1904),  II,  962-986. 

tne  pen  Ot  Jonn  recKnam,  tne      btimulus  Amons  Amon«  thoee  who  of  recent  yeare  have  written  on  Bonaven- 

and  the  '' Speculum  B.  M.  V.' ,  written  respectively  ture's  dootrine  or  aCMdal  points  of  it  are  Margebib,  i^swi  «»- 

by  James  of  Milan  and  Conrad  of  Saxony;  "The  (?  philoaoohiade  3,  Bonaventwa  (Puis,  1855);  Van  loo. 

Jjf«"^i^!\!^'*'«"'  ■T*^*'^'''- »iy,Thomas  £cdano;  fiS^^^^^^'  &^°l-rS4S3Sr^liir'K 

the    "Medltationes    Vltee    Chnstl"    composed    by    a  Fidblb  a  Fanna,  kwanhiei  DoeUnia,  Bonavmtura,  dcetrina 

Friar  Minor  for  a  Poor  Clare,  and  the  "Biblia  pau-  da  RonMm  PonHfieu  primatu  et  infaUMlUaie  (Turm.  1870); 

perom"  of   the  I^minican   Nicholas  of  Hanapis.  \^^;'^,,;^rsfSf^^,tSrBdi  ^'^^''T^ 

Those    familiar    with    the    catalogues    of    European  dottnne    del  aerafioo  doUore   8.  Bonaventun    (Gmo^   1874); 

libraries  are  aware  that  no  writer  since  the  Middle  Ludovicus  a   (Jastroplanio,  Seraphicua^  ^^9^  ^-  SS!^ 

Ages  had  been  more  widely  re^  or  «,pied  than  |7f;?Ss^,^SrA"^,.S!io.'S^'°SJ2Sfn^'iSS^^J2^ 

Bonaventure.     The  earliest  catalogues  of  his  wCM-ks  S,  Bonmantura  (Genoa,  1874);  Wernbb,  Die  Paydhologie  wd 

are   those   given    by   Salimbene    (1282),  Henry   of  5r*«fm<niMZcAr»  dw  W.  Bon«v«»<uro  (Vienna,  1876);  Ant.  M. 

Ghent  (d.  l|3)  Ubertino  of  Casale  (1306)   Ptofemy  ^SS-likiUSlm'cv^^'^^lsKrfciSSSS.'SSSS^ 

of  Lucca   (1327)   and  the      (chronicle  of  the  AAlV  roHona;   anecdola   quadam   8.   Bonaventura    et  nonntdlonm 

Generals"    (1368).      The   fifteenth    century   saw   no  ipnua  diadpulonm   (Quaracchi,    1883);   Baroni,   La  acuola 

More  celebrated  than  any  preceding  edition  was  that  BonaffentuHana   (Piacen»,    1887);   Jbilbb,   8,   Bonaventun 

published  at  Rome  (1688-96)  by  order  of  Sixtus  V  prindpia  da  etmcurau  Dei  ganerali  ad  adionea  cauaarum  «eciM- 

(7  vols  in  foL).     It  was  rg,rinted  with  but  slight  ^E^t^o'^k  ffi  slr^SS  BSSSSSfrBJJST 

emendations  at  Metz  m  1609  and  at  I^ons  m  1678.  turn  e  panta  (Milan,  1899);  EvANo&LvrB  db  Saikt-BAat.  La 

A  fourth  edition  appeared  at  Venice  (13  vols,  in  4to)  aSraphin  df  Vicole,^  itudea  jnr  8,  Bonaventw-e  (Paris,  1900); 

1751,  and  was  repnVted  at  Paris  in  1864.    All  these  ^SS^I^jJ^^J'^SS^.^LST:^^^ 

editions  were  very  imperfect  in  so  far  as  they  m-  nova.  8.  Bonaventun  und  daa  PcmaUhwn  (Bregeoj,  1902); 

elude  spurious  works  and  omit  genuine  ones.     They  J^**^*"*,  L'eloquanaa   criatiana   in  3,  Bonaventura  (Florence, 

have  been  <«mplet«jy  sjwseded  by  the  celebrated  \^]l  ^^^^ifiJSiSJSS?'  VS^^^^^S^SHT^^SHS^S. 

critical   edition    published    by   the    Fnars   Minor   at  Ayou^i  alter  princapa  (Venice,  1904);  St6cbi^  Handbook  of 

Quaracchi,  near  Florence.     Any  scientific  study  of  **«  ^«*»n/ <^ -PAtto»opAy,tr.FiNLAT  (Dublin,  i^ 

Bonaventure  must  be  based  upon  t^edition  u^n  ^=„S"SSr.*S2XiS±3i^i^!iSi*ir^'f^ 

which    not    onlv   Leo    XIII     (13   December.    1885)  kanarorden  bia  um  die  Mitte  dea  IS,  Jahrhunderta  (Fzeibiuc. 

and  Pius  X  (11  April,  1904),  but  scholars  of  all  creeds  1«)4).  .216-227,  jpaaatm;  Viveb.  Summula  Commentanorum 

have   lavished  ^e   highest   enoomiunM.      Nothinp  grir*i''&,Ar.SSS.  fe  wL"i^dTSi' 

seems  to  have  been  omitted  which  could  make  this  1905),  299-308;  Ubsbrwbo-Heinzb.  Ortmdriaa  der  Geaehidue 

edition  perfect  and  complete.     In  its  preparation  d«r  Philoaophie  (Berlin,  1905,. 9th  ed.).  II.  279-286;  Ubald 

nearly   52,000   MSS.    while   the  first   volume  alone  Franciacon  Monthly  (London,  1904-06). 

contains  20,000    variant    readings.     It    was  com-  '     Paschal  Robinso^t. 

menced  by  Father  Fidelis  a  Fanna  (d.  1881)  and  ^                         ,^          «                    r^       ^t 

completed    by   Father   Ignatius   Jeiler    (d.    1904):  Bonaventnre,    Mary    Stephen.      See  Nagpur, 

"Doctoris  Seraphici  S.  Bonaventura  S.  R.  E.  Epis-  Diocese  op. 

copi  Cardinalis  Opera  Omnia,  edita  studio  et  cur&  Boncompagni,  Balthasar,  an  Italian  mathe- 
P.  p.  Ck>lleeii  S.  Bonaventurse  in  fol.  ad  Olaras  Aquas  matician,  b.  at  Rome,  10  May,  1821;  d.  13  April,  1894. 
[Quaracchi]  1882-1902''.  In  this  edition  the  works  He  was  a  member  of  the  illustrious  family  to  which 
of  the  saint  are  distributed  through  the  ten  volumes  had  belonged  Gr^ry  XIII,  the  reformer  of  the 
as  follows:  the  first  four  contain  his  ^eat  "Com-  calendar.  He  stiuSed  ai^hematics  and  phvsics  un« 
mentaries  on  the  Book  of  Sentences'';  the  fifth  com-  der  Santucci  and  became  known  as  a  prolific  writer 
prises  eight  smaller  scholastic  works  such  as  the  on  mathematical  and  historical  subjects.  At  an  early 
"BreViloquium"  and  "Itinerarium";  the  sixth  and  age  (1840)  he  contributed  to  tne  "Giomale  Ar- 
se venth  are  devoted  to  his  commentaries  on  Scrip-  cadioo"  bioffrap^cal  sketches  of  Father  Joseph 
turej  the  eighth  contains  his  mystical  and  ascetic  Calandrelli,cOrectorof  the  observatonr  of  the  Roman 
writings  and  works  having  special  reference  to  the  College  after  the  suppression  of  the  Society  of  Jeeus, 
order  j  the  ninth  his  sermons  *  whilst  the  tenth  is  taken  and  ms  assistant  Conti.  These  were  followed  by  his 
up  with  the  index  and  a  snort  sketch  of  the  saint's  "Recherches  sur  les  int^ales  d^finies",  which  ap- 
life  and  writings  by  Father  Ignatius  Jeiler.  peared  in  "Crelle's  JomMl"  (Berlin).  In  1846  the 
We  do  not  possess  any  formal,  contemporary  ''GlomaleArcadioo"  published  his  "StiidiinUHiio  ad 
biography   of  St.  Bonaventure.     That  written  by  alouni  avanaamenti  della  fisica  in  Italia  nei  secoii 


.     .  656  BOKFHSBB 

XVI  e  XVIir'.  In  1847  he  became  a  membm:  of  John  of  Monte  Corvino  kept  up  and  extended,  the 
the  Accademia  del  Linoei  and  8lK)rtly  after  its  li»  great  khan  was  induced  to  send  an  embassy  to 
brarian.  ^  Benedict  XII  to  petition  for  new  Laboinrers  in  the 


it  he  contributed  numerous  essays,  biographies,  re-  ligious  of  the  order  of  Friars  Minor  as  his  l^ates,  on 

views,  etc.    Among  his  essays  published  before  the  whom  he  conferred  all  the  Apostolic  facumes  and 

founding  of  the'' BoUetino"  may  be  mentioned, ''Delia  privileges  necessary  for  their  missionary  labours^ 

vita  e  delle  opere  di  Gherardo  Cremonese  traduttore  These  were  John  of  Florence,  afterwards  Bishop  of 

del  secolo  XII"  (1850):  "Gherardo  da  Sabionetta,  Bisignano  in  Calabria,  Nicholas  Bonet,  Nicdas  da 

astronomo  del  secolo  XIII"  (1851);  "Delia  vita  e  Molano,  and  Gregory  of  Hungary.    The  embassy 

delle  opere  di  Guide  Bonatti"   (1851);  "Memoria  bearinglettersfrom  the  pope  to  the  khan  left  Avignon 

Peldng  in  China, 

emperor  at  the  beginning 

ies    were   encouraged    in 

if  the  kindly  attitude  of 
ed  in  founding  numerous 

Oossali"  (1857);  "Dissertazione  intomo  ad  im  trat-  Christian  settlements  throughout  the  vast  Mongolian 
tato  di  aritmetica  stampato  nel  1478"  (in  the  "Atti  empir^  About  the  year  1346  they  set  out  again 
dei  Nuovi  Lincei"  1862-63).  In  1857  Boncompagni  for  Italy.  Part  of  the  homeward  journey  toey 
also  published  the  "  Al^ritmi  de  numero  Indorum"  made  by  sea  and  the  remainder,  f]X)m  the  Kingdom 
which  he  had  found  in  the  Library  of  Cambridge  of  Persia,  by  huid,  arriving  in  Avignon  at  the  beginning 
University.  It  is  supposed  to  be  a  translation  of  of  the  year  1354.  Shortly  after  the  return  of  the 
the  famous  treatise  on  arithmetic  of  Al-khwiurizmi,  missionaries,  Bonet  was  consecrated  titular  ]^ishop 
the  most  illustrious  of  the  Arabian  mathematicians,    of  Mileve  in  Africa  in  recognition  of  his  devoted^ 

Nwva  Encidopedia  lialiana,  SupoL,  6th  ed.,  Turin;  Ball,  services  while  On  the  mission  of  Monirolia.     AmoniT 

Hut.  of  MathematKM  (New  York.  isfe).  the  writmgs  of  Nicholas  Bonet,  the^'Tractatus  di 

XI.  M.  iJRocK.  conceptione  B.  Maria  Virginis  jussu  Qementis  V 

Bonet,  JtJAN  Pablo,  a  Spanish  priest  and  one  of  scriptus",  the  ''Formalitates  e  r>octrin&  Scoti"  and 

the  first  to  give  attention  to  the  education  of  the  deaf  his    ''Commentarius    in    IV    libros   sententiarum" 

and  dumb,  D.  towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  cen-  deserve  special  mention, 
tuiy.    He  became  secretary  of  the  High  Constable  of 

Castile.    The  latter's  brother  being  a  deaf-mute,  ^^^  ^^^^^^    ^^  ^^  v/x,^«^«.  ^^,^  »,^«  t^*^^,*  «.  „^^„^,,^_, 

Bonet  took  his  education  in  hand.    To  make  his  lRame7isB9hlihxv,lSX^ 

pupil  understand  words  and  speak  them  he  invented  y}}*?^^'?}?''  P*  G^^S^^^*?"^ "*^?***^*^.'>'**^!f*» iP^°*®» 

a  system  of  visible  signs  and  of  gymnastics  for  pro-  ^^^'  ^'  ^99;  AnaUcta  Fmnc«can^(Quai^dhi.  18^7^1  178. 
nunciation.    This  consisted  in  certain  signs  lepre-  ^  Otephen  m.  uonovaic. 

sen  ting  to  the  sense  of  sight  the  sounds  of  words,        Benfrere,  Jacx)ues,  Biblical  scholar,  b.  at  Dinant, 

in  exercises  of  breathing  in  the  formation  of  sounds  Belgium,  12  April,  1573;  d.  at  Toumai,  9  May,  1642, 

and  to  adapt  the  different  organs  of  articulation,  the  He  entered  tne  Society  of  Jesus  in   1592.    After 

lips,  tongue,  and  teeth,  to  the  proper  pronunciation  having  taught  rhetoric,  philosophy,  and  theology,  he 

of  each  sound.    He  reduced  his  sjrstem  to  practice  devoted  himself  to  the  Sacred  Scriptures.    He  was 

by  means  of  a  manual  alphabet — a  combination  of  long  a  professor  of  Scripture  and  Hebrow  at  Douai, 

signs  made  with  the  hands  representing  the  various  where  he  was  superior  of  the  Scots  College.    Sweert, 

letters — and  a  description  of  the  dispositions  of  the  in  his  "Athense  Belgicse",  speaks  of  him  as  a  man 

vocal  organ  necessary  to  the  pronunciation  of  each  of  raro  virtue;  he  praises  his  industry  and  prudence, 

letter.    He  succeeded  fairly  well  with  his  pupil  and  as  well  as  the  penetration  of  his  mind  and  the  solidity 

explained  the  principles  of  his  system  in  a  book,  of  his  jud^ent.    His  work  in  the  department  of 

"  Reducci6n  de  las  letras  y  arte  para  ensefiar  &  hablar  Sacred  Scnptures,  into  which,  he  tells  us,  he  had 

k)8  mudos"  (Madrid,  1620).  been  initiated  by  Cornelius  k  Lapide,  has  always 

KcNfa^M  DioBT,  Of  Bodi«$  and  of  Man*9  S<nU  (London,  be^i  highly  appreciated.    His  "  Praeloquia"  was,  m 

DTd^S^'^'l^^:^  ^  IZ^;:^  llt^s.  \VS^.  »839,  ^ected  VMigne  as  the  mc«t  ^tabletreati«, 

G.  M.  SAtrvAOE.  ^^   general  introduction  with  which  to  begin  his 

"Sacrae  Scriptune  Cursus  Completus"  (I,  cols.  5- 

Bonet,  Nicholas,  Friar  Minor,  thec^ogian,  and  242).    In  this  work  Bonfrdro  deab  with  subjects 

missionary,  date  of  birth  imcertain;  d.  1360.    Proba-  pertaining  to  the  Bible  as  a  whole.    His  selection 

bly  a  Frenchman  by  birth,  he  taught  theology  with  and  treatment  of  topics  was  determined  lai^y  by 

great  success  at  Paris,  where  he  received  the  title  the  controversies  of  the  time  reading  the  value  of 

of  "Doctor  Pacificus"   (The  Peaceful  Doctor)  on  the  Vulgate,  the  obscurity  of  Scripture,  etc.    But 

account  of  his  suave  and  trancjuil  mode  of  lecturing,  many  of  them  still  retain  their  interest;  and  they  are 

Bonet  took  an  im]portant  part  m  the  dispute  concern-  all  handled  in  a  clear  and  interesting  way.    The 

ing  the  beatific  vision  which  was  warxnly  d»cussed  historical  methods  now  api^ed  to  the  oanon,  text, 

during  the  pontificate  of  John  XXII  and  finally  and  hermeneutics  of    Sacred   Scripture  were  not 

settled  by  the  decree  of  his  successor,  Benedict  XII.  known  in  his  time.    He  deals  with  inspiration  in 

"Benedictus  Deus".    As  a  member  of  the  J^pal  one  chapter  (ch.  viii:  De  modo  quo  Deua  cum  kisoe 

embassy  sent  by  Benedict  XII  to  Kublai  Khan,  Scriptonbus  hagiographis  habuU),    The  views  he  sets 

grandson  of  the  famous  conqueror  Genghis  Khan,  forth  here  do  not  in  all  respects  agree  with  the  teach- 

Bonet  exchanged  the  comparative  ease  and  comfort  ing  of  modem  theolo^ans.    He  holds,  for  instance, 

of  the  professor  of  theolo^  for  the  arduous  and  that  approval  of  a  writing  by  God,  subsequent  to  its 

perilous  labours  of  the  missionary.    The  Franciscan  compcoition,  would  suffice  to  make  it  canonical*    In 

miflsions  in  Tatary  were  founded  as  earl^  as  the  year  point  of  fact,  though,  he  assures  us,  no  book  (k  the 

1245  by  the  zealous  apostles  of  the  Faith,  Lorenzo  Bible  was  so  composed.    Then  he  expresses  the  opin- 

da  Portogallo  and  Giovanni  da  Plan  Carpino;  and  in  ion  that  when  writing  on  what  they  knew  without 

his  desire  to  see  the  great  work  which  was  inaimirated  revelation,  the  sacred  authors  only  had  the  assistance 

by  them  and  continued  by  the  saintly  Aronbishop  necessary  to  preserve  them  from  error.    He  does  not 


BOHIFAOS                              656  BOnFAOE 

make  a  'clear  distinction  between  instHration  and  iitical  disturbances  caused  him  to  return  teamorarily 

revdation.     (See  Peach,  ''De  Inspiratione,"  Nos.  to  England.   Towards  the  end  pf  717  Abbot  Winbert 

323  and  324.)  died,  and  Winfrid  was  elected  to  succeed  him,  but 

The  ^'Praeloquia''  were  published  along  with  a  declined  and  induced  Duuel,  Bishop  of  Winchester, 

commentary  on  the  Pentateuch  in  a  volume  entitled:  to  influence  the  monks  to  elect  anpther.    WinMa 

''Pentateuchus  Mosis  commentario  illustratus,  prse-  was  left  free  to  follow  out  his  intentions,  but  before 

missis  prseloauiis  perutilibus"  (foL,  Antwerp,  1625).  going  back  to  his  apostolic  work  he  wisned  to  visit 

This  was  followed  by  his  commentary  on  Josue,  Rome  and  to  obtam  from  the  pope  the  apostolic 

Judges,  and  Ruth,  to  which  he  added  a  treatiBe  on  mission  and  the  necessary  faculties.    Bishop  Danid 

sacred  geography,  composed  by  Eusebius  and  trans-  gave  him  an  open  letter  of  recommendation  to  longs, 

lated  bv  St.  Jerome: ''Josue,Juaiceset  Ruth  commen-  princes,  bishops,  abbots,  and  priests,  and  a  private 

tario  iUustrati.     Accessit  Onomasticon''  (fol.,  Paris,  letter  to  the  pope.    On  Winfria's  arrival  in  Rome,  in 

1631).     Bonfr^re  had  undertaken  to  explain   the  the  fall  of  718,  Po^  Gregory  II  received  him  kindly, 

Books  of  Kin^  before  his  work  on  the  Pentateuch,  praised  his  resolution,  and,  having  satisfied  himself 

he  tells  us  in  his  preface  to  the  latter;  but  he  had  felt  m  various  conferences  as  to  the  orthodoxy  of  Winfrid, 

the  need  of  going  back  to  the  beginning  of  things.    His  his  morals,  and  the  purity  of  his  motives,  on  15  May, 

"Libri  Regum  et  Paralipomenon  commentarus  illus-  719,  he  gave  him  full  authority  to  preach  the  G(^)el  to 

trati",  was  given  to  the  press  at  Toumai,  in  1643,  the  heathens  in  Germany  to  the  right  of  the  Kldne, 

after  his  death.    But  the  printing-house  was  burned,  ordering  him  at  the  same  time  to  adhere  to  the  Roman 

and  the  work  did  not  sippeSu*.    Bibliographers  have  no  practice  in  the  administration  of  the  Sacrament  of 

reference  even  to  the  MSS.    The  learnt  professor  is  Baptism,  and  to  consult  with  the  Holy  See  in  case 

said  to  have  left  commentaries  on  nearly  ail  the  other  of  difficulties. 

books  of  the  Bible.     Bonfr^re's  explanation  of  the  Having  received  instructions  to  make  his  first 

text  of  Scripture  shows  a  very  good  knowledge  of  journey  through  the  country^  only  a  tour  of  inspection, 

Hebrew,  ana  he  pays  special  attention  to  the  places  ne  travelled  through  Bavana  and  found  the  Oiurch 

menti(5ned.    His  erudition  was  extensive  for  his  time,  flourishing,  with  a  number  of  churches  and  monas- 

The  soberness  and  judiciousness  of  his  comments  are  teries.    In  Alamannia,  which  he  crossed  on  his  way 

generally  admired.  to  Thurin^,  he  found  similar  conditions.    Thurin^ 

ALTO^ttiBjBiW.  Script,  S,J.,  ANDRi,  Bib,  Belgica;  Swkbrt,  was  considered  by  Rome  as  Christian,  and  the  mission 

Athena  Belgica,                                                Reilly  ^^  Winfrid  was  supposed  to  be  that  of  an  authorised 

•    •              •  reformer.    He  found  the  country,  however,  in  a  sad 

Boniface  (Winfrid,  Wynfrith),  Saint,  Apostle  condition.  St.  Kilian  had  laboured  with  energy,  but 
of  Germany,  date  of  birth  imknown;  martyred  without  success.  Duke  Gotzbert  and  some  years 
5  June,  755  (754);  emblems:  the  oak,  axe,  book,  fox,  later  his  son,  Hethan  II.  both  converts  of  St.  Kilian 
scourge,  fountain,  raven,  sword.  He  was  a  native  of  had  been  murdered,  perhaps  on  account  of  their  in- 
En^and,  though  some  authorities  have  claimed  him  'judicious  zeal  in  trying  to  spread  Christianity.  Great 
for  Ireland  or  Scotland.  The  place  of  his  birth  is  not  numbers  of  their  rebellious  subjects  had  lapsed  into 
known,  though  it  was  probabry  in  the  south- western  heathenism,  or  a  mixture  of  Christianity  and  idolatry, 
part  of  Wessex.  Crediton  (Kirton)  in  Devonshire  Winfrid  tried  to  enkindle  a  missionary  spirit  in  the 
is  given  by  more  modem  authors'.  The  same  un-  priests  and  to  make  the  people  live  up  to  the  pure 
certainty  exists  in  regard  to  the  year  of  his  birth.  It  precepts  of  the  Christian  religioQ.  Though  he  con- 
seems,  however,  safe  to  state  that  he  was  not  bom  verted  some  of  the  heathens,  he  did  not  meet  with 
before  672  or  675,  or  as  late  as  680.  Descended  from  the  success  which  he  liad  anticipated.  On  his  way  to 
a  noble  family,  from  his  earliest  years  he  showed  great  the  court  of  Charles  Martel,  possibly  to  interest  that 
ability,  and  received  a  religious  education.  His  prince  in  the  matter,  he  received  news  of  the  death 
parents  intended  him  for  secular  pursuits,  but,  in-  of  the  Frisian  King  Radbod,  and  went  to  Friesland. 
spired  with  higher  ideals  by  missionary  monks  who  Here  he  spent  three  years  imder  the  aged  St.  Willi- 
visited  his  home,  Winfrid  felt  himself  called  to  a  brord,  travelling  about  with  tireless  energv,  and 
religious  state.  After  much  difficulty  he  obtained  preaching  fearlessly  as  he  went.  Multitudes  of  Qiris- 
his  father's  permission  and  went  to  the  monastery  of  tians  who  had  fallen  away  during  the  persecution  of 
Adescancastre  on  the  site  of  the  present  city  of  Exeter,  Radbod  were  brought  to  repentance  and  thousands 
where,  under  the  direction  of  Abbot  Wolfhard,  he  of  pagans  accepted  the  Faith.  Many  of  the  con  vols 
was  trained  in  piety  and  learning.  About  seven  were  brought  together  to  lead  a  religious  life  under  the 
years  later  he  went  to  the  Abbey  of  Nhutscelle  (Nut-  Rule  of  St.  BSiedict.  St.  Willibrord,  feeling  the 
shalling)  between  Winchester  and  Southampton,  weight  of  his  years,  wished  to  make  Winftid  his 
Here,  leading  an  austere  and  studious  life  under  Abbot  assistant  and  successor  in  the  See  of  Utrecht.  Win- 
Winbert,  he  rapidly  advanced  in  sanctitv  and  knowl-  frid  refused,  giving  as  his  main  reason  that  the  pope 
edge,  excelling  especially  in  the  profound  understand-  had  sent  him  for  missionary  work.  He  therefore 
ing  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  of  which  he  gives  evi-  left  and  followed  in  the  wake  of  the  army  of  Qiarles 
dence  in  his  letters.  He  was  also  well  educated  in  Martel  as  far  as  Trier.  Near  this  city  was  the  Abbev 
history^  grammar,  rhetoric,  and  poetry.  He  made  his  of  Pfalzel  (PalaUolim),  From  there  he  took  with 
profession  as  a  member  of  the  Benedictine  Order  and  him  as  a  disciple  and  companion  Gregory,  a  boy  of 
was  placed  in  charge  of  the  monastic  school.  At  the  about  fourteen  or  fifteen,  afterwards  abbot  in  Utrecht, 
age  of  thirty  he  was  ordained  priest.  Through  his  andcontinuedhis  journey  to  Thuringia,  where  he  con- 
abbot  the  fame  of  Winfrid 's  learning  soon  reached  verted  manv.  He  then  went  into  Hessia,  where  many 
high  civil  and  ecclesiastical  circles.  He  also  had  great  more  were  brought  into  the  fold  of  Christ.  With  the 
success  as  a  preacher.  With  every  prospect  of  a  great  assistance  of  two  chiefs  whom  he  had  converted  he 
career  and  the  highest  dignities  in  his  own  country.  estaUished  a  monastic  cell  at  Amdnebunr  at  the 
he  had  no  desire  for  human  glory,  for  the  thought  ot  River  Ohm  (then  called  Amana)  in  Upper  Hesna,  as 
bringing  the  light  of  the  Gospel  to  his  kindred,  the  a  kind  of  missionary  centre  in  whidi  native  clecgy 
Old  Saxons,  in  Germany,  had  taken  possession  of  his  were  to  be  educated. 

mind.    After  many  recruests  Winfrid  at  last  obtained  While  Winfrid  was  under  the  jurisdiction  of  St 

the  permission  of  his  abbot.  Willibrord  he  had  no  special  reason  for  reportiDg  to 

In  716  he  set  out  for  the  mission  in  Friesland.  the  Holy  See,  but,  now  working  indepenaently,  he 

Since  the  Faith  had  already  been  preached  there  by  consideim  it  his  duty  to  do  so.    He  therefore  sent 

Wigbert,  Willibrord,  and  others,Winfrid  expected  Bynnan,  one  of  his  disciples,  with  a  letter  to  Gregory 

to  find  a  good  aoSL  for  his  missionary  work,  but  po-  II,  recounting  his  labours  of  the  past  years  and  asking 


BOHIFAOS                              657  BOHIFAOB 

Ear  further  direotioiis.    Bynnan  i»oinptly  executed  cFuited  in  Thurmgia  and  elsewhere  in  Germany,  be 

lu8  oommifision  and  soon  returned  with  the  pope's  continued  his  labours.    The  number  of  the  faithful 

answer,  ezpresmng  satisfaction  with  what  had  been  increased  wonderfully,  in(*iuding  many  of  the  no> 

done  and  a  desire  to  confer  with  Winfrid  personally,  bility  and  the  educated  of  the  country.    These  as* 

Winfrid  accordingly  set  out  for  Rome,  taking  his  sisted  him  in  the  building  of  churches  and  ohapds. 

course  through   France   and   Burgundy.     He  was  Boniface  took  care  to  have  institutions  in  which  re- 

warmly  welcomed  by  the  pope,  who  Questioned  him  ligious  life  would  be  fostered.    In  Thuringia  he  built 

carefuUv,  made  him  take  tne  usual  oatn  of  allegiance,  the  furst  monastery  Ohrdruf  on  the  River  Ohm  near 

received  from  him  a  profession  of  faith,  and  on  30  No-  Altenberga.    He  appointed  Thecla  Abbess  of  Kitzin* 

vember,  722  (723),  consecrated  him  a  regional  bishop,  gen,  Liol^  of  Bischofsheim,  and  Walburga  of  Heiden- 

with  the  name  Boniface.     Some  say  that  Winfna  heim. 

bad  taken  this  name  at  the  time  of  his  religious  pro-  Pope  Gregory  II  died  11  Februaiy,  731,  and  was 

fession;  others,  that  he  received  it  on  his  first  visit  succeeded  on  18  March  by  Gregory  III,    Boniface 

to  Rome.    The  same  discrepancy  of  opinion  exists  in  hastened  to  send  a  delegation  to  the  new  pontiff,  to 


Pope  Gregory  then  sent  Boniface  back  wrote  again  and  stated  among  other  things 

with  letters  to  his  diocesans  in  Thuringia  and  Hessia  work  was  becoming  too  much  for  one  man.    In  an- 

demanding  obedience  for  their  new  bishop.    A  letter  swer  Gr^ory  III  congratulated  him  on  his  success 

was  also  addressed  to  Charles  Martel  askmg  his  pro-  and  prai^d  his  zeal,  in  recognition  sending  him  the 

tection.    Boniface  himself  had  received  a  set  of  eccle-  pallium,  and  making  him  an  archbishop,  but  still 

siastical  canons  for  his  guidance.       ^  without  a  fixed  see.    He  gave  him  instructions  to 

Boniface  returned  to  Upper  Hessia  and  repaired  appoint  bishops  wherever  he  thought  it  necessary, 

the  losses  which  occurred  during  his  absence,  many  Boniface  now  enlarged  the  monastery  of  AmOnebuig 

having  drifted  back  into  paganism;  he  also  admin-  and  built  a  church,  dedicating  it  to  St.  Michael. 

Istered  everywhere  the  Sacrament  of  Confirmation.  Another  monastery  he  foundea  at  Fritslar  near  the 

He  continued  his  work  in  Lower  Hessia.  To  show  the  River  Eder,  which  was  completed  in  734.   The  church, 

heathens  how  utterlv  powerless  were  the  gods  in  a  more  magnificent  structure,  was  not  finished  before 


chapel  built  out  of  the  wood  clusively 

and  dedicated  it  to  the  prince  of  the  Apostles.    The  accompanied  by  a  number  of  Ifcis  disciples,  who  were 

heathens  were  astonished  that  no  thunderbolt  from  to  see  true  Christian  life  in  the  centre  of  Christianity, 

the  hand  of  Thor  destroyed  the  offender,  and  many  Gregory  III  received  him  graciously  and  was  r^ 

were  converted.    The  fall  of  this  oak  marked  the  fall  joic^  at  the  result  of  Boniface's  labour,  but  would 

of  heathenism.    Tradition  tells  us  that  Boniface  now  not  allow  lum  to  resign.    Boniface  remained  in  Rome 

passed  on  to  the  River  Werra  and  there  erected  a  for  about  a  year  and  then  returned  to  his  mission  in-* 

church  of  St.  Vitus,  around  which  sprang  up  a  town  vested  with  the  authority  of  a  legate  of  the  Holy  See. 

which  to  the  present  day  bears  the  name  ofWannf ried.  His  first  care  on  his  return  was  the  Church  in  Bavaria. 
At  Eschwege  he  is  said  to  have  destroyed  the  statue        In  715  (716)  Duke  Theodo  had  come  to  Rome  out 

of  the  idol  Stuffo.    Thence  he  went  into  Thuringia.  of  devotion,  but  probably  aJso  to  secure  ecclesiastical 

The  diflBculties  that  confronted  him  here  were  very  order  in  his  provinces.    Gregory  II  sent  three  ecele- 

great.    Christianity  had  indeed  made  great  progress,  siastics  with  instructions  to  do  away  with  abuses, 

but  it  had  become  mixed  up  with  heretical  tenets  Their  work,  however,  was  rendered  futile  by  the  death 

and  pagan  customs.    This  was  due  to  a  great  extent  of  Theodo  in  717  and  the  subsequent  pohtical  quar* 

to  some  Celtic  missionaries,  several  of  whom  had  rels.    Boniface  had  twice  passed  tnrouffn  the  country, 

never  been  ordained,  while  others  had  been  raised  Now  with  the  help  of  Dulce  Odilo  and  of  the  nobles, 

to  the  priesthood  by  non-Catholic  bishops,  though  he  be^m  the  work  of  reorganization  acting  entirely 

all  performed  priestly  functions.    These  taiight  doc-  according  to  the  instructions  of  Gregory  II.    He  ex- 

trines  and  maae  use  of  ceremonies  at  variance  with  amined  the  orders  of  the  cler^,  deposed  the  obstinate, 

the  teaching  and  use  of  the  Roman  Church,  especially  reordained  those  whose  ordmation  he  found  invalid, 

in  regard  to  the  celebration  of  Easter,  the  conferring  provided  they  had  err^  through  ignorance  and  were 

of  baptism,  celibacy,  the  papal  and  episcopal  au-  willing  to  submit  to  authority.    He  made  a  new  cir- 

thority.    Besides,  many  were  wanting  in  education,  cumscription  of  the  dioceses  and  appointed  bishops 

some  scarcely  able  to  read  or  write,  and  equally  for  the  vacant  sees,  viz.,  the  Abbot  John  to  the  See 

ready  to  hold  services  for  the  Christians  and  to  offer  of  Salzburg,  vacant  since  the  death  of  St.  Rupert  in 

sacnfioes  to  the  idols  for  the  heathens.    A  neighbour-  718:  Erembert  to  Freising,  vacant  since  the  death 

ing  bishop  (probably  of  Cologne)  also  gave  trouble,  of  his  brother,  St.  Corbinian,  in  730:  Gaubald  for 

by  laying  claim  to  a  part  of  the  district  under  Boni-  Ratisbon.    Passau  had  been  established  and  provided 

face's  jurisdiction  and  treating  his  authority  as  an  for  by  the  pope  himself  through  the  nomination  of 

intrusion,  thereby  indirectly  strengthening  the  party  Vivilo.    About  this  time  Bonimce  founded  the  new 

of  the  heretics.    All  this  caused  nim  ^reat  anxiety  Diocese  of  Buraburg,  and  named  Witta  as  its  bishop, 

and  suffering,  as  may  be  seen  from  his  fetters  to  This  diocese  existed  only  for  a  short  time,  during  the 


ported  by  the  authority  of  the  pope  and  of  Charles  was  consecrated  bishop  for  the  former  about  Gctobcnr. 

MarteL    His  friends  helped  him  not  only  by  their  741:   for  the  latter  Boniface  appointed  as  first  (and 

prayers,  but  also  by  material  aid.     Many  valuable  last)  bishop  Adalar,  who,  it  seems,  never  received 

books,  ecclesiastical  articles,  and  the  like  were  sent  episcopal  consecration,  as  he  is  continuaUy  spoken 

to  him  with  words  of  encouragement.    Numbers  of  of  as  a  priest.    Burchard  was  chosen  for  Wttrzburg. 

men  and  women  went  to  Germany  at  different  times  Charles  Martel  had  died  22  October,  741,  at  Quiercy 

to  be  his  helpers.    Among  them  were  Lullus,  Dene-  on  the  Oise  and  was  succeeded  by  his  sons  Carloman 

hard,  Burchard,  Wigbert,  Sola,  Witta  (called  also  and  Pepin.    In  Rome  Pope  Gregory  III  died  28  No- 

Wi«)   and  Albinus)   Wunibald,  Willibald  and  the  vember.  741,  and  was  followed  oy  Zachary.    Carlo- 

pkrus  women  Lioba,  Chunihild,  Chunitrude,  Berthgit,  man  asKed  Boniface,  his  former  preceptor,  to  a  con- 

Waibuiga,  and  Thecla.    With  these,  and  others  re-  sidtatioiL    The  result  of  this  was  a  letter  to  the  pope 


BONIFAOB  658  BOMIFAOS 

in  nducdi  Boniface  reported  his  actions  in  Bavaria  sacred  canons.  He  did  much  for  true  reli^ous  lifb 
and  asked  advice  in  various  matters.  He  also  stated  in  the  monasteries,  especially  at  Fudda,  wnich  had 
the  wish  of  Carloman  that  a  synod  be  held.  In  been  established  under  his  supervision  by  St.  Sturm, 
answer  Pope  Zachary,  1  April,  742,  confirmed  the  and  into  which  Boniface  retired  yearly  to  train  the 
erection  of  the  dioceses,  sanctioned  the  holding  of  monks  and  to  spend  some  days  in  prayer  and  medi« 
the  Efvnod,  and  gave  the  requested  information.  The  tation.  At  his  req[uest  Pope  Zachary  exempted  the 
synod,  partly  ecclesiastical  and  partlv  secular,  was  abbey  from  all  episcopal  jurisdiction  and  placed  it 
hdd21  April,  742,  but  the  place  cannot  be  ascertained,  imder  the  immeoiate  care  of  the  Holy  See.  This 
The  bishops  appointed  by  Boniface  were  present  and  was  something  ;new  for  Germany,  though  already 
several  otners,  but  it  was  mainly  the  authority  of  known  and  practised  in  Italy  and  EnglancC  It  seems 
Boniface  and  the  power  of  Carloman  that  gave  that  Boniface's  last  act  as  Archbishop  of  Mainz  was 
weight  to  the  first  uerman  synod.  Amoujg  its  de-  the  repudiation  of  the  claim  of  the  Archbishop  of 
crees  the  most  noteworthy  are  those  ordaining  the  Cologne  to  the  Diocese  of  Utrecht.  The  matter  was 
subjection  of  the  clergy  to  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  laid  before  Pepin,  who  decided  against  Cologne.  The 
and  forbidding  them  to  take  any  active  part  in  wars,  same  decision  must  have  been  given  by  Pope  Stephen 
to  carry  arms,  or  to  hunt.  Very  strict  regulations  were  II  (III)  who  had  become  the  succesor  of  Zachary, 
made  against  carnal  sins  on  the  part  of  priests  and  26  March,  752,  for  after  that  time  no  further  claim 
rdigious.  The  Rule  of  St.  Benedict  was  made  a  norm  was  made  by  Cologne.  No  change  was  made  until 
for  retigious.  Laws  were  also  enacted  concerning  the  ninth  century^  when  Cologne  was  made  an  arch- 
marriage  within  the  forbidden  degrees  of  kindred,  diocese  and  Utrecht  one  of  its  suffragan  sees. 
A  second  national  synod  was  held  1  March,  743,  at  Boniface  appointed  Abbot  Gregory  as  adnunistrator 
Liptina  in  Hainault,  and  another  at  Soissons,  2  March,  of  Utrecht,  and  Eoban,  who  Imd  been  assistant,  he 
744.    In  this  synod  a  sentence  of  condemnation  was  took  as  his  companion. 

passed  against  two  heretics, , Adalbert  and  Clement,        When  Boniface  saw  that  all  things  had  been  prop- 

the  former  a  native  of  Gaul,  the  latter  of  Ireland,  erly  taken  care  of,  he  took  up  the  work  he  had 

They  were  e^ain  condemned  in  745  and  also  at  a  dreamed  of  in  early  manhood,  tne  conversion  of  the 

synod  held  in  Rome.     Several  other  synods  were  Frisians.    With  royal  consent,  and  with  that  of  the 

held  in  G^many  to  strengthen  faith  and  discipline,  pope  previously  given,  he  in  754  resigned  the  Arch- 

At  the  reqnest  of  Carloman  and  Pepin  the  authority  diocese  of  Mainz  to  his  disciple  Lullus,  whom  in  752 

of  Boniface  over  Bavaria  was  confirmed  and  ex-  he   had   consecrated   bishop,  again   commenced  a 

tended  over  Gaul.  missionarv  tour,  and  laboured  with  success  to  the 

In  744  St.  Willibrord,  Bishop  of  Utrecht,  died,  and  East  of  the  Zuiaer  Zee.  Returning  in  the  following 
Boniface  took  the  diocese  imder  his  charge,  appoint-  year,  he  ordered  the  new  converts  to  assemble  for 
ing  an  assistant  or  chor-episcopua.  About  the  same  confirmation  at  Dokkum  on  the  River  Borne.  The 
time  the  See  of  Cologne  became  vacant  through  the  heathens  fell  upon  them  and  murdered  Boniface  and 
death  of  BLagenfried,  and  it  was  the  intention  of  Boni-  fifty-two  companions  (according  to  some,  thirty- 
face  as  well  as  the  wish  of  Pope  Zachary  to  make  this  seven).  Soon  afterwards,  the  Christians,  who  had 
his  archiepiscopal  see.  but  the  clergy  opposed.  Be-  scattered  at  the  approach  of  the  heathens,  returned 
fore  the  project  could  be  carried  out  the  Diocese  of  and  found  the  body  of  the  martyr  and  beside  him  the 
Mains  lost  its  bishop  through  the  deposition  of  Ge-  blood-stained  copy  of  St,  Ambrose  on  the  "Advan- 
wilieb  who  led  a  very  irregular  life  ana  had  killed  the  tage  of  Death".  The  body  was  taken  to  Utrecht, 
slayer  of  his  father,  who  was  h's  predecessor  in  the  afterwards  through  the  influence  of  Lullus  removed 
episcopal  office.  Pope  Zachary,  1  May,  748  (747),  to  Mainz ^  and  later,  according  to  a  wish  expressed 
appointed  Boniface  Archbishop  of  Mamz  and  Pri-  by  the  saint  himself  during  his  lifetime,  to  the  Abbey 
mate  of  Germany.  The  new  archdiocese  comprised  of  Fulda.  Portions  of  his  relics  are  at  Louvain,  Meet 
the  dioceses  of  Tongem,  Cologne,  Worms,  Speyer,  lin,  Prague,  Bruges,  and  Erfurt.  A  considerable  por- 
Utrecht,  and  the  dioceses  erected  by  Boniface  him-  tionof  an  arm  is  at  Eichfeld.  His  grave  soon  became 
self:  Burabui«,  Eichstatt,  Erfurt,  and  Warzhiu-g.  a  sanctuary,  to  which  the  faithful  came  in  crowds 
Of  Augsburg,  (Joire,  and  Constance  the  decree  does  especi^ly  on  his  feast  and  during  the  Octave.  Eng- 
not  speak,  but  they  are  shortly  afterwards  mentioned  land  is  supposed  to  have  been  tne  first  place  where 
as  belonging  to  the  province.  After  a  few  vears  his  martyrdom  was  celebrated  on  a  fixed  day.  Other 
Boniface  was  able  to  reconcile  his  enemies  with  the  countries  followed.  On  11  June,  1874,  Pope  Pius  DC 
Holy  See,  so  that  the  supremacv  of  the  pope  was  extended  the  celebration  to  the  entire  world.  Brew- 
acknowledged  in  Great  Bntain,  Germany,  ana  Gaul,  ers,  tailors,  and  file-cutters  have  chosen  St.  Boniface 
as  well  as  in  Italy.  as  their  patron,  also  various  cities  in  Germany.    The 

In  747  Carloman  resigned  his  share  of  the  govern-  writings  of  St.  Boniface  which  have  been  preserved 

ment  to  his  brother  Pepin  and  left  to  spend  the  re-  are:  "Collection  of  Letters";  "Poems  and  Kiddles"; 

mainder  of  his  days  as  a  monk.    He  built  a  monastery  "Pcenitentiale";  "Compendium  of  the  Latin  Lang- 

In  honoiu"  of  St.  Silvester  at  Soracte  near  Rome,  and  uage":   "Compendium   of   Latin  Prosody";  "Ser- 

later  retired  to  Monte  Cassino.    His  motives  for  this  mons     (doubtiul). 


to  use  m  order  to  obtain  a  union  among  the  German  tUche  Blatter.  88,  721  sqq.;  Hopb.' Convctwn  of  the  Teutonic 

tribes.    Pepin,  now  the  sole  ruler,  became  the  founder  5<"^y,^.^ '  ^"""^  "*  ^^^  CkrisL  Biog.,  s.  v.;  Thompson  in  DieL 

of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty.     That  Boniface  had  ^"'-  '^"^-  *•  ^*                          i?«*i^^-  if»»o.r«..tf 

anything  to  do  with  the  disestablishment  of  the  old  i^RANcis  mershmaj^. 

royal  family  and  the  introduction  of  a  new  one  cannot  Boniface  I,  Saii^,  Pope;   elected  28  December. 

be  proved.    He  did  not  mingle  in  the  politics  of  the  418;  d.  at  Rome,  4  September,  422.    Little  is  known 

country,  except  in  this,  that  he  did  all  in  his  power  of  his  life  antecedent  to  his  election.    The  "Liber 

to  convert  the  people  to  the  true  Faith,  and  to  bring  Pontificalis"  calls  him  a  Roman,  and  the  son  of  the 

them  into  spiritual  subjection  to  the  Roman  pontiff,  presbyter  Jocundus.     He  is  believed  to  have  been 

It  is  generally  stated  that  Boniface  anointed  and  ordained  by  Pope  Damasus  I  (366-384)  and  to  have 

crowned  Pepin  by  order  of  the  pope,  though  this  is  served  as  representative  of  Innocent  I  at  Constanti- 

denied  by  some.  nople  (c.  405). 

The  rest  of  his  life  Boniface  spent  in  confirming  At  the  death  of  Pope  Zosimus,  the  Roman  Church 

what  he  had  achieved  in  Germany.    This  he  did  by  entered  into  the  fifth  of  the  schisms,  resulting  from 

frequently  holding  synods  and  by  enforcing  the  double  papal  elections,  which  so  disturbed  her  peace 


BmOFAOX                               659  BOHIFAOB 

during  the  early  centuries.     Just  after  Sosimus's  be  tried  for  his  allied  crimes,  not  by  a  primate, 
obsequies,  27  December,  418,  a  faction  of  the  Rcmian  but  by  a  synod  of  the  bishops  of  Gaul,  and  promisea 
dergy  consisting  principally  of  deacons  seised  the  to  sustain  tneir  decision  6il9}.    Boniface  succeeded  to 
Lateran  basilica  and  electee!  as  pope  the  Archdeacon  Zosimus's  difficulties  with  the  African  Church  regard- 
Eulalius.    The  higher  clergy  tried  to  enter,  but  were  in^  appeals  to  Rome  and,  in  particular,  the  case  ofApi- 
violently  repulsed  by  a  mob  of  adherents  of  the  anus.     TheOoundl  of  Carthage,  having  heard  the rep- 
Eulalian  party.    On  the  following  day  they  met  in  resentations  of  Zosimus's  legates,  sent  to  Boniface  on 
the  churcl\  of  Theodora  and  elected  as  pope,  much  31  May,  419,  a  letter  in  reply  to  the  commonitorium  of 
against  his  will,  the  a^ed  Boniface,  a  priest  highly  his  tNredecessor.     It  stated  that  the  council  had  been 
esteemed  for  his  chanty,  learning,  ana  good  char-  unable  to  verify  the  can(His  which  the  legates  had 
acter.    On  Sunday,  29  i)ecember,  both  were  oonse-  quoted  as  Nioene,  but  which  were  later  found  to 
crated,  Boniface  in  the  Basilica  of  St.  Marcellus,  be  Sardioan.    It  agreed,  however,  to  observe  them 
supported   by  nine   provincial   bishops   and   some  until  verification  could  be  established.    This  letter 
seventy  priests;  Eulalius  in  the  Lateran  basilica  in  is  often  cited  in  illustration  of  the  defiant  attitude  of 
the  presence  of  the  deacons,  a  few  priests  and  the  the  African  Church  to  the  Roman  See.     An  unbiased 
Bishop  of  Ostia,  who  was  siunmonea  from  his  sick-  studv  of  it,  however,  must  lead  to  no  more  extreme 
bed  to  assist  at  the  ordination.    Each  claimant  pro-  conclusion  than  that  of  Dom  Chapman:  ''it  was 
ceeded  to  act  as  pope,  and  Rome  was  thrown  mto  written  in  considerable  irritation,  yet  in  a  studiously 
tumultuous  confusion   bv  the  dash   of  the  rival  moderate  tone"  (Dublin  Review.  July,  1901, 10&-119). 
.  factions.    The  Prefect  of  Rxnne,  Symmachus,  hoe-  The  Africans  were  irritated  at  the  insolence  of  Boni- 
ttle  to  Boniface,  reported  the  trouole  to  the  Em-  face's  legates  uid  incensed  at  beiiig  ur^ed  to  obey 
peror  Honorius  at  Ravenna,  and  secured  the  im-  laws  wmch  they  thought  were  not  consistently  en- 
pcrial  confirmation  of  Eulalius's  election.    Boniface  forced  at  Rome.     This  they  told  Boniface  in  no 
was  expelled  from  the  city.    His  adherents,  however,  uncertain  language;  yet,  far  from  repudiating  his 
secured  a  hearing  from  the  emperor  who  called  a  authority,  they  promised  to  obey  tne  suspected 
s^od  of  Italian  Bishops  at  Ravenna  to  meet  the  laws,  thus  recogmsine  the  pope's  office  as  guardian 
rival   popes  and   discuss  the  situation    (February,  of  the  Church's  discipine.    In  422  Boniface  received 
March,  419).    Unable  to  reach  a  dedsion,  the  synod  the  appeal  of  Anthony  of  Fussula  who,  through  the 
made  a  few  practical  provisions  pending  a  general  ^orts  of  St.  Augustine,  had  been  deposed  by  a 
council  of  Italian,  Gaulish,  and  African  bishops  to  provincial  sjmod  of  Numidia,  and  dedded  that  he 
be  convened  in  May  to  settle  the  difficulty.     It  should  be  restored  if  his  mnocence  be  established, 
ordered  both  claimants  to  leave  Rome  until  a  ded-  Boniface  ardently  supported  St.  Augustine  in  com- 
sion  was  reached  and  forbade  return  under  penalty  of  bating  Pelagianism.    Having  receiv^  two  Pda^ian 
condenmation.    As  Easter,  30  March,  was  approach-  letters  calunmiating  Augustine,  he  sent  them  to  mm. 
ing,  Achilleus,  Bishop  of  Spoleto,  was  deputed  to  In  recognition  of  this  solicitude  Augustine  dedi- 
conduct  the  paschal  services  in  the  vacant  Roman  cated  to  Boniface  his  rejoinder  contain^  in  "Contra 
See.    Boniface  was  sent,  it  seems,  to  the  cemetery  duas  Epistolas  Pelagianorum  Libri  ouatuor". 
of  St.  Felidtas  on  the  Via  Salaria,  and  Eulalius  to  In  the  East  he  sealously  maintained  his  jurisdiction 
Antium.     On  18  March,  Eulalius  boldly  returned  over  the  ecclesiastical  provinces  of  Illyriciun,  of 
to  Rome,  gathered  his  partisans,  stirred  up  strife  which  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  was  trsring 
anew,  and  spuming  the  prefect's  orders  to  leave  to  secure  control  on  account  of  thdr  becoming  a  part 
the  city,  seized  the  Lateran  basilica  on  Holy  Satur-  of  the  Eastern  empire.    The  Bishop  of  Thessalonica 
day  (29  March),  determined  to  preside  at  the  paschal  had  been  constituted  papal  vicar  in  this  territory, 
ceremonies.    The  imperial  troops  were  required  to  exercising  jurisdiction  over  the  metropolitans  and 
dispossess  him  and  make  it  possible  for  Achilleus  bishops.     By  letters  to  Rufus,  the  contemporary 
to  conduct  the  services.    The  emperor  was  deeply  incumbent  of  the  see,  Boniface  watched  closely  over 
indignant  at  these  proceedings  ana  refusing  to  con-  the  interests  of  the  lUyrian  church  and  insisted  on 
sider  again  the  claims  of  Eulalius,  recognized  Boni-  obedience  to  Rome.    In  421  dissatisfaction  expressed 
face  as  legitimate  pope  (3  April,  418).    The  latter  by  certain  malcontents  among  the  bishops,  on  ac- 
re-entered Rome  10  April  and  was  acclaimed  by  the  count  of  the  pope's  refusal  to  confirm  the  election  of 
people.    Eulalius  was  made  Bishop  either  of  Nepi  in  Perigines  as  Bishop  of  Corinth  unless  the  candidate 
Tuscany  or  of  some  Campanian  see,  according  to  was  recognised  by  Rufus,  served  as  a  pretext  for 
the  conflicting  data  of  the  sources  of  the  "Liber  the  young  emperor  Theodosius  II  to  grant  the  ecolesi- 
Pontificalis".    The  schism  had  lasted  fifteen  weeks,  asiioal  dominion  of  lUyricum  to  the  Patriarch  of 
Early  in  420,  the  pope's  critical  illness  encouraged  Constantinople    (14  July,  421).     Boniface  remon- 
the  partisans  of  Eulalius  to  make  another  effort,  strated  with  Honorius  against  the  violation  of  the 
On  his  recovery  Boniface  requested   the  emperor  nfffats  of  his  see,  and  prevailed  upon  him  to  urge 
(I  July,  420)  to  make  some  provision  against  possible  Theododus  to  resdnd  his  enactment.   The  law  was 
renewal  of  the  schism  in  the  event  of  his  death,  not  ^iforoed,  but  it  remained  in  the  Theodosiap 
Honorius  enacted  a  law  providing  that,  in  contested  (489)  and  Justinian  (584)  codes  and  caused  mucT 
papal  elections,  neither  claimant  should  be  recog-  trouble  for  sucoeedinff  pQ«)e8.    Byaletterof  11  March, 
nized  and  a  new  election  should  be  held.  422,  Boniface  forbade  the  consecration  in  Hlyricum 
Boniface'^  rei^  was  marked  by  great  zeal  and  of  ajiy  bishop  whom  Rufus  would  not  recognize, 
activity  in   disciplinary  organization   and  control.  Boniface  renewed  the  legislation  of  Pope  Soter,  pra 
He  reversed   his   predecessor's   policy  of  endowing  hibiting  women  to  touch  the  sacred  linens  or  tc 
certain  Western  bishops  with  extraordinary  pap£d  minister  at  the  biuning  of  incense.    He  enforced  the 
vicariate  powers.    Zosimus  had  ^ven  to  Patroclus,  laws  forbidding  slaves  to  becwne  clerics.     He  was 
Bishop  of  Aries,  extensive  jurisdiction  in  the  provinces  buried  in  the  cemetery  of  Maximus  on  the  Via  Sa. 
of  Vienna,  and  Narbonne,  and  had  made  him  an  laria.  near  the  tomb  of  his  favourite,  St.  Felidtas 
intermediary  between  these  provinces  and  the  Apos-  in  whose  honour  and  in  gratitude  for  whose  aid  he 
tolic    See.      Boniface    diminished    these    primatial  had  erected  an  oratory  over  the  cemetery  bearing 
rights  and  restored  the  metropolitan  powers  of  the  her  name.   The  Church  keeps  his  feast  on  25  October. 

chief     bishops  ^  of    Provmc^.       Thus    he    sustained  jr^  ParUifiealU.^^  Duchbske  (Paris.  1886).  I.  np,  Ixii 

Hilary,  Archbishop  of  Narbonne  m  his  choice  of  a  227-229;  Jaff4,  keg^   Romanorum  PonHficum  (Leipwa 

i-._i._  .    —  .,                  .  «          #  T     1                 .     ,   -r^  .  ,«..x    T  -,   --.    a  -     ««    ^TTT  ««*-  ,Tv  «^.  «jQ.    Baron 

TiLLEMONT 

L.,  xviii: 

and  trail*- 


BOnFAOB  660  BOMIFAOB 

^**°^  J*  }?Ri  .*^L,?P?f?"?5u''?*^«  ?P**S??«»'.  ^,X^?»-  **  the  reorganlBation  of  their  church  after  the  Vandal 

bovius-Hawilton,  BiMU  C  Rom§  in  A»  MiddU  Agn  (London,  rights  the  Archbishop  of  Carthage,  that  the  latter 

1894).  I,  180-181.  ^ nJght  be  better  able  to  profit  by  the  help  of  the 

John  B.  PirrERSON.  Roman  See.  In  the  east  he  asserted  the  rights  of  the 
Boniface  n,  Pops,  elected  17  September.  530;  d.  pope  to  jurisdiction  in  Ill^ciun.  (See  Bonitacs  I.) 
October,  532.  In  calling  him  the  son  of  Sigisbald,  the  In  531,  Epiphanius,  Patnarch  of  Constantinople,  d&- 
" Liber  Pontificalia"  makes  first  mention  of  a  pope's  darod  irregular  the  election  of  Stephen  to  the  Arcb- 
Oermanic  ancestnr.  Boniface  served  the  Roman  bishopric  of  Larissa  in  Thessaly.  Despite'the  severe 
Qiurch  from  early  yout^  During  the  reign  of  measures  taken  in  Constantinople  to  thwart  his  pur- 
Pope  Felix  IV,  he  was  archdeacon  and  a  personage  pose,  Stephen  appealed  to  Rome  on  the  ground  that 
of  considerable  influence  with  the  'ecclesiastic  Epiphanius  was  not  competent  to  decide  the  case, 
and  civil  authorities.  His  elevation  to  the  papacy  maintaining  his  point  in  terms  which  reveal  a  clear 
is  remarkable  as  offering  an  unquestionable  ex-  conception  of  Roman  primac^.  Boniface  convened 
ample  of  the  nomination  of  a  pope  by  his  pred-  a  fourth  Roman  synod  7-9  December.  531,  in  which 
ecessor,  without  even  the  formality  of  an  election,  some  twenty-five  documents  were  aaduced  in  sup- 
Fdix  iV  apprehending  death  and  fearing  a  contest  port  of  Rome's  daim  to  jurisdiction  in  Ilhrricttm. 
for  the  papacy  between  Roman  and  Uothic  fao-  The  outcome  of  the  synod  is  not  known.  Bcmiface 
tions,  gathered  about  him  several  of  his  clergy  and  was  esteemed  for  his  charitrjr,  particularly  towards 
a  numDer  of  Roman  Senators  and  patricians  who  the  suffering  poor  of  Rome  ourinf  a  vear  of  famine, 
happened  to  be  near.  In  their  presence,  he  solemnly  He  was  buned  in  St.  Peter's,  17  October,  532,  where 
oonierred  on  his  aged  archdeacon  the  pallium  of  a  fragment  of  his  epitaph  may  yet  be  seen  (Dufresne, 
papal  sovereignity,  proclaiming  him  his  successor  and  Les  Oryptes  Vaticanes,  Rome,  1902). 
menadng  with  excommunication  those  refusing  to  _^^.  *<>»*»/^*»j.  •d.  Duchbbnb  (Parii.  1^),  pp.  :d-xli, 
wco«il«,,«ad  otey  Boniface  as  vUidly  choeen  pope  f||^f};  lif^i,  ^eS%8^^^:^-m^S^^^^^ 
On  Felix's  death  Boniface  assumed  succession,  but  Bed.  (Bar-Ie-Duo,  1867),  iX.  889-405;  HBrxLB^on^Oim- 
nearlv  all  of  the  Roman  priests,  sixt^r  out  of  perhaps  «^?^K^  andtawBlation*  H  242, 244;  P.  X*.,  l3cv,  29-48; 
about  seventy,  refused  io  accept  him  and^  elected  ^-^J; 'ef^tj^^  Boniface  no  literature  i.  itOiable  wfaieh 
Diosoorus.  They  feared  the  undue  influence  m  papal  antsdates  1888,  when  Amblu  oubUahed  the  doomneDtt  on 
affairs    of   the   Ostrogothic    King    Athalaric,   whose  which  he  oomment*  in  Scuoia  CattMea  (MiJan),  XXI.  fa»cic. 

«andfather,  Theodol?c  I,  had  helped  to  elect  Pone  '^^^^JT^/^a'^^S^^ 

Fehx  IV,  a  CUtJUmstance  rendering  more  odious  the  tical  Revimo  (January,  1903).  !xxVlII,  41-60;  Ewald.  Aktm 

latter's  nomination  of  Boniface.      Both  popes  were  swn8diimiade9Jahre§6S0  in  NeueMAr^iv,{lS»&-^);Quwao- 

e«n«crated  22,  Septmber.  630,  Boniface  in  the  ?£JX,?1Sir?:  IJ&iSsfk^S^.'^C^W/S 

basilica  of  Juuus.  and  Diosoorus  in  the  Lateran.  Cmtuni  (LoiKlon,  1897X 

The  Roman  Church  was  thus  involved  in  the  seventh  John  B.  Pxtebson. 

anti-papal   schism.     Fortunately   it   endured   but       •-_i#.„  ttt  trrr  i>»..<.     t(<^«.T..,^  ttt  p«». 
twenV-two  days,  for  Dioscorus  died  14  October,        Boniface  ni-VH,  Popm.— Bonwacb  HI,  Pp«, 

leaviM  BonifacS  in  poaseeslon.    He  soon  convened  a  of  Roman  extractionand  the  son  of  John  (^taad.oce, 

Romai  synod  and  pirated  a  decree  anathematising  ^««  elected  to  succeed  Sabmian  aft^aa  interrepum 

his  late  rival  to  which  he  secured  the  signatures  of  the  SLPT^^  a  year;  he  was  consecrated  19  Febrowy, 

priests  who  had  been  Dioeoonis's  partl«ms  (Deem-  ^'A-J^  November  of  the  same  year.    He  had  b^ 

ber,  680).    Each  of  these  express^  regret  for  their  ordained  a  deacon  of  the  Roman  Church,  and  m  «B 

participation  in  tiie  irregulaJ  election  and  pledged  sentjgr  Gr^ry  the  Great  as  apomwonwr,  or  l^t*. 

future  obedience.    BoniSce  reconciled  many  bVhis  ^  ^^  «>"rt  of  Constantinople,  where,  by  his  tact  and 

mild,  conoiUatoiy  administraUon,  but  some  r^t-  P™d«»ce,  he  appears  to  have  gained  the  favourable 

ment  remained,  for  he  seems  not  to  have  been  ten-  ««S^o°'  the  Emperor  Phocas     Aftw  hw  eleven 
dered  a  formal  election  by  those  wh 
submission,  had  impugned  the  vididit; 


St.  Peter's,  Box^aoe  presented  a  constitution  at-  }^^^  exclusively  to  the  Bishop  of  Rome-an  a^ 

tributing  to  himself  the  right  to  appoint  his  sue  knowfodgment  somewhat  similar  to  «i«t  made  by 

cessorT^The  Roman  clergy  subscnSsd  to  it  and  Jufitiman  eighty  y^  before  (NoveU.,  131,  c.  "j 

promised  obedience.    Boniface  im>posed  as  his  choice  J?*- "^)- J^^^T?^""*^^    n  *l^^^'**^^ 

Ihe  deacon  VigiUus  and  it  was  Stifiedby  priests  and  ^y  seventy-two  bishops  and  aU  l^e  Roman  do£. 


stitution  before  the  deigy  and  senate  and  nullified  Ppmtment  of  his  successor,  and  setthig  ^w^A^no 

the  appomtment  of  Vigifiis.  f^Ps  ^^re  to  be  taken  to  orovide  for  a  wJ^wmot  im^ 

The  reign  of  Bonifa!ce  was  marked  by  his  active  *^  ^^7^  af*er  the  bunal  of  the  debased.    TIm  acts 

interest  in  diverse  affairs  of  the  Western  and  Eastern  ?^  the  council  are  lc«t,  and  it  is  not  known  w^t  may 

churehes.    Eariy  m  his  pontificate  he  confirmed  the  have  been  the  occasion  for  the  decree.   Poto]^^ 

acts  of  the  Second  Council  of  Orange,  one  of  the  most  ^a*  ^  man  "of  tned  faith  and  character    (St.  Gri», 

important  of  the  sixth  centuryTwhich  factually  ep.  xm,  41).    ??  d»ed  within  a  year  of  his  ele^^ 

temJnated    the    Semioelairian    controversiefl.      Its  and  was  buned  m  St.  Peter's.  _His  epitaph  is  found 


^^^„         ^  ^  ^„-^ ^  *  QHmKjmjf  im. 

pope's  confirmation  of  G€93i'der  8laS!%nn  imMli.  (^th  act,  Stuttigart,  1880),  11; 

the  cou^l     Being  himself  pope  when  the  monger  ^04^-o  ||^^bSr^ 

came.  Boniface  sent  a  letter  of  confirmation  to  ^31:.  JtoU^?.!!,  W^^^ 

CsBsarius  (25  January,  531)  to  which  he  condemned  i867).  1, 106:  Lanobn, (Tmc^ der  HhmMeMm  Kirche tfomLfoi. 

certain   Semipelagian    doctrines.      He  received  an  bu  NtkolamL  (Bona, lS85);  JxnmM^ini.DUMerUMtumtMjl.^ 

appeal  from  tne  African  bishops,  who  were  labourini;  BoNiFaai  lY.  Saint,  Popb^sou  of  John,  a  phvsiciaD 


BOHIFACB 


661 


BONirAOX 


a  Marsian  from  the  province  and  town  of  Valeria; 
he  succeeded  Boniface  III  after  a  vacancy  of  over 
nine  months;  consecrated  25  August,  608;  d.  8  May, 
615  (Duchesne);  or,  15  September,  QOS—25  May, 
615  (Jafif6).  In  the  time  of  Pojpe  St.  Gregory  the 
Great  he  was  a  deacon  of  the  Koman  Church  and 
held  the  position  of  dispensatory  i.  e.  the  first  official 
in  connexion  with  the  administration  of  the  patri- 
monies. Boniface  obtained  leave  from  the  Em- 
peror Phocas  to  convert  the  Pantheon  into  a  Christian 
Church,  and  on  13  Mav,  609  (?)  the  temple  erected  by 
A^ppa  to  Jupiter  the  Avenger,  to  Venus,  and  to 
Amrs  was  consecrated  by  the  pope  to  the  Virgin 
MaiT  and  s^  the  Martyrs.  (Hence  the  title  S.  Maria 
ad  Martyies:  from  its  shape  also  called  S.  Maria 
Rotunda.)  It  was  the  first  instance  at  Rome  of  the 
transformation  of  a  pagan  temple  into  a  place  of 
Christian  worship.  Twenty-eight  cartloads  of  sacred 
bones  were  said  to  have  been  removed  from  the 
Catacombs  and  placed  in  a  porphyry  basin  beneath 
the  high  altar.  During  the  pontinoate  of  Boniface, 
Mellitus,  the  fijrst  Bishop  of  London,  went  to  Rome 
"to  consult  the  pope  on  important  matters  relative 
to  the  newly  established  English  Church''  (Bede, 
H.  E.,  II,  iv).  Whilst  in  Rome  he  assisted  at  a  coun- 
cil then  being  held  concerning  certain  questions  on 
"the  life  and  monastic  peace  of  monks",  and,  on  his 
departure,  took  with  him  to  England  the  decrees  of 
the  council  together  with  letters  from  the  pope  to 
Lawrence,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  to  all  the 
clergy,  to  King  Ethelbert,  and  to  all  the  English 
people  "concerning  what  was  to  be  observed  bv  the 
Church  of  England  ".  The  decrees  of  the  coimcil  now 
extant  are  spurious.  The  letter  to  Ethelbert  (in 
WiUiam  of  Malmesbury.  De  Gest.  Pont.,  I,  1464, 
ed.  Migne)  is  considered  spurious  by  Hefele  (Con- 
ciliengescluchte,  III,  66).  questionable  l^  Haddan 
and  Stubbs  (Councils,  III,  65),  and  genuine  by  JaS6 
[Regest.  RR.  PP.,  1998  (1548)]. 

mtween  612-615,  St.  Columban,  then  living  at 
Bobbio  in  Italy,  was  persuaded  by  Agilulf ,  King  of 
the  Lombards,  to  address  a  letter  on  the  condemna- 
tion of  the  "Three  Chapters"  to  Boniface  IV,  which 
is  remarkable  at  once  iqr  its  expressions  of  exagger- 
ated deference  and  its  tone  of  excessive  sharpness. 
In  it  he  tells  the  pope  that  he  is  charged  with  heresy 
(for  accepting  the  Fifth  Council,  i.  e.  Constantinople, 
553),  and  exhorts  him  to  siunmon  a  council  and 
prove  his  orthodoxy.  But  the  letter  of  the  impetuous 
Celt,  who  failed  to  ^asp  the  import  of  the  theological 
problem  involved  m  the  "Three  (IJhapters",  seems 
not  to  have  disturbed  in  the  least  his  relation  with 
the  Holy  See,  and  it  would  be  wrong  to  suppose  that 
Columban  regarded  himself  as  independent  of  the 
pope's  authontv.  During  the  pontificate  of  Boniface 
there  was  much  distress  in  Rome  owins  to  famine, 
pestilence  J  and  inundations.  The  pontiff  died  in  mo- 
,  nastic  retirement  (he  had  converted  his  own  house 
into  a  monastery)  and  was  buried  in  the  portico  of 
St.  Peter's.  His  remains  were  three  times  removed — 
in  the  tenth  or  eleventh  century,  at  the  close  of  the 
thirteenth  under  Boniface  VIII,  and  to  the  new 
St.  Peter's  on  21  October,  1603.  Fot  the  earlier 
mscription  on  his  tomb  see  Duchesne;  for  the  later, 
Grisar,  "Analecta  Romana",  I,  193.  Boniface  IV 
is  commemorated  as  a  saint  in  the  Roman  Mar- 

tyrology  on  2^  May. 

Uber  Pontificalit  (ed.  Duchbbnb),  I,  317;  JAiri,  Regeita 
RR.  PP.  (2nd  ed.).  I,  220;  Acta  et  Epiatola  in  Manbi,  X.  501; 
Paul  thr  Dsacx>n,  HUl  Ixmgobard,,  IV,  36  (37);  Gabquet, 
.  A  Skort  HUtory  of  ihe  Catholxe  Chww  in  England  (London, 
1903),  19;  Hunt.  A  Hiaiorv  cf  A«  BnoUah  Church  from  it» 
FoundaHon  fo  the  Norman  ConauMi  (London,  1901).  42; 
Mann,  Lives  of  ihe  Popes.  I,  268-279;  Von  Rkumont,  Cfeech, 
der  Stadt  Rom  (Berlin,  1867),  11,  156,  165;  Grboorovius, 
II,  104;  Lanobn,  501. 

Boniface  V,  Pope,  a  Neapolitan  who  succeeded 
Deusdedit  after  a  vacancy  of  more  than  a  year;  oon- 
•ecTftted  23  December,  619;  d.  25  October,  625.    Be- 


fore  his  consecration  Italy  was  disturbed  by  the 
rebellion  of  the  eunuch  Eleutherius,  Exarch  oi 
Ravenna.  The  patrician^  pretender  advanced  to- 
wards Rome,  but  before  he  could  reach  the  city,  he 
was  slain  by  his  own  troops.  The  "Liber  Pontifi- 
calia" records  that  Boniface  made  certain  enactments 
relative  to  the  rights  of  sanctuary,  and  that  he  or- 
dered the  ecclesif^ical  notaries  to  obey  the  laws  of 
the  empire  on  the  subject  of  wills.  lie  also  pre- 
scribed that  acolytes  should  not  presume  to  translate 
the  relics  of  martyrs,  and  that,  in  the  Lateran  Basil- 
ica, they  should  not  take  the  place  of  deacons  in 
administering  baptism.  Boniface  completed  and 
consecrated  the  cemetery  of  St.  Nicomedes  on  the 
Via  Nomentana.  From  the  Venerable  Bede  we  learn 
of  the  pope's  affectionate  concern  for  the  English 
Church.  The  "letters  of  exhortation"  which  he  is 
said  to  have  addressed  to  Mellitus,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  arid  to  Justus,  Bishop  of  Rochester,  are 
no  longer  extant,  but  certain  other  letters  of  his  have 
been  preserved.  One  is  written  to  Justus,  after  he 
had  succeeded  Mellitus  as  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
(624),  conferring  the  pallium  upon  him  and  directing 
him  to  '' ordain  bishops  as  occasion  should  require  . 
According  to  Bede,  Pope  Boniface  also  sent  letters  to 
Edwin,  lung  of  Northumbria  (625),  urging  him  ta 
embrace  the  Christian  Faith,  and  to  the  Christian 
Princess  Ethelberga,  Edwin's  spouse,  exhorting  her 
to  use  her  best  ^ideavours  for  the  conversion  of  her 
consort  (Bede,  H.  E.,  II,  vii,  viii,  x,  xi)..  In  the  "Li- 
ber Pontificalia"  Boniface  is  described  as  "the  mildest 
of  men",  whose  chief  distinction  was  his  great  love 
for  the  oleray.  He  was  buried  in  St.  Peter's,  25  Octo- 
ber, 625.    His  epitaph  is  found  in  Duchesne. 

Liber  PontifUalie  (ed.  Duchesne).  I,  321 -'322;  Jaff*. 
Reqeeta  RR.  PP.  (2nd  ed,).  I,  222;  Letters  in  Mansi.  X,  647- 
554.  and  in  Bkdb.  HisL  Eccles.  Qent,  Anal.;  Mann,  Lives  of 
Iks  Popes,  etc.,  1,294-303;  Gasquct,  A  Short  History  of  the 
Catholxe  Church  in  England,  19;  Hunt,  A  History  of  the  Eno' 
lish  Church,  etc.,  49,  56.  58;  Grboorovius,  II,  113;  Lanobn, 
506;  Junomann,  Dissertationes,  II,  389. 

Boniface  VI,  Pope,  a  Roman,  elected  in  896  by 
the  Roman  faction  in  a  popular  tumult,  to  succeed 
Formosus.  He  had  twice  incurred  a  sentence  of 
deprivation  of  orders,  as  a  subdeacon  and  as  a  priest. 
At  the  Council  of  Rome,  held  by  John  IX  in  898,  his 
election  was  pronounced  null.  After  a  pontificate  of 
fifteen  days,  ne  is  said  by  some  to  have  died  of  the 
gout,  by  others  to  have  b^n  forcibly  ejected  to  make 
way  for  Stephen  VI,  the  candidate  of  the  Spoletan 
party. 

Liber  Poniificalis  (ed.  Duchesne),  II,  228;  Idem,  Les 
premiers  temps  de  VStat  pontifical  (2nd  ed.,  Paris.  1904),  209; 
jAfTt,  Regesta  RR.  PP.,  I,  439;  Junomann,  Dissaiationes, 
IV.  22. 

Boniface  VII,  Antipopb  (previously  Bomifacb 
Francx)),  a  Roman  and  son  of  Ferrucius,  was  in- 
truded into  the  Chair  of  St.  Peter  in  974;  reinstalled, 
984;  d.  July,  986.  In  June,  974,  one  year  after  the 
death  of  Emperor  Otto  I,  Crescentius  the  son  of 
Theodora  ancl  brother  of  John  XIII,  stirred  up  an 
insurrection  at  Rome,  during  which  the  Romans 
threw  Benedict  VI  into  the  Castle  of  Sant'  Angelo,  and 
elevated  as  his  successor  the  Cardinal-Deacon  Franco, 
who  took  the  name  of  Boniface  VII.  The  imprisoned 
pontiff  was  speedily  put  to  death  by  the  intruder. 
But  in  little  more  than  a  month  the  imperial  rep- 
resentative, Count  Sicco,  had  taken  possession  of  the 
city,  and  Boniface,  not  oeinff  able  to  maintain  him- 
self, robbed  the  treasury  of  the  Vatican  Basilica  and 
fled  to  Constantinople.  After  an  exile  of  nine  years 
at  Bysantium,  Franco,  on  the  death  of  Otto  II,  7  De- 
cember^ 983,  quickly  returned  to  Rome,  overpowered 
John  XlV  (April,  984),  thrust  him  into  the  dungeons 
of  Sant'  Angelo,  whero  the  wretched  man  died  four 
months  later,  and  again  assumed  the  government  of 
the  Church.  The  usurper  had  never  ceased  to  look 
upon  himself  as  the  lawful  pontiff,  and  reckoned  the 


BonrAOE 


662 


BOmPAOft 


jnoara  of  his  reign  from  the  deposition  of  Benedict  VI 
m  974.  For  more  than  a  year  Rome  endured  this 
monster  steeped  in  the  blood  of  his  predecessors. 
But  the  vengeance  was  terrible.  After  his  sudden 
death  in  July,  985,  due  in  all  probability  to  violence, 
the  body  of  &>niface  was  exposed  to  the  insults  of 
the  populace,  dragged  through  the  streets  of  the 
city,  and  finally,  naked  and  covered  with  wounds, 
flung  under  the  statue  of  Marciis  Aurelius,  which  at 
that  time  stood  in  the  Lateran  Place.  The  following 
morning  compassionate  clerics  removed  the  corpse 
and  gave  it  Cnristian  burisd. 


ptnona  ed  U  pontiAoato  d%  Bonifagto  VJI  (Lugo,  1856);  Hbfblb, 
ConciUenpesch,,  IV,  632,  634;  JuNQUMiS.Dwertationea.  IV, 
88-^1;  Floss,  Die  Papsiwahl  unter  den  Ottonen  (Freiburs, 
1868).  42;  GRBooROVins,  III.  363.  369,  381-388;  Von  Rbu- 
ifOHT,  Qeech.  der  Stadt  Rom,  II,  203^96. 

Thomas  Oestreich. 

■       

Boniface  Vm,  Pope  (Bensdettd  Gaetani),  b.  at 
Anagni  about  1235*  d.  at  Rome,  II  October,  1303. 
He  was  the  son  of  Lofifred,  a  descendant  of  a  noble 
family  originaUv  Spanish,  but  long  established  in 
Italy — first  at  Gaeta  and  later  at  Ajnagni.  Through 
his  mother  he  was  connected  with  the  house  of  Segni, 
which  had  already  nven  three  illustrious  sons  to  the 
Church,  Innocent  lU,  Gregory  IX,  and  Alexan- 
der IV.  Benedetto  had  studied  at  Todi  and  at 
Spoleto  in  It-aly,  perhaps  also  at  Paris,  had  obtained 
the  doctorate  in  canon  and  civil  law,  and  be^i  made 
a  canoit  successively  at  Anagni,  Todi,  Paris,  Lyons, 
and  Rome.  In  1265  he  accompanied  Cardinal  Otto- 
buono  Fieschi  to  England,  whither  that  prelate  had 
been  sent  to  restore  harmony  between  Henry  III  and 
the  rebellious  barons.  It  Was  not  until  about  1276 
that  Gaetani  entered  upon  his  career  in  the » Curia, 
where  he  was,  for  some  years,  actively  engaged  as 
consistorial  advocate  and  notary  Apostolic,  and  soon 
acquired  considerable  influence.  Under  Martin  IV, 
in  1281,  he  was  created  Cardinal-Deacon  of  ^e  title 
of  S.  Nicol6  in  carcere  TuUianOf  and  ten  years 
later,  imder  Nicholas  IV,  Cardinal-Priest  of  the  title 
of  SS.  Silvestro  e  Martino  ai  Monti.  As  papal  legate 
he  served  with  conspicuous  ability  in  France  and  in 
Sicily  (H.  Finke,  Aus  den  Tagen  Bonifaz  VIII, 
Mtknster,  1902, 1  sqq.,  9  saq.). 

On  the  13th  of  December,  1294,  the  saintly  but 
wholly  incompetent  hermit-pope  Uelestine  V,  who 
five  months  previously,  as  rietro  di  Murrhone,  had 
been  taken  from  his  obscure  mountain  cave  in  the 
wilds  of  the  Abruzzi  and  raised  to  the  highest  dignity 
in  Christendom,  resigned  the  intolerable  burden  of 
the  papacy.  The  act  was  unprecedented  and  has 
been  frequently  ascribed  to  the  undue  influence  and 
pressure  of  the  designing  Cardinal  Gaetani.  That 
the  elevation  of  the  inexperienced  and  simple-minded 
recluse  did  not  commend  itself  to  a  man  of  the 
stamp  of  Gaetani,  reputed  the  greatest  iurist  of  his 
age  and  well-skilled  in  all  the  arts  of  curial  diplomacy, 
is  highly  probable.  But  Boniface  himself  declared, 
through  JSgidius  Colonna,  that  he  had  at  first  dis- 
suaded Celestine  from  taking  the  step.  And  it  has 
now  been  almost  certainhr  establishea  that  the  idea 
of  resigning  the  papacy  first  originated  in  the  mind 
of  the  sordy  perplexed  Celestine  himself,  and  that 
the  part  played  by  Gaetani  was  at  most  that  of  a 
counsellor,  stoonely  advising  the  pontiff  to  issue  a 
constitution,  either  before  or  simultaneously  with 
his  abdication,  declaring  the  legality  of  a  papal 
resignation  and  the  competency  of  the  College  of 
Cardinals  to  accept  it.  [See  especially  H.  Scnulz, 
Peter  von  Murrhone — Papst  Ccelestin  V — in  Zeit- 
schrift  filT  Kirchengeschicnte,  xvii  (1897),  481  sqq.; 
dso  Finke,  op.  cit.,  39  sqq.:  and  R.  Scholz,  Die 
Publizistik  zur  Zeit  rhilipps  oes  SchAnen  und  Boni- 
faz VIII,  Stuttgart,  1903,  3.]    Tea  days  after  Celes- 


tine the  Fifth's  oran  rifiuto  the  cardinals  went  into 
conclave  in  the  Uastel  Nuovo  at  Naples,  and  on  the 
24th  of  December,  1294,  by  a  majority  of  votes 
elected  Cardinal  BenedeUo  Gaetani,  who  took  the 
name  of  Boniface  VIII.  (For  details  of  the  election 
see  Finke,  op.  cit.,  44-54.)  With  the  approval  of  the 
cardinals,  tne  new  pope  immediately  revoked  (27 
December,  1294)  all  the  extraordinary  favours  and 
privileges  which  "in  the  fullness  of  his  simplicity" 
Celestine  V  had  distributed  witji  such  reckless 
prodigality.  Then,  early  in  January  of  the  following 
year,  in  spite  of  the  rigour  of  the  season.  Boniface 
set  out  for  Rome,  determined  to  remove  tne  papacy 
as  soon  as  possible  from  the  influence  of  the  Neapoli- 
tan court.  The  ceremony  of  his  consecration  and 
coronation  was  performed  at  Rome,  23  January. 

1295,  amid  scenes  of  unparalleled  splendour  ana 
magnificence.  King  Charles  II  of  Naples  and  his 
son  Charles  Martel,  titular  king  and  claimant  of 
Himgaiy,  held  the  reins  of  his  gorgeously  accoutred 
snow-white  palfrey  as  he  proc^d^  on  his  way  to 
St.  John  Lateran,  and  later,  with  their  crowns  upon 
their  heads,  served  the  pope  with  the  first  few  dishes 
at  table  before  taking  their  places  amongst  the 
cardinals.  On  the  following  day  the  pontiff  issued 
his  first  encyclical  letter,  in  which,  aft^  announcing 
Celestine's  abdication  and  his  own  accession,  he 
depicted  in  the  most  glowing  terms  the  sublime  and 
inaefectible  nature  of  the  Church. 

The  unusual  step  taken  by  Celestine  V  had  aroused 
much  opposition,  especially  among  the  religious 
parties  in  Italy.  In  the  hands  of  the  Spiritual,  or 
Fraticelli,  and  the  Celestines — many  of  whom  were 
not  as  guileless  as  their  saintly  founder — the  former 
pontiff,  if  allowed  to  go  free,  might  prove  to  be  a 
dangerous  instrument  for  the  promotion  of  a  schism 
in  the  Church.  Boniface  VIII,  therefore,  before  leav- 
ing Naples,  ordered  Celestine  V  to  be  taken  to  Rome 
in  the  custody  of  the  Abbot  of  Monte  Cassino.  On 
the  way  thither  the  saint  escaped  and  returned  to  his 
hermitage  near  Sulmona.  Apprehended  again,  he 
fled  a  second  time,  and  after  weary  weeks  of  roaming 
through  the  woods  of  Apulia  reached  the  sea  and 
embarked  on  board  a  vessel  about  to  sail  for  Dalmatia. 
But  a  storm  cast  the  luckless  fugitive  ashore  at 
Vieste  in  the  Capitanata,  where  the  authorities 
reco^ized  and  detained  him.  He  was  brought  be- 
fore Boniface  in  his  palace  at  Anagni,  kept  in  custody 
there  for  some  time,  and  finally  translerred  to  the 
strong  Castle  of  Fumone  at  Ferentino.  Here  he  re- 
mained until  his  death  ten  months  later,  19  May, 

1296.  The  detention  of  Celestine  was  a  simple  meas- 
ure of  prudence  for  which  Boniface  VTII  deserves  no 
censure;  but  the  rigorous  treatment  to  which  the  old 
man  of  over  eighty  years  was  subjected — whoever 
may  have  been  responsible  for  it — ^will  not  be  easfly 
condoned.  Of  this  treatment  there  can  now  no 
longer  be  any  question.  The  place  wherein  Celestine 
was  confinecf  was  so  narrow  "that  the  spot  wherecMi 
the  saint  stood  when  saying  Mass  was  the  same  as 
that  whereon  his  head  lay  when  he  reclined"  (quod, 
ubi  tenebat  pedes  ille  sanctus,  dum  missam  diceret, 
ibi  tenebat  caput,  quando  quiescebat),  and  his  two 
companions  were  fre<)uently  obliged  to  change  places 
because  the  constraint  and  narrowness  msSe  them 
ill.  (In  this  connexion  see  the  very  important  and 
valuable  paper  "S.  Pierre  C^lestin  et  ses  premiers 
Biographes'^  in  "Analecta  BoUand.",  XVI,  365- 
487:  cf.  Finke,  op.  cit.,  267.) 

Thoroughly  imoued  with  the  principles  of  his  great 
and  heroic  predecessors,  Gregory  Vll  and  inno- 
cent III,  the  successor  of  Celestine  V  entertained 


most  exalted  notions  on  the  subject  of  papal 
premacy  in  ecclesiastical  as  well  as  in  civil  matters, 
and  was  ever  most  pronounced  in  the  assertion  of  his 
claims.  By  his  profound  knowledge  of  the  canons  of 
the  Churchy  his  keen  political  instincts,  great  practical 


BOMIFAOS                              663  BOHIFAOS 

83q>erience  of  life,  and  high  talent  for  the  conduct  of  should  revert  to  the  Kin^  of  Naples.  Thou^ 
affairs,  Boniface  VIII  seemed  exceptionally  well  frustrated  in  his  hopes,  Boniface  VIII  ratified  t£e 
qualified  to  maintain  inviolate  the  ri^ts  and  privi-  treaty  12  June,  1303,  and  w'eed  to  recognize 
l^;e8  of  the  papacy  as  they  had  been  handed  down  to  Frederick  as  vassal  of  the  Holy  See. 
him.  But  he  failed  either  to  recognize  the  altered  In  the  meantime  Boniface  VIII  had  directed  his 
temper  of  the  times,  or  to  gauge  accurately  the  attention  also  to  the  north  of  Italy^  where,  during  a 
strength  of  the  forces  arrayed  against  him;  and  when  period  of  forty  years,  the  two  rival  republics  oi 
he  attempted  to  exercise  his  supreme  authority  in  Venice  and  Genoa  had  been  carrying  on  a  bitter  con- 
temporal  affairs  as  in  spiritual,  over  princes  and  peo-  test  for  commercial  supremacy  in  the  LfCvant.  A 
pie,  he  met  almost  everywhere  with  a  determined  crusade  was  wellnigh  impossible  without  the  active 
resistance.  His  aims  of  universal  peace  and  Christian  co-operation  of  these  t^o  powers.  The  pope,  there- 
coalition  against  the  Turks  were  not  realized;  and  fore,  commanded  a  truce  until  24  June,  1296,  and 
during  the  nine  years  of  his  troubled  reign  he  ordered  both  the  contestants  to  send  ambassadors  to 
scarody  ever  achieved  a  decisive  triumph.  Though  Rome  with  a  view  to  arranging  terms  of  peace.  The 
certainly  one  of  the  most  remarkable  pontiffs  that  Venetians  were  inclined  to  accept  his  mediation;  not 
have  ever  occupied  the  papsd  throne,  Boniface  VIII  so  the  Genoese,  who  were  elated  by  their  success, 
was  also  one  of  the  most  unfortunate.  His  pontificate  The  war  continued  till  1299,  when  the  two  republics 
marks  in  history  the  decline  of  the  medieval  power  were  obliged  finally  to  conclude  peace  from  sheer 
and  glory  of  the  papacy.  exhaustion,  but  even  then  the  intervention  of  the 

Boniface  first  endeavoured  to  settle  the  affairs  of  pope  was  rejected. 

Sicily,  which  had  been  in  a  very  distracted  condition  The  efforts  made  by  Boniface  VIII  to  restore  order 

since  the  time  of  the  Sicilian  Vespers  (1282).    Two  in   Florence  and    Tuscany   proved   eaually   futile, 

rivals  claimed  the  island,  Charles  II,  King  of  Naples,  During  the  closing  years  of  the  thirteenth  century  the 

in  right  of  his  father  Charles  of  Anjou,  who  haa  re-  great  Guelph  city  was  torn  asunder  by  the  violent 

ceived  it  from  Clement  IV,  and  James  II,  King  of  dissensions  of  the  Bianchi  and  the  Neri.    The  Bianchi 

Aragon,  who  derived  his  claims  from  the  Hohenr  or  Whites,  of  Ghibeliine  tendencies,  represented  the 

statSen,  through  his  mother  Constance,  the  daughter  popular   party  and    contained  some  of  the  most 

of  Manfred.    James  II  had  been  crowned  Ki;^  of  distinguished    men    in    Florence — Dante    Alighieri^ 

Sicily  at  Palermo  in  1286,  and  had  thereby  incurred  Guido  Cavalcanti,  and  Dino  Compagni.    The  Nen 

the  sentence  of  excommunication  for  daring  to  usurp  or  Blacks,   professing  the    old   Gudph  principles, 

a  fief  of  the  Holy  See.   On  his  succession  to  the  throne  represented  the  nobles  or  aristocracy  of  the  city, 

of  Aragon,  after  the  death  of  his  brother  Alfonso  III,  Each  party  as  it  eained  the  ascendancy  sent  its 

in  1291,  James  agreed  to  surrender  Sicily  to  Charles  opponents   into   exile.     After  a   vain   attempt   to 

II  on  condition  that  he  should  receive  the  Latter's  reconcile  the  leadeiB  of  the  two  parties,  Vieri  dei 

daughter,  Blanche  of  Naples,  in  marriage,  toother  Cerchi  and  Corso  Donati,  the  pope  sent  Cardinal 

with  a  dowry  of  70,000  pounds  of  silver.     Boni-  Matteo  d*Acquasparta  as  papal  legate  to  mediate 

face  VIII,  as  liege  lord  of  the  island,  ratified  this  and  establish  peace  at  Florence.     The  legate  met 


in  his  possession  of  Ara^n,  and  granting  him  the  of  Valois,  brother  of  Philip  the  Fair.  Appointed 
islands  of  Sardinia  and  Corsica,  which  were  fiefs  of  Captain-General  of  Church  and  invested  with  the 
the  Holy  See,  in  compensation  for  the  loss  of  Sicily,  governorship  of  Tus(uuiv  (in  consequence  of  the 
By  these  measures  £k)niface  VIII  merely  adhered  vacancy  of^  the  empire),  the  French  prince  was 
to  the  traditional  policy  of  the  papacy  m  dealing  given  full  powers  to  effect  the  pacification  of  the 
witli  Sicilian  affairs;  there  is  no  evidence  to  show  city.  Valois  arrived  at  Florence  on  1  November, 
that,  either  before  or  shortly  after  his  election,  he  1301.  But  instead  of  acting  as  the  official  peace- 
had  pledged  himself  in  any  way  to  recover  Sicily  maker  of  the  pope,  he  conducted  himself  as  a  ruth- 
for  tne  House  of  Anjou.  Sicily  wafi  not,  however,  less  destroyer.  After  five  months  of  his  partisan 
pacified  by  this  agreement  between  the  pope  ana  administration,  the  Neri  were'  supreme  and  many 
the  kings  of  Aragon  and  Naples.  Threatened  with  of  the  Bianchi  exiled  and  ruined — among  them 
a  renewal  of  the  detested  rule  of  the  French  ^  the  Dante  Alighieri.  Beyond  drawing  on  himself  and 
inhabitants  of  that  island  asserted  their  mde-  the  pope  the  bitter  hatred  of  the  Florentine  people, 
pendenoe,  and  offered  the  crown  to  Frederick,  the  Charles  had  accomplished  nothing.  (Levi,  Bonifazio 
younger  brother  of  James  II.  In  an  interview  with  VUI  e  le  sue  relazioni  col  commune  di  Firenze,  in 
Frederick  at  Velletri,  the  pope  sought  to  dissuade  Archiv.  Soc.  Rom.  di  Storia  Patria,  1882,  V,  365-474. 
him  from  accepting  the  offer  by  holding  out  prospects  Cf.  Franchetti,  Nuova  Antologia,  1883,  23-38.)  It 
of  a  succession  to  the  throne  of  Constantinc^le  and  a  ma^  be  noted  here  that  many  scholars  of  repute 
marriage  with  Princess  Catherine  of  Courtenay,  seriously  c^uestion  Dante's  famous  embassy  to  Boni- 
muiddaughter  and  heir  of  Baldwin  II,  the  last  Latm  face  Vlll  m  the  latter  part  of  1301.  The  only  con- 
Emperor  of  the  East.  But  the  voimg  prince  would  temporary  evidence  to  support  the  poet's  mission  is  a 
not  be  dissuaded.  The  papal  legate  was<  expelled  passage  in  Dino  Compagni,  and  even  that  is  looked 
from  the  island,  and,  against  the  protests  of  Boni-  upon  oy  some  as  u  later  interpolation. 
ftfce  VIII,  Frederick  was  crowned  King  of  Sicily  at  ^  While  thus  endeavouring  to  promote  peaceful  rela- 
Palenno,  25  March,  1296.  He  was  at  once  excom-  tions  between  various  states  in  Northern  and  Southern 
municated  and  the  island  placed  under  int^dict.  Italy,  Boniface  had  himself  become  engaged  in  a 
Neither  the  king  nor  his  people  paid  any  heed  to  desperate  struggle  at  Rome  with  two  rebeUious  mem- 
the  censures.  At  the  instigation  of  the  pope  a  war  bers  of  the  Sacred  College,*  Jacopo  Colonna  and  his 
ensued,  in  which  James  of  Aragon,  as  Captain-  nephew  Pietro  Ck>lonna.  The  Colonna  cardinals  were 
General  of  the  Church,  was  compelled  to  take  part  Roman  princes  of  the  highest  nobility  and  belonged 
against  his  own  brother.  The  contest  was  brought  to  a  powerful  Italian  uunilv  that  had  numerous 
to  a  close  (1302)  through  the  efforts  of  Prince  palaces  and  strongholds  in  Rome  and  in  the  Cam- 
Cbarles  of  Valois,  whom  the  pope  had  called  to  his  pagna.  The  estrangement  which  took  place  between 
assistance  in  1301.  FredericK  was  to  be  absolved  them  and  Boniface,  early  in  1297,  was  owing  chiefly 
from  the  censures  he  had  incurred,  to  marry  Elea-  to  two  causes.  Jacopo  Colonna,  upon  whom  the 
nora,  younger  daughter  of  Charles  II,  and  to  retain  administration  of  the  vast  Colonna  family  possessions 
Sicily  during  his  lifetime.    After  his  death  the  island  had  been  conferred,  violated  the  rights  of  his  brothers, 


BOHIFAOE  664  BOHIFAOB 

Bfatteoy  Ottone,  and  Landolfo,  bv  appropriating  the  difficulty.  Palestrina  (Prsene8te)i  the  best  of  their 
proper^  rightfully  belonging  to  them,  and  bestowing  strongholdfl,  alone  held  out  for  some  time,  but  ir 
it  on  his  nephews.  To  obtain  redress  they  appealed  September,  1298,  it  too  was  foroed  to  surrender, 
to  the  pNope,  who  decided  in  their  favour,  and  repeatedly  Dante  says  it  was  got  by  treachery  by  '*  IcHig  promisee 
admonished  the  cardinal  to  deal  justly  with  his  and  short  performances"  as  Guido  of  Montefeltro 
brothers.  But  the  cardinal  and  his  nephews  bitterly  counselled,  but  the  tale  of  the  implacable  Ghibelline 
resented  the  pope's  intervention  and  obstinately  has  long  since  been  discredited.  Clad  in  mourning, 
refused  to  abide  by  his  decision.  Moreover,  the  a  cord  around  their  necks,  the  two  cardinals,  with 
Colonna  cardinals  had  seriously  compromised  them-  other  members  of  the  rebellious  family,  came  to 
selves  by  maintaining  highly  treasonable  relations  Bieti  to  cast  themselves  at  the  feet  of  the  pontiff 
with  the  political  enemies  of  the  pope — first  with  and  implore  his  foigivenesn.  Boniface  received  the 
James  II  of  Aragon,  and  later  with  rrcderick  III  of  captives  amid  all  the  splendours  of  the  papal  court, 
Sicily.  Repeated  warnings  against  this  alliance  granted  them  pardon  and  absolution,  but  refused  to 
having  availed  nothing,  Boniface,  in  the  interests  of  restore  them  to  their  dignities.  Palestrina  was  razed 
his  own  security,  ordered  the  Colonna  to  receive  papal  to  the  ground,  the  plough  driven  through  and  salt 
garrisons  in  Palestrina — the  ancestral  home  of  the  strewn  over  its  ruins.  A  new  city — the  Cittlt  Papale 
family — and  in  their  fortresses  Zagarolo  and  Colonna.  — later  replaced  it.  When  shortly  afterwards  the 
This  they  declined  to  do  and  forthwith  broke  ofif  all  Colonna  oi^ganized  another  revolt  (which  was  how- 
relations  with  the  pope.  On  the  4th  of  May,  1297,  ever  speedily  suppressed),  Boniface  once  more  pro- 
Boniface  summoned  the  cardinals  to  his  presence,  scribea  and  excommunicated  the  turbulent  clan, 
and  when,  two  days  later  (6  May),  they  appeared,  he  Their  property  was  confiscated,  and  the  greater  part 
commanded  them  to  do  three  thin^:  to  restore  the  of  it  bestowed  on  Roman  nobles,  more  especiaUy  on 
consignment  of  gold  and  silver  which  their  relative  Landolfo  Colonna,  the  Orsini,  and  on  the  relatives 
Stefano  Colonna  had  seized  and  robbed  from  the  of  the  pope.  The  Colonna  cardinals  and  the  leading 
pope's  nephew,  Pietro  Gaetani,  as  he  was  bringing  it  members  of  the  family  now  withdrew  from  the  States 
from  Anagni  to  Rome;  to  deliver  up  Stefano  as  a  of  the  Church — some  seeking  shelter  in  France,  others 
prisoner  to  the  pope;  and  to  surrender  Palestrina  in  Sicily.  (Denifle,  see  below,  and  Petrine,  Memorie 
together  with  the  fortresses  Zagarolo  and  Colonna.  Prseneetine,  Rome,  1795.) 

They  complied  with  the  first  of  these  demands,  but  Early  in  the  reign  of  Boniface,  Eric  VIII  of  Den- 
rejected  the  other  two.  Thereupon  Boniface  on  the  marie  had  uniustly  imprisoned  Jens  Grand,  Arch- 
IQth  of  May,  1297,  issued  a  Bull,  '*  In  excelso  throno  ",  bishop  of  Lund.  Isamus,  Archoriest  of  Carcassonne, 
depriving  the  rebellious  cardinals  of  their  dignities,  was  commissioned  (1295)  by  Boniface  to  threaten 
pronouncing  itentence  of  excommunication  against  the  king  with  spiritusd  penalties,  unless  the  arcb- 
them,  and  ordering  them,  within  a  space  of  ten  days,  bishop  were  freed,  pending  the  investigation  of  the 
to  make  their  submission  under  penalty  of  forfeiting  matter  at  Rome,  whither  the  king  was  invited  to  send 
their  property.  On  the  morning  of  the  same  day  representatives.  The  latter  were  actually  sent,  but 
(10  May)  the  Colonna  had  attached  to  the  doors  of  were  met  at  Rome  by  Archbishop  Grand,  who  had 
several  Roman  churches,  and  even  laid  upon  the  in  the  meanwhile  escaped.  Boniface  decided  for  the 
high  altar  of  St.  Peter's,  a  manifesto,  in  which  they  archbishop^  and.  when  the  king  refused  to  yield, 
declared  the  election  of  Boniface  VIII  invalid  on  the  excommumcatea  him  and  laid  the  kingdom  under 
ground  that  the  abdication  of  (Delestine  V  was  un-  interdict  (1298).  In  1303  Eric  yielded,  though  his 
canonical,  accused  Boniface  of  circumventing  his  adversary  was  transferred  to  Riga  and  his  see  given 
saintly  predecessor,  and  appealed  to  a  general  council  (1304)  to  the  legate  Isamus.  In  Hungary  Charobert 
from  whatever  steps  might  be  taken  against  them  by  or  Canrobert  of  Naples  claimed  the  vacant  c^own 
the  pope.  This  protest,  compiled  at  Longhezza,  with  as  descendant  of  St.  Stephen  on  the  distafiP  side,  and 
the  assistance  oi  Fra  Jacopone  da  Todi  and  of  two  was  supported  by  the  pope  in  his  quality  of  tradi- 
other  Spirituals,  had  somewhat  anticipated  the  papid  tional  overlord  and  protector  of  Hungary.  The 
Bull,  in  answer  to  which,  however,  the  Colonna  issued  nobles,  however,  elected  Andrew  III,  and  on  his 
the  second  manifesto.  (16  May)  containing  numerous  early  demise  (1301)  chose  Ladislaus,  son  of  Wen- 
charges  against  Boniface  and  appealing  anew  to  a  ceslaus  II  of  Bohemia.  They  paid  no  heed  to  the 
general  council.  The  pope  met  this  bold  proceeding  interdict  of  the  papal  le^te,  and  the  arbitration  of 
with  increased  severity.  On  the  23rd  of  May,  1297,  Boniface  was  finally  dechned  by  the  envoys  of  Wen- 
a  second  Bull,  "Lapis  abscissus'',  confirmed  the  ceslaus.    The  latter  had  accepted  from  the  Polish 

Erevious  excommunication,  and  extended  it  to  the  nobles  the  Crown  of  Poland,  vacant  owing  to  the 

venephewsof  Jacopo  with  their  heirs,  declared  them  banishment    (1300)    of   Ladislaus   I.    The   sotemn 

schismatics,  disgraced,  their  property  forfeited,  and  warning  of  the  pope  and  his  protest  against  this 

threatened  with  the  interdict  all  such  places  as  re-  violation  of  his  right  as  overlord  of  Poland  were 

ceived  them.    Boniface  at  the  same  time  pointed  unheeded  by  Wenceslaus,  who  soon,  moreover,  allied 

out    how   the   Colonna   cardinals   had   themselves  himself  with  Philip  the  Fair. 

favoured  his  election  (in  the  conclave  they  had  voted  In  Germany,  on  the  death  of  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg 
for  Gaetani  from  the  first,  as  they  had  been  among  (1291),  his  son  Albert,  Duke  of  Austria,  decUred 
those  who  counselled  (Delestine's  abdication),  had  himself  king.  The  electors,  however,  chose  (1292) 
publicly  acknowledged  him  as  pope,  attended  his  Count  Adolph  of  Nassau,  whereupon^  Albert  sub- 
coronation,  entertained  him  as  tneir  ^est  at  Zaga-  mitted.  Adolph's  government  proving  unsaUs- 
rolo,  taken  part  in  his  consistories,  signed  all  state  factory,  three  of  the  electors  deposed  him  at  Mainz 
documents  with  him,  and  had  for  nearly  three  years  (23  June,  1298)  and  enthroned  Albert.  The  rival 
been  his  faithful  ministei;s  at  the  altar.  The  rebels  kings  appealed  to  arms;  at  GOUheim,  near  Worms, 
replied  with  a  third  manifesto  (15  June),  and  im-  Adolph  lost  (2  July,  1298)  both  life  and  crown, 
mediately  set  about  preparing  their  fortresses  for  Albert  was  re-elected  king  by  the  Diet  of  Frankfort 
defense.  and  crowned  at  Aachen  (24  August,  1298).  The 
Boniface  now  withdrew  from  Rome  to  Orvieto,  electors  had  sought  regularly  from  Boniface  recogni- 
where,  on  the  4th  of  September,  1297,  he  declared  tion  of  their  choice  and  imperial  consecration.  He 
war  and  entrusted  the  command  of  the  pontifical  refused  both  on  the  plea  that  Albert-  was  the  mur- 
troops  to  Landolfo  Colonna,  a  brother  of  Jacopo.  derer  of  his  liege  lord.  Very  soon  Albert  was  at  w»i 
In  December  of  the  same  year  he  even  proclaimed  with  the  three  Rhenish  archbishop-electors,  and  in  1301 
a  crusade  against  his  enemies.  The  fortresses  and  the  pope  summoned  him  to  Rome  to  answ^  various 
castles  of  the  Colonna  were  taken  without  much  charges.     Victorious  in  battle  (1302),  Albert  sent 


BOHIFAOB  665  BOHIFACn 

agsatB  to  Boniface  with  letters  in  which  he  denied  France  began  early  in  the  pope's  reign  and  did  not 
having  slain  King  Adolph,  nor  had  he  sought  the  end  even  with  the  tragic  close  of  his  pontificate. 
bstUe  voluntarily,  nor  borne  the  royal  title  while  The  pope's  chief  aim  was  a  general  European  peace, 
Addph  lived,  etc.    Boniface  eventu^y  recognized  in  the  interest  of  a  crusade  that  would  break  forever, 
his  Section   (30   Apr.,    1303).     A  little  later   (17  at  what  seemed  a  favourable  moment,  the  power  of 
July)  Albert  renewed  his  father's  oAth.  of  fidelity  Islam.    The  main  immediate  obstacle  to  sucn  a  peace 
to  the  Roman  Church,  recognized  the  papal   au-  lay  in  the  war  between  France  and  England,  caused 
th(»rity   in   Germany   as   laia   down    by    Boniface  bv  Philip's  unjust  seizure  of  Gascony  (1294).    The 
(Mfl^,  1300),  and  promised  to  send  no  imperial  vicar  chief  combatants  carried  on  the  war  at  the  expense 
to  Tuscany  or  Lombardy  within  the  next  five  years  of  the  Church,  whose  representatives  they  sorely 
without  tKe  pope's  consent,  and  to  defend  the  Roman  taxed.    Such  taxation  had  often  been  permitted  in 
Church  against  its  enemies.    In  his  attempt  to  pre-  the  past  by  the  popes,  but  onl^  for  the  purpose  (real 
serve  the  independence  of  Scotland,  Boniface  was  or  alleged)  of  a  crusade;  now  it  was  applied  in  order 
not  successful.    After  the  overthrow  and  imprison-  to  raise  revenue  from  ecclesiastics  for  purely  secular 
ment  of  John  Baliol,  and  the  defeat  of  Wallace  (1298),  warfare.    The  legates  sent  b)r  Boniface  to  both  kings 
the  Scots  Council  of  Regency  sent  envoys  to  the  pope  a  few  weeks  after  his  elevation  accomplished  little; 
to  protest  against  the  feudal  superiority  of  England,  later  efforts  were  rendered  useless  by  the  stubborn 
Boniface,  they  said,  was  the  only  judge  whose  juris-  attitude  of  Philip.    In  the  meantime  numerous  pro- 
diction  extended  over  both  kingdoms.    Their  realm  tests  from  the  French  clergy  moved  the  pope  to 
belonged  of  right  to  the  Roman  See,  and  to  none  action,  and  with  the  approval  of  his  cardinals  he 
other.     Boniface  wrote  to  Edward  I  (27  June,  1299)  published  (24  Feb.,  1296)  the  Bull " Clericis  laicos", 
reminding  him,  says  Lingard,  ''almost  in  the  very*  m  which  he  forbade  the  laity  to  exact  or  receive, 
words  of  the  Scottish  memorial",  that  Scotland  had  and  the  clei^  to  give  up,  ecclesiastical  revenues  or 
belonged  from  ancient  times  and  did  still  belong  to  property^  without  permission  of  the  Apostolic  See; 
the  Roman  See;  the  king  was  to.  cease  all  unjust  princes  imposing  such  exactions   and    ecclesiastics 
ftffnession,  free  his  captives,  and  pursue  at  the  court  submitting  to  them  were  declared  excommunicated. 
ofRome  within  six  months  any  rights  that  he  claimed  Other  popes  of  the  thirteenth  centuiy,  and  the  Third 
to  the  whole  or  part  of  Scotland.    This  letter  reached  and   Fourth   Lateran   Clouncils    (1179,    1215),  had 
the  king  after  much  delay,  through  the  hands  of  l^islated  similarly  against  the  oppressors  of  the 
Robert  of  Winchelsea,  Archbishop  of  (Canterbury,  cler^;  apart,  therefore,  from  the  opening  line  of 
and  was  laid  by  Edward  before  a  parliament  sum-  the  Bull,  that  seemed  offensive  as  renecting  on  the 
moned  to  meet  at  Lincoln.    In  its  reply  (27  Sept.,  laity  in  general  {plerida  Uticoa  infensoa  esse  oppido 
1300)  the  latter  denied,  over  the  names  of  104  lav  traiU  antiqtdtas,  i.  e.,  ''All  history  shows  clearly  the 
lords,  the  papal  claim  of  suzerainty  over  Scotland,  enmity  of  the  laity  towards  the  clergy,"— ^in  reality  a 
and  asserted  tnat  a  king  of  England  had  never  pleaded  byword  in  the  schools  and  taken  from  earlier  sources) , 
before  any  judge,  ecclesiastical  or  secular,  respecting  there  was  nothing  in  its  very  general  terms  to  rouse 
his  rights  in  Scotland  or  any  other  temporal  rights,  particularly  the  royal  an^r.    Philip,  however,  was 
nor  would  they  permit  him  to  do  so,  were  he  thus  mdignant,  and  soon  retaliated  by  a  royal  ordinance 
inclined  (Lingara,  II,  ch.  vii).     The  king,  however  (17  Aug.)  forbidding  the  export  of  gold  or  silver, 
(7  May,  1301),  supplemented  this  act  bv  a  memoir  in  precious  stones,  weapons,  and  food  from  his  kin^- 
which  he  set  forth  nis  royal  view  of  the  historical  rela-  dom.    He  also  forbade  foreign  merchants  to  remam 
tions  of  Scotland  and  England.    In  their  reply  to  this  longer  within  its  bounds.    These  measures  affected 
plea  the  representatives  of  Scotland  re-assert  the  im-  immediately  the  Roman  Church,  for  it  drew  much 
memorial  suzerainty  of  the  Roman  Church  over  Scot-  of  its  revenue  from  France,  inclusive  of  crusade 
land  ' '  the  property,  the  peculiar  allodium  of  the  moneys,  whence  the  numerous  papal  collectors  were 
Holy  See":  in  all  controversies,  they  said,  between  henceforth  banished.    The  king  also  caused  to  be 
these  equal  and  independent  kingdoms  it  is  to  their  prepared  a  proclamation  (never  promulgated)  con- 
equal  superior,  the  Church  of  Rome,  that  recourse  coming  the  obligation  of  ecclesiastics  to  bear  the 
should  be  had.    This  somewhat  academic  conflict  public  burden  and  the  revocable  character  of  ec- 
soon  seemed  hopeless  at  Rome,  owing  to  the  mutual  clesiastical  immunities.    (For  the  generous  contribu- 
violence  and  quarrels  of  the  weaker  partv  (Belles-  tions  of  the  French  clergy  to  the  national  burdens, 
heim,  "Hist,  of  the  Cath.  Church  of  Gotland",  see  the  exhaustive  statistics  of  Bouigain  in  "Rev. 
London,  1887,  II.  9-11),  and  is  of  less  importance  des  quest,  hist.",  1890,  XLVIII,  62.)     In  the  Bull 
than  tli^  strained  relations  between  Bonitace  and  "Ineffabilis  Amor"   (20  Sept.)  Boniface  protested 
Edward,  apropos  of  the  unjust  taxation  of  the  cleigy.  vigorously  against  these  royal  acts,  and  explained 
In  1294,  of  his  own  authority,  Edward  I  sequestered  that  he  had  never  meant  to  forbid  voluntanr  gifts 
all  moneys  found  in  the  treasuries  of  all  churches  from  the  clergv  or  contributions  necessary  for  the 
and  monasteries.    Soon  he  demanded  and  obtained  defence  of  thekingdom,  of  which  necessity  the  king 
from  the  clergy  one  half  their  incomes,  both  from  and  his  council  were  the  judges.    During  1297  the 
lay  fees  and  benefices.    In  the  following  year  he  pope  sought  in  various  ways  to  appease  the  royal 
called  for  a  third  or  a  fourth,  but  they  refused  to  embitterment,  notably  by  the  BuU'^Etsi  de  Statu" 
pay  more  than  a  tenth.    When,  at  the  Convocation  (31  July),  above  all  oy  the  canonization  (11  Aug., 
of  (Il^terbury  (November,  1296),  the  king  demanded  1297)  of  the  king's  grandfather,  Louis  IX.    The 
a  fifth  of  their  income,  the  archbishop,  Robert  of  royal  ordinance  was  withdrawn,  and  the  painful 
Winchelsea,  in  keeping  with  the  new  l^islation  of  incident  seemed  closed.    In  the  meantime  the  truce 
Boniface,  offered  to  consult  the  pope,  whereupon  the  which  in  1296  Boniface  had  tried  to  impose  on  Philip 
king  outlawed  the  cleigy,  secular  and  regular,  and  and   Edward  was   finally  accepted  by  both  kings 
all  their  lay  fees,  goods,  and  chattels.    The  eariy  in  1298,  for  a  space  of  two  years.    The  disputed 


northern  Province  of  York  jrieldedj  in  the  Province  matters  were  referred  to  Boniface  as  arbiter,  though 

of  Canterbury  many  resisted  for  a  time,  among  them  Philip  accepts  him  not  as  pope,  but  as  a  private 

the  courM;eous  archbishop,  who  retired  to  a  rural  person,  as  Benedetto  Gaetano.    The  award,  tavour- 

parish.     Eventually  he  was  reconciled  with  the  king,  able  to  Philip,  was  issued  (27  June)  by  Boniface  in  a 

and  his  goods  were  restored,  but  as  Edward  soon  public  consistory. 

after  demanded  in  his  own  right  a  third  of  all  eo-  In  the  Jubilee  of  1300  the  high  spirit  of  Boniface 

clesiastical  revenues,  his   recognition   of  the   Bull  might  well  recognize  a  compensation  and  a  consola- 

^'Clericis  laicos"  was  evanescent.  tion  for  previous  humiliations.    This  unique  cele- 

The  memorable  oonflict  with  Philip  the  Fair  of  biation,  tne  apogee  of  the  temporal  splendour  of  the 


BONIPAOK 


666 


BOHIFACn 


papacy  (Zaccaria,  De  anno  Jubitei,  Rome,  1776), 
was  formally  inaugurated  by  the  pope  on  the  fea^t 
of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul  (29  June).  Giovanni  Villani, 
an  eyewitness,  relates  in  his  Florentine  chronicle  that 
about  200,000  pilgrims  were  constantly  in  the  City. 
It  was  necessaiy  to  make  an  opening  in  the  wall  of 
the  Leonine  City,  near  the  Tiber,  so  that  the  multi- 
tude might  have  a  larger  freedom  of  movement. 
Pilgrims  came  from  every  country  in  Europe  and 
even  from  distant  Asia.  Ominously  enough,  if  we 
except  the  elder  son  of  the  King  of  Naples,  none  of  the 
kings  or  princes  of  Europe  came  to  pay  their  respects 
to  the  Vicar  of  Christ.  The  second  crown  in  the 
papal  tiara,  indicative  of  the  temporal  power,  is 
said  to  date  from  the  reign  of  Boniface,  and  may 
have  been  added  at  this  time. 

In  the  meantime  Philip  continued  in  a  merciless 
way  his  fiscal  oppression  of  the  Church,  and  abused 
more  than  ever  the  so-called  regalia,  or  royal  privily 
of  collecting  the  revenues  of  a  diocese  during  its 
vacancy.  Since  the  middle  of  1297  the  exiled 
Colonna  had  found  refuge  and  ^jrmpathy  at  the  court 
of  Philip,  whence  they  spread  calumnious  charges 
against  Boniface,  and  urged  the  calling  of  a  general 
council  for  his  deposition.  The  royal  absolutism 
was  now  further  incited  by  suggestions  of  a  universal 
Christian  dominion  under  thenegemony  of  France. 
The  new  state  was  to  secure,  besides  .the  Holy  Land, 
a  universal  peace.  Both  empires,  the  Byzantine 
and  the  German,  were  to  be  incorporated  in  it,  and 
the  papacy  was  to  become  a  purely  spiritual  patriarch- 
ate, its  temporalities  admmisterea  by  the  French 
king,  who  would  pay  the  pope  an  annual  salary 
corresponding  to  his  office.  Such  was  the  new 
Byzantinism  outlined  in  a  work  on  the  recovery  of 
the  Holy  Land  (''De  recuperatione  terrse  sanctae", 
in  Bongars,  *'Gesta  Dei  per  Francos",  II,  316-61, 
ed.  Langlois,  Paris,  1891),  and  though  only  the  private 
work  of  Pierre  Dubois,  a  civil  servant  of  Philip,  it 
probably  reflected  some  fantastic  plan  of  the  king 
(Finke,  Zur  Charakteristik,  217-18). 

In  the  first  half  of  1301  Boniface  commissioned 
Bernard  de  Saisset,  Bishop  of  Pamiers  (Lan^uedoc), 
as  legate  to  Philip.  He  was  to  protest  against  the 
continued  oppression  of  the  cler^,  and  to  urge  the 
kin^  to  apply  conscientiously  to  a  crusade  the  ec- 
clesiastical tithes  collected  by  papal  indults.  For 
various  reasons  De  Saisset  was  not  a  welcome  envoy 
fLanglois,  Hist,  de  France,  ed.  Lavisse,  III,  2,  143). 
On  his  return  to  Pamiers  he  was  accused  of  treason- 
able speech  and  incitement  to  insurrection,  was 
brought  to  Paris  (12  July,  1301),  thence  to  Senlis, 
where  he  was  found  guilty  in  a  trial  directed  by 
Pierre  Flote,  and  known  to  modem  historians  (Von 
Reumont)  as  *'a  model  of  injustice  and  violence". 
De  Saisset  in  vain  protested  his  innocence  and  denied 
the  competency  of  the  civil  court;  he  was  committed 
temporariljr  to  the  care  of  the  Archbishop  of  Nar- 
bonne,  while  Pierre  Flote  and  Guillaume  de  Nogaret 
went  to  Rome  to  secure  from  Boniface  the  degrada- 
tion of  his  legate  and  his  delivery  to  the  secular  au- 
thority. Boniface  acted  with  decision.  He  de- 
manded from  the  king  the  immediate  liberation  of 
De  Saisset  and  wrote  to  the  Archbishop  of  Narbonne 
to  detain  the  latter  no  lon^r.  Bv  the  Bull  *  *  Salvator 
Mundi"  he  withdrew  the  mdults  by  which  the  French 
king  collected  canonically  ecclesiastical  revenue  for 
the  defence  of  the  kingdom,  i.  e.,  he  re-established  in 
vigour  the**Clericis  laicos",  and  in  the  famous  Bull 
**Ausculta  Fill"  (Listen,  O  Son)  of  5  Dec.,  1301. 
he  stood  forth  as  the  mouthpiece  of  the  medieval 
papacy,  and  as  the  genuine  successor  of  the  Gregories 
and  the  Innocents.  In  it  he  appeals  to  the  kin^  to 
listen  to  the  Vicar  of  Christ,  who  is  placed  over  kings 
and  kingdoms  (cf.  Jer.,  i,  10).  He  is  the  keeper  of 
the  keys,  the  judge  of  the  living  and  the  deaa,  and 
flits  on  the  throne  of  justice,  with  power  to  extirpate 


all  iniquity.  He  is  the  head  of  the  Church,  which 
is  one  and  stainless,  and  not  a  many-headed  monster, 
and  has  full  Divine  authority  to  pluck  out  and  tear 
down,  to  build  up  and  p^ant.  Let  not  the  king 
imagine  that  he  ha»  no  superior,  is  not  subject  to  the 
highest  authority  in  the.  Church.  The  pope  is  con- 
cerned for  the  welfare  of  all  kings  and  pnnces,  but 
particularly  for  the  house  of  France.  He  then  ^oes 
on  to  relate  his  many  grievances  against  the  king, 
the  application  of  ecciesiastical  goods  to  secular 
uses,  despotic  procedure  in  dragging  Wclesiastics 
before  civil  courts,  hindrance  of  episcopal  authority, 
disrespect  for  papal  provisions  of  benefices,  ana 
oppression  of  the  cler^.  He  will  no  longer  be  re- 
sponsible for  the  protection  (cttstodia)  of  the  mon- 
arch's soul,  but  has  decided,  after  consulting  h» 
cardinals,  to  call  to  Rome  for  4  Nov.,  1302,  the 
French  bishops  and  doctors  of  theology,  principal 
abbots,  etc.,  to  '* dispose  what  is  suitable  for  the 
correction  of  abuses,  and  for  the  reformation  of  the 
king  and  the  kingdom".  He  invites  the  king  to  be 
present  personally  or  through  representatives,  warns 
nim  against  his  evil  counseUors,  and  finally  reminds 
him  eloquently  of  the  royal  neglect  of  a  crusade. 
An  impartial  reader,  says  Von  Reumont,  will  see 
that  the  document  is  only  a  repetition  of  previous  papal 
utterances  and  resumes  the  teaching  of  the  most 
esteemed  medieval  theolo^ans  on  the  nature  and 
extension  of  papal  authority.  It  was  presented  to 
the  king  (10  Feb.,  1302)  by  Jacques  de  Normans, 
Archdeacon  of  Narbonne.  The  Comte  d'Artois  tore 
it  from  the  archdeacon's  hands  and  cast  it  into  the 
fire;  another  copy  destined  for  the  French  deigy 
was  suppressed  (nefele,  2d  ed.,  VI,  329).    In  the 

Elace  ot  the  *  *  Ausculta  Fill",  there  was  at  once  circn- 
tted  a  forged  Bull,  *'Deiun  time"  (Fear  God),  veiy 
probably  the  work  of  Pierre  Flote,  and  with  equal 

Erobability  approved  by  the  king.  Its  five  or  six 
rief  haughty  lines  were  really  drawn  up  to  include 
the  fateful  phrase,  Scire  te  volumits  quod  in  spirituaH- 
bus  et  temporalibus  nobis  eubes  (L  e..  We  wisn  th^e  to 
know  that  thou  art  our  subject  both  in  spiritual  and 
in  temporal  matters).  It  was  also  addea  (an  odious 
thing  tor  the  grandson  of  St.  Louis)  that  whoever 
denied  this  was  a  heretic. 

In  vain  did  the  pope  and  the  cardinals  protest 
against  the  forgery;  in  vain  did  the  pope  explain, 
a  little  later,  that  the  subjection  spoken  of  m  his 
Bull  was  only  raUone  peccatx,  i.  e.,  that  the  morality 
of  every  royal  act,  private  or  public,  feU  within  tlie 
papal  prerogative.  The  general  tone  of  the  **Au8- 
culta  FHi",  its  personal  admonitions  couched  in 
severe  Scriptural  language,  its  proposal  to  provide 
from  Rome  a  ^ood  and  prosperous  administration 
of  the  French  Kingdom,  were  not  calculated  to  soothe 
at  this  juncture  the  minds  of  Frenchmen  already 
agitated  by  the  events  of  the  preceding  years.  It  is 
also  improbable  that  Boniface  was  personally  verjr 
popular  with  the  French  secular  clen?y,  whose  peti- 
tion (1290)  against  the  encroachments  of  the  regular 
orders  he  had  rejected  in  his  rough  sarcastic  manner, 
when  legate  at  Paris  (Finke  in  "*  R/^mische  Quartal- 
schrift",  1895.  IX,  171:  ''Journal  des  Savants", 
1895,  240).  The  national  concern  for  the  independ- 
ence and  honour  of  the  French  king  was  further 
heightened  by  a  forged  reply  of  the  kine  to  Bonifmoe, 
known  as  ''^ciat  maxima  tua  fatuitas  .  It  begiiis: 
"  Philip,  by  the  grace  of  God  King  of  the  Franks,  to 
Boniface  who  acts  as  Supreme  Pontiff.  Let  thy 
very  great  fatuity  know  that  in  temporal  things  we  are 
subieot  to  no  one,  . .  .  ."  Such  a.  dooum^it,  though 
probably  never  officially  presented  at  Rome  (Hef^), 
certainly  made  its  way  thither.  After  forbidding 
the  French  clergy  to  go  to  Rome  or  to  send  thither 
any  moneys,  and  setting  a  watch  on  all  roads,  ports, 
and  passes  leading  to  Italy,  Philip  forestalled  the 
pope  8  November  councO  by  a  national  assembly  at 


BOHIFAOE  667  BOHIFAOB 

Fl&ris  (10  April,  1301)  In  the  Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame,  insists  on  the  great  development  of  France  under 

The  forged  Bull  was  read  before  the  representatives  papal  protection,  the  shamelesa  foi:geries  of  Pierre 

of  the  three  estates;  the  pope  was  violently  denounced  Flote,  the  exclusive  ecclesiastical  nature  of  the  grant 

by  Pierre  Flote  as  aiming  at  temporal  sovereignty  (coUako)  of  benefices,  and  the  papal  preference  for 

in  France;  the  king  besought  as  their  friend,  and  as  doctors  of  theology  as  against  lay  nepotism  in  mattei 

their  ruler  commanded  all  present  to  aid  him  with  of  benefices.    He  is  wroth  over  the  assertion  that 

their  counsel.    Nobles  and  Durghers  offered  to  shed  he  claimed  France  as  a  papal  fief.    "We  heive  been 

their  blood  for  the  kfaig;  the  clsrgy,  confused  and  a  doctor  of  both  laws  ^civil  and  canon)  these  forty 

hesitatiiig,  sought  delay,  but  finally  yielded  so  far  years,  and  who  can  believe  that  such  folly  IJatuttas] 

as  to  write  to  the  pope  quite  in  the  sense  of  the  king,  ever  entered  Our  head?"    Boniface  also  expressed 

The  lay  estates  directed  to  the  cardinals  a  defiant  his  willingness  to  accept  the  mediation  of  the  Duke 

protest,  in  which  they  withheld  the  papal  title  from  of  Burgundy  or  the  Duke  of  Brittany;  the  efforts  of 

Boniface,  recoimted  the  services  of  France  to  the  the  former,  however,  availed  not,  as  the  cardinsds 

Boman  Church,  and  re-echoed  the  usual  royal  com-  insisted  on  satisfaction  for  the  burning  of  the  papil 

plaints,  above  all  the  calling  to  Rome  of  the  principal  Bull  and  the  calumnious  attacks  on  Boniface.    The 

ecclesiastics  of  the  nation.    The  letter  of  the  bishops  kin^  replied  by  confiscating  the  goods  of  the  ec- 

was  directed  to  Boniface  and  begged  him  to  maintam  clesiastics  who  had  set  out  for  the  Roman  Council, 

the  former  concord,  to  withdraw  the  call  for  the  which  met  30  Oct.,  1302. 

council,  and  suggested  prudence  and  moderation,        There  were  present  four  archbishops,  thirty-five 
since  the  laity  was  prepared  to  defv  all  papal  censures,  bishops,  six  abbots,  and  several  doctors.    Its  acts 
In  the  reply  of  the  cardinals  to  the  lay  estates,  they  have  disappeared,  probably  during  the  process  a^inst 
assert  their  complete  harmony  with  the  pope,  de-  the  memory  of  Boniface   (130§-11).    Two  Bulls, 
nounce  the  aforesaid  forgeries,  and  maintam  that  however,  were  issued  as  a  result  of  its  deliberations, 
the  pope  never  asserted  a  right  of  temporal  sever-  One  excommunicated  whoever  hindered,  imprisoned, 
dmty  in  France.  or  otherwise  iU-treated  persons  journeying  to,  or 
In  his  reply  Boniface  roundly  scourged  the  bishops  returning  from.  Rome.    The  other  (18  Nov.,  ^1302) 
for  their  cowardice,  human  respect,  and  selfishness:  is  the  famous  **Unam  Sanctam",  probably  tWcom- 
at  the  same  time  he  made  use,  after  his  fashion,  of  position  of  .^gidius  Colonna,  ArcnDishop  of  Bouiges 
not  a  few  expressions  offensive  to  the  pride  of  French  and  a  member  of  the  council,  and  largely  made  up  of 
ecclesiastics  and  poured  sarcasm  over  the  person  passages  from  such  famous  theologians  as  St.  Bernard, 
of  the  powerful  Pierre  Flote  (Hefefe).    Finalljr,  in  Hugo  of  St.  Victor,  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  others, 
a  public  consistory  (August,  1302)  at  which  the  envoys  Its  chief  concepts  are   as   follows    (HergenrSther- 
of  the  king  were  present,  the  Cardinal-Bishop  of  Kirsch,  4th  ed.,  II,  593):  (1)  There  is  but  one  true 
Porto  formally  denied  that  the  pope  had  ever  clauned  Church,  outside  of  which  there  is  no  salvation;  but 
any  temporal  sovereigntv  over  France  and  asserted  one  body  of  Christ  with  one  head  and  not  two.    (2) 
that  the  genuine  Bull  (Ausculta  Fili)  had  been  well  That  head  is  Christ  and  His  representative,  the 
weired  and  was  an  act  of  love,  despite  the  fatheriy  Roman  pope;  whoever  refuses  the  pastoral  care  of 
severity  of  certain  expressions.    He  insisted  that  the  Peter  belongs  not  to  the  flock  of  Christ.    (3)  There 
king  was  no' more  free  than  any  other  Christian  from  are  two  swords  (i.  e.,  powers),  the  spiritual'  and  the 
the  supreme  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  of  the  pope,  temporal:  the  first  borne  by  the  Church,  the  second 
and  maintained  the  unity  of  ecclesiastical  authority,  for  the  Church;  the  first  by  the  hajid  of  the  priest, 
The  Apostolic  See,  he  said,  was  not  foreign  terri-  the  second  by  that  of  the  king,  but  under  the  direc- 
tory, nor  could  its  nominees  be  rightly  called  for-  tion  of  the  priest  {ad  nutum  et  paHentiam  sacerdcHs), 
eigners.    For  the  rest,  the  pope  had  full  authority  (4)  Since  there  must  be  a  co-ordination  of  members 
in  temporal  matters  roHone  peccoH,  i.  e.,  in  as  far  as  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest,  it  follows  that  the 
the  morality  of  hirnian  acts  was  concerned.    He  spiritual  power  is  above  the  temporal  and  has  the 
went  on,  however,  to  sav  that  in  temporal  jurisdic-  right  to  instruct  (or  establish — instittiere)  the  latter 
tion  one  must  distinguish  the  right  {de  jure)  and  its  regarding  its  highest  end  and  to  judge  it  when  it 
use  and  execution  {xiaus  et  exseciUio),    The  former  does  evil;  whoever  resists  the  highest  power  ordained 
belonged  to  the  pope  as  Vicar  of  Christ  and  of  Peter;  of  God  resists  God  Himself.    (5)  It  is  necessary  for 
to  deny  it  was  to  deny  an  article  of  faith,  i.  e.,  that  salvation  that  all  men  should  be  subject  to  the  Roman 
Christ  judges  the  living  and  the  dead.    This  claim.  Pontiff— "  Porro    subesse    Romano    Pontifici    omni 
says  Hefele  (2d  ed.,  VI,  346),  **must  have  appeared  humanse  creaturaB  declaramus,  dicimus,   definimus 
to  the  French  as  quite  destructive  of  the  aforesaid  et  pronunciamus  omnino  esse  de  necessitate  salutis ". 
limitation  ratione  veccati,    Gr^ory  IX  had  main-  (For  a  more  detailed  account  of  the  Bull  and  several 
tained  (1232,  1236),  in  his  conflict  with  the  Greeks  controversies  concerning  it  see  Unam  Sanctam.) 
and  with  Frederick  II,  that  Constantine  the  Great        Philip  had  a  refutation  of  the  Bull  prepan^  by  the 
had  given  temporal  power  to  the  popes,  and  that  Dominican  Jean  Quidort  (Joannes  Parisiensis)  in  his 
emperors  and  kmes  were  only  his  auxiliaries,  boimd  "Tractatus  de  potestate  regiA  et  papali"  (Goldast, 
to  use  the  material  sword  at  his  direction  (ConciUen-  Monarchia,  II,  108  sq.),  and  the  conflict  passed  at 
gesch.,  2d  ed.,  V,  102,  1044).    This  theory,  however,  once  from  the  domain  of  principle  to  the  person  of 
had  never  yet  been  officially  put  forth  against  France,  Boniface.    The  king  now  rejectea  the  pope  as  arbiter 
and  was  all  the  more  likely  to  rouse  opposition  in  that  in  his  disputes  with  En^nd  and  Flanders,  and  cave 
nation,  since  it  was  now  a  q^uestion  not  of  a  theory,  a  courteous  but  evasive  answer  to  the  L^te,  Jean 
but  of  a  practical  situation,  i.  e.,  of  the  investigation  Lemoine,  whom  the  pope  sent  (February,   1303) 
of  Philip  s  government  and  the  menace  of  his  deposi-*  on  a  mission  of  peace,  but  with  insistence,  amonff 
tion."     He  refers  to  the  closing  words  of  the  dis-  other  conditions,   on   recognition  of  the  aforesaid 
course  with  which  Boniface  supplemented  that  of  rights  of^  the  papacy.    Lemoine  was  further  com- 
the  Cardinal-Bishop  of  Porto,  viz.,  that  his  pred-  missioned  to  declare  to  Philip  that,  in  default  of  a 
ecessors  had  deposed  three  French  kings,  and,  though  more  satisfactory  reply  to  the  twelve  points  of  the 
unequal  to  such  popes,  he  would,  however  sorrow-  papal  letter,  the  pope  would  proceed  spintuaKter  et 
fulty,  depose  King  Philip,  sicid  unum  gardanem  Hike  temporalUer  a^inst  him,  i.  e.,  would  excommunicate 
a  servant);  he  thinks  it  not  impossible  (Hergenr5ther,  and  depose  him.    Boniface  also  sent  to  Lemoine  (13 
Kirche  und  Staat,  229;  Hefele,  IV,  344)  that  the  Apr.,  1303)  two  Briefs,  in  one  of  which  he  declared  the 
present  harsh  conclusion  of  the  discourse  of  Boniface  king  already  excommunicated,   and  in   the  other 
IB  one  of  the  numerous  forgeries  of  Pierre  Flote  and  ordered  all  French  prelates  to  come  to  Rome  within 
Nogaret.    In  the  first  half  of  this  discourse  the  pope  three  months.  ^ 


BOnFAOt  668  BOHVACn 

In  the  meantime  there  was  brewing  at  Paris  the  legitimate  pope.    He  dedaied  that  unless  the  king 

storm  in  which  the  pontificate  of  Boniface  was  so  repented  he  would  ii^ct  oa  him  the  severest  puniab- 

disastrously  to  close.    Philip  concluded  peace  with  ments  of  the  Church.    The  Bull  "Super  Petri  solio" 

England,  temporized  with  the  Flemings,  and  made  was  ready  for  promulgation  on  8  September.   It 

concessions  to  his  subjects.    Boniface  on  his  side  contained  in  traoitional  form  the  solemn  excommuni- 

acknowledged,  as  aforesaid,  the  election  of  Albert  cation  of  the  king  and  the  liberation  of  his  subjects 

of  Austria,  and  brouglit  to  an  end  his  hopeless  con-  from  their  oath  of  fidelity.    Philip,  however,  and  his 

fiict  with  the  Aragonese  King  of  Sicily.    Otherwise  oounsellors  had  taken  measures  to  rob  this  step  of  all 

he  seemed  politically  helpless,  and  could  only  trust,  force,  or  rather  to  prevent  it  at  a  decisive  moment, 

as  he  publicly  stated,  in  his  sense  of  right  and  duty.  It  had  long  been  tneir  plan  to  seize  the  person  of 

Later  events  showed  that  in  his  own  nousehold  he  Boniface  and  compel  him  to  abdicate,  or,  m  case  of 

could  not  count  on  loyalty.    In  an  extraordinary  his  refusal,  to  bnng  him  before  a  general  councO 

session  of  the  French  Council  of  State  (12  March,  in  France  for  condemnation  and  deposition.    Since 

1303)  Guillaume  de  Nogaret  appealed  to  Philip  to  April,  Nogaret  and  Sciarra  Colonna  nad  been  active 

protect  Holy  Church  against  the  intruder  and  talse  in  Tuscany  for  the  formation,  at  Philip's  expense, 

poi)e,    Boniface,   a   simonist,   robber,  and    heretic,  of  a  band  of  mercenaries,  some  2,000  strong,  horse 

maintaining  that  the  king,  moreover,  ought  to  call  and  foot.    Very  early  on  the  morning  of  7  September 

an  assembly  of  the  prelates  and  peers  of  France,  the  band  appeared  suddenly  before  Anagm,  under 

through  whose  efforts  a  general  council  might  be  the  lilies  of  France,  shouting,  ''Long  live  the  King  of 

convoked,  before  which  he  would  prove  his  chaiges.  France  and  Colonnal"     Fellow-conspirators  in  the 

Such  an  assembly  was  called  for  13  June,  and  met  town  admitted  them,  and  they  at  once  attacked  the 

at  the  Louvre  in  Paris.    The  papal  mess^iger  with  palaces  of  the  pope  and  his  nephew.    The  ungrateful 

the  aforesaid  Briefs  for  the  le^te  was  seized  at  Troyes  citizens  fraternized  with  the  oesiegers  of  the  pope, 

and  imprisoned;  Lemoine  himself,  after  prote^mg  who  in  the  meanwhile  obtained  a  truce  until  three 

against    such  ^  violence,    fled.    At    this    assemblv,  in  the  afternoon,  when  he  rejected  the  conditions  of 

packed  with  friends  or  creatures  of  Philip,  the  knight  Sciarra,  vis.,  restoration  of  the  Colonna,  abdication, 

Guillaume  de  Plaisians  (Du  Plessis)  submitted  a  and  deUvery  to  Sciarra  of  the  pope's  person.     About 

solemn  accusation  against  the  pope  in  twenty-nine  six   o'clock,    however,   the   i>apal   stronghold   was 

points,  offered  to  prove  the  same,  and  be^^  the  penetrated  through  the  adjoinmg  cathedral.    The 

king  to  provide  for  a  general  council.    The  Uolonna  soldiers,  Sciarra  at  their  hc^,  sword  in  hand  (for 

furnished  the  material  for  these  infamous  chaises,  he  had  sworn  t«  slay  Boniface),  at  once  filled  the 

long  since  adjudged  calumnious  by  grave  historians  hall  in  which  the  pope  awaited  them  with  five  of 

(Hefele,  ^  ConciUengesch.,    2nd    ed.,    VI,    460-63;  his   cardinals,   among   them   his    beloved    nephew 

Uiovanni  Villani,  a  contemporary,  says  that  the  Francesco,  all  of  whom  soon  fled;  only  a  Spaniard, 

Council  of  Vienne.  in  1312,  formally  absolved  him  the  Cardinal  of  Santa  Sabina,  remained  at  his  side 

from  the  charge  of  heresy,    Cf.  Muiutori,  **SS.  Rer.  to  the  end. 

Ital.",  XIV,  454;  Raynaldus,  ad  an,  1312,  15-16).        In  the  meantime  the  papal  palace  was  thorou^y 

Scarcely  any  possible  crime  was  omitted— infidelity,  plundered;  even  the  archives  were  destroyed.    Dino 

heresy,  simony,  gross  and  unnatural  immorality,  Compagni,  the  Florentine  chronicler,  relates  that 

idolatiy,  magic,  loss  of  the  Holy  Land,  death  of  when  Boniface  saw  that  further  resistance  was  use- 

Celestine  V,  etc.    The  king  asserted  that  it  was  only  less  he  exclaimed,  ''Since  I  am  betrayed  like  the 

to  satisfy  his  conscience  and  to  protect  the  honour  Saviour,  and  my  end  is  nigh,  at  least  I  shaU  die  as 

of  the  Holy  See  that  he  would  co-operate  in  the  Pope."    Thereupon  he  ascended  his  throne,  clad  in 

calling  of  a  general  council^  asked  the  help  of  the  the  pontifical  ornaments,  the  tiara  or  his  head,  the 

prelates,  and  appealed  (against  any  possible  action  keys  in  one  hand,  a  cross  in  the  other,  held  doae  to 

of  Boniface)  to  the  future  coimcil.  the  future  pope,  his  breast.  ^  Thus  he  confronted  the  angry  men-at- 

and  to  all  to  whom  appeal  could  be  made.    Five  arms.    It  is  said  that  Nogaret  prevented  Sciarra 

aixihbishops,  twenty-one  bishops,  and  some  abbots  Colonna  from  killing  the  pope.    Nogaret  himself 

sided  with  the  king.    The  resolutions  of  the  assembly  made  known  to  Bomface  the  Paris  resolutions  and 

were  read  to  the  people,  and  several  hundred  ad-  threatened  to  take  him  in  chains  to  Lyons,  where 

hesions  were  secured  from  chapters,  monasteries,  he  should  be  deposed.    Boniface  looked  down  at 

and  provincial  cities,  mostly  through  violence  and  him,  some  say  without  a  word,  others  that  he  replied: 

intimidation.    The  Abbot  of  Citeaux,  Jean  de  Pon-  **Here  is  my  head,  here  is  my  neck;  I  will  pi»i^iently 

toise,  protested,  but  was  imprisoned.    Royal  letters  bear  that  I,  a  Catholic  and  lawful  pontiff  and  vicar 

were  sent  to  the  princes  ^  of  Europe,  also  to  the  of  Christ,  be  condenmed  and  deposed  by  the  Paterini 

cardinals  and  bishops,  setting  forth  the  king's  new-  [heretics,  in  reference  to  the  parents  of  the  Tolosan 

found  zeal  for  the  welfare  of  Holy  Church.  Nogaretf;  I  desire  to  die  for  Christ's  faith  and  His 

In  a  public  consistory  at  Anagni  (August,  1303)  CSiurch.''    Von  Reumont  asserts  that  there  is  no 

Boniface  cleared  himself  on  his  solemn  oath  of  the  evidence  for  the  physical  maltreatment  of  thepope 

charges  brought  against  him  at  Paris  and  proceeded  by  Sciarra  or  Nogaret.    Dante  (Puigatorio,  XX,  S6) 

at  once  to  protect  the  Apostolic  authority.    Citations  lays  more  stress  on  the  moral  violence,  though  his 

before  the  Holy  See  were  declared  valid  by  the  mere  words  easily  convey  the  notion  of  physical  wrong: 

fact  of  being  affixed  to  the  church  doors  at  the  seat  "I  see  the  flower-de-luce  Anagni  enter,  and  (Christ 

of  the  Roman  Curia,  and  he  excommunicated  sdl  in  his  own  Vicar  captive  made;  I  sOe  him  yet  another 

who  hindered  such  citations.    He  suspended  Arch-  time  derided:  I  see  renewed  the  vinegar  and  gall, 

bishop  Gerhard  of  Nicosia  ((33rprus),  tne  first  signa-  and  between  living  thieves  I  see  him  dain.^'    Boni- 

tory  of  the  schismatical  resolutions.    Pending  satis-  face  was  held  th^  days  a  dose  prisoner  in  the 

faction  to  the  pope,  the  University  of  Paris  lost  the'  plundered  papal  palace.    No  one  cared  to  bring  him 

light  to  confer  degrees  in  theology  and  in  canon  and  tood  or  dnnk,  while  the  banditti  quarrelled  over  his 

civil  law.    He  suspended  temporarily  for   France  person,  as  over  a  valuable  asset.    By  early  mominc 

the  right  of  election  in  all  ecclesiastical  bodies,  re-  of  9  September  the  burghers  of  Anagni  had  changed 

served  to  the  Holy  See  all  vacant  French  benefices,  their  minds,  wearied  perhaps  of  the  presence  of  the 

repelled  as  blasphemies  the  calumnious  charges  of  soldiers,  and  ashamed  that  a  pope,  tneir  townsman, 

de  Plaisians,  saymg,  ''Who  ever  heard  that  We  were  should  TOrish  within  their  walls  at  the  hands  of  the 

a  heretic?"  (Raynaldus,  ad  an,  1311,  40),  and  de-  hated  Francesi,    They  expelled   Nogaret  and   his 

nounced  the  appeal  to  a  future  general  council  which  band,  and  confided  Boniface  to  the  care  of  the  two 

could  be  convoked  by  none  other  than  himself,  the  Oisini  cardinals,  who  had  come  from  Rome  with 


BOMIFACn  660  BOHZPAOB 

four  hundred  horsemen;  with  them  he  returned  to  and  took  with  them  the  turris  charttdaria,  L  e.  the 
Rome.  Before  leaving  Anagni  he  pardoned  several  ancient  repository  of  the  documents  of  the  Holy  See. 
of  the  marauders  captured  bv  the  townsmen,  except-  The  thirty-three  Greek  manuscripts  the  Vatican 
'ng  the  plunderers  of  Church  property,  unless  they  library  contained  in  1311  are  pronoimoed  by  Fr. 
returned  it  within  three  days.  He  reached  Rome,  Ehrie  the  earliest  known,  and  long  the  most  impor- 
13  Sept..  but  only  to  fall  under  the  dose  surveSUanoe  tant^  medieval  cdleotion  of  Greek  works  in  the  West, 
of  the  Orsini.  No  one  will  wonder  that  his  bold  Boniface  honoured  with  increased  solemnity  (1298) 
spirit  now  gave  wa^  beneath  the  weight  of  grief  and  the  feasts  of  the  foiu:  evangelists,  twelve  Apostles, 
melsAcholy.  He  d*^  of  a  violent  fever,  11  October,  and  four  Doctors  of  the  Church  (Ambrose,  Augustine, 
in  fuU  possession  of  his  senses  and  in  the  presence  of  Jerome,  Gregory  the  Great,  egregioa  ivsuis  dodarea 
eight  cardinals  and  the  chief  members  of  the  papal  Ecdesice)  bv  raising  them  to  the  rank  of  'Mouble 
household,  after  receiving  the  sacraments  and  mak-  feasts".  He  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  canon- 
mg  the  usual  profession  of  faith.  His  life  seemed  ists  of  his  age,  and  as  pope  enriched  the  general 
destined  to  dose  in  g^oom,  for,  on  account  of  an  ecclesiastical  legislation  by  the  promul^tionC' Sacro- 
unusually  violent  storm,  he  was  buried,  says  an  old  sancts  ",  1298)  of  a  large  number  of  his  own  oonstitu-> 
chronicler,  with  lees  decency  thfm  became  a  pope,  tions  and  of  those  of  his  predecessors,  since  1234. 
His  body  lies  in  the  ciypt  of  St.  Peter's  hi  a  large  when  Gregory  IX  promulgated  his  five  books  ot 
marUe  sarcophagus,  laconically  inscribed  BoNiFAdus  Decretals.  In  reference  to  this  the  collection  of 
PafI  Vni.  When  his  tomb  was  opened  (9  Oct.,  Boniface  was  entitled  *' Liber  Seztus",  i.  e..  Sixth 
1605)  the  body  was  found  quite  intact,  especially  Book  of  Pontifical  Constitutions  (lAurin,  Introd.  in 
the  shapely  hands,  thus  disproving  another  calumny,  Corp.  Juris  can.,  Freiburg,  18^).  being  constructed 
viz.,  that  he  had  died  in  a  n-enzy,  gnawing  his  hands,  on  the  same  lines.  Few  popes  have  aroused  more 
beating  his  brains  out  against  the  wall,  and  the  like  diverse  and  contradictoiy  appreciations.  Protestant 
(Wiseman).  historians,  generally,  and  even  ^  modem  CathoUc 
Boniface  was  a  patron  of  the  fine  arts  such  as  Rome  writers,  wrote  Cardinal  Wiseman  in  1844,  class  him 
had  never  yet  seen  among  its  popes,  though,  as  among  the  wicked  popes,  as  an  ambitious,  haughty, 
Guiraud  warns  us  (p.  6),  it  is  not  eacry  to  separate  and  unrelenting  man,  deceitful  also  and  treacherous, 
what  is  owing  to  the  pope's  own  initiative  from  what  his  whole  pontificate  one  record  of  evil.  To  dissi^te 
we  owe  to  his  nephew  and  biographer^  the  art-loving  this  grossly  exa^;erated  and  even  calumnious  view, 
Cardinal  Stefuieschi.  Modem  historians  of  Renais-  it  is  weU  to  distinguish  his  utterances  and  deeds  as 
sance  art  (Mtknts,  Guiraud)  date  its  first  efficient  FK>pe  from  his  personal  character,  that  even  in  his  life- 
progress  from  him.  The  "idolatry''  accusation  of  time  beemed  to  many  Unsympathetic.  Careful 
the  Colonna  comes  from  the  marble  statues  that  examination  of  the  sources  of  his  most  famous  public 
grateful  towns,  like  Anagni  and  Perugia,  raised  to  pronouncements  has  shown  that  the^r  are  largely  a 
bim  on  public  sites,  't where  there  once  were  idols",  mosaic  of  teachings  of  earlier  theologians,  or  solemn 
says  a  contemporaiy,  an  anti-Bonifacian  Hbel  (Gui-  r&-enforcement8  of  the  canons  of  the  Church  and 
raud,4).  The  Anagni  statue  stands  yet  in  the  cathe-  well-known  Bulls  of  his  predecessors.  His  chief  aims, 
dral  of  that  town,  repaired  by  him.  He  also  repaired  the  peace  of  Europe  and  the  recovery  of  the  Holy 
and  fortified  the  Gaetani  palace  in  Anagni,  and  im-  Land,  were  those  of  all  preceding  popes.^  He  did 
proved  in  a  similar  way  neighbouring  towns.  At  no  more  than  his  duty  in  defending  the  unity  of  the 
tlome  the  Palace  of  the  Senator  was  enLEurged,  Castel  Church  and  the  supremacy  of  ecclesiastical  authority 
SoAt'  Angdo  fortified,  and  the  Church  of  Ssoi  Lorenzo  when  threatened  by  Phihp  the  Fair.  His  politico- 
in  Pamspema  built  anew.  He  encoura^^  the  work  ecclesiastical  dealings  with  the  kings  of  Europe  will 
on  the  cathedral  of  Peruria,  while  that  gem  of  oma-  naturally  be  blamed  by  Erastians  and  by  those  who 
ment^  Gothic,  the  cathearsd  of  Orvieto  (1290-1309),  ignore,  on  the  one  hand,  the  rapacitv  of  an  Edward 
was  largely  fimshed  during  his  pontificate.  For  the  and  the  wily  vindictiveness  and  obtuse  selfishness 
great  Jubilee  of  1300  he  hiEui  the  churches  of  Rome  of  a  Philip,  and  on  the  other, 'the  supreme  fatheriy 
restored  and  decorated,  notably  St.  John  Lateran,  office  of  the  medieval  pope  as  the  respected  head  of 
St.  Peter's,  and  St.  Mf^  Major.  He  caUed  Giotto  one  mighty  family  of  peoples,  whose  civil  mstitutions 
to  Rome  and  gave  him  constant  occupation.  A  were  omy  slowly  coalescing  amid  the  decay  of  feudal- 
portrait  of  Bonimcd  by  Giotto  is  still  to  be  seen  in  St.  ism  and  ancient  barbarism  (Gosselui;  Von  Reumont), 
John  Lateran;  in  our  own  dav  M.  MOntz  has  restored  and  who  were  long  conscious  that  m  the  past  they 
the  ori^nalooncept,  and  in  it  is  seen  the  noble  balcony  owed  to  the  Church  alone  (i.  e.,  to  the  pope)  sure 
of  C!assetta,  whence,  during  the  jubilee,  the  pontin  and  swift  justice,  equitable  courts  and  procedure, 
was  wont  to  bestow  upon  the  vast  multitude  the  and  relief  from  a  leudal  absolutism  justified  as 
blessing  of  Christ's  vicar.  In  the  time  of  Boniface  yet  by  no  commensurate  public  service.  "The 
the  Cosimati  continued  and  improved  their  work  loftiest,  truest  view  of  the  character  and  conduct  of 
and  under  the  influence  of  Giotto  rose,  like  Cavallini,  the  popes  has  often  been  overiooked",  says  Cardinal 
to  higher  concepts  of  art.  The  delicate  French  Wiseman  (op.  dt.);  *'the  divine  instinct  which  ani- 
miniaturists  were  soon  equalled  by  the  jpope's  mated  them,  the  immortal  destiny  allotted  to  th^n, 
Vatican  scribes:  two  ^orious  missals  of  Odensio  da  the  heavenly  cause  oonfided  to  them,  the  superhuman 
Gubbioy^*  Aguboio's  honour'',  may  yet  be  seen  at  the  aid  which  strengthened  them  could  not  be  appreci- 
Vatican,  where  Hved  and  workea  his  disciple,  like-  iated  but  by  a  Catholic  mind,  and  are  too  generally 
wise  immortalized  by  Dante  (Pmrg.,  XI,  79),  who  excluded  from  Protestant  historians,  or  are  trans- 

rks  of  "the  laughmg  leaves  touched  by  the  brush  formed  into  corresponding  human  capacities,   or 

Franco    Bolognese".    FinaUy,    sculpture    was  policies,  or  ener^es,  or  virtues."    He  goes  on  to  say 

honoured  by  Bomface  in  the  person  of  Amolfo  di  that,  after  examination  of  several  popular  assertions 

Ciunbio,  who  built  for  him  the  ^'Chapel  of  the  Crib"  affectmg  the  moral  and  ecclesiastical  conduct  of 

fai  St.  Mary  Major,  and  executed  (MOnts)  the  sarcoph-  Bomface,  this  pope  appeared  to  him  in  a  new  li^ht, 

agus  in  which  he  was  buried.    Boniface  was  also  "as  a  pontiff  who  be^an  his  reign  with  most  glonous 

a  friend  of  the  sciences.    He  founded  (6  June,  1303)  promiae  and  dosed  it  amid  sad  calamities;  who 

the  University  of  Rome,  known  as  the  Sapienza,  devoted,  through  it  all,  the  energies  of  a  great  mind, 

and  in  the  same  year  the  Unlveisity  of  Fermo.  cultivated  by  profound  learning  and  matured  by  long 

Finally,  it  was  Boniface  who  b^an  anew  the  Vatican  experience  in  the  most  delicate  ecclesiastical  affairs, 

Library,  whose  treasures  had  been  scattered,  together  to  the  att^nment  of  a  truly  noble  end;  and^  whc^ 

with  the  papal  archives,  in  1227,  when  the  IU>man  throughout  his  career,  displayed  many  great'  virtues, 

Frangipani  passed  over  to  the  side  of  Frederick  II  and  could  plead  in  extenuation  of  his  faulty  the  con- 


vnlied  sUt«  of  public  AffftirH,  the  rudeness  orUa  timei, 
■Bd  the  bithless,  violent  character  of  many  among 
those  with  whom  ha  bad  to  deal     Theee  c' 


a  severity 
of  eonduot,  whieh,  vhen  viewed  through  the  feelings 
of  modem  times,  may  appear  eztnme,  and  almost 
nnjuatifiable.  But  aftw  eearcfaiiig  thiongh  the 
pages  of  his  most  hostile  historians,  ws  are  satisfied 
that  this  is  the  only  point  on  which  ev«n  a  plau^ble 
charge  can  be  brou^t  against  him," 
The  memory  of  B<nifaoe,  curioasly  enov  '     ' 

suSeted  most  frMO  two  great  poets,  i "^- 

an  )iltr&«piritua]  and  impossible  Oatuuuuviu,  rm 
JaoopcsM  da  Todi  and  Daote.  The  fbimer  was  the 
"sublime  fool"  of  SNiitual  love,  author  of  the 
'StabatMftter",  and  chief  sin^  of  tbe"8pirituals", 
or  extreme  Franciseans,  kept  m  prieon  by  Boniface, 
whom  he  therefore  satirized  in  the  popular  and 
musical  vernacular  of  the  pemosnla.  The  latter  was 
a  Ghibelline,  i.  e.,  a  political  antagonist  of  the  Guelph 
pope,  to  whom,  moreover,  he  attributed  aU  bis  per- 
aonal  misfortunee,  and  whom  be  therefore  pilloried 
before  the  bar  of  his  own  justice,  but  in  quivering 
lines  of  immortal  invective  whose  malignant  beauty 
win  always  trouble  the  reader'iJiudKnient.  Cbthohc 
historians  like  HergenrOthar-IUiBcn  (4th  ed.,  II, 
B07-W)  praise  the  uprightness  of  the  pope's  motives 
and  tbit  courage  of  Kib  oonviotions  which  almost 
on  the  eve  of  lus  death  nude  him  count  as  straws 
aH  earthly  rulera,  if  only  be  had  truth  and  justice 
on  bis  side  (op.  cit..  11,  597,  note  4).  They  admit, 
however,  the  explosive  violence  and  ofTenaive 
phraseolo^  of  some  of  his  public  documents,  and 
the  occasioiiBi  imprudence  of  his  political  measures; 
he  walked  in  the  footsteps  of  his  immediate  pred- 
ecessors, but  the  new  enemies  were  more  Seroe  and 
Jo^cal  than  the  extirpated  Hobenstaufco,  and  were 
quick«-  to  pervert  and  utilise  the  pubUc  ophiion 
of  young  and  proud  natiooalitiee.  A  oonl«m^raipr 
and  eyewitness,  Qiovanni  Villan],  has  left  in  his 
Elorentina  chronicle  (Muratori,  XIII,  348  sqq.) 
a  portrait  of  Boniface  which  the  judicious  Von  ReU' 
mtHit  seems  to  consider  quite  reliable.  According 
to  it  Boniface,  the  most  clever  oononiat  of  his  time. 
was  a  great-hearted  and  generous  man  and  a  lover 
of  magnificence,  but  also  arrc^ant,  proud,  and  stem 
hi  manner,  more  feared  than  loved,  too  worldly- 
minded  for  his  high  office  and  too  fond  of  money, 
both  for  the  Church  and  for  bis  family.  His  nepo- 
tiBn  was  open.  He  founded  tile  Roman  house  of  the 
Gaetani,  and  in  the  process  of  exalting  his  fomily 
drew  down  upon  himself  the  effective  hatred  of  the 
Colonna  and  their  strong  clansmen.  GrOne,  a  Ger- 
man Catholic  historian  of  the  popes,  says  of  Boniface 
(II,  lft4)  that  while  hia  utterances  equal  in  impor- 
tance those  of  Gregory  VII  and  Innocent  III,  the 
latter  were  always  more  ready  to  act,  Boc 'face  to  dis- 
course; they  relied  on  the  Divine  ^ren^th  of  their 
'  ofBee,  Boniface  on  the  devemess  of  his  canonical 
deductions.  For  the  process  against  his  memory  see 
CunfSNT  V. 

Orwuul  Material!.— Ths  hUton  «f  BonifoM  it  batt  roaod  Id 
DiOABD.  Fadcon.  un>  TsoHAS,  £m  noitlm  dt  Boiulaet  VUl. 
(Puu.  1SS4,  nq.):  Dc  PoT^UictuO.  HM.  du  dOftrend  du 
jape  BimiiaaVlll.  am  PmifV*  >«  B*  (Paris,  ISEA),  with  a 
nty  wtial  n)«olian  ud  wnpniDnit  of  mhubhi,  but  badly 

■dlMd.  m>t«iUl«  B.n4OT  (vKJmt  J«Biimi.O.  Hvrt..dH^  Bonlfwe  IX,  PopK,  elected  at  Rome,  2  Novem- 
^vtT^£l^t:!Z!'i\S^  I  ;.1^i±  '^^'^  ber,  1389,  as^l^ssor  of  the  Roman  I^pe,  Uri^  VI: 
ititr  Pham.  PvMm  «l  Bmit/7V;;;.  (Rome,  laSB):  Rcstoi,  d.  thwe,  1  October,  1404.  Pioro  (Permo,  Ketrol 
fianV<>(H»  Vm  <l  fondiaCaietanonim  (Sonu,  IWl).    Th*     Tomacelli    came   ot   an    ancient    but   impoverished 

sfer:sss,°;ssri^'X!r„"?i2'&"«s  b.K«ij.toiij;<.!ij.pi».  H.i»5k«igo<,ru«.i«i- 

IV.Ml).    RATnuiin*.^nn,  Scd.  (13M-I3ps),  vbosinuiy  oi  oal  training  and  skill  m  the  conduct  of  cunal  buBinese, 

'''%'°^'°"'°'*^*'*T~''5""''"°'B'i'''p. h-      -  but  was  by  nature  tactful  and  prudent.    Hia  firm 

Uimitri  33.  Btr.  Iial^  XIII.  M»\  Diso  Cokfaoni.  Chrmita,  character  and  mtld  manner  did  much  to  restore  re- 
ad. Db  Limoo  (Floraooa.  1876-87);  tha  Italian  chrooielen  gpect   for   the   papacy   m    the   countries   of  his  om 

S:2^^"?""rh'?3'^S''S^ilit'.™-lu^w,™2*r'™-  ob^lenoe  (Germany,  England,  Hungary.  Polsod, 
ISS!SSa^^^'^<>^S^FipS^M^:::"B^''^vm.    and  Uw  greater  part  otltaly)     Tha  Xvignon  Pope 


BOmFAOB 


671 


BOniFAOS 


Clement  VII,  had  just  crowned  (1  November,  1889) 
as  King  of  Naples  the  French  prince,  Louis  of  Anjou. 
Boniface  took  up  the  cause  of  the  youthful  Ladislaus, 
heir  of  Charles  III  of  Naples  and  Margaret  of  Durazzo, 
had  him  crowned  King  of  Naples  at  Gaeta  (29  Mav, 
1390),  and  for  the  next  decade  aided  him  efficientiy 
to  exp^  the  Angevin  forces  from  Italv.  In  the  course 
of  his  reign  Boniface  extinguished  the  municipal  in- 
dependence of  Rome  and  established  the  supremacy 
of  the  pope.  He  secured  the  final  adhesion  of  the 
Romans  (1398)  b^  fortifying  anew  the  Castle  of 
Sant'  Angelo,  the  bridges,  and  other  points  of  vantage. 
He  also  took  over  the  port  of  Ostia  from  its  cardinal- 
bishop.  In  the  Papal  States  Boniface  gradually  re- 
gained control  of  the  chief  strongholds  and  cities, 
and  is  the  true  founder  of  these  States  as  thev  appear 
in  the  fifteenth  century.  Owing  to  the  faitnlessness 
and  violence  of  the  Romans  he  resided  frequently  at 
Perugia,  Assisi,  and  elsewhere.  Clement  VII,  the 
Avignon  pope,  died  16  September,  1394.  Boniface 
had  excommunicated  him  shortly  after  his  own 
election,  and  in  turn  had  been  excommunicated  by 
Clement.  In  1392  Boniface  attempted,  but  in  vain, 
to  enter  into  closer  relations  with  Clement  for  the 
re-establishment  of  ecclesiastical  unity,  whereupon 
Boniface  reasserted  with  vigour  his  own  legitimacy. 
Clement  was  succeeded  at  Avignon,  28  September, 
1394,  b^  Cardinal  Pedro  de  Lima,  as  Benedict  XIII. 
Suffice  it  to  say  here  that  Boniface  alwavs  claimed  to 
be  the  true  pope,  and  at  all  times  rejectee!  the  proposal 
to  abdicate  even  when  it  was  supported  by  the  prin- 
cipal members  of  his  own  obedience,  e.  g.  Richard  II 
of  England  (1396),  the  Diet  of  Frankfort  (1397),  and 
King  Wenc€alaus  of  Germany  (Reims,  1398). 

During  the  reign  of  Boniface  two  jubilees  were 
cdebrat^  at  Rome.  The  first  took  place  in  1390, 
in  compliance  with  an  ordinance  of  his  predecessor 
Urban  Vl,  and  was  largely  frequented  from  Germany, 
Hungary,  Poland,  Bohemia,  and  England.  Several 
cities  of  Germany  obtained  the  privileges  of  the 
jubilee,  but  the  preaching  of  the  mdulgences  gave 
rise  to  abuses  ana  to  impositions  on  the  part  of  un- 
accredited agents  of  the  pope,  so  that  he  was  obliged 
to  proceed  against  them  with  severity.  The  jubilee 
of  1400  drew  to  Rome  great  crowds  of  pilgrims, 
particularly  from  France.  In  spite  of  a  disastrous 
plague  Boniface  remained  at  his  post.  In  the  latter 
part  of  1399  bands  of  penitents,  known  as  the  Bianchif 
or  Albali  (White  Penitents),  arose,  especially  in 
Provence  and  Italy.  They  went  in  procession  from 
citjT  to  city,  clad  in  white  garments,  with  faces  hooded, 
omy  the  eyes  being  left  uncovered,  and  wearing  on 
their  backs  a  red  cross.  For  a  while  their  penitential 
ttithusiasm  had  some  good  results.  After  they  had 
satisfied  their  spiritual  ardour  at  Rome,  Boniface 
gradually  discountenanced  these  wandering  crowds, 
an  ea^y  prey  of  a^tators  and  conspirators,  and  finally 
dissolved  them.  In  England  the  anti-papal  virulence 
0^  Wyclif  increased^e  opposition  of  botn  Crown  and 
clergy  to  the  hiethods  of  Boniface  in  the  granting  of 
such  English  benefices  as  fell  vacant  in  the  Roman 
Curia  tm'ough  the  death  or  promotion  of  the  in- 
cumbent. The  Parliament  confirmed  and  extended 
more  than  once  the  statutes  of  Provisors  and  Prae- 
munire, of  Edward  III.  Boniface  protested  vi^r- 
ously,  particularly  in  1391,  but  in  the  end  found  him- 
self  unable  to  execute  his  grants  without  the  king's 
consent  and  sanction.  "Thus  ended'',  says  Lingard 
ifld,  an,  1393).  ''this  long  and  angry  controversy  en- 
tirely to  the  advantage  of  the  CJrown. "  Nevertheless, 
at  ue  9ynod  of  London  (1396).  the  English  Church 
oondenmed  the  anti-papal  teachings  of  Wyclif,  and 
in  1398  the  University  of  Oxford,  consulted  by 
Richard  II,  issued  in  favour  of  Boniface  an  influential 
document,  while  in  1390  and  again  in  1393  the 
spiritual  pe^rs  upheld  the  right  of  the  pope  to  ex- 
oommunioate  even  those  who  ob^ed  the  statutes 


of  Ptovisors.  In.  Germany  the  electors  had  deposed 
at  Rhense  (20  August,  1400)  the  unworthy  Wencee^ 
laus,  King  of  the  Romans,  and  had  chosen  in  his 
place  kupert,  Duke  of  Bavaria  and  Rhenish  Count 
ralatine.  In  1403  Boniface  abandoned  his  uncer* 
tain  attitude  towards  both,  approved  the  deposition 
of  Wenceslaus  as  done  by  papal  authority,  and  recog- 
nized the  election  of  Rupert.  In  1398  and  13% 
Boniface  appealed  to  Christian  Europe  in  favour  of 
Emperor  Emmanuel,  threatened  at  Constantinople 
by  Sultan  Bajazet.  St.  Bridget  of  Sweden  was  canon- 
ized by  Boniface,  7  October,  1391.  The  universities 
of  Ferrara  (1391)  and  Fermo  (1398)  owe  him  their 
origin,  and  that  of  Erfurt  its  confirmation  (1392). 
In  1404  Benedict  XIII  sent  the  last  of  his  embassies 
to  Boniface,  who  received  the  agents  of  Benedict 
29  September,  but  the  interview  ended  unfavourably. 
The  pope,  highly  irritated,  took  to  his  bed  with  an 
attacK  of  gravel,  and  died  after  an  illness  of  two  days. 
Contemporary  and  later  chroniclers  praise  the 
political  virtues  of  Boniface,  also  the  purity  of  his 
life,  and  the  grandeur  of  his  spirit.  Some,  like 
Di^rich  of  Niem,  charge  him  with  an  inordinate  love 
of  money,  dishonest  traffic  in  benefices,  the  sale  of 
dispensations,  etc.  But  Dietrich  is  no  impartial 
writer  and  is  blamed  by  Raynaldus  for  being  bitter 
and  unjust  (accrbus  et  iniguus).  In  his  gossipy  pa^ 
one  misses  a  proper  appreciation  of  the  difficulties 
that  surrounded  Boniface — local  sources  of  revalue 
lost  in  the  long  absence  of  the  papacy  from  Rome, 
foreign  revenue  diminished  by  the  schism,  extraor- 
dinary expenses  for  the  restoration  of  papal  Rome 
and  the  reconquest  of  the  Papal  States,  the  constant 
wars  necessitated  by  French  ambition,  the  inheritance 
of  the  financial  metnods  of  Avignon,  and  the  obli^tion 
of  conciliating  supporters  in  and  out  of  Italy.  Boni- 
face sought  nothing  for  himself  and  died  poor.  He 
is  also  charged  with,  nepotism  and  he  certainly  pro- 
vided generously  for  his  mother,  brothers,  ^d 
nephews.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that  in  the  semi- 
anarchic  conditions  of  the  time  good  government 
depended  upon  such  personal  support  as  a  temporal 
ruler  could  gather  and  retain,  i.  e.  could  reward, 
while  fidelity  was  best  secured  by  close  domestic  ties. 
Boniface  was  the  first  pope  to  introduce  the  form  of 
revenue  known  as  annates  perpetua,  or  reservation 
of  one-half  the  first  year's  fruits  of  every  benefice 
granted  in  the  Roman  Court,  this  in  addition  to 
other  traditional  expenses.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  at  this  time  the  cardinals  claimed  a  large  part 
of  these  revenues,  so  that  the  Curia  was  perhaps  more 
responsible  than  the  pope  for  new  financial  methods 
destined  in  the  next  century  to  arouse  bitter  feelings 
against  Rome,  particularly  in  Germany. 

DiEmucR  (Thcodkrictub)  von  Nikm,  Dt  8ci$maie  Kbri  III^ 
ed.  EsLER  (I^ipsig,  1890);  Gobelinus  Persona,  Cotmi- 
dromiua  {Cosmodromiutn),  ed.  Jansen  (1904);  RATNALPUSt 
Ann.  ecd.  ad.  ann.  1389-1404,  conta-ining  many  important 
documents;  others  are  foimd  in  D'Ach6ry,  Spicilegiwn  (Paris, 
1655),  Martins  and  Durand,  Theaaur.  nov,  an€cdotorum 
(Paris,  1717);  VeL  ScripL  coU.  amplisa.  (Paris.  1724);  VHa 
Bonifatii  IX,  in  Muratori,  Rer.  Ital.  Script.,  Ill,  ii,  830  sqq.; 
Liber  PonttficaH;  ed.  Duchesne,  II,  507.  530.  549;  the  hl^ 
tones  of  the  city  of  Rome  by  Greooroviua  and  by  Von  Rbu- 
mont;  Junouann,  Dissert,  SeUcteB  (1886)  VI,  272;  Creighton, 
A  History  of  the  Papacy  during  the  Period  of  the  RefomuUion 
(London,  1892)  I,  98-161;  Pastor,  History  of  the  Papacy; 
LiNOARD.  History  of  Enoland,  III,  c.  iv;  Erler.  Die  hutor- 
ischen  Schriften  Diebrichs  von  Niehexm  (Leipzifl^  1887);  Hepele, 
Concilienqeach.,  VI,  812  sqq.j  N.  Valoih,  La  France  et  le  grand 
achisme  d'Occident  (Paris,  1896-1902);  Rocquain,  La  Covr 
de  Rome  et  VssprU  de  riforme  av€tnt  Luther  (Paris,  1897);  M.  Jan- 
sen, Popet  Bonifatiua  IX,  und  seine  Beziehungen  rur  deutschen 
Kirche  (FrwbuTK,  1904).  For  the  Bulls  of  Boniface  concerning 
Hungary  see  Afon.  Vaticana  hist,  regni  Hung,  iUustr.  (Bud** 
peet.  1888),  Ser.  1.  Ill,  1389-96:  for  Bohemia,  Kropta.  Acta 
iJrb.  VI.  et  Bonif.  IX.  p.  I,  in  Afon.  Vaticana  res  gestas  Bohemia 
iUustrantia  (Prague.  1003),  V. 

Thomas  Oestreich. 

Boniface  Association  (Bonitatiusverein),  one 
of  the  most  successful  Catholic  societies  of  Germany, 
owes  its  origin  to  a  suggestion  made  by  D6llinger 


BOMIFACn                         872  Bon 

at  the  Third  Catholic  Gon^reaB  of  Germai^y  held  at  that  the  new  Pope,  Innocent  IV,  was  able  to  confiim 
Ratisbon  in  1849.  The  object  of  the  association  is  to  his  election.  In  the  following  year  Boniface  went  to 
maintain  what  the  Catholic  Church  possesses  in  those  England  for  the  first  time.  He  found  his  see  in  debt 
regions  where  Catholics  are  few  in  number,  to  foimd  The  heavy  taxation  during  the  sequestration  in  St. 
and  support  missions  and  schools,  and  to  erect  Edmund's  primacy  had  severely  buniened  its  already 
chimshes,  parish-houses,  and  schools  for  Catholics  in  slender  resources.  Therefore  his  first  act  was  to 
the  Protestant  parts  of  Germany.  The  territories  make  every  economy,  abolishing  all  sinecures  and 
which  the  association  takes  under  its  especial  care  are:  unnecessary  offices  coimected  with  the  archbishopric, 
the  Diocese  of  Kulm;  the  Delegature  of  Brandenburg  He  ordered  the  tenants  and  clergy  to  contritMite 
and  Pomerania,  belonging  to  the  Prince-Bishqsric  of  towartis  the  liquidation  of  the  debt. 
Breslau;  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Saxony;  the  Dio-  In  1244  he  set  out  for  the  Council  of  Lyons,  where 
oeses  of  Paderbom,  HUdesheim,  Osnabruck,  and  he  was  consecrated  (15  January,  1245)  by  the  pope. 
Fulda;  the  Northern  Missions,  etc.  The  association  His  brother  Philip,  afterwards  Count  of  Savoy, 
is  maiiaged  by  a  general  committee  at  Paderbom;  the  although  not  consecrated,  held  the  archbishopric  of 
diocesan  committees  have  entire  control  of  the  con-  Lyons  and  was  in  command  of  the  papal  troops, 
tributions  they  receive;  after  consultation  with  their  During  the  sitting  of  the  council  Boniface  held  a  corn- 
respective  diocesan  councils,  and  under  the  approval  mission  imder  him.  He  obtained  from  the  pope  the 
of  the  general  committee,  the  diocesan  committees  grant  of  the  first-fruits  of  all  vacant  benefices  m  the 
designate  the  objects  to  which  the  monev  shall  be  Province  of  Canterbury  during  seven  years,  and  his 
given.  Since  the  association  was  founded  about  claim  to  levy  a  contribution  from  the  whole  province 
$9,250,000  has  been  collected  and  some  2,600  churches  to  meet  the  debt  of  the  metropolitan  see  was  allowed, 
have  been  erected  or  aided.  In  1249  he  returned  to  England  and  was  enthroned 

Besides  the  diocesan  committees  another  impor-  with  great  pomp  at  Canteroury  on  All  Saints'  Day. 

tant  branch  is  formed  by  the  Boniface  collecting  The  archbishop  then  began  a  personal  visitation  of 

societies.    The  first  of  these  was  founded  in  1885  his  diocese,  correcting  abuses  and  levying  fines.    But, 

among  the  merchants  of  Paderbom  bv  the  Marian  on  extending  his  visitation  to  the  dioceses  of  his  suf- 

congregation;  tlie  aim  of  this  branch  of  the  associa-  fragans,  resistance  was  offered  to  him.    In  London 

tion  is,  by  the  founding  of  orphan  asylums  and  insti-  the  Dean  and  Canons  of  St.  Paul's  protested  that  the 

tutions  where  children  are  prepared  for  their  first  Bishop  of  London  was  their  visitor  and  appealed, 

communion,  to  care  for  the  religious  training  of  Cat  ho-  They  were  promptly  excommunicated.    On  the  fol- 

lic  children  in  non-Catholic  communities.    The  funds  lowing  day  the  archbishop  visited  the  Prioiy  of  St. 

are  obtained  bv  the  collection  and  sale  of  objects  of  Bartholomew.     He  was  met  by  the  sub-pnor  and 

little  value  in  themselves,  such  as,  tin-foil,  old  postage  brethren,  who  welcomed  him  as  a  prelate  but  not  as  a 

stamps,  clothing,  leaden  seals,  old  coins,  books,  cigar  visitor.     Like  the  clergy  of  St.  Paul's  they  repre- 

bands,  cigar  tips,  and  such  trifles.     More  than  $625,-  sented  that  they  had  tneir  own  bishop  and  would  not 

000  has  been  raised  by  this  branch  association  since  submit  to  other  jurisdiction  without  permission  from 

its  foundation;  it  aids  more  than  120  institutions  for  him.    The  archbishop  was  so  incensed  tliat  he  felled 

first  commimicants  and  orphan  asylums,  besides  con-  the  venerable  sub-prior  to  the  earth.    This  was  mOre 

tributing   considerable   sums   to    children    in   non-  than  the  Londoners  could  stand  from  a  foreigner, 

Catholic  communities  for  railway  tickets,  school  and  even  were  he  their  archbishop.    They  fell  upon  nim, 

living  expenses.  his  vestments  were  torn  in  the  strug^e,  and  the  coat 

Another  branch  is  the  Academic  Boniface  Asso-  of  DMiil  worn  beneath  them  disclos^.  He  was  res- 
ciation  which  has  existed  for  forty  years  at  the  cued  by  his  bodyguard  and  escaped  by  barge  to  Lam- 
German  universities,  the  first  one  of  these  societies  beth,  where  he  proceeded  to  excommunicate  the 
being  founded  at  Manster  in  1867.  In  1888  the  clerrjr  of  St.  Bartholomew's  and  the  Bishop  of 
various  university  branches  met  at  Freiburg  and  London. 

united  into  a  common  oi^ganization;  in  1907  they  He  then  annoimced  his  intention   of  holding  a 

included  thirty-six  branches  with  a  membership  of  visitation  at  St.  Albans.    The  suffragans  met  and 

750.    Their  organ  is  the  "Akademische  Bonifatius-  resolv^  to  resist  him.    The  clergy  of  the  province 

Korrespondcnz  '.    Since  1860  the  general  association  levied  a  tax  upon  themselves  in  order  to  proceed 

has  had  a  printing  office  and  since  1888  a  bookstore  against  him  at  Home.    Learning  of  these  thmgs  he 

for  old  and  new  publications,  both  at  Paderbom.  promptly  set  out  for  the  Roman  court.    The  result 

The  popes  have  granted  indulgences  and  privileges  was  a  compromise,  the  poi)e  confirming  the  right  of 

to  pnests  connected  with  the  association.    The  asso-  visitation,  but  restricting  its  use.    Godwin  says  of 

ciation  issues  the''  Bonifatiusblatt".  founded  in  1850;  him  that  Boniface  did  three  worthy  things:  he  paid 

the  ''Schlesisches  Bonifatiusblatt '%  1860;  and  the  off  a  debt  of  22,000  marks;  he  built  and  endowed  the 

''St.  Bonifatiusblatf  at  Prague,  founded  m  1904.  hospital  at  Maidstone;  and  he  finished  the  great  hall 

Klefpner    and    Wokbb,    Fettschrift    (Paderbonit    1899);  of  the  archbishop's  palace. 

^S^  "^iM^f  1S5Sn>T  SJiS^o^SS^  „  Pope  GT^^^^y\^^„^^\'^^^'»  Albert  rf 

(Paderbom.    1907);    Financial   statementa   of   the  managing  Savoy,    Kmg   of   Sardinia  (1831-49),   approved  the 

oommiitee,  annual  reports  of  the  combined  Boniface  ooUectins  cult  of  Boniface,  Archbishop   of  Canterbury,  aS  fl6 

■^*^"'  «^-                                            r^^^„  J  ,„,  immemorobUL 

JOSEPH  L.INS.  &PIUCKLAND,  Rieerche  ttorUhe  •opra  U  b.  Bonifacio  di  Sauna 

SoniffLca  of    Savav      fnrfv-«ivfh     ArrhKUhnn    Af  In  A^wccM.  «tor. /toi.  (1895).  1. 349-432;  Godwin,  Dc  Pnwui*** 

JSOnuace   OI    aavoy,     lony-SlXtn    ArcnDWIK)p     Ol  ^nMia;  Guicheron,  Histoire  gHUalogique  de  la  royaU  maiim 

Canterbury   and   son   of  Thomas,   Count   of  Savoy,  deSavoie;HooK,Uve8of  the  Archbishop  of  Canleriwv;  ho amd, 

date  of  birth  uncertain;  d.  in  Savoy,  14  July,  1270.  AnnaUa;  RTiiBR,Fcwforo;  Matthew  Pabib.  LetUn  of  Onrnt- 

While  fet  a  child  he  became  a  Carthusian.    In  1234,  *^*'  ^^"^^  ^  ^^^  ^  Monaco. 

as  sub-deacon,  he  was  elected  Bishop  of  Belley  in  Bur-  itrancis  avelinq. 

and,  in  1241,  administered  the  Diocese  of  BonifaciOB  da  YitaUnis.    See  Vitalini,  Bonita* 


gundy: 
Valenc 


^alence.    His  connexion  with  the  royal  house  of  facio  db. 

England  secured  his  promotion  to  the  primacy.    The  Boni   Homines   (or  Bonshomhes). — ^This  name 

Queen  of  Henry  III  was  Eleanor,  daughter  of  Beren-  was  popularlv  given  to  at  least  three  religious  ordeiB 

fl»r.  Count  of  IVovence,  and  Beatrice  of  Savoy.    This  in  the  Church: 

Beatrice  was  the  sister  of  the  future  archbishop.  I. — ^Thb  Order  of  Grandmont,  founded  l^  St 

When  St.  Edmund  died,  m  1241,  the  Queen's  uncle  Stephen  of  Muret  (b.  1046,  d.  1124)  for  an  austere 

was  elected.    But  Gregory  IX  and  Celestine  TV  order  of  eremitical  friars  professing  the  rule  ol  ^ 

dying  unexpeotedly,  it  was  not  until  the  end  of  1243  Augustine  (though  they  have  sometimes  been  daimed 


BOMI  673 

also  by  the  Benedictines).    Towards  the  end  of  the  by  John  de  Vioenza,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Lamego, 

twelfth   century  they  possessed   more  than   sixty  in  the  fifteenth  century.     Living  at  first  independ* 

houses,  principally  in  Aquitaine,  Anjou,  and  Nor-  ently  in  a  monastery  granted  to  them  by  the  Arch- 

mandy.    The  kings  of  England  (then  rulers  of  Nop-  bishop  of  Braga  at  VilEir  de  Frades,  they  afterwards 

mandy)  were  great  benefactors  of  these  friars,  who  embraced  the  institute  of  Secular   Canons  of  St. 

were  known  as  the  Bonshommes  of  Grandmont  from  George  in  Alga  (in  Venice),  and  the  Portuguese  order 


session  of  the  Minims,  who  were  hence  known  after-  them  charge  of  all  the  royal  hospitals  in  the  kingdom, 

wards  as  Bonshommes.    The  observance  of  the  order  while  many  of  the  canons  went  out  as  missionaries  to 

liad  become  greatly  relaxed  when  a  general  chapter  India  and  Ethiopia.    Several  members  of  the  order 

was  held  at  Grandmont  (after  an  interval  of  more  have  won  a  high  reputation  aa  scholars  and  theolo- 

than  a  century)  in  1643,  with  the  object  of  re-estab-  glass. 

lishing  regular  discipline.    New  statutes,  modifymg       LBvtQUB,  Annal.  Ord.  Grandmont  (1663):  Helyot,  ed. 

the  original  rigour  of  the  rule,  were  drawn  up  and  W^^,^_S!f^^^SJ^  T????S?^  reiigieuseMet  mUiUnr^ 

•*..%~><.^      TuL  u^uu  ^f  *\s^  ^Jj».  ^^r,  ui^^u   il**u  ^  *!•  412-424,  563-666;  III,  421-425;  Polydorc  Vergil,  Angl. 

approved.    The  habit  of  the  order  was  black,  with  a  Histar.,  Ub.  XVI  (in  ed.  1649,  p.  402):  Duodale,  ManaZ. 

hood  and  a  broad  scapular.  At  the  time  when  i4n^{ ,  VI,  614,  636;  Qabqubt,  BnglisK  Monastic  Life  (1004), 
Myot  wrote  his  great  work  on  the  religious  orders  S^®^^"^*^"*^,**"  ®}  HA^H  ^^*'  **"  •''^ffli"  C'.onffregaedm 
(17i4-2n  there  were  in  France  also  thrS  houses  of  ^  ""^  '•^^  *  ^-  ^^  D^^S.^HuSJ^-Blair. 
nuns  of  the  Order  of  Grandmont;  but  both  monaster- 
ies and  convents  were  suppres^  at  the  Revolution  BohIbo  of  Satri  (or  Bonitho),  Bishop  of  Sutri  in 
sixty  years  later.  A  reformed  branch  of  the  order  Gentral  Italy,  in  the  eleventh  century,  an  adherent  of 
was  established  in  1642  by  Pdre  Fremont,  but  the  Gregory  VII  and  advocate  of  the  ideals  of  that  pone; 
members  of  this  institution  do  not  seem  to  have  be^i  b.  aoout  1045,  probably  in  Gremona,  Northern  Italy; 
known  by  the  old  name  of  Bonshommes.  put  to  death  14  July,  1090.  Eariy  in  his  life  he 
n. — ^Thb  Fratres  Saccati,  or  Brothers  of  joined  the  party  Imown  as  the  Pataria,  and  when  a 
PiNrrENCE,  were  also  known  as  Boni  Homines.  Bon»-  subdeacon  m  Piaoenza  he  came  into  conflict  with 
hommes^  or,  as  Leland  calls  them,  Bones-nomes.  Dionysius,  bishop  of  that  city.  In  1074  he  went  to 
Their  origin,  as  well  as  the  date  of  their  foundation,  Rome,  and  won  the  favour  of  Pope  Gregory,  by  whom 
b  obscure,  but  they  had  a  house  at  Sarasossa  in  the  he  was  soon  appointed  to  the  episcopal  See  of  Sutri. 
time  of  Pope  Innocent  ILL  (d.  1216)  ana  one  about  Bonizo  took  part  in  several  councils  held  in  Rome; 
the  same  time  at  Valendennes.  Their  rule  was  in  1078  he  went  to  Cremona  as  papal  legate  and  con- 
founded on  that  of  St.  Augustine.  They  had  one  secrated  there  the  church  of  St.  Thomas.  In  the 
house  in  Paris,  in  a  street  called  after  them  the  rue  strug^  between  Gregory  VII  and  Henry  IV  he  was 
des  SacheUeSf  and  in  1257  they  weje  introduced  into  ever  on  the  side  of  the  pope.  He  was  seiased  byHenry 
England.  Matthew  Paris  records  under  this  year  in  1082  and  entrusted  to  the  custody  of  the  antipope 
that  ''a  certain  new  and  unknown  order  of  friars  ap-  Clement  III.  About  a  year  afterwards  Bonizo  made 
peared  in  London'',  duly  fumbhed  with  credentiab  his  escape,  and  lived  for  several  vears  under  the  pro* 
from  the  pope;  and  he  mentions  later  that  th^  were  tection  of  Countess  Mathilda  of  Tuscany.  In  1086 
called  from  the  style  of  their  habit  Fratres  Saccati.  he  wad  present  at  the  fimeral  of  his  friend,  Anselm, 
We  learn  from  Polydore  Vergil  that  Edmund  (son  of  Bishop  of  Lucca.  He  was,  soon  after,  elected  to  the 
Richard',  Earl  of  Cornwall)  founded  a  little  later  ^ac-  See  of  Piacenza  by  the  Pataria,,  but  owing  to  strong 
cording  to  Tanner,  in  1283)  a  monastery  at  Ashriaee,  opposition  was  unable  to  take  possession  of  it  untu 
Herts,  for  a  rector  and  twenty  canons  oi"a  new  order  tne  year  1088,  when  he  was  strongly  supported  by 
not  before  seen  in  England,  and  called  the  Boni  Pope  Urban  II.  His  enemies,  however,  contrived  to 
homines ''•    It   was    finished    in    1285.    The    first  bring  about  his  death. 

rector  was  Richard,  and  the  last  Thomas  Waterhouse        Bonizo  wrote:  (1)  the  ''Paradisus",  or  extracts 

(1529),  who  surrendered  the  house  to  Henry  VIII.  from  the  writings  of  St.  Ausustine  (stiU  unpublished); 

The  suppressed  college  was  granted  first  to  the  king's  (2^  a  short  treatise  on  the  sacraments  (Muratori, 

sister  Elizabeth,  and  afterwards  to  the  Egertons,  "AntiquitatesItalicseMed.  JSvi*',  III,inMigne,P.  L., 

later  created  Earls  and  Dukes  of  Bridgewater.    The  CL)*  (3)  the  *  *  Decretum  "  or  *  *  De  vitA  Christian^",  a 

church  was  destroyed  under  Elizabeth;  but  in  1800  woiv  in  ten  books  on  ecclesiastical  law  and  moral 

the  last  duke  was  hving  in  a  portion  of  the  old  college,  theology  written  at  the  request  of  a  certain  priest 

He  sold  theinreat  hall  piecemeed,  and  pulled  down  the  Gregorv  [fragments  of  this  woric  are  in  Mai's  Nova 

cloisters.    The  estate  and  rmodem)  mansion  now  Bibuotheca,  VII,  iii,  1-76  (Rome,  1854)1;  (4)  "In 

belong  to  Earl  Brownlow.    The  only  other  En^ish  Hugonem  schismaticum",  now  lost,  probaoly  against 

house  of  the  Boni  Homines  was  at  Edington  in  Wilts,  the  schismatic  Cardinal  Hugo  Canaidus;  (5)  a  de- 

The  former  college  there  (consisting  of  a  dean  and  pre-  scription  of  the  various  classes  of  judges  in  the 

bendapes)  was  granted  to  them  by  desire  of  Edward  Roman  Empire  and  in  the    Roman   Church    (ed. 

the  Black  Prince,  who  (says  Leland)  ''had  a  great  BlQhme,  in  ifon.  Ger.  Hist.  Leges,  IV):  (6)  his  most 

favour  to  the  Bones-homes  beyond  the  Se".    The  important  woric  the  "Liber  ad  amicum",  a  histoiy  of 

first  rector  (brought  from  Ashrid^e)  was  Jo^n  de  the  Church,  in  which  the  author  relates  events  of  his 

Aylesbury,  the  last  John  Ryve.    Edward  VI  granted  own  times, 
the  property  to  Lord  St.  John;  it  now  belongs  to  the        Saub,  Stud^Hher  Boniu>  \n  Forsch,  gwdeutsch.  Oe«*. 

Wa&>n'Ta^lor  fanul;r     The  ^lendid  ohuj^  one  of  f,^lSl^;^VlVlL?J^^f^i£:i/^";^  'S 

the  finest  of  its  period,  still  remains.     (Little,  The  his  edition  of  Liber  ad  amieum  in  Mon.  Germ.  Hiat.,  LibeUi  de 

Friais  of  the  Sack,  ui  Eng.  Hist.  Review,  1894,  33,  W«  ll^P' /^.f^sJ<  ^,«*>*'  •   Martens  in  TUbing.  Theol, 

lot  \  ^^  Quartaiachr^t    (1883),    457    aqq.;    Qiesebrkcht,    Oesch,    der 

i;4    r«        «  «         x^  rr..      .J  dcutec*. /CoM^TWtt  (Leip«g,  1885,  1890),  II.  Ill;  Wattenbach. 

in.  The  Portuguese  Boni  Homines. — ^The  iden-  DeutaMand*  Gesehichtequellen  (6th  ed.,  1893).  II.  223,  224; 

tity  of  the  Fratres  SaccaH  mentioned  by  Matthew  Duller  in  X»rd^nl«..  II.  1087  aqq-;  Herxoo.  R^l^neyk. 

,  Paiis  as,  in  1257.  a  "new  order  in  Englind"   with  ikSSS^i^^^^h'^         "^^  "^"^ 

the  "new  order"  ^the  Bonshommes)  established  a  Francis  J.  Schaefer. 

little  later  at  Ashndge  and  Edington,  seems  to  be 

senerally  admitted.    An  entirely  separate  institute,        Bonn,  UmvERsmr  op  (Rheinische   Friedricb- 

however,  was  that  of  the  Portuguese  Boni  Homines,  Wilhelms-Universitat).    An  academy  was  founded 

or  Secular  Canons  of  St.  John  the  Evaogelisti  founded  at  Bonn  in  1777  by  Max  Friedrich,  Prince- Archbishop 


BONNASD                               674  BONNX-XSPrntANOB 

of  Cologne.  To  secure  its  8up{)ort  he  ordered  that  osophical  opinions  found  in  his  work,  ''Philoeophy 
every  monastery  and  convent  within  the  archdiocese  of  Christianity",  for  which  Bonnechose  had  written 
should  either  provide  two  professors  or  contribute  an  introduction.  In  1844,  he  was  named  by  Rome 
a  certain  sum  of  money.  He  also  endeavoured  to  superior  of  the  community  of  St.  Louis;  in  1847  he 
obtain  the  papal  sanction,  but  failed.  In  1784  Kaiser  became  Bishop  of  Carcassonne,  was  transferred,  4 
Joseph  II  raised  the  academy  to  the  rank  of  a  uni-  November,  1854,  to  Evreux,  and  in  1854  raised  to 
versity,  and  the  inaugiixation  took  place  20  Novem-  the  archiepiscopal  See  of  Rouen.  Created  cardinal 
ber,  1786.  In  this  first  period  the  university  suffered  in  1863,  he  became  exK)fficio  senator  of  the  empire, 
from  Febronianism  ana  Rationalism.  The  leaders  The  cardinal  showed  himself  a  warm  advocate  of  the 
were  Hedderich  (1744-1808),  Dereser  (1757-1827),  temporal  power  of  the  popes,  and  firmly  protested 
and  Schneider  (1756-94).  Pius  VI  in  a  Brief  of  24  agamst  the  withdrawal  of  the  French  army  from  the 
March,  1790,  called  the  archbishop's  attention  to  the  Pontifical  States.  In  1870,  at  the  urgent  prayers  of 
deplorable  condition  of  the  university,  but  without  the  citizens  of  Rouen,  notwithstanding  his  advanced 
result.  In  1794  the  French  invasion  obliged  the  pro-  years,  he  went  in  the  rigour  of  the  season  to  Versailles, 
fessors  to  sxispend  their  courses,  and  in  1797  the  uni-  the  headquarters  of  the  German  armies,  to  entreat 
versity  was  closed.  It  was  restored  in  1818  by  King  Kin^  William  of  Prussia  to  reduce  the  war  contribu- 
Friednch  Wilhelm  III.  Among  its  professors  of  tion  unposed  on  the  city  of  Rouen.  Under  the  repub- 
theology  were  Geoige  Hermes  (1776-1831),  Achter-  lican  government  he  uniformly  opposed  the  laws  and 
feldt  (1788-1879),  and  Braun  (1801-63),  originators  measures  passed  against  religious  congregations  and 
of  the  movement  known  as  Hermesianism.  Some  of  their  schools,  but  endeavoured  to  inspire  his  deig^ 
their  followers,  e.  g.  Elverich  Q  796-1 886),  joined  the  with  sentiments  of  deference  and  conciliation  in  their 
''Old  Catholics'',  a  partv  whicn  also  had  as  adherents  relations  with  the  civil  authorities.  His  best  known 
Reusch  (1825-1900)  and  several  other  members  of  the  work  is  "Introduction  k  la  philosophic  du  Chris- 
faculty.  Their  action  led  finalljr  to  their  suspension  tianisme"  (1835),  two  octavo  volumes, 
and  excommunication  after  havmg  created  a  division  ,  %!5y*»  Pi^-  ^.^^A?^^  1892);  Laroubse,  Dicl  univ. 
among  both  professors  and  studentspf  thedogy.  The  ^"  ^^^*  "^^  ^^*"'''  i^7>-  F  M  L  Dumont 
other  departments  of  the  university  developeafrapidly  *      *     * 

under  the  direction  of  Niebuhr   (1776-1831)   and  Biiim«-Ka»femc«    The  Abbey  of  flitiiat«l  nftw 

Amdt  (1769-1860)  in  history,  A.  W.  Schlegel  (1767-  »<>ime-miwance,  itje  abbey  of,  situated  near 

1846)  Lliteratuii,  Nasse  (1778-1851)  in  medicine,  K^  ^^^.,1^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

Kekule  (182^96)  and  Mohr  (180^79)  in  chemistry  ^f^S^'^K^       i^  foundation  to  the  conveiawi 

t^^^^.E'^Z}\^'tl^^^^l2^tll  •>«««'«'  o'  Tanchelm,  but  through  the  penni«ve 

^wfv^H^^^^h^  ^iin^.  Hl^^,i^«?.  ^TL^n  exhortations  of  St.  Norbert  he  lad  beeTbrought 

ETi*^  ,-IVi'l.!S'^''^^Kll^t"I?^  ^i^!;^  b'«'k  to  the  true  Church,  and  his  gmteful  pareSte, 


^rZ!„T.„^„K!i.^KS"  ^««  r~  9£i  i^^.Jn>^  WiUiam  foUowed  St.  Norbert  to  Pi«montr6.    Rami- 

^^  Sn'ji^^fn'^boart^cithoray  m  Yed'^^^i'^^onvrlno'^^rS^ul!;  ^^ 

of  theology  had  309  studento,  the  Protestant  8(5.  *p^*iL^f^h^°'^rt"i^Jr«™  fL^^^ 

The  libn^  contain  3S0.000  volume  S.^^'j^trf;  excfaimll:'"&'s^i  ftb?i  ffi« 

Jii.  A.  I'ACK.  ^^^ff  QYis.,  xii,  19— O  God,  Thou  hast  made  Thy 

BoBBTd.  W  Lo.«,  V.KEKXB.K^  a   French  ^^^^^^^^  t^o^ToU  £Js'"w^';^Sl 

srs^^^r®cL\ttoisi^' g^h^^^  tecrn^d^'£^!;sj"Si£'"The^l^ 

on  Ar^tni    1QRO      Aff^»  ^  A^iiA«*;««fA  y.rv.»L  «♦  fl«;«*  Udos  connaence  was  not  misplaced.     Ine  abbey 

Wl^S^ti !^^«J^hI  tmw^^f  ?t^  wK?.t.  ht  P«^  and  prospered  and  has  evef  sent  forth  numbere 

i^^^lhA  ,!^  nTfl^fffwTS^  1}:I^^J  ^t^  o^  holy  an^  l«irned  priests.    Blessed  Odo  was  suc- 

^ot^if^f^lS^afthXi^Wi^^ZT^^^i™^  «eeded  bv  Blessed  ftiilip,  sumamed  the  Almoner. 

c'h^fofX'rS^'Sbu'fa^^riyLTtt  be-.de-ribed  by  Ab^t  PWUp.  was  r&o^ 

lShewasa''n«tedandci*.in<j,.nsJn.    Sentenc^  SfX"lte''r^Si^^".S^nr%?loSy^S 

^„1S  L^JIICX^^  X^t^fe  !!?nfiXtfn;  and  !««*  Abbot  of  Bonn^p6rance,  Bonaventure 

ecuted  immediately  upon  ]^ipt  of  its  confirmation  Daublain,  saw  in  1792  and  agkin  In  1794  the  abbey 

theChurchT^  t^uciouic   ujr  ti^Qug^  they  wished  to  live  m  conamumty,  they  were 

Taitwav  r^  rf«/m««/^wi*.z«  «-rMy^i«  a*  7v«wpo.4-  ifiQK\  ^^^  allowcd  to  do  so  during  the  French  Republic, 

^xmAY.  Le.  cmquonU^ieux  .ervUeurs  de  Iheu  (Pans.  1896).  ^^^  ^^^^^  ^g^^  ^^^^  ^.^.^  ^^  j^.^^  ^^  ^^^  jj^^^^ 

•  N.  A.  Weber,  lands.    The  last  surviving  religious  gave  the  abbey 

to  the  Bishop  of  Toumai  for  a  diocesan  seminary. 

Bonnechose,  Henri-Marib-Gaston  BoisNORMAND  The  church  is  still  Norbertine  in  its  appearance, 

DB,  cardinal  and  senator,  b.  at  Paris,  1800;  d.  1883.  possessing  as  it  does  the  body  of  St.  Fr^enc,  which 

Entering  the  magistracy,  he  became  attomey-^nered  nad  been  saved  from  the  Protestants  and  broi^t 

for  the  district  of  Besancon  in  1830,  but  havmg  re-  from  the  Norbertine  Abbey  in  Holland  to  the  Ahhev 

ceived  sacred  orders  at  Strasburg,  under  the  episco-  of     Bonne-Esp6rance     in     Belgium.    The    churdi 

pate  of  de  Trevem,  he  was  made  professor  of  saor^  is  still  adorned  with  the  statues  of  St.  Norbert, 

eloquence  in  the  school  of  higher  studies  founded  at  of  St.  Fr6d6ric,  and  of  two  Norbertine  bishops,  St. 

Besancon  bv  Cardinal  de  Rohan.    After  the  death  of  Evremonde  and  St.  Isfrid.    At  the  time  of  the  s^ 

de  Ronan,  he  went  to  Rome  to  settle  the  differences  pression  the  miraculous  statue  of  Our  Lady  of  Good 

between  Bishop  de  Trevem  and  himself,  due  to  phil-  Hope  was  hidden;  and  when  peace  wc£  restored*  >t 


675 

was  brought  to  the  church  of  Vellerdlle  of  which  use  of  the  new  Prajrer  Bode.  When  ordered  to  preach 

one  of  the  canons  of  Bonne-Espdrance  was  the  padsh  at  St.  Paul's  Cross  he  did  so,  but  with  such  significant 

priest*    In  1833  it  was  solemnly  brought  back  *  to  omissions  in  the  matter  which  had  been  prescribed 

the  abbey  church,  or,  as  it  b  now,  the  seminary  touching  the  king's  authority,  that  he  was  finally 

church.  deprived  of   his  see  and  sent  as  a  pnsoner  to  the 

^^Ann^  PntmonsL,  The  L^e  of  SL  Frederic;  DBCLiBvas,  Marshalsea.    Here  he  remained  till  the  accession  of 

possession  of  his  diocese  once  more.  In  estunating 
Bonner,  Edmund,  Bishop  of  London,  b.  about  Bishop  Bonner's  conduct  on  his  restoration  to  his  see 
1500;  d.  1569.  He  was  the  son  of  Edihund  Bonner,  the  difficulties  of  the  position  must  be  recalled, 
a  sawyer  of  Potter's  Henley  in  Worcestershire,  Eng-  There  was  in  London  an  exi^emely  violent  reforming 
land,  and  Elizabeth  Frodsnam.  Doubt  was  cast  on  element  which  opposed  in  every  way  the  restoration 
his  legitimacy  by  Bale  and  other  opponents,  who  as-  of  Catholic  worship.  For  twenty  years  the  authority 
sertedf  that  he  was  the  natural  son  of  a  priest  named  of  the  Holy  See  had  be^i  set  at  naught  and  ridiculed 
Savage,  but  Strype  and  other  Anelican  writers,  in-  in  unsparing  terms,  and  though  the  Pariiament  in 
eluding  the  histonan  S.  R.  Maitland,  have  shown  the  1554  welcomed  Pole  as  Papal  Le^te  and  sou^t 
grouncuess  nature  of  these  assertions.  He  was  edu-  absolution  and  reconciliation  from  hun  with  apparent 
cated  at  Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  then  Broadgate  unanimity,  there  was  a  real  hM}stilit^  to'  the  whole 
Hall,  where  he  took  his  degree  as  Bachelor  both  of  proceeding  among  a  considerable  secuon  of  the  pop- 
canon  and  of  civil  law  in  1510,  and  was  ordained  ulace.  Dmring  1554  Bonner  carried  out  a  visitation 
priest  about  the  same  time.  In  1525  he  became  doo-  of  his  diocese,  restoring  the  Mass  and  the  manifold 
tor  of  civil  law  and  soon  after  entered  the  service  of  practices  and  emblems  of  Catholio  life,  but  the  woric 
Cardinal  Wolsey,  which  brought  him  to  the  notice  of  was  carried  out  slowly  and  with  difficulty.  To  help 
the  king  and  Cromwell,  and  thus  led  to  a  diplomatic  in  the  work,  Bonner  published  a  list  of  thirtynseven 
career.  After  the  fall  of  Wolsey,  he  remained  faith-  "Articles  to  be  enquired  of",  but  these  led  to  such 
ful  to  him  and  was  with  him  at  tne  time  of  his  arrest  disturbances  that  they  were  temporarily  withdrawn, 
and  death.  When  the  question  of  the  king's  divorce  While  many  rejoiced  to  have  the  old  worship  re^ 
was  raised,  he  was  employed  by  the  king  as  his  agent  stored,  others  exhibited  the  most  implacaUe  hos* 
at  Rome,  where  he  remamed  a  whole  year,  1532-33.  tiUty.  As  Bonner  sat  at  St.  Paul's  Cross  to  hear 
During  tne  following  ^rears  he  was  much  employed  on  Gilbert  Bourne  preach,  when  reference  was  made  to 
important  embassies  in  the  king's  interests,  first  to  the  bishop's  sufferings  under  Edward  VI  a  dagger  was 
the  pope  to  appeal  against  the  exconmiunication  pro-  thrown  at  the  preacher.  At  St.  Margaret's,  West- 
nounced  in  July,  1533,  afterwards  to  the  emperor  to  minster,  a  murderous  assault  was  made  on  the  priest 
dissuade  him  from  attending  the  eeneral  council  which  giving  Holy  Communion,  the  Blessed  Sacrament 
the  pope  wished  to  simmion  at  Vicenza,  and  again  to  itself  was  the  object  of  profane  outrages,  and  street 
the  French  Court  to  succeed  Gardiner  there  as  am-  brawls  arising  out  of  religious  disputes  were  frequent, 
bassador.  In  this  capacity  he  proved  capable  and  Meanwhile  numy  of  the  Reformers  attacked  the  (^ueen 
successful,  though  irritation  was  frequently  caused  herself  in  terms  that  were  clearly  treasonable.  Had 
by  his  overbeanng  and  dictatorial  manner.  Mean-  these  been  proceeded  against  by  the  civil  power  much 
while  his  services  were  rewarded  by  successive  grants  evil  might  have  been  averted,  but  unfortunately  it 
of  the  livings  of  Cherry  Burton  (Yorks),  Kipple  was  thought  at  the  time  that,  as  the  root  of  the  evil 
(Worcester),  Blaydon  (Durham),  and  East  Dereham  lay  in  the  rdigious  question ^  the  offenders  would  best 
(Norfolk),  and  he  was  made  Archdeacon  of  Leicester  be  dealt  with  by  the  ecclesiastical  tribunals,  and  on 
in  1^35.  Finally,  while  ambassador  in  France,  he  Bonner,  as  Bishop  of  London,  fell  the  chief  burden, 
was  elected  Bishop  of  Hereford  (27th  November,  Besides  his  judicial  work  in  his  own  diocese,  Bonner 
1538)  but  owing  to  his  absence  he  could  neither  be  was  appointed  to  carry  out  the  painful  task  of  de- 
consecrated nor  take  possession  of  his  see,  and  he  was  grading  Chranmer  at  Oxford  in  February,  1556.  The 
still  abroad  when  he  was  translated  to  the  Bishopric  part  he  took  in  these  affairs  gave  rise  to  intense 
of  London.  Elected  in  November,  1539,  he  returned,  hatred  on  the  part  of  the  Reformers,  smd  by  them 
and  was  consecrated  4th  April,  1540.  Almost  his  he  was  represented  as  hoimding  men  and  women  to 
first  duty  was  to  try  heretics  under  Henry's  Act  of  the  deaUi  wiUi  meroiletss  vindiotiveness.  Foxe  in  his 
Six  Articles,  and  though  his  action  seems  to  have  been  '*  Book  of  Martyrs"  summed  up  this  view  in  two 
onl^  official,  accusations  of  excessive  cruelty  and  bias  doiroer^  lines : 

against  the  accused  were  spread  broadcast  by  his  ene-  "Tms  cannibal  in  three  years  space  three  hundred 

mies,  and  from  the  first  he  seems  to  have  been  un-  martyrs  slew 

popular  in  London.    During  the  years  1542-43  he  was  They  were  his  food,  he  loved  so  blood,  he  spared  none 

again  abroad  in  Spain  anof  Germany  as  ambassador  he  knew. " 

to  the  emperor,  at  the  end  of  which  time  he  returned  That  this  was  an  absolutelv  unfunded  charge  is 
to  London.  The  death  of  the  kin^  on  28th  January,  shown  by  the  letter  from  the  Bng  and  queen  in 
1547,  proved  the  turning  point  in  his  career.  Hitherto  Council,  addressed  to  Bonner  on  the  express  ground 
he  had  shown  himself  entirely  subservient  to  the  that  he  was  not  proceeding  with  sufficient  energy, 
sovereign,  supporting  him  in  the  matter  of  the  di-  As  to  the  number  of  his  "victims"  Foxe^  whose  un- 
vorce,  approving  of  the  suppression  of  the  religious  '  trustworthiness  now  needs  no  demonstration,  has  ex- 
houses,  taking  the  oath  of  supremacy  which  Pisher  aggerated  according  to  his  wont.  The  number  of 
and  More  refused  at  the  cost  of  life  itself,  and  ac>  persons  who  were  executed  under  the  laws  against 
cepttng  schismatical  consecration  and  institution,  neresy  in  his  jurisdiction  seems  to  have  been  about 
But  wmle  acting  in  this  way,  he  had  always  resisted  120.  As  to  these  persons  Mr.  Gairdner  writes  "Over 
the  innovations  of  the  Rektrmers,  and  held  to  the  their  ultimate  fate  it  must  be  remembered  he  had  no 
doctrines  of  the  old  religion.  Therefore  from  the  first  control,  when  once  they  were  declared  to  be  irr©» 
he  put  himself  in  opposition  to  the  religious  changes  claimable  heretics  and  handed  over  to  the  secular 
introduced  by  Protector  Somerset  and  Archbishop  power;  but  he  always  strove  by  gentle  suasion  first  to 
Cranmer.  reconcile  them  to  the  CJhurch  '.  Throughout  the 
He  opposed  the  "Visitors"  appointed  by  the  Coun-  "Book  of  Martyrs"  Foxe  is  unsparine  in  his  accusa- 
cil,  and  was  committed  to  prison  for  so  doing,  tions  of  cruelty  a^^ainst  the  bishop;  but  his  chaises 
Though  not  long  a  prisoner,  after  two  years  of  un-  have  been  impartially  examined  at  great  length  hy 
satisfactory  struggle  he  came  again  into  conflict  with  Dr.  Maitland,  who  comes  to  the  same  decision  as  the 
the  Protector  owing  to  his  omission  to  enforce  the  Catholic  writers  against  Foxe,  i^  sums  it  up  by 


BONNIE  676  BONNmt 

remarking  that  when  anyone  "calmly  inquires  what  ther  remanded.    The  last  of  these  i4;)peaiiincee  took 

these  tales  so  full  of  rage  and  fury  reiolv  mean,  when  place  in  the  Michaelmas  term  of  1568,  so  tiiat  the  last 

they  mean  anything,  he  finds  the  bloody  wolf  trana*  year  of  the  bishop's  life  was  spent  in  the  peace  of  his 

formed  .  .  .  into  something  much  more  like  a  good*  prison.    His  demeanour  during  his  long  imprisonment 

tempered  mastiff,  who  mient  safely  be  played  witii.  was  remarkable  for  unfailing  cheerfumess,  and  even 

and  who,  though  he' might  be  teased  into  barking  ana  Jewel  describes  him  in  a  letter  as  ''a  most  courteous 

growling,  had  no  disposition  to  bite  and  would  not  man  and  gentlemanly  both  in  his  manners  and  ap- 

do  it  without  orders'^.     (Essays,  422-424.)  pearance*'  (Zurich  Letters,  I,  34).    The  end  came  on 

Another  virulent  opponent  of  Bonner  was  John  5th  September,  1569,  when  he  died  in  the  Marrfmlsea. 

Bale,  formerly  a  friar  and  ex-Bishop  of  Ossory,  who  The  Ansiican  Bishop  of  London  wrote  to  Cecil  to  say 

in  1554  pubhshed  from  his  place  of  exile  at  Basle,  that  he  nad  been  buried  in  St.  Geoige's  churchyard, 

an  attack  on  the  bishop,  in  which  he  speaks  of  him  Southwark,  but  if  this  was  so  the  coffin  was  soon 

as  "the  bloody  sheep-bite  of  London",  "bloody  Bon-  secretly  removed  to  Oopford,  near  Colchester,  where 

ner",  and  still  coarser  epithets.    Conoemine  this  out-  it  was  buried  imder  uie  north  side  of  tiie  altar, 

burst  Dr.  Maitland  quietly  remarks,  "wen  Bale  Sander,  Bridgewater,  and  other  contemporaiy  writers 

wrote  this  book,  little  that  could  be  called  persecution  attributed  to  Bonner  and  the  other  bishops  who  died 

had  taken  place.     Not  one  martyr  had  suffered."  in  prison  the  honour  of  mar^rrdom:    tn    vineulU 

These  attacks  of  Foxe  and  Bale  are  noteworthy  as  obierurU    martyrea.    On   the   walls  of   the   £n^h 

being  the  foundation  on  which  the  current  traditional  0>lleee,  Rome,  an  inscription  recording  the  de^  of 

view  of  Bonner's  woric  and  character  has  been  based,  the  eleven  bishops,  but  without  naming  them,  found 

a  tradition  that  has  only  been  broken  down  by  the  a  place  among  the  paintings  of  the  martjrrs.    In  a 

research  of  the  past  century.    A  man  so  regarded  work  quoted  tcIow  tne  Catm>lic  tradition  with  rc^rd 

could  expect  small  consideration  when  the  death  of  to  these  bishops  has  been  ably  set  forth  by  Kev. 

Mary  (17th  November,  1558)   placed  Elisabeth  on  George  Phillips,  avowedly  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 

the  throne,  and  the  new  queen's    attitude  to  the  moting  their  beatification.     Bishop   Bonner  differs 

bishop  was  marked  at  their  first  interview,  when  she  from  the  others  in  this  respect,  that  owing  to  the 

refused  him  her  hand  to  kiss.     From  24th  June,  1559,  prominent  part  circumstances  compelled  him  to  play 

the  Mass  was  forbidden  as  well  as  all  other  services  m  the  persecution,  he  was  attacked  during  life  with  a 

not  in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  but  lon^  before  hatred  which  has  followed  him  even  after  death,  so 

that  date  the  Mass  ceased  in  most  London  churches,  that  in  English  history  few  names  have  been  so  ex- 

though   Bonner  took  care  that  in  his  cathedral  at  ecrated  and  vilified  as  his.    Tardy  justice  is  now 

least  it  should  still  be  celebrated.     On  30th  May,  being  done  to  his  memory  by  historians.  Catholic  and 

IlSchifanoya,  envoy  from  the  CJourt  of  Mantua,  wrote:  Protestant  alike,  yet  there  remains  immense  preiu- 

"The  Council  sent  twice  or  thrice  to  summon  the  dice  against  his  memor^r  in  the  popular  mind.     Nor 

Bishop  of  London  to  give  him  orders  to  remove  the  could  this  be  otherwise  in  face  of  tne  calumnies  that 

service  of  the  Mass  and  of  the  Divine  Office  in  that  have    been    repeated    by    tradition.    The    reckleas 

Church;  but  he  answered  them  intrepidly  'I  possess  charges  of  Bale  and  Foxe  were  repeated  by  Burnet 

three  things — eoul,  body,  and  proper^.     Of  tne  two  Hume,  and  others,  who  join  in  representing  him  as 

lattef,  you  can  dispose  at  your  pleasure,  but  as  to  the  an  inhuman  persecutor,  ''a  man  of  profligate  manners 

soul,  God  alone  can  command  me. '     He  remained  and  of  a  brutal  character,  who  seemed  to  rejoice  in 

constant  about  body  and  property,  and  again  to-day  the  torments  of  the  unhappy  sufferers"  (Hume  c 

he  has  been  called  to  the  Council,  but  I  do  not  yet  xxxvii).    The  first  historian  of  note  to  challenge  this 

know  what  they  saia  to  him."    X^hillips,  op.  cit.  verdict  was  the  C!atholic,  Lingard,  though  even  he 

infray  103.)     As  a  matter  of  fact,  they  had  ordered  wrote  in  a  very  tentative  way  and  it  was  by  an 

him  to  resign  the  bishopric,  which  he  refused  to  do,  Anglican  histonan,  S.  R.  Maitland,  that  an3rthing 

adding  that  he  preferred  oeath.     He  was  then  de-  like  justice  was  first  done  to  Bonner.    This  writer's 

prived  of   the  office  and  went  for  a  time  to  West-  analysis  remains  the  most  discriminating  summary 

minster  Abbey.    On  20th  April,  1560,  he  was  sent  as  of  tne  bishop's  character.     "Setting  aside  dedama- 

a  prisoner  to  the  Marshalsea.     During  the  next  two  tion  and  looidnff  at  the  details  of  facts  left  by  those 

years  representatives  of  the  reforming  party  fre-  who  may  be  cal^,  if  people  please,  Bonner's  victims^ 

auently  clamoured  for  the  execution  of  Bonner  and  and  their  friends,  we  find,  very  consistently  main- 

Uie  other  imprisoned  bishops.    When  the  Parliament  tained,  the  character  of  a  man,  strai^htformrd  and 

of  1563  met,  a  new  Act  was  passed  by  which  the  first  hearty,  familiar  and  humorous,  sometimes  rough,  per- 

refusal  of  the  oath  of  royal  supremacy  was  prcemuntre.  haps  coarse^  naturally  hot  tempered,  but  obviously 

the  second,  high  treason.    The  bishops  had  refused  p>y  the  testimony  of  his  enemies)  placable  and  easily 

the  oath  once,  so  that  by  this  Act,  which  became  law  intreated,  capable  of  bearing  most  patiently  much 

on  10th  April,  their  next  refusal  of  the  oath  might  be  intemperate  and  insolent  language,  much  reviling  and 

followed  by  their  death.    On  24th  April,  the  Spanish  low  abuse  directed  against  himself  personally,  against 

Ambassador  writes  that  Bonner  and  some  others  had  his  order,  and  against  those  peculiar  doctrines  and 

been  already  called  on  to  taJce  the  oath.     Partly  practices  of  his  church  for  maintaining  which  he  had 

owing  to  the  intervention  of  the  emperor  and  partly  himself  suffered  the  loss  of  all  things,  and  borne  long 

to  an  outbreak  of  the  plague,  no  further  steps  seem  imprisonment.    At  the  same  time  not  incapable  cw 

to  have  been  taken  at  the  time.     A  year  later,  on  bemg  provoked  into  saying  harsh  and  passionate 

29th  April,  1564,  the  oath  was  again  tendered  to  Bonner  things,  but  much  more  frequently  meaning  nothins 

by  Home,  the  Anslican  Bishop  of  Winchester.    This  by  tne  threatening  and  slaughter  which  he  breathed 

he  firmly  refused,  but  the  interference  of  the  Spanish  out,  than  to  intimidate  those  on  whose  ignorance  and 

ambassador  and  ms  own  readiness  of  resource  saved  simplicity  alignment  seemed  to  be  thrown  away — in 

immediate  consequences.     Beinff  well  skilled  both  in  short,  we  can  scarcely  read  with  attention  any  one  of 

civil  and  canon  law,  he  raised  the  point  that  Home,  the  cases  detailed  by  those  who  were  no  fnends  of 

who  offered  him  the  oath,  was  not  qualified  to  do  so,  Bonner,  without  seemg  in  him  a  judge  who  (even  if 

as  he  had  not  been  validly  consecrated  bishop.    This  we  fprsnt  that  he  was  dispensing  bad  laws  badly)  was 

challenged  the  new  hierarchy  as  to  the  validity  of  their  obviously  desirous  to  save  the  prisoner's  life. "    This 

orders,  and  so  strong  was  Bonner's  case  that  the  Gov-  verdict  has  been  generally  followed  by  later  his- 

emment  evaded  meeting  it,  and  the  proceedings  com-  torians,  and  the  last  word  has  been  added,  for  the 

menced  against  him  were  adjourned  time  after  time,  present,  in  the  recently  published  volume  on  the 

Four  times  a  year  for  three  years  he  was  forced  to  Reformation,  in  the  ''Cambridge  Modem  History** 

appear  in  the  courts  at  Westminster  only  to  be  fur*  plumed  by  Lord  Acton  (1903)  where  the  statement 


fiONNSTTT  677  BON08U8 

'^  expressly  made:  "It  is  now  generally  admitted  be  adduced  to  prove  the  existence  of  God  againpt  c.fl 

that  the  part  played  by  Bonner  was  not  that  attrib-  athebt,  or  the  spirituality  and  freedom  of  the  rational 

uted  to  him  by  Foxe,  of  a  cruel  bigot  who  exulted  in  soul  against  an  adherent  of  naturalism  and  fatalisnu 

sending  his  victims  to  the  stake.    The  niunber  of  (Proposition  subscribed  to  by  Bautam.  8  September, 

those  put  to  death  in  his  diocese  of  London  was  un-  1840.)     (3)  The  use  of  reason  preceaes  faith,  and, 

doubtedly  disproportionately  large,  but  this  would  with  the  help  of  revelation  and  grace,  leads  man  to 

seem  to  nave  been  more  the  result  of  the  strength  faith.     (Prop,  subscribed  to  by  Bautain,  8  September, 

of  the  reforming  element  in  the  capital  and  in  Essex,  1840.)     (4)  The  method  used  by  St.  Thomas,  by 

than  of  the  employment  of  exceptional  rigour;  while  St.  ^naventure,  and,  after  them,  by  other  scholas- 

the  evidence  also  shows  that  he  himself  patiently  tics,  does  not  lead  to  rationalism,  nor  does  it  explain 

dealt  with  many  of  the  Protestants,  and  diet  his  best  why,  in  modem  schools,  philosophy  should  fall  into 

to  induce  them  to  renounce  what  he  conscientiously  naturalism   and   pantheism.     Bfence    these   doctors 

believed  to  be  their  errors. "  and  masters  cannot  be  reproached  for  using  that 

Bonner's  writings  include  "Responsum  et  Exhor-  method,  especially  with  the  approval,  at  least  tacit 

tatio in laudem Sacerdotii "  ^1563);  "Articles  to  be  en-  of  the  (Siurch.     (Prop,  contradictory  to  propositions, 

quired  of  in  the  General  Visitation  of  Edmund  Bishop  extracted  from  different  passa^  of  Bonne tty.) '' 
of  London"  (1554);   "  Homelies  sette  forth  hy  Ed-        It  must  be  noted  that  in  the  Tetter  sent  at  the  same 

dmune  Bvshop  of  London.  ...  to  be  read  within  his  time  as  these  propositions  by  Father  Modena,  the 

diocese  of  London  of  all  Parsons,  vycars  and  curates,  secretary  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Index,  to  Mon- 

unto  their  parishioners  upon  Sondayes  and  holy  days"  signor  Sacconi,  the  papal  nuncio  in  Paris,  it  was 

(1555).     There  was  also  publishea  under  his  name  a  stated   that   Bonnetty's   attachment   to   the   Holy 

catechism,  probably  written  by  his  chaplains.  Harps-  See    and    to   Catholic    doctrines    was   never   sus- 

field  and  Pendleton,  entitled  ^'A  profitable  and  nee-  pected.    The  intention  was  not  to  pronounce  any 

essary  doctrine"  (1554;  2d  ed.  1555).    He  also  wrote  judgment  declaring  his  opinions  "erroneous,  suspi- 

the  preface  to  Bishop  Gardiner's  "Bookof  Obedience"  cious.  or  dangerous",   but   only  "to  prevent  tne 

(1534).  possible  consequences,  proximate  or  remote,  which 

.A*^X*^^f,^'U?^'^  ^''^'  DoDD,  Chut<^  HUkrry  (London,  others  might  deduce  from  them,  especially  in  matters 

i^^fiSli^'^i'id'rn'iAr&lTt'i^I^  ^^  °f  ^i'T-     ^'?^'J?'  *ii^'*"*  '^^  h^itation   gave 

XX;  GiLLow.  Bib.  DicL  Bng.  Cath.  (Loncfon,  1886),  1. 260-266;  his  full  assent  to  the  above  propositions.     He  de- 

Gairdner  in  IWrt.  Nat.Biog.  (London,  1886).  V,  356-360;  olared  that  he  had  meant  all  along  to  defend  these 

f^^  i''^y!^'^s.?7!Si4''S^  ^ory^I  i^r^^TA  ^^^^j™^''  ^^  *^*  ^^  ^°^d  ^^'^^^^^  endeavour 

Phiixips,  Extinction  of  the  Ancient  Uierardty  Londofti.  1906).  to  do  SO  With  greater  accuracy. 

Edwin  Burton.  Bonnetty  was  a  member  of  the  "  Soci^t^  des  Etudes 

litt^raires  ,  the  ''Association  pour  la  d^tense  de  la 

Bonnettyi  AuGUSTiN.  a  French  writer,  b.  at  Entre-  religion  catholique",  the  "Soci€t6  asiatique",  and 

vaux  (dept.  of  Basses- Alpes)  9  May,  1798:  d.  at  Paris,  the  "Roman  Academy  of  the  Catholic  Keligion". 

26  March,  1879.     In  1815  he  entered  tne  seminary  He  was  also  a  knight  of  the  Order  of  St.  Gregory  the 

at  Digne  and  studied  for  the  priesthood.    After  Great  and  of  thfe  Order  of  Pius  IX.    In  adoption  to 

completing  his  philosophical  and  tneological  studies,  his  nunlerous  articles  in  the  "Annales  de  philosophic 

as  he  was  too  young  to  be  ordained,  he  went  to  chr^tienne"  and  the   "University  catholiaue",  he 

Marseilles  as  pnvate  tutor  in  an  excellent  family,  wrote  the  following  works  most  of  which,  however. 

He  soon  felt  that  his  mission  was  to  use  science  and  were   first   published    as    articles   in   the   Annales: 

philosophy  in  the  defence  of  the  (Dhurch  and  to  "Beauts  de  Thistoire  de  TEglise"   (Paris,  1841); 

»^main  a  layman.     In  1825  he  went  to  Paris,  and  "Le  christianisme  et  la  philosophic"  (Paris,  1845): 

five  years  later  founded  the  "Annales  de  philosophic  "Table  de  tous  les  auteurs  ^dit^s  par  le  cardinal 

ohngtienne"  (first  niunber  31  July.  1830)  which  he  Mai"  (Paris,  1850);  "Documents  historiques  sur  la 

•vlited  until  his  death.     His  main  ooject  was  to  show  religion  des  Romains"  (Paris,  1867-78);  "Diction- 

the  agreement  of  science  and  religion,  and  to  point  naire  raisonn^  de  diplomatique",  based  on  that  of 

out  how  the  various  sciences  contributed  to  the  DomdeVaines  (Paris,  1863-65);  a  translation  of  the 

demonstration    of   Christiani^.     In    1838    he   also  Latin  work  by  Father  de  Pr^mare,  a  Jesuit  missionary 

took  up  the  direction  of  the  "  University  catholioue  "  in   China    (1666-1734),    "Vestiges    des   principaux 

found^  two  years  before  by  Gerbet,  de  Salinis,  dogmes  chnStiens  tir^  des  anciens  livres  chinois" 

de  Scorbiac.  and  de  Montalembert.     Having    be-  (1^9). 


lusively  to  the  "Annales".    Among 
main  features  of  the  "Annales"  was  the  attempt 

to  show  the  universality  of  a  primitive  revelation  Bonosus,  Bishop  of  Sardica,  a  heretic  in  the  latter 

which  is  recognizable  even  in  the  myths  and  fables  part  of  the  fourth  century.    Against  the  common 

of  aU  nations.    But  Bonnetty  went  farther,  exag-  teaching  of  the  (church  he  held  that,  after  Jesus, 

geratin^  the  necessity  of  this  primitive  revelation,  Mary  Imd  several  other  children.    The  Council  of 

and  minimjging  the  value  of  reason  in  attaining  Capua  (391),  before  which  the  matter  was  brought,  did 

cruth.    This  tendency  to  the  system  known  as  "  tra-  not  pass  any  judgment  on  it,  but  referred  it  to  the 

ditionalism  "  soon  drew  the  attention  of  the  ecclesias-  Metropolitan  Anysius  of  Thessalonica  and  the  other 

tical  authorities.     A  report  was  sent  to  the  Congrega-  bishops  of  Illyria.     They  condemned  Bonosus  and 

tion  of  the  Index  by  Archbishop  Sibour  of  Paris,  and  tried  to  exclude  him  from  his  church.    In  a  letter  to 

two  years  later  (1855)  Bonnetty  was  asked  to  sign  the  same  bishops  Pope  Siricius  approves  the  sentence 

the  following  four  propositions:  "  (1)  Although  faith  and  also  condemns  the  opinion  that  Mary  did  not 

is  superior  to  reason,  yet  no  discord  or  disagreement  always  preserve  her  virginity.     Notwithstanding  his 

can  ever  be  foimd  between  them,  since  both  proceed  condemnation,  and  the  prudent  advice  of  St.  Ambrose 

from  one  and  the  same  imchanffeable  source  of  truth,  to  submit,  Bonosus  continued  to  exercise^  the  episco- 

God  infinite  in  perfection,  and  thus  are  of  mutual  pal   functions,    to   consecrate   bishops   and   ordain 

assistance.     Encyclical  of  Pius  IX,  9  November,  priests.    According  to  two   letters  of  Pope  Inno- 

1846.)     (2)   Reasoning  can  demonstrate  with  cer-  cent  I,  one  to  Martian  of  Naissa   (409),  and  the 

tainty  the  existence  of  God,  the  spirituality  of  the  other  to  the  bishops  of  Macedonia  (414),   those  or- 

»ul,  and  the  freedom  of  man.     Faith  is  posterior  to  dained  by  Bonosus  before  his  condemnation  were 

•^vdation,  and  in  consequence  cannot  consistently  to  be  received  in  the  Church  without  a  new  ordina* 


BOH                                   678  BOOa. 

^lon;  those  ordained  since  Bonosus's  condemnation,  in  France  for  three  years.    Vows  are  renewed  annit 

especially  if  they  had  themselves  sought  to  be  or-  ally  for  five  years,  then  made  for  five  years,  anc 

dmned  by  hmi,  were  to  be  deprived  of  their  di^ty.  finally  perpetual  vows  are  taken.    The  haoit  is  black 

As  Innocent  speaks  of  Bonosus  as  no  longer  hving,  with  a  small  black  cape,  a  black  veil,  and  white 

we  may  infer  tnat  he  died  at  the  end  of  the  fourth,  or  ^impe.     A  crucifix  suspended  by  a  purple  ribbon 

the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century.  is  worn  round  the  neck.    There  are  120  houses  of 

Whether,  besides  denying  Mary's  peri>etual  vir-  these  sisters  in  various  coimtries,  most  of  them  in 

pinity,  Bonosus  also  denied  Christ's  divinity  cannot  France,  outside  of  which  territory  there  are  3  in 

be  determined  with  certainty.     But  it  is  certain  that  Belgium,  4  in  Italy,  1  in  Spain,  3  in  England,  1  in 

his  followers,  the  Bonosians,  to  whom  we  find  refer-  the  United  States,  and  6  in  Africa.    The  sisters  num- 

ences  in  the  councils  and  in  ecclesiastical  writers  up  ber  about  1,000. 

to  the  seventh  century,  denied  this  dogma.    On  this  ...Stmle,  TA*  Conuenft  of  Great  Britain  (St.  Louis^  1902); 

point  they  were  at  one  VMth  the  pEotinians.    As  ^t^on'^^  c^J^^??];  '^ILS^TSf^  t 

a  conseauence,   they  affirmed   the  purely  adoptive  Smm  de  Bon  Seamra  (Ptaia,  18SI). 

divine  filiation  of  Our  Lord.     However,  they  dif-  Thomas  F.  Meehan. 

fered  from  the  Adoptionists  in  rejecting  all  natural        -*..         .  /iiit%#     

sonship,  whereas  the  Adoptionists,  distinguishing  in  Bonvidno,  Alessandro  (called  II  Moretto,  or 

Christ  the  God  and  the  man,  attributed  to  the  former  Moretto   da   Brescia),    one  of   the   finest    Norit. 

a  natural,  and  to  the  latter  an   adoptive  sonship.  Itahan   painters  of   the   sixteenth   century,    b.    u* 

The  baptism  conferred  by  the  Bonosians  was  by  Brescia  about  1498;  d.  at  the  same  place,    1555 

some  declared  valid  and  by  othera  invalid.  I*  is  said  that  he  was  a  pupd  of  Titian,  but  it  l^ 

Besides  the  collections  of  JaffA.  Mansi.  Miqne.  Conbtant,  considered  more  likely  that  he  was  but  an  earnest 

^',seo  n^ELK,  ConcUienoeachuMB  (2ed.,  Freiburw,  1873),  student  of  the  works  of    this  great  tnaster  wkose 

jl,  III.  V:  Walch.  Dvuertatw  deBonoeto  futretico  (Gftttingen,  _x    i      v,      ;mitjtt/»H   an  pIosaIv  f>ij5   manv  nf  hia    nnr- 

1754);  Id..  Eniumrf  einer  volUt&ndigen  Hiatorie  der  Ketxereien,  ^Jlf  ?®  inutateU  SO  Closely  tnat  many  Ol   ms   pOT- 

SpaUunnen  und  ReiipumaatrdtiokeUm  (Leipzig,  l762-«6),  III,  traits  bear  well  a  comparison  With  those  of  the  noted 

fi98:  mLEMONT,  aC^»»^««„p<>w  wfTwr  it  i^tow  ecMaiaa-  Venetian.    It  is  known  that  he  studied  under  his 

T'a^-^T<^'l;i^.T^^!^'f\'f^^t:t^.  fetter  also  a  painter,  and  under  Floriano  FerramoU, 

VII,  514;  Le  Bachelet  in  Diet,  da  thiol,  cath,  II,  1027;  and  that  G.  Romanino  had  much  influence  over  him. 

VENAiLBs  in  Diet,  CkriaL  Biog.  f .  330.      ^    .    ^  He  himself  had  as  a  pupil   that  superb   portrait 

C.  A.  DiTBRAT.  painter,  Giambattista  Moroni.  Bonvicino's  man- 
Bon  Secours  (db  Paris),  Instttute  of,  the  first  ^^r  is  most  natural  and  attractive^  his  feeling, 
Df  the  congregations  of  musing  sisters,  gardes  malades,  where  necessary,  most  devotional,  his  colour  re- 
founded  in  France  during  the  nmeteenth  century,  naarkable  for  its  freshness  ^and  opidence,  and  his 
whose  object  is  to  take  care  of  both  rich  and  poor  figures  sympathetic  and  graceful.  He  w-as  in  his 
patients  in  their  own  homes.  This  congregation  was  later  life  greatly  influenced  by  Raphael.  He  as- 
begun  by  Archbishop  de  Qu^len  of  Pans  in  1822  listed  Feiramola  in  painting  an  ^tar  screen  for  the 
and  was  formally  approved  by  Pope  Pius  IX  in  June,  old  cathedral  at  Brescia  and  did  similar  work  for 
1875.  Its  members  nurse  the  poor  gratuitously.  Pa-  Romamno  in  the  church  of  San  Giovanm  Evange- 
tients  who  can  afford  it  pay  for  such  service.  The  ^^  ^^  ^[^^  ^ity.  It  was  here,  also,  Uiat  he  produced 
habit  of  the  sisters  is  black;  they  wear  a  white  cap  his  notable  painting,  the  "Massacre of  the  Innocents  . 
with  frilled  border  and  a  black  veiL  Besides  the  ^-A^mong  his  other  church  works  at  Br^ia  are 
sixteen  houses  of  the  congregation  in  France,  there  *J;®  Coronation  of  the  Virgin  ,  wid  Chnst  m 
are  four  m  Ireland, 
States,  and  one 

Paris.     The  scope  of  the  institute  is  expressed  —  ,,             ....>.       ^^                  ^.n^,     t^  .i  - 

the  constitutions:  "After  the  personal  sanctification  Ma^aret  ',  m  San  Francesco;  "The  Entlironeinent 

of  its  members,  the  principal  aim  of  this  pious  society  S?   ^^  A?iv^°?..°\  ^^^  j  "VrP?"J*  Mana  delle 

is  the  care  of  the  sick  in  their  own  homes^   Although  S^az^e;  "The  Virgin  and  St.  Nicholas  ',  m  Santa 

these    sisters    had    governmental    approbation   and  Mana  de  Miracoh;   and     Chnst  m  the  House  of 

compUed  with  the  fiscal  laws  in  France  they  have  Simon  ',  m  Santa  Mana  Calchera.    In  the  Bresaa 


^ _^^  ^_^  _^_  ^^ _^ louse  "  and  "  Sts.    Bonaventure  and  Anthony 

n"'lk)N"SE*couR8  (de  Troyes^^                     OP,  a  i,^e   National   Gallery  in   London   a   "Viimn   and 

congregation  founded  at  Arcis-sur-Aube,  France,  in  Chdd  with  two  Samts  '  "St.  Bemardme  of  Sienna   , 

1840,  by  the  Very  Reverend   Paul-S4bastien  MUlet,  and    two   portraits   of   Itelian   noWemen     In    the 

canon  of  the  Cathedral  of  Troyes.    The  mother-house  Stftd^l   Institute   at  Frankfort  is   the   "Enthroned 

was  moved  to  Troyes  in  1843  and  the  name  of  that  Madonna"  with  four  doctors  of  the  Church  below, 

place  was  added  to  the  title  of  the  congregation  in  and  t^^re  are  examples  m  many  other  European 

order  to  distinguish  it  from  other  sisterhooos  whose  gajjenes.                                                       .,^^.  ^ 

object  IS  also  to  nurse  the  sick  m  their  own  homes.  Dictionary  o^  Paintera  and  Engruvira  (lx>ndonand  New  York. 

The  members  of  this  congregation  make  no  distmc-  1903-05). 

tion  because  of  the  creed  or  financial  condition  of  their  Augustus  van  Clbbf. 

patiente     The  poor  are  nursed  free   those  who  can  ^             See  Buddhism. 

afford  to  make  some  recompense  do  so,  and  the        _  ^~  ^  z^  ^.  ^  «  a     -n 

sisters  accept  what  is  given  them,  but  are  not  allowed  »<">«  <>'  Oommon  Discipline.    See  PuRiTAire. 

to  beg.    The  approbation  of  the  constitutions  of  the  Book   of    Oommon   Prayer. — ^I.    History.— On 


congregation  was  not  given  by  the  Holy  See  imtil    21  January,  1549,  the  first  Act  of  Uniformity 

21  March,  1899.   The  novices  go  to  the  mother-house    passed,  impMOBing  upon  the  whole  realm  of  England 


BOOK                                   679  BOOS 

'The  Book  of  the  Common  Praver  and  Admhiistra-  (see  Angucan  Obdebs)  and  the  altars  were  removei 
tion  of  the  Sacraments  and  other  Rites  and  Cere- '  and  tables  substituted  for  them  in  many  plac^. 

monies  of  the  Church  after  the  Use  of  the  Church  In  this  same  year  Gardiner,  while  still  a  prisoner 

of  England".    Before  this  date  (with  some  recent  in  the  Tower,  made  use  of  tne  words  of  the  Prayer 

3xceptions)  the  services  had  always  been  conducted  Book  to  refute  (>anmer's  own  work  on  the  Sacrament 

in  Latin;  and  though  there  were  various  "uses",  of  the  Body  and  Blood  of  our  Savioiw.    About  the 

e.  g.  Salisburv,  Hereford,  Bangor,  York,  and  Lincoln,  same  time  Bucer  completed  his  elaborate  "Censiwa" 

these  were  all  derived  from,  and  for  the  most  part  of  the  Prayer  Book.    Accordin^y  in  1552  a  second 

identical  with,  the  Roman  liturgy.     "Altogetner,  Book  of  Common  Prayer  was  published,  in  which 

cK>me  eighteen  English  uses  are  known.  .  .  .With-  everything  in  the  First  Book  wnich  had  been  fixed 

out  exception  these  English  Missals  are  Roman —  upon  by  Gardiner  as  evidence  that  the  n^  liturgy 

they  have  the  Roman  Canon  to  begin  with;  they  did  not  reject  the  old  beliefs,  and  everythmg  which 

have  the  Roman  variables;  in  short,  their  structiure  Bucer  had  objected  to  was  in  the  revision  carefully 

Lsidentical  with  that  of  the  Roman  Missal"  (J.  Wick-  swept  away  and  altered.     Before  this  book  could 

ham  L^Kg)  27  February,  from  a  correspondence  in  come  into  general   use   the  old  Catholic  services 

"The    Guardian",    FeDruarjr    and    Msurch,    1907).  were  restored  by  Mary.    After  her  death  the  Second 

Though  the  motive  for  the  mtroduction  of  the  new  Book  was  imposed  by  Elizabeth  in  1559  with  some 

litur^  b  stated  to  be  the  desire  for  uniformit;^,  few,  though  unportant,  changes.     Further  changes 

simplicity,  and  the  edification  of  the  people,  it  b  were  made  in  1604  and  a^gain  in  1662,  but  the  Prayer 

clear  that  this  v/as  merely  a  pretext.     The  real  Book  as  a  whole  practically  remains, what  it  was 

motive  was  the  removal  from  the  service  books  of  in   1552.     "The   position   which   was   deliberately 

the  doctrines  rejected  by  the  Protestant  Reformers,  abandoned  in  1549  and  still  further  departed  from 

Lex  orandi,  lex  credenai.     The  old   books  clearly  in  1552  has  never  been  recovered.     Tne  measure 

contained  the  Real  Presence,  the  Sacrifice  of  the  of  the  dbtance  traversed  in  these  new  liturgies  by 

Mass,  Invocation  of  the   Blessed  Virgin  and  the  those  who  controlled  the  Englbh  reformation  can 

Saintis.  Prayer  for  the  Dead,  the  Seven  Sacraments,  only  be  duly  estimated  on  an  hbtorical  survey  of 

with  Auricular  Confession,  and  a  Sacrificing  Priest-  the  period  in  which  the  ground  was  lost"  (Gasquet 

hood.    The  Act  of  Uniformity  states  that  the  king  and  Bbhop,  op.  cit.,  307). 

by  the  advice  of  Somerset  and  the  rest  of  the  Council,  •     II.  Contents. — ^The    Book    of   Common    Prayer 

"appointed  the  archbbhop  of  Canterbury  and  cer-  b  really  a  combination  of  four  of  our  liturgical 

tain  of  the  most  learned  and  discreet  bishops  and  books   viz.,   the   Breviary,  Missal,  Pontifical,   and 

other  learned  men  of  thb  realm"  to  draw  up  tne  new  Ritusd. 

book.     Who  these  were,  besides  Cranmer,  cannot  (1)  The  New  Calendar, — ^The  old  Sarum  and  other 

now  be  determined.    No  Ibt  b  known  earlier  than  calendars  in  use  before  the  Reformation  contained 

th&t  given  in  Fuller's  "Church  History",  publbhed  the  fast  days  and  the  feasts  for  most  of  the  days 

in  1657.    However,  "the  history  of  the  Prayerbook  in  the  year.     Among  these  were  the  Purification, 

down  to  the  end  of  Edward's  reign  b  the  biography  Annunciation,    Visitation,    Assumption,    Nativity, 

of  Cranmer,  for  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  almost  and  Conception  of  "the  Blessed  Mary":   a  large 

every  line  of  it  b  hb  composition"  (Mason,  Thomas  number  of  purely  Roman  saints;   and  All   Souls' 

Cranmer,  139).    With  regard  to  the  authority  by  Day.     Corpus  Chrbti  was  kept  on  the  Thursday 

which  it  was  composed  and  issued.  Abbot  Gasquet  after  Trini^  Simday.     The  Cfalendar  of  the  First 

and  Mr.  Bishop  have  carefully  gone  over  the  evidence  Prayer  Book  omitted  the  fast  days  altogether  and 

(Edward  VI  and  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  ch.  x),  gave  only  twenty-two  saints'  days,  all  being  New 

and  they  have  come  to  the  same  conclusion  as  the  Testament  saints;  the  only  feasts  of  the  Blessed 

Anglican  Canon  Dixon,  who  affirms  that  "the  Con-  Vir^  retained  are  the  Purification  and  the  Annun- 

vocation  of  the  cler^  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  ciation:  All  Soub'  Day  b  omitted,  and  there  b  no 

first  Act  of  Uniformity  of  religion.    Laymen  made  office  for  Corpus  Christi.     Hardly  any  change  was 

the  first  Englbh  Book  of  Common  Prayer  into  a  made  in  thb  part  in  the  Second  Prayer  Book,  though 

schedule  of  a  penal  statute.    As  little  in  the  work  the  "dog  Daies"  are  characteristically  notad.    The 

itself,  which  was  then  imposed  upon  the  realm,  had  Calendar  of  the  Third  Prayer  Book  (1559-61)  re- 


authority  was  that  the  framers  of  the  book  should  of  the  "Blessed  Virgin  Mary",  the  Conception  and 

"have  as  well  eye  and  respect  to  the  most  sincere  the  Nativity  of  "the  Virgin  Mary";  but  no  special 

and  pure  Christian  religion  taught  by  scripture  as  offices  were  appointed  for  any  of  these  feasts.    "The 

to  the  usages  in  the  pnmitive  Church".    How  thb  reason  why  tne  names  of  these  Saints-days  and 

was  carriedout  will  appear  when  we  come  to  examine  Holy-days    were   resumed    into    the    calencfar    are 

the  contents  of  the  oook.     Meantime  we  may  ob-  various' ,  says  Wheatly  in  "A  Rational  Illustration 

serve  that  the  Communion  Service  cannot  be  classed  of  the  Book  of  Comm.  Prayer"  (Pt.  II,  Introd.), 

with  any  of  the  old  liturgies,  but  rather  resembles  "some  of  them  being  retained  upon  account  of  our 

the  form  drawn  up  by  Luther  in  1523  and  1526.  Courts  of  Justice.  .  .  .  Others  are  probably  kept 

Both  agree  in  the  elimination  of  anything  denoting  for  the  sake  of  such  tradesmen  as  are  wont  to  cele- 

offertory  or  sacrifice  in  the  true  sense  of  the  words,  brate    the    memory   of    their    tutelar    Saints.  .  .  . 

"  Even  if  it  were  not  an  ascertained  fact  that  during  And  again,  it  has  been  the  custom  to  have  Wakes 

the  year  when  it  was  in  preparation,  Cranmer  was  or  Fairs  kept  upon  these  days;  so  that  the  people 

under  the  influence  of  his  Lutheran  friends,  the  would  be  displeased  if  their  favourite  Saint's  name 

testimony  of  the  book  itself  would  be  sufficient  to  should  be  left  out.  .  .  .  For  these  reasons  our  second 

*  prove   beyond  doubt  that  it  was  conceived   and  reformers  under  Queen  Elizabeth  .  .  .  thought  con- 


the  imposition  of  it  gave  rise  to  strenuous  opposition  (2)  The  Breviary, — The  Sarum  Breviary  contained 

in  most  ^uls  of  the  country.    By  the  time,  however,  the  canonical  Hours,  the  Psalms  distributed  through 

that  the  Book  of  1540  appeared,  Cranmer  had  already  the  week,  antiphons,  versicles  and  responses,  and 

adopted  views  more  advanced  than  those  contained  Little  Chapters  much  the  same  as  the  modem  brev- 

in  it,  and  was  preparing  for  a  further  revision.    Early  iary — of    course    without    the    modifications    since 

'^n  1550  an  act  was  pasi^  approving  of  a  new  ordinal  introduced  by  St.  Pius  V  and  later  pontiffs.     But 


BOOK  680  BOOK 

'a  1535  there  appeared  a  new  breviary  drawn  up  the  changes  may  be  briefly  summed  up  as  foUows' 
'yy  Cardinal  Quignonez,  in  which  a  complete  break  The  First  Book  omitted  all  mention  of  any  true 
had  been  made  with  the  old  order  of  the  Office,  sacrifice,  but  retained  expressions  capable  of  referring 
The  canonical  Hours  had  indeed  been  retained,  but  to  the  Real  Presence;  the  Second  Book  excluded 
the  antiphons,  versicles,  responses,  and  Little  Chap-  these;  the  Third  and  subsequent  Books  re-admitted 
ters  hacl  been  omitted,  the  JPsalms  were  distributed  and  combined  expressions  which  might  be  taken 
in  such  a  way  that  three  were  said  at  each  hour,  and  in  either  sense.  'On  comparing  the  first  with  the 
the  same  Psalms  said  every  day  of  the  week  in  the  second  Communion  office  what  is  obvious  at  first 
same  order.  A  striking  feature  of  this  breviary  sight  is,  that  whilst  the  former,  in  spite  of  the  sub- 
was  the  great  length  of  the  Scripture  lessons  which  s&ntitd  change  made  in  the  ancient  mass,  manifested 
enabled  the  priest  to  read  through  in  the  course  a  general  order  and  disposition  of  parts  similar  to 
of  the  year  almost  the  whole  of  the  Old  Testament  the  mass  itself,  the  latter  was  changed  beyond 
and  the  whole  of  the  New  Testament,  with  the  recognition"  (Gasquet  and  Bishop,  2€S).  It  will 
Epistles  of  St.  Paul  twice  over.  It  was  this  book  be  sufficient  to  note  here  that  while  the  First  re- 
which  Cranmer  had  before  him  when  framing  the  tained  something  like  the  preparatory  prayer  of 
office  portion  of  the  First  Prayer  Book.  Indeed  Consecration  ("Vouchsafe  to  bl-»-ess  and  sane +tify 
he  copied  word  for  word  in  his  preface  a  considerable  these  thy  gifts,  and  creatures  of  bread  and  wine 

g)rtion  of  Quignonez's  preface.     (See  Gasauet  and  that  they  may  be  unto  us  the  body  and  blood  of 

ishop,  op.  cit.,  App.  ni.)    He  reduced,  nowever,  thy  most  dearlv  beloved  Son  Jesus  Christ*')*  the 

the  Hours  to  two — Matins    and    Evensong  (called  Second  and  subsequent  Books  omitted  this  alto- 

Morning  and  Evening  Prayer  in  the  Second  jBook) —  gether;  in  the  Second  Book  no  directions  were  given 

and  arranged  the  Psalms  for  recital  once  a  month  as  to  the  acts  of  the  minister — ^he  might  recite  the 

instead  oT  once  a  week.     He  also  introduced  two  words  of  Consecration  as  a  mere  lesson;  but  in  the 

Scripture  lessons,  one  from  the  Old  Testament  and  later  Books  he  was  directed  to  take  the  paten  and 

one  from  the  New  Testament  at  both  hours  of  prayer,  cup  into  his  hands.     Most  significant,  too,  are  the 

and  entirely  omitted  the  lessons  of  the  saints.     In  changes   made   in   the   form   of   administering   the 

the  Second  Book  he  introduced  "When  the  wicked  Holy  Communion.    In  1549:  "When  he  delivereth 

man",    "Dearly    beloved    brethren^    the    Scripture  the  Sacrament  of  the  Body  of  Christ,  he  shall  say 

moveth    us",    the    general    confession    ("Almighty  unto  every  one  these  words:  'The  body  of  our  Loni 

and  most  merciful   Father"),  and  the  Absolution  Jesus  Chnst  which  was  given  for  thee,  preserve  thy 

("Almighty   God,   the   Father  of  our   Lord  Jesus  body   and   soul   unto   everlasting   life*.      And    the 

Christ"),  which  have  remained  to  the  present  day.  Mimster  delivering  the  Sacrament  of  the  Blood  .  .  . 

When   we   remember   that  more  than   a   hundred  shall 'say 'The  blood  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  which 

editions  of  Quignonez's  breviary  were  printed  during  was  shed  for  thee,  preserve  thy  body  and  soul  unto 

the  short  space  of  twenty  years,  and  that  it  was  everiasting  life' ".     In    1552:    "And  when  he  de- 

on  the  point  of  being  adopted  imiversaUy,  we  can  livereth  the  bread,  he  shall  say:  'Take  and  eat  this, 

see  that  this  portion  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  in  remembrance  tnat  Christ  died  for  thee,  and  feed 

has  some  justification.    No  doctrinal  questions  were  on  him  in  thy  heart  by  faith,  with  thanksgiving*, 

at  stake — ^unless  it  might  be  the  omission  of  the  And  the  Minister  that    delivereth    the  cup  shall 

intercession  of  the  saints.  say:  'Drink  this  in  remembrance  that  Christ^  blood 

(3)  The  Missal. — The  Canon  of  the  Mass  in  the  was  shed  for  thee,  and  be  thankful'  ".    In  1559  and 

Sarum  Missal  is  taken  almost  word  for  word  from  the  present  Book:  "And  when  he  delivereth  the 

the  Roman  Missal.     In  the  First  Prajrer  Book  the  Bread  to  any  one  he  shall  say,  'The  Body  of  our 

Communion  service  is  styled  "The  Supper  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Cfnrist  which  was  given  for  thee,  preserve 

Lord  and  the  Holy  Communion,  coounonly  called  thy  body  and  soul  imto  everlasting  life.    Take  and 

the  Mass";  in  the  Second,  and  also  in  the  .present  eat  this  in  remembrance  that  Chnst  died  for  thee, 

book,  "The  Order  for  the  Adminbtration  of  the  and  feed  on  him  in  thy  heart  by  faith  with  thanka- 

Lord's  Supper,  or  the  Holy  Conununion".    It  is  not  giving'.     And  the  Mimster  that  delivereth  the  cup 

possible  within  the  limits  of  the  present  article  to  shall  say:  'The  Blood  of  our  Lord  Jesua  Christ, 

compare  in  detail  the  First  Book  with  the  Sarum  which  was  shed  for  thee,  preserve  thy  body  and  soul 

on  the  one  hand,  and  with  the  subsequent  books  imto   everlasting  life.     Drink  this  m  remembrance 

on  the  other.     (See  Gasi^uet  and  Bishop,  ch.  xii  that  Christ's  Blood  was  shed  for  thee,  and  be  thank- 

and  xvi).    The  word  altar  is  used  in  the  First  Book,  ful'  ".    The  First  Book  forbade  "any  devation  or 

though   with    the   alternative   of   "God's    board";  showing  the  Sacrament  to  the  people";  the  Second 

in  the  Second  Book  and  subsequent  Books  "table"  Book  wtided  the  so-called  "Black  Rubric"  denying 

and  "board"    alone   occur.     As  regards  vestments  any  "real  and  essential  presence  of  Christ's  natursd 

the  First  Book  directs  that  the  priest  shall  wear  flesh  and  blood ".    This  was  omitted  in  1559,  but  was 

"a  white  alb  plain,  with  a  vestment   (chasuble?)  reintroduced  in  1662,  shortened  and  slightly  altered, 

or  cope",  and  the   assisting  der^   "albs  with  tu-  "corporal    presence"    being   substituted    for    "real 

nacles"*  the  Second  Book  'Hhe  mmister  at  the  time  and  essential". 

of  the  Communion  and  all  other  times  in  his  minis-  (4)  The  Ritual. — The  order  of  the  administration 
tration.  shall  use  neither  alb,  vestment,  nor  cope:  of  Baptism  in  the  old  Sanun  Manuale  (Ritual) 
but  being  archbishop  or  bishop,  he  shall  have  ana  was  almost  identical  in  words  and  oerenK>nies  with 
wear  a  rochet,  and  being  a  priest  or  deacon,  he  shall  that  new  in  use  among  us.  (For  the  differences  see 
have  and  wear  a  siuplice  omy".  In  the  Tmrd  Book  Saritm.)  The  principal  changes  in  1549  were  the 
(1559)  "it  is  to  be  noted  that  such  ornaments  of  omission  of  the  blessing  of  the  font,  of  the  giving 
the  church  and  of  the  ministers  thereof,  at  all  times  of  the  blessed  salt,  and  of  the  first  anointing.  New 
of  their  ministration,  shall  be  retained,  and  be  in  prayers  were  also  introduced,  but  the  general  char- 
use,  as  were  in  the  Church  of  England  by  the  authority  acter  of  the  old  service  was  preserved,  including 
of  Parliament  in  the  second  year  of  the  reign  of  King  the  exorcisms,  the  giving  of  the  white  garment, 
Edward  the  Sixth".  As  is  well  known,  the  meaning  and  the  second  anointing.  All  of  these  met  with 
of  this  rubric  has  long  been  a  matter  of  dispute.  Bucer's  disapproval,  and  were  accordingly  remoi^ 
The  First  Book  directs  the  priest  to  stand  "humbly  in  1552,  and  have  never  been  restored.  The  present 
before  the  midst  of  the  altar";  the  Second,  to  stand  rite  is  exactly  the  same  as  that  of  1552,  with  a  few 
"at  the  north  side  of  the  table",  as  is  still  the  rule,  verbal  alterations. 

No  mention  is  made  of  incense,  or  lights,  or  holy        As  the  Reformers  did  not  recognize  Confirmation 

^ater  in  any  of  the  books.    As  to  the  service  itself,  as  a  sacrament,  we  are  not  surprised  to  find  that  the 


BOOK  681  BOOK 

rite  of  administering  it  has  undergone  great  changes,  of  the  Anglican  characters  in  Newman's  "Loss  and 

In  1549  the  anointing  with  chrism  was  omitted.  Gain'' (ch.  viii),  "for  I  liave  known  what  it  is  to  one 

but  the  praj^  that  the  Holy  Ghost  misht  come  in  af9iction.     May  it  be  long  before  you  know  it 

down  upon  those  about  to  be  ccmfirmed  was  re-  in  a  similar  way:  but  if  affiction  comes  on  ^ou, 

tained,  and  they  were  signed  with  the  sign  of  the  depend   on  it   all  these  new  fancies   and   fashions 

cross  on  their   forehead.     In   1562,  owing  again  will  vanish  from  you  like  the  wind,  and  the  good 

to  Buoer's  influence,  the  first  prayer  was  altered  old   Prayer   Book   alone   will   stand   you   in  any 

("stren^hen   them  .  .  .  with   the   Hdy  Ghost");  stead." 


prefixed  to  it.  Whbatlt,  A  Rational  lUnttration  of  the  Book  of  Comm.  Pr., 

The   "Form   of    Solemnjwtion   of   Matrimony"  SS?l^£5iSS!?'t)S!^S7»KW.Jf1iff^oS.^»d^^^^ 

comes  next.     As  the  essential  part  of  the  ceremony  ritualista,  commentators,  and  otben  upon  the  same  subject; 

is  the  contracting  of  the  parties,  COnsideraWe  latitude  Ujlbok,  Thamaa  Cranmer:  and  various  other,  worits  treating 

has  existed  in  tlie  Church  with  i^ard  to  the  rest  ^Itl,^"^**^''  "*  ^^^'  ^"^T  ^^VAti^^T^ 

Of  the  service.     The  First  Book  followed  the  oW  ^  ^  ^^'                                      ^'  ^'  ^^^^^ 

rite  rather  closely,  but  the  Wessiiwe  of  the  ring  and  Book  of  Enoch.    See  Apocrypha. 

fn^^^^Vi^lc^nl! Jn'^^^^f^^^    ^IS^ ^^l^  Book  of  Jubilees.    See  Apocrypha. 

formers  looked  upon  matrimony  merely  as  a    state  -»    •     • » •*       «     t» 

of  life  aUowed  m  the  Scriptures^',  and  not  as  a  sacra-  Book  of  Life.    See  Predestination. 
ment.  Book  of  Martsrrs,  Foxe's. — John  Foxe  was  bom 
"The  Order  of  the  Visitation  of  the  Sick"  con-  at  Boston  in  Lincolnshire,  England,  in  1516,  and  was 
tains  matters  of  erave  importance.     In  the  First  educated  at  Magdalen  School  and  College,  Oxford. 
Book  and  in  all  suoeequent  Books,  the  "sick  person  He  joined  the  more  extreme  Reformers  early  in  life 
shall  make  a  special  confession,  if  he  feels  his  con«  and  imder  Edward  VI  acted  as  tutor  to  the  children 
science  troublai  with   any  weighty  matter;   after  of  the  recently  beheaded  fiarl  of  Surrey.    In  Mary's 
which  the  priest  shall  absolve  mm  after  thiis  form  reign  he  fled  to  Germany  and  joined  the  exiles  at 
[sort].  ...  'I  absolve  thee  from  thy  sins'  ".    The  Frankfort.    In  the  controversy  which  arose  there  he 
First  Book  alone  adds:  "and  the  same  form  of  ab-  took  sides  with  Knox  and  the  extremists  and  after 
solution  shall  be  used   in  all   private  confessions,  the  break  up  of  the  Frankfort  colony  he  went  to 
Moreover  the  First  Book  sdone  contains  the  anointim;  Basle  where  poverty  compelled  him  to  take  service 
of  the  sick:  "If  the  sick  j^erson  desire  to  be  anointecT  with  the  Protestant  printer  Oporinus.    In  1559  he 
then  shall  the  priest  anoint  him  upon  the  forehead  returned  to  England  and  entered  the  ministry;  he 
or  breast  only^  making  the  sign  of  the  cross '^  and  was  helped  h^  his  old  pupil   the  Duke  of  Norfolk 
afterwards  reciting  a  long  prayer  entirely  different  and  was  mainly  occupied   with   his  martyrology. 
from  the  old  forms,  which  were  the  same  as  the  He  still  belcmged  to  the  extremists  and  objected  to 
present  Catholic  ones.    This  ceremony  was  removed  the  surplice.    His  opinions  interfered  with  his  pros- 
at  Bucer's  suggestion.    The  First  Book  also  has  a  pects,  but  he  was  not  an  ambitious  man.    Though 
rubric  about  reservation  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament:  violent  and  dishonest  in  controversy,  he  was  persona- 
"If  there  be  more  sick  persons  to  be  visited  the  ally  of  a  kind  and  charitable  temper.     Besides  his 
same   day           then   shall   the   curate   reserve   so  "Acts  and  Monuments"  he  publisned  a  number  of 
much  of  the  sacrament  of  the  body  and  blood  as  sermons^  translations,  and  controversial  attacks  on 
shall  seTVe  the  other  sick  persons,  and  such  as  be  Catholicism.    He  died  in  1587. 
appointed  to  communicate  with  them  if  there  be  Even  before  leaving  England  in  1554  Foxe  had 
any;  and  shall  immediatdy  carry  it  and  minister  begun  the  story  of  the  persecutions  of  the  Reformers, 
it  unto  them. "    Bucer  does  not  seem  to  have  ob-  The  result  was  the  pumication  of  a  little  Latin  work 
jected  to  this;  nevertheless  no  mention  of  reservation  dealing  mainly  with  Wyclifism.    While  at  Basle  he 
IS  made  in  any  of  the  later  Books.  was  supplied  by  Grindal  with  reports  of  the  perse- 
The  Sarum  Office  of  the  Dead  included  Vespers  cution  in  England  and  in  1550  he  published  a  large 
{Plofeho).  Matins  (Dirige),  Lauds,  Mass  (Requiem),  Latin  folio  of  740  pages  which  began  with  Wyclif 
the  Absolution,  and  the  Burial.     As  might  oe  ex-  and  ended  with  Cranmer.    After  his  return  to  Eng- 
pected  from  the  views  of  the  Reformers  on  prayer  land  he  began  to  translate  this  book  and  to  add  to 
for  the  dead,  nothing  was  preserved  in  the  new  Books  it  the  resims  of  fresh  information.    The  "Acts  and 
but  the  "Order  for  the  Burial  of  the  Dead".    The  Monuments"  were   finally  published   in    1563   but 
First   Book,  indeed,  contains  distinct  prayers  for  came  almost  immediately  to  oe  known  as  the  "  Book 
the  soul  of  the  departed,  but  these  were  removed  of  Mwrtyrs".    The  criticism  which  the  work  called 
m   1552,  and  have  never  been  restored.     For  the  forth  led  to  the  publication  of  a  "corrected"  editioii 
Thirty-nine  Articles  see  the  article  under  that  head*  in  1570.    Two  more  (1576  and  1583)  came  out  during 
ing.  his  life  and  five  (1596, 1610, 1632, 1641,  1684)  within 
In  recent  years  attempts  have  been  made  to  re-  the  next  hmidred   years.     There   have   been  two 
form  the  Prayer  Book  m  two  opposite  directions,  modem  editions,  both  imsatisfactorjr;  they  are  in 
The  Evangelicals  have  considered  it  as  still  contain-  ei^t  volumes  and  were  published  m  1837-41  and 
ing  too  much  of  the  old  "popery";  while  the  Hifh  1^7.    The  size  of  the  work  may  be  gathered  from 
Church  party  have  endeavoured  to  get  back  the  the  fact  that  in  the  edition  of  1684  it  consists  of  three 
portions  omitted   or  altered  since   1549.     Various  folio  volumes  of  895, 682,  and  863  pages  respectively, 
changes  have  actually  been  made  in  the  Prayer  Each  page  has  two  columns  and  over  eighty  lines. 
Book  as  used  by  the  Protestant  Churches  of  Scotland,  The  first  volume  besides  introductory  matter  con- 
Ireland,  and  America.           ^  tains  the  story  of  early  Christian  persecutions,  a 
It  is  'only  fair,  in  concluding,  to  note  Cranmer's  sketch  of  medieval  church  history  ana  an  account  of 
''splendid  command  of  the  English  lan^age  and  the  WycHfite  movement  in  England  and  on  the 
his   instinctive  sense  of  what  would  smt  average  continent.    The  second  volume  deals  with  the  reigns 
English  minds.     His  genius  for  devotional  compo-  of  Henrv  VIII  and  Edward  VI  and  the  third  with 
sition  in  English  is  universallv  recomized,  even  by  that  of  tfary.    A  large  number  of  official  documents 
those  who  have  least  sympathy  with  his  character  such  as  injunctions,  articles  of  accusation,  letters,  etc., 
and   career"  (Mason,  Thomas  Cranmer,  140).     "I  have  been  included.    The  book  is  illustrated  through- 
Tiiiue  the  Prayer  Book,  as  you  cannot  do",  says  one  out  by  woodcuts,  some  of  them  symbohzing  the 


BOOK                                    682  BOSDKAUX 

triumph  of  the  Reformation,  most  of  them  depicting  caused  popular  disturbances.    This  was  during  the 

the  sufferings  of  the  martyrs.  ^isoopate  of  Delphinus  (380-404),  who  attended  the 

The  convocation  of  the  English  Church  ordered  Council  of  Saragossa  In  380  and  maintained  cor- 

in  1571  that  copies  of  the  "Bo<^  of  Martvrs"  should  respondence  with, St.  Ambrose  and  with  St.  Paulinus 

be  kept  for  puolic  inspection  in  all  cathedrab  and  of  Nola.    At  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  oentuiy  a 

in  the  houses  of  churcn  di^itaries.    The  book  was  mysterious  personage  who,  according  to  St.  Gregory 

also  exposed  in  many  parish  churches.     The  pas-  of  Tours,  came  from  the  East,  appeared' at  Bordeaux, 

sionate  intensity  of  the  style,  the  vivid  and  pictur-  This  was  St.  Seurin  (or  Severinus),  in  whose  favour 

esque  dialogues  made  it  very  popular  amon^  Puritan  Bishop  Amand  abdicated  the  see  from  410  to  420, 

and  Low  Church  families  down  to  the  mneteenth  resuming  it  after  Seurin's  death  and  occupying  it 

century.     Even  the   fantastically   partisan  church  imtil  432.    In  the  sixth  century  Bordeaux  naaan 

history  of  the  earlier  portion  of  th^  book,  with  its  illustrious  bishop  in  the  nerson  of  Leontius  II  (542- 

grotesque  stories  of  popes  and  monks  and  its  motley  564),  a  man  of  great  influence  who  used  his  wealth 

succession  of  witnesses  to  the  truth  (including  the  in  building  churches  and  clearing  lands  and  whom 

Albigenses,  Grosseteste.  Dante,  and  Savonarola)  was  the  poet  Fortunatus  calls  patrim  caput.     During  this 

H'Tcpted  amongst  simple  folk  and  must  have  con-  Merovingian  period  the  cathedral  church,  founded  in 

tributed  much  to  anti-Catholic  prejudices  in  England,  the  foiu^  oentury,  occupied  the  same  site  that  it 

When  Foxe  treats  of  his  own  times  his  work  is  of  does  to-day,  back  to  back  against  tne  ramparts  of 

greater  value  as  it  contains  many  documents  and  is  the  ancient  city.    The  Faubourg  Saint-Seurin  out- 

largely  based  on  the  reports  of  eyewitnesses;    but  side  the  city  was  a  great  centre  of  popular  devotion, 

he  sometimes  dishonestly  mutilated  his  documents  with  its  three  large  basilicas  of  St.   Stephen,  St. 

and  is  ouite  im  trust  worthy  in  his  treatment  of  evi-  Seurin,  and  St.  Martin  surrounding  a  huge  necrop- 

dence.    He  was  criticised  in  his  own  day  by  Catholics  oUs  from  which  a  certain  number  m  sarcophagi  are 

such   as   Harpsfield    and   Father   Parsons   and   by  still  preserved.    This  faubouijg  was  like  a  noly  city; 

practically  all  serious  ecclesiastical  historians.  and  the  cemeteiy  of  St.  Seurin  was  full  of  tombs  of 

The  most  careful  examination  of  his  methods  is  to  be  found  the  Merovingian  period  around  which  the  popular 

turn  of  Henry  VIII  0  the  Death  of  Mary  (1903):  Leb  in  DieL  o/  In  the  hlRh  noon  of  the  Middle  Ages  it  used  to  be 

iV;al.Buv.     Gerard,  John  Foxe  and  Hie  Book  of  Marture  told  how  Christ  Himself  had  consecrated  this  ceme- 

'^^t^^iJf^'ii^^.'^'AZ^IZ:;  ^nr   ««i   *•**    aif^«°«H!pe.    haying    fought    the 

Fuller.  Worthi^  and  Ckurdi  Hietory;  Tanner.  BtW.  Brit.;  Saraoens  near  Bordeaux,  had  Visited  it  and  laid 

Nichols.  Narrativee  of  Ae  Reformation,  Roland's  wonderful  hom  Olivant  on  the  altar  of 

F.  F.  Urquhart.  Saint-Seurin. 

-»-...               a     r                T»-  Dessus  Taut^  de  Saint  Seurin  le  baron. 

Book  of  Sentences.    See  Lombard,  Pbteb.  jj  ^^^  rdiphant  plein  d'or  et  de  mangons 

Book  of  the  Dead.    See  Immortality;  Egypt.  — says   the  ''Chanson  de  Roland".    Many  tombs 

Books,  Carlovingian.    See  Carounb  Books.  passed  for  those  of  Charlemagne's  gallJ^lt  knights. 

Books.  Ur^orc^.    See  Li^Haic^KS.  ^^^TJ^^t^S^  Tt  Z  "^^^-^^i 

Books,  Sibylline.    See  Sibylline  Books.  of  the  city,  the  Benedictines  fiUed  in  the  marshes  o« 

Bordeaux  (Burdioala),  Archdiocese  of,  com-  I'Eau-Boimle  and  founded  there  the  monastery  o( 

prises   the  entire  department  of  the  Gironde  and  Sainte4>oix.    While  thus  surrounded  by  evidences  of 

was  established  conformably  to  the  Concordat  of  Christian  conquest,  the  academic  Bordeaux  of  the 

1802  b^  combining  the  ancient  Diocese  of  Bordeaux  Merovingian  period  continued  to  cherish  the  memory 

(diminished  by  the  cession  of  Bom  to  the  Bishopric  of  its  former  school  of  eloquence,  whose  chief  glories 

of  Aire)   with  the  greater  part  of  the  suppressed  had  been  the  poet  Ausonius  (310-395)  and  St.  Paulinus 

Diocese  of  Bazas.     Constituted  by  the  same  Con-  (353-431).  wno  had  been  a  rhetorician  at  Bordeaux 

cordat  metropolitan  to  the  Bishopncs  of  Ai^oul^me,  and  died  Bishop  of  Nola.    The  reigns  of  William  VIII 

Poitiers,   and    La   Rochelle,  the   See  of   &rdeaux  and  William  IX,  Dukes  of  Aquitaine  (1052-1127), 

received  in  1822,  as  additional  suffragans,  those  of  were  noted  for  the  splendid  development  of  Roman- 

Agen,  withdrawn  from  the  metropolitan  jurisdiction  esque    architecture    in    Bordeaux.     Parts    of    the 

of  Toulouse,  and  the  newly  re-established  P^riffueux  churches  of  Sainte-Croix  and  Saint-Seurin  belong  to 

and  LuQon;  and  still  later,  in  1850,  the  three  colonial  that  time,  and  the  Cathedral   of  Saint-Andr6   was 

Bishoprics   of   Fort-de-France    (Martinique),  Basse-  be^un  in  1096. 

Terre  (Guadeloupe),  and  Saint-Denis  (Reunion).  In  the  Middle  Ages,  a  strugade  between  the  Sees  of 

The  Old  Diocese  of  Bordeaux. — According  to  old  Bordeaux  and  Bourges  was  Drought  about  by  the 

Limousin  legends  wmch  date  back  to  the  bennning  claims  of  the  latter  to  the  primacy  of  Aquitaine. 

of  the  eleventh  century,  Bordeaux  was  evangeuzed  in  This    question    has    been    closely    mvesti^ted    by 

the  first  century  by  St.   Martial   (Martians),  who  modem  scholars,  and  it  has  been  ascertained  that 

replaced  a  temple  to  the  unknown  god,  which  he  a  certain  letter  from  Nicholas  I  to  Rodolfus,  whidi 

destroyed,  with  one  dedicated  to  St.  Stephen.    The  would  date  the  existence  of  the  primacy  of  Bourses 

same  legends  represent  St.  Martial  as  havmg  brought  from  the  ninth  century,  is  not  authentic.     As  uie 

to  the  Soulac  coast  St.  Veronica,  who  is  still  es-  capital  of  AquHania  pnmay  Bourges  at  an  ei^ly  date 

pecially  venerated  in  the  church  of  Notre-Dame  de  vaguely  aspired  to  pre-eminence  over  the  provinces 

Fin  des  Terres  at  Soulac:  as  having  cured  Sigebert.  of  Aquitania  eecunaa  and  tertia,  and  thence  over 

the  paralytic  husband  of  the  pious  Benedicta.  ana  £k>rdeaux.    It  was  about  1073  that  these  aspirations 

made  him  Bishop  of  Bordeaux;  as  addressing  beau-  were  more  formally  asserted;  between  1112  and  1126 

tiful  Latin  letters  to  the  people  of  Bordeaux,  to  the  papacy  acknowledged  them,  and  in  1146  Eu- 

which  city  he  is  said  to  have  left  the  pastoral  staff  genius  III  confirmed  the  primacy  of  Pierre  de  la 

which  has  been  treasured  as  a  relic  by  the  Chapter  Ch&tre,  Archbishop  of  Bourges,  Over  Bordeaux.     In 

of  Saint-Seurin  (For  this  cycle  of  legends  see  Limoges).  1232,  Gregory  IXTgave  the  Archbishop  of  Bourges, 

The  first  Bishop  of  Boraeaux  known  to  history,  Ori-  as  patriarch,  the  right  to  visit  the  province  of  Aqui- 

'  entalis,  is  mentioned  at  the  Council  of  Aries,  in  314.  taine,  imposed  U|X>n  the  Archbishop  of  Bordeaux 

By  the  close  of  the  fourth  century  Christianity  had  the  duty  of  assisting,  at  least  once,  at  the  councils 

made  such  progress  in  Bordeaux  that  a  synod  was  held  by  his  "brother"  of  Bourges,  and  decided  that 

held    there  (385-386)  for  the  purpose  of   adopting  appeals  mieht  be  made  from  the  former  to  the  latter, 

meiuiureu  against  the  Priscillianists,  whose  heresy  had  Oc^asionaj^,  however,  as  in   1240  and    1284.  titc 


BORDKAITX                              683  BORDKAITX 

Archbishops  of  Bourges,  coming  to  Bordeaux,  found  sreat  political  influence  during  the  minority  c' 
the  doors  of  the  churches  closea  against  them,  and  Louis  XIII /  caused  the  marshes  in  the  neighbo?u> 
answered  with  excommunication  the  solemn  protests  hood  of  Bordeaux  to  be  filled  in,  erected  there  a 
which  the  Bordeaux  clergy  made  against  their  visits,  magnificent  Carthusian  monastery,  welcomed  to 
\quitaine  was  lost  to  France  by  the  annulment  of  Bordeaux  many  congregations  devoted  to  ecclesias- 
that  marriage  between  Louis  Yll  and  Eleanor  of  tical  reform,  approved  (1606)  the  teaching  order  of 
Aquitaine  which  was  celebrated  in  the  Cathedral  the  Filles  de  Notre-Dame,  founded  by  Bles^  Jeanne 
of  Bordeaux  in  the  year  1137,  and  Bordeaux  became  de  Lestonnac,  and  befriended  the  College  of  the 
the  capital  of  the  Enj^lish  possessions  in  France.  Madeleine  founded  by  the  Jesuits  in  opposition  to 
Thereupon  the  struggle  between  the  Sees  of  Bordeaux  the  College  of  Guyenne  which,  during  tne  sixteenth 
and  Bourges  assumed  a  political  character,  the  centurv,  was  open  to  Protestant  influences;  Car- 
King  of  France  necessarily  upholding  the  claims  of  dinal  dye  Cheverus  (1826-36),  who  during  the  cholera 
Bourges.  Most  of  the  arcnbishops  were  conspicuous  epidemic  had  the  sign  Maison  de  Secours  (House/  of 
as  agents  *of  English  policy  in  Aquitaine,  notable  Refuge)  put  over  ms  palace,  of  whom  M.  JuUian 
amongst  them  bemg  Guillaume  Amanieu  (1207-26),  said  that  no  j>relate  in  the  history  of  the  diocese 
on  whom  Kin^  Henry  III  of  England  conferred  the  had  come  nearer  the  ideal  of  sanctity,  and  during 
title  of  senescnal  and  guardian  of  all  his  lands  be-  whose  episcopate  Th6rdse  de  Lamourus,  the  "Grooa 
yond  the  sea,  and  who  took  part  in  Spain  in  the  wars  Mother  ,  considered  by  Cardinal  Cheverus  a  saint 
against  the  Saracens;  G^rarcl  de  Mallemort  (1227-60),  worthy  of  the  early  days  of  the  Church,  opened  for 
a  generous  founder  of  monasteries,  who  acted  as  repentant  women  the  Maison  de  la  Mis^ricorde; 
mraiator  between  St.  Louis  and  Henry  III,  and  de-  Cardinal  Donnet  (1837-82),  who  re-established  the 
fended  Gascony  against  the  tyranny  i>f  ^mon  de  old  provincial  councils  interrupted  for  224  years. 
Montfort.  Earl  of  Leicester.  During  the  episcopate  The  Old  Bishopric  of  Bazas. — ^Accordin^  to  Greg- 
of  (j^rara  de  Mallemort  the  old  Romanesaue  church  ory  of  Tours,  Bazas  had  a  bishop  at  the  tune  of  the 
of  Saint-Andr^  was  transformed  into  a  (jotnic  cathe-  Vandal  invasion  in  the  fifth  century.  The  dedica- 
dral.  Pope  Qement  V  (1305-14)  was  unfavourable  tion  of  the  cathedral  to  St.  John  the  Baptist  is  ex- 
to  the  clauns  of  Bourges.  He  was  a  native  of  Villan-  plained  in  an  account  given  by  the  same  historian, 
draut  near  Bazas,  where  he  had  built  a  beautiful  that  a  lady  of  Bazas,  whom  certain  hagiographers 
collegiate  church,  was  Archbishop  of  Bordeaux  from  of  the  nineteenth  centiii^  believe  to  have  been  St. 
1300  to  1305,  and  political  adviser  to  Philip  the  Veronica,  brought  from  Palestine  a  relic  of  St.  John 
Fair.  When  he  became  pope,  in  spite  of  his  French  the  Baptist  at  the  time  of  that  saint's  death.  For 
sympathies,  his  heart  was  set  upon  fiie  formal  emanci-  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  prior  to  1057,  the  Bishop 
pation  of  Bordeaux  from  Bourges.  Blessed  Pierre  of  Bazas  bore  the  title  of  Bishop  of  Aire,  Dax, 
Berland,  or  Peyberland  as  tradition  calls  him  (1430-  Bayonne,  Oloron,  and  Lescar.  Urban  H  (1088-99) 
57),  was  an  Archbishop  of  Bordeaux,  illustrious  for  preached  the  crusade  at  Bazas, 
his  intelligence  and  holiness,  founder  of  the  University  Places  of  Ecclesiastical  Interest  in  the  Archdiocese. — 
of  Bordeaux  and  of  the  (>>lleffe  of  St.  Raphael  for  The  town  of  La  R^le  (from  Regtda,  rule)  owes  its 
poor  students,  who,  after  helping  the  English  to  origin,  and  even  its  name,  to  a  Benedictine  mon- 
defend  Bordeaux  against  the  troops  of  CJharles  VII,  astery  founded  in  777,  destroyed  by  the  Northmen, 
received  Dunois  into  his  episcopal  city  and  sur-  and  rebuilt  in  977  by  Sancho  of  Gascony  and  his 
rendered  it  to  France.  It  was  during  his  episcopate  brother,  Bishop  Gombald.  It  was  there  that  Abbo, 
that  the  beautiful  campanile  known  as  the  rey  Abbot  of  Fleury,  who  came  to  reform  the  monastery 
Berland  Tower  was  added  to  the  cathedral.  in  1004,  was  assassinated.    The  town  of  Saint-Emilion 

The  rich  and  powerful  chapters  of  Saint-Andr6  is  likewise  indebted  for  its  origin  to  the  hermit  of 

and  Saint-Seurin  subsisted  in  the  Middle  Ages  as  a  that  name,  a  native  of  Vannes,  who  died  in  767 

vestige  of  tiiat  duality  which  was  already  noticeable  after  having  founded  in  these  parts  an  abbey  which 

in  Merovingian  Boraeaux.    Between  the  two  there  the    Augustinians   occupied    after   the   year    1110. 

were  freauent  and  very  animated  conflicts.    The  ar-  The  AbTOy  of  Saint-Romain  at  Blaye  in  which,  it  is 

tistic  feeung  of  the  canons  in  the  thirteenth  century  said,  the  remains  of  Roland,  nephew  of  Charlemagne, 

16  attested  by  the  Grothic  portal  of  Saint-Seurin  were   once   preserved,   was   founded   on   the   spot 

which  is  still  extant.    At  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  where,  in   the  fourth  centiuy,  St.   Romanus,  the 

century  Canon  Vital  de  Carle  established  the  great  recluse,  died  in  the  arms  of  St.  Martin.    The  Bene- 

Hospital  of  Saint-Andr6,  which  he  placed  imder  the  dictine  monastery  of  the  Grande  Sauve  entre  Deux 

protection  of  the  municipality;  and  it  was  throu^  Mers  was  founded  in  1080  by  St.  Gerard  of  Corbie, 

the  exertions  of  the  chapter  of  Saint-Andr6  that  The  Abbey  of  Notre  Dame  at  Guitres  had  for  abbot, 

the  first   city  library  of   Bordeaux   was   founded,  between    1624    and    1637,    Peiresc    the    celebrated 

towards  the  year  1402.     During  the  Middle  Ages  numismatist,  one  of  the  greatest  scholars  of  the 

Bordeaux  was  a  great  monastic  city,  with  its  (Sir-  seventeenth  century  (1580-1637). 

melite,  Franciscan,  and  Dominican  convents,  founded  The  most  important  pilgrimage  is  that  of  Notre 

respectively  in  1217,  1227,  and  1230.     In  1214  an  Dame  of  Verdelais,  founded  in   1390  by  Isabella, 

important  council  was  held  in   Bordeaux  against  Countess  of  Foix,  when  her  mule  stiunbled  over  a 

usiu*ers,  highwaymen,  and  heretics.     When,  after  the  buried  statue  of  the  Blessed  Virgin. 

Hundred  Years  War^  Bordeaux  aeain  became  French,  Statistics. — In  1900  the  relipous  orders  for  men 

Louis  XI  flattered  its  citizens  by  joining  the  con-  were  represented  in  the  Archdiocese  of  Bordeaux  as 

fraternity  of  Notre-Dame  de  Montuzet,  a  religious  follows:  Augustinians,  Jesuits.  Franciscans,  Lazarists, 

association  formed  of  all  the  mariners  of  the  Gironde,  Carmelites,  and  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost  at  Bor- 

by  heaping  favours  on  the  church  of  Saint-Michel,  deaux;  Olivetaiis  at  Soulac;  Dominicans  at  Arcachon; 

the  tower  of  which,  built  in  the  period  between  1473  Redem]3torists  at  CJoutras;  Marists  at  Notre  Dame  de 

and  1492,  was  higher  than  the  l^ev  Berland,  and  by  Verdelais  and  several  houses  of  Marianists.    In  1900 

furthering  the  canonization  of  its  former  archbishop,  the  congregations  for  women  peculiar  to  the  diocese 

Pierre  Berland.  were,  in   addition  to   those  mentioned  above:  Sis- 

Among    the    Archbishops    of    Bordeaux,    in    the  ters  of  Charity  of  the  Holy  Agony,  a  teaching  and 

modem    epoch,    may    be    mentioned:    Chaiies    de  nursing  order  founded  in   1849,  with  the  mother- 

Gramont   (1530-44),  who  during  its  earliest  years  house  at  Bordeaux;   Sisters  of  the  Christian   I>oo- 

helped  the  College  of  Guyenne  (founded  in  1533)  trine,    founded    in    1814,    witli    the    mother-house 

ana  introduced  into  Bordeaux  the  art  of  the  Ren-  at  Bordeaux*  Sisters  of  the  IIolv  Family,  founded 

aissance;  Francois  de  Sourdis  (1599-1628),  who  had  in  1820  by  tne  Abb6  Noaille*      lYie  last-named  con- 


BORDEAUX  684  BOBOBSb 

gregaiion  has  200  houses,  in  di£ferent  parts  of  the  that  his  worla  have  sometimes  been  mistaken  lo 
wond.  It  includes  the:  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  who  Titian's.  In  portraiture  he  was  most  successful, 
have  ch&Tffi  of  asylums  for  orphans  and  working  ceding  to  none  but  to  Titian  in  excellence.  In 
women;  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  and  his  eariy  career  he  painted  at  Venice,  Vicenza, 
Ladies  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  who  conduct  and  Treviso.  At  the  Last  i^ace  his  most  important 
boarding-schools;  Agricultural  Sisters  (Sceurs  Agri-  work  was  in  the  church  of  San  Vicenzo,  where  he 
coles);  Sisters  of  Hope,  attendants  on  the  sick;  Con-  painted  in  the  six  compartments  of  the  dome  "The 
templative  Sisters  (Soeurs  Solitaires);  Sisters  of  St.  Annunciation",  "The  Nativity",  "The  Adoration 
Martha,  for  domestic  service.  In  1899,  the  following  of  the  Shepherds",  "The  Crucifixion".  "The  As- 
charitable  and  educational  institutions  were  to  be  cension",  and  "The  Assumption  of  tne  Vii^gin". 
fotmd  in  the  Archdiocese  of  Bordeaux:  1  foundling  Bordone  was  invited  to  visit  France,  some  say  by 
hospital,  11  infant  asylums,  66  infant  schools,  2  Francis  I,  and  others  by  Francis  II ,  by  whom  he  was 
diildren's  infinnaries,  2  deaf-mute  institutes  for  girls,  kniffhted.  He  remained,  according  to  the  latter 
2  orphanages  where  farming  is  taught,  1  boys'  and  authority,  after  the  death  of  that  long,  for  several 
girls'  orpmmaffe,  34  girls'  orphanages,  1  servants'  years  at  the  court  of  Charles  IX,  before  returning 
guild,  2  guilds  for  penitent  women,  10  charity  to  Italy.  He  painted  the  portraits  of  the  royiu 
kitchens,  12  hospitals  or  hospices,  8  communities  for  family  and  the  principal  figures  of  their  courts, 
the  care  of  the  sick  in  their  homes,  8  houses  of  re-  workmg  notably  for  the  Duke  of  Guise  and  the  Car- 
treat,  3  homes  for  incurables,   2   insane  asylums,  dinal  de  Lorraine. 

and  7  homes  for  the  ased,  all  conducted  by  sisters:  The  most  famous  work  of  Bordone  is  the  large 
and  1  institute  for  deaf,  dumb^  and  blind  boys,  ana  painting  in  the  Academy  at  Venice,  representing 
1  orphanage  where  farming  is  taught,  both  con-  withn^at  brilliancy  of  colour  and  effect  "Tne  Fisher- 
ducted  by  brothers.  At  the  close  of  the  year  1905  man  rresenting  the  Rin^  of  St.  Mark  to  the  Doge", 
the  archdiocese  contained  823,131  inhabitants,  79  On  his  return  to  Vemce  from  France,  Bordone 
parishes,  431  mission  churches,  and  70  curacies.  stopped  at  Augsbuig,  where  he  did  some  work  in 
VaUia  CArwrtona  (noiw),  (1716)  I.  118^1222,  inttrum^Hj^,  the  Fugger  PaUoe,  and  at  Milan,  where  he  painted 

188-190;    nova    (1720),    II,    786-858;    tiwirwnento,    281-326;  :„   fK«7hAn«l  of  sV     TAromA       Amnnir  fhft   nnnoinft] 

FttQDET.  France  pontificaU  (Bord«ux,  1868);  CmoT  de  la  ^  ^  ^"5^^  .  '  :f^^^'     Among  tne  principal 

ViLLE,  Or^ne*  chrHtennes  de  Bordeaux,  ou  hutoire  H  deecrip-  works  of  Bordone  m  European  gallenes  are:  Louvre, 

tion  de  I'Sgliae  de  Saint^eurin  (Bordeaux.  1867);  Jullian,  <'Vertumna  and  Pomona'',  "Portrait  of  a  Man", 

du  Midi.  VII.  1895:  Pariset,  L'itabliaeement  de  la  primatie  Swun.  and  his  Preceptor  ';  National  Gallery,  London, 

de  Bouraet  in  AnnaieB  rfu  Afidt,  XIV,  1902;  Duchesne.  "Daphnis  and  CSiloe",  and  "Portrait  of  a  Genoese 

Fastee  Ejnscopaur    II j^20    68-62  and  101;  Chevalier.  Lady'».   Berlin  Museum,   "Madonna  and  Saints". 

Gborqbs  GoYAU.  'The    Chess    Players",    and    "Man    m    Black"; 

Dresden  Gallery,  "Holy   Family  with  St.  Jerome 

Bordeaux,   University   of,   was   foimded    dur-  and    St.    Elizcboeth",    and    "Diana,   Apollo    and 

ing  the  English  domination,  under  King  Henry  VI,  Marsvas";  Munich,  Old  Pinakotek,  "Portrait  of  a 

in  1441,  by  a  Bull  of  Pope  Eugenius  Iv,  at  the  de-  Man",    and    "Man    Counting    Jewels  ";     Vienna 

mand  of  the  archbishop's  officials,  Pierre  Berland  Galleiy,  seven  works  including  "Venus  and  Adonis 

being  at  the  time  archbishop,  and  of  the  Aquitanian  in  an  Arbour",  and  "A  Young  Lady  at  her  Toilet"; 

councillors.    It  did   not,   however,   receive  official  St.  Petersbuiv  Hermitage,  "Madonna  and  Saints"; 

recognition  from  the  king  until  the  reijgn  of  Louis  XI.  Brera, Milan,  "Baptism of  Christ";  Venice^  Academv, 

According  to  the  terms  of  the  Bull,  it  was  to  be  "Presenting  the  Kins",  and  "The  Tiburtme  ^byl"; 

organized  on  the  model  of  the  studium  of  the  Uni-  Rome,    Colonna    Puace,    "Holv    Family";    Doria 

versity  of  Toulouse.    The  Archbishop  of  Bordeaux  Palace,  'Mars  and  Venus";  Padua  Galleiy,  "Christ 

was   the   chancellor  for  life.     It   included   all   the  Taking  Leave  of  His  Mother";  Lovere,  Tadini  G^ 

different  faculties:  theology,  canon  law,  civil  law,  lection,  "Madonna  and  Two  Saints";    Genoa,  ^ig- 

arts,   etc.    On   account   of    the   constant   lack   of  nole  Palace,  two  portraits, 
endowment,  the  University  of  Bordeaux,  from  the       Bbtan.  IKatMmOT  o/ PawUci^  o«4 -fff^^ 

time  of  its  foundation  until  the  French  Revolution,  ^^  ^®'**  1903-05).  Att/,tt-^o  ^.i^  rv*-. 

never   had   any   remarkable   standing.    After   the  augttbtus  van  uxeef. 

Revolution,  when  the  universities  were  reorganized        BorgeBS,  Caspar  Henry,  third  Bishop  of  Detroit, 

in  France  by  the  Government,  Bordeaux  was  one  Mibhi^m,  U.  S.  A.,  b.  at  iOoppenbuig,  Hanover, 

of  the  cities  chosen  to  be  the  seat  of  a  university.  Germany,  1  August,  1824;  d.  at  Kieuamazoo^  Michigan, 

During  the  nineteenth  century  it  had  a  brilliant  3  May.  1890.     He  emigrated  to  the  United  States 

career,  especially  in  the  field  of  medicine,  amonff  in  boynood  and  made  his  classical  and  theoloeical 

its  professors  being  such  men  as  Azam,  Pitres,  and  studies  at  St.  Xavier's  College,  Cincinnati,  and  at 

others  who  were  famous  on  account  of  their  patho-  St.  Charles's  Seminary,  Phii^elphia.     He  was  or- 

logical  researches.  dained  priest  at  Cincinnati,  8  December,  1847,  after 


'^vUkgea    dee    uniyerm^  iranfaieee  ^  demiU    lew-    fondation  crated  titular  Bishop  of  Calydon  and  administrator 

the  Middle  Ages  (Oxford.  1806).  II.  pt.  I.  Detroit,  the  Right  Rev.  Fredenck  Rese,  consecrated 

G.  M.  Sauvage.  6  October,  1833,  the  first  German  in  the  United 

States  to  be  raised  to  the  ei)iscopal  dignity,  became 

Bordone,  Cavalibre  Paris,  an  eminent  painter  demented  four  years  after  his  consecration  and  was 

of  the  Venetian  school,  b.  at  Treviso,  1500;  d.  at  called  to  Rome.    He  never  resigned  his  chai^  and 

Venice,   1570.     A  member  of  a  noble  family,  he  lived  until  30  December,  1871,  when  he  diea  in  an 

early  showed  an  inclination  for  art  and,  after  being  institution  at  Hildesheim.  Germany.     As  a  conse- 

given  a  good  general  education,  was  placed  in  the  auence,  Detroit  was  rulea  by  an  administrator  for 

school  of  Titian  with  whom  he  studi^  for  several  tnirty  years.  Bishop  Borgess  assuming  the  title  only 

years.     He  afterwards  had  Giorgione  for  his  master,  in  1871.    Tne  see  up  to  his  appointment  had  been 

While  feeling  strongly  the  influence  of  both  great  dominated  by  Belgian  and  French  influences,  and 

oainters,  Bordone  finally  settled  down  to  the  style  he  gradually  made  the  changes  to  the  English  speak- 

of  Titian,  whose  manner  he  so  successfully  imitated  ing  regime  that  the  growth  of  the  new  populalioc 


THE  FISHERMAN  PRESENTING  THE  RING  OF  ST.  MARK  TO  THE  DOGE  BARTOLOMMEO 
ORADENTGO  (BORDONE'S  MASTERPIECE— ACADEMY,  VENICE) 


BOMOA  (J86  BOBaoaMOMZ 

demanded.    The  Jeeults  were  introduced  into  the  wne  transferred  to  the  Vatican  library,  where  Hbe) 

dioceee  by  him.    He  reaigoed  the  see  16  April,  1888.  an  to  be  found  to^Ay.     Before  the  parUtion  of  the 

and  spent  hia  last  days  in  retiranent,  having  reoeivea  MSS.  was  made  the  eminent  scholar  and  convert, 

the  titular  see  of  PhacuaiteH.  Zoc^a,  wroto  a  complete  and   accumte  description 

,„^'^  ^*!fi*"^  ?t.*^  ^""^  ffwore*ir  of  At  V,  S.  of  them  in  his  posthumous  work  "  Catalofus  Codjcum 

^Lu™ke^jfe8);  f*.  Mid»e«  C^u,  CD«™.t)  ^nu^  Copt.icorum  m^  scriptorum  qui  in  Mu^  Borgiano 

Thomas  F.  BIxkban.  VelitriH    adaen-Bntur       (Rome.  1810).     Beaides  the 

many  services  which  Cardinal  Borgia  rendered  to 

BorjU,  Saint  Fhamcm.    Bee  Francis  Bobgia,  St.  science  and  Bcientiats,  ho  pubUahed  several  works 

Borgia,  LncHixiA.     See  Alxxander  VI. 


Borgia,  ftrEFAUo,  Cardinal,  b.  at  Velletri,  3  De-  "Memorie  storiche  della  citta  di  Benevento"  (ibid., 

cember,  1731;  d.  at  Lyons,  1804;  Italian  theologian,  1763-69);  "Vatjcana  confessio  B.  Petri  chronologicis 

antiquarian,  and  historian.     Ha  belonged  to  a  well-  teatimonjis    illustrata"    (ibid^   1776);    "De    Cruce 

known   fa:ni!y   of   Velletri,   not   to   bo   confounded  VaticanA"     (ibid.,    1779):    "De    Cruce    Velitemfl" 

with    the    Spanish    Borgias   or    Borjas.     His   early  (ibid.,  1780);  "Istoria  del  dominio  temporale  della 

education  was  controllKl  by  hia  uncle  Atessandio  Bode  ApostoLica  nelle  Due-Sicilie"  (ibid.,      ""' 
(1682-1764),     Archbishop     of     Fermo.     From     his        Paoumo  da  B.  BiaTOLomo,  r  ■     "         '    ' 

youth,  Stefano  Borgia  manifested  a  great  aptitude  {gJ^S  iwei'  *^""~*''"^  *•* ■ 

for  historical  research,  but  hia  dominant  trait  was  "n         i>  ^  BiniM. 

hia  extraordinary  tasto  for  relies  ot  ancient  civiliza-       -,    _,  -  .  

tiooB,  a  line  in  which  he  succeeded  so  well  that,  at  BorgtwiUB  Oodez.  See  MBS.  OF  thb  Biblb. 
the  age  of  nineteen,  he  was  received  into  the  Academy  Borgognone,  Aubrooio,  real  name  Ambrooio 
of  Cortona.  He  founded  a  museum  at  Velletri,  in  SxBrAin  da  Fimsano,  a  distinguished  Italian  painter 
which,  during  his  whole  life,  he  gathered  coins  and  and  architect,  b.  Milan,  c.  1455;  d.  at  Milan,  1523, 
manuacripts,  especially  Coptic,  and  which  majr  be  The  name  Bor^gnone  is  variously  accounted  for. 
considered  as  his  greatest  undertaking  and  achieve-  By  some  authorities  it  is  attributed  to  some  Flemish 
ment.  Such  was  his  passion  for  antiquities  that  characteristics  in 
he  is  known  to  have  sold  hia  jewels  and  predoue  his  art,  and  by 
earthenware  in  order  to  secure  the  coveted  treasures  others  to  the  fact 
and  have  the  description  of  them  printed.  In  his  that  some  of  bis 
scientific  career  Borgia  showed  great  disinterested'  ancestors  had 
ness,  placing  his  collection  at  the  disposal  of  learned  lived  in  Flanders, 
men,  regardless  of  creed  and  country,  and  giving  then  known  to  the 
ttiem  all  possible  encouragement  and  support.  Hjs  Italians  as  Bor- 
amiable  temperament  and  broad-minded  character  gogna.  It  is  sup- 
attracted  to  him  all  those  with  whom  he  came  in  posed  that  he 
contact;  Paolino  da  S.  Bartolomeo,  Adler,  Zoega,  studied  with  Via- 
Heeren^  and  many  others  were  amorig  his  enthusi-  cenzo  Foppa,with 
BStic  friends.  Zenale,  and  with 
Borva  was  not  left,  however,  entirely  to  his  choeen  Buttinone,  but 
field  of  activity,  but  was  called  to  fill  several  im-  there  is  little 
portant  political  positions.  Benedict  XIV  appointed  known  of  the  de- 
him  Qovemor  of  Benevento,  and  Borgia  showed  tails  of  his  career, 
there  great  administrative  talent.  In  1770  he  was  The  earUeat  work 
made  secretary  of  the  Congregation  de  Propaganda  credited  to  him  is 
Fide,  an  ofEcc  of  which  he  naturally  took  advantage  the  facade  of  the 
to  acquire  antiquities  by  the  help  of  the  missionaries,  Carthusian  con- 
B  help,  be  it  said  to  their  credit,  which  proved  always  vent  or  Certosa 
fortheomine.  He  was  made  a  cardinal  in  17M.  near  Pavia.  The 
In  the  troubled  period  of  the  French  invamon  Borgia  stalls  and  other 
was  given  chaige  of  Rome  by  Pius  VI  (1797-^).  woodwork  in  the 
After  the  proclamation  of  the  Republic,  he  was  choir  were  carved 
arrested  (1798),  but  quickly  released,  whereupon  from  the  designs 
he  immediately  resumed  his  studies  and  work  of  of  Borgognone, 
collecting;  soon  afterwards  he  joined  Pius  VI  at  who  ptuntefTthere, 
Valencia,  and  endeavoured  to  have  this  pontiff  among  other 
send  to  Asia  and  Africa  a  body  of  missionaries  who  works,  an  altar 
would  preach  the  Gospel  and  gather  various  monu-  piece  of  the  Cruci- 
nients.  &don.  Qreat  re- 
Cardinal  Borgia  was  ot  the  greatest  service  to  finement  and  deep 
Pope  Pius  VII  in  the  reorganization  of  the  Pontifical  religiouB       feeling 

States.      In  1801  he  was  made  Rector  of  the  Collegium  mark    his     work,  Tns  Hadohh.!  Enthiiohbd 

Roraanum.  and  he  was  in  the  retinue  of  Pius  VII  which  is  likewise 

when  this  pontiff  went  to  France  to  crown  the  new  notable  for  its  beautiful  celestial  and  mundane  type*, 

emperor,     Na^leon.     Having    arrived     at     Lyons,  On  his  return  to  Milan  he  went  to  work  in  the  church 

Cardinal  Borgia  was  taken  ill  and  died.     After  his  of  San   Satiro,  and  his  productions  appeared,  among 

death  his  collection  of  Coptic  MSS.  was  divided;  the  other  churches,  at  Sant'  Ambrogio,  San  Simpliciano, 

non-Biblical  MSS.  were  taken  to  Naples  and  placed  and  Sant'  Agostino.     At  San  Simpliciano  he  painted 

in    the    Biblioteca    Borbonica,    now   the    Biblioteca  scenes,  since  lost,  from  the  story  of  St.  Sisinius.     He 

Nazionale;  and  the  Biblical  MSS.,  excepting  a  few  worked  also  at  Lodi  in  the  church  ot  the  Incoronata 

which  were  taken  to  Naples  by  mistake,  given  to  and  did  an  altar  piece  for  San  Satiro  at  Bergamo, 
the  Propaganda,  together  with  the  collection  of  coins         Borgognone  painted  in  tempera  and  also  in  oQ 

and    monument*,    forming    the    Museo    Borgiuio.  in  the  style  ot^  tempera  and  in  fresco.     His  early 

(Cf.  Ciasca,  Fraj^enta  Copto-Sahidica,  I,  p.  xvii.)  work  lacked  freedom,  but  later  he  fdl  under  the 

Only  %  few  yeare  ago  the  MSS.  ot  the  Museo  Bmi^ano  bensficent  influence  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci.     Amonf 


BOBOO  686 

hifl  works  in  puUic  galleries  are:  National  Gallery,  the  bishops  worthy  of  record  are  Nicoid  Tomabuor 

London,    "Marriace    of    St.    Catherine    of    Alex-  (1560),  a  learned  theologian,  author  of  a  treatise  on 

andria*':  a  triptych  with  a  "Virgin  and  Child  En-  the  controversies  between  Catholics  and  CalviDiste; 

throned  ',  having  at  one  side  the  "Agony  in  the  Dionisio  Bussotti  (1638),  likewise  a  skilled  theologian; 

Garden",  and  on   the  other   "Christ   Besring  His  Gian  Lorenzo  Tilli  (1704).  founder  of  the  seminary. 

Cross",  and  two  groups  of  family  portraits;  Louvre.  The  cathedral  is  a  splendid  three-nave  Romanesque 

"Presentation  in  the  Temple",  and  "St.  Peter  ot  edifice,  showing,  however,  a  marked  tendengr  towards 

Verona",  with  a  kneeling  woman;  Berlin  Museum,  the  Gothic.     A  famous  image  of  the  Holy  Face 

"Madonna Enthroned",  and  "Madonna  with  Saints";  (Volto  Santo)  is  venerated  in  the  cathedraL     It  is 

Munich,  Old  Pinakotek.  "Madonna  in  Adoration";  a  wooden  crucifix  of  heroic  size;  the  sacred  Body  is 

Dresden  Gallery.  "Madonna  in  Adoration":  Brera  covered  with  a  long  tunic,  and  a  crown  rests  on  the 

Gallery,  Milan,  '*The  Assumption  of  the  Virgin";  head.     It  resembles  the  V(dlo  Santo  of  Lucca,  and 

and  Pavia  Academjr,  "Christ  Bearing  His  Cross,  fol-  has  been  in  this  cathedral  since  the  tenth  centuiy; 

lowed   by   Carthusians".    In    the   Casa   Borromeo  previously  it  was  kept  in  the  neighbouring  castle  of 

at  Milan  is  a  portrait  of  Bishop  Andrea  Novelli.  Bibbiona.     Nothing  certain  is  known  as  to  its  origin. 

The  Pavia  picture  is  considered  without  an  ecjual  However,  the  crucmed  Christ  dressed  in  a  long  gar- 

in  art  in  simple  pathos  and  deep  religious  meamn^.  ment  {ccichium)  indicates  a  aesX  antiquity,  perfai^ 

Lanzi  and  other  authors  have   treated   Ambrogio  the  eighth  or  ninth  centiuy.*   Other  beautiful  cnurches 

da  Fossano,  the  architect,  and  Ambrogio  Borgognone,  are  those  of  San  Agostino  and  Santa  Maria;  the  latter 

the  painter,  as  two  different  persons,  but  the  sig-  has  a  beautiful  baptistery,  brought  thither  from  the 

natures  he  left  show  that  this  was  not  the  case.  ancient  church  of  San  Agostino.     Noteworthy  also 

Brt^n  Z)ic*^^  0/  Paintert  and  Engravert  (London,  and  is  the  church  of  San  Nicola,  built  in  1258  by  the  Fran- 

ew     or.    w«-uo;.  Augustus  VAN  Cleef.  ciscan,  Fia  Tonmiaso  da  %Uo.  and  re^^ 

eighteenth  century.    This  diocese  has  a  population 

Borgo   8an-Doimino,  Diocese  of,  in  the  prov-  of  60,500  Catholics,  with  135  parishes,  250  churches 

ince  of  Parma,  Italy.    The  city  takes  its  name  from  and  chapels,  190  secular  priests,  26  r^ulars,  and  60 

St.  Domninilis,  who  fled  to  that  place   during  the  seminarists,    There  are  3  academies,  one  for  girls, 

persecution  of  Mazimian  (286-305)  and  sufifered  mar-  and  2  for  boys.    The  male  religious  orders  repre- 

tyrdom.    It  did  not  become  an  episcopal  see  until  seated  are:  Mmors  Conventual,  ^rvites,  Capuchins; 

1601,  imder  Oement  VIII,  having  imtil  then  been  the  female  oonirregations  are:  Franciscans,  Capuchins, 

governed   ecclesiastically   by   a  provost   with   full  Bemedictines,  Sisters  of  St.  Anne,  Sisters  of  Charity, 

faculties,  subject  directly  to  the  Holy  See.    The  last  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Salesian  Sisters,  about 

provost,  Papiro  Picedi  da  Castel  Vezzano,  was  the  70  in  all. 

nrst  Bishop  of  Borgo  San-Donnino.  The  cathedral,  Cappillkpti,  Le  ekiese  d'ltdUa  CVtmoe,  1844).  XVII; 
dating  from  the  twelfth  century,  is  a  beautiful  monu-  ^^^^^io  Bed.  (Rome.  1907),  331-384. 
ment  of  Roinaneso|ue  architecture;  its  fa^^e,  how-  ^'  ^^niqni. 
ever,  is  still  imfimshed.  Among  the  notable  occu-  Borie,  PraaiRE-RosB-URSULE-DuiiouLiN,  Bishop- 
pants  of  this  see  have  been:  Alfonso  Pozzi  (1620),  elect  of  Acanthus,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Western  Tong- 
a  learned  and  zealous  man;  Ranuccio  Scoti  (1626),  king  and  Martyr;  b.  20  February.  1808,  at  Beynat, 
several  times  papal  nuncio  under  Urban  VIII,  par-  Diocese  of  Tufie,  France;  beheaaed  24  November, 
ticularly  to  Switzerland^  Filippo  (Dasoni  (1650),  who  1838.  He  studied  successively  at  the  colleges  of 
urged  U^helli  to  write  his  ''Italia  Sacra";  Alessandro  Beaulieu  and  Servi^res,  and  in  1826 entered  the  semi- 
Parravicmi,  a  Benedictine  (1660);  Gaetano  Garim-  nary  of  TulBe.  Meanwhile  the  desire  to  devote  his 
berti  (1675).  who  enlarged  the  episcopal  residence  life  to  the  evangelization  of  distant  lands  matured, 
and  enriched  the  cathedral  with  nfts  of  sacred  ves-  and  in  1829  he  proceeded  to  Paris  and  spent  thir- 
sels  and  furnishings;  Alessandro  Koncovieri  (1700),  teen  months  at  the  Seminary  of  the  Foreign  Mis- 
distinguished  for  his  zeal  and  charity;  Gu'ardo  sions.  Too  young  for  the  priesthood,  he  was  to  have 
Giandemaria  (1719)  ^  who  held  a  diocesan  synod  the  been  ordained  atrondicherry,  on  his  way  to  his  mis- 
wise  decrees  of  wnich  are  still  in  force;  Girolamo  sionary  post.  However,  a  dispensation  from  Rome 
Baiardi  (1753).  who  restored  the  episcopal  residence  permitted  his  immediate  ordination,  which  took  i^ace 
and  founded  a  hospital;  Alessandro  Garimberti  (1776)  at  Bayeux  (1830).  He  sailed  from  Havre,  1  Decem- 
who  was  distinguished  for  his  prudent  conduct  during  ber,  1830,  and,  after  spending  some  time  at  Macao, 
the  French  invasion,  and  who  left  his  libranr  to  the  in  C^hina,  arrived  in  Tongking  in  the  year  1832.  His 
seminary.  This  diocese  has  a  population  of  60,4(X),  progress  m  the  languaj^  of  the  coimtry  was  rapid,  but 
with  54  parishes,  76  chmrches  and  chapels,  100  sec-  eight  months  after  his  installation  an  edict  of  persc- 
ular  priests,  10  re^ars,  and  70  seminarians.  cution  was  issued  (January,  1833).     Borie  had  to  le- 

Battandier.  Ann,  pent,  caih,  (Pariii.  1907).  main  almost    continually  concealed  and  to  endure 

U.  Benioni.  ^  great  privations.    In  1834,  failing  health  increased 

Borgo  8an-8epolcro,  Diocesb    of.   situated  in  the  acuteness  of  the  sufferings  of  persecution.    He 
the  province  of  Arezzo,  Tuscany,  Ita^.    The  dty  regained  his  strength  the  following  year  and  was  en 
is  believed  by  some  to  be  the  ancient  Biturda  men-  aided  to  visit  even  the  least  accessible  Christian 
tioned  by  Ptolemy,  and  is  so  designated  in  the  usage  communities  of  the  vast  district  of  which  he  was  in 
of  the  Roman  dhiria.    The  foimdation  of  the  present  charge.     He  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  persecutors 
city  is  attributed  to  two  pilgrims  of  the  tenth  century,  in  1^.     Durmg  his  captivity  he  received  the  news 
who  halted  in  this  neighbourhood  on  their  return  of  his  nomination  to  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  West- 
from  Palestine^  and  buUt  an  oratory  in  which  they  em  Tongking,  with  Acanthus  as  titular  see.    Shortly 
placed  the  rehcs  they  had  brought  from  the  holy  after  this,  on  the  24th  of  November,  1838,  the  death- 
places.    This  oratory  attracted  many  pilgrimages;  sentence  was  pronoimced  on  him  and  two  native 
^tuiually  there  grew  up  about  it  a  settlement  of  con-  priests;  the  execution  took  place  that  same  day. 
siderable  size  known  as  Borgo  San-^polcro.    Later  His  remains  were  brought  to  France  in  1843,  and  are 
on .  Gamaldoli  monks  erected  a  monasteiy  there,  the  religiously  kept  at  the  Seminary  of  the  Foreign 
abbot  of  which  had  temporal  jurisdiction  over  the  Missions,  in  Paris.    The  cause  of  his  beatification 
town.    Guido  Petramala,  Bishop  of  Arezzo,  fortified  has  been  introduced  at  Rome. 
Borgo  San-Sepolcro,  and  made  it  a  Ghibelline  strong-        P.  I>.  H.  Borie  (brother  of  Monseigneur  Borie,  writing 
hold.    At  first  subject  to  the  Diocese  of  Castello,  it  ^^Tcp^hlu-'^Hk  ^y^^^^J^^^^r^^^^SZ^ 
was  made  an  episcopal  see  by  Leo  X  in  1515,  the  first  iJSr,iSSS^;S?l^cpt{«.\'^j.^T^^^^^  ^  "^"^ 
(aiahop  being  Giovanm  E v.  Galeotto  GrazianL    Amooff  N.  A.  Webdl 


BOBMIO  687  B0B8A8 

ilomeo,  pRBFEcruRBS  Apoarouc  of. —  speaking'  missionaries  being  desired  in  the  BritisI 

I.  EKjtch  Borneo. — ^The  former  Vicariate  of  Ba-  part  of  Borneo,  the  Propaganda  (19  March,  1881) 

>ayia  was  composed  of  Sumatra,  Java,  and  the  other  confided  the  mission  of  North  Borneo  and  Labuan 

3imda  Islands,  including  Borneo,  under  the  control  to  the  Society  for  Foreign  Missions  of    Mill-hill, 

of  Holland.   The  northern  part  of  Borneo,  now  under  England.     The   first   prefect   Apostolic   appointea 

British  suzerainty,  was  sepiarated  from  this  immense  under  the  new  administration  was  the  Rev.  Thomas 

vicariate,  27  August,  1855;  that  part  of  Borneo  which  Jackson.    The  society  has  since  continued  in  charge 

is  under  Dutch  rule  was  taken  from  the  Vicariate  of  the  mission. 

Apostolic  of  Batavia,  11  February,  1905,  and  made  The  island  of  Labuan  has  an  area  of  30  square 
into  a  separate  prefecture  imder  the  care  of  the  miles  and  contains  6,800  inhabitants;  it  is  an  im- 
Oapuchins.  The  missionaries  for  the  new  prefecture  portant  shipping  station  between  Singapore  and  Hong- 
were  selected  from  the  Dutch  province  of  this  order,  Kong.  The  prefect  Apostolic  lives  at  Labuan.  The 
and  the  first  prefect  Apostolic  was  api>ointed  10  April,  stations  served  are  Labuan  and  Sarawak  (Kuching), 
1905.  Up  to  the  time  of  the  separation  what  is  now  the  two  most  important  towns.  Outside  of  these 
the  Prefecture  of  Dutch  Borneo  was  administered  two  places  where  the  missionaries  live  there  are  ten 
by  the  Jesuits  who  had  charge  of  the  Vicariate  of  stations  which  are  visited:  Sibu,  Kanowit,  Egan. 
Batavia,  and  who  visited  the  Catholics  of  Dutch  Oya,  Mukah,  Baram,  Papar,  Jesselton,  Patatan,  and 
Borneo  twice  a  year.  In  1875  the  Jesuit  Father  de  Sandakan.  According  to  the  '^ Missions-Atlas'*  of 
Vriez  built  a  little  church  at  Singkawang,  a  small  P.  Streit,  the  statistics  of  the  mission  are:  19  regular 
town  situated  on  the  west  coast  of  the  island.  In  priests;  2  lay  brothers;  15  sisters;  8  churches;  20 
the  nei^hboiirhood  of  Singkawang  there  were  nearly  chapels;  16  catechists;  14  schools  with  740  pupils; 
200  Chinese  Catholics  and  118  soldiers.  In  1890  2,600  baptisms;  about  1,000  catechiunens. 
Father  Staal,  afterwards  Vicar  Apostolic  of  fiatavia,  Wernbr,  Orbit  ten,  Cath.  (Freiburg,  1800);  Battandibr, 
founded  a  station  in  the  interior  at  Smitau.    The  ^S***  ^^*^  ^*^Jl?^^^y^*!J''^,S??^ft^J^^™®'  K^li'^ 

J:T*  ova,    ^^»*  ***    v.*«   Auv^xiv/*    »v  i^uuvaru.      x  u<7  QtjiLLEMAKD,  Att««rote«a  (Londou,  1894),  II;  Beccari, /n  tA« 

station  was  afterwards   transferred  to  Sedjuram  on  Oreat  FontU  of  Borneo  (London,  1904);  Nyoak,  The  Religioua 

the  Penboeang  in  the  region  inhabited  by  the  Dyaks.  Ritet  and  Cuatome  of  the  Ibau  or  Dyake  of  Sarawak  in  Anthropoe 

The  mission  at  Sedjiram  gave  good  promise  of  sue-  Jl^'iSfix^^'  ^*  ^^  "^"^''^  ^"f^  ^*^S  ^"""^  ^*~" 

cess  and  in  1897  induded  400  foptiz^  persons,  but  ^^andakan).  files.  Albert  Batoandier. 

the  missionaries  were  too  few  in  number  to  give  the  t$    Borras,    Francisco    NicolXs,    a    distinguished 

station  constat  supervision,  and  it  was  consequently  Spanish  painter,  b.  at  Oocentaina,  1530;  d.  at  Gandia, 

abandoned.     Later  the  Holjr  See  decided  to  erect  i§io.    (loing  to  Valencia  at  an  early  age  to  study  un- 

a  separate  prefecture  covenng  an  area  of  204,633  der  Vicente  Joanes,  he  became  tlmt  master's  most 

Muare  miles.     Accordmg  to  the     Statistics  of  the  noteworthy  pupU.     His  works  in  general  resemble 

Capuchm  Missions     for  1906,  there  were  m  Dutch  those  of  Joanes  and  some  of  them  are  good  enough  to 

Borneo  at  that  date  8  Capuchm  priests;  4  brothers;  have  been  taken  for  the  master's.    Entering  the  priestr 

396  Cathohcs,  consistmg  of  210  Chinese,  100  Dyaks.  hood,  he  was  assigned  to  his  native  place,  where  he 

and    86    Europeans;    2    stations,  Smgkawang  and  devoted   all   his  spare  moments   te  pamting  and 

Sedjiram;  3  chaj^ls:  20  converwons  were  claimed,  acquired  such  skill  that  the  authorities  of  the  monas- 

There  had  been  56  baptisms  and  156  communions,  tery  of  St.  Jerome,  at  Gandia,  employed  hun  to  paint 

the  latter  number  refemng  to  the  Cathohc  laity  as,  the  picture  for  the  high  altar  of  their  church.    He 

outside  of  the  Uipuchms,  there  are  no  retoous  m  enjoyed  his  stay  at  the  monastery  so  much,  that 

the  prefectiire.    TJe  population  mcluded  in  the  pre-  taking  a  great  liking  to  the  brothers  and  their  life 

fecture  IS  2,000,000.   A  report  of  26  November,  1906,  he  determined  to  ask  for  no  other  payment  for  his 

^ve  the  foundmg  of  a  third  station  at  Samannda  on  work  than  membership  in  the  order.    He  received 

the  east  coast  of  Borneo,  some  two  weeks'  sail  from  the  habit  in  1575,  and  took  the  final  vows  the  follow- 

Sinpkawang,  and  of  a  fourth  station  at  Pamangkat,  jng  year.    Three  years  thereafter,  Fra  Nicole,  m 

which  IS  seven  lH)urs  from  Smgkawang.  search,  perhaps,  of  an  even  more  austere  life,  spent 

Analecta  Ord.  Mtn,  Cap,  (September,  1806;  April.  1907);  tu^rne*  litflft  f imft  with  thi*  OAnnr^hinA  ftt  fhft  FrAnnionAn 

arBKiT.  Atlas  dee  mieeUme  caffi.:  Bemmelen  and  Hooper.  8ome  little  time  witn  ine  yapucmns  at  tne  TTanciS^ 

OuuU  to  Ae  Dutch  Baet  Indiee  (London,  1897);  Stateeman'e  monastery  of  San  Juan  de  la  Riviera  near  Valencick 

Yoar  Book  {1907),  1261,  ~~  _       -         - 


He  was  soon  back,  however^  at  Gandia  where  he 
passed  the  rest  of  nis  life  pamting  in  every  part  of 


n.  British    Bobneo,  or  The    IWbcturb    op    the  monastery,  in  the  chureh,  chief  chapel,  chapter 
NoRTO  Borneo  AND  Labuan.— In  1687  Father  Venti-    house,  oratories,  refectories,  and  cloisters,  leaving 


in  the  island  althou^  the  missionary  declared  that  monastery 

God   had   blessed   his  labours.     The   Rx>paganda,  Besides  his  great  labours  at  Gandia,  Borras  also  did 

27  Auwist,  1855,  decreed  the  erection  of  the  northern  much  work  for  churches  and  religious  houses  in  Valen- 

part  of  the  island  of  Borneo  mto  an  mdependwit  cia,  at  the  capital,  and  elsewhere.    His  paintings 

prefecture  and  entrusted  it   to   the  Rev.  Charies  appeared  at  the  cathedral  at  Valencia  and  at  the 

Cuarteron,    a    Spaniard.      Father    Cuarteron    was  rfieronymite  monastery  m  the  city  of  San  Miguel  de 

on^pnally  a  sea-captam  and  had  vowed,  af ter  es-  losReyes,  where  there  was  a  "Christ  at  the  Column'', 

capmg  great  perU,  to  devote  lumself  to  the  evangehza^  and  a  picture  of  the  pamter  in  adoration  of  "The 

tion  of  Borneo.    He  land^  at  Labuan  m  1857,  in  Holy  Viigin".    Others  were  at  his  native  place  in 

company  with  several   missionanes   who   deserted  the  church  of  St.  Stephen,  in  the  Escorial  at  Aldaya, 

hun  m  I860.   Although  alone  m  the  island  of  Labuan,  and  at  Ontiniente.    In   the  Museum  at  Valencia 

Father  Cuarteron  ^urageously  continued  his  labours,  there  are  some  fifty  paintings  by  Borras  chiefly  from 

At  length,  seemg  that  isolation  made  hun  now^less,  Gandia  and  San  Miguel.    Among  them  are  "The 

•ha  went  to  Rome  m  1879  to  request  that  the  Propa-  Last  Supper",  "Chi&t  Bearing  His  Cross",  "The 

canda  place  the  misMon  m  charge  of  an  institute.  Dead  Saviour  in  the  Arms  of  the  Eternal  Father", 

FYom  Romei  Father  Cuarteron  went  ^  and  "The  Archangel  Michael  Driving  Souls  into 

he  soon  died.     The  Bntish  had  obtained  the  island  Puigatory  and  hS".    In  the  last  Borras  is  sup- 

of  Labuan  m  1846;  they  grwiually  ^tended  their  poaed  to  have  pictured  himself  as  a  white  robed 

power  over  the  petty  rulers  of  the  northern  part  of  £onk  kneeling  on  the  brink. 

Borneo  until,  m  1888,  the  Bntish  Protectorate  of  Stiblino-Maxwbll,  ilnnol.  o/ tfc*  ilriirt*  of  5jhiw  (Londoc 

North  Borneo  was  formally  acknowledged.    English-  1891).                                  Auguotub  van  Clesf. 


B0BB0MEAN8                           688  BOBBOMINI 

Jorromeans.     See   Sisters   of   Merct   of  St.  mostly  in  Latin  that  treat  of  various  ecclesiastical 

HARLE8  BoRROMEO.  sciences.     The   universal   approbation   of  his   own 

Borromao,  Andrea,  an  Italian  missionary,  b.  in  and  later  times  is  echoed  in  the  following  words 

he  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  at  or  near  '*^™  *"«  above-mentioned  work  of  Man^oni,  en- 

Vlilan;  d.'  in  1683.    He  was  the  son  of  Coimt  Giulio  graved  on  the  pedestal  of  the  marble  statue  that  the 

Cesare  Borromeo,  and  was  received  into  the  religious  citiaens  of  Milan  erected  in  1865  before  the  gates 

order  of  the  Theatines  in  1637.    In  1652  he  vSited  of  ^^^  Ambrosiana  Library;    "He  was  one  of  those 

Mmgrelia  and  Georgia  (Russian  Transcaucasia)  as  a  pen  rare  in  every  age,  who  employed  extraordinaiy 

missionary,  and  laboured  with  success  for  eleven  intelligence,  the  resources  of  an  opulent  condition, 

years,  to  convert  the  inhabitants.     On  his  return  to  the  advantages  of  privileged  station,  .and  an  un- 

Kome  he  was  elected  procurator  for  these  missions,  "inching  will,  m  the  search  and  practice  of  higher 

He  declined  the  offer  of  a  bishopric.     He  left  an  and  better  things."  .        ^     „ 

account  of  the  above  mentioned  missions,  of  his  or-  ,^^  ^{iUT/S'  SJI^kSS:  'S^JX^'^KSSi.^^ 

der  entitled:  "Relazione  della  Georgia,  Mingrelia,  e  stroh  XV ll  (Milan.  1832),  which  includes  a  catalogue  of  his 

Missioni  de'  Padri  Teatini  in   quelle  parti*'  (Rome,  yforkB;  fU>BBnTi,  Apohpia  del  Card.  Federiqo  Borromeo  {VUlan, 

^7CkA\  1870);  VoM  Reumont  in /CtrcAeniex.,  XL  1125  sqq.;  BotJQOiL- 

ijT^'                  o    •**^- jir.  1-    /x»        •     t^floN   Ti    •••   »^o  ^N   Jn  CathoHc  Univtrnty  BulUHn  (Washinstoii,   IS95),  1. 

Mazkccbszxi,  iScrUft>n  d'/Kma  (Brescia,  1762),  11,  lu,  1793.  566-572 

N.  A.  Weber.  Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Borromeo,  Saint  Charles.  See  Charles  Borro-  Borromeo,  The  Socibtt  op  St.  Charles  (Borro- 
meo, St.  mausverein),  a  German  Catholic  association  for  the 

Borromeo,  Fbderico,  Cardinal  and  Archbishop  encouragement  and  diffusion  of  edifving,  instructive, 
of  Milan,  cousin  and  successor  of  St.  Charles  Bor-  and  entertaining  literature.  It  was  foimded  at  Bonn, 
romeo,  b.  at  Milan  18  August,  1564;  d.  there,  22  Sep-  in  1846,  by  Franz  Xavier  Dieringer.  one  of  the  pro- 
tember,  1631.  He  was  the  son  of  Giulio  Cesare  feasors  of  the  Catholic  theolocicid  faculty  at  Bonn, 
Borromeo  and  Margherita  Trivulzio,  members  of  August  Reichensperger,  and  Freiherr  Max  von  Log. 
the  Milanese  aristocracy.  He  studied  successively  From  the  first  tne  society  placed  itself  under  the 
at  Bologna  and  Pavia,  in  which  latter  city  he  was  protection  of  the  episcopate.  Cardinal  Johannes  von 
the  first  pupil  of  the  Borromeo  College.  Later  he^  Geissel,  Cardinal  Krementz,  and  Archbishop  Simar 
went  to  Home  for  higher  studies  and  was  there  did  much  to  further  ite  aims,  and  it  gradually  spr^Ml 
strongly  influenced  by  St.  Philip  Neri,  Cardinal  ovw  the  whole  of  Germany,  so  that  by  the  middle 
Baronius,  and  Cardinal  Bellarmine.  In  1580  he  be-  of  1907  it  had  145^250  members,  who  were  grouped 
gan  his  ecclesiastical  career  under  the  guidance  of  in  258  main  societies  and  3,247  branches.  The  ad- 
»t.  Charles  Borromeo.  He  was  made  cardinal  at  ministrative  department  and  chief  office  are  at  Bonn, 
the  age  of  twenty-three,  in  1587,  bv  Sixtus  V;  and,  The  society  has  73  branches  outeide  of  (xermany: 
in  1595,  Archl>ishop  of  Milan  by  Clement  VIl,  who  in  Belxium,  6:  France,  2;  HoUand,  4;  Italy,  1; 
personally  consecrated  him  to  this  high  office.  During  Luxemburg,  3o;  Austria,  6:  Switzerland,  18.  In 
thirty-six  ^ears  he  gave  the  world  an  example  of  1906  ite  total  income  was  $124,743,  and  ite  expenses, 
episcopal  virtue,  zeal,  and  dignity.  He  was  tireless  $123,174.  In  accordance  with  ite  by-laws  the  society 
in  preaching  and  in  instructing  both  clergy  and  seeks:  (1)  to  send  every  year  one  book  or  several 
peo{)le,  was  an  apostl^  of  religious  education  and  a  books  as  a  gift  to  each  of  ito  members,  the  quantity 
persistent  reformer  of  all  aouses,  both  lay  and  of  reading  matter  thus  bestowed  being  dependent  on 
ecclesiastical.  *  An  almost  constant  c(Miflict  with  the  abili^  of  the  society  and  the  amount  of  the 
the  local  Spanish  authorities,  suspicious  and  haughty  annual  subscription,  as  the  dues  vary  from  $1.50  to 
by  nature,  did  not  diminish  his  sweetness  of  temper  75  or  38  cente  a  ^rear;  (2)  to  use  the  annual  surplus 
nor  his  patience;  the  traditional  immunities  and  in  founding  libraries  (those  thus  founded  numbered 
authority  of  the  ecclesiastical  order  were  defended  over  3,(X)0  m  1907)  and  in  the  support  of  libraries;  (3) 
as  an  inheritance  of  his  see  that  he  dared  not  abandon,  to  aid  workingmen's  and  people's  libraries  and  those 
Von  Reumont  thinks  that,  though  often  right,  he  of  asylums,  hospitals,  ana  other  chariteble  or  social 
went  at  times  too  far,  e.  g.  in  the  assertion  of  minute  institutions.  Formerly  the  society  was  able  to  supply 
ceremonial  righte;  it  may  be  said,  however,  that  ite  members  with  a  large  numb^  of  books  at  a  re- 
in all  probability  it  was  the  principle  and  substance  duced  price,  which  was  often  not  more  than  two- 
of  customary  ecclesiastical  righte  that  the  fearless  thirds  of  the  ordinary  cost  of  the  volumes.    The 

Sastor  ever  intended  to  preserve  and  hand  down,  society's  catalogue  for  1906  contained  over  10,000 
Lis  affection  for  the  people  of  Milan  was  made  evi-  titles  of  works  which  could  be  thus  purchased.  But 
dent  during  the  great  famine  and  pest  of  1627-28,  since  1907  it  has  been  obliged  to  abandon  this  branch 
when  he  fed  daily  2, (XX)  poor  at  the  gates  of  his  resi-  of  ite  activity,  on  account  of  the  position  taken  by 
dence,  and  was  pereonally  an  example  of  such  ab-  the  business  union  of  the  (merman  book-sellers.  In 
solute  heroism  that  nearly  one  hundiW  of  his  clergy  the  larger  cities  the  society  has  opened  free  reading- 
(sixty-two  parish  priests  and  thirty-three  vicars)  rooms  for  the  use  of  the  public  in  connexion  with  its 
gave  up  their  lives  in  attendance  on  the  perishing  libraries.  Since  1902  the  society  has  issued  a  period- 
multitudes.  Alessandro  Manzoni  has  immortalized  ical;  originaUy  this  publication  was  called  '^Borro- 
this  extraordinary  devotion  in  his  "I  Promessi  mAusbl&tter";  it  now  bears  the  name  of  "Die 
Sposi"   (The   Betrothed).      If    Cardinal  Borromeo  BOcherwelt". 

shared  the  current  excessive  credulity  in  witehcraft  ^>»«  Oriindunotmd  TfuuioMt  de*  Veninf  vom  hi.  KoHBorny- 

and  magic,  he  was  in  every  other  way  far  in  advance  ^'J^C'l^'yXwS^&^^ar  '^'  "^"^ 

of  his  time  as  a  friend  of  the  people  and  a  promoter  Joseph  Lms. 
of  intellectual  culture  and  social  refinement  based 

on  a  practical  religious  life.     He  is  the  founder  of  Borremini,  Francbbco,  architect   and  sculptor; 

the  famous  Ambrosian  Library  (q.  v.)  opened  by  b.  25  September,  1599,  at  Bissone:  d.  (by  his  own 

him  in  1609,  as  a  college  of  writers,  a  seminary  of  hand)  1  August,  1667,  at  Rome.    He  studied  arcfai- 

savante,  a  school  of  fine  arts,  and  after  the  Bodleian  tecture  imder  €)ario  Madema,  a  relative.    On  the 

at  Oxford  the  first  genuinely  public  library  in  Europe,  death  of  Madema,  he  was  nominated  as  architect  of 

The  cares  of  a  thickly  populated  diocese  did  not  St.  Peter's,  under  the  direction  of  Bernini.    His  most 

prevent    him    from    acquiring    great    ecclesiastical  extravagant  effort  was  the  church  of  San  Carlo  alle 

erudition    or    from    composing    some    seventy-one  Quattro  Fontene  (164(^-67),  a  good  example  of  the 

minted    and    forty-six    manuscript    books    written  fully  developed   baroque  style  in   Rome.    In    the 


BOBVmi                              689  B0800 

efaureh  and  part  of  the  College  of    Propaganda  Giegorjr  the  Great,  in  one  of  his  letters,  speaks  of  & 

Bmrromini's  fancies  are  vildest:    the   ciqwia  and  Bishop  of  Bosa,  vithout.  however,  mentioning  the 

campanile  of  Sant'  Andrea  delle  Fratte  are  in  better  bishop's  name.   In  1073  CWantino  de  Castro,  Bulrap 

taste.     The   great   nave  of  Saint   John   Lateran  of  Bosa,  who,  according  to  an  inscription,  had  bimt 

was  modernized,  as  it  now  stands,  by  Borromini.  the  cathedral  dedicated  to  St.  Peter,  was  appointed 

His  best  work. is  the  fa9ade  of  Santa  Agnese  in  the  Metropolitan  of  Torres  by  St.  Gregory  Vn.    Among 

Piazza  Navona.    Borromini  is  generally  considered  the  most  illustrious  bishops  of  this  see  are  nimibered: 

the  father  of  all  modem  abuses  m  architecture.    He  the  learned   Cardinal   (Sovanni    Casanova    (1424); 

inverted  the  whole  system  of  Greek  and  Roman  G.  Francesco  Fara  (1501),  author  of  the  first  (but 

architecture,  without  offering  a  substitute.  very  inacctutite)  history  of  Sardinia:  Serafino  Es- 

Thomas  H.  Pools.  quirro,  a  learned  theologian,  who  haa  beoi  General 

BorruB    (Bohbi,    BtmnDs),    Christopher,   mis-  of  the  Servites  (1677).  It  is  asswted  by  some  that 

sionary,  mathematician,  and  Mtronomer,  b.  at  Milan  ^^JT.  ^^**"«'r"^*u**  ^^'  •"»*  was  trans- 

m  1583;  d.  at  Rome,  24  May,  1632.    His  family  J^  *?  ^  f^Jf  *||L ^^tj;"«t»°'»  *>^a**>«„^»"?»«' 

was  one  of  good  standing  in  Milan.    He  became  a  ***^iv?J?>'  t'^oJH,^  "^P  Y"  f  *:  ^S^V^' 

member  of  the  Society  oflTesus,  16  September,  1601;  ^*  ^^^^  ^y^-  ?«**■•  ^^^  n?artyred  m  70-for 

in  1618  he  was  sent  from  Macai.  with  Father  i>etrui  *}"'  lK>««ver,  there  is  no  bstoncal  evidence.    The 

Marques,  8.J.,  as  one  of  the  first  missionaries  to  *2^  •««*  population  of  40,200,  with  21  parishes, 

Coc^-CSiina.     Here   he  stayed  untU   1622,  being  ^  chuwhes  and  chapels,  100  secular  pnests,  and 

known  under  the  name  of  Bruno.    After  his  return  p?^SiJI^^2SP*r^  -».•-„  j>r<.i.'.  /v_:„  i<l.,h  rtn.  d  _ 

he  taught  mathematics  at  Coimbra;  in  1632  he  entered  rjS!^^^S^J^'^  fpS^l^TX    '         ''         ' 

the  Cistercian  Order,  taking  the  name  of  Father  U.  Benigni. 

Onofrio,  and  died  the  same  year.    His  most  im-       »-„t.  i> . , n  n     j.  .  u     *  n        i 

portent  work  "Relatione  deUa  nuova  misslone  deUi  ,„  ^fJ^AI^"*",^'  m  "*°*'j?'  '';^L®™fS''' 

PiP.dellaCompaKniadiGesaalRegnodeUaCocin-  1»  October,  1686;  d    14  November,  1736     After 


Latin   and   German    (Vienna,    1633),   and   knglish      ■    .     <    u-  -x.-  i.     u   -  ^  j-  j-     l-i        t 

(London,  1633).    It  was  also  inserted  in  ChuwHill's    f^  "^    I'^JU^'^*^^*!.'^*'   **"**!*'*    philosophv   at 

'  '— —   —     -  Antwerp,  1707-09,  and  then  spent  a  vear  m  Italy  to 

•'    ••   ■•■  -    •  •    ._    Recafied  to  Antwerp 

teaching  and  then  went 


The  work  was  considered  o?e  of  the  W  sources  of  ^,lf^**^A^^«'«   "l!,  ^   *  ^S.*"'?*^*'   *^""?' 

information  concerning  Cochin-China  on  account  of  \l\r^\  ,.**?  ''^u£JT°    ifPif*!!  **  J?"  j"?  "" 

its  exceUent  descriptioS  of  the  physical,  political,  and  ^™  ««*  distinguished  ^mself  by  the  pubhc  defenw 

ecclesiastical  conditions  of  the  c6untry.*^The  obeei-  of  theses  m  March  aad  September,  17l9,  and  by  his 

vations  of  Bomis  on  the  magnetic  vilriation  of  the  <*?<*»<*  J^.  ST-^f  ^'*^'?*^  k  ?•  "^-    ^  "^}' 

compass  appear  to  be  of  moi^  importance,  but  un-  **  **»«.«?'!  of  his  thirf  year  of  proUtion,  he  was  made 

fortunately  *^y   have   not   yet'been   published.  Sr^Jw  {li^%^l"^*^S«  ^"?  "'^K^'l^f*  "*^" 

According  to  Kircher  he  drew  up  the  firet  chart  for  ^L°L^,„^y  .^^^  iH^fP"^  "^  ^i  ^%\r  ^ 

the  Atlantic  and  Indian  Oceans  showing  the  spots  ^T^J?^  ^*^^  «»  found  m  J«ly.  IV-VI, 

where  the  magnetic  needle  makes  the  same  an^es       Dou^STfeto^'s.  P.  Pari  »«*i  hagiograpki  in  Acta 

with  the  meridian;  m  this  he  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  ss.,  IIU  ~k~»™i»..  u.  ^»> 

forerunner  of  Halley.    Borrus  gives  the  explanation  Ch.  De  Suedt. 

to  the  chart  in  a  manuscript  that  belongs  to  the        »«.-.^    rt m»_  tr  rw^ 

Royal  Academy  at  Lisbon.    In  another  iSnuscript,  uZ^'t  "ro^ANNi^  MmcHiOR,  VtssmAVUt  (Don 

now  at  Evora;  "Tratada  da  arte  de  navegar  pSkJ  Bosco),  founder  of  the  Saltan  Sociefre,  b.  of  poor 

CristovSo  Brui^o",  which  bears  on  the  samrsubiW.  ^^*f  ™  *  !»*"«  «?^  »*  Beochi,  a  hiH^ide  hamlet 

he  makes  exoeUent  suggestions,  seconding   to   J^  5*?,^^^r7i5.^*^'°?"*J^^'  ^'k^^^  ^*^^' 

tins,  as  to  a  new  metl^  for  determmin|  the  longi-  ^'  ^}  ,''»",'^'  ^^'  declared  V^erable  by  Pius  X, 

tude  at  sea  and  also  concerning  imprc^ementsln  £4  July,  1807.    When  ne  was  httle  more  th«m  two 

sea-charts.    Father  Le  JeunehSbme  undertook  a  3^  old  his  father  died,  leavingthe  support  of  three 

translation  of  the  treatise  into   Latm.    PhiUp  of  °^  *l*'^J??*'i  *^'  **1f**r*j^*^l.  J^K^J^l^ 

Spain,  desiring  to  understand  the  nautical  studies  I^."^  "5*°*  f ,?  ^'{fPT^J^l  ^^  r«eived  his 

aid  iAventioM  of  Borrus,  once  summoned  the  latter  &»*J2!^"*''  *V^  ^^  5^  j?'*  P»™^  P"««^ 

from  Coimbra  to  Madrid.    Besides  what  has  been  ^e  possessed  a  ready  wit  a  ret«itive  memory,  and 


Allathtb,    Ape9    UrbancB    (Rome,    1683),    66 
MaaneM  wiv  <U  arte  maanetieA  (Rome.  1641}.  602;  Db  Visch, 
Biiiialheea  9CTiptorjm  Sacr,  Ord.  Cutereiefm*  (Ck>logne.  1656), 


eve  of  Trinity  Sunday  by  Archbishop  Franzoni  of 
Turin. 


71;    Aroelati,    Biblioth.   Scriptor.    Mediolanen$ium    (Milan,  T^o\r5««  *u^  ,^w^i,^^w^r    T\^^  Tyn^^^  «*««<.  *«  t^.-:^ 

1745).  I.  ii,  238;  d'Avezac,  Aper^  hitionoues  mtr  la  houmoli  Leaving  the  semmary,  Don  BoBco  went  to  Turin 

in  BulUt.  de  la  8oe.  de  04ogr.  (Paris,  I860).  XIX.  358;  CAmAYON,  where  he  entered  xealously  upon  his  pnestly  labours. 

^>^'^'  *^*f«  i^*Vi*S[?*  T\?^i',  ^'  ^'  X?*'  ^^**^^*  It  was  here  that  an  mcident  occurred  which  opened 

5?^*i^'^eaT^^;i8V7^).^^^^^  ^P  ^  ^  the  real  field  of  effort  of  his  afterlife.^One 

Biografia  dei  viaoffiaiori  ilaliani  (2d  ed..  Rome.  1882).  875-^877;  of  his  duties  was  to  accompany  Don  Cafasso  upon 

SJlJyx^'o??'**^  ^i'^'^^  «  ^«»  TP^  ^'  '^^^,  ^«*;o  (Liibon.  his  visits  to  the  prisons  of  the  city,  and  the  condition 

».T  SSiUlt^fflft^'S^S'-x^eJ.^^WSi;  of  the  chfldren  ^nfined  m  these' plaws  abandoned 

von3durifuntmdKttrtmiiherMete<maoffieumiETdma0  to  the  most  evil  influences,  and  With  httle  before 

(Beriin,  iSftS).  No.  IV,  18.                       r\nrrr^  TT  '  them  but  the  ffallows,  made  such  an  inddible  im- 

Utto  Uabtio.  pression  upon  his  mind  that  he  resolved  to  devote 

Boss,  DiocESB  OF,  in  the  province  of  Cagliari,  nis  life  to  the  rescue  of  these  imfortunate  outcasts. 

Sardinia,  and  suffragan  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Sassari.  On  the  eighth  of  December,  1841,  the  feast  of  the 

Tbe  dty  numbers  about  36,000  inhabitants.     St.  Immaculatii    Conception,    while    Don    Bosoo    waa 


B0800                                   690  BOBOO 

Vesting  for  Mass,  the  sacristan  drove  from  the  church  was  oonsecrated  9  June,  1868,  and  i^aced  under 

a  ragged  urchin  because  he  refused  to  serve  Mass.  the  patronage  of  Our  Lady,  Help  of  ChristianB. 

Don  Bosco  heard  his  cries  and  recalled  him,  and  in  In  the  same  year  in  which  Don  Bosco  began  the 

the  friendship  which  sprang  up  between  the  priest  erection  of  the  church  fifty  priests  and   teachers 

and    Bartoilom6o    Garelli  was  sown  the  first  seed  who  had  been  assistine  him  formed  a  society  under 

of  the  "Oratory",  so  called,  no  doubt,  after  the  a  common  rule  which  Pius  IX,  provisionally  m  1809, 

example  of  St.  rhilip  Neri  and  because  prayer  was  a^d  finally  in  1874,  approved. 

its  prominent  feature.     Don  Bosco  entered  eagerly  Character  and  Growth  of  the  Oratory. — ^Any  attempt 

upon  the  task  of  instructing  this  first  pupil  of  the  to  fxplain  the  popularity  of  the  Oratory  among  the 

streets;  companions  soon  joined  Bartholomeo,    all  classes  to  whicn  Don  Bosco  devoted  his  life  would 

drawn  by  a  kindness  they  had  never  known,  and  in  fail  without  an  appreciation  of  his  spirit  which  was 

February,  1842,  the  Oratory  numbered  twenty  bo3rs,  its  life.     From  his  earliest  intercourse  with  poor 

in  March  of  the  same  year,  thirty,  and  in  March,  1846,  boys  he  had  never  failed  to  see  under  the  dirt,  the 

four  hundred.  i^ags,  and  the  uncouthness  the  spark  which  a  little 

As  the  niunber  of  boys  increased,  the  question  kindness  and  encouragement  would  fan  into  a  flame, 

of  a  suitable  meeting-place  presented  itself.    In  good  In  a  vision  or  dream  which  he  is  said  to  have  had  in 

weather  walks  were  taken  on  Sundays  and  holidays  his  early  boyhood,  wherein  it  was  disclosed  to  him 

to  spots  in  the  country  about  Turin  where  lunch  what  his  life  work  would  be,  a  voice  said  to  him:  "Not 

was  eaten,  and  realizing  the  charm  which  music  with  blows,  but  with  chairity  and  gentleness  mUst 

held  for  the  untamed  spirits  of  his  disciples  Don  you  draw  these  friends  to  the  path  <»  virtue."    And 

Bosco  organized  a  band  for  which  some  old  brass  whether  this  be  accounted  as  nothing  more  than  a 

instruments  were  procured.     In  the  autumn  of  1844  dream,  that  was  in  reality  the  spirit  with  which  he 

he  was  appointed  assistant  chaplain  to  the  Rifugio,  animated  his  Oratory.     In  the  earlier  days  when 

where  Don  Borel  entered  enthusiastically  into  his  the  number  of  his  uttle  disciples  was  slender  he 

work.    With  the  approval  of  Archbishop  Franzoni,  drew  them  about  him  by  means  of  small  presents 

two  rooms  were  secured  adjoining  the  Rifugio  and  and  attractions,  and  by  pleasant  walks  to  favourite 

converted  into  a  chapel,  which  was  dedicated  to  spots  in  the  environs  of  Turin.      These  excursionf 

St.  Francis  de  Sales.    The  members  of  the  Oratory  occurring^  on  Sunday,  Don  Bosco  would  say  Mass 

now  gathered  at  the  Rifugio,  and  niunbers  of  boys  in  the  village  church  and  give  a  short  instruction 

from  the  surrounding  district  applied  for  admission,  on  the  Gospel;  breakfast  would  then  be  eaten,  fol- 

It  was  about  this  time  (1845)  tnat  Don  Bosco  began  lowed  by  games;  and  in  the  afternoon  Vespers  would 

his  night  schools  and  with  the  closing  of  the  factories  be  chant^,  a  lesson  in  Catechism  given,  and  the 

the  b^s  flocked  to  his  rooms  where  he  and  Don  Borel  Rosary  recited.    It  was  a  familiar  sight  to  see  him 

instructed  them  in  rudimentary  branches.  in  the  field  surrounded  by  kneeling  boys  preparing 

The  success  of  the  Oratory  at  the  Rifugio  was  not  for  confession, 
of  lonj^  duration.  To  his  great  distress  Don  Bosco  Don  Bosco's  method  of  study  knew  nothing  of 
was  obliged  to  give  up  his  rooms  and  from  this  on  punishment.  Observance  of  rules  was  obtained  by 
he  was  subjected  to  petty  annoyances  and  obstacles  instilling  a  true  sense  of  duty,  by  removing  as- 
which,  at  times,  seemed  to  spell  the  ruin  of  his  under-  siduously  all  occasions  for  disobedience,  and  by 
taking.  His  perseverance  in  the  face  of  all  difficulties  allowing  no  effort  towards  virtue,  how  trivial  soever 
led  many  to  the  conclusion  that  he  was  insane,  and  it  might  be,  to  pass  unappreciated.  He  held  that 
an  attempt  was  even  made  to  confine  him  in  an  the  teachei;  should  be  father,  adviser,  and  friend, 
asylum.  Complaints  were  lodged  against  him,  de-  and  he  was  the  first  to  adopt  the  preventive  method, 
clarine  his  community  to  be  a  nuisance,  owii^  to  Of  punishment  he  said:  As  far  as  possible  avoid 
the  character  of  the  boys  he  befriended.  From  punishing  .  .  .  try  to  gain  love  before  inspiring 
the  Rifugio  the  Oratory  was  moved  to  St.  Martin's,  fear."  And  in  1877  he  wrote:  "I  do  not  remember 
to  St.  Peter's  Churchyard,  to  three  rooms  in  Via  to  have  used  formal  punishment'  and  with  God's 
Cottolengo,  where  the  night  schools  were  resumed,  erace  I  have  always  obtained,  ana  from  apparently 
to  an  open  field,  and  finally  to  a  rough  shed  upon  the  hopeless  children,  not  alone  what  duty  exacted,  but 
site  of  which  grew  up  an  Oratory  tlmt  counted  seven  what  my  wish  simply  expressed."  In  one  of  his 
hundred  members,  uon  Bosco  took  lodgings  nearby,  books  he  has  discussed  the  causes  of  weakne^  of 
where  he  was  joined  by  his  mother.  "Mama  Mai^  character,  and  derives  them  largel^r  from  a  mlsdi- 
garet",  as  Don  Bosco 's  mother  came  to  be  known,  rected  kindness  in  the  rearing  of  children.  Parents 
gave  the  last  ten  years  o(  her  life  in  devoted  service  make  a  parade  of  precocious  talents;  the  child  un- 
to the  little  inmates  of  this  first  Salesian  home,  derstands  quickly,  and  his  sensitiveness  enraptures 
When  she  joined  her  son  at  the  Oratory  the  outlook  all  who  meet  him,  but  the  parents  have  only  sue- 
was  not  bright.  But  sacrificing  what  small  means  ce^ded  in  producing  an  affectionate,  perfected,  in- 
she  had,  even  to  parting  with  her  home,  its  fur-  telligent  animal.  The  chief  object  should  be  to  form 
nishings,  and  her  jewelry,  she  brought  all  the  solicitude  the  will  and  to  temper  the  character.  In  all  his 
and  love  of  a  mother  to  these  children  of  the  streets,  pupils  Don  Bosco  tried  to  cultivate  a  taste  for  music. 
The  evening  classes  increased  and  gradually  dor-  Believing  it  to  be  a  powerful  and  refining  influence, 
mitories  were  provided  for  many  who  desired  to  live  "Instruction",  he  said,  "is  but  an  accessory,  like 
at  the  Oratory.  Thus  was  founded  the  first  Salesian  a  game;  knowledge  never  makes  a  man  because  it 
Home  which  now  houses  about  one  thousand  boys,  does  not  directly  touch  the  heart.  ^  It  gives  more 

The  mimicipal  authorities  by  this  time  had  come  power  in  the  exercise  of  good  or  evil;  but  alone  it 

to  recognize  the  importance  of  the  work  which  Don  is  an  indifferent  weapon,  wanting  guidance."     He 

Bosco  was  doing,  and  he  began  with  much  success  always  studied,  too,  the  aptitudes  and  vocations 

a  fund  for  the  erection    of    technical  schools  and  of  his  pupils,  and  to  an  almost  supernatural  quick . 

workshops.   These  were  all  completed  without  serious  ness   and  clearness  of  insight  into  the  hearts  of 

difficulty.    In  1868,  to  meet  tne  needs  of  the  Val-  children  must  be  ascribed  no  small  part  of  his  success, 

docco  quarter  of  Turin,  Don  Bosco  resolved  to  build  In  his  rules  he  wrote:  "Frequent  Confession,  frequent 

a  church.    Accordingly  a  plan  was  drawn  in  the  form  Conununion,  daily  Mass:  these  are  the  pillars  which 

of  a  cross  covering  an  area  of  1,500  sq.  yards.    He  should    sustain   the   whole   edifice   of   education." 

experienced    considerable   difficulty   in    raising   the  Don  Bosco  was  an  indefatigable  confessor,  devoting 

necessary  money,  but  the  charity  of'  some  friends  days  to  this  woric  among  nis  children.     He  recog- 

finally  enabled  him  to  complete  it  at  a  cost  of  more  nized  that  gentleness  and  pati^ice  alone  were  not 

than  a  million  francs  (about  %200fi00).    The  church  enough  to   oring  to   the  task  of  education.     He 


fiOBOOyiOH 


691 


BOSOOYIOH 


tborouffhly  believed  in  play  as  a  means  of  arousiiig 
ehildisn  ourioaity — ^more  than  this,  he  places  it  amons 
his  first  recommendations,  Bifid  for  the  rest  he  adopted 
St.  Philip  Neri's  words:  ''Do  as  you  wish^  I  do  not 
care  so  long  as  you  do  not  sin. " 

Siaiistics. — At  the  time  of  Don  Boeoo's  death  in 
1888  there  were  250  houses  of  the  Salesian  Society 
in  all  parts  of  the  world,  containing  130,000  children, 
and  from  which  there  annually  went  out  18,000 
finished  apprentices.  In  the  mother-house  Don 
Bosco  had  sdected  the  brightest  of  his  pupils,  taught 
them  Italian,  Latin,  French,  and  mathematics, 
and  this  band  formed  a  teaching  corps  for  the  new 
homes  which  quickly  grew  up  in  other  places.  Up 
to  1888  over  six  thousand  priests  had  gone  fortn 
from  Don  Bosco's  institutions,  1,200  of  whom  had 
remained  in  the  society.  The  schools  beffin  with 
the  child  in  his  first  instruction  and  lead,  K>r  those 
who  choose  it,  to  seminaries  for  the  priesthood. 
The  society  also  conducts  Simday  schools,  evening 
schools  for  adult  workmen,  schools  for  tnose  who 
enter  the  priesthood  late  in  life,  technical  schools, 
and  printing  establishments  for  the  diffusion  of  good 
reading  in  different  languages.  Its  members  also 
have  charee  of  hospitals  and  asylums,  nurse  the 
sick,  and  do  pastoral  work,  especially  in  rural  dis- 
tricts. The  society '  has  nouses  in  the  following 
countries:  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  France,  England, 
Belgium,  Switzerland^  Austria,  Palestine,  and  Aiders; 
in  North  America,  Mexico,  in  South  America,  Pata- 
g»nia.  Terra  del  Fuego,  Ecuador,  Brazil,  Paraguay, 
the  Ai^gentine  Republic,  Bolivia,  Uruguay,  Chile, 
Peru,  Venezuela,  and  Colombia.  In  the  United  States 
the  Dalesians  have  four  churches.  Sts.  Peter  and 
Paul  and  Corpus  Christi  in  San  Francisco,  Califomia; 
St.  Joseph's  m  Oakland,  Califomia;  and  the  Trans- 
figuration in  New  York  City.  Very  Rev.  Michael 
Borghino,  Provincial  for  America,  resides  in  San 
Francisco. 

Don  Bosco*»  ApostolaU  and  Other  Skekhea  (Saleswn  Preae, 
Turin.  1901);  Wbbkr  in  KirchenUx.,  X.  1558  sqq.;  Villk- 
mANCHK,  Don  Bosco,  tr.  Martin  (London). 

E.  F.  Saxton. 

BoBCOvich,  RnoGiERO  Qiuseppb,  a  Dalmatian 
Jesuit  and  well-known  mathematician,  astronomer, 
and  natural  philosopher,  b.  at  Raffusa,  18  May,  1711; 
d.  at  Milan.  13  February,  1787.  He  was  the  youngest 
of  six  brotners  and  his  education  was  begun  at  the 

Jesuit  college  of 
his  native  city. 
Being  early  im- 
pressed by  the 
success  achieved 
by  his  masters  he 
resolved  to  seek 
admission  in 
their  ranks  and 
on  31  October, 
1725,  at  the 
youthJFul  age  of 
fourteen,  he  en- 
tered the  noviti- 
ate of  the  Society 
of  Jesus  in  Rome. 
His  unusual  tal- 
ents manifested 
themselves  par- 
ticularly during 
the  years  devot- 
ed to  literary  and 
philosophical 
studies  at  the  Collegio  Romano,  the  most  cele- 
brated of  the  cc^eges  of  the  Society  of  Jesus. 
Thus,  for  example,  younjg  Boecovich  discovered  for 
himself  the  proof  of  the  theorem  of  Pythagoras.  His 
professors,  especially  Father  Horatius  Borgondi, 
{M!ofe88or  of  mathematics,  knew  how  to  cultivate  his 


RUOGIXBO  GlUBBPPi:   BOSOOVICB 


talents^  and  he  made  such  progress,  especially  in 
mathematics,  that  he  was  able  to  take  the  place  of  his 
former  professor  at  the  Roman  College  even  before 
the  completion  of  his  theological  studies.  As  soon  as 
he  had  completed  the  ordinary  studies  of  a  young 
Jesuit,  he  was  appointed  regular  professor  of  mathe- 
matical science  m  the  same  college.  He  performed 
the  duties  of  this  office  with  mucn  distinction  for  a 
whole  generation,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  numerous 
Latin  oussertations  which  he  published  nearly  every 
year,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  time.  These 
show  Boscovicn's  preference  for  astronomical  prob- 
lems. Among  them  may  be  mentioned:  ''The  Sun- 
spots"  (1736):  "The  Transit  of  Mercury"  (1737); 
'^The  Aurora  Borealis"  (1738);  "The  Applications  of 
the  Telescope  in  Astronomical  Studies''  (1739);  "The 
Figure  of  the  Earth"  (1739);  "The  Motion  of  the 
heavenly  Bodies  in  an  unresisting  Medium"  (1740); 
"The  various  Eflfects  of  Gravity"  (1741);  "The 
Aberration  of  the  Fixed  Stars"  (1742).  Problems  in 
pure  mathematics  as  well  as  philosophical  specula- 
tions regarding  the  various  theories  on  the  constitu- 
tion of  matter  also  engaged  his  attention  and  he  took 
an  active  part  in  sSi  scientific  discussions  which 
agitated  the  learned  world  of  his  time.  To  these  be- 
long his  "The  Deviation  of  the  Earth  from  the  proba- 
ble Spherical  Shape";  " Researches .  on  Umversal 
Gravitation";  "The  Computation  of  a  Comet's  Orbit 
from  a  Few  Observations",  etc.  His  able  treatment 
of  these  and  similar  problems  attracted  the  attention 
of  foreign,  as  well  as  of  Italian,  Academies,  several 
of  which — among  them  Bolo^a,  Paris,  and  London 
— admitted  him  to  membership.  At  Paris  he  shared 
with  the  famous  mathematician  Euler  the  honour 
of  having  submitted  the  correct  solution  of  a  prize 
problem. 

Boscovich  also  showed  much  ability  in  dealing 
with  practical  problems.  To  him  was  due  the  project 
of  the  Observatory  of  the  Collegio  Romano,  which 
afterwards  became  so  well  known.  He  first  sug- 
gested usinff  the  massive  dome-pillars  of  the  college 
church  of  St.  Ignatius  as  a  foundation,  on  account 
of  their  great  stability.  (The  church  dome  has  not 
yet  been  completed,  so  the  pillars  stiU  await  the 
superstructure  planned  by  the  architect.)  The  un- 
favourable circumstances  of  the  time  and  the  storms 
brewing  against  the  Jesuits,  which  ended,  as  is  well 
known,  in  the  suppression  of  the  Society,  prevented 
Boscovich's  plan  from  being  carried  out  until  1850, 
when  Father  Secchi,  his  worthy  successor,  was  able 
to  bring  it  to  completion.  There  is  a  close  parallel, 
it  may  be  observed,  between  these  two  coryphcei  of 
the  Koman  College,  and  Boscovich  may,  without 
hesitation,  be  considered  the  intellectual  forerunner 
of  Secchi.  Like  Secchi,  too,  he  was  the  adviser  of  the 
papal  Government  in  all  im{>ortant  technical  ques- 
tions. Thus,  when  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century  the  great  dome  of  St.  Peter's  began  to  show 
cracks  and  other  signs  of  damage,  causing  consterna- 
tion to  the  pope  and  to  the  Eternal  City,  Boscovich 
was  consullila,  and  the  excitement  was  not  allayed 
until  his  plan  to  place  large  iron  bands  about  the 
dome  was  carried  out.  His  advice  was  sought  when 
there  was  Question  of  rendering  innocuous  the 
Pontine  marsnes  and  he  was  also  entrusted  with  the 
survey  of  the  Papal  States.  Pope  Benedict  XIV 
commissioned  him  and  his  fellow-Jesuit,  Le  Maire, 
to  cany  out  several  precise  meridian  arc  measure- 
ments^ and  it  seems  to  have  been  due  chiefly  to  his 
influence  that  the  same  pope,  in  1757,  abrogated  the 
obsolete  decree  of  the  Index  against  the  Copemican 
S3r8tem. 

Many  universities  outside  of  Italy  sought  to  num- 
ber Boecovich  among  their  professors.  He  himself 
was  full  of  the  spirit  of  enterprise,  as  was  shown  when 
King  John  V  of  Portug^  petitioned  the  gene^  of 
the  Jesuits  for  ten  Fathers  to  make  an  elaborate 


BO8GOVI0B                           692  BOSOOVZOH 

survey  in  B^'susiL  He  voluntarily  offered  his  services  cities  and  provinces.  Thus,  in  1757,  he  was  sent  b;* 
^r  tl^  airduous  task,  hoping  thus  to  be  aUe  to  carry  the  city  of  Lucca  to  the  Court  of  Vimma,  to  iirge  tbie 
out  an  independent  survev  in  Ekniador,  and  so  obtain  danrming  of  the  laices  which  were  tlireatening  the 
data  of  value  for  the  final  solution  of  the  problem  of  dtv.  He  acquitted  himself  of  this  task  with  such 
the  figure  of  the  earth,  wliich  was  then  exciting  much  skill  that  the  Luccans  made  him  an  honorary  dtisen 
attention  in  England  and  France.  His  propoisal  led  and  rendered  him  generous  assistance  on  his  scientific 
to  the  institution  of  similar  surveys  in  the  Papal  journeys,  both  in  Italy,  France,  and  En^^and.  While 
States,  the  pope  taking  this  means  of  retaining  him  m  England  he  ^ve  tne  impulse  to  the  obsi^^ationfi 
in  his  own  domain.  A  detailed  account  of  the  results  of  the  approaching  transit  of  Venus,  on  6  June,  1761, 
of  the  work  appeared  in  a  large  quarto  volume  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  his  proposal  to  employ 
(Rome,  1755)  entitle : ''Deli tterariA  expeditione  per  lenses  composed  of  liquids,  to  avoid  chromatic 
Pontificiam  ditionem  ad  dimetiendos  duos  meridian!  aberration,  may  have  contributed  to  DoUond^s  suc- 
gradus  et  corrigendam  mi4)pam  geographicam".  A  cess  in  constructing  achromatic  telescopes.  The 
map  of  the  Papal  States  made  at  the  same  time,  citizens  of  Ragusa,  his  native  town,  besought  him  to 
which  corrected  many  previous  errors,  proved  to  be  settle  a  dispute  in  which  they  had  become  involved 
likewise  a  welcome  contribution  to  the  discussion  re-  with  the  King  of  France — an  affair  which  the  pope 
garding  the  more  or  less  spherical  form  of  the  earth,  himself  deigned  to  adjust.  Boscovich  returned  from 
Many  of  the  triangulations  were  accompanied  by  no  England  in  company  with  the  Venetian  ambassador 
slight  difficultie&  The  two  base-lines  emplo}red  in  who  took  him  by  way  of  Poland  as  far  as  Constanti- 
the  survey — one  on  the  Via  Appia,  the  other  in  the  nople.  He  availed  himself  of  this  opportunity  to 
neighbourhood  of  Rimini — ^were  measured  with  great  extend  and  complete  his  archsoloffical  studies  in 
care.  The  first  was  redetermined  in  1854-55  by  these  countries,  as  may  be  gathered  from  his  journal 
Father  Secchi.  as  the  mark  indicating  one  end  of  the-  published  at  Bassano  in  1784:  ''Giomale  d'un  viasgio 
line  measured  by  Boscovich  and  Le  Maire  had  been  lost,  da  Constantinopoli  in  Polonia  con  una  relazione  ^le 
(Of.  Secchi 's  work:  Misura  ddla  Base  triffonometrica  rovine  di  Troia".  The  hardships  of  this  journey 
esequita  sulla  via  Appia  per  ordine  del  govemo  shattered  his  health,  yet  we  find  him  shcrt^  after 
pontificio,  Roma,  1858.)  Besides  his  work  in  mathe-  (1762)  employed  at  Rome  in  various  practical  works, 
matical  astronomy  we  also  find  Boscovich  npeculat-  such  as  the  draining  of  the  Pontine  marshes.  In 
ing.  upon  scientific  grounds^  on  the  essence  or  matter  1764  he  accepted  the  appointment  of  professor  of 
ana  endeavouring  to  establish  more  widely  Newton's  mathematics  at  the  University  of  Pavia  C^icinum). 
law  of  universal  gravitation.  ^  As  early  as  1748  we  At  the  same  time  Father  La  Grange,  the  former  assist- 
meet  essays  from  his  pen  in  this  field  of  thought,  e.  g.  ant  of  Father  Pezenas  of  the  Observatory  of  Marseilles, 
''De  materise  divisibiiitate  et  de  principiis  corporum  was  invited  by  the  Jesuits  of  Milan  to  erect  an  ob- 
dissertatio"  (1748);  "De  continuitatis  lege  et  ejus  servatory  at  the  laree  college  of  Brera.  He  was  able 
consectariis  pertinentibus  ad  prima  materi®  elementa  to  avail  himself  of  the  technical  skill  of  Boscovich  in 
eorumque  vires"  (1754):  ^'De  le^  virium  in  natur&  carrying  out  his  commission  and  it  may  be  ques- 
existentium"  (1755);  "Philosophise  naturalis  theoria  tioned  to  which  of  the  two  belongs  the  greater  credit 
redacta  ad  iinicam  legem  virium  in  natur&  existen-  in  the  founding  of  this  observatory  which,  even  in 
tium"  (1758).  Boscovich,  according  to  the  views  our  own  time,  with  that  of  the  Couegio  Romano,  is 
expressed  in  these  essays^  held  that  lx)dies  could  not  among  the  most  prominent  of  Italy.  It  was  Boeco- 
be  composed  of  a  contmuous  material  substance,  vich  who  selected  the  south-east  comer  of  the  college 
nor  even  of  contiguous  material  particles,  but  of  in-  as  a  sito  for  the  observatory  and  worked  out  the  com- 
numerable,  poinwike  structures  whose  individual  pleto  plans,  including  the  reinforcements  and  the 
components  lack  all  extension  and  divisibility.  A  necessary  remodelling  for  the  structure.  Building 
repulsion  exists  between  them  which  is  indeed  in-  operations  were  immediately  bes:un  and  in  the  f^- 
finitesimal  but  cannot  vanish  without  compenetration  lowing  year,  1765,  a  large  room  for  the  mural  quad- 
taking  place.  This  repulsion  is  due  to  certain  forces  rants  and  meridian  instruments,  another  for  the 
with  which  these  elements  are  endowed.  It  tends  to  smaller  instruments,  and  a  broad  terrace,  with  several 
become  infinite  when  they  are  in  very  close  proximity,  revolving  domes  to  contain  the  sextants  and  equa- 
whereas  within  certain  limits  it  diminishes  as  the  toriab,  were  completed.  Such  was  the  stability  of 
distance  is  increased  and  finally  becomes  an  at-  the  observatory  that  the  new  18-inch  glass  of  Schiapa- 
tractive  force.  This  change  is  broiight  about  by  the  relli  could  be  mounted  in  it  although  a  cylindrical 
diverse  directions  of  the  various  forces.  Boscovich  dome  with  a  diameter  of  13  yards,  4  inches  now 
divided  his  last-mentioned  exhaustive  work  into  takes  the  place  of  the  octagonal  hall  of  Boscovich. 
three  parts,  first  explaining  and  establishing  his  The  London  Academy  proposed  to  send  Boscovich 
theory,  then  pointing  out  its  applications  to  me-  in  charge  of  a  scientific  expedition  to  California  to 
chanical  problems,  and'  finally  showing  how  it  may  observe  the  transit  of  Venus  in  1769  but,  unfortu- 
be  employed  in  physics.  His  attempt  to  reduce  the  nately,  the  opposition  manifested  everywhere  to  the 
most  complicated  laws  of  nature  to  a  simple  funda-  Society  of  Jesus  and  leading  finally  to  its  suppression, 
mental  law  aroused  so  much  interest  that  in  1763  a  made  this  impossible.  He  contmued,  however,  to 
tlurd,  and  enlarged,  edition  of  his  ^'Thforia  philo-  ^ve  his  services  to  the  Milan  Observatory  for  whoee 
lophisB  naturalis  (Venice,  1763)  had  become  neces-  further  development  he  was  able  to  obtain  no  in^ 
sary.  The  publisher  added  as  an  appendix  a  cata-  considerable  sums  of  money.  In  particular  the  ad- 
logue  of  Bosoovich's  previous  works.  There  are  no  justment  of  the  instruments  engaged  his  attention, 
less  than  sixty-six  treatises  dating  from  1736 — a  a  subject  about  which  he  has  left  several  papers, 
proof  of  his  literary  activity.  Some  have  already  But  as  his  elaborate  plans  received  only  partial  sup- 
been  mentioned  and  to  these  may  be  added  his  port  from  his  superiors  and  patrons,  ne  thought 
''Elementorum  matheseos  tomi  tres",  in  quarto  seriously  in  1772  of  severing  his  connexion  with  the 
(1752).  observatory  and,  in  fact,  in  the  same  year,  Father 
Boscovich  attracted  attention  by  his  political  La  Grange  was  placed  in  complete  chai^  of  the  new 
writings  as  well  as  by  his  scientific  achievements,  institution.  Bosco\ach  was  to  become  professor  at 
His  Latin  verses  in  which  he  eulogized  the  Polish  the  University  of  Pisa,  but  Louis  XV  gained  his 
king,  Stanislaus,  Pope  Benedict  XlV,  and  various  services  and  invited  him  to  Paris  where  a  new  office, 
Venetian  noblemen,  were  read  before  the  Arcadian  Director  of  Optics  for  the  Marine — d'optique  au 
Academy  of  Rome.  His  ''Carmen  de  Soils  ac  Lunse  service  de  la  Marine — ^with  a  salaiy  of  8,000  francs 
iefectibus''  (5  vols.,  London,  1760)  was  much  ad-  was  created  for  him.  He  retained  this  position  unti 
lalrDd    His  services  were  also  in  demand  in  several  1783  when  he  returned  to  Italy  to  supervise  the 


BOSIO                               693  B08I0     ' 

printiiig  of  his  as  yet  unpublished  works  hi  five  tronomiam  maxima  ex  parte  nova  et  omnia  hucusqug 

volumes,  for  it  was  not  easy  to  find  a  suitable  pub-  inedita"    (1785).     The   second   was   published   in 

lisher  in  France  for  books  TOtten  in  Latin.    In  1786  Vienna   1768-59,   in   Venice,   17d3,   and   again   in 

there  appeared  at  Bassano,  "Rogerii  Josephi  Bosco-  Vienna  in  1764.    The  last-named  work  was  subjected 

vich  opera  pertinentia  ad  opticam  et  astronomiam  to  an  exhaustive  criticism  by  Delambre,  by  no  meaoi 

...  hi  quinque   tomos  distributa",  the   last  im-  a  friend  of  the  Jesuits.    He  closes  with  these  w^dsi 

portant  work  from  the  pen  of  this  active  man,  who,  "  Boscovich  in  general  manifests  a  preference  fof 

after  its  completion,  retired  for  a  time  to  the  mon-  graphical  methods  in  the  use  of  which  he  gives  evi^ 

astery  of  the  monks  of  Vallombrosa.    He  returned  dence  of  great  skill.    In  his  whole  work  he  shows  him* 

to  Mdan  with  new  plans,  but  death  shortly  overtook  self  a  teacher  who  prefers  to  lecture  rather  tlum  to 

him  at  the  age  of  seventy-six,  delivering  him  from  a  lose  himself  in  speculations", 

severe  malady  which  was  accompanied  by  temporary  1^0  most  flxtenaad  biocnphical  ftooount  of  Boaeovioh  may 

m^tal  derangement.    He  was  Euried  in  the  churct  ^<^JS^  fgSr"7*»rx!<?r^  £^^w1S?SS^ 

Cf  Santa  Mana  Fodone.  BtW.  delacdeJ.  (Brussels,  1890),  I.  col.  1828-fiO.   For  shorter 

Boscovich,  by  his  rare  endowments  of  mind  and  accounts   cf.  Zamaqna   (Ragusa,  1787);  Lalandb  (Paris, 

the  active  use  which  he  made  of  his  talents,  was  pre-  J792);  Rioca  (Milan,  1789);   BAOAiioim  (RaguiM-  1789); 

.     J~  t'^v**  **o  Y^»^^  wi  uio  v«icxii«,  «ao  pic-  BiMARRO (Vemoe,  1817);  QcdUna dx RaguMni  tUuitri  (Ra«u»a. 

emment  among  the  scholars  of  his  time.    His  ment«  i84l);  Vaocolini  in  OtomaU  arcadico  (1842).  XCII,  174, 

were  recognizea  by  learned  societies  and  imiversltles.  Adolf  MDller, 
and  by  popes  and  princes  who  honoiured  him  ana 

bestowed  favours  upon  him.  He  was  recognized  as  a  Boslo,  Antonio,  known  as  "The  Columbus  oi  ihe 
gifted  teacher,  an  accomplished  leader  in  scientific  Catacombs",  b.  in  the  island  of  Malta  about  the  year 
enterprises,  an  inventor  of  important  mstruments  1576;  d.  1629.  While  still  a  boy  he  was  sent  to 
whicn  are  still  employed  Tsuch  as  the  ring-micrometer,  Rome  and  placed  in  charge  of  an  uncle  who  repre- 
etc.).  and  as  a  pioneer  in  developing  new  theories,  sented  the  Knights  of  Malta  in  the  Eternal  City.  In 
AXi  tnis,  however,  did  not  fail  to  excite  envy  against  the  Roman  schools  he  studied  literature,  philosophy, 
him,  particularly  during  the  later  years  of  his  Bfe  in  and  jurisprudence,  but  at  the  age  of  eighteen  he  gave 
France,  where  men  like  d'Alembert  and  Condorcet  up  ms  le^  studies  and  for  the  remaining  thirty-dx 
reluctantly  saw  the  homage  paid  to  the  former  years  of  his  life  all  his  time  was  devoted  to  archaeologi- 
Jesuit,  and  that,  too^  at  a  time  when  so  many  frivo-  cal  work  in  the  Roman  catacombs.  The  accidental 
lous  cnarges  were  bemg  made  against  his  lately  sup-  discovery,  in  1578,  of  an  ancient  subterranean  ceme- 
pressed  order.  This  hostility  was  further  increased  tery  on  the  Via  Salaria  had  for  the  moment  attracted 
by  various  controversies  which  resulted  in  diflfer-  general  attention  in  Rome.  Few,  however,  realized 
enoes  of  opinion,  such  as  the  contention  between  the  importance  of  the  discovery,  and,  with  the  ex- 
Boscovich  and  Rochon  regarding  priority  in  the  in-  ception  of  three  foreign  scholars,  Ciacconio,  De 
vention  of  the  rock  crystal  prismatic  micrometer.  Winghe,  and  L'Heureux,  no  one  seriously  thought  of 
(Cf.  Delambre,  Histoire  de  TAstronomie  du  XVIII'  pursuing  further  investigations.  It  was  reserved  for 
sidcle,  p.  645.)  The  invention  of  the  ring-micrometer  Bosio  to  begin  the  systematic  exploration  of  sub* 
just  mentioned,  which  Boscovich  describes  in  his  terranean  Rome  and  thus  to  become  the  foimder  of 
memoir  "De  novo  telescopii  usu  ad  objecta  ccelestia  the  science  of  Christian  archaeology.  The  young 
determinanda"  (Rome,  1739),  has  been  ascribed  explorer  from  the  beginning  realized  that  in  early 
without  reason  by  some  to  tne  Dutch  natural  phi-  Cmistian  hterature  he  would  find  an  indisp^isable 
loeopher  Huygens.  The  chief  advantage  of  the  ally,  and  accordingly  he  began  to  study  tne  Acts 
simple  measurmg  instrument  devised  by  Boscovich  of  the  Martyrs  and  of  the  Councils,  the  writings  of 
consists  in  its  not  requiring  any  artificial  illumination  the  Greek  uid  the  Latin  Fathers,  and  in  fact  every 
of  the  field  of  the  telescope.  This  makes  it  useful  in  species  of  document  that  mi^ht  help  to  throw  light 
observing  faint  objects,  as  its  inventor  expressly  on  the  obscurities  of  his  subject.  An  idea  of  the 
points  out  in  connexion  with  the  comet  of  1739.  vast  scope  of  his  reading  may  be  obtained  from  the 
The  novel  views  of  Boscovich  in  the  domain  of  natu-  two  great  tomes  of  his  manuscript  notes  in  the 
rsd  pl^osophy  have  not,  up  to  the  present  time,  Vallicelliana  Kbrary  at  Rome,  each  of  which  contains 
passed  unchallenged^  even  on  the  part  of  Catholic  about  a  thousand  pages  in  folio, 
scholars.  Agmnst  his  theory  of  the  constitution  of  The  literary  labours  of  Bosio  account  for  only  half 
matter  the  objection  has  been  raised  that  an  in*  of  his  time;  the  other  half  was  consumed  in  systematic 
admissible  actio  in  distant  is  inevitable  in  the  mutual  efforts  to  utilize  the  information  derived  from  his  read- 
actions  of  the  elementary  points  of  whi<5h  material  ing  for  his  particular  object.  Thus,  for  example,  after 
bodies  are  siipposed  to  be  composed.  The  theory  he  had  collected  all  the  data  possible  relative  to  the 
therefore  leads  to  Occasionalism.  Acknowledgment  location  of  a  catacomb  on  one  of  the  great  roads 
must,  however,  be  made  of  the  suggestiveness  of  leading  from  Rome,  Bosio  would  betake  himself 
Boscovich's  work  in  our  own  day,  ana  the  germs  of  to  the  place  indicated,  and  go  over  every  inch  of 
many  of  the  conclusions  of  modem  physics  may  be  ground  carefully  in  the  hope  of  discovering  a  for- 
found  in  it.  His  illustrious  successor  at  the  Observa-  gotten  stairway,  or  luminariumy  of  a  cemetery.  If 
tory  of  the  Collegio  Romano^  Father  Angelo  Secchi,  fortune  crowned  his  investigations  with  success,  he 

Ue  forze  fisiche",  has  in  many  re-  would  then  descend  to  the  subterranean  abode  of 


in  his  "Unitl^  del 

spects  followed  in  his  footsteps,  and  in  fact  the  the  long^-forgotten  dead,  and,  sometimes  at  the 
cosmological  views  held  by  many  later  natural  phi-  imminent  danger  of  being  lost  in  the  labyrinth  of 
losophers  furnish  ime<juivocal  proof  of  the  influence  galleries,  commence  his  explorations.  The  great 
of  the  theories  maintained  by  Boscovich.  work  achieved  by  Bosio  was  almost  unknown  tifl  the 

Among  his  many  smaller  works  (for  full  list  cf .  publication  three  jrears  after  his  death  of  his  "  Roma 
Sommervogel,  cited  below)  the  following  deserve  Sotterranea",  The  folio  volume  was  brought  out 
special  attention:  '  De  annuls  stellarum  fixarum  under  the  patronage  of  the  Knights  of  Malta,  by 
aberrationibus"  (Rome,  1742);  "De  orbitis  come-  the  Oratonan  Severano,  who  had  been  entrusted 
tarun  leterminandis  ope  trium  obeervationum  with  its  editorship  by  Cardinal  Francesco  Barberini. 
parum  ^e  invicem  remotarum"  (Paris,  1774);  "De  Its  full  title  is  "Roma  Sotterranea, opera  postumadi 
recentibus  compertis  pertinentibus  ad  perficiendam    Antonio    Bosio    Romano,    antiquano    eeclesiastico 

temp[.     Compita,  disposta,  et 

Giovanni   Severani   da 

The  great  merit  of  the 

reoognized     A  Latin 

n 


BOSMXA                                094  BOflMIA 

translation  was  undertaken  by  Severano,  tntt  never  and  the  Drina*    Hersegovina  is  drained  by  the  Na> 

fublished.    Aringhi's  Latin  translation  appeared  in  renta  (Neretva)  River.    As  Bosnia  falls  away  towards 

651,  but  the  liberties  which  this  writer  took  with  the  the  north  until  it  descends  into  the  low-lying  region 

original  text  were  far  from  being  improvements,  of  the  Save,  it  is  easy  of  access  from  central  Europe 

Bosio's  *'  Roma  Sotterranea  "  is  entirely  devoted  to  a  and  was,  consequentnr.  exposed  to  incursions  by  me 

description  of  the  cemeteries  explored  by  the  great  kinj^  of  Hungary.    After  crossing  the  Saxe  the  Hun- 

archseologist.    His  leading  thought  was  to  ascertain  ganan  armies  could  penetrate  into  the  heart  of  the 

all  that  was  possible  regarding  the  history  of  each  country  without  encountering  any  natural  obstacles, 

cemetery,  by  what  name  it  was  known  in  antiquity,  Bosnia  was  also,  in  consequence  of  the  physical  for- 

who  were  its  founders,  what  martyrs  and  illustrious  mation  of  the  land,  frequently  divided  politically  into 

Christians  were  interred  there.    Many  of  his  con-  two  parts,  the  upper  or  nlountainous  jBosnia,  which 

elusions  have  in  modem  times  been  found  to  be  extended  to  where  the  rivers  pass  into  the  flat  coun- 

erroneous,  but  on  the  other  hand,  recent  research  try  of  the  Save,  and  the  Bosnian  plain  along  the 

has  shown,  in  one  important  instance,  that  a  con-  Save;    The  Romans  observed  this  natural  line  of 

jecture  of  Bosio's,  which  de  Roan  thought  without  division  and  made  it  the  boundary  between  the  prov- 

foimdation,   was  wholly  correct.     (See   Christian  inces  of  Dalmatia  and  Pannonia.    Just  as  the  political 

ARCHiBOLoaT.)    Bosio's  method  is  acknowledged  by  imity  of  Bosnia  was  made  more  difficult  bv  its  natural 

all  to  have  been  scientific;  His  shortcomings  were  connguration,  so  on  the  other  hand,  the  development 

those  of  the  age  in  which  he  lived.    In  view  of  the  of  a  compact  principality  was  favoured  in  Herze- 

fact  that  numerous  frescoes  which  existed  in  the  eovina  (cfuiled  also  Hum,  Chulm,  and  Chulmo)  by  it« 

early  seventeenth  century  have  since  been  destroyed,  basin-like  shape. 

it  is  unfortunate  that  the  copyists  employed  by  Bosio  Physical  Formation. — Mesozoic  formations  appear 

were  not  equal  to  the  task  assigned  to  them.    Wil-  throughout  this  territory  especially  in  the  Bha.\>e  of 

pert  states  that  the  illustrations  of  "  Roma  Sot-  Triassic  rocks*  where  there  are  dislocations  the  under- 

teranea"  are  of  little  use  to  the  modem  archae-  lying  palteozoic  rocks  frequently  proiect.    These  lat^ 

ologist.  ter  are  made  of  slate,  sandstone,  and  limestone,  as  for 

NoRTHcoTB  AND  Brownlow,  Roma  Sotterranea  (London,  example,  the  famous  mountain  range  of  slate  rock 

'^tt^I^'i^^^^X>^f£!'^T^T/r^^m^^  ?H^.^^i  ''»  **»«  ^**)i!T  r^  "^  the  Serajevo 

(Leipsig,  1901).  dis<nct,  and  the  range  called  Posara  on  the  Save. 

Maurics  M.  HAflSBTT.  Jurassic  rock  and  chalk  formations  appear  chi^y  in 
^  .  __  «  «  Herzegovina  and  western  Bosnia.  Of  far  greater  ex- 
Bosnia,  Diocese  of.  See  SiBMroiL  tent  are  the  neogenic  fresh  water  formations  contain- 
Bosnia  and  Henegovina. — Bosnia  and  Herse-  ing  the  great  coal  deposits  of  the  two  territories. 

f>vina  form  the  north-western  comer  of  the  Balkan  There  is  also  much  volcanic  rock  of  various  ages, 

eninsula.    Taking  the  two  together  as  one  territory.  The  climate  of  Bosnia  is  in  general  the  usual  conti- 

Bosnia-Herzegovina  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  nental  one  of  cold  winters  and  hot  summers,  whfle 

Austrian  provinces  and  titular  kingdoms  of  Croatia  in  Herzegovina  the  nearness  of  the  sea  makes  the  cli- 

and  Slavonia,  on  the  east  by  the  Kingdom  of  Servia,  mate  almost  semi-tropical.    The  averageyearly  tem- 

on  the  south  by  one  of  the  nominal  provinces  of  Tur-  perature  is  from  48.2®  to  50**  Fahr.    Tne  average 

key,  the  principality  of  Montenegro,  and  the  titular  temperature  of  Travnik,  situated  at  a  height  of  l,6l0 

kingdom  a^d  Austnan  province  of  Dalmatia,  and  on  feet  in  about  the  centre  of  the  country,  is  in  January 

the  west  by  Dalmatia  and  Croatia.   The  Dinaric  Alps  28.4®  Fahr.,  in  April  60.5®,  in  July,  68.3*^,  and  in  Octo- 

and  the  Save  and  Drina  Rivers  form  a  large  part  of  ber  50.3®.    Since  the  time  of  the  Romans  Bosnia  has 

the  boundary  line  of  the  country  which  in  shape  yielded  a  larse  amount  of  iron;  li^ite  or  broi^n  coal 

closely  resembles  an  equilateral  trian^e.    The  joint  and  salt  are  iSso  obtained  in  a  nmnber  of  places.   Min- 

territory  has  an  area  of  about  19,702  square  miles  eral  and  hot  springs  abound;  among  these  are  the  hot 

and  belongs  nominally  to  the  Turkish  Empire.    Arti-  sprine  at  Ilidte  near  Serajevo,  the  chalybeate  spring 

cle  25  of  the  Treatv  of  Berlin,  13  July,  1878.  granted  at  Kiseljak,  and  a  spring  impregnated  with  arsenic 

Austria-Hungry  tne  right  to  occupy  and  aominister  at  Srebrenica.    Bosnia  contains  a  large  amount  of 


the  two  provmces.  Since  then  they  have  been  under  timber;  50  per  cent  of  its  area  is  covered  with  forests; 
the  control  of  the  Minister  of  Finance  of  the  Austro-  34  per  cent  is  productive  farming-land,  and  the  le- 
Hungarian  monarchy  as  crown  provinces.  Booiia  mmning  16  per  cent  is  in  the  rocky  Karst  redon. 
and  Herzegovina  belong,  with  their  alternating  high-  The  Bosnian  forests  are  full  of  boars,  bears,  wolves, 
lands  and  mountain  chains,  to  the  region  of  the  KiUBt  foxes,  lynxes,  and  deer.  Amculture  is  of  a  very 
moimtains.  The  Karst  region  forms  a  part  of  the  primitive  character  and  could  be  made  far  more  pro- 
spurs  of  the  southern  Alps.  It  is  a  mountainous  lime-  ductive.  The  chief  agricultural  products  of  the  coun- 
stone  district  of  the  mesozoic  period  with  vidleys  of  try  are  maize  and  wheat;  oats,  rye,  barley,  hemp,  and 
incomplete  formation.  The  rocky,  unfruitful  char-  buckwheat  are  also  raised^  In  Herzegovina  in  addi- 
acterof  the  Karst  region  is  more  evident  in  the  south-  tion  to  these  staples  wine  and  oil  are  produced  and 
em  part  of  the  territory  than  in  the  northern,  for  in  figs  are  cultivated. 

the  north  the  forest-covered  ranges,  running  chiefly  Population, — According  to  the  census  of  22  April, 

from  south-east  to  north-west,  enclose  fertile  valleys.  1895,  Bosnia  has  1361,868  inhabitants  and  Herse- 

The  only  flat  coimtry  is  the  district  called  Posavina,  govina  229,168,  giving  a  total  population  of  1^91,036. 

lying  on  the  Save.    There  is  in  general  a  terrace-like  The  number  of  persons  to  the  sauare  mile  is  sinall 

descent  from  the  mountainous  region  towards  the  (about  90),  less  than  that  in  any  of  the  other  Austrian 

Adriatic  and  the  Hungarian  depression.  crown   provinces   excepting   Salzburg    (about  70). 

Bosnia  may  be  regarded  as  a  succession  of  great  This  average  does  not  vary  much  in  the  six  districts 

terraces,  but  Herzegovina,  in  which  the  mountain  (five  in  Bosnia,  one  in  Herzegovina).   The  number  of 

sides  slope  down  towards  the  Narenta  River,  has  more  persons  to  the  square  mile  in  these  districts  is  as  fol- 

the  shape  of  a  basin.    The  former  belongs  to  the  lows:  Dolma  Tuzla,  106;  Banjaluka,  96;  Biha5,  91; 

re^on  of  the  Black  Sea,  the  latter  to  that  of  the  Adri-  Serajevo,  73;  Mostar  (Herzegovina),  65;  Travnik,  62. 

atic.    The  highest  peaks,  the  LoSike  (6.913  feet),  the  There  are  5,388  settlements,  of  wluch  only  11  have 

Treskavica-Planma  (6,851  feet),  and  the  Bjelasnica-  more  than  5,000  inhabitants,  while  4,689  contain  less 

Planina  (6,782  feet)  lie  near  the  border  of  Herze-  than  500  persons.    Excluding  some  30,000  Albamaos, 

^vina,  respectively  west  and  south-west  of  Serajevo.  living  in  the  south-east,  the  Jews  who  emigrated  in 

The  Save  is  the  chief  river  of  Bosnia  and  its  tribu-  eariier  times  from  Spain,  a  few  Osmanli  Turks,  Xk^ 

taries  are  the  Una,  the  Vrbas,  the  Ukina»  the  Bosoa.  merchaata,  officials,  and  Austrian  troops,  the  rest  <m 


BOBHIil  695  BOBHIil 

'V  popolatior  (about  98  per  cent)  beloDg  to  the  Ostro^thB.   After  the  Slavs  the  Avars  raided  the  ter 

southern  Slavo  lic  people,  the  Serbs.    Althou^  one  ritory  and  in  598  turned  Dahnatia^ahnost  into  a  wiL^ 

in  race,  the  people  form  in  religious  beliefs  three  demess.     After  this  the  Slavs  greatly  desired  the 

sharply   separated    divisions:    the    Mohammedans,  county  and  succeeded  in  taking  possession  during  the 

about  550,000  persons  (35 per  cent),  Greek  Schismatics,  first  half  of  the  seventh  century.    Ajnong  the  tribes 

about  1374,000  persons  (43  per  cent),  and  Catholics,  which  now  owned  the  land,  the  Hroati  G&ter  called 

about  334,000  persons  (21.3  per  cent).   The  last  men-  Croats)  lived  on  the  Dalmatic  coast  and  the  Serbi  in 

tioned  are  chiefly  peasants.   The  Mohammedans  form  the  interior.    Up  to  the  eighth  century  the  influence 

the  mass  of  the  population  in  the  re^on  called  the  of  the  B^rzantine  Empire  was  paramount.   At  the  end 

Krajina  in  the  north-west,  in  the  district  of  Serajevo  of  the  nmth  century  when  the  power  of  the  Carlovin- 

and  in  the  south-eastern  part  of  the  territory;  the  eian  dynasty  extended  as  far  as  the  south-eastern 

Greek  Schismatics  preponderate  in  the   district   of  Alpine  provinces,  the  Croats  came  under  the  influence 

Banjaluka.    The  Catholics  of  the  Latin  Rite  exceed  of  Western  civilisation  and  embraced  Latin  Chris- 

the  other  two  denominations  only  in  the  district  tianitv.    The  tribes  of  the  interior  retained  the  patri- 

of  Travnik  and  in  northern  Herzegovina.    There  are  archal  form  of  government  and  the  old  pagan  worship 

in  addition  8,000  Jews  and  4,000  Protestants.    Di-  much  longer  tmm  the  dA/ellers  :>n  the  coast,  notwith- 

vided  according  to  occupation  85  per  cent  of  the  popu-  standing  the  connexion  which  they  had  had  for  cen- 

lation  are  farmers  or  wine-cultivators  (1,385,291).  turies  wi^  Constantinople.     Bosnia  seems  to  have 

There  are  5,833  large  estates,  the  owners  of  which  are  belonged  to  Croatia  as  late  as  the  beginning  of  the 

chiefly  Mohammedans,  88,970  cultivators  of  land  not  t^ith  cenUuy.   A  little  later  the  Servian  prince  Ceslav 

their  own  (kmelen),  88,867  free  peasants  who  own  (931-960)  succeeded  in  freeing  Servia  from  the  suzer- 

the  land  thev  till,  and  22,625  peasants  who  own  farm-  ainty  of  Bulgaria  and  buUt  up  a  confederation  of 

ing-land  and  also  cultivate  the  land  of  others.    The  which  Bosnia  formed  a  part.    About  955  Ceslav  was 

population  of  the  towns  is  small.  obliged  to  defend  the  dependent  banat,  or  district,  of 

autory. — There  are  traces  of  human  settlements  Bofmia  (originally  merdy  the  valley  of  the  upper 

in  Bosnia  dating^ from  the  Stone  Age.    The  earliest  Bosna)  from  an  incursion  of  the  Magyars.    After  the 

inhabitants  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  of  whom  death  of  Ceslav  and  the  dissolution  of  his  kingdom, 

there  is  an^r  certainty  are  the  lUyrians,  an  exceed-  Bomia  was  ruled  by  native  bans  or  chiefs.      In  968 

ingly  rapacious  pastoral  people  who  were  divided  however,  Bosnia  was  conquered  by  the  Croatian  king 

into  vanous  tribes.    The  oest  known  of  these  are:  Kresimir  and  in  1019  the  whole  north-western  part 

a  small  tribe  called  the  Libumians  Uving  in  the  north*  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula  came  imder  the  sway  ol  the 

west,  who  were  notorious  pirates;  the  ArdisBans  liv-  Eastern  Roman  Emperor,  Basil  II.     After  Basil's 

ing  south  <^  the  Libumians.  jand  the  Antiariats,  who  death  Bosnia  regainea  its  independence  and  was  ruled 

were  neighbours  of  the  ArolaBans  living  still  farther  bv  native  bans  until  it  was  united  with  the  domain 

to  the  south.   The  migrations  of  the  Celts  in  the  third  of  B61a  II,  King  of  Hungary.     In  1135  this  ruler 

and  fourth  centuries  before  Christ  drove  various  called  himself  for  the  first  time  King  of  Rama  (Bos- 

lUyrian  tribes  out  of  thdr  former  possessions.    From  nia). 

the  third  centurv  until  167  b.  c,  a  pow'erful  Illyrian  During  the  entire  reign  of  the  Emperor  Manuel  I, 
kii^om  existed,  imder  rulers  called  Agron,  Teuta,  Comnenus,  (1143-80)  a  long  and  fierce  struggle  went 
and  Gentius,  in  southern  Dalmatia,  and  the  ad-  on  between  the  Bysantine  Empire  on  the  one  side  and 
joining  Herzegovina  and  Montenegro.  The  Romans  Hungry  and  the  southern  Slavs  on  the  other;  in  this 
nad  a  hard  struggle  before  they  succeeded  finally  in  BcmBoris,  the  first  ruler  of  Bosnia  known  by  name, 
breaking  the  power  of  the  Illyrians  and  in  getting  con-  remained  faithful  to  Hungarv.  In  1163,  however, 
trol  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  (6  b*.  c-a.  d.  9).  The  Boris  took  sides  against  Stephen  III  in  the  quarr^ 
sagacious  Romans  saw  that  in  order  to  control  the  line  over  the  succession  to  the  Hungarian  throne.  He  was 
of  the  Danube  and  the  east  coast  of  Italy  it  was  nee-  defeated  by  Gottfri^  of  Meissen  who  was  sent  with 
esaaary  to  absorb  the  triangular  shaped  country  of  the  an  arm^  against  him,  and  his  family  lost  their  power 
Blyrians.  No  part  of  the  peninsula  contains  so  manv  in  Bosnia.  The  Banat  of  Boris  extended  from  Livno 
traces  of  Roman  civilization  as  Dalmatia  and  the  aa-  and  the  valley  of  the  Rama  in  the  west  to  the  Drina 
joinins  Bosnia.  The  Romans  built  a  road  from  Mitro-  River  in  the  east.  Three  years  later  Bosnia,  Svrmia, 
vi6  or  Mitrovitza  (Sirmium)  near  the  Save  to  Gradisca  Croatia,  and  Dalmatia  became  subject  to  the  Byzan- 
and  continued  it  from  Gradisca  through  what  is  now  tine  Empire.  After  the  death  of  Manuel  I,  Comnenus 
western  Bosnia  or  Turkish  Croatia  as  far  as  Salona;  (1180)  the  new  Ban,  Kulin^  was  able  to  shake  off  the 
they  constructed  a  second  road  through  upper  Bosnia  foreign  yoke.  But  B^  III  of  Hungary,  desiring  to 
across  the  present  district  of  Serajevo  to  Domavia  on  make  Bosnia  a  dependency  of  his  own  kmgdom,  per- 
the  Drina,  and  from  here  to  Mitrovi^:  a  third  road  suaded  the  pope  to  place  the  Bishopric  of  Bosnia  and 
went  from  Salona  to  Narona  (near  Dubrawa)  and  to  the  Diocese  of  Ston  in  Herzegovina  imder  the  Arch- 
Scodra  (Scutari).  The  Romans  named  the  province  diocese  of  Spalato,  the  territory  of  which  belonged  to 
Dalmatia  after  the  largest  and  bravest  of  the  tribes  Hungary.  Before  this  Bosnia  had  been  suffragan  to 
living  on  the  coast.  Thejr  divided  it  into  three  admin-  Raj^^usa.  In  order  to  counteract  this  indirect  Hun- 
ibtrative  dioceses,  the  chief  cities  bdn^,  reopectively,  ganan  control  Kulin,  his  family,  and  10,000  Bosnians, 
Salona,  the  capital  of  the  whole  provmce,  Scardona,  between  the  years  1190-99,  became  adherents  of  the 
and  Narenta.  The  northernmost  part  of  Bosnia,  ex-  Paterine  heresy.  When  Pope  Innocent  III  and  King 
tending  for  some  distance  from  the  Save,  was  included  Emmerich  of  Hungary  joined  forces  to  exterminate 
in  the  province  of  Pannonia.  The  Blyrians  who  had  the  Paterinee  and  to  conquer  Bosnia,  Kulin  preserved 
been  familiar  only  with  war  and  cattle-raising  now  Bosnia's  independence  of  Hungarian  control  by  re- 
turned their  attention,  under  the  guidance  of  the  turning  in  1203  to  the  Catholic  religion  in  the  presence 
Romans,  to  mining,  placer-mining  for  ^Id.  and  of  the  papal  legate,  Johaimes  de  Casamaris.  During 
agriculture.  They  became  lai^ly  Romamzea  and  the  reign  of  his  successor.  Ban  Stephen,  the  Paterines 
for  hundreds  of  years  their  legions  bravely  defended  grew  so  powerful  that  they  deposed  Stephen  and  sub- 
the  empire.  stituted  one  of  their  own  adherents,  the  able  Matthias 

After  the  fall  of  the  Western  Roman  Empire  Dal-  Ninoslav  (1232-60),  who  was  probably  related  to 

matia  and  Pannonia  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Kulin.    In  1233  Ninoslav  returned  to  the  Catholic 

Ostrogoths  under  King  Theodoric.    During  the  war  Faith,  but  notwithstanding  this  the  land  was  filled 

that  followed  (535-564)  between  Justinian  and  the  Os-  with  the  adherents  of  the  Paterine  belief,  and  in  1234- 

trogoths,  the  Slavs  made  repeated  incursions  into  the  39  a  crusade  was  preached  against  Bosnia  but  waf 

provinoes.    It  may  be  that  they  were  called  in  by  the  not,  however,  carried  out.    Aluiough  Ninoslav  main- 


B08MI4                                 696  BOSHZA 

Gained  his  position^  Ban  of  Bosnia,  he  was  not  able  minion  of  the  Turks  twenty  years  after  the  fall  ^ 

to  found  a  dynaetr  and  after  his  death  his  prinoi«  Bosnia  (1483).   Tiie  long  period  of  Turkish  oppresa.. 

pality  gradually  fell  to  pieces.   The  districts  of  Herse*  is  tightened  by  the  daring  feat  of  Prince  Eugene,  wk 

gOTina  near  Rs^usa  aimed  at  individual  independence,  in  the  autumn  of  1697  tuter  the  battle  of  Z^ta,  yii± 

while  the  rest  ot  the  territory  now  included  m  Bosnia  4,000  cavalry  and  2,000  infantry  advanced  towardi 

and  Hersegovina  gpradually  came  into  a  more  com-  the  capital  of  Bosnia;  as  the  expected  rising  of  tlie 

plete  dependence  on  Hungary.  Christian  population  failed  to  take  place,  he  retreated, 

During  the  reign  of  B^  IV  of  Hungary  (1235-70)  carrying  with  him  40,000  liberated  Christians.  By 
upper  Bosnia  and  the  district  of  Posavma  were  formed  the  Treaty  of  Passarowitz  (171S)  the  northern  part 
into  the  Banat  of  Bosnia,  the  region  in  the  west  on  of  Bosma  and  Servia  was  given  to  Austria,  but  the 
the  Usora  into  the  Banat  of  Usora,  and  the  resnon  in  Treaty  of  Belgrade  restored  this  district  to  Uie  Tvaks, 
the  east  on  the  Drina  into  the  Banat  of  Soli  or Tuzla,  Among  the  many  revolts  in  Bosnia  against  the 
while  the  western  part  of  the  present  territory  of  bureaucratic  rule  of  the  Osmanli  Turks  that  of  1830- 
Herzegovina,  the  region  of  the  Kama,  and  southern  31  under  Hussein  Aga  deserves  mention:  of  the  re- 
Bosnia  were  ruled  by  various  powerful  Croatian  fam-  volts  in  Her2€»pvina  that  of  1875.  Article  25  of  the 
ilies.  At  this  time  a  relative  of  Ninoslav  named  Treaty  of  Berlm,  13  July,  1878,  granted  Austria  the 
Pr^ezda  lived  on  the  upper  part  of  the  Bosna  River,  ridit  to  occupy  and  govern  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina. 
Pr^zda's  son,  Stephen  Katroman  (1322-53),  was  the  The  main  colunm  of  the  Austrian  troops  (thirteenth 
first  of  the  Katroman  family  from  which  for  a  cen-  army  corps),  under  the  conmiand  of  General  of  the 
tury  and  a  half  came  the  bans  and  kings  of  Bosnia.  Ordnance  Jos^h  Freiherr  von  Philoppovich  croesed 
Stephen  was  a  vassal  of  the  kines  of  Hungary,  who  the  Save  into  Bosnia  near  Brod  29  July:  two  days 
werehisrelativesandmembersof  thehouseof  Anjou.  later  Ma|or-Greneral  Jovanovic  entered  Herzegovina 
Through  this  connexion  Stephen  was  able,  after  de*  with  a  division.  As  the  occupation  took  place  with 
feating  the  rulers  of  the  present  Herzegovina,  to  unite  the  consent  of  the  ParUf  it  was  thought  that  there 
this  territory  to  his  domains.  From  the  tenth  cen*  would  be  no  fighting.  But  the  Mohammedan  popu- 
tury  Herzegovina  had  formed  a  so-called  buffer  dis-  lation,  secretly  incited  by  Servia,  rose  imder  the 
trict  between  the  Dalmatic  coast  and  Bosnia  on  the  leadership  of  the  adventurer,  Hadschi  Loja,  against 
one  side  and  Servia  on  the  other.  Cn  the  dismem*  the  ''foreign  conquerors".  They  were  joined  by 
berment  of  the  great  Servian  empire  of  Dusan  the  large  bands  of  Amauts  from  Albania  and  by  the  Turk- 
Strong,  Tvrtko,  Stephen  Katroman's  nephew  and  ish  troops  who  had  received  no  instructions.  The 
successor,  with  the  help  of  King  Louis  I  (the  Great)  insurgents  were  defeated  in  bloody  battles  at  Maglaj, 
of  Hungary,  became  master  of  the  district  of  the  upper  Zepce,  Jajce,  Tuzla,  and  other  places.  On  the  even- 
Drina,  Trebinje^  and  Canale.  Tvrtko  now,  with  the  ing  of  18  August  the  Austrian  troops  stood  before 
consent  of  Louis,  took  the  title  of  King  of  Bosnia.  Serajevo  which  was  taken  by  storm  the  next  day.  In 
A  few  years  later  (1384)  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  were  order  to  hasten  the  end  of  the  revolt  three  other 
laid  waste  for  the  first  time  by  the  Turks.  After  the  Austrian  army  corps  entered  the  contested  distriet; 
death  of  Louis  the  Great  (1382)  Tvrtko  threw  off  the  by  the  end  of  September,  1878.  both  territories  were 
suzerainty  of  Hungary  and  conquered  the  cities  on  subdued  with  the  exception  of  a  few  points  in  the 
the  Dalmatic  coast.  Dining  the  reigns  of  his  sue-  north-western  part.  In  the  sanjak  (subdivision  of  a 
cessors  Stephen  Dabischa  (1391-95),  Queen  Helena  Turkish  province)  of  Novibasar  Austria  hoids  some 
(1395-98),  Stephen  Osoja  (1398-1418).  Stephen  Os-  important  military  positions  and  controls  the  com- 
tojitsch  (1418-21),  Stephen  Tvrtko  II  (1404-31)  (the  mercial  routes;  the  Turks  still  retain  the  civU  admin- 
rival  of  the  two  last-named  kings),  St^hen  Thomas  istration. 

(1443-61),  and  Stephen  Thomaschewits    (1461-63)  IrUrodudian  of  Christianity. — C^uistianitjr  was  in- 

the  kingaom  rapidly  declined  in  power  so  that  these  troduced  into  both  Bosnia  and  Hersegovioa  from 

rulers  were  not  able  to  maintain  their  authority  over  Salona  at  a  very  early  date.    Many  of  the  dioceses 

the  conquered  districts  or  to  keep  the  insubottlinate  which  were  suffragans  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Salona  in 

vassals  and  nobles  in  check.    The  nobles  ruled  their  the  sixth  century  must  be  sought  within  the  present 

territories  with  little  regard  for  the  king;  they  had  limits  of  Bosnia  and  Herze^vina.    This  is  espedally 

their  own  courts  with  state  officials,  granted  pardons,  true  of  the  Bidiopric  of  Bistue  {BestcBensis  eccksia) 

had  relations  with  foreign  powers,  and  carried  on  which  was  situated  in  the  heart  of  the  upper  part  of 

bloody  wars  with  one  another.  the  present  Bosnia.   When  the  Arian  Ostrogoths  came 

The  last  king,  who  possessed  only  the  land  on  the  into  possession  of  these  districts  they  did  not  interfere 
right  bank  of  the  Bosna,  sought  to  strengthen  his  with  the  ommization  of  the  Church  nor  did  the^r  per- 
position  by  becoming  a  vassal  of  the  pope.  He  hoi>ed  secute  the  Catholics.  The  acts  of  the  two  provindal 
by  this  means  to  obtain  the  aid  of  the  Christian  synods  of  Dalmatia  which  were  held  at  Salona  in  530 
countries  of  Western  Europe  in  defending  himself  and  532  have  been  preserved  and  these  show  that  in 
against  the  threatening  power  of  the  Turks.  In  1462  the  year  530  four  oioceses  existed  in  Bosnia-Herze- 
he  refused  to  pay  tribute  to  the  Sultan  Mohammed  II:  Rovina.  At  the  second  synod  two  new  dioceses  were 
but  when  in  tne  following  spring  Mohammed  invaded  founded,  Ludricensis  (Livno),  and  Sarsenterensis 
Bosnia  with  a  powerful  army,  the  young  kin^  found  (Sarsitero),  the  last  named  lying  north  of  Mostar. 
himself  deserted.  Deceit  and  treason,  especially  on  Durm^  the  war  that  lasted  twenty  years  between 
the  part  of  the  Bogomili,  completed  his  ruin.  He  was  Justiman  and  the  Ostrogoths,  the  latter  changed  their 
taken  prisoner  by  the  Turks  and  beheaded,  by  the  policy  towards  the  Catholics  and  persecuted  them, 
order  of  the  sultan,  July,  1463,  mobably  near  Jajce  t)nly  one  of  the  dioceses  just  m^itioned,  Bistue,  sur- 
(Jaitza).  The  campaign  of  the  Turks  ended  in  the  vived  the  Slavonic  invasion.  Until  the  middle  of  the 
overthrow  of  the  Boisnian  kingdom;  only  Hersegovina  eleventh  century  Bistue  was  suffragan  to  the  Arch- 
maintained  its  independence.  One  hundred  thousand  diocese  of  Spalato;  in  1067  it  was  transferred  to  the 
prisoners  of  both  sexes  were  taken;  30,000  Bosnian  Archdiocese  of  Diodea-Antivari,  and  shortly  after  it 
youths  were  compelled  to  join  the  janizaries.  The  was  made  suffragan  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Rsjgusa 
nobility,  especially  the  Bogomili^  became  Mohamme-  Disputes  now  arose  between  the  two  last  maitiiMied 
dans.  A  largeptui;  of  the  remaining  population  left  archdioceses  as  to  the  administration  of  the  Bosnian 
the  country.  Tne  following  year  Kin^  Matthias  Cor-  bishopric;  the  strife  was  unfortunate  for  it  allowed 
vinus  of  Hungary  freed  from  the  Turkish  yoke  a  part  the  sect  of  the  Bogomili  to  gain  a  firm  footing  in 
of  Bosnia,  the  Banats  of  Jajce  and  Srebrenica  (Sre-  Bosnia. 

brenitza)  which  belonged  to  Hungary  until  the  battle  The  h^esy  of  the  Bogomili  was  started  in  the  tenth 

of  Moh&ca  (1526).    !^rze^vina  came  under  the  do*  century  by  Joemiah,  also  called  Bogomil,  a  "^"^      '"^ 


B080                                      697  BOM 

.irieet.    His  followers  called  tTiemselves  Christians  and  district  between  Gradisca  and  Banjoluka,  now  thero 
considered  their  faith  the  only  true  one.     In  Bosnia  are  10  monasteries  in  this  r^ton.    Etefore  tne  Austrian 
they  were  named  Paterines.    The  Patorines,  or  Bogo-  occupation  there  were  on^'   7  Catholic  families  in 
mih,  rejected  marriage,  forbade  intercourse  with  those  Trebinje;  Trebinje  has  now  several  puishee  and 
of  other  faiths,  disbelieved  in  war,  in  any  execution  churches.    In  Herzegovina  8  parishes,  25  priests,  and 
of  human  beings,  in  oaths,  in  seeking  tor  wealth,  and  36,000  Catholics  have  increased  to  45  parishes,  100 
in  subjection  to  eecular  authority.     The  Paterines  pnests,  and  110,000  OathoUcs.    Tha  many  churehes, 
greatly  increased  in  number  and  influence  in  Bosnia  monasteries,  school-houses,  etc.,   which   nave  oome 
after  the  accession  to  theb-  faith  of  Ban  Kulin,  and  into  existence  siiice  1S78  are  proofs  of  the  advance  in 
gained  numerous  adherents  in  the  neighbouring  (lis-  intelligence  and  religion.     Both  territories  show  how 
tricts  of  Croatia  and  Slavonia  and  in  the  cities  of  the  beneficent  has  been  the  action  of  Austria  in  the  Bal- 
Dalmatic  coast.     A  similar  sect,  the  Albi^nses.  ap-  kan   Peninsula.     In   the  agreement  made   between 
peated  at  the  same  time.     At  the  beginning  of  the  Austria-Hungary  and  Turkey  of  21  April,  1879,  the 
Ihirteenth  century  even  the  Bosnian  bishop  was  an  former  oountry  bound  itself  to  protect  in  Bosnia  and 
adherent  of  the  Paterines;  Pope  Gregory  IX,  there-  Heraegovina  the  religious  liberty  of  the  inhabitanls 
fore,  deposed  him  in  1233  and  raised  to  the  see  Jo-  as  well  as  of  temporary  residents.     This  agreement 
hannes,  a  German  Dominican  from  Wildhaus^i  in  includes  Catholics.    The  r^ulations  in  regard  to  mar- 
Westphalia.    It  is  to  the  great  credit  of  the  Domini-  riage  and  divorce,  as  well  as  the  exemption  of  the 
cans  that  they  entered  upon  a  successful  spiritual  clergy  from  public  services  and  military  duty,  are 
campaign  against  the  Paterines  in  Bosnia  and  Dal-  about  the  same  as  those  in  Austria.    The  cemeteries 
mutia.    The  Franciscans  who  had  an  intiiiiat«  knowl-  are  still  denominational  institutions  and  are  reserved 
edge  of  the  common  people  had  even  greater  success,  even  more  exclusively  than  in  Austria  for  the  ad- 
They  not  only  brought  back  the  population  of  the 
Dalmatic  coast  to  the  Church,  but  they  also  extended 
their  spiritual  activity  to  the  interior  of  the  country. 
Yet  notwithstanding  these  cfFort«  and  those  of  the 
popesi  in  spite  of  two  Bosnian  crusades,  and  of  the 
tronsiLT  of  the  Diocese  of  Bosnia  to  the  Archdio- 
cese of  Kalocsa  in  Hungary,  the  sect  was  not  eup- 
preesed.     The  formal  return  of  the  Bosnian  nobles 
and  monarchy  to  Catholicism  was  merely  superficial. 

The  Turkish  conquest  of  1463  drove  a  lai^e  part  of 
the  Cathohc  population  out  of  Bosnia.  This  led  the 
courageous  Franciscan  monk,  An^tue  Zoiezdovic,  to 
go  before  the  Sultan  Mohammed  II  to  call  his  atten- 
tion to  the  fact  that  the  Christian  inhabitants  weie 
going  out  of  Bosnia  in  all  directions.    The  sultan,  not 

wishing  to  have  the  newly  conquered  province  de-  ilAEl  iiLAAB. 
populated,  granted  as  a  favour  to  the  Franciacans 

that  Chiiatians  should  be  allowed  the  free  exercise  of  Boso,  first  Bishop  of  Mereeburg,  in  the  present  Frus- 

tbcir  religion.     From  that  time  until  the  present  the  sian  Province  of  ^Lxony,  and  Apostle  of  the  Wends, 

Franciscan  Order  has  been  the  only  shield  of  the  d.   November,  970,     He   was   a   Benedictine  monk 

Christians  in  these  two  territories.  of  St.  Emmeram  in  Ratisbon  whence  he  was  sum- 

Ckurch  iStatiatiCB.— After  the  Turkish  conquest  the  moned  to  the  court  of  Otto  I.  The  emperor,  con- 
Bishopric  of  Bosnia  had  only  a  nominal  existence.  In  sidering  the  conversion  of  the  lately  subjugated 
1735  the  diocese  was  reorganized  as  the  Vicariate  Wends  indispensable  to  the  security  of  the  German 
Apostolic  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  and  its  adminis-  Empire,  sent  Boso  to  ChriatianJEe  them.  In  the 
tfation  confided  to  the  Franciscans.  Since  1846  the  beginning  Boso's  mission  appeared  useless,  owine 
country  has  been  divided  into  two  vicariatee.  Three  to  the  hate  of  the  Wends  for  the  Germans  who  hod 
years  after  the  Austrian  occupation  Pope  Leo  XIII  deprived  them  of  their  liberty.  Boso,  however, 
erected  the  Archdiocese  of  Serajevo  with  the  suffragan  being  a  true  apostle,  did  not  despair,  but  studied 
dioceses  of  Banjaluka  in  the  north-western  pert  of  ttie  Tonguageoi  the  Wends  in  onler  to  preach  to 
Bosnia.  Mostar-Duvno  in  the  northern  part  of  Hesse-  them  in  their  own  tongue.  They  appreciated  the 
g^vina,  and  Markana-Trebinje  in  the  southern  part  unselfish  devotion  with  which  Boeo  worked  for 
rf  the  same  province.  The  Diocese  of  Morkano-  their  temporal  and  spiritual  welfare,  and  their 
i'rcbinje  which  was  founded  in  870  has  no  bishop  of  hatred  soon  turned  into  love.  In  066  Boso  was 
its  own  but  is  administered  by  the  Bishop  of  Mostai^  able  to  provide  for  the  creation  of  three  new  sees, 
l.hivno.  The  training  of  the  secular  priests  in  all  four  Herseburg,  Meissen,  and  Zeitz.  Being  siven  bis 
dioceses  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Jesuits.  The  other  choioe  he  selected  Merseburg  as  his  bishopric; 
male  religious  orders  represented  are:  the  Franciscans  Hugo,  another  Benedictine  monk,  became  Bishop 
ivho  possess  17  monasteries,  and  have  almost  entire  of  Zeiti,  and  Burehard,  of  Meissen.  All  three  were 
charge  of  the  work  of  the  sacred  ministry  in  the  Arch-  consecrated  on  Christmas  Day,  968,  by  their  metro- 
diocese  of  Serajevo  and  the  Diocese  of  Mostar-Duvno;  politan,  Adalbert  of  Magdeburg.  Boso  continued 
and  the  Trappista,  with  3  monasteries  and  182  mem-  his  missionoi^  labours,  biit  died  on  a  visit  to  his 
bem.     The  female  congregations  are:  the  Sisters  of  native  Bavana. 

Mercy,  with  12  convents;  the  Daughters  of  Divine  Tbibthab,  Chmim  Mtni  urmK.td.  hAVTviBKma.^ 

Love.  5  convents;  the  Sisters  of  the  Precious  Blood,  g^^;  'ufp.i^T^-)."!-!,  ^^i^.""^'  ■«•«*"««* 

9  convents;  the  Behool  Sisters,  1  convent.  MtCRABL  Ott. 

The  Austrian  occupation  of  Bosnia  and  Heraego-  • 

vina  since  1878  has  not  only  done  much  for  the  mate-  Boao  (Breakspbar),  third  English  Cardinal,  dat« 

rial  prosperity  of  these  provinces,  but  has  also  been  of  birth  uncertain;  d.  at  Borne,  about  1181.     He  was 

of  great  assistance  to  the  Catholic  religion.    This  is  a  Benedictine  monk  of  St,  Albans  Abbey  and  the 

shown  by  a  comparison  with  earher  yeare.    In  18fi0  nephew   of    Adrian   IV.     Though    this   relationship 

the   two  territories  contained   150,000  Catholic   in-  was  on  the  maternal  side,  Cardella  states  that  Boso 

habitants;  in  1874,  185,503;  in  1897,  334,142,  or  one-  as  well  as  Adrian  IV  bore  the  surname  of  Breakspear. 

fourth  of  the  whole  population,  and  in  1907,334,000.  He  had  a  reputation  not  only  for  piety,  but  also  for 

About  1880  there  were  no  Catholic  families  in  the  learning,  and  was  esteemed  by  contemporary  writer! 


BOWtJ  608  B088UET 

aa  among  the  most  eminent  theologians  of  his  age.  bishop  and  pulfut  orator,  b.  at  Dijon,  27  Septembei 

He  compiled  or  wrote  the  lives  of  several  eleventh  1627;  d.  at  Paris,  12  April,  1704.    For  more  than  £ 

and  twelfth  century  popes,  among  them  the  life  of  century  his  ancestors,  Doth  paternal  and  matemaL 

his  uncle,  and  indulged  in  the  lighter  accomplishment  had  occupied  judicial  functions.    He  was  the  fifth 

of  versifying,  examples  of  his  poetic  powers  still  son  of  Benigne  Bossuet,  a  judce  in  t^e  Pariiament 

existing  m  &e  Cotton  MSS.  in  the  British  Museum,  of  Dijon,  and  Madeleine  Mocmet.     He  b^gan  his 

in  the  form  of  metrical  lives  of  saints.    He  followed  classical  studies  at  the  CoU^  des  Godrans,  conducted 

his  uncle  to  Rome;  and  on  the  latter's  elevation  to  by  the  Jesuits,  in  Dijon,  and,  on  his  father's  ap- 

t|he  Papal  Chair, was  created  byhim Cardinal-Deacpn  pointment  to  a  seat  in  toe  Parliament  of  Mets,  be 

of  the  title  of  Sts.  Cosmas  and  Damian,  in  December,  was  left  in  his  native  town,  under  the  care  of  bis 

1155,  and  was  also  appointed  Camerlengo  of  the  uncle,  Claude  Bossuet  d'Aiseray,  a  renowned  scholar. 

Holy  See.    Adrian  sent  boso  on  a  mission  to  Portu-  His  extaraordinary  ardour  for  study  gave  occasion 

gal;  for  what  precise  purpose  does  not  transpire,  but  to  the  schoolboy  joke,  deriving  his  name  from  Bos 

the  fact  is  attested  by  the  renters  of  Pope  Innocent  suetm  aratro.    In  a  very  short  time,  he  mastered 

in.    He  also  confided  to  bun  the  governorship  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  classics.   ,  Homer  and  Virgil 

the  Castle  of  Sant'  Angelo,  being  somewhat  suspicious  were  his  favourite  authors,  while  the  Bible  soon  be- 

of  the  fidelity  of  the  IU>man  populace.    When  Adrian  came  his  Uvre  de  chevet.    Speaking  of  the  Scriptures, 

IV  died  in  1159,  dissensions  arose  in  the  conclave  as  he  used  to  say:  "Certe,  in  his  consenescere,  in  his 

to  the  dioice  of  his  successor,  the  result  of  which  immori,  summa  votorum  est."    Early  destined  to 

was  the  creation  of  a  schism  lasting  seventeen  yeuis.  the  Church,  he  received  the  tonsure  when  he  was 

Four  cardinals  in  the  imperial  interest  voted  for  only  eight  years  old,  and  at  the  age  of  thirteen  he 

Cardinal  Octavian.  who  assumed  the  name  of  Victor  obtained  a  canonicate  in  the  cathedral  of  Metz.    In 

IV,  but  he  was  acknowledged  onl^  bjr  the  Germans.  1642,  he  left  Dijon  and  went  to  Paris  to  finish  his 

On  the  very  day  of  Adrian's  bunal  in  the  Vatican  classical  studies  and  to  take  up  philosophy  and 

basilica,  5  September.  Cardinal  Boso,  who  appears  theology  in  the  Coll^  de  Navarre.    A  year  later 

to  have  taken  the  lead,  withdrew  with  the  majority,  he  was  introduced  by  Amauld  at  the  Hotel  de  Ram- 

twenty-three,  of  the  cardinals  within  the  fortress  of  bouillet,  where,  one  evening  at  eleven  o'clock,  he 

Sant'  Angelo  to  escape  the  vengeance  of  the  anti-  delivered    an    extempore    sermon,    which    caused 

pope,  and    straightway  elected  as  pope.  Cardinal  Voiture's  remark:  ''I  never  heard  an^rbody  preach  so 

Rolando  (BandineUi)  of  Siena,  who  was  consecrated  early  nor  so  late."  A  Master  of  Arts  in  1644,  he  held 

under  the  name  of  Alexander  III.    The  new  pope  his  first  thesis  (terUativa)  in  theology,  25  January, 

was  not  unmindful  of  his  obli^tions  to  Boso,  and  1648,  in  the  presence  of  the  Prince  de  Cond^.     He 

soon  (1163)  promoted  him  Cardmal-Priest  of  the  title  was  ordained  sub-deacon  the  same  year,  and  deacon 

of    St.    Puaentiana.    When    Alexander    made    his  the  following  year,  and  preached  his  first  sermons 

memorable  ioumey  to  Venice  to  receive  the  submis-  at  Metz.     He   held  his  second   thesis   (8ari>o7tiica) 

sion  and  allegiance  of  the  Emperor  Frederick,  and  9  November,  1650.    For  two  years,  he  lived  in  re- 

to  ratify  the  "Peace  of  Venice"  (24  June,  1177)  tirement,  preparing  himself  for  the  priesthood  under 

which  closed  the  schism,  he  was  accompanied  by  the  direction  of  S.  Vincent  de  Paul,  and  was  or- 

Boso.    Alexander  also  entrusted  Boso  with  a  mission  dained  18  March.  1652.   A  few  weeks  later,  the  de^^ee 

to  Tuscany,  an  event  attested  by  the  registers  of  of   Doctor  of  Divinity  was  conferred  upon   him. 

Alexander  IV.    Boso's  name  appears  attached  to  Appointed    Archdeacon    of    Sarrebourg    (January, 

imany  Bulls,  both  of  Adrian  IV  and  of  Alexander  III.  1652),  he  resided  for  seven  years  at  Metz,  devoting 

Dia.  NqL  BioQT,,  V,  421;  Cabdella.  Memane  Surriche  <U*  himself  to  the  study  of  the  Bible  and  the  Fathers, 

^*^oS|!1!;^S^Wl'^^^^  K!5^^.   ^"S^^V   ^^^^.^    controversies     with 

iandM  Oe^chichtmellen,  6th  ed..  II,  331:  Rbittkr.  AUxanr-  Protestants,  and  yet,  findmg  time  for  the  secular 

ifer  III  (l8a)-64):  JaffA,  R^esta  RR,  PP.,  II.  «.  w..  Adrian  affairs  for   which  he  was  responsible,  as  a  meni- 

IV,  Alexander  IIU  ^        NoRBERT  BiRT  ^"^  ^^  *^  Assembly  of  the  Three  Orders.    In  1657 

he  was  induced  by  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  to  come  to 

BoBsn,  Jacques  Le.  French  theologian  and  Doc-  Paris  and  give  himself  entirely  to  preaching, 
tor  of  the  Sorbonne,  d.  at  Paris  1546:  d.  at  Rome  Though  living  i;i  Paris,  Bossuet  did  not  sever 
1626.  He  entered  the  Benedictine  Order  at  the  his  connexion  with  the  cathedral  of  Metz;  he  con- 
Royal  Abbey  of  St.  Denis,  of  which  he  became  tinued  to  hold  his  benefice,  and  was  even  appointed 
daustral  prior.  He  was  preceptor  to  the  Cardinal  de  dean  in  1664,  when  his  father,  a  widower,  had  just 
Guise  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Catholic  received  the  priesthood  and  become  a  canon  of  the 
League  and  the  disputes  concerning  the  successor  to  same  cathedral.  There  are  extant  one  hundred  and 
Henrv  lU,  whose  death  he  considered  to  be  a  just  thirty-seven  sermons  which  were  delivered  by  Bos- 
punishment.  The  accession  of  Henry  IV,  agamst  suet  between  1659  and  1669,  and  it  is  estimaU^i 
whom  he  had  written,  and  the  execution  of  de  Guise  in  that  more  than  one  himdred  have  been  lost.  In 
1587  necessitated  his  leaving  France  in  1591,  and  he  1669  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Condom,  without 
went  to  Rome,  where  he  entered  the  service  of  the  being  obliged  to  reside  in  his  diocese,  was  consecrated 
Curia.  He  was  piade  a  consultor  of  the  Congregation  21  ^ptember,  1670,  but,  obeying  scruples  of  oon- 
de  Auxiliis,  established  in  1599  to  settle  the  contro-  science,  resigned  his  bishopric  a  year  later,  in 
versy  on  grace  between  the  Dominicans  and  the  which  year,  aLso^  he  was  elected  to  the  French 
Jesuits.  Oti  its  dissolution,  in  1607,  he  desired  to  Academy.  Appomted  preceptor  to  the  Dauphin, 
return  to  France,  but  the  pope,  Paul  V,  kept  him  in  13  September,  1670,  he  threw  himself  with  in- 
Rome.  His  chief  work  consisted  of  ''Animadver-  defatigable  ^lergy  into  his  tutorial  functions, 
siones"  ajgainst  twenty-five  propositions  of  Molina,  a  composing  all  the  books  deemed  necessary  for  his 
Spanish  Jesuit  who  had  written  a  book  on  grace,  ae-  pupa's  instruction,  models  of  handwriting  as  well 
fending  the  doctrines  of  Scotus  a^inst  those  of  the  as  manuals  of  philosophy,  and  himself  giving  ^ 
Domimcans.  The  ''Animadversiones"  were  pub-  the  lessons,  three  times  a  oay.  When  hisfuncBons 
Ushed  by  Antonio  Raynaldo,  tiie  Dominican,  in  1644.  as  preceptor  ended  (1681),  he  was  appointed  to  the 
Le  Bossu's  ^'Diarium  Congregationis  de  Auxiliis"  bishopric  of  Meaux.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in 
has  unfortunately  perished.  the  Assembly  of  the  French  Qeigy  in  1682.    Unlike 

Zii»ia^AUER.HMtm04.B.(AuMburK.  1764).  III.  371;  the  court  bishops,   Bossuet  constantly  readed   in 

luBTHB.  N<mendator    (Innabruck  iSW).  J.  270.  ^  jiocese  and  busied  himself  with  the  details  of 

u.  UTPRiAN  ALSTON.  .^  admuiistration.     In  that  period  he  completed 

Bossuet,  jACQUBB-BiNiONE,  a  celebrated  Fr^ich  his  long-interrupted  works  of  historical  controversy;. 


BOSSUXT  '    699  BOSSUXT    . 

fvrote  innumerable  spiritual  letters,  took  care  of  Jewish  community  (and  in  some  respects,  the  onl; 

his  r^igious  conmiimities  (for  whom  he  composed  one  in  France  that  was  recognized  by  the  otate),  anc 

''Meditations  on  the  Gosper'  and  ''Uplifting    of  as  the  Protestants  were  niunerous,  and  still  fervent, 

the  Soul  on  the  Masteries '^,  and  entered  on  endless  in  the  neighbouring  province  of  Alsace,  one  may 

polemioB  with  Elhes  du  Pm,  Caffaro.  Ftoelon,  the  believe  that  Bossuet's  natural  tendency  to  take  re- 

Probabilists^   Richard   Simon   and   tne   Jansenists.  ligion  on  its  controversial  side  was  encouraged  or 

From  1700,  his  health  began  to  fail,  which,  however,  stren^hened  by  these  circumstances.    Proof  of  this, 

did  not  prevent  him  from  wrestling  in  defence  ot  if  desired,  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the  manu- 

the  Faith.    Confined  to  his  bed  by  illness,  he  dictated  script  of  one  of  his  first  sermons,  "On  the  Law  of 

letters  and  polemical  essays  to  his  secretary.    As  Goa",  1653,  still  bears  this  statement  in  his  own 

Saint-Simon  says,  "he  died  fighting".  handwriting:  "Preached  at  Metz  ap;ainst  the  Jews": 

A  list  and  criticism  of  Bossuet's  chief  works  will  be  and  in  this  other  fact,  that  the  &st  work  he  had 

found  in  the  following  appreciation,  by  the  late  Fer-  printed  was  a  "Refutation",  in   1656,  of  the  cate- 

dinand  Brunetidre.    Out  of  one  hundred  and  thirihr  chism  of  Paul  Ferry,  a  renowned  Protestant  pastor 

works  composed  by  Bossuet  from  1653  to  1704,  of  Metz.    Be  that  as  it  may,  as  soon  as  the  young ' 

eighty  were  edited  by  himself,  seven  or  eisht  by  his  archdeacon  began  to  preach  his  reputation  quickly 

nephew,  the  Abb6  Bossuet,  afterwards  Bishop  of  si>read,  and  very  soon  the  pulpits  of  Paris' were  vying 

Troyes;  the  remainder,  about  forty-two,  not  including  with  one  another  to  secure  him.    It  may  therefore 

the  "Letters"  and  "Sermons",  appeared  from  1741  be  said  that  from  1656  to  1670  he  gave  himself  en- 

to  1789.    The  principal  complete  editions  are:  the  tirely  to  the  ministry  of  preaching,  and  as  a  matter 

Versailles  edition   1815-19,  47  vols,   in-8;   Lachat  of  fact,  three-fourths  of  the  two  hundred,  or  more, 

(Viv^),  Paris,  1862-64,  31  vols,  in-8;  Guillaume.  "Sermons"  which  have  reached  us,  either  complete 

Paris,  10  vols.  in-4.     No  critical  and  chronological  or  in  fragments,  date  from  this  period.    They  may 

edition  of  Bossuet's  complete  works  has  been  made  be  distinguished  as  "Sermons",  properly  so  called; 

as  yet,  only  the  sermons  having  been  edited  (in  a  "Panegyrics  of  Saints";  and  "Funeral  Orations", 

most   scientific    manner)    by    the    Abb6    Lebarcq:  These  last  number  ten  in  all.    In  some  editions  the 

"CEuvres  oratoires;  Edition  critique  complete,  avec  "Sermons  on  Religious  Professions"    (Sermons  de 

introduction  grammaticale,  preface,  notes,  et  choix  VHiare),  of  which  the  most  celebrated  is  that  for  the 

de  variantes",  Paris,  1890,  6  vols.  in-8.  profession  of  Madame  de  la  Vallidre,  preached  in 

Louis  N.  Delamabrh.  1674,  and  the  "  Sermons  for  the  Feasts  of  the  Virgin  ", 

are  classed  by  themselves. 

Bossuet,  Literary  and  Theological  Apprscia-       What  are  tne  essential  characteristics  of  Bossuet 's 

TICK  OP. — ^The  life  of  this  great  man,  perfectly  simple  eloquence?    In  the  first  place,  the  force,  or,  to  put 

as  it  was,  and  all  of  one  piece  with  itself ^  may  be  it,  perhaps,  better,  the  energy,  of  speech,  or  of  the 

divided  into  three  epochs,  to  each  of  which  as  a  wora,  and  by  this  I  mean,  inclusively,  exactitude  and 

matter  of  fact  there  are.  found  to  correspond^  if  not  precision,  the  fitness  of  pnrase,  the  neatness  of  turn, 

a  new  aspect  of  his  genius,  at  least  occupations  or  the  impressiveness  of  the  gesture  iinplied   in   his 

labours  which  are  not  altogether  of  the  same  nature,  words,  and,  generally,  all  the  qualities  of  that  French 

and  which  consequently  show  him  to  us  in  a  some-  writer  who.  entertaining,  with  Pascal,  a  great  horror 

what  different  lignt.    At  first,  one  perceives  in  him  of  the  artinces  of  rhetoric,  for  that  very  reason  best 

only    the   orator,  the   greatest,  perhaps,  who   has  understood  the  resources  of  French  prose.    There  is 

ever  appeared  in  the  Christian  pulpit — greater  than  nothing,  in  French,  which  surpasses  a  fine  page  of 

Chrysostom  and  greater  than  Augustine;  the  onlv  Bossuet. 

man  whose  name  can  be  compared  m  eloquence  with       The  second  characteristic  of  his  eloquence  is  what 

those  of  Cicero  and  of  Demosthenes  (1617-70).  Alexandre  Vinet,  though  a  Protestant,  nas  not  feared 

Appointed    preceptor    to    the    Dauphin,   son    of  to  call,  in  an  essay  on  Bourdaloue,  the  depth  and 

Louis   XIV,   he    devoted    himself    for   more  than  reach  of  its  philosophy.    He  meant  that  while  the 

ten  yesLra  entirely  to  this  onerous  task  (1670-81),  illustrious  Jesuit  in  nis  "Sermons"  is  always  strictly 

appeared  in  the  pulpit  only  at  rare  intervals,  re-  and  evidently  Catholic,  Bossuet,  surely  no  less  so, 

turned  to  the  studies  which  he  had  somewhat  neg-  excels,  besides,  in  demonstrating,  even  apart  from 

lected,  and  composed  for  his  pupil  works  of  whidi  Catholicism,  the  peremptory  reasons  in  tne  depths 

the  "Discourse  on  Universal  Histoiy"  is  still  the  of  our  nature  ana  in  the  sequence  of  history  why 

most  celebrated.     Finally,  in  the  last  period  of  his  one  should  feel  and  think  like  a  Catholic  even  if  one 

life  (1681-1704),  having  become  Bishop  of  Meaux,  were  not  a  Catholic.    Those  who  care  to  verify  this 

though  he  still  preaches  regularly  to  his  own  flock,  opinion  of  Vinet  mav  read    Bossuet's   sermons   on 

and  raises  his  eloquent  voice  on  solemn  occasions —  "Death",  "Ambition",  "Providence",  "The  Honour 

to  open  the  Assembly  of  the  Clergy  of  France,  in  of  the  World",  "Our  IMspositions  in  R^ard  to  the 

1681,  or  to  pronounce  the  fimeral  oration  of  the  Necessities  of  Life",  "The  Eminent  Dignity  of  the 

Prince  de  Cond^,  in  1687 — ^yet  it  is  above  all  the  Poor",  "Submission  to  the  Law  of  Goa",  and  alsr> 

peat  controversialist  that  his  contemporaries  admire  the  sermons  for  the  Feasts  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 

m  him,  the  defender  of  tradition  against  all  the  The  "Sermon  for  the  Profession  of  Madame  de  la 


novelties  which  sought  to  weaken  it,  the  imweandng    Valli^re"  is  another  beautiful  example  of  this  philo- 
opponent  of  Jurieu,  of  Richard  Simon,  of  Madame    sophic  character  of  Bossuet's  eloc^uence. 


the  Fathers  of  the  Church  ",  great  poet;  and  he  is  lyrical  in  his  blending  of  per- 

FiRST    Period    (1627-70). — He    made    his    first  sonal  and  interior  emotions  with  the  expression  of  the 

studies  with  the  Jesuits  of  his  native  city,  completed  truths  which  he  unfolds.     "The  Uplifting  of  the  Soul 

them  in  Paris  at  the  College  of  Navam,  and,  or-  by  the  Divine  Mysteries"  and  "Meditations  on  the 

dained  priest,  entered  into  possession  of  the  arch-  tiospel"  are  titles  of  two  of  his  most  beautiful  works, 

deaconry  of  Sarrebourg,  in  the  Diocese  of  Metz,  in  in  which  in  his  old  age  he,  as  it  were,  condensed  the 

1652.     Anywhere  else  than  at  Metz,  no  matter  in  substance  of  his  "Sermons".    But  it  may  be  truly 

what  part  of  the  world,  he  would  without  doubt  have  said  that  there  is  no  sermon  of  his  which  is  not  either 

been  himself.    In  literary  history,  environment  com-  a  "Meditation  "  or  an  "  Uplifting  of  the  Soul ".    And  is 

monly  shows  its  effects  only  m  the  formation  of  it  not  strange  that  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 

mediocrities.     But,  as  there  existed  at  Metz  a  large  century  these  titles,  "Uplifting  of  the  Soul"  and  "Medi- 


B088ITET                               700  B0S8UET 

tations",  were  applied  by  Lamartine  and  Vigny  to  and  without  anj  innovation — for  every  innovatioi 

cheir  own  first  poetic  worlts?    Such  are  the  essential  in  this  field  inspu^  him  with  horror — ^formed  from  h 

characteristics    of    Bossuet's    eloquence,    to    which  deductions  which  up  to  hb  time  had  never  beei 

might  easily  be  added  a  great  many  others,  perhaps  perceived. 

more  showy,  but  which  may  be  foimd^  in  other  Tlie  idea  of  Providence,  in  Bossuet's  theology,  ap- 

preachers,  while  those  we  have  mentioned  belong  to  pears  to  us  as  at  once  (a)  the  sanction  of  the  moral 

Him  alone.  law,  (b)  the  very  law  of  history,  and  (o)  the  founda- 

Meanwhile,  the  reputation  of  the  preacher  was  tion  of  apologetics, 
growii^  eveiy  day.  Above  all,  his  Lienten  confer-  (a)  It  is  the  sanction  of  the  moral  law,  in  the  firet 
ences  before  the  Court  in  1662  and  in  1666  had  place,  inasmuch  as,  being  able  to  act  only  under  the 
brought  him  into  prominence,  particularly  the  eyes  of  God,  no  act  of  ours  is  indifFerent,  since  there 
second  series,  which  included  some  of  his  finest  is  not  one  but  is  for  us  an  occasion  of,  or,  to  put  it 
"Sermons".  The  Protestants,  on  the  other  hand,  better,  a  manner  of  acquiring,  merit  or  deiiierit.  It 
although  they  had  no  adversary  more  moderate  than  is  unaer  this  aspect  that  uxe  idea  of  Providence 
he,  h£ul  none  more  formidable;  and  when  some  seems  to  have  presented  itsdf  primarily  to  Bossuet. 
startling  conversion,  like  that  of  Turenne.  took  and  that  it  is  found  in  some  sort  scattered  or  diffusea 
place,  the  honour  or  the  blame  of  it  was  laid  upon  in  his  earliest  "Sermons".  But,  since,  moreover, 
the  Abb^  Bossuet.  His  little  book,  circulatecl  in  nothing  happens  to  us  which  is  not  an  effect  of  God's 
manuscript  under  the  title  of  "Exposition  of  the  Will,  therefore  we  oii^ht  always  to  see  in  whatever 
Doctrine  of  the  Catholic  Church  on  Subjects  of  Con-  happiness  or  unhappiness — acoording  to  the  world's 
troversy",  worried  the  Protestant  divines  more  than  juogment — ^may  befall  us  only  a  chastisement,  a  trial, 
had  any  folio  in  fifty  ^ears.  The  public  voice  marked  or  a  temptation,  which  it  is  for  us  to  make  a  means 
him  out  for  a  bishopnc.  We  know,  too,  that,  though  either  of  salvation  or  of  damnation.  Here  is  the 
doubtless  without  nis  being  aware  of  it,  his  name  mystery  of  pain  and  the  solution  of  the  problem  of 
figured,  after  1667,  among  the  candidates  for  the  evil.  If  we  did  not  place  entire  confidence  in  Provi- 
omce  of  precebtor  to  the  Dauphin,  those  names  hav-  dence,  the  existence  of  evil  and  the  proq>erity  of  the 
ing  been  selected,  by  the  king  s  conmiand^  under  the  wicked  would  be  for  the  human  mind  nothing  but  an 
direction  of  Colbert.  It  is  true  that  Louis  XIV  did  occasion  of  scandal;  and  if  we  did  not  accept  our 
not  favour  Bossuet's  appointment;  he  preferred  the  sufferings  as  a  design  of  God  in  our  regutl,  we  should 
President  De  P^rigny.  In  1669,  however,  Bossuet  fall  into  despair.  A  source  of  resignation,  our  trust 
was  appointed  Bishop  of  Condom.  It  was  as  Bishop  in  Providence  is  also  a  source  of  strength,  and  it 
of  Condom  that  in  September  of  that  same  ^ear  he  governs,  so  to  speak,  the  entire  domain  of  moral 
pronounced  the  "Funeral  Oration  on  Hennetta  of  action.  If  our  actions  are  moral,  it  is  by  reason  of 
France",  and  was  summoned  to  preach  the  Advent  their  conformitv  with,  or  at  least  of  their  analogr  to, 
of  1669  at  Court.  When,  soon  after  this,  the  daughter  the  views  of  Providence,  and  thus  the  life  of  the 
followed  her  mother  to  the  grave,  he  was  again  Christian  is  only  a  perpetual  realization  of  the  Will 
smnmoned,  in  1670,  to  pronounce  the  "Funeral  of  God.  We  merit  according  to  our  endeavours  to 
Oration  of  the  Duchess  of  Orleans".  In  the  mean-  know  it  in  order  to  carry  it  into  effect;  and,  on  the 
while,  the  President  De  P^rigny  died  unexpectedlv,  contrary,  to  demerit  consists  exactlv  in  not  taking 
and  this  time  the  choice  of  Louis  XIV  went  strai^nt  account  of  God's  Will  or  wamii^,  whether  the  omis- 
to  Bossuet.  He  was  named  preceptor  to  the  Dauphin,  sion  be  through  nedigence,  pride,  or  stubbornness. 
5  September,  1670,  and  a  new  period  b^an  in  the  (b)  This  is  why  the  idea  of  Providence  is  at  the 
history  of  his  life.  same  time  the  law  of  history.  If  the  crash  of  empires 
Second  Period  (1670-81). — ^In  order  to  devote  "falling  one  upon  another"  does  not  in  truth  express 
himself  solely  to  his  task,  he  gave  up  his  Bishopric  some  purpose  of  God  regarding  humanity,  then 
of  Condom,  which  he  never  saw,  and  returned  to  the  history,  or  what  is  called  by  that  name,  is  indeed  no 
profane  studies  which  he  had  been  obliged  to  abandon,  longer  anything  but  a  chaotic  chronology,  the  mean- 
He  himself  laid  down  in  his  letter  to  Pope  Inno-  ing  of  which  we  should  strive  in  vain  to  disentangle, 
cent  XI,  the  programme  he  made  his  royal  pupil  In  that  case.  Fortune,  or  rather  Qiance,  would  be  the 
follow,  a  programme  the  intelligent  liberali^  of  mistress  of  human  affairs:  the  existence  of  humanity 
which  it  is  impossible  not  to  admire.  But,  while  would  be  only  a  bad  dream,  or  phantasmagoria, 
giving  the  closest  personal  attention  to  the  Dauphin's  whose  chan^ng  face  would  be  inad^uate  to  mask  a 
education,  his  own  genius  completed,  in  a  way,  its  void  of  nothmgness.  We  should  be  fretting  ourselves 
process  of  ripening  oy  contact  with  antiquitjr;  his  in  that  void  without  reason  and  almost  without 
ideas  collected  themselves  and  gained  in  precision:  cause,  our  very  actions  would  be  but  phantoms,  and 
he  took  conscious  possession  of  what  may  oe  callea  the  only  result  of  so  many  efforts  accumulated 
his  origin^ity  as  a  thinker,  and  made  for  himself  his  through  so  many  thousands  of  years  would  be  the 
private  domain,  as  it  were,  hi  the  vast  field  of  apolo-  conviction,  every  day  more  clear^  of  their  useless- 
getics.  And,  as  the  other  Fathers  of  the  Church  ness,  which  would  be  another  void  of  nothingness, 
have  been,  in  the  history  of  Christian  thought,  one  And  why,  after  all,  were  there  Greeks  and  Romans? 
the  theologian  of  the  Incarnation,  another,  the  Of  what  use  was  Salamis? — ^Actium? — ^Poitiers?— 
theologian  of  Grace,  so  did  Bossuet  then  become  the  Lepanto?  Why  was  there  a  Csesar,  and  a  Charie- 
theologian  of  Providence.  magne?  Let  us  frankly  own,  then,  that  unless  some- 
Here  we  may  take  an  excellent  example  of  what  is  thi^  Divine  circulates  in  history,  there  is  no  history, 
to-day  called  the  development,  or  evolution,  of  a  Nations,  like  individufds,  Hve  only  by  maintaininjS 
dogmatic  truth.  The  idea  of  Providence  surely  con-  uninterrupted  communication  with  ^  God,  and  it  is 
stitutes  the  basis  of  Christian  belief  in  all  that  touches  precisely  this  condition  of  their  existence  which  is 
the  relations  of  man  with  God,  and  in  this  respect  it  called  by  the  name  of  Providence,    The  hypothesis 

">esaidt'    '  ''     "-'  ^^'         '^    ^^         '    ^" "'^'  "  -'^'- ^^----' 

is  comp] 

V.       «V.       AUgUSti*«^    >,.        ^       V-X.                -^W       ^V..S^.»«-V.W*.X.       ^X,.  *«..«     W.     . 

of  Salvianus.     We  are  perfectly  willing  to  add  that  science.                                 ^                              ^ 

in  this  wide,  and  even  slightly  vague,  sense  it  is  (c)  Having   made    Providence    the    sanction  m 

found  also  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  notably  in  the  morality^  we  are  now  led  to  make  it  the  basis  of 

Book  of  DanieL     But  that  does  not  alter  the  fact  apologetics.     For  if  there  be  indeed  nK>re  than  one 

that  Bossuet  in  his  turn  apj^priated  this  idea  of  way  which  leads  to  God.  or,  in  other  words,  many 

Providence  to  himself,  made  it  profoundly  his  own,  means  of  establishing  the  truth  of  the  CSiristifin 


B0B8UET  701  BOSSUST 

eligion,  there  is,  in  Bossuet's  view,  none  more  con«  permitted  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  this  wa 

vinctng  than  that  which  is  at/once  the  hi^^hest  ex-  only  an  honorary  title,  and  one  need  not  therefore 

pression   and   the  summing-up  of   the   history  6f  conclude,  as  seems  to  have  been  done  sometimes, 

numanitv,  that  is  to  say,  ''tne  very  sequence  of  that  Bossuet  took  his  seat,  or  voted,  in,  for  instance, 

religion  ,  or  "the  relation  of  the  two  Testaments",  the  Conaeil  des  di'p^chesj  which  was  the  Council  of 

and,  in  a  more  objective  manner,  the  visible  numi-  Foreign  Affairs,  or  m  the  Conseil  du  Roi^  which  busied 

festation   of   Providence   in   the   establishment   of  itsdf  with  the  internal  affairs  of  the  kingdom.     But 

Christianity.     It  was  Providence  that  made  of  the  during  his  preceptorship,  and  independently  of  any 

Jewish  people  a  people  apart,  a  unique  people,  the  participation  in  tne  councils,  his  autnority  had  never^ 

chosen  people,  charged  with  maintaining  £yid  de-  theless  become  of  considerable  importance  at  Court, 

fending  the  worrfiip  of  the  true  God  throughout  the  with  Louis  XIV   personally.     No  member  of  the 

pa^n  centuries,  against  the  prestige  of  an  idolatiy  French  clerey  wafi  tnenceforth  more  in  evidence  than 

which  essentially  consisted  in  the  deification  of  the  he;  no  preacher,  no  bishop.     He  had  no  reason,  then, 

energies  of  nature.    It  was   Providence  that,   by  to  fear  that,  having  accomplished  the  education  of 

means  of  Roman  unity  and  of  its  extension  through-  the  Daui^iin,  his  activity  would  fail  to  find  emplov- 

out  the  known  universe,  rendered  not  only  possible,  ment.    In  truth,  the  last  epoch  of  his  life  was  to  be 

but  easy  and  cdmost  necessary,  the  conversion  of  the  its  fullest. 

world  to   Christianity.    It  was   Providence,  asain,        Third  Period  (1681-1704). — ^This  period  was  the 

that  developed  the  features  of  the  modem  world  out  most  laborious,  indeed  the  most  painful;  and  the  im- 

of  the  disorder  of  barbarous  invasi6ns  and  reconciled  passioned  struggles  in  which  he  becomes  engaged  will 

the  two  antiquities  under  the  law  of  Christ.    The  full  now  end  only  with  his  life.     But  why  so   many 

importance  of  these  views  of  Bossuet — for  we  are  struggles  at  the  time  of  life  when  most  men  seek  for 

only  summarizing  here  the  "Discourse  on  Universal  rest?    What  circumstances  occasioned  them?    And 

History" — ^will  to  understood  if  we  observe  that,  in  if  we  recall  that  up  to  this  time  his  existence  had  not 

our  day,  when  the  Strausses  and  Renans  have  sought  been  disturbed  by  any  agitation  that  could  be  called 

to  give  us  their  own  version  of  the  origins  of  Chris-  deep,  wh^ice  this  sudden  combative  ardour?    It 

tianity,  they  have  found  nothing  more  than  this  and  cannot  be  explained  without  a  preliminary  remark, 

nothing  else;  and  all  their  ingenuity  has  issued  in  the  The  reconciliation  of  Protestantism  and  Catholicism 

conclusion  tnat  things  have  nappened  in  the  reality  had  been  an  early  dream  of  Bossuet;  and,  on  the 

of  history  as  if  some  invsterious  will  had  from  all  other  hand,  France  in  the  seventeenth  centuiy  had, 

eternity  proportioned  effects  and  causes.     But  the  in  general,  ill  chosen  her  side  in  a  division  which  she 

real  truth  is  that  Christianity,  in  propagating  itself,  regarded  as  not  only  regrettable  from  the  standpoint 

has  proved  itself.     If  the  action  of  Providence  is  of  religion,  but  destructive,  and  even  dangerous  to 

manifest  anywhere,  it  is  in  the  sequence  of  the  history  her  poutical  unit^.    This  is  why  Bossuet  was  to  work 

of  Christiamty.     Aiid  what  is  more  natural  under  the  aU  ms  life  and  with  all  his  strength  for  the  reunion  of 

circumstances  than  to  make  of  its  histoiy  the  dem-  the  Churches,  and  to  force  himself  to  exert  every 

onstration  of  its  truth?  effort  for  the  attainment  of  those  conditions  which  he 

It  was  appropriate  to  insist  here  upon  this  idea  of  believed  necessary  to  that  end.  Abundant  and  in> 
Providence,  which  is,  in  a  nuumer,  the  masterpiece  of  structiVe  details  on  this  point  are  to  be  found  in 
Bossuet 's  theolo^.  Besides  the  "Discourse  on  Uni-  M.  A.  R^beUiau's  charming:  work,  " Bossuet, historien 
versal  History",  ne  wrote  other  works  for  the  educa-  du  Protestantisme".  Bemg,  moreover,  too  reason- 
tion  of  the  Dauphin;  notably  the  "Treatise  on  the  able  and  too  well-informed  not  to  recognize  the 
Knowledge  of  God  and  of  Oneself"  and  the  "Art  of  legitimate  element  which  the  Reformation  move- 
Governing,  Drawn  from  the*  Words  of  Holy  Scrip-  ment  had  had  in  its  time,  Bossuet  was  convinced  that 
tore",  which  appeared  only  after  his  death^  the  "Art  it  was  of  the  greatest  moment  not  indeed  to — in  the 
of  Governing",  in  1709,  and  the  "Treatise  on  the  phrase  of  our  own  day — "minimize"  the  demands  of 
Knowledge  of  uod",  in  1722.  To  the  "Treatise  on  the  Catiiolic  verity,  but  at  all  events  not  to  exag- 
Free  Wifl"  and  the  "Treatise  on  Concupiscence",  gerate  those  demands;  and,  therefore,  (1)  to  make 
also  posthtimous,  a  like  origin  has  been  assigned;  but  to  Protestant  opinion  every  concession  which  a  rigor- 
this  IS  certainly  a  mistake;  these  two  works,  which  ous  orthodoxy  would  permit;  and  (2)  not  to  add 
contain  some  of  Bossuet's  most  beautiful  pages,  were  anything,  on  the  other  hand,  to  a  creed  more  tlian 
not  written  for  his  royal  pupil,  who  certainly  would  one  difficulty  of  which  was  already  repelling  the 
not  have  understood  vthem  at  all.    Did  he  even  un-  Protestants. 

derstand   the   "Discourse  on   Universal   History"?        Thus  may  we  explain  his  part  in  the  Assembly  of 

In  this  connexion  it  has  been  questioned   whether  the  French  Clergy  m  1682;  the  plan  of  his  "History 

Bossuet,  in  his  quality  of  preceptor,  did  not  fail  in  his  of  the  Variatk)ns  of  the  Protestant  Churches",  a^ 

first  obligation,  which  was,  as  his  critics  assert,  to  well  as  the  character  of  his  polemics  a^nst  the 

adapt  himself  to  his  pupil's  intelligence.     Here  we  Protestants;  his  fundamental  motive  in  tne  matter 

can  only  reply,  without  going  to  the  bottom  of  the  of  QuietiBm  and  the  true  reason  for  his  fierce  ani- 

question,  that  the  end  which  Bossuet  intended  was  mosity  against  Ftoelon;  his  writings  a^inst  Richard 

no  ordinary  education,  but  the  education  of  a  future  Simon,  such  as  his  "  Defence  of  Tradition  and  of  the 

King  of  France,  the  first  obligation  incumbent  upon  Holy  Fathers";  such  steps  as  those  which  he  took 

whose  preceptor  was  to  treat  nim  as  a  Kin^.    Thus,  against  the  mystic  reveries  of  Maria  d'Agreda;  and 

for  that  matter,  professors  in  oiir  universities  never  li^tly,  the  approbation  which,  in  1682  and  1702,  he 

seem  to  subordinate  their  teaching  to  the  capacity  so  loudly  expressed  for  the  renewed  censures  of  the 

of  their  pupils,  but  only  to  the  exigencies  of  the  AssembUes  oi  the  Clergy  upon  the  relaxed  morals  of 

science  tau^nt.    And  we  will  add,  moreover,  that  as  the  day.     However,  it  is  little  to  our  purpose  to 

the  Dauphm  never  reined,  no  one  can  really  say  ascertain  whether  Bossuet,  in  the  course  of  all  these 

how  much  he  did,  or  did  not,  profit  by  a  preceptor  controversies,  more  than  once  allowed  himself  to  be 

such  as  Bossuet  was.  drawn   on   beyond   the   point   which   he   intended. 

The  education  of  a  prince  ordinarily,  and  naturally,  especially,  as  he  has  been  reproached,  in  the  ques- 
ended  with  his  marriage.  The  functions  of  Bossuet  tions  of  Gallicanism  and  of  Quietism.  The  celebrated 
as  preceptor  ceased,  therefore,  in  1681.  He  had  been  Declaration  of  1682  seems  to  have  altogether  ex- 
appointed  Bishop  of  Meaux;  he  was  made  Almoner  to  ceeded  the  measure  of  what  it  was  useful  or  necessary 
tne  Dauphin,  auite  in  accordance  with  usage,  and  the  to  say  in  order  to  defend  the  temporal  power  of  the 
King  honourea  him  with  the  title  of  General  Coun-  prince  or  the  independence  of  nations  against  the 
?illor  {Conseiller  en  tons  lea  conseils).     We  may  be  Roman  Curia.     Quietism,  too,  was  perhaps  not  so 


B08T                                    702  B08TE 

^leat  a  danger  as  he  believed  it  to  be;  nor,  above  aU,  magisterium,  retaining  some,  rejecting  others,  withou 
a  dan^r  of  the  kind  to  repel  Protestants  from  even  being  always  obliged  to  condenm  the  latter. 
Cathohcism,  since,  after  all,  it  is  in  a  Protestant  It  can  be  proved,  on  the  other  hand,  that,  thus  under 
country  that  the  works  of  Madame  Qujron  are  stood,  tradition  in  the  wriUngs  of  Bossuet,  and  on 
still  read  in  our  day.  But  to  properly  explain  these  his  lips  when  he  invokes  it,  does  not  exclude  re- 
points  we  should  have  to  write  volumes;  it  suffices  ligious  progress,  even  if,  perhaps,  the  former  does 
here  to  throw  some  light  on  Bossuet's  controversial  not  postulate  the  latter  as  a  conmtion.  And  already, 
work  with  this  general  remark:  his  essential  purpose  doubtless,  it  is  beginning  to  be  half  seen  that  the 
was  to  get  rid  of  the  reasons  for  resistance  which  true  Bossuet,  even  in  meology,  even  in  his  long 
Protestants  drew  from  the  substance  or  the  form  of  combats  with  the  heretics,  was  not  the  imbending, 
Catholicism,  in  opposition  to  the  reasons  for  reunion,  irreconcilable  man  he  is  commonly  pamted. 

In  this  remark,  also,  is  to  be  found  the  decisive  This  will  be  still  better  seen  it  we  reflect  that  a 
answer  to  the  question,  often  rau9ed,  and  amply  dis-  great  writer  is  not  alwa3r8  the  man  of  his  style.  In 
cussed  for  some  years,  of  the  Jansenism  of  Bossuet.  his  sermons  as  in  his  writings,  it  would  be  impossible 
Jansenism,  indeed,  involves  two  things:  the  "Five  to  denjr  that  Bossuet  has  an  imperious  and  au- 
Propositions" — a  doctrine,  or  a  heresy,  formally  and  thoritative  style.  He  counsels  nothm^  which  he  does 
solemnly  condemned:  and  a  general  tenden^,  very  not  command,  or  which  he  does  not  unpose;  and  to 
much  like  that  of  Calvin,  to  rationalise  Christian  everything  which  he  advances  he  communicates  the 
morality  and  even  dogma.  So  far  as  Jansenism  is  a  character  and  force  of  a  demonstration  by  hb 
heresy,  Bossuet  was  never  a  Jansenist:  but  so  far  as  manner  of  expressing  it.  Not  that  many  pa^es  of  a 
it  is  a  mere  tendency,  an  intellectual  oisposition  and  different  t^ior  might  not  be  cited  from  him,  and 
a  tendency  to  effect  a  mutual  drawing  together  of  some  such  will  be  found  notably  in  his  **  Uplifting  of 
reason  and  faith,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  oeny  that  the  Soul*',  his  "Meditations",  or  his  "Sermons  for 
he  leaned  towards  Jansenism.  Quite  apart  from  the  Festivals  of  the  Virgin".  But  the  habitual  qua!- 
satisfaction  which  his  own  genius,  naturally  at-  ity  of  his  style,  for  all  that,  remains,  as  we  nave 
tracted  to  order  and  to  clarity,  found  in  this  con-  said,  imperious  and  authoritative,  because  it  is  in 
ciliation  of  reason  and  faith,  he  Judged  this  the  most  harmony  with  the  nature  of  his  mind,  which  demands 
propitious  ground  of  all  for  tne  reconciliation  of  first  and  foremost  clearness,  certainty,  and  order. 
Protestantism  with  Catholicism.  But  to  this  it  It  may  be  said  of  him  that,  seeing  all  thinjgs  in  their 
should  be  added  at  once  that  Bossuet,  while  not  relation  to  Providence,  he  expresses  nothing  exoept 
adding  to  the  difficulties  of  faith,  made  it  a  con-  under  the  aspect  of  eternity.  A  great  poet  in  later 
dition  that  care  must  be  taken  not  to  trench  upon  times  has  said:  "Qu'est-ce  c^ue  tout  cela  qui  n'est 
faith,  and  this  trait  it  is  which  completes  the  picture  pas  ^temel",  and,  looked  at  m  this  light,  there  is  a 
of  Bossuet's  character.  Tradition  nas  never  had  a  perfect  agreem^it  between  the  style  and  the  thou^t 
more  eloquent  or  a  more  vigorous  defender.  Qtuxi  of  Bossuet.  But  as  to  his  character  the  same  thing 
tdnqtie,  quod  semper ^  quad  <w  omnibus  creditum  est;  cannot  be  said;  here  every  testimony  alike  shows  us 
this  was  for  Bossuet,  in  a  manner,  the  absolute  in  this  writer,  whose  accent  seems  to  brook  no  con- 
criterion  of  Catholic  truth.  He  had  no  difficulty  in  tradiction,  the  most  gentle,  the  most  affable,  and 
deducing  from  it  "the  immutability  of  morality  or  sometimes  the  most  hesitating  of  men. 
of  dogma";  and  in  this  precisely,  as  is  well  known.  Such  was  the  true  Bossuet.  In  his  life  we  cannot 
consists  his  great  argument  a^^ainst  the  Protestants,  always  find  the  daring  of  his  eloquence,  nor  in  his 
The  "History  of  the  Variations  of  the  Protestant  conduct  t^e  audacity  of  his  reasoning.  This  great 
churches"  is  nothing  more  than  a  history  of  the  dominator  of  the  ideas — one  might  even  say  of  the 
alterations,  if  one  may  say  so,  to  which  the  Ptotesr  intelligences — of  his  time  suffered  himself  to  be 
tant  Churches  have  subjected  dogma,  and  the  ad-  dominated  more  than  once  by  the  thoroughly 
iustments  or  adaptations  of  dogma  which  they  human  dread  of  being  disagreeable  and,  above  all, 
have  pretended  to  make  to  circumstances  that  had  of  giving  offence.  "He  has  no  joints",  he  himself 
nothing  but  what  was  transitory  and  contingent,  said  of  one  of  the  gentlemen  of  Port  Royal  who  was 
But  "the  truth  which  comes  from  God  possesses  somewhat  lacking  in  flexibility:  to  which  the  in- 
from  the  first  its  complete  perfection",  and  from  dividual  in  question  retorted:  "And  as  for  him,  you 
that  it  follows  that  as  many  "variations"  as  there  may  tell  him  that  he  has  no  bones!"  The  strong, 
are,  so  many  "errors"  are  there  in  faith,  since  they  concise  mot  sums  up  all  the  reproaches  that  can  be 
are  so  many  contradictions  or  omissions  of  tradition,  made  against  this  great  memory.     Had  his  strength 

This  point  has  been  reserved  for  the  last  in  the  of  character  and  nis  apostolic  vigour  equalled   the 

present  article,  because  no  other  trait  of  Bossuet's  force  of  his  genius,  he  would  have  oeen  a  St.  Augus- 

genius  seems  to  have  gone  further  towards  estab-  tine.    Falling  short  of  St.  Augustine,  a  Cathohc  and  a 

fishing  the  common  conception  of  it.    It  is  easy  to  Frenchman  may  be  permitt^  to  believe  that  it  is 

see  that  that  conception  is  not  altogether  false;  but  still  something  rare,  something  exalted  among  men  to 

neither  is  it  altogether  true,  nor,  above  all,  fair  when,  have  been  merely  Jacques  B^nigne  Bossuet. 

as  is  often  done,  it  is  extended  from  the  genius  of  D«  Bubiony.  Vte  ds  Boa»uHii7zT);  db  Bausbet,  Hi*ioirm 

the  controversialist  or  theologian  to  the  character  of  toiTff  v^Vl'lissi^tJi^k^orvofuSS:  ^J?;^u^. 

the  man  himself.    Tradition,   we  repeat,  has  had  do  not  mo  beyond  lesi);  Rt/ivum,  Huunn  de  Bouua  iz  ^roiM., 

no  more  eloquent  or  more  implacable  champion;  it  18G9);  Lanson,  Sot«u«<(i890);  RftBELUAuinOrotuit  AT»t>ot«^ 

him   htu\   nonp   mnrA   mnr^rt*'    hnf    trA/4iHnn    minh    aji  fj^tncais;  Bottuet;  Journal  de  I'abbSLii  DiziJ  (4  vols,,  1B5&--S7); 

nas  naa  none  niore  sincere,  out  traoition  sucn  as  Belmont,  A utour  de  Bo-uet;  Lebaroq,  Hutoire  de  la  prsa^ 

he  comprenended  it  is  not  all  of  the  past,  for  so  eoHon  de  Bossuet  (1888). 

understood  it  would  include  even  heresy  and  schism.  For  bo  Blmost  complete  list  of  hiatoricBl  works  Bnd  litermry 

Tradition,  for  Bossuet  as  for  the  Cathplic  Church,  T^&„lj|Ji^^^ 

i>i..i  't^^i.  ^       T^xT^.^   aescrtpnon   aes   manuscrxta   et  aes   eattions  <mgtnaie9    aes 

IS  only  what  has  survived  of  the  past.     If  Nestonan  ouvrages  de  Bossuet,  with  bo  indicBtion  of  the  tTBOslBtions  of 

Christianities  still  exist  to-day — and  some  do  exist —  them,  Bnd  of  the  writincs  which  thev  occBsioned  Bt  the  time 

t^ey  are  as  if  they  were  not.  and  Nestorianism  does  ?1J^^  pubUcBtion  (Pwis.  1^7);  Urbajn  in  BAtoftfc^  d^ 

Zr   •"^/~  "  ^"^j.  "^*^  "v^*  r**^  i.^^^wM.iaxuotuwco  Inbltoffraphtes  crttiques  (Pbhs,  Soci^t^  des  Etudes  histonques). 

not  on  that  account  constitute  a  part  of  tradition.  ^^   r         -^                             p  gg^jj^^pj^^^ 

It  would,  and  does,  constitute  a  part  of  the  tradition 

of  Free  Thought.     But  for  the  Church,  tradition  is  Bogt,  Arnold.    See  TRrrHEMius. 

only  what  she  has  thought  herself  obliged  to  pre-  Boste  (or  Boast),  John,  Veni»ablb,  priest  anc 

serve  out  of  those  doctrines  which  have  succeraed  martyr,  b.  of  good  Catholic  family  at  Dufton,  in 

■)ne  another  in  the  course  of  her  development,  among  Westmoreland,  about  1544;  d.  at  Durham,  24  July 

vhich  she  has  made  her  choice  in  virtue  of  her  1594.    He  studied  at  Queen's  College.  Oxford,  156^ 


B08T0K  703  B08T0H 

';'2,  became  a  Fellow,  ftnd  was  received  into  the  Church  bond  slaves  or  ''redemptioners''  and  were  not  & 
at  Brome.  in  Suffolk,  in  1576.  Resigning  his  Fellow-  steadfast  in  the  Faith  as  Goody  Glover.  Their  en- 
ship  in  1580,  be  went  to  Reims,  where  he  was  ordained  vironment  precluded  any  open  manifestation  of  their 
priest,  4  March.  1581,  and  in  April  was  sent  to  Eng-  religion  or  tne  training  of  their  children  in  its  precepts, 
land.  He  landed  at  Hartlepool  and  became  a  most  As  an  instance  of  many  such  may  be  citea  the  fa- 
zealous  missioner,  so  that  tne  persecutors  made  ex-  mous  Governors  Sullivan  of  Massachusetts  and  New 
traordinary  efforts  to  capture  him.  At  last,  after  Hampshire.  Their  grandfather  was  one  of  the 
many  narrow  escapes,  he  was  taken  at  Waterhouses.  "Wild  Geese"  who  fl^  with  Sarsfield  from  Limerick 
the  bouse  of  WiUiam  Qaxton,  near  Durham,  betrayed  to  France.  His  son  married  Margaret  Brown,  a 
l^  one  E^esfield,  5  July,  1593.  The  place  is  still  fellow  "redemptioner",  and  with  their  six  children 
visited  by  Cathotics.  From  Durham  he  was  conveyed  all  drifted  into  Protestantism.  One  of  their  sons, 
to  London,  showing  himself  throughout  "resolute.  General  John  Sullivan,  of  Revolutionary  fame, 
bold,  joyful,  and  pleasant",  although  terribly  racked  writing  on  6  September,  1774,  of  the  "Quebec  Act" 
in  the  Tower.  Sent  back  to  Durham  for  the  July  that  gave  religious  freedom  to  the  Catholics  of 
Asozes,  1594,  he  behaved  with  imdaunted  courage  Cana(m  imder  British  rule,  denoimoed  these  co- 
and  resolution,  and  induced  his  fellow-martyr,  Geoige  religionists  of  his  grandfather  as  "determined  to 
Swalwell,  a  convert  minister,  who  had  recanted  extupate  the  race  of  Protestants  from  America  to 
through  fear,  to  repent  of  his  cowardice,  absolving  make  way  for  their  own  cursed  religion", 
him  publicly  in  court.  He  suffered  at  Dry  bum,  out-  Traces  of  the  Church  in  New  England  begin  with 
side  Durham.  He  recited  the  Angelus  while  mounting  the  arrival*  of  the  Jesuit  missioner,  Peter  Biard, 
the  ladder,  and  was  executed  with  extraordinary  among  the  Abenaki  Indians  of  Maine  in  Jime,  1611. 
brutality;  for  he  was  scarcely  turned  off  the  ladder  Others,  notablv  Father  Gabriel  DruiUetes  (15  Au- 
when  he  was  cut  down,  so  thiat  he  stood  on  his  feet,  gust,  1643),  followed.  About  the  same  date,  the  ship 
and  in  that  postiu*e  was  cruelly  butchered  alive.  An  of  La  Tour,  the  French  commander  of  Canada,  which 
account  of  his  trial  and  execution  was  written  by  an  visited  Boston  harbour  had  "two  friars"  on  board, 
eye-witness.  Venerable  Christopher  Robinson^  who  but  they  did  not  land.  In  September,  1646,  another 
suffered  martyrdom  shortly  afterwards  at  Carlisle.  French  ship,  commanded  by  D'Aulnay,  also  having 
Britith  Muteum  MS.  Ixmadowne,  75,  f.  44;  Challoner.  two  priests  on  board,  was  in  port.  The  priests 
Memotn;  Sharps,  MemortaU  of  the  IMHUton  of  1669;  Folbt,  ,,:«:*«Jj    *u^   «^„«««/x«   ^Vx^  ^»«4a-/a:«%'>^   4kA.%«    «♦    k;^ 

Records,  III;  Catholic  Record  Society,  MieceUania  (Ch^istophw  Visited  the  governor,  who  entertained  them  at  his 

Robinaon's  account),  I:  Cooper  in  Diet  NaL  Biog.  Waine>-  residence.    Four  years  later  Father  DruiUetes  visited 

WKKBT,  VenerabU  John  Boate  (London,  Cath.  TVuth  Soc.,  Boston  to  confer  with  General  Gibbons  as  to  the 

122[^i9§*'i3w  °^  "^  WaterhouBCB  in  Uehaw  Maga-  ^^^^^  ^^  ^  ^^^^  p^^^  ^^  ^j^^  ^^^  ^^^  ^a- 

Bede  Camm.  nadian  French  against  the  Iroquois.    The  governor 

entertained  him  for  two  weeks  at  his  home,  which 

Boston,  Archdiocese  OF^comprises  Essex,  Middle-  was  on  what  is  now  Washington  Street,  near  Adams 

Bex,  Suffolk,  Norfolk,  and  Plymouth  coimties  in  the  Square  (Memorial  Hist,  of  Boston,  U,  p.  xiv),  and  it 

State  of  Massachusetts,  U.  S.  A.,  the  towns  of  Matta-  is  surmised  that  he  said  Mass  in  private  there  during 

poisett,  Marion,  and  Wareham  excepted,  embracing  that  time.     John  Eliot,  John  Endicott,  and  other 

an  area  of  2,465  square  miles.    The  see  was  erected  noted  men  of  the  time  were  among  those  he  met  there 

8  April,  1808,  and  created  an  archbishopric  in  1875.  and  who  united  in  urging  him  to  prolong  his  visit, 

When  the  first  Bishop  of  Boston  was  consecrated  though  their  efforts  were  unsuccessful.   The'^Andros 

his  jurisdiction   extended   over   all   New   England  Papers"  (c|uoted  in  Memorial  Hist,  of  Boston)  de- 

and  a  mere  handful  of  Catholics.    There  are  now  dare  that  in  1689  there  was  not  a  single  '*  Papist'' 

eight  dioceses  in  the   same   territory  with  about  in  aH  New  England.    They  began  to  drift  in  soon, 

2,100,000  Catholics  of  whom  850,000  are  within  the  however,  for  m  the  Boston  "Weekly  Rehearsal"  of 

limits  of  the  Archdiocese  of-Boston  where  the  first  20  March,  1732,  is  this  statement:  "We  hear  that 

bishop  foimd  a  scant  hundred.    The  growth  of  the  Mass  has  been  performed  in  town  this  winter  by  an 

Church  has  been  due  mainly  to  the  immigrants  at-  Irish  priest  among  some  Catholics  of  his  own  nation 

tracted  by  the  advantages  offered  by  the  areai  and  of  whom  it  is  not  doubted  we  have  a  considerable 

varied  manufacturing   mterests  of   New   jB^ngland.  number  among  us."    During  the  war  with  France 

The  Irish  came  first,  after  them  the  French  Canadians,  one  hundred  Finench  Catholics  were  arrested  in  Boston 

the  Italians,  the  Poles,  the  Portuguese,  and  repre-  in  1746  "tofjrevent  any  danger  the  town  may  be  in", 

sentatives  of  nearly  all  the  peoples  of  the  globe.  but  the  sheriff  much  to  the  disgust  of  their  captors. 

Early  History. — Early  Irish  emigration  to  refused  to  hold  them.  In  1756  the  exiled  Acadians, 
America  took  place  in  three  distinct  periods,  from  of  whom  nearlv  2000  had  landed  in  Massachusetts, 
1621  to  1653;  from  1653  to  1718,  and  from  1718  to  were  denied  the  services  of  a  priest  because,  as 
1775.  But  the  mistake  must  not  be  made,  as  it  Governor  Hutehinson  declared,  the  people  would 
often  is.  that  these  immigrants  were  all  Catholics,  upon  no  terms  have  consented  to  the  public  exercise 
Many  of  them  were  not^  and  those  who  were  had  few  of  religious  worship  by  Roman  Catholick  priests", 
inducemente  to  settle  in  the  Puritan  colony  where  The  R)ston  "Town  Records"  (1772,  pp.  95-96) 
their  Faith  was  held  in  detestation.  Some  who  were  while  admitting  that  toleration  in  religion  was 
sold  to  the  Barbadoes  in  the  time  of  Cromwell  were  "what  all  good  and  candid  minds  in  all  a^ges  have 
^terwards  found  in  the  Massachusetts  settlements,  ever  practiced"  excluded  "Roman  Cathohcks"  be- 
One  of  these,  Ann  Glover,  and  her  daughter  had  cause  their  belief  was  "subversive  of  society", 
lived  in  Boston  before  she  fell  a  victim,  in  1688.  to  With  the  Revolution,  however,  came  the  dawn  of 
Cotton  Mather's  witehcraft  mania.  In  his  "Mag-  a  better  era,  the  upsetting  of  religious  as  well  as 
nalia"  he  calls  her  "a  scandalous  old  Irishwoman,  political  barriers,  and  the  beginning  of  the  slow  but 
very  poor,  a  Roman  Catholic  and  obstinate  in  idol-  sure  erowth  of  the  Chimsh  which  has  resulted  in  the 
atry  .  Robert  Calef,  a  Boston  merchant  who  knew  wonclerful  change  of  the  present.  A  favourite  New 
her,  says  "Goody  Glover  was  a  despised,  crazy,  poor  England  diversion  was  an  annual  procession,  on  5  No- 
old  woman,  an  Irish  Catholic  who  was  tried  for  vember,  of  the  Pope  and  the  Devil  in  celebration 
afflicting  the  Goodwin  children.  Her  behaviour  at  of  the  famous  "Gunpowder  Plot".  In  Boston  it  was 
her  trial  was  like  that  of  one  distracted.    They  did  usually  attended  by  riot  and  violence.     In  1775 


(More  Wonders  of  the  Invisible    that  there  should  be  officers  and  soldiers  in  this  army 
World,  liondon,  1700).    Other  immigrants  came  as    so  void  of  common  sense"  as  to  thus  insult  the  re 


BOnOV  704  BOSTON 

ligious  fedUngs  of  the  Canadians  with  whom  friendship  much.    Born  in  Paris,  in  1753,  he  was  ordained  priest 

and  an  alliance  was  them  being  soiight.    The  stay  of  in  1773  and  taught  theology  in  the  College  of  Navarre, 

the  French  ileet  in  New  En^and  waters  and  the  Having  arrived  in  Boston,  20  August,  1792,  he  soon 

settling  of  some  of  the  allies  l£ere  aft^  the  war  had  healed  aH  the  local  dissensions  and  by  his  zeal,  elo- 

ended  laid  the  foundations  of  the  first  Catholic  parish  quence,  piety ^  and  winning  courtesy  made  an  im- 

in  the  heart  of  New  England.     There  wpeared  in  mediate  success  of  his  pastorship.    In  1796  he  in- 

Boston,  in  1788,  a  French  priest  who  called  himself  vited  his  old  friend  and  associate,  the  Rev.  John 

Qaudius  Florent  Bouchard  de  la  Poterie,  ^'Priest,  Louis  de  Cheverus,  then  an  exile  in  Elngland,  to 

Doctor  of  Divinity,  Clerk,  and  Apostolic  Missionary".  Boston  to  help  him,  and  to  his  great  joy  the  call  was 

He  had  faculties  from  the  prefect   Apostolic,  Dr.  heeded.    The  Abb^  de  Cheverus  arrived  on  the  third 

Carroll,  and  annoimced  his  advent  in  a  pompous  of  October  of  that  year.     He  remained  in  Boston 

"pastoral  letter".    He  secured  the  old  French  Hu-  with  Father  Matignon  until  July,  1797,  when  he 

guenot  church  at  what  is  now  No.  18  School  Street  went  at  Bishoj)  Carroll's  request  to  visit  the  Indian 

and  opened  there  on  All  Saints'  Day,  1788,  ynder  the  missions  in  Maine.    On  his  way,  he  looked  after  the 

patrona^  of  the  Holy  Cross,  the  fiiist  Catholic  church  scattered  Catholics  between   Boston  and   the  Pe- 

.  m  New  JBn^^and.    The  report  of  the  celebration  of  nobscot.    According  to  a  report  then  made  to  Bishop 

the  first  Mass  on  that  date  can  be  read  in  the  Boston  Carroll  of   the  Easter  Communions  of   1798  there 

"Independent  CSironicle",  6  November,  1788.    To  were  210  Catholics  in  Boston;  15  in  Plymouth;  21  in 

the  aid  of  this  church  subscriptions  were  received  Newburyport,  and  3  in  Salem.    Outside  Boston  the 

from  Canada,  and  the  Archbishop  of  Paris^  in  answer  only  important  Catholic  colony  was  at  Damariscotta, 

to  an  appeal  from  the  little  French  colony  in  Boston,  Lincoln  County,  Maine,  where  Roger  and  Patrick 

sent  a  needed  outfit  of  vestments  and  vessels  for  the  Hanly,  two  Irishmen,  had  settled  some  time  before, 

altar.    He  also  notified  them  that  the  Abb6  de  la  and  their  descendants  and  friends  made  up  the  com- 

Poterie  was  an  unworthy  priest  (Campbell  in  U.  S.  munity.     The  leading  merchants  and  shipbuilders 

Cath.  Ma^aadne.  VIII,  102).    His  conduct  in  Boston  of  Newcastle,  James  Kavanagh  (father  of  Edward 

proved  ttus,  ana  the  p«iefect  Apostolic,  finding  he  had  Kavanagh,  later  Crovemor  of  Maine,  the  hero   of 

Deen  imposed  on,sent  the  Rev.  William  0'Brien,0.  P.,  LongfelKw's  novel  "Kavanagh",  and  the  first  Catho- 

of   New  York  to  Boston  to  depose  de  la  Poterie.  lie  governor  of  a  New  England  State)  and  Matthew 

A  violent  pamphlet  printed  in  Philadelphia  (1789)  Cottrill,  built  a  chapel  and  later,  in  1808,  a  brick 

followed.    It  was  dedicated  ''To  the  new  Laurent  structure,  St.  Patrick's  church,  for  the  use  of  their 

Rioci  in  America  the  Rev.  Fr.  John  Carroll,  Superior  fellow  Catholics.    This  was  the  only  church  in  New 

of  the  Jesuits  in  the  United  States  also  to  the  friar-  England  outside  Boston.    Having  put  these  mi8si<MiB 

monk-inquisitor  William  O'Brien",  and  represented  in  order  Father  Cheverus  retiu-ned  to  Boston  and 

de  la  Poterie  as  a  victim  to  their  wiles.  with  Father  Matignon  exhibited  heroic  oourafe  and 

AjFter  his  suspension  de  la  Poterie  went  to  Canada  charity  during  the  yellow  fever  epidemic  of  170S. 

and  was  succeeded  in  Boston  by  the  Rev.  Louis  By  this  time  me  old  church  in  School  Street  was  no 

Rousselet,  who  was  in  turn  suspended  and  went  to  longer  fit  for  Divine  service  and  another  site  on 

Guadeloupe,  where  he  was  killed  in  a  revolution.  Franklin  Street  near  Devonshire  Street,  was  secured 

In  1790  the  Catholic  colony  numbered  less  than  two  for  $2,500.    Speaking  at  the  centennial  observance 

himdred,  and  the  Rev.  John  Thayer,  a  convert,  was  (29  September,  1903)  ^f  the  dedication  of  this  church, 

sent  to  take  charge  of  the  church  which  he  found  Archbishop  Williams  said:  ''We  bought  that  land 

"dilapidated  and  deserted"  aft^  his   predecessor's  from  the  Boston  Theatre.     Rememb^  the  site  of 

departure.     Thayer  had  been  a  Congregation^ist  the  old  cathedral  was  in  the  most  beautiful  part  of  the 

mmister,  and  chaplain  to  Governor  Hancock.     At  town — at   the   end   of   Franklin   Square — and    the 

the  close  of  the  Revolution,  being  in  his  twenty-sixth  theatre  owned  both  sides  of  the  lower  part  of  the 

year,  he  went  abroad,  and  became  a  convert  in  Rome  street.    The  theatre  people  agreed  to  sell  us  that  lot 

25  May,  1783.    He  determined  to  become  a  priest  at  one-half  what  they  could  get  for  it  when  we  bought 

in  order  to  labour  for  the  conversion  of  New  England  it.    And  remember  m  that  street  in  those  days  were 

to  the  Catholic  Faith  and  was  ordained  at  St.  Sulpice  some  of  the  principal  families  of  the  city.    I  remem- 

in  Paris,  in  1787.    He  returned  to  Boston  4  Januarv,  her  the  Bradleys,  the  Wigglesworths,  the  Amoiys, 

1790.    The  first  of  a  genuine  New  England  familjjr  and  others  who  lived  each  side  of  the  street,  showmg 

to  enter  Uie  priestho^,  he  retained  much  of  his  what  a  choice  spot  it  was  and  one  of  the  select  streets 

inherited  Puritanical  oppressiveness,  and,  as  Bishop  of  the  city."    The  Spanish  consul-general,  Don  Juan 

CaiToU  said  of  him,  he  lacked  ''amiable  and  con-  Stoughton,  father  of  the  Don  Tomas  Stourfiton,  who 

ciliatoiy  manners"  and  was  not  a  success  as  an  ad-  had  so  much  to  do  with  the  building  of  St.  Fster'a^ 

ministrator.    Rousselet,  who  did  not  leave  Boston  the  first  church  in  New  York,  lived  opposite  the  site 

immediately,  set  up  a  rival  church  and  divided  the  selected.    At  a  meeting  held  31  March,  1799,  he  and 

little  congregation,  the  French  element  siding  with  John   Magner,   PatricK  Campbell.   Michael    Bums, 

him  and  the  Irish  with  Thayer.    In  the  spring  of  Owen  Callahan,  John  Du^an,  and  Edmund  Connor 

1791  Bishop  CarroU  had  to  visit  the  parish  to  restore  were  named  the  conmiittee  to  take  charge  of  the  new 

unity.    He  was  received  with  courtesy  by  all  citisens  project.      From    the    congregation    they   collected 

and  was  made  the  guest  of  honour  at  the  annual  ll 6,000.    Members  of  the  leading  Protestant  families 

dinner  of  the  most  important  social  and  military  headed  by  President  John  Adams  added  $11,000  to 

organization  there,  the  Ancient  and  Honorable  Ar-  this,  and  from  Catholics  in  other  places  and  otiier 

tillery  Company.    Grovemor  John  Hancock  attended  sources  $5,500  more  was  received.     The  famous 

Mass  as  a  mark  of  respect  for  him.    '^ It  is  wonderful",  architect  Charles  Bulfinch,  also  a  Protestant,  who 

the  bishop  wrote,  '^  to  tell  what  great  civilities  have  designed  the  capitol  at  Washington  and  the  State 

been  done  to  me  in  this  town,  where  a  few  years  ago  House  in  Boston,  siipplied  the  plans  without  chari^ 

a  Popish  priest  was  thought  to  be  the  greatest  mon-  for  a  brick  building  80  feet  long  and  60  wide  of  lomc 

ster  m  the  creation.  ...  If  all  the  Catholics  here  style,  severely  simple  but  impressive.    Ground  was 

were  united  their  number  would  be  about  one  hun-  broken  for  it  on  St.  Patrick's  Dav  1800  and  it  was 

dred  and  twenty"  (U.  S.  Cath.  Magazine,  Baltimore,  ready  for  dedication  29  September,   1803,  having 

VIII,  149).  cost  $20,000.      Prominent  among  this  first  oongre- 

Father  Thayer  having  failed  as  a  pastor  he  was  eation,  besides  those  already  mentioned,  were  James 

relieved  by  the  Rev.  Francis  A.  Matiimon,  one  of  the  Kavanagh,  John  Ward,  David  Fitzgerald,  Stephen 

many  French  priests  exiled  by  the  Revolution,  and  Roberts,  Jolin  Driscoll.  William  Daly.  Daniel  Ehijglish, 

to  whom  the  Church  in  the  United  States  owes  so  Thomas   Murphy,   John   Hanly,   Abraham   Fitton, 


ii 


B08T0K  705  BOSTON 

Mary  Lob,  and  representatives  of  the  Duport,  Dus-  for  the  work  of  the  diocese  James  Fitton,  William 
seaucoir,  Dumesnil,  Lepouse,  and  Julien  families.  Wiley,  who  later  became  successful  and  long-lived 
Bishop  Carroll  went  on  from  Baltimore  to  perform  pastors,  and  William  Tyler,  first  Bishop  of  Hartford, 
the  ceremony  of  dedication.  This  visit  of  the  bishop  Churches  were  built  in  Salem,  South  Boston,  and 
occasioned  the  greatest  local  satisfaction,  and  the  other  places.  A  cemetery  was  piu*chased  near  Dor- 
two  priests  continued  their  zealous  ministrations  Chester  Heights,  South  Boston,  and  a  memorial 
with  such  success  that  in  1805  their  flock  had  increased  erected  there  to  Father  Matignon.  The  chapel  was 
to  about  500.  Soon  Bishop  Carroll  saw  the  necessity  dedicated  to  St.  Augustine  in  compliment  to  Father 
of  having  a  bishop  in  Boston  and  desired  to  nominate  Lariscy  who  coUect^  most  of  the  funds  for  the  pur- 
Father  Matignon  for  the  see,  but  the  latter  refused  chase  of  the  groimd.  There  were  a  number  of  con- 
to  allow  his  name  to  be  considered.  ".The  good  verts  through  the  zeal  and  instruction  of  Bishop 
accomplished  here",  he  wrote,  "is  almost  exclusively  Cheverus,  notable  among  them  being  Thomas  Wallev, 
the  work  of  Mr.  Cheverus;  he  it  is  who  fills  the  pulpit,  who  had  a  private  chapel  at  his  residence  in  Brook- 
who  is  most  frequent  in  the  confessional."  Bishop  line;  Dr.  Henry  B.  C.  Ureene,  who  was  elected  to  the 
Carroll  therefore  sent  the  name  of  the  Rev.  John  State  legislature  in  1841  and  served  for  four  terms, 
Louis  Cheverus  to  Rome  declaring  him  to  be  "in  bein^  the  first  Catholic  office-holder  in  the  State; 
the  prime  of  life,  with  health  to  undergo  any  necessary  Stephen  Cleveland  Blythe,  the  Rev.  Calvin  White, 
exertion,  universally  esteemed  for  his  unwearied  zeal  William  Wiley,  afterwards  a  priest,  Mrs.  John  C. 
and  lus  remarkable  facilitjr  and  eloquence  in  an-  Sefton,  Samuel  Bishop.  Captain  Bela  Chase,  Nicholas 
nouncingthewordof  God,  virtuous,  and  with  a  charm  Hazelbom,  the  Barber  family,  and  General  Ethan 
of  manner  that  recalled  Catholics  to  their  duties  and  Allen's  daughter  Frances,  who  was  the  first  nun  from 
disarmed  Protestants  of  their  prejudices".     Bishop  New  England. 

Cheverus  was  appointed  8  April,  1808,  but  owing  (2)  Benedict  Joseph  Fenwick,  second  bishop, 
to  the  difficidties  of  commimication  the  Bull  did  not  appointed  10  May,  1825.  He  was  bom  3  September, 
reach  him  for  nearly  two  years  afterwards^  when  he  was  1782,  near  Leonardstown ,  Mar^and ,  Cuthbert  Fen- 
consecrated  the  first  Bishop  of  Boston,  m  Baltimore,  wick,  the  founder  of  the  family  in  America,  being  one 
1  November,  1810.  He  then  went  back  to  Boston  to  of  the  original  Catholic  settlers  of  Lord  Baltimore's 
continue  his  simple,  modest  way  of  life.  His  old  colonv  in  Maryland.  He  was  sent  \^ith  his  brother 
friend.  Father  Matignon,  enjoyed  honour  and  the  Enocn  to  Georgetoi^Ti  College  in  1793,  and  in  1805 
esteem  of  all  to  the  end  of  his  long  and  useful  career  entered  the  Sulpician  Seminary  at  Baltimore  to  study 
which  came  on  the  18th  of  September,  1818.  for  the  priesthood.  When  the  Society  of  Jesus  was 
Bishops. — (1)  His  many  years  of  hard  work  at  restored  in.  the  United  States  in  1806  he  and  his 
length  began  to  tell*  on  Bishop  Cheverus  and  his  brother  were  among  the  first  scholastics  received, 
physicians  advised  a  rftum  to  his  native  land  to  He  was  ordained  priest  12  March,  1808.  In  the  suc- 
escape  repeated  attacks  of  asthma.  In  1823  King  ceeding  years  he  was  pastor  in  New  Yorkj  director 
Louis  XVIII  of  France  nominated  him  to  the  vacant  of  its  first  Catholic  Collegiate  school^  administrator 
See  of  Montauban,  and  to  the  regret  of  all  in  the  and  vicar-general  of  the  cnocese,  missionary  in  South 
United  States  he  embarked  for  Europe,  1  October.  Carolina,  and  twice  president  of  Georgetown  College. 
1823.  He  remained  in  charge  at  Montauban  until  He  was  then  named  Bishop  of  Boston,  was  conse- 
30  July,  1826,  when  he  was  promoted  to  the  Arch-  crated  in  Baltimore  on  1  November,  1825,  and  took 
bishopric  of  Bordeaux,  On  1  February  he  was  possession  of  his  see,  3  December.  There  were  then 
created  cardinal.  He  died  at  Bordeaux,  19  July,  only  two  priests  in  the  diocese,  the  Revs.  P.  Byrne 
1836,  in  his  sixty-ninth  year.  (S|ee  Cheverus,  John  in  Boston  and  D.  Ryan  at  New  Castle,  Maine;  and 
Louis  de.)  Ehiring  the  administration  of  Bishop  besides  the  cathedral  only  three  churches.  The  bishop 
Cheverus  the  Ursunne  nuns  were  introduced  into  at  once  started  a  seminary  in  his  own  house  ana, 
the  Diocese  of  Boston  through  the  zeal  of  the  Rev.  having  prepared  Fathers  Pitton.  Wiley,  Smith,  Tyler, 
John  Thayer,  who^  when  on  a  visit  to  Limerick,  and  Tnomas  J.  O'Flaherty,  ordained  them.  Other 
Ireland,  where  he  died  in  1815,  enlisted  the  sympathy  students  were  sent  to  study  at  Rome.  Paris,  Baltimore, 
of  Mary  and  Catharine,  daughters  of  James  Kyan  and  Montreal.  The  Rev.  John  Manony  was  sent  to 
of  that  city,  in  the  project  of  foimding  a  convent  in  take  char^  at  Salem;  C.  D.  Ffrench,  a  Dominican, 
Boston.  They  emigrated  to  Boston  in  1817  and  to  Maine  m  1826,  and  Robert  D.  Woodley  to  look 
by  direction  of  the  bishop  went  to  the  UrsuMne  after  the  scattered  congregations  in  Rhode  Island 
Convent  at  Three  Rivers,  Canada.  They  made  their  and  Connecticut.  In  IfiSs  Bishop  Fenwick  enlarged 
profession,  4  October,  1819.  They  returned  to  the  cathedral  and  began  a  school  in  the  basement, 
Boston,  and  a  convent  was  secured  for  them  on  which  was  taught  by  his  theological  students,  as- 
Federal  Street  near  the  cathedral.  Here  they  re-  sisted  by  Patrick  Haney,  a  mulatto  from  the  West 
mained  until  17  July,  1826,  when  their  new  convent,  Indies.  The  erection  of  new  churches,  the  providing 
Mount  Benedict,  Charlestown,  was  opened.  This  was  of  more  priests  for  the  increasing  number  of  Catholics, 
the  institution  sacked  and  burned  by  an  anti-Catholic  the  promotion  of  Catholic  education,  and  the  regu- 
mob  on  the  11th  of  August,  1834.  Assisting  in  the  lation  of  the  general  discipline  of  the  Church  took 
work  at  the  old  School  Street  and  Franklin  Street  up  the  remaining  years  of  his  life,  which  ended  on  the 
churches  at  various  times  were  the  Rev.  James  eleventh  of  Au^uit,  1846.  In  1844  he  was  given  a 
Romagne,  a  West  Indian  priest,  who  also  looked  after  coadjutor,  the  Right  Rev.  John  Bernard  Fitzpatrick. 
the  Indian  missions  in  Maine,  the  Rev.  J.  S.  Tis-  Bishop  Fenwick  beean,  on  8  September,  1829.  for 
seraud.  Fathers  Matthew  O'Brien  and  F.  X.  Brosius,  the  defence  of  the  Faith,  the  publication  of  "The 
an  Alsatian,  who  opened  a  school  near  Harvard  Uni-  Jesuit,  or  Catholic  Sentinel",  one  of  the  first  Catholic 
versity  and  was  the  only  teacher  of  German  then  in  papers  printed  in  the  United  States.  In  1843  he 
Boston,  also  the  Revs.  Gabriel  Richard,  John  Grassi,  toimded  the  College  of  the  Holy  Cross  at  Worcester 
S.J.,  Pnilip  Lariscy,  the  Augustintan,  and  Paul  Mc-  and  entrusted  it  to  the  Jesuits.  In  1829  he  attended 
Quade.  In  twenty  yemrs  the  bishop  had  no  regular  the  First  Provincial  Council  of  Baltimore.  At  his 
assistant.  In  1817  he  ordained  his  nrst  ecclesiastical  death  Boston  had  about  fifty  churches  with  at- 
student,  Denis  Ryan,  a  native  of  Kilkenny,  Ireland,  tendant  priests,  a  college,  an  orphan  asylum,  and 
In  1820  he  ordained  the  second  of  his  pupils  Patrick  numerous  schools,  and  a  portion  of  its  original  terri- 
Byme,  also  from  Kilkenny.  In  December,  1822,  tory — ^the  States  of  Connecticut  and  Rhoc^  Island — 
Virgil  Barber  (see  Barber  Family)  was  raised  to  had  been  erected  into  the  new  Diocese  of  Hartford 
the  priesthood,  and  to  the  school  he  opened  at  Clare-  (^  Novanber,  1843).  Three  Sisters  of  Charity  from 
mont,  New  Hampshire,  were  sent  as  further  recruits  Eimmitsburg,  Maryland,  opened   the   firet  orphan 


BOSTON                                   706  BOSTON 

ubyhim  in  1831.    The  first  diocesan  synod  was  held  J.  Coolidge  Shaw,  S.J.,  Edward   H.  Welch,   S.^. 

n  1842  and  was  attended  by  thirty  priests.     The  Orestes    A.    Brownson,    the    philosopher,    Buckie^^ 

vlergy  of  this  period  were  all  men  of  Intiad,  solid  culture  Hastings,  General  Joseph  W.  Revere  (Paul  Revere  l 

and  Knowledge.   Am6n£  others  not  named  above  may  grandson),  and  other  members  of  old  New  England 

be  mentioned  the  Rev.  Jeremiah  O'Callaghan,  a  native  families.    Chaplains  in  the  regiments  who  volunteered 

of  Cork,  Ireland,  whose  strict  views  on  the  doctrine  in  the  Civil  War  were  Fathers  Thomas  Scully,  CharieE 

of  usury  brought  him  into  conflict  with  the  bishop  of  L.  Egan.  Nicholas  O'Brien,  and  Lawrence  S.  Mo- 

that  place.    He  later  became  a  tutor  in  the  family  Mahon  (afterwards  Bishop  of  Hartford).     Editors 

of  William  Cobbett  and  came  to  New  York  in  1830.  and  writers  were  Fathers  Joseph  M.  Finotti,  John  P. 

The  mission  of  Burlington,  Vermont,  was  given  to  Roddan,  and  John  Boyce. 

his  care,  and  there  in  1834  he  published  a  book  under  (4)  John  Joseph  Williams,  fourth  bishop^  con- 
the  title ''Usury,  Fimds  and  Banking''.  Dr.  Thomas  seofated  ll  March,  1866;  created  first  archbishop, 
J.  O'Flaherty,  a  physician  from  Kerry,  Ireland,  wac  12  February.  1875.  He  was  bom  in  Boston  of  Irish 
ordained  priest  in  1829.  He  edited  ''The  Jesuit"  parents  27  April,  1822,  and  died  in  Boston,  30  Au- 
for  the  bishop  and  made  a  translation  of  Joseph  de  gust,  1907.  His  boyhood  and  early  manhood  were 
Maistre's  "Spanish  Inquisition''.  The  Rev.  C.  E.  spent  under  the  spiritual  direction  of  Bishop  Fenwick. 
Brasseur  de  courboiu'g  was  for  a  time  in  the  diocese  «  He  attended  the  cathedral  school  and  thence  passed 
and  two  years  after  the  bishop's  death  went  to  Mexico,  to  the  Sulpician  college  in  Montr^  and  their  seml- 
where  he  devoted  mtich  tune  to  decyphering  the  nary  at  Paris,  where  he  was  ordained  priest  in  1845. 
native  picture  writings.  In  1845  it  was  estimated  He  was  the  special  friend  of  Bishop  Fitzpatrick. 
there  were  53,000  Catnolics  in  the  State,  an  increase  who  made  him  his  vicar-general  at  an  eariy  a^  ana 
of  more  than  20,000  in  ten  years.  (See  Fenwick,  rector  of  St.  James's  church,  where  in  1842  ne  e&- 
Benedict  Joseph.)  tablished  the  first  Conference  of  the  Society  of 
(3)  John  Bernard  Fitzpatrick,  third  bishop.  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  in  New  England.  Two  other 
was  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Callipolis  and  rectors  of  this  church  became  bishops:  the  Rev. 
coadjutor  of  Boston,  24  March,  1844.  He  was  bom  James  A.  Healy,  appointed  Bishop  of  Portland  in 
in  Boston,  1  November,  1812,  his  parents  having  1875,  and  M.  A.  Harkins  Bishop  of  Providence  in 
emigrated  from  Ireland  in  1805.  His  early  education  1887.  Shortly  before  his  death  Bishop  Fitspatiick 
was  received  in  the  local  grammar  and  Latin  schools,  sought  to  have  Father  Williams  made  nis  coadjutor, 
and  in  1829  he  went  to  the  Sulpician  college  at  Mont-  but  he  did  not  live  to  see  him  consecrated.  Boston 
real.  After  eight  years  spent  there  as  student  and  pro-  was  made  an  archdiocese  in  1 875,  and  Bishop  Williams 
fessor  he  entered  the  Seminary  of  St.  Sulpice,  Paris,  to  was  promoted  to  be  its  metropolitan.  He  received 
complete  his  ecclesiastical  course  and  was  ordained  as  an  auxilliary  the  Right  R^.  John  Bradv,  con- 
priest  there  13  June,  1840.  He  then  returned  to  secrated  Titular  Bishop  o(  Alabanda,  5  August, 
Boston  and  after  a  year  as  assistant  at  the  cathedral  1891,  and  a  coadjutor  with  the  right  of  succession 
was  made  pastor  of  the  church  at  East  Cambridge,  in  the  Right  Rev.  William  H.  O'Connell  of  Portland, 
In  1844  he  was  appointed  coadjutor  to  Bishop  Fen-  who  was  promoted  to  be  Titular  Archbishop  of  Tomi 
wick.  He  took  part  in  the  Sixth  Provincial  (Council  and  ooachutor  of  Boston,  8  February,  1906.  Arch- 
of  Baltimore  in  1846  and  attended  the  subsequent  bishop  Williams  also  saw  organized,  within  the  limits 
provincial  councils  and  the  first  plenary  council  of  the  Diocese  of  Boston  as  it  was  when  he  was  bom, 
(1853),  which  further  reduced  the  original  limits  of  the  Dioceses  of  Springfield,  1870;  Providence,  1872; 
his  jurisdiction  by  creating  the  dioceses  of  Burlington  Manchester,  1884;  ana  Fall  River,  1905,  and  among 
and  Portland.  During  1^4  he  paid  his  official  visit  those  immeoiately  under  his  jurisdiction  representar 
to  Rome  after  having  suffered ,  together  with  his  people,  ti  ves  of  nearly  every  country  and  language  of  Europe. 
the  utmost  indimities  and  persecution  at  the  hands  Prominent  among  the  memorials  of  his  long  episco- 
of  bigots.  In  July  of  that  year  the  chiutshes  at  pate  and  priesthood  were  the  new  Cathedral  of  the 
Dorchester,  at  Bath,  and  at  Manchester,  New  Hamp-  Holy  Cross,  dedicated  8  December,  1875,  and  St. 
shire,  were  destroyed  by  mobs.  In  October,  at  John's  Ecclesiastical  Seminary  at  Brighton,  erected  in 
Ellsworth,  Maine,  the  Rev.  John  Bapst,  S.J.,  was  1884,  which  is  in  charge  of  the  Sulpicians.  Boston 
taken  by  a  band  of  masked  men,  stripped,  smeared  College  was  opened  by  the  Jesuits  in  1863.  In  the 
with  tar  and  feathers,  and  forced  out  of  the  place,  same  year  tne  Carney  Hospital  was  established 
The  legislature  of  Massachusetts  also  appointed  a  through  the  generosity  of  Andrew  Cam^,  who  with 
special  committee  to  investigate  convents,  and  the  his  fsmtiily  \^  given  it  $75,000.  The  House  of  the 
members  forced  their  way  into  several  institutions.  Angel  Guardian  for  boys,  founded  in  1849  by  the 
From  the  pope  Bishop  Fitzpatrick  received  conso-  Rev.  G.  F.  Haskins,  in  1876  was  entrusted  to  the  care 
lation  and  encouragement  and  the  message  to  his  of  the  Brothers  of  Charity  from  Montreal.  St.  Biary's 
people  to  '' persevere  under  afflictions".  The  anti-  Infant  Asvlum  was  opened  in  1872;  the  Home  for 
Catnolic  sentiment  in  the  community  continued,  the  Affed  by  the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  in  1870; 
On  14  March,  1859,  a  Catholic  boy  named  Thomas  J.  the  l£>use  of  the  Good  Shepherd  in  1867,  and  the 
Wall  was  whipped  for  refusing  to  read  the  Protestant  Dal^  Industrial  School  was  made  possible  by  the 
Bible  and  recite  Protestant  prayers  in  one  of  the  gift  in  IB&Q  of  $50,000  from  the  Rev.  ratrick  J.  Daly. 
Boston  public  schools.  Thereupon  so  strong  a  protest  The  Home  for  Destitute  children  was  opened  in  1864; 
was  made  by  the  bishop  against  the  injustice  done  the  Working  Boys  Home  in  1883,  and  the  Home  for 
to  the  Catholics  of  the  community  by  th^  system  Giris  in  18M.  St.  Elizabeth's  Hospital  dates  from 
and  regulations  then  in  operation  that  for  the  first  1868,  the  Free  Home  for  Consumptives  from  1891, 
time  in  the  history  of  the  city  a  priest  and  several  the  Holy  Ghost  Hospital  for  Incurables  from  1893. 
Catholic  laymen  were  named  on  the  school  committee.  'The  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  made  their  first  foundatkm 
For  many  years  the  bishop  was  an  invalid  and  a  in  the  diocese  in  1873;  the  Franciscan  Sisters,  in 
grea*  sufferer,  but  he  kept  up  his  activities  to  the  end  1884- the  Religious  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  in  1880;  and 
and  before  his  death  on  13  Februaiy,  1866,  saw  the  the  Carmelites  from  Baltimore^  in  1890.  The  Re- 
prosperity  of  the  diocese  increased  nearly  threefold,  demptorists  be^tn  a  mission  m  the  late  sixties. 
In  1860  Bishop  Fitzpatrick,  intending  to  build  a  aAd  Duilt  their  nret  church  in  the  Roxbury  District^ 
new  cathedral,  sold  the  old  church  in  Franklin  Street  in  1871.  In  1883  the  Marist  Fathers  began  theii 
for  $115,000,  the  neighbourhood  having  chan^d  local  work,  and  the  Augustinians  establisliM  tbena- 
Into  a  business  centre.  Among  his  prominent  con-  sdves  in  Lawrence  in  1861.  French  immigration 
/erts  may  be  noted  Josue  Moody,  afterwards  Bishop  from  Canada,  which  had  been  fcAng  on  anoe  1815 
f  Erie,  Fathers  George  J.  Goodwin,  H.  Tucker,  be^an  to  attract  soecial  attention  about  1870.    I14 


B08TRA                                    707  B08TRA 

^868  the  first  distinctively  French  parish  was  or-  fence  of  Catholic  rights.  From  his  publication  house 
ganized  in  Lowell.  Italian  and  Portuguese  oongre-  issued  for  more  ths^  half  a  century  a  steady  output 
gations  date  from  1872,  the  former  in  Boston  and  of  Catholic  literature  that  aided  materially  the  edu- 
the  latter  in  Gloucester.  One  congregation  in  cation  of  his  fellow  Catholics  and  won  for  the  Faith 
Gloucester  has  a  respectable  section  made  up  of  a  eeneral  popular  appreciation.  Other  periodicals 
Gaelic  speaking  Scotch  from  Cape  Breton  and  Antig-  and  publications  in  the  archdiocese  are  the  weetdies 
onish.  There  IS  one  German  Congregation  in  Boston,  "The  Republic'' and  the  "Sacr^  Heart  Review'' 
and  one  in  Lawrence;  that  in  B^ton,  the  church  of  (Boston):  ''The  Catholic  Citizen"  (Chelsea);  ''The 
Holy  Trinity,  dates  from  1836  and  has  the  distinction  Sunday  Register"  (Lawrence);  the  monthlies  "  Don-  , 
of  starting  m  1844  one  of  the  first  parish  schools  in  ahoe's  Magazine"  (Boston);  "The  Index"  (Haver- 
New  England.  There  are  also  Polish,  Lithuanian,  and  hill);  the  French  weeklies  "Le  D^fenseur",  "La 
^jnrian  congregations  in  Boston.  Archbishop  Wil-  Justice"  (Holyoke);  "L'Etoile",  daily  and  weekly 
liams  was  a  ^uiet,  conservative  prelate,  known  best  (Lowdl). 

as  an  administrator.     He  was  one  of  the  bishops  Statistics. —  Records  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Boston 

who*  attended  the  Vatican  Council  and  helped  largely  for  1907  give  these  figures:  1  archbishop,  1  bishop, 

to  establish  the  American  College  at  Rome.  598  priests  (488  secular  and  110  regular),  194  churches 

The  Most    Rev.   William   Henry   O'Connell,  with  resident  priests,  54  missions  with  churches, 

second  archbishop,  was  bom  8  December,  1859,  at  1  theological  seminary  with  86  students,  3  colle^ 

Lowell,  Massachusetts,  and  received  his  earlv  edu-  for  boys,  8  acadeinies  for  girls,  76  parishes  with 

cation  in  its  local  schoob  and  at  St.  Charles's  Collegje,  schools  and  an  attendance  of  48,192  children;   6 

Ellicott   City,   Maryland.      He    then   graduated   in  orphan  asylums  with  650  inmates:    24   charitable 

1881  at  the  Jesuit  College  in  Boston  and  was  sent  ^  institutions;  the  total  number  of  children  in  Catholic 

to  the  American  College,  Kome^  to  make  his  studies  institutions  48,740;  1  infant  asylum,  538  inmates; 

for  the  priesthood.    He  was  ordamed  there  8  January,  industrial  and  reform  schools  4,  inmates  915;  homes 

1884,  and  returned  to  Boston  in  1886.    The  following  7,  inmates  826;  brothers  140;  religious  women  1567; 

years  he  was  stationed  as  an  assistant  at  Medford!  seminary  for  diocesan  cler^  1,  students  86;  esti- 

and  at  Boston  until  1895  when  he  was  appointea  mated  Catholic  population  850,000. 

rector  of  the  American  College,  Rome.    He  held  this  The  following  religious  orders  and  congregations 

office  five  years,  and  was  then  appointed  Bishop  of  have  foundations  in  the  archdiocese:  Communities 

Portland,  Maine,  being  consecrated    19  May,  1901.  of  Men,  Augustinians,  16;  Franciscans  (O.  M.  C),  5; 

In  the  fall  of  1905  the  pope  sent  him  as  a  special  Jesuits,  32;  Marists,  15;  Oblates.  22;  Congregation 

envoy  to  Japan  in  the  interests  of  the  Church.    He  of  St.   Charles    Borromeo,    4;    Redemptonsts,   16; 

was  decorated  by  the  Mikado  and  on  his  return  to  Brothers  of  Charity  of  St.   Vincent  de  Paul,  25; 

Rome  was  warmly  commended  for  the  success  of  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools,  11;  Little  Brothers 

his  efforts  bjr  the  pope,  who  on  26  January,  1906,  of  Mary,  19j  Xaverian  Brothers,  58.    Communities 

named  him  titular  Arcnbishop  of  Tomi,  and  coadjutor  of  Women^  Sisters  of  St.  Ann,  Sisters  of  the  Assump- 

of  Boston.     On  the  death  of  Archbishop  Williams,  tion.   Sisters   of   Charity    (Madison,   New   Jersey), 

he  immediately  took  possession  of  the  See  of  Boston.  Sisters  of  Charity  (Grey  Nuns,  MonU^al),  Sisters  of 

The  Right  Rev.  John  Brady,  auxiliary  bishop,  Charityof  Nazareth,  Sisters  of  Charity  (Emmitsbure), 
was  bom  at  Crosserlough,  County  Cavan,  Ireland,  Sisters  of  Charity  (Halifax,  N.  S.),  Sisters  of  3ie 
11  April,  1842.  He  made  his  first  studies  in  the  local  Holy  Union  of  the  Sacred  Hearts,  Sisters  of  St. 
diocesan  schools  and  then  completed  his  theological  Dominic  (Jersey  City,  N.  J.),  Sisters  of  the  Third 
course  at  the  Missionary  College  of  All  Hallows,  Order  of  St.  Francis,  Sisters  of  St.  Dominic  (Spring- 
where  he  was  ordained  priest  for  the  Diocese  of  field,  Kentucky),  Sisters  of  St.  Francis  (Allegany, 
Boston,  4  December,  1864.  He  served  as  a  curate  N.  Y.),  Sisters  of  St.  Francis  (Rome),  Sisters  of  the 
in  Boston  and  at  Newbiuyport  until  1868,  when  he  Good  Shepherd,  Sisters  Servants  of  the  Immaculate 
was  made  pastor  at  Amesoury.  He  continued  hi  Heart  of  Mary,  Grey  Nuns  of  the  Cross  (Ottawa, 
this  charge  until  he  was  nominated  Titular  Bishop  Ontario),  Religious  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Missionary 
of  Alabanda  and  Auxiliary  Bishop  of  Boston  for  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart  (Rome),  Sisters  of  St. 
which  see  he  was  consecrated  5  August,  1891.  Joseph,  Sisters  of  Mary,  Sisters  of  Mercy  (Manchester, 

Social  Progress. — "The  foundation  of  a  Catholic  New  Hampshire),  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  of  Namur, 

Church  in  Boston  could  only  be  surpassed  by  de-  since  1849,  School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  (Baltimore, 

voting  a  chamber  in  the  Vatican  to  a  Protestant  Maryland),   Little   Sisters  of  the   Poor,   Sisters  of 

Chapel"  said  William  Tudor,  writing  in  his  "Letters  Providence.  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Union  of  the  Sacred 

on  tne  Eastern  States''  (Boston,  1819).    The  records  Hearts,  Filles  de  J^us,  Franciscan  Poor  Clare  nuns, 

show  that  the  notable  constructive  Catholic  social  Sisters  of  t^e  Holy  Childhood. 

period  of  the  diocese  did  not  begin  untQ  after  the  ,  SHiu,/f«tori/ o/  tkeCath.Ch.w  U.S.  (New  York,  1886); 

Svil  War.     Though  the  Catholics  formed  a  quai1«r  g^,"^oi;^i? ?t?^S3.5^^               (KSb??S^"  ^tl'^i 

of  the  population  of  Boston  m  1844  and  two-fifths  Philwi«lphi»,   1839;  tr.  &rEWART,  Boeton,  1839);  Fitton, 

in  1853,  not  a  single  one  of   that  faith  ever  held  an  Sketehea  cfAe  EHablishmetU  cf  IjW  Church  in  New  EnglaiMi 

fe!*^*  OP  appointive  pubUc  offi<»  m  the  city  of  ^^^■JS^'^^S^l'i'^^^SS^plJ^^^^^i'^ 

Boston.      There   were   only   three   Catholic   teachers  Latemen  (Quebec.  1813);  OoMeUe  <U  QuSbee  (22  October,  1789 

in  the  public  schools  imtil  1860.     The  first  Catholic  supplement);  American  C<^.  HiaLReseardtesiJanuairy,  1886. 

was  elected  in  1857,  the  first  alderman,  Chnstopher  A.  York,  1872);  The  PHot  (Boston.  2  January.  1836-1907).  filee; 

Connor,  in  1870,  and  the  first  Member  of  Congress,  RiESfs,  B^.  Cwrf.  o/  rt«  Hurarehy  of  ^V  5  (Milwaukee, 

Pfttrinlc  A    r*n11infl    in  lft«9      THa  nbancrpH  nnnHitmnfl  1879);  U.  S,  Cath,  Mazarine  (Baltunore).  VIII,  102  sqq.;  U.  8. 

ramcK  a.  UOUins,  in  li«W.      l  ne  cnanged  conditions  Qj^^  hiot.  8oc..  Hiat  Records  ond  Stuiiea  (New  York,  Octo- 

are  shown  by  the  fact  that  for  ten  of  the  past  twenty-  ber,  1906).  IV.  parte  I  and  II;  Sullivan,  Caiholic  Church  of 

three  years  Boston  has  been  ruled  by  Catholic  Majrors,  %» ,  EiMland,  Archdiocese  of  Boston  (Boston  and  Portland. 

and  public  memoriaU  have  been  aet  up  amid  generaJ  ffi=  {^^Sln"  ?^l1  S;S^'^*^t;S,'^15^M 

approval  to  the  soldier,  Colonel  Thomas  Cass;  the  poet  Anniversary  CelebraHon  of  the  Dedication  of  the  Church  of  the 

journalist,  John  Boyle  O'Reilly;  and  the  statesman,  B^  Cross,  Boston  O^ston,  19(H):  H.  F.  brownson,  Orcatea 

Patrick  Andrew  Collins.     In  justice  it  must  be  saici  ^' Brownson^s EarlyUe;  Idem,  Aftd^  We  (I^troit  1898-99). 

that  much  of  the  progress  thus  made  was  owing  to  ihomas  r .  mebhan. 

Patrick   Donahoe,  who  after  the  failure  of  ''The  BoBtra,.a  titular  see   of   Syria.    Bostra,    "The 

Jesuit"  continued  in  "The  Pilot''  (begun  2  January,  fortress",  is  neither  Bosor  of  Reuben  and   Moab 

1836)  the  illustrations  of  Catholic  truth  and  the  de-  (Deut.,  iv,  24;  Jos.,  xx,  8),  nor  Bosrah  or   Edom 


B0THBY8  708  BOTTIOELLI 

vGen.,  xxxvi,  33;  Jer.,  xlix,  13,  etc.),  now  Bouseira  Prima,  and  became  a  suffragan  of  Tyre  in  the  Pa^:»- 

between  Tafil6  and  Shobaq.     Perhaps  it  is  the  same  archdte  of  Antioch.     In  551  it  was  destroyed  by  an 

asBosor,  or  Bosora,  taken  by  theMachabees(lMach.,  earthquake,  on  which  occasion  the  cape  crack^  in 

V,  26,  28,  36),  an  independent  town  in  Persea.     It  the  very  middle  so  that  quite  a  large  harbour  was 

was  included  in  the  Nabatean  Kingdom  (M.  de  Vogti6,  opened  jfMalalas,  Chrono^.,  XVIII,  in  P.  G.,  XCVII, 

La  Syrie  centrale,  Inscriptions,  103)  and  last  hewf  by  704).    Theophanes,  relating  the  same  event  (ad  an. 

the  Uomans.     When  the  kingdom  was  destroyed  by  543),  calls  the  city  Bostrys,  which  form  is  also  found 

Cornelius  Pakna  (105  or  106),  a  general  of  Trajan,  elsewhere.    Three  Greek  bishops  are  known:  Por- 

Bostra  became  the  metropolis  of  Arabia  and  was  phyrius  in  451;  Elias  about  512;  and  Stephen  in  553 

known  as  Nova  Trajana  Bostra.    There  the  Third  (Lequien,  II,  827).     According  to  a  Greek  "Notitia 

L/egio  Cvrenaica  held  its  garrison.     In  the  same  year  episcopatuum ",  the  see  still  existed  in  the  tenth 

began  the  era  of  Bostra,  after  which  the  numerous  century  and  was  then  called  Petroimion.     Its  present 

inscri{)tions  in  trans-Jordanic  Palestine  are  reckoned.  Arabic  name  is  Batroun.    There  are  2,500  inhaoitonte 

The  city  was  already  a  very  important  one:  it  was  (1,200  Maronites,  1,200  Greeks).     It  is  the  centre  of 

there  that  the  great  Roman  road  began  whicn  ran  to  a  caza  in  the  miUeasariflik  of  Lebanon  and  the  seat 

the  Red  Sea,  as  well  as  most  of  the  other  roads  that  of  a  Maronite  diocese  suffragan  to  the  Maronite 

crossed  the  country  in  every  di^ction;  the  governor  patriarchate.    There     are     60,000     Catholics,     50 

of  the  province  had  his  residence  there.  churches   or   chapels,    30   priests,    1    seminary,  64 

Under  Alexander  Seven^s  (222-235)  Bostra  became  elementary  schools,  and  12  monasteries  of  Baladites, 

a  Roman  colony.    In  the  fourth  century  it  is  called  Aleppines,  and  monks  of  St.  Isaiah  in  this  Diocese, 
"a  great  city  ",  by  Ammianus  Marcellinus  (Res  gestae,  .  S.  VAiLHt. 

XIV,  8,  3),  and  from  the  extent  of  ite  ruins  G.  Rind-        BothweU,  James,  Earl  op.    See  Mary  Queen  or 

fleisch  has  calculated  that  it  must  have  had  about  s^.-vpg, 

80,000  inhabitants  (Zeitschrift  des  deutschen  PaULs-        o^^  rk,^v««««  ««     cl.«  r',^.,,  **^  t>,^«, 
tiiiivereins,  xxi,  32).    Remains  of  splendid  monu-        t       '  ^^^^=  ^'^     ^  ^'^^^  "^  ^^' 
ments  are  yet  visible,  colonnades,  triumphal  arehe.,        Bottero,  H.  M.    See  Kumbakonam,  Diocese  of. 
baths,  a  theatre,  temples, .  churcl^s,  etc.    Bostra,        Botticelli,  Sandro,  a  famous  Florentine  psdnter. 

being  an  important  trade  centre  for  caravans,  was  D.  at  Florence  about  1447;  d.  in  the  same  citv,  1510. 

visited  by  Mahomet;  it  was  there  that  Bahira,  a  Botticelli's  name  is  properly  Alessandro  di  Mariano 

Nestorian  monk,  acknowledged  him  as  a  prophet.  Filipepi,  Mariano  Fihpepi  being  his  father,  but  be  is 

The  Crusaders  tried  vainly  to  take  it.     Its  decline  called  after  the  Florentine  painter  and  goldsmitii, 

was  the  result  of  earthquakes,  chiefly  that  of  1151,  Botticelli,  to  whom  he  was  first  am)renticed.    Later 

when  the  city  was  left  m  ruins.     Under  its  present  on  he  was  a  pupil  of  Fra  Filippo  Lippi  and  learned 

name  of  Bosra  Eski-Sham  (Bostra  Old  Damascus),  from  this  master  to  paint  in  the  ideal  manner  of 

it  has   hardly   1000  wretched    inhabitants    and    a  Fra  Angelico.    Through  the  influence  of  Verrocchio 

little  Turkish  garrison.  and  the  brothers  PoUajuoli  this  idealism  was  com- 

The.  Christian  religion,  which  soon  penetrated  the  bined    with    the    naturalness   of    Masaccio.    These 
neighbouring   Arabia,    was   not    long   in    reaching  qualities  explain   Botticelli's   great   influence  over 
Bostra.    As  metropolis  of  the  province  of  Arabia  it  later  painters.    Botticelli's  life  was  a  retired  one 
had  nineteen  or  twenty   suffragan   sees.     Lequien  passed  largely  in  very  modest  circumstances.    We 
(Or.  Chr.,  II,  853-860)  enumerates  a  list  of  sixteen  know,  however,  that  he  was  in  the  employ  of  the 
bishops  at  Bostra^  among  the  most  celebrated  are  Medici  and  other  prominent  Florentine  families  from 
BeryUus,  who  fell  mto  a  Cnristologic  heresy  and  was  about  1483  to  1500.    Although  never  inclined  to 
reclaimed  by  Origen   at   a   council   held   between  frivolity  he  was  yet  influenced  oy  the  worldly  spirit 
A.  D.  218  and  244  (Euseb.,  H.  E.,  vi,  33);  Titus,  who  of  the  age  until  Savonarola's  powerful  call  to  re- 
suffered  much  imder  Juliem  the  Apostate,  and  who  pentance  aroused  his  moral  nature  and  guided  his 
was  an  important  writer,  J.  Sickenoerger  devoting  a  powers,  as  it  seems,  into  entirely  new  paths.    He 
long  essay  to  him  (Titus  von  Bostra,  Leipzig,  1901);  never  knew  how  to  take  care  of  money  and  he  died 
St.  Antipater,  about  458;  Stephen,  at  the  beginning  at  last  in  need.     Botticelli  was  too  unassuming  to 
of  the  eighth  centunr;  and  Arsenius,  who  lived  in  sign  and  date  his  works  in  most  instances,  so  that 
1365  (Miklosich  and  MQller,  Acta  patriarch.  C.  P.,  I,  the  order  in  time  of  his  paintings  has  to  be  judged 
465).    The  diocese  existed  till  1715  (Chrysanthus,  from  the  canvases  themselves. 
Synodicon,  70).    Subsequent  to  that  it  was  suppressed        I.  Madonnas. — Botticelli  enjoys,  above  all,  a  well- 
by  the  Greeks,  and  its  6000  faithful  are  subjects  of  earned  fame  as  a  painter  of  the  Madonna.    In  these 
the  Diocese  of  Damascus.    The  Catholic  Greeks,  or  pictures  the  fascination  lies  more  in  the  expression 
Melchites,  however,  have  always  maintained  this  see,  of  the  Mother  and  Child  and  in  the  look  on  the  faces 
imder  the  title  of  Bostra  and  Hauran.    Their  metro-  of  the  half-grown  boy-angels  than  in  the  unaffected 
poUtan  resides  usually  at  Damascus  and  goes  to  simplicity  of  the  pose  and  composition.    Two  of 
Bostra  onlv  two  or  three  times  a  year;  his  diocese  these  pictures,  circular  in  form  (called  tondOf  round) 
contains  about  8000  Catholics,  12  priests,  and  12  have  oeoome  very  famous.     Both  are  in  Florence: 

Sarishes.    The    Crusaders    by    a    mistake    ranked  one  is  the  "  Magmficat ",  and  in  the  other  the  Child 

Nostra  under  the  authority  of  the  Patriarehate  of  is  holding  a  pomegranate.    A  circular  canvas  at 

Jerusalem,  instead  of   imder  that  of  Antioch.  Berlin  which  depicts  the  Madonna  enthroned  aid 

FoKTER,  Five  Years  in  Damaacus  (London,  18^).  II,  142-  surrounded  by  angels  carrying  candles  is  character 

169;  The  Giant  CiHee  cf  Baehan  (London,  1872),  64-73;  Rut,  •  ^^   l      Ap^r\  n>l[?iniia  fA^lin?      A    nnmhAr  nf  umaH 

Voiage  dan%  U  Haouran  (Paria.  i860).  179-199;  Haddington.  ^^   ^7  «f®R_  religious  leeUng.     A  numDer  01  snwm 

EM^Lcation   dee   tnscriptione   reeueUliee  ...  en   Syrie,  464-  pictures  of  the  Madonna  recall  Fra  Flhppo;  otbew 

469;  VailhA,  La  province  ecdietaetiqxte  d' Arabia  in  Bcko9  more  severe  in  tone  seem  to  show  the  mfluence  of 

d'OrierK.  II,  166-179.  Vailh^  Verrocchio.    The  Child's  expression  is  always  sweet 

A11.H  .  ^^^  winning,  yet  thoughtful  as  well,  and  at  tima 

BothryB,    a   titular   see    situated    in    Phoenicia,  the  look  is  one  of  intense  earnestness.    The  Mother 

Bothrys  is  the  Greek  name  of  a  city  founded  by  in  holy  awe  restrains  her  tenderness  and  seems  to 

Ithobaal,  King  of  T^re  and  father  of  Jezabel  (897-  have  a  presentiment  of  future  sorrow.    This  feding 

866  B.  c),  on  the  seashore  near  Cape  Lithoprosopon  of  melancholy  foreboding  is  also  expressed  in  the 

(Menander,  in  Josephus,  '^Ant.  Jua.'',  VIII,  13,  2).  attendant  angels  and  saints.    A  painting  of  this 

t,   is  mentioned   by   all   the  ancient   geographers,  enthroned  Madonna  with  the  two  Johns  is  at  Berbn; 

8trabo,     Pliny,     Ptolemy,     Stephanus     Byzantius,  two  canvases  at  Florence  depict  the  same  Madonna 

Hierocles,    etc.    The    city    belonged    to    Phoenicia  surrounded  by  numerous  saints.    It  is  plain  that  the 


BOTULFH  709  BOTULPH 

look  of  melancholy  on  the  f^^se  ef  the  Mother  of  God  Fieaole  an  allegorical  scene  lepresenting  the  Seven 

had    a    Strang    attraction    for    the    painter.    His  Arts  and  the  Virtues  paying  their  homage  to  the 

portrait  of  himself  in  the   "Destruction  of  Ck>re,  newly  married  pair.    Among  his  mythological  pic- 

Dathan,  and  Abiron"  shows  his  natural  inclination  tures  may  be  mentioned  the    Venus''  whorls  upon 

to  intense  earnestness,  and  in  the  "Outcasts"  he  a  shell  towards  the  island  which  she  has  chosen  for 

has  depicted  the  profoundest  depths  of  grief.  her   habitation.    Another   mythological   subject   is 

II.  Biblical  SubiecU.— In   1481   Sixtus  IV  sum-  "Venus    and    Mars".    Botticelli    contributed    the 

moned  Botticelli,  along  with  other  painters,  to  Rome  enthroned  " Fortitude "  and  "Spring"  to  the  alle- 

to  decorate  the  new  bistine  Chapel.    According  to  eorical  style  of  painting  so  popular  in  his  day.    The 

the  bio^pher,  Vasari,  he  was  even  to  superintend  ^Calumny  of  Apelles",  which  is  realistic  in  execu- 

the  entu^  work.     In  the  chapel  Botticelli  painted  tion,  is  essentially  allegorical.    Closely  related  to 

three  frescoes  which  represent  events  in  the  lives  these  works  are  the  more  than  ninety  illustrations 

of  Moses  and  Christ.    No  less  than  seven  scenes  are  to  Dante's  "Divine  Comedy",  that  poem  which, 

united  in  the  ''Life  of  the  Youthful  Moses",  so  that  from  Giotto  to  Michelangelo,   has  stimulated   the 

the  composition  lacks  unity.     Without  doubt  the  imagination    of    so    many    painters.    Four    sheeU 

artist  laboured  under  a  feeling  of  restraint.     The  executed  in  colour  seem  to  indicate  an  intention  tvo 

composition  is  animated  in  parts  and  is  intended  to  carry  out  the  whole  work  in  the  same  manner  after 

arouse   the  feelings.     The   "Destruction   of  Core,  the  designs  had  once  been  made  with  pen  and  pencil. 

Dathan,  and  Abiron"  is  represented  in  three  scries.  Many  of  the  pictures  are  not  more  than  outlined  Oi 

The  figure  of  Moses  appears  here  in  all  the  majesty  sketched.    There   is,    however,   much   that   is   ad- 

which  God  had  granted  him  for  the  punishment  of  mirable  in  these  designs,  which  formed  one  of  the 

the  rebels.     There  is  an  interesting  connexion  be-  chief  occupations  of  the  last  years  of  the  painter, 

tween  this  picture  and  Perugino's  "Granting  of  the  The  fidelity  to  nature  in  the  dra^ng  of  the  human 

Keys  to  Peter"  on  the  opposite  wall.    Moses  in  the  figure,  the  contemplative  expression  of  the  faces, 

fullness  of  his  might  is  the  counterpart  of  Peter  to  the  dramatic  animation  of  the  action,  and  the  skilful 

whom  the  Keys  of  Heaven  are  entrusted.     Over  arrangement  of  the  perspective  make  these  designs 

acainst  the  fresco  of  the  proving  of  the  youthful  a  last  triumph  for  BotticeiU. 


he  is  present  at  the  celebration  of  the  Mass.  Strange  G.  Gietmann. 
to  say,  the  foreground  of  the  painting  represents 
the  purification  of  a  leper  before  a  company  of  eccle-  Botulph  (or  Botolf),  Saint,  Abbot,  date  of  birth 
siastics  and  secular  dignitaries  and  contains  besides  unknown;  died  c.  680.  St.  Botulph,  the  saint  whose 
an  allusion  to  the  pope.  The  explanation  of  the  name  is  perpetuated  in  that  of  the  American  city  of 
scene  is  as  follows:  Moses  had  to  unaergo  trials  before  Boston,  Massachusetts,  was  certainly  an  historical 
he  could  become  the  leader  of  his  people,  so  also  the  personage,  though  the  story  of  his  life  is  veiy  con- 
Saviour  had  to  suffer  in  order  to  heal  mankind  from  fused  and  unsatisfactory.  What  information  we 
the  leprosy  of  sin,  and  so  also  the  pope  in  order  to  possess  about  him  is  mainly  derived  from  a  short 
cany  out  Christ's  missions.  As  an  allegorical  indi-  oiography  by  Folcard,  monk  of  St.  Bertin  and  Abbot 
cation  of  this  a  hospital  built  by  Sixtus  IV  is  shown  of  Thomey,  who  wrote  in  the  eleventh  century 
in  the  picture.  It  must  be  acknowledged  that  the  (Hardy,  Catalogue  of  Brit.  Hist.,  I,  373).  According 
painter  executed  the  difiicult  task  assigned  to  him  to  him  Botulph  was  bom  of  noble  Saxon  parents 
in  the  chapel  with  striking  skill.  Feeling  the  im-  who  were  Christians,  and  was  sent  with  his  brother 
portance  ot  this  work  Botticelli  carried  out  his  de-  Adulph  to  the  Continent  for  the  purpose  of  study, 
signs  almost  entirely  himself;  the  smallest  details  Adulph  remained  abroad,  where  he  is  stated  to  have 
show  the  infinite  pains  he  took.  In  these  frescoes  become  Bishop  of  Utrecht,  though  his  name  does 
he  has  given  a  large  amount  of  space  to  Roman  not  occur  in  any  of  the  ancient  lists.  Botu)ph,  re- 
architecture,  thereby  setting  a  good  working  ex-  turning  to  Eneland,  found  favour  with  a  certain 
ample  to  the  painters  coining  after  him.  Of  fiotti-  Ethelmund,  "King  of  the  southern  Angles",  whose 
celli's  other  Biblical  pictures  mention  may  be  made  sisters  he  had  known  in  Germany,  and  was  by  him 
of  the  "Birth  of  Chnst",  which  was  intended  to  be  permitted  to  choose  a  tract  of  desolate  land  upon 
a  memorial  of  Savonarola.  While  a  chorus  of  angels  which  to  build  a  monastery.  This  place,  surrounded 
sing  the  praises  of  Grod  above  the  man^,  in  this  by  water  and  called  Icanhoe  (Ox-island),  is  com- 
picture,  three  an^ls  below  lead  Dominican  monks  monly  identified  with  the  town  of  Boston  in  Lincoln- 
towards  the  Saviour,  Christ,  who  had  been  pro-  shire,  mainly  on  account  of  its  name  (Boston* 
claimed  by  Savonarola  to  be  king  of  the  city  of  Botulph's  town).  There  is,  however,  something  to 
Florence.  We  have  also  an  "  Adoration  of  the  Magi "  surest  that  the  true  spot  may  be  the  village  of  iken 
in  four  examples  (Florence,  London,  and  St.  Peters-  in  Suffolk  which  of  ola  was  almost  encircled  by  the 
burg).  This  canvas  is  full  of  figures  and  has  a  back-  little  river  Aide,  and  in  which  the  church  is  also 
ground  composed  of  stately  architecture  and  land-  dedicated  to  St.  Botulph.  In  favour  of  Lincolnshire 
scape.  The  copy  at  Florence  is  famous  on  account  must  be  reckoned  the  fact  that  St.  Botulph  was 
of  the  portraits  of  the  Medici  it  contains,  which  were  much  honoured  in  the  North  and  in  Scotland.  Thus 
introduced  in  accordance  with  the  custom  of  the  his  feast^was  entered  in  the  York  calendar  but  not 
time.  About  1500  Botticelli  produced  the  two  in  that  of  Sarum.  Moreover,  even  Folcard  speaks, 
examples  of  the  "Lamentation  of  Christ"  which  of  the  Scots  as  Botulph's  neighbours  (mcini).  In 
are  now  at  Munich  and  Milan.  In  this  composition  favour  of  Suffolk,  on  the  other  hand,  may  be  quoted 
the  expression  of  grief  is  deep  but  subdued.  the  tradition  that  St.  Botulph,  who  is  also  called 

HI.  Portraits, — Among  the  twenty-four  portraits  "bishop",  was  first  buried  at  Grundisburgh.  a  village 

of  popes  in  the  Sistine  chapel  five  are  by  Botticelli,  near  Woodbridge,  and  afterwards  translated  to  Bury 

In  the  church  of  the  Ognissanti  at  Florence  there  is  St.    Edmunds.     This,    however,    may    be   another 

a  celebrated  picture  of  St.  Augustine  by  Botticelli  person,  since  he  is  always  closely  associated  with 

opposite  to  a  St.  Jerome  by  Ghirlandajo.    There  a  certain  St.  Jurmin  (Arnold,  Memorials  of  Bury,  I, 

are  two  portraits  of  Giuliano  de'  Medici  in  existence  352).    That  Botulph  really  did  build  a  monasteiy 

and  an  excellent  portrait  of  a  woman  at  Frankfort,  at  Icanhoe  is  attested  by  an  entry  in  the  Anglo- 

IV.  Other  Suhieds. — In  celebration  of  a  wedcUng  Saxon  Chronicle  under  the  year  654:  Bottdf  ongan 

Botticelli  painted  in  the  villa  of  the  Tomabuoni  near  that  myruter  timbrian  cet  YceanhOf  i.  e.  Botulph  began 

n.— 45 


BOTUBINI  710  BOUOAXTD 

to  build  the  minster  at  Icanhoe.  That  the  saint  ase  of  eighte^i  he  entered  the  service  of  the  JesoK 
must  have  lived  somewhere  in  the  Eastern  counties  Fathers  and  went  to  their  Huron  missions  at  Greorgian 
is  proved  by  the  indisputable  evidence  of  the  ''His-  Bay.  On  his  return  to  Quebec  in  1641  he  served  as  a 
toria  Abbatum"  (Plummer's  Bede.  I,  389),  where  soldier  in  the  earrison  of  that  city.  In  1645  he  was 
we  learn  that  Ceolfrid,  Bede's  beloved  master  at  interpreter  of  Indian  languages  at  Three  Rivera  and 
Wearmouth,  ''joumied  to  the  East  Angles  in  order  in  1648  commissary-ffeneral  of  the  trading  station 
that  he  might  see  the  foundation  of  Abbot  Botulphus,  *  at  that  place.  Elected  captain  of  the  militia  in  1651, 
wrhom  fame  had  proclaimed  far  and  wide  to  be  a  man  while  in  command  of  the  place  during  an  interim  in 
of  remarkable  life  and  learning,  full  of  the  grace  of  1653  he  repelled  an  Iroquois  attack.  Owing  to  his 
the  Holy  Spirit",  and  the  accoimt  goes  on  to  sav  efficient  defence  he  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  city, 
that  Ceolfrid  *'  having  been  abundantly  instructed,  and  retained  the  position  until  1658.  In  1661  he  was 
so  far  as  was  possible  in  a  short  time,  returned  home  sent  to  France  to  represent  the  needs  of  the  colonies 
so  well  equipped  that  no  one  could  be  found  more  and  plead  the  cause  of  the  inhabitants.  On  his 
learned  than  ne  either  in  ecclesiastical  or  monastic  return  to  Canada,  in  1662,  he  was  reappointed  Gov- 
tratiitions".  Folcard  represents  St.  Botulph  as  emor  of  Three  Rivers,  an  office  which  he  only  re- 
living and  dyine  at  Icanhoe  in  spite  of  the  molesta-  signed  in  1667  when  he  withdrew  from  public  afTairs 
tions  of  the  evil  spirits  to  which  he  was  exposed  at  to  found  the  seigniorial  parish  called  after  his  name 
his  first  coming.  Later  accoimts,  e.  g.  the  lessons  Boucherville,  situated  opposite  Montreal.  He  was 
of  the  Schleswip  Breviary,  suppose  him  to  have  succeeded  in  the  governorship  of  Three  Rivers  by  his 
(banged  his  habitation  more  than  once  and  to  have  son-in-law,  Ren6  Gauthier  de  Varennes,  forbear  of 
built  at>  one  time  a  monastery  upon  the  bank  of  the  the  discoverer  of  Western  Canada. 
Thames  in  honour  of  St.  Martin.  His  relics  are  said  In  1664  Pierre  Boucher  had  printed  at  Paris  by 
after  the  incursions  of  the  Danes  to  have  been  r&-  the  press  of  Florentin  Lambert  "Lliistoire  veritable 
( overed  and  divided  by  St.  iEthewold  between  Ely,  et  naturelle  des  pioeura  et  productions  du  pays  de 
Thorney  Abbey,  and  King  Edear's  private  chapel,  la  Nouvelle-France,  vulgairement  dite  le  Canada". 
AVhat  is  more  certain  is  that  St.  &tulph  was  honoured  This  work  was  published  in  1849  in  "L'Album  Ca- 
!)y  many  dedications  of  churches,  over  fifty  in  all,  nadien*',  in  1882  at  Montreal,  and  in  1896  in  the 
especially  in  East  Anglia  and  in  the  North.  His  "M^moires  de  la  Soci^t^  Royale  du  Canada".  An 
name  is  perpetuated  not  only  bv  the  little  town  of  English  translation  appeared  in  1883.  Pierre  Boucher 
Boston  in  Lmcolnshire  with  its  American  homonym,  is  considered  the  best  type  of  a  Canadian  landed 
hut  also  by  Bossal  in  Yorkshire,  Botesdale  in  Suffolk,  proprietor,  filled  with  piety,  rectitude,  and  honour. 
Botolph  Bridge  in  Himtingdonshire,  and  Botolph  At  his  death  he  left  a  numerous  posterity.  The 
in  Sussex.  In  England  his  feast  was  kept  on  17  June,  family  is  still  in  existence,  and  the  nighest  stations 
in  iScotland  on  25  June.  are  filled  by  members  bearing  the  names  Boucherville, 
Stanton,  Aftfnotoow  271*  i4cto<S5..  June,  111^402;  Mabxllon,  Bru^re,  Niverville,  Grofibois,  and  Montizambert. 
A^ta  SS.  Benedict.,  Ill,  1;  Stubbs  in  Diet.  Chrut,  Biog.:  Grant  pj^-tp  Knnnhpr  w«ui  ihA  finat  pA-TiAHinn  r^nlnniHt  in  h*» 
in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.;  Forbes.  Calendars  of  Scottish  SainU  (Edin-  ^>erre  i^OUCner  was  tne  nrst  UanaOian  COiOnist  to  DC 


burgh.  1872),  283;  and  especially  ArnolivForster,  Church  ennobled  by  King  Louis  XI V.    His  letters  of  nobihty, 

Dedtcationa  (London,  1899),  II,  62-66.  dated  1661,  were  renewed  in  1707. 

Herbert  Thurston.  Registrea  dew  inainuations  du  Con$eil  9up6rieur  de  la  NouveU^^ 

France^   III,   D,  46;   Daniel,   Grandes  iamHUs  eanadtennea; 

.  Boturini  B«n»ducci.  Lorenzo,  a  native  of  Milan  |^^;[L^ntw"^e,'!  fT^^S!  ^J.^d  "^SiT^ 

m  Lombardy  who  went  to  Mexico  m   1736  by  per-  BouchervUU  (1890);  Roy,  Uittoire  de  la  mienewrie  de  Lotuon, 

mission  of  the  Spanish  government  and  remamed  1. 1I«                                                   t  t?             i> 

there   eight   years,    famiharizing   himself   with   the  •*•  ^-i^^ond  Roy. 

Nahuatl    or    Mexican    language.     He    gathered    a  Boogaud,  Louis-VicrroR-EMiLE,  Bishop  of  Laval 

number  of  Indian  pictographs  on  tissue  paper,  etc.,  in  France,  b.  at  Dijon.  28  February,  1823;  d.  at  Laval, 

the  first  collection  of  the  kind  of  importance.     His  7  November,  1888.    He  received  his  classical  educa- 

frequent    intercourse    with    the    aborigines    excited  tion  at  Autun,  where  his  professor  of  rhetoric  was  the 

suspicion,  as  he  was  a  foreigner,  and  the  authorities,  Abb6,  afterwards  Cardinal,  Pitra.    He  studied  tkeol- 

ever  on  the  wat<!h  for  intrigues  against  Spanish  rule  ogy  at  Dijon  and  Paris,  was  ordained  priest  by  Mon- 

by  strangers,  deprived  him  of  all  his  material,  includ-  sSgneur  JuTre  in  1846,  was  professor  of  church  his- 

ing  prints,  while  he  himself  was  sent  to  Spain  under  tory  at  the  Seminary  of  Dijon  (1846-51;,  and  then 

surveillance.      There  he  succeeded  in  clearing  him-  chaplain  of  the  Convent  of  the  Visitation  in  the  same 

self  of  the  accusations,  but  never  obtained  restitu-  city  (1861-61).    In  1861  he  accepted  the  position  of 

tion  of   the  precious    collection,   which  afterwards  Vicar-General  to  Bishop  Dupanloup  at  Orleans.    In 

was   neglected   and    partly   lost.      Notwithstanding  igg^  he  was  appointed^  Bishop  of  Laval, 

these  drawbacks,  Boturim,  from  such  notes  as  he  Besides  the  sermons  which  he  dehvered  in  Paris  and 

had  saved,  composed  a  treatise  with  the  title  of:  other  cities.  Bishop  Bougaud  wrote  numerous  works. 

Id^a  y  ensayo  de  una  histona  general  de  la  America  while  chaplain  of  the  Visitation  Convent,  he  wrote 

setentnonal     (Madnd,    1746).     The  most   valuable  "Histoirede  Saint B^gne, premier ^vtouede Dijon" 

part  of  this  book  relates  to  his  former  library  and  to  and  "Histoire  de  Sainte  Chantal".     While  Vicar- 

other  literary  material.     His  text,  especially  con-  General  of  Origans,  he  wrote  "Histoire  de  Sainte 

cemmg  migrations  of  Indian  tnbes,  is  of  less  impor-  Monique",  "Histoire  de  la  bienheureuse  Marguerite- 

tance.     Besides  the     Id^a  ,  he  is  credited  with  the  Marie^',  "Le  Christianisme  et  les  temps  piisents" 

authorship  of   the   loUowing  wntm^i   "Oratio  ad  (his  great  apologetical  work,  in  5  vols.):  "Le  grand 

Divmam  Sapientiam"  (Valencia,  1750),  and  "Oratio  p^rU  de  l^Eghse  de  France  au  XIX« sidcle^', and ^'His- 

de  lure  naturah  septentnonahum  Indorum  *'  (Valen-  tou«  de  Samt  Vincent  de  Paul"  (2  vols.).    A  volume 

cia.   1751).    The  date  and  pkce  of  his  death  are  of  his  discourses  was  published  by  his  brother, 

unknown.  He  was  a  preacher  and  writer  of  great  influence,  in 

Efn-itx^^sTE  ^SS::  i&Jfisp^^^S^er^S^^uJ^  «'"f^^°"=tVi^  appreciation  of  Su  noble  thoujjW 

(Mexico,  1816).  and  deeds,  his  deep  compassion  for  human  suffering, 

Ad.  F.  Bandelier.  his  great  power  of  reflection,  and  his  refined  artistic 

taste.    In  his  apolo^tics  he  evinces  thorough  sym- 

Boucher,  Pierre,   b.  at  Lagny,  a  village  near  pathy  with  his  own  tune  and  an  unwavering  nope  for 

Mortagne  in  the  Perche.  France,  1622;  d.  at  S)ucher-  the  triumph  of  the  Church.    His  purpose  was  to  adapt 

ville,  1717.     In  1634  ne  went  to  Canada  with  his  the  explanations  of  the  donnas,  precepts,  and  or- 

father    Gaspard  Boucher,  a  simple  joiner.     At  the  ganization  of  the  Church  to  t£e  moral  and  intellectual 


r 


BOUOSANT 


711 


BOUIX 


aspirations  of  his  contemporaries  without  any  sacri-  at  Saint-Qennain-des-Pr^,  against  the  Jesuit  hagiog- 

fice  of  Catholic  doctrine.  rapher  Du  Sollier,  who  in    nis  revised    edition   of 

Laorange.  iVortce  AwtoiW  w  Usuard's  martyrologv  had    paid  no    attention  to 

08^r  ^""^"^  ^   ^''  ^^^^'  ^^^^  «^Wt«e  de  Laval  ^y^  manuscript. 

ex    M   flAiTfrAnv  ^K  Lama,  Bwliothkque   des  (crivaina  de  la  congrSgaHon  de 

o.  m,  OAUVAQS.  SaxrU'Maur  (Munich  and  Paris,   1882).   128;   Ziboelbauer. 

Hist,  rei  lit,  O.  8.  B.  (Augsburg  and  WOraburg,  1754),  IV,  668; 

BoUgeaat,  GuILLATTMB-HyACINTHB,  b.  at  Quimper  H|?»ter,  Nomendatar  (Innsbruck,  1893),  II,  1201;   Le  Cerf, 

in  Brittany,  in  1690;  d.  at  Paris,  1743.  He  entered  f^Q.^^  ^^  ^-  **  ""^^^  ^'  ^ ""'  ^^  ^^  ^^"^  ^^^"^  ^**^® 
the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1706,  taught  the  classics  in  Michael  Ott. 
the  College  of  Caen  and  Nevers  and  lived  for  a  num- 
ber of  years  in  Paris  until  his  death.  His  "Amuse-  Bouillon,  Emmanuel  Theodore  de  la  Tour 
inent  philosophique  sur  le  langage  des  b^tes",  pub-  d'Auvergnb,  Cardinal  de,  French  prelate  and 
lished  in  1737,  became  a  cause  of  considerable  diplomat,  b.  24  August,  1643,  at  Turenne;  d. 
annoyance  to  him  and  of  a  short  exile  from  Paris.  2  March,  1715,  at  Rome.  The  son  of  Frederick 
It  was  translated  into  English,  Italian,  and  German.  Maurice,  Prince  of  Sedan,  he  was  of  the  famiiy  of 
His  historical  works,  on  the  Thirty  Years*  War,  the  great  Marshal  Turenne.  In  1658,  he  was  ap- 
and  on  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia  have  been  highly  pointed  a  canon  of  Li^ge;  doctor  of  the  Sor bonne 
praised  and  are  regarded  as  among  the  best  hi*-  m  1667;  created  a  cardinal  in  1669,  at  the  early 
torical  books  written  by  J^uits.  Tney  were  tran»-  age  of  twenty-four,  and,  finally,  provided  with 
lated  into  German.  He  is  also  the  author  of  a  several  rich  benefices  and  made  cliief  almoner  to 
theological  treatise  on  the  form  of  consecration  of  Louis  XIV.  But  Louvois,  the  powerful  minister 
the  Eucharist,  and  of  a  Catechism  divided  into  three  of  Louis  XIV,  inspired  by  enmity  to  the  house 
parts,  historical,  dogmatic,  and  practical.  This  cat-  of  Turenne,  successfully  opposed  certain  of  his 
echism,  translated  into  Italian  and  German,  went  demands  on  the  king  n>r  the  benefit  of  members 
through  many  editions  and  is  still  in  use.  In  his  of  his  family,  and  the  cardinal's  disappointment 
three  celebrated  Comedies,  "La  Femme  Docteur",  vented  itself  in  a  bitter  satire  on  his  royal  master. 
*'Le  Saint  d6nich6",  and  "Les  Quakres  frangais"  he  This  was  used  to  effect  Bouillon's  downfall  at  court, 
satirizes  the  Jansenists.  The  first  of  the  three  went  The  cardinal  then  put  forth  great  efforts  to  obtain 
through  twenty-five  editions  in  a  few  months  and  the  vacant  Prince-Bishopric  of  Li^ge,  but  could  not 
was  translat'Cd  into  Italian,  Spanish,  Polish,  and  overcome  the  opposition  of  Louvois,  who  secured 
Dutch.     Between  1725  and  1737  ne  contributed  many  the  dignity  for  Clement  Joseph  of  Bavaria.     Bouillon 


articles  to  the  M^moires  de  Tr^voux. 

SoMMERvoGBL,  Bibltothtgue  de  la  c,  de  /.,  I.  1873-^86. 

B.  Guldner. 

Bouhours,  Dominique,  French  Jesuit  author, 
b,  at  Paris,  15  May,  1632;  d.  27  May,  1702.  Enter- 
ing the  Society  of  Jesus  at  sixteen,  he  taught  gram- 
mar and  rhetoric  at  Paris,  Tours,  and  Kouen.  A 
number  of  works  which  he  composed  against  the 


eventually  regained  the  royal  favour  and  was  sent 
as  ambassador  to  Rome.  There,  contrary  to  the 
wishes  of  his  king,  he  championed  the  cause  of 
F^elon  against  that  of  Bossuet  and  did  all  he 
could  to  prevent  the  condemnation  of  F^nelon's 
"Explication  des  maximes  des  Saints".  He  was 
recalled  to  France,  but  alleging  as  a  reason  his 
duties  as  Dean  of  the  Sacred  College,  he  refused 


Jansenists,  notably  "  Lettre  H  un  Seigneur  Je  la  cour  "  ^J*Xn^«.!?L^  tt , JlJ^f  S^^l^JH  JTn"^ 

and  "Lettie^  Messieurs  de  Port-Royal'',  had  a  large  ^f    then    seized,    whereupon    he    submitted    and 

.""  ,  *^*'"*'  wixcooiculo  v*c  xv/*w    ^yj^     ,  *M*v. «  cw|^«  returned,  but,  on  his  amval  m  France,  was  exiled 

circulation,  and  gained  him  a  prominent  place  among  4ZiiJALv^,l.t^^!^T,l     wuJi^  ;«  fKiJ  r^^ir^r^J^ 

the  critics  knd  imrateurs  of  the  sevent^nth  centuiy:  J^i^l^^ilL  LflnTnf  ^f  vO^r  inn^^  f ^  .3fnaf 

He  also  translated  the  New  Testament  into  Frtnch,  ^,fj?^f^  ^^  *^.^^^^''^w^  r'i?^^ 

and  his  translation  has  often  been  reprinted.     He  is  25^^J^„^h? X^.i^n    H^w.^p-    nvr^ 

best  known  to  English  readers,  however,  by  his  "Vie  g^n^ogique    de    la    maison    d  Auvergne       (1708, 

^a  T^o^«" /'T>„«*o   lAT^o^^  "  2  vols,  m  fol.).     From  his  place  of  retreat,  also, 

^.^d^^lr^F^^h^^^^  on  the  breakmg  out  of  the  Wkr  of  the  Spanisfi  Suc^ 

^^U^r  eSu^  Xuil^sh^T&rn^iS  ^^  tJ^^J^ronr^^Ed  oTorrt^ 

I'^fer^^nTof^lfr  IM^^^^^^  ^^slX:  ^^ot^^^       t  St  a/te^T^ 

!^nKHlSH^Phil«^fln??«TfF  k^^  and  vainly^i)liciting  his  recaU  to  cou^t   he  fled  tS 

?n5  l^r^.  n^.^ W  S^^^^^  the  Low  Countri^  A  warrant  for  his  arrest  was 

raphies  of  the  two  saints.      The  only  other  of  tfe  ^^  ,  TI?^  whi.wL  l^i.f?Tnt^!f?h.Tni 

author's  works  done  into  English  is  "ia  mani^re  de  ^Zf^n^'^^n.n^rL     .nH™i^lT  t«Hfl    h^f 

bien  Denser  dans  les  ceuvr^  d'esprit",  which  ap-  ^^Tr^^J^fT^r^lJl^^^^ 

pearedin  London  in  1705  under  the  title,  "The  Art  conduct  he  at  last  succeeded  in  obtammg  the  restitu- 

6f  Criticism'*  """^'  ^^^  *'»^*^»     xi*c-fxiv  ^^^  ^^  j^  revenues  and  permission  to  take  up  his 

DoNdEux.  Un  iieuite  homme  de  lettree  au  xvii'  eiide  (Paris,  residence  at  Rome,   where  he  spent  m  peace  his 

1886):  Bibliothkque  de  la  c.  de  J.,  VII,    1886;    Dutouquet  last  days, 
in  Diet,  de  thiol,  calk.,  II,  1001.  De  FKLLB»-PfeaENNfea,fiM)a»-.  Gener.  (Paris,  1834),  II,  470. 

S.  H.  Frisbee.  Edward  A.  Gilliqan. 


Bouillart,  Jacques,  a  Benedictine  monk  of  the 
Congregation  of  St.-Maur,  b.  in  the  Diocese  of 
Chartres,  1669;  professed  at  the  Monastery  of  St. 
Faron  de  Meaux  1687,  d.  11  December,  1726.  He 
was  the  author  of  '^Histoire  de  I'abbaye  royale  de 
Saint-Germam-des-Pi«s "  (Paris,  1724).  This  valua- 
ble historv  of  the  celebrated  Benedictine  monastery 
contains  biographies  of  the  abbots  that  ruled  over  it 
since  its  foundation  by  Childeric  I  in  543  and  many 
important  historical  events  relative  to  the  famous  ab- 
bey. Bouillart  also  edited  a  martyrology  of  Usuard. 
In  this  pubhcation  he  attempts  to  establish  the  genu- 
ineness and  authenticity  of  the  manuscript  preserved 


Booix,  Marie  Dominique,  one  of  the  best  known 
and  most  distinguished  of  modem  French  canonists, 
b.  15  May,  1808,  at  Bagn^res-de-Bigorre,  in  the 
diocese  of  Tarbes;  d.  at  Montech,  France,  26  De- 
cember, 1870.  In  1825,  on  the  completion  of  his 
coUege  course  in  an  institution  of  his  native  towTi, 
he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  Avignon,  with  his 
brother  Marcel,  and  later  taught  the  classics  and 
occupied  chairs  of  philosophy  and  theology  in  houses 
of  the  order.  In  1842,  when  he  was  on  the  eve  of  his 
solemn  profession,  the  precarious  condition  of  his 
health  rendered  a  continuance  of  the  religious  life 
impossible,  and  he  obtained  permission  to  retire 


Boxnx  712    .  Bouix 

rom  the  Society.     This  necessary  withdrawal  was  teaching.    The  next  jnear,  when  the  royal  exequatw 
X  great  disappointment  to  Bouix,  who  to  the  end  of  came  up  for  discussion  in  the  French  Senate,  and 
his  life  maintained  the  most  cordial  relations  with  Archbisnop    Darboy  advocated  there  the  Gallican 
his  former  brethren  in  religion,  and  received  from  view,  Bouix  answered  with  a  publication  which  con* 
them  many  evidences  of  a  reciprocal  regard.    Father  ^  tested  the  correctness  of  the  archbishop's  contentions. 
Roothan,  Ueneral  of  the  Jesuits,  created  him  Qpctor  The  wonderful  activity  of  his  pen  continued  until 
of  Theology  in  1851,  in  virtue  of  a  power  delegated  1870.     Then,  when  he  was  broken  by  labour  and 
by  the  ^loly  See  to  Jesuit  generals;  and  Bouix's  disease  and  was  really  too  weak  to  undertake  a 
work,"Du   Uoncile   ProvinciaP',  published   in   1850,  long  journey,  he  went  to  the  Vatican  Council  as 
was  dedicated  to  members  of  the  order  with  whom  theologian  of  the  Bishop  of  Montauban,  and  was 
he  had  previously  been  associated  in  scholastic  work,  able  to  witness  what  appeared  to  him  a  signal  triumph 
The  first  two  years  of  his  life  as  a  secular  priest  were  of  the  principles  to  which  his  life  had  been  devoted, 
spent  in  a  curacy  at  the  church  of  Saint  Vincent  de  He  returned  with  difficulty  to  France,  where  with 
Paul,  in  Paris.    Here  he  interested  himself  especially  undaunted  spirit  he  endeavoiu^  to  complete  a  work 
in  the  soldiers  garrisoned  at  the  capital,  and  founded  on  the  Church,  which  he  had  already  planned.    It 
in  their  behalf  the  Society  of  Saint  Maurice,  which  was  while  engaged  on  this  work  that  death  overtook 
later  spread  throughout  France.     In  1847  he  was  him  at  Montecn,  in  a  religious  house  of  which  his 
named  to  a  chaplaincy,  and  became  editor  of  the  sister  was  superior.    His  life  was  a  long  battle  with 
"Voix  de  la  Vent^",  to  which  he  had  already  been  GaUicanism,   but   always  remained   singularly  free 
a  frequent  contributor.    In  spite  of  the  fact  that  sdl  from  bitterness  and  discontent,  in  spite  of  the  diffi- 
self-seeking  was  entirel^^  foreign  to   his  character,  culties  by  which  he  was  beset  and  the  atmosphere 
he  now  became  a  prominent  ^^ure  in  the  political  of  combat  which  his  zeal  forced  him  to  breathe, 
and  ecclesiastical  life  of  Paris  and  was  a  member  As  to  his  reputation  as  a  canonist,  while  all  must 
of  the  educational  commission  with  Montalembert  acknowledge  his  wonderful  productivity  and  his  high 
and   Monsignor   Parisis.     General   Cavaignac,   who  .  purpose,  and  while  he  has  been  justly  called  the  re- 
aspired  to  the  presidency  of  the  republic,  thought  storer  of  the  science  of  canon  law  in  France,  it  must 
it  wise  to  endeavour  to  enlist  the  sympathies  of  Bouix.  nevertheless  be  said  that  he  falls  short  of  being  a 
It  was  at  this  time,  in  1848,  that  his  first  book  ap-  great  canonist;  he  is  too  often  a  compiler  rather  l£an 
peared,  combating  an  heretical  organization  known  a  genuine  author,,  and  he  too  frequently  betrays  a 
as  the  CEuvre  de  la  Mis^ricorde.     In  1849  his  zeal  lade  of  that  juridical  sense  which  comes  more  from 
impelled  him  to  abandon  for  a  time  all  other  pursuits  practice  than  from  theory,  and  which  begets  the 
to  minister  to  the  victims  of  the  cholera,  which  was  ability  to  pronounce  justly  on  the  lawfulness  and 
then  epidemic  in  Paris.     Up  to  this  time  he  had  unlawfulness   of   existing  practices.     However,  the 
stood  high  in  the  favour  of  the  ecclesiastical  au-  valueof  his  works  cannot  be  questioned,  and  is  proved 
thorities  of  the  diocese,  but  now  an  event  occurred  by  the  general  favour  which  they  still  enjoy.     Be- 
which  was  destined  to  affect  seriously  his  ecclesias-  sides  many  articles,  contributed  to  newspapers  and 
tical  status  and  to  give  a  new  direction  to  his  life  reviews,    esf>ecially    to    the    "  Revue    des     sciences 
work.      Monsignor    Fomari,   the  Nuncio   at   Paris,  eccl^iastiques*',  we  owe  to  the  pen  of    Bouix  the 
desiring   to    further    the   restoration   of   provincial  following  works:  "Du  concile  provincial*' (published 
councils,   held   a   conference   with   Bouix   and   the  also  in  Xatin  translation,  De  Concilio  Provinciali); 
Bollandist  Van  Hecke,  at  which  it  was  decided  that  "Tractatus  de  Principiis  Juris  Canonici";  "Tractatus 
the  best  means  of  influencing  public  opinion  aright  de    Capitulis";    "Tractatus    de    Jure    Liturgico"; 
would  be  the  preparation  of  a  book  explaining  the  "Tractatus    de    Judiciis    Ecclesiasticis*',    2    vols.; 
law  of  the  Church  on  provincial  councils.     Bouix  "Tractatus  de  Parocho";  "Tractatus  de  Jure  Re^- 
was  charged  with  this  important  work,  and   first  larium",  2  vols,   (an  abridged  translation  of  which 
published    in   the  "Univers"   four  articles,  setting  appeared  in  German);    "Tractatus   de  Episcopo", 
forth  the  salient  features  of   the  question  and  pre-  2  vols.;  "Tractatus  de  CuriA  Romanft";  "Tractatus 
paring  the  public  for  the  complete  treatise,      Du  de  Papa",  3  vols.;    "La  v^rit^  sur  I 'assemble  de 
ConciTe   Provincial",   which  appeared   in   1850.     A  1682";     "I^e    pr^tendu    droit    d'exequatur";    "La 
fifth  article  in    the  "Univers   ,  simply  rea:ffirming  v^rit^  sur  la  faculty  de  th^ologie  de  Paris,  de  1663 
the  canon  law  on  synods  and  combating  therefore,  k  1682"  ;  "L'CEuvre  de  la  mis^ricorde";  "M6dita- 
in  the  judgment  of  some,  the  tendencies  of  Gallican-  tions  pour  tous  les  jours  de  I'ann^",  4  vols.;  "Le 
ism,  was  followed  immediately  by  the  loss  of  his  solitaire    des    rochers";     "Histoire    des    vingt-six 
chapjaincy.     This  event  determined  him  to  devote  martyrs  de  Japon,"  2  vols.    Several  of  his  works  were 
his  life  to  dispelling  the  prejudices  and  errors  which  honoured  with  pontifical  letters  6f  commendation, 
he  believed  had  largely  infected  the  clergy  of  France  and  most  of  his  canonical  treatises  have  gone  through 
in  regard  to  matters  of  law  and  discipline.    To  equip  three  editions, 
himself  for  this  work  he  turned  his  steps  towarcls  ^  Hurter,    iSTomenctotor   LtteroWu*.    III.    1424;    Schtji-tb, 

Rome  where   vnth  no  other  meani,  of  supjxjrt  than  gjf&ti ^SSJS  iJi^iw^TilMilrx^ffri2«: 
the  stipend  of  his  daily  Mass,  he  passed  the  next  John  T.  Creagh. 

four  years  (1851-55)  in  study  and  in  the  preparation 

of  the  several  works  on  canonical  topics.    In  1854,        Marcel,  author,  editor,  and  translator,  brother  of 

the  de^ee  of  Doctor  of  Both  Laws  was  conferred  Marie  Dominique  Bouix,  was  bom  at  Bagn^res-tie- 

upon  him  by  order  of  Pius  IX.    Returning  to  Paris  Bigorre,  France,  25  June,  1806;  d.  at  Paris,  28  De- 

in  1855,  he  continued  his  studies,  and  added  to  the  cember,  1889.     He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  a* 

series  of  treatises  which  established  his  fame  as  a  the  age  of  nineteen  and  taught  in  the  colleges  of 

canonist.     To  further  the  great  purpose  to  which  the  ^ciety  in  Spain  and  Switzerland.     He  spent 

he  had  consecrated  his  life,  he  founded  at  Arras,  some  years  of  his  life  in  the  exercise  of  the  sacred 

in  1860,  the  "Revue  des  sciences  eccldsiastiques ",  ministry,  but  the  work  to  which  he  devoted  him- 

of  which  he  was  for  one  year  the  editor,  and  in  which  self  for  nearly  forty  years  was  the  translation,  re- 

during  the  next  nine  years  many  important  articles  vision,  and  publication  of  new  editions  of  the  great 

appe^^  from  his  pen.     In  18o4,  just  as  his  anti-  spiritual  writers.    These  he  enriched  with  introdue- 

(jallican  opinions  were  about  to  subject  him  to  new  tions,  commentaries,  and  historical   notes  of  great 

rigours  at  the  hands  of  Monseigneur  Darboy,  Bouix  value.     His  various  editions  of  the  life  and  worKs  of 

was  named  Vicar-General  of  the  Diocese  of  Versailles,  St.  Teresa,  to  the  study  and  translation  of   which 

a  sufficient  commentary  on  the  division  of  opinion  he  gave  sixteen  years  of  his  life,  from  1848  to  1864 

in  the  French  episcopate  as  to  the  character  of  his  called  a  remarkable  revival  of    interest   in   thi 


B0ULAIHVILLIXB8  713  BOULAHOIB 

Teat   Carmelite    refonner.     His    "Vie   de   Sainte  wealthy  plebeians,  who  were  not  noble,  but,  according 

rh^rdse,  6crite  par  elle-m&ne"  (Paris,  1862),  passed  to  BoulainvillierB,  "ignoble",  thus  beoai^e  the  owners 

'    through  twelve  editions,  and  was  translated  into  of  fees  and,   by  introducing  themselves  into   the 

German  and  Dutch.     His  "(Euvres  de  Sainte  Th6-  nobility,  corrupted  it.    Next  came  the  ignorance  of 

r^se",  in  three  volumes  (Paris,  1852-54-56),  reached  the  lords  or  owners.    The  ignorance  and  negligence 

a  third  edition  in   1860.   "(Euvres  spirituelles  du  of  the  lords  rendering  them  generally  incompetent 

Saint    Pierre    d'Alcantara"    (Paris,    1862),    Father  to  discharge  the  functions  that  rightfully  belonged 

Caraffa's  "School  of  Divine  Love"  (Lyons,  1863),  to  them,  the  principal  of  which  was  to  dispense 

and  a  new  translation  of  "The  Following  of  Christ"  justice  in  their  fees,  they  soon  transferred  all  their 

(Poitiers,  1864)  are  three  of  the  ei^t  works  issued  judicial  authority  to  clerks  or  jurists.     Thanks  to 

in  two  years.    Revised  editions  of  Father  Mumford's  the  dignity  of  their  r61e,  these  clerks  or  jurists  soon 

"Purgatory"   (Paris,  1863),  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales'  became  as  important  as  the  lords  and  thus  originated 

"Treatise  on  the  Love  of  God"  (Paris,  1864),  and  of  the  noblesse  de  la  robe  (nobility  of  the  long  robe)  which 

"The  Spiritual  Works  of  St.  Francis  Bor^a"  (Paris,  Boulainvilliers  considers  a  monstrosity. 
1869)  are  valuable  contributions  to  ascetic  theology.        Finally  came  the  policy  of  the  Ca|>etian  Kings 

"Saint  Joseph  d'apr^  les  saints  et  les  maltres  dela  which  Boulainvilliers  regards  as  chiefly  instrument 

vie  spirituelle"  (Paris,  1863)  is  Father  Bouix's  own  in  ruining  feudalism  and  therefore  th&French  nation, 

original  contribution  to  religious  literature.    One  of  This  policy  consisted  in  adding  the  great  fees  to  the 

his  most  valuable  services  was  the  publication,  for  royal  domain  by  reason  of  conquest,  purchase,  or 

the  first  time,  of  the  "Memoriale"  of  Pierre  Lefdvre,  marriage,  with  the  result  that  the  Kings  of  France 

(Bl.  Peter  Faber)  one  of  the  first  companions  of  St.  Ig-  assum^    an    importance    theretofore    unknown    to 

natius  Loyola,  in  the  original  Latin  and  in  a  French  them,  and  whicn  soon  became  entirely  dispropor- 

translation  (Paris,  1873).     This  work  was  translated  tionate;  while  the  lords,  fascinated  by  the  bnlliancy 

into  English  by  Father  H.  J.  Coleridge,  S.J.  (London,  of  the  royal  courts,  instead  of  remaming  the  peers 

1873).    Father  Bouix  translated  into  French  the  let-  of  these  Kings,  became  their  servants.     The  kinss 

tersofSt.  Ignatius  (Paris,  1870)  and  Father  du  Font's  diminished   the  power  of  the   French   nobles  stili 

"Life  of  Father  Alvarez"    (Paris,  1873).     He  pub-  more  by  favouring  the  emancipation  of  the  com- 

lished  the  "(Euvres  spirituelles"  of  Father  Jean^o-  munes  and  raising  to  the  ranks  of  the  nobility  i>le- 

seph  Surin  in  three  volumes  (Paris,  1879-82).     The  beians  whom  they  entrusted  with  hiffh  offices  to  which 

translation  of  Leonard  Lessius's  "Les  noms  divins"  they  had  no  right.     Moreover,  they  admitted  to 

(Paris,  1882)  was  one  of  the  last  works  from  the  seats  in  the  States  General,  which  should  have  been 

pen  of  this  indefatigable  writer,  whose  many  years  composed  exclusively  of  representatives  of  the  French, 

of  labour  enriched  the  literature  of  France  with  pop-  delegates  from  amone  the  lower  clergy  and  liberated 

ular  spiritual  books  of  sound  Catholic  theology.  serfs,  and  of  course  this  arbitrary  measure  completed 

DuTODQUET  in  Diet,  de  thioL  eatk.,  II,  1091-^2;  Bommrb-  the  overthrow  of  the  nobility.     Such  then,  is  the 

vooKL,  BtW.,  1. 1922-28.  PATRICK  H  Kelly  teaching  set  forth   in   Boulainvilliers's  three  most 

.  .  important  works:  "Histoire  de  Tancien  gouveme- 

Boulainyilllerfl,  Henri,  Count  of,  b.  at  Saint-  ment  de  France",  "Lettres  sur  les  Parlements  ou 

Saire    (Seine-Inf^rieure)  France,   11    October,   1658;  Etats-G6n6raux",  and    "Essais    sur    la    noblesse" 

d.  at  Paris,  23  January,  1722.    He  was  One  of  the  first  which,  taken  as  a  whole,  constitute  an  earnest  plea 

French  hiirtorians  to  write  the  history  of  the  institu-  for  feudalism  against  monarchism.     These  works, 

tions  or  fundamental  laws  of  the  nation  and,  although  written    by    Boulainvilliers    for    his    grandchildren, 

systematic  and  decidedljr  partial,  was  none  the  less  did  not  appear  until  after  his  death.    The  "Histoire 

a  pioneer  in  this  particular  line  of  work.     Until  de  I'ancien  gouvemement  de  la  France"  with  four- 

the  death  of  his  father  in  1697,  he  followed  a  military  teen  historical  "  Lettres  sur  les  Parlements  ou  Etats- 

career,  but  some  complications  concerning  an  estate  G6n6raux"  were  published  in  Amsterdam  and  the 

obliged  him  to  make  a  close  investigation  of  his  Hague  in  1727,  the  "Essais  sur  la  noblesse"  (con tain- 

famuy  titles  and  this  it  was  that  led  to  his  becoming  ing  a  dissertation    by  the  late  Count  of  Bqulain- 

an  historian.    Like  Saint-Simon,  Boulainvilliers  was  viUiers  on  the  origin  and  decline  of  the  nobility)  com- 

saturated  with  ultra-aristocratic  notions  and  was  ing  out  in  Amsterdam,  1732.    It  is  only  within  the 

also  an  ardent  adherent  of  the  old  feudal  system,  last  twenty-five  jrears  that  Boulainvilliere*  works  have 

his  books  beine  a  long,  violent  tirade  against  the  been  duly  api)reciated  and  their  conclusions  taken  up 

French  monarchy   which,   according  to   nim,   was  by  the  historic  school  of  which  Fustel  de  Coulanges 

responsible  for  the  gradual  ruin  of  the  privileges  was  the  chief  representative. 
of  the  nobility  and  the  annihilation  of  feudalism.  Ren^.  Doumic. 

The  panks,  according  to  Ws  doctrine,  este^^^  Boulanger,  Andr^  db   (Petit-Perb  AndrI:),  a 

themselves  m  ^aiJ  by  "gh^^  FrenchmSnk  and  preacher   b.  at  Paris  in  1578;  d. 

^ifiSl  l^tlTixTTh!^^^^              fif.  F^^^^h  wS^  27  September,  1657     He  wiU  the  son  of  a  Presic/ent 
puWic  authonty.   T^^^^^  of  the>arlem4nt  (High  Court)  of  Paris.    At  an  early 
thev   are   Frenchmen.     Every   Frenchman   is   free  age  he  entered  the  AV»8tinian  Order  and  became  a 
,    and'  mdependent   is  supreme  in  his  domam    m  hu,  ^u.^^^^  preacher,&  heard  for  over  half  a  cen- 
fE«,  where  he  iuhmnist^rs  jusi^ice  to  h^^  turyinmostof  the  gr^at  pipits  of  France.    Boulanger 
The  king  IS  merely  a  ciyd  ma^strate  chosen  to  se^^  ^  period  when  the  jocose  style  of  preach- 
the  disputes  of  private  mdiviauals;  he  has  no  special  .       -^^^^^  y,    g^eh  men  is  Menot'^and  Maillard, 
power  over  the  hfe,  property,  or  J.^^e'^o^.  <>\^  ^[  »j^^  ^„/j^^  ^^^  1         ^^  ^^  ^^^  burlesque 
frenchmen  who  are  m  no  wise  Ins  sulx>rdmates.  ^otwitKding  its  bad  tasteT  in  his  own  preachfng. 
Frenchmen  who  belong  to  the  nobih^  are  all  on  aii  j    .^  .^^^  ^^  ^^.^  ^^  ^    ^^      ^^^  has  preservS 
eouality:  they  are  the  peers  of  the  kins;  and  of  hw  ^               ^^        ^^^  ^  BoUlanger  wh^.  speak- 
relatives.    Relationship  with  kings  confers  no  rank  .       ^  ^  j^^    .  ^^^  ^^^  witticisms,  he  ^^^: 
even  upon  descendants  in  the  male  Ime.     Such  is  ^   ^,                      ,.         l^-  _x.i 
the  feudal  system  as  claimed  by  BoulainviUiers  to           W^^^  *^  palais  en  h^nssa  son  ^le, 
be  the  only  one  that  is  just,  legitimate,  and  con-           Et  le  docteur  en  chau^  en  sema  1  Evangile. 
formable  to  the  reality  of  history.  — "The  style  of  the  advocate  in  court  bristles  with 
Now,  what  caused  Frenchmen  or  nobles  to  be  them  and  the  doctor  in  the  pulpit  scatters  them 
dispossessed    of  their  rights?     First,  the  Crusades,  through  the  Gospel. "   Father  Andre's  style  of  preach- 
To  defray  the  expenses  of  these  expeditions  many  ing  may  be  judged  from  the  following  example.    In 
noblemen  either  mortgaged  or  sold  their  fees  and  one  of  ms  passages  he  thus  comparea  the  four  great 


BOULAT  714  BOULOC^HE 

Doctors  of  the  Latin  Church  to  the  kings  of  the  four  ArchlMshop  of  Paris  interdicted  him  from  preach^ 
suits  of  cards*  St.  Augustine  to  the  Kin^  of  Hearts,  ing;  but  was  eventually  induced  to  withdraw  hi£ 
because  of  his  laree-heartedness;  St.  Ambrose  to  the  opposition  when  a  eulogy  composed  by  the  Ahhi 
Kingof  Clubs  (ir^,  clover),  on  account  of  his  flowery  Boulogne  on  the  late  Dauphin,  the  father  of  Louis 
eloquence;  St.  Jwome  to  the  King  of  Spades  (pigt^e,  XVI,  obtained  a  prize.  The  Abb6's  reputation  as  a 
lance),  because  of  his  biting  style;  St.  Gregory  the  preacher  now  grew  steadily.  He  preached  the 
Great  to  the  King  of  Diamonds  (carreau,  in  the  sense  Lenten  sermons  aux  Quinze-Vingts  m  1786,  and 
of  "  foot-stool ")  on  accoimt  of  his  lowliness  of  thought,  at  the  court  of  Versailles  in  1787.  In  one  of  his 
However,  this  exaggeration  of  speech  was  but  one  sermons  at  court  he  clearl^r  pointed  out  the  fearful 
side,  and  that  theleast  important  one,  of  Father  storm  which  was  threatening  society,  brought  on 
Andre's  eloquence.  Tallemant  des  E4aux  said:  ''He  bv  the  false  philosophy  and  irreligion  of  the  day. 
was  a  good  member  of  his  order  and  had  a  laree  fol-  Tne  storm  advanced  imchecked  and  broke  over 
lowing  of  all  sorts  of  people;  some  came  to  Tau^h,  France  sooner  and  with  greater  violence  than  had 
others  came  because  he  moved  them."  The  cntio  been  foreseen,  except  by  the  keenest  observers.  Bou- 
Gu^ret,  who  had  heard  the  facetious  monk,  repre-  logne  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  the  civil  constitu- 
sents  him,  in  a  dialogue  of  the  dead,  as  saying  in  his  tion  of  the  clerj^  demanded  by  the  laws  and  was  in 
own  defence  against  nis  accuser  Cardinal  du  Jrerron:  consequence  stripped  of  his  titles  and  benefices. 
"Joker  as  you  take  him  to  be,  he  has  not  alwavs  He  also  refused  to  leave  his  country  in  her  need, 
made  those  laugh  who  heard  him;  he  has  said  truths  He  was  arrested  three  times,  but  each  time  succeeded 
which  have  sent  bishops  back  into  their  dioceses.  He  in  recovering  his  liberty;  condemned  to  deportation 
has  found  the  art  of  stinging  while  laughing."  The  on  another  occasion  for  having  defended  Christian- 
Regent  Anne  of  Austria  and  the  Prince  of  Cond^  en-  ity  against  the  attacks  of  Larevelli^re  L^peaux,  he 
joyed  his  sermons.  Boulanger  was  several  times  again  evaded  the  unjust  decree.  The  worst  of  the 
provincial  of  his  order  and  much  occupied  in  other  revolutionary  storm  nad  scarcely  blown  over  when 
ways  J  consequently  he  was  not  able  to  attend  to  the  he  reappeared,  contending  in  tlie  "Annales  Catho- 
printmg  of  his  works.  The  only  one  of  his  writings  liques*  ,  of  which  he  had  become  the  sole  editor,  with 
which  has  been  published,  "L'Oraison  de  Marie  oe  unbelievers  and  those  of  the  clergy  who  had  taken 
Lorraine,  abbesse  de  Chelles",  is  mediocre.  the  oath  of  the  civil  constitution.      In  spite  of  in- 

GofeRET,  La  ffuerre  dea  atUeur$  anciens  et  modernea  (Paris,  cessant  and  fierce  opposition  he  published  this  mag- 

^o^L^rpLri^'^S.^r*        P^^*^'^'  ^"^  ^"^"^  «^  "''"^  azine  under  one  title  or  another  until  the  year  1807. 

A.  FouRNET.  ^^  ^^  resumed  his  labours  as  preacher  with  greater 

V    /^ ,        T^  T^       i_  authority  and  success  than  ever.     Napoleon,  always 

Boulay   (Bul^us),  Cesar-Eoasse   du,  a  French  jn  search  of   men  of   talent  who  were  capable  of 

historian,  b.  in  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  furthering  his  ambitious  designs,  first  appointed  the 

century  at  Saint-EUier  (department  of    Mayenne);  Abb6  Boulogne  his  chaplain,  then  Bishop  of  Troyes. 

d.  16  October,  1678.     After  teaching  humanities  in  The  Abb6  foresaw  clearly  that  his  position  would  be 

the  College  of  Navarre  he  occupied  important  posi-  one  of  great    difficulty;    but    already  schooled    to 

tions  m  the  University  of  Pans,  especially  those  of  adversity,  he  did  not  shrink  from  the  new  trials 

rector  and  historian  of  the  university.     His  main  ^hich  awaited  him. 

work    is   the    "Historia    Uni versitatU    Parisiensis "        In  1811  Napoleon  had  the  bishop- of  France  and 

covenng  the  pcnod  from  the  supposed  foundation  Northern  Italy  summoned  to  a  council  to  be  held  at 

of  the  university  by  Charlemagne  (800)  to   1600.  Paris.     Bishop     Boulogne    preached     the    opening 

The   first   three   volumes   published   in    1665   were  sermon  in  the  church  of  Notre  Dame.     "Whatever 

censured  by  the  umversity.     To  justify  himself  the  vicissitudes",  he  said  in  conclusion, " tlie  See  of  Peter 

author  wrote  the  "Not®  ad  censuram  .  .  ."  (Pans,  may  experience,  whatever  be  the  state  and  condition 

1667).     The  censors  appointed  by  the  king  found  of  £is  august  successor,  we  shall  firmly  cling  to  him 

nothing  blameworthy   in   the   work,   and   the   last  ^ith  bonds  of  filial  respect  and  reverence;  the  See 

three  volumes  were  published  m  1673.     Du  Boulay's  may  be  displaced,  it  cannot  be  destroyed:    wher^ 

history  is  very  important  on  account  of  the  many  ^ver  that  See  may  be,  the  others  wiU  take  their  stand 

onginal   documents    which    it    reproduces,    but   its  around  it;  whithersoever  that  See  moves,  thither  all 

value  IS  lessened  by  the  insufficient  judgment  and  Catholics  wiU  follow;  for  there  alone  is  the  last  link 

criticism    of    the    author.     Other    wntings    of    Du  of  true  succession;  there  the  centre  of  the  Church's 

Boulay  refer  to  the  same  topic  of  the  umversitv,  lis  government;  there,  the  deposit  of  Apostolic  tradi- 

foundation,  patrons,  admmistration,  and  privileges:  tion."     It  is  easy  to  see  how  distasteful  these  cour- 

"  De    patronis     quatuor     nationum    univereitatis "  ageous  words,  which  produced  a  profound  impression 

(1662);  "  Carlomagnoha  ..."  (1662);  "Dedecanatu  on  the  assembly,  must  have  been  to  Napoleon  who, 

nationis  Gallicanaj  .  .  ."    (1662);   "Remarques  sur  ^t  this  very  time,  waa  holding  Pius  VII  in  captivity 

la    dignity,    rang  .  .  .  du    recteur       (1668);    \B^  away  from  Rome  and  waa  using  his  wonted  violence 

marques  sur  1  flection  des  officiere  de  1  Universit6  and  deception  to  extort  from  the  assembled  prelates 

(1668)  ;"Recueil  des  pnvildges  del  Umversitv  ..."  ^  decision  that  would  enable  him  to  do  without 

(1674);     Fondation  de  TUniversit^  par  Tempereur  ecclesiastical  investiture  for  the  bishops  of  his  choice, 

Charlemagne  .  .  .       (1675).     In    addition   to   these  Yet  this  displeaeure  did  not  prevent  the  assembled 

Du  Boulay  wrote   "Speculum  eloquentise"    (1658)  bishops  from  choosing  the  preacher  as  secretary  of 

and  "  Tr^sor  des  antiquity  romaines  "  (1651 ).  the  council  and  member  of  the  committee  on  the  reply 

c.j;^rA^^^o?J!f^^^^^^^  to    the    imperial    message.     When    tliis    committee 

Nomendator  (2<i  ed..  Innsbruck,  1893).  II,  241;  Biographie  reported  that  there  was  no  authonty  m  France  that 

wiiveraeiu  (Paris,  1811-28).  V,  326;  pKmFhE,  the  ErUstehung  could  supply,  even  provisionally  and  for  a  case  of 

der  UmveraxiOUn  dea  MittelaUera  Ina  1400  (Berhn.  l^)-  DCCessityrthe  absence  of  the  popc's  Bulls  of  episoo- 

•  '  pal  investiture,  Napoleon  dissolved  the  council  and 

Boulogne,  Etienne-Antoine,  French  bishop,  b.  at  that  very  night  Bishop  Boulogne  was  arrested  and 

Avignon,  26  December,  1747;  d.  at  Troyes,  13  March,  imprisoned.     He  waa  not  restored  to  his  flock  before 

1825.     He  was  the  son  of  poor  parents  and  obtained  the    events    of    1814.     During    the    first    Bourbon 

an  education  from  the  Christian  Brothers  of  his  native  Restoration,  he  waa  chosen  to  preach  the  funeral 

city.     He  exhibited  talent  and  industry  and  was  oration    of    Louis    XVI,  and,  at    the    second,   he 

ordained  in   1771.      His  oratorical  gifts  attracted  preached,  6  January,  1816,  his  well-known  sermon 

general  attention,  and  he  soon  became  one  of  the  "La  France  veut  son  Dieu,  la  France  veut  son  roi*'. 

most  admired  preachers  in  Paris.     For  a  while  the  Louis  XVIII  made  him  peer  of  France  and  Leo  XII 


Cited  him  the  title  of  arofabiBhop  beatowinx  on  where  he  could  more  easily  supervise  the  pubHoatioii 

the  pallium.    Up  to  the  Uwt  he  exercised  the  of  his  work.     He  brought  out  eight  volumes  between 

ministry  ot  thevrordof  God  with  remarkable  leal  and  I73S  »nd  1752,     The  greater  part  of  the  material  for 

talent.      Hia  writings,  literary,  historical,  and  apolo-  the  ninth   volume  was  ready  when   Bouquet  died 

getie,  disclose  unusuid  soundness  and  strength  of  mind.  (1764),  after  receiving  the  last  rites  of  the  Church. 

fE"™/"  J»'^if^*!''''?ES,f''¥';\>T^,^i*'j^5?,"5V'™"'  "**"         The  eight  voluraee  published  comprise  the  sources 

*"'  ^  '  '^'^  'P--  '«^'.  ^^^•£4^'^|cHRA^.  of  .th«  history  of  France  from  the  earliest  days  of  its 

-,     ,  r,  n       .  m_    T.  existence  to  the  year  987.     The  work  was  continued 

Boulogne,  Diocese  op.    See  Ahrab,  The  Diocese  by  other  membera  of  the  Congn^ation  of  St.-Maur 

"'■  in  the  following  order:  vols.  IX-X  were  published 

Bouquet,  Martin,  a  learned  Benedictine  of  the  by  the  two  brothers,  John  and  Charles  Haudiquier; 
Congregation  of  St.-Maur,  b.  at  Amiens,  France,  vol.  XI,  by  Housaeau,  Pr^ieux,  and  Poirier:  vols. 
6  August,  1685;  d.  at  the  monsstery  of  Blsjios-Man-  XII-XIII,  by  ClSment  and  Brial;  vols.  XIV-XVIIl, 
teaux,  in  Paris,  6  April,  1754.  When  a  boy  he  re-  by  Brisl.  The  remaining  five  volimies  were  pub- 
solved  to  enter  the  secular  priesthood.  Subsequently,  lished  bv  the  Acad^mie  des  Inscriptions  which  com- 
however,  not  wishing  to  expose  hia  aou!  to  the  dan-  pleted  tne  work  in  1876.     A  new  edition  in  twenty- 

Sars  of  the  worid,  he  determined  to  become  a  Bene-  five    volumes,    undertaken    by    Leopold    Delisle,    a 

ictine.      The  Congr^^tlon  of  St.-Maur   was   then  member    of    the    Acad^mie    des    Inscriptions,    has 

in   ite  most  flourishing  condition.     Bouquet  joined  raarhed  t.hn  t.wr-ntv.fnnrt.h  vnlninB 
this  congr^ation  and  took  vowa  at  the  monastery 
of  St.-Faron,  at  Meaux,  16  August,  1706. 

Shortly  after  his  elevation  to  the  priesthood  his 
superiois  appointed  him  librarian  at  the  monastery 
of  St.-Gormain-des-Prfe  which  at  that  time  possessed 
a  Hbrary  of  60,000  books  and  8,000  manuscripts. 
Being  well  versed  in  the  Greek  language,  Bouquet 

was  of  great  assistance  to  his  confrere,  Bernard  de  ii.,^n  „,  m-. 
Montfaucoc,  in  his  edition  of  the  works  of  St.  Chrysoa-  Michael  utt. 
torn.  He  himself  was  preparing  a  new  edition  of  the  Bouquillon,  Thouas,  b.  at  Wameton,  Belgium, 
Jewish  historian,  Fiavius  Joaepnus,  and  had  already  16  May,  1840;  d.  at  Brussels,  5  November,  1902; 
progressed  far  in  his  work  when  he  heard  that  the  a  Belgian  theologiau,  and  at  the  time  of  his  death 
Dutch  writer,  Sigebert  Haverkamp,  was  engaged  on  professor  of  moral  theology  in  tlie  Catliolic  Uni- 
a  new  edition  of  the  same  author.  He  at  once  sent  veraity  of  America,  The  second  son  among  five 
all  the  material  he  had  collected  to  Haverkamp,  who  children  in  a  family  of  small  landholders  long  es- 
erabodied  it  in  his  edition.  Bouquet's  greatest  work,  tabliahed  at  Wameton  near  Yprea,  he  received  his 
however,  is  his  collection  of  the  historians  of  Gaul  eariy  education  in  local  scliools  and  in  the  College 
and  France,  entitled:  "Rerum  Oallicarum  et  Fran-  of  St.  Louis  at  Menin.  His  course  in  philosophy 
cicaruni  Scriptores".  was  made  at  Roulers;  in  theology,  at  the  seminary 
Attempts  to  oollcct  the  sources  of  French  history  of  Bruges.  Having  entered  the  Gregorian  University 
had  been  made  at  various  times.  Thus  Pierre  in  Rome,  in  1863,  he  was  ordained  priest  in  1865 
Pithou  (d.  1596)  had  collected  some  material,  and  and  made  doctor  of  theology  in  1S67.  After  ten 
Andrd  Ducheene  {d,  1640)  had  begun  a  work  entitled  yeare  in  the  Bruges  seminary  (1867-77)  and  eight 
"Historia!  Francorum  Scriptores  ,  to  be  published  years  in  the  Catholic  University  of  Lille,  Frence, 
In  twenty-tour  volumes,  but  died  before  finishing  as  professor  of  moral  theology.  Dr.  Bouquillon  re- 
the  Hfth  volume.  Colbert,  the  great  French  minister  tired  to  the  Benedictine  monastery  at  Maredsous 
of  finance,  desired  to  have  Duchesne's  work  continued  and  devoted  his  energies  to  the  preparation  of  the 
at  the  eJtpense  of  the  State,  but  he  died  in  1883  with-  second  edition  of  his  treatise  on  fundamental  moral 
out  finding  a  suitable  historian  to  complete  what  theology,  a  work  which  fixes  him  permanently  among 
Duchesne  nad  begun.  In  1717,  D'Aguesseau,  who  the  great  men  in  the  history  of  that  science.  He 
was  then  ehanceltir,  entrusted  to  the  Benedictine,  accepted  the  cliair  of  moral  tlicology  in  the  CatljoUc 
Edmond  Mart^ne,  the  drawing  up  of  a  new  plan  for  University  at  Washington  in  1889,  where  ha,  re- 
the  work.  The  desisn  was  accepted  and  the  Orato-  mained  until  his  death  in  1902.  He  was  one  of  the 
nan  LeLoDi  who  had  just  finished  his  "BibliothSque  most  eminent  theologians  of  his  time,  a  man  of 
historique  de  la  France"  was  entrusted  with  the  prodigious  erudition  in  theology,  history  of  theology, 
task.  He  had  scarcely  begun  vihea  death  put  an  end  church  history,  canon  law,  and  bibliography, 
to  his  labours  in  1721.  Though  never  in  robust  health,  he  was  a  tireless 
The  Congregation  of  St.-Maur  now  undertook  the  student,  marked  by  quiet,  simple  habits,  deep  faith, 
Liblication  of  the  work  and  Dionysius  de  Sainte-  bread  sympathies,  and  great  concentration.  Wlien 
_  !arthe,  who  was  then  superior-general  of  the  con-  he  entered  the  field  of  moral  theology  he  found  the 
gre^ation,  placed  Bouuuet  in  cna^e  of  the  under-  science  enjoying  no  prestige,  dwmdled  to  mere 
taking.  Because  Ducneene's  five  volumes  bad  compilations  of  conclusions  t«  the  neglect  of  prin- 
become  rare,  Bouquet  began  an  entirely  new  work  ciples.  It  was  out  of  touch,  consequently,  with 
and  had  the  first  two  volumes  ready  for  print  in  1729,  the  closely  related  dogmatic  and  advancing  social 
but  their  publication  was  delayed.  Some  monks  of  sciences,  and  the  methods  employed  in  teaching  it 
the  Cbiup-M^tion  of  St.-Maur  refused  to  submit  to  were  far  from  perfect.  In  hie  whole  career  as  pro- 
the  Bull  "Unigenitus"  which  was  directed  against  fessor  and  author  he  aimed  to  rescue  moral  theology 
Queenel.  Bouquet  submitted  after  some  heeitation.  from  that  condition  and  to  restore  to  it  its  proper 
When,  however.  Cardinal  De  Bissy  required  the  scientifie  method  and  dogmatic  dignity.  He  em- 
monks  of  St.-Germain-des-Pt^  to  sign  a  formula  of  phasized  strongly  the  historical  and  sociological 
submission  drawn  up  by  himself,  Bouquet  and  seven  aspects  of  principles  and  problems  in  the  science, 
others  refused  their  signature  because  De  Bissy,  neglecting  no  results  of  modem  research  which 
bfflngmerelyAbbotinwwimendamof  St.-GermsJn-des-  contributed  to  clearness  and  soliditjr  in  his  exposition 
,Prfe,  had  no  spiritual  juriadiction  over  the  monks,  ofthem.  To  him  is  due  much  credit  for  the  improved 
Bouquet  was  banished  to  the  monastery  of  St.-Jean,  methods  seen  in  the  recent  history  of  moral  theolo^. 
at  Laon,  but  in  1735,  D'Aguesseau  and  a  few  other  Possibly  few  theologians  of  his  day  were  more  widely 
influential  persons  succeeded  in  having  him  recalled  consulted  in  Europe  and  Amonca  than  Dr.  Bou- 
to  Argenteuil,  and  afterwards  to  Blaucs-U&n teaux,  quillon.    He  enjoyad   and   retained    the   intimate 


SI 
I 


SOURASBi  716 

confidence  of  Leo  XIII  and  of  many  eminent  church-  of  Woodstock,  Duke  of  Gloucester,  youngest  son  o! 

men,  and  showed  throughout  his  Me  unyklding  d^  Edward  III.    At  an  early  age  he  entered  the  Uni- 

votion  to  the  ideals,  teieu^hin^^  and  administration  versity  9f  Oxford,  and  in  due  course,  embracing  a 

of  the  Church.     His  extraordmary  ^rasp  of  current  clerical  careec,  was  collated  to  the  living  of  Colwich, 

thought  developed  in  him  an  openmmdedness  and  a  Stafifordshire,  in  the  Diocese  of  Covent^  and  Lich- 

s^pathy  with  real  progress  wnich,  combining  with  field,  on  24  May.  1424.    His  next  promotion  was  to 

ms  other  traits,  gave  a  peculiar  fascination  to  his  the   Deanery   oi    St.    Martin-le-Grand   in   London, 

character.    In  1^1   he  was  induced  to  publish  a  1  December,  1427,  and  he  was  likewise  inducted  to 

pamphlet  on  education  setting  forth  the  abstract  the  prebend  of  West  Thurrock;  it  was  not  till  24  Sep- 

ptrinciples    involved.     His    views    met    with    con-  temoer,  1429,  that  he  was  ordained  acolyte  and  sub- 

sideraole  opposition.     In   all  his  published  replies  deacon.     This  rapid  promotion  Was  doubtless  due 

to  critics  he  maintained  his  original  positions  with-  to  his  high  birth,  and  though  no  evidence  exists  of 

out  any  modification   whatever  ancf  ascribed  the  any  special  attainments  as  a  scholar,  he  was  further 

opposition  to  misunderstanding  of  his  point  of  view  appointed  Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Oxford 

and  of  his  statement  of  principles     Dr.  Bouquilloi^  in  1434,  a  post  which  he  held  for  three  years;  in  1433, 

was  active  and  influential  m  the  organization  of  the  notwithstanding  his  youth,  he  was  recommended  for 

Catholic  Universities  of  Lille  and  Washington.    In  the  then  vacant  See  of  Worcester.  The  pope  had,  how- 

both  he  gained  a  name  for  great  practical  wisdom  ever,  already  made  another  choice,  but  mtereet  was 

in  questions  of  organisation  and  law  and  for  ex-  exerted  with  the  result  that  the  previous  nomination 

traordinary  power  as  a  teacher.  was  cancelled,  and  Eugenius  IV  by  a  Bull  dated 

He  published:  ''Theologia  Moralis  Fundamentalist  9  March,  1434  appointed  Bourchier  Bishop  of  Wor- 

(3d  ed.,  Bruges,   1903),  a  masterpiece  of  erudition,  cester,  the  temporalities  of  the  see  being  restored  to 

analysis,  and  exposition;  "  De  Virtutibus  Theologicis"  him  on  15  April,  and  on  15  May  he  received  episcopal 

(2d  ed.,  Bruges,  1890);  ''De  Virtute  Relidonis"  (2  consecration.     Not  long  after,  the  Bishop  of  Ely 

vols..    Brugps,     1880);     ''Education"     (Baltimore,  died,  and  the  Benedictine  Cathedral  Chapter  desiring 

1891);  "Education,  a  Hejoinder  to  Critics"   (Balti-  Bourchier  for  their  pastor,  sent  to  Rome  to  procure 

more,  1892);  "  Education,  a  Rejoinder  to  the  'Civilt^  Bulls  for  his  translation.    These  were  expedited;  but 

Cattolica'  **   (Baltimore,  1892);    the  last  three  of  the  King  of  England  steadily  refused  to  restore  the 

which  were  translated  into  French.     He  published  temporalities  to  him,  so  Bourchier  renounced  th( 

many  critical  studies  in  the  "  Revue  des  sciences  eccl^  flection.    Ely  was  kept  vacant  till  1443,  under  the 

siastiques  ",  of  which  he  was  at  one  time  editor,  in  the  administration  of  Louis  de  Luxembourg,  Archbishop 

"Nouvelle  revue  thtologique",    the   "Revue  Bto6-  of  Rouen.   This  arrangement,  sanctioned  by  the  pope, 

dictine",  "The  American  Catholic  Quarterly'',   and  had  been  made  in  order  that  Louis  de  Luxembourg 

"The  Catholic  University  Bulletin".    He  edited,  with  might  enjoy  the  i^evenues,  a  convenient  form  cm 

notes  and  comments,  Stapleton,  "  De  Ma^itudine  Ec-  reward  employed  by  the  English  sovereigns  at  that 

clesise  Romanae"  (Bru^,  1881);  "  Leonis  XIII  Alio-  time,  since  it  proved  no  burden  to  the  royal  excheauer. 

cutiones,    EpistoLae  ahaque  acta"  (2  vols.,  Bruges,  On  the  death  of  the  Archbishop  of  Rouen,  Bourcnier, 

1887);  Platehi,  "Synopsis cursusTheologise"  (Bruges);  this  time  nominated  by  the  king,  was  at  once  elected 

"Catechismus  ex  decreto  Concilii  Tridentini     (Tour-  by  the  Ch^ter  of  Ely,  the  Bulls  foi;  the  translation, 

nai,  1890);  "  Dies  Sacerdo talis  "  of  Dirckinck  (Toumai,  dated  20  December,  1443,  procured,  and  after  the 

1888);  Louis  de  Grenade,   "  L'Excellence  de  la  tr^  usual  confirmation  he  received  the  temporalities  on 

sainte  Eucharistie"  (Lille);  Coret,  "L'Ann^sainte"  27  February,  1443-44,  but  it  seems  that  he  was  not 

(1676)  (Bruges,  1889).  enthroned  till  another  two  years  had  eli4)eed.    Both 

RoMMKL,    i^Aotncw    BouquiUon,   Notice   hM>Mioqrai^imu  as  Bishop  of  Worcester  and  of  Ely  he  was  frequently 

iSnSa''  ^'  Umvernty  Bulletin  (iSoaT.  tX.  ^jj^  ^  ^^  ^y^  councils.     The  AwhbisWpric  of 

William  J  Kerbt  Canterbury  fell  vacant  early  in  1454,  and  Bourchier 

BoorMse,  Jean^acqubs,  archaologist  and  his-  ^^  recommended  for  the  primatial  see.    To  tWs  he 

torian,  b.   at    Ste.-Ma^e   (indre^t-L^^),  France,  ??S  *!:!i^^^^^  ^r^^^ 

22  Dumber,  1813;  d.  at  Tours,  4  October,  1872.'  f;^^^^  t1^  nh.n^llnr  ^^JS^v^^^ 

He  made  his  preparatory  studies  for  the  priithood  f^P^'^^T^i^I^  ^n^*W  mn^h^fJS^^^ 

in  Paris.    In  1835,  he  taught  the  natural  sciences  J^^.?f^^VhJ^S^jft^L^^ 

at  the  preparatory  seminarylf  Toui.,  where  he  bepm  ^I^^iJ^^ltTTeM^^^ 

a  course  of  archaeology  that  soon  attracted  attention,  ^"j  tLZ^Z,^^^^^^^^  ^/ ;♦  ««- 

The  ««ultB  a^hieveFby  him  in  a  field  of  reseaj.h,  SSjeterBSrhi^r^KhfiK^J^p  ^^b^aS" 

^r  rmarverTtlSelJ^^ee"?  i^F^^!  *'^«^'1Li^^'^„i^^ 

of  the  science  of  Christian  archasology.    In  1884  he  '^«*»''  *•»«'  '««1«" '  K^"T*/'it^^*u;?' *  w*,*'^^ 

Chr^tienne"  (1841):  "Les  Cath^drales  de  FrancI"  of  the  Wars  of  the  Roses     A  Parhament  was  sum- 

(1843);  "Les  plus  teUes  ^glises  du  monde"  (1857);  °^^J5«i  ^''U'^y'  ^^^"  ^"^  S'^^^J^'Si  TTJS!^ 

"Recherches  hist,  et  arch^.  sur  les  4glises  remained  P^^^'   J^^.  «^«^*^  '^^^^u^^^xr^'^'liS  ^t 

en  Touraine"  (1869)  vember,  but  m  the  meanwhile  Henry  relapsed  into 

BucHBEROBR.  Kirchlicke^HondUxicon,  I,  116;  VioouRoux  imbecility,  and  the  Duke  of  York  Tiras  named  Pro- 

in  Diet  de  la  Bible,  1,  1804;  Chevalier,  L'abb^  Bouraeai  in  tector.    Bourchier  resigned  the  Great  Seal  m  October, 

4^^^  ^  ^  -Socid^  arehiologique  de  Touraine  (1873).  II  377-  1456,  when  Queen  Margaret  obtained  possession  of 

M  J  Waldron  *^®  Jdng,  and  with  him  the  chief  power  fell  into  her 

-^      ,        -^  a     a         -nJ         tx       *  hsuds.     Although   the   archbishop   and   Waynflete, 

Bourbon,  Diocbsb  op.    See  Saint-Denis,  Diocbbe  ^  peacemakers,  drew  up  terms  of  agreement  between 

^^'  the  parties,  dissensions  soon  broke  out  again,  and 

Bourchier,  Thomas,  b.  1406;    d.    I486.  Cardinal,  after   hearing   the    Yorkists'   grievances,    Bourchier 

was  the  third  son  of  William  Bourchier,  Earl  of  Eu,  undertook  to  accompany  them  to  the  king,  then  at 

and  of  Lady  Anne  Plantagenet,  a  daughter  of  Thoma«>  Northampton,  ^^-ith  a  view  to  securing  a  settlement 


BOTnU>AI.Oim  717  BOUBDALOUS 

The  king  refused  them  aiadienoe,  and  a  battle  weis  penetrating  intelligence,  his  tiretesa  industiy,  and  hk 

then  fought  at  Northampton   (July,  1460),  when  strict  observance  of  religious  discipline.     He  was 

Henry   found   himself   once   more  a  prisoner,     The  eubsequently    made    proftssor    of    philosophy    and 

Duke  of  York  now  claimed  the  throne,  but  a  com-  moral  theology,  but  certain  sermons  which  he  was 

Bomise   was   effected    whereby   he   was  to  succeed  called  on  to  preach  unexpectedly  brought  him  into 

enry  to  the  exclufiion  of  the  latter's  son,  Edward,  notice  as  an  orator,  and  it  was  determined  to  devote 

Bourchier  seems  to  have  accepted  this  solution;  and  him  altogether   to 

when  Queen  Margaret  again  opened  hostilities,  he  theworkofpreach- 

threw  in  his  lot  definitely  with   the  Yorkists,  and  ing.     He  b^an  in 

was  one  of  the  lords  who  agreed  to  accept  Edward  the   Provinces  in 

gV)  as  rightful  king.     As  archbishop,  he  crowned  1865,    was    trans- 

iward  on  28  June,  1461,  after  Edw^d's  marriage  ferred  to  Paris  in 

with  Elisabeth  Woodville,  also  crowned  his  consort  1669,    and    for 

(May.   1465).     Edward   besought   Pope   Paul  II   to  thirty-tour  conseo- 

bestow  a  cardinal's  hat  on  Bourchier  in  1465;  but  utive         years 

delays  occurred,  and  it  was  not  till  1473  that  Sixtus  IV  preached   with    a 

^lally  conferred   that  honour  upon   him.     In   1475  success  that  reach- 

Bourchier  was  employed  as  one  of  the  arbitrators  ed  its  climax  only 

on  the  differences  pending  between  England  and  at  the  end  of  his 

France.    Growing  feeble,  in  1480  he  appointed  as  his  career.      He    was 

coadjutor  William  Westkarre  who  had  been  conse-  the  contemporary 

crated  in  145S  Bishop  of  Sidon.    In  1483,  on  the  death  and  friend  of  Boe- 

of  Edward  IV,  he  formed  one  of  the  deputation  who  suet,  and   though 

persuaded    the   queen-dowager,    then    in    sanctuary  quite  unlike  each 

nrith  her  family  at  Westminster,  to  deliver  her  second  other    in   their 

son  Richard  to  his  uncle  Richard,  Duke  of  Gloucester,  methods,  their  elo- 

to   be   with   his   brother   the   boy-king   Edward   V.  quence     gave     1^ 

Bourchier  had  pledged  his  honour  to,  the  distrustful  the  French  pulpit  Lonis  BcuKotLom 

queen  tor  the  lad's  security;  yetj  three  weeks  later  a  glory  whicn  has 

he  was  officiating  at  the  coronation  of  the  usurper,  perhaps  never  been  equalled  in  modem  times.  They 
Richard  III.  lie  performed  the  like  solemn  office  died  within  twomonthaof  each  other,  thoughBoasuet 
for  Henry  VII  in  14S5  after  the  death  of  Richard  was  famous  long  before  Bourdaloue  appeared.  They 
on  the  field  of  Bosworth;  and,  as  a  fitting  close  to  followed  different  lines:  Bossuet  was  distinguished  for 
the  career  of  a  man  who  was  above  all  a  peacemaker,  the  sublimity  and  vast  sweep  of  his  conceptions,  the 
he  married  Henry  VII  to  Elizabeth  of  York  on  marvellous  conciseness,  splendour,  and  grandeur  of 
18  January,  1485-86,  thus  uniting  the  factions  of  his  language,  as  well  as  the  magisterial  and  almost 
the  Red  and  White  Hoses.  He  died  on  6  April,  1486,  royal  manner  in  which  he  grasped  his  subject  and 
at  Knowle,  a  mansion  he  had  purchased  for  his  see,  dominated  his  hearers.  He  often  spoke  with  scant 
and  was  buried  in  Canterbury  cathedral.  It  fell  preparation,  so  that  very  few  of  his  wonderful  dis- 
to  his  lot  as  archbishop  to  preside  in  1457  at  the  trial  courses  were  put  on  paper  before  being  delivered. 
of  Reginald  Peacock,  Bishop  of  Chichester,  charged  His  glory  as  an  orator  is  based  mainly  on  nis  wondei^ 
with  unorthodoxy.  'Though  the  incriminated  bishop  ful  Oraisons  Fun^bres".  Bourdaloue,  on  the  con- 
withdrew  his  works  condemned  as  unsoimd,  he  was  trary,  was  essentially  a  preacher.  He  wrote  his 
kept  in  custody  by  Bourchier  till  his  death  two  discourses  with  extreme  care,  and  although  they 
years  later,  although  he  had  been  compelled  to  re-  are  numerous  enough  to  form  editions  of  twelve 
eign  his  see.  and  sixteen  volumes,  there  is  only  one  sermon  that 

GAtBDNea  in  Did.  Nat.  Bioar.;  Don.B,  Offaal  Batrmage:  js  incomplete.      He  had  a  pronounced  dislike  of  the 

9^'"^',*°!(h^T^^'.BviSr»'™(l^"?u«^'f^^  Omisong  Funtbres;  he  even  objected  to  the  name, 

nairt;  Stubbs,  fpuc.  Succtarion;  Limqabd,  Hut.  a/  Ettgland  and  called  them  Uageg.     In  the  entu^  collection  of 

(Londoa,  1878),  pouwi,  his  discourses,  we  find  but  two  of  that  character, 

Hbnrt  Norbbrt  Biht.  both  of  them  panegyTics  of  the  Condfo,  Henri  and 

Boordalona,  Looia,   b.    at    Bourges,  20  August.  Louis,  and  both  undertaken  to  pay  a  debt  of  grati- 

1632;  d,  at  Paris,  13  May,  1704,  is  often  described  tude  which  the  Jesuits  owed  to  that  family.     The 

as  the  "kingof  preachers  and  the  preacher  of  kings",  first  was  prompted  also  by  the  purpose  of  gainine 

He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  the  age  of  fifteen  an  influence  over  the  Great  Conde,  in  order  to  lead 

years.      His   father,   Etienne   Bourdaloue,   a   distin-  him  to  a  hetter  life.     This  was  realized,  for  when, 

guished  legal  official   of   Bourges,  though  opposing  only   four   years   after   the   first   discourse   Condi's 

his  choice  for  a  time,  in  order  to  test  its  sincerity,  corpse  was  home  to  the  same  church  where  he  had 

wilirncly  consented,  having  had  similar  aspirations  listened  to  the  panegyric  of  his  father,  Bourdaloue 

hims^f  in  Usyouth.   A  genealogist  of  the  seventeenth  was  again  the  orator,  and  startled  his  audience  W 

century  named  Hodeau  nas  attempted  to  trace  back  saying:  "God  cave  me  a  presentiment  of  the  Prince  s 

the  family  to  the  time  of  the  Crusades,  but  the  conversion.     I  had  not  only  formed  the  wish,  but. 

learned  and  laborious  Tausserat  informs  us  that  the  as  it  were,  anticipated  it  by  a  prayer  which  seemed 

first  of  the  race  was  Mac6  Bourdaloue,  an  humble  then  to  contain  something  of  a  prediction.    Whetb^ 

tanner  of  Vierzon,  about  1450.    During  Bourdaloue's  it  was  an  inspiration  or  a  feeline  of  zeal,  I  was  tratv 

lifetime   there  were  some   titles   of   nohilitj;  in   the  ported  beyond  myself,  O  Lord,  and  I  was  assured 

family  for  railitaiy  prowess,  and  although  his  father  by  Thee,  that  Thou  wouidst  not  leave  this  great 

was  conspicuous  in  his  profession,  yet  they  were  by  man,  whose  heart  was  so  true  as  I  knew  it  to  .be,  in 

no  means  wealthy.     One  of  his  relatives  married  a  the  way  of  perdition  and  the  corruption  of  the  world, 

shoemaker,    and    considerable    difficulty    was    ex-  He  heard  my  voice;  he  has  heard  'Thine. " 
perienced   in  providing  her  with   a  modest   dower.         This  apostolic  motive  never  failed  to  reveal  itself 

Attempts   have   been   made   to   discover   some   de-  in    all    his    utterances.      Nevertheless,    his    funeral 

scendants  of  the  Bourdalouea  in  our  own  times,  but  oration  on  Henri  de  Bourbon    was    considered  at 

though  the  name  is  common  enough,  the  family  {•  the   time   equal   oratorically  to   any   of     Bossuet's. 

e^ctinct.  Mme.  de  S£vign6  describes  it  as  "the  most  beautiful 

TiTien  young  Bourdaloue  entered  the  Society  he  that  could  be  imagined.     It  is  the  finest  and  most 

immediately  attracted  attention  by  his  quick  and  Christian  panegyric  that  has  ever  been  pronounced." 


BOURDALOUX  718  BOUBDALOUS 

Such  indeed  was  the  universal  verdict  at  the  time,  distinctness  of  enunciation  and  a  marvellous  sweet- 
Gond6  himself  according  to  Ch^rot,  let  it  be  known  ness  and  power  of  voice  that  filled  every  part  of  the 
that  he  considered  "the  oration  to  be  so  noble,  so  edifice  in  which  he  was  speaking,  and  kept  his  au- 
eloquent,  and  so  solid,  that  it  would  be  difl^cult  dience  spellbound  to  the  end  of  his  discourse.    Places 
enough  to  Burpass  it,  or  perhaps  even  to  imitate  it",  were   secured    at    daybreak;    princes    and    prelates 
He    had    Jouvency   translate    it   inmiediately   into  crowded  to  hear  him,  and  on  one  memorable  oo- 
Latin,  aiid  he  himself  supervised  the  work.    Boileau,  casion,  several  of  the  most  distinguished  members 
though  somewhat  of  a  Jansenist,  says  that  Bour-  of  the  hierarchy,  among  them  Bossuet  himself,  with- 
daloue  was  le  plus  arand  orcUeur  dcmt  l^  sitcle  ae  vante.  drew  in  anger  because  the '  seats  they  clakned  were 
This  appreciation,  no  we  ver,  doe6  not  agree  with  that  not  granted.    Bossuet  it  isjsaid,  however,  remained 
of  some  later  critics,  and  Villemain,  while  acknowl-  in  a  gallery  apart  to  listen  to  the  discourse, 
edging  "numerous  beauties  of  a  superior  order",        Altnough  covering  such  a  vast  field  in  every  one 
declared  that  Boordaloue  was  not  well  fitted  for  of  his  sermons,    Bourdaloue   never   exhaustea  his 
funeral  orations,  "  on  accoimt  of  the  richness  and  subject,  and  we  find  two  and  even  three  on  the  same 
fecundity  of  imagination  which  they  require".     On  theme,  not  only  without  any  repetition,  but  each  one 
the  other  hand,  Lord  Brougham,  himself  an  orator,  improving  on  what  preceaed,  so  that    Louis  XIV 
says  that  "Bourdaloue  displays  a  fertility  of  re-  said  he  would  rather  "hear  Bourdaloue 's  repetitions 
sources  and  an  exuberance  of  topics  whether  for  than  what  was  novel  from  any  one  else".     He  ap- 
observation  or  ar|gmnent,  not  equalled  by  any  other  p>eared  at  the  court  on  ten  different  occasions  for 
orator,  ^acred  or  profane".     He  ranks  him  far  be-  courses  of  sermons  and  each  time  his  welcome  was 
yond    Bossuet,    but   for   other   reasons   inferior   to  more  enthusiastic  than  before.     He  was  a   court 
Massillon,  about  whom  another  writer  remarks  that  preacher  but  did  not  flatter,  and  one  of  his  sermon& 
whereas   "Bourdaloue  preached  to  the  men  of  a  is  made  use  of  by  modern  Socialists  in  support  of 
vigorous  age,  Massillon  addressed  those  of  a  period  their  teaching.     A  few  years  ago  consideraDle  con- 
remarkable  for  its  effeminacy.     Bourdaloue  raised  troversy  was  evoked  by  it,  and  Jules  Lemaltre  finds 
himself  to  the  level  of  the  great  truths  of  religion;  in  it  a  condemnation  of  contenaporary  egoism.    He 
Massillon  conformed  himself  to  the  weakness  of  the  was  preaching  on  "Riches"  and  used  the  phrase  of 
men  with  whom  he  lived."    Nisard,  in  his  "Histoire  St.  Jerome:  '\Eveiy  rich  man  is  an  unjust  man  or 
de  la  litt^rature  fran^aise",  says  that  "  Bourdaloue 's  the  heir  of  one. "      If  you  go  to  the  source  of  riches", 
success  was  the  most  brilliant  and  sustained  that  he  said,  "even  in  houses  and  families  who  are  i)roud 
human   speech   has  ever  obtained".     Taine   ranks  of  their  origin,  nay  even  those  who  are  distinguished 
him  with  Cicero,  Livy,  Bossuet,  Burke,  and  Fox;  for   their   prooity   and  religion,   you   will   discover 
F^nelon.  however,  is  said  to  have  depreciated  him  things   which   will   make   you   tremble."      In   the 
in  the  "Dialogues  sur  I'^loquence",  out  according  twelve- volume  edition  there  is  one  number  contain- 
to  the   "Revue   Bourdaloue   ,  the  authenticity   of  ing  sermons  for  Advent,  three  others  of  Lenten  dis- 
the  "Dialogues"  is  doubtful,  and  besides  Bourdaloue  courses,  three  more  for  Sundays  of  the  year,  two  on 
is  not  named;  the  description  is  assigned  to  him  only  the  Mysteries,   while  the  last  two   books  contain 
by  conjecture.  sixteen  panegyrics,  six  sermons  for  religious  investi- 
As  his  object  was  exclusively  the  salvation  of  tures,  and  the  two  funeral  orations.     Considerable 
souls,  Bourdaloue  adapted  himself   to  the  audience  ingenuity  has  been  exercised  by  his  editors  in  fixing 
which,  in  spite  of  its  worldliness,  frivolity,  and  vice,  the  time  when  the  various  discourses  were  pronounced; 
prideci  itself,  and  with  reason,  on  its  power  of  ap-  they  are  all  undated.     When  they  were  given  is 
preciating  what  was  intellectual  and  scholarly,  and  largely  a  matter  of  conjecture.    The  sermons  of  least 
although    scandalously    irreverential    in    the    very  merit  are  those  on  the  Mysteries,  but  it  is  explained 
temple  of  God,  had  an  insatiable  craving  for  religious  that  he  purposely  avoided  any  sublime  or  profound 
discourses.    To  influence  them,  the  preacher  had  to  considerations  on   those  topics  and  restricted  him- 
resort   to  reason;   and  consequently   his  discourses  self  to  what  could  be  easily  stated,  so  as  to  have  the 
were  constructed  after  a  clearly  denned  and  frankly  opportunity  of  deducing  a  moral  lesson.     "Every- 


s  elaborated  with  irresistible  logic;  doctrines  whose  by  making  Bourdaloue  preach."  As  regards  his  liter- 
orthodoxy  is  without  reproach  are  carefully  and  ary  style,  Saint^Beuve  says:  "He  uws  a  good  orator, 
minutely  explained,  and  moral  principles  are  ex-  he  is  &  good  writer."  He  is  free  from  the  turgid, 
pounded,  but  never  exaggerated  or  strained  in  the  pedantic,  and  ridiculous  phraseology  which  was 
practical  application  which  he  never  fails  to  make:  rampant  at  that  time  in  forensic  as  well  as  sacred 
sophistries  are  dispelled,  objections  answered,  and  eloquence — though  there  are  some  examples  of  it, 
errors  refuted,  the  orator  not  fearing  to  return  to  a  His  compliments  to  the  exalted  personages  in  the 
point  for  a  greater  clearness;  mysteries  are  discussed,  audience  are  not  so  much  an  evidence  of  bad  literar>' 
though  he  purposely  avoided  what  is  too  profound,  taste  as  a  mark  of  the  servitude  to  which  the  court 
even  if  by  doing  so  he  incurred  the  reproach  of  preachers  of  that  day  had  to  submit.     About  hiii 

Bour- 


manu- 

.    ^  ,  »        ^  ,  r-  MT o  '  impossible  to 

fection  of  wliich  our  language  is  capable  in  that  ilnd  ma£e  out  how  much  his  editor,  Bretonneau,  has 

of  eloquence",  and  with  a  lucidity  and  clearness  tampered  with  the  text. 

that  amazed  and  captivated  his  hearers,  and  evoked  If  not  the  originator,  Bourdaloue  is  lai^gely  the 
applause  wliich  he  was  powerless  to  prevent.  There  is  model,  of  French  pulpit  oratory  in  the  arrangement 
never  a  diversion  made  merely  to  dazzle  or  delight,  of  sermons.  The  method  he  adopted  is  condenmed 
there  is  rarely  an  appeal  to  the  emotions;  but  the  by  F^nelon  as  never  having  been  used  before,  and 
vividness  and  splendour  of  the  doctrine  he  was  pro-  as  being  poorly  adapted  to  arouse  the  feeling  of  the 
pounding,  the  startling  truthfulness  of  the  psycho-  audience.  Its  use  by  Bourdaloue  is  explained  by 
logical  picture  he  was  placing  before  their  eyes —  the  fact  that  he  was  combating  Protestant  Ration- 
even  La  Bruy^re  professed  to  oe  his  disciple  in  this  alism  whicn  was  at  that  time  making  inroads  upon 
respect — entreated,  or  induced,  or  compelled  his  Catholic  thought,  and  also  because  the  use  of  dever 
hearers  to  a  reformation  of  life.  He  hurried  on  with  and  convincing  reasoning  was  the  vogue  of  the  day, 
an  extraordinary  rapidity  of  utterance,  but  with  a  A  reaction  had  set  in  nx>m  the  silly  idealism  of  a 


BOX7BDEILLE8                            719  BOURDON 

short  time  before.  Bourdaloue  took  his  hearers  are  requests  for  interviews,  which  would  suggest  a 
ajB  he  found  them,  and  Voltaire,  referring  to  this  prefer^ce  for  information  by  the  medium  of  con* 
form  of  his  discourses,  says  "  he  was  the  firat  one  to  versation.  One  of  these  letters  is  noteworthy  as  it  is  a 
make  reason  speak,  and  always  eloquently".  Pos-  con^tulation  to  his  intimate  friend,  the  Due  de 
sibly  the  inaptness  of  the  instrument  he  employed  Noailles,  on  the  appointment  to  the  See  of  Paris  of 
onlv  shows  more  dearly  his  greatness  as  an  orator,  the  duke's  brother.  Bourdaloue  "thanks  God  for 
Only  such  a  man  as  he  could  use  it.  For  most  readers  having  inspired  the  king  to  appoint  such  a  worthy 
the  printed  text  of  his  discourses  is  wearisome  in  and  holy  bishop".  The  prelate  became  afterwards 
spite  of  the  wealth  of  instruction  it  contains.  It  very  unfriendly  to  the  Jesuits.  In  this  communica- 
needs  the  voice  and  action  of  the  orator  to  give  it  tion  he  speaks  of  himself  as  one  of  the  ancient  ser- 
power.  The  vogue  which  his  method  has  obtained  vitors  of  the  house  of  Noailles,  a  phrase  which  in- 
is  sometimes  considered  a  mistake,  if  not  a  mis-  timates  who  was  at  the  back  of  BQurdaloue's  mission 
fortune,  *for  French  pulpit  eloquence.  It  supposes  to  the  Protestants  of  Languedoc  after  the  Revo- 
a  Bourdaloue,  as  well  as  conditions  which  have  long  cation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  In  the  fulfilment  of 
since  ceased.  Ch6x>t  who  has  made  an  exhaustive  that  mission  Protestants  and  Catholics  came  in 
study  of  Bourdaloue  dismisses  with  contempt  the  throngs  to  hear  him,  and  his  gentleness  and  prudence 
story  that  the  orator  spoke  with  his  eyes  shut.  For  won  all  hearts.  There  is  a  very  elaborate  letter, 
a  court  preacher  who  had  to  distribute  compliments  or  rather  disquisition,  in  the  collection,  addressed 
to  the  dignitaries  present,  and  who  angered  them  to  Mme.  de  Maintenon  who  was  being  alienated  from 
if  he  did  not  do  it  skilfully,  or  omitted  anyone  who  the  Jesuits.  Bourdaloue  was  remarkable  as  a  d'*- 
expected  it  (as  happened  in  the  case  of  Mme.  de  rector  of  souls.  While  paying  proper  respect  to  the 
Guise),  it  would  have  been  a  difficult  or  rather  im-  gr^t,  he  was  the  devoted  friend  of  the  poor,  and 
possible  task  to  perform  that  duty  if  he  did  not  use  assiduous  in  the  confessional.  He  was  of  a  gentle 
nis  eyes.  The  picture  that  so  represents  him  was  and  amiable  disposition  and  exerted  a  wonderful 
taken  after  his  death.  Similarly,  to  suppose  that  power  at  the  death-bed,  especially  of  hardened 
he  would  dare  to  say  to  Louis  XiV  in  the  sermon  on  sinners.  Towards  the  end  of  his  life  he  desired  to 
"Adultery":  tu  ea  iUe  vir,  like  Nathap  to  David,  quit  Paris,  and  live  in  seclusion  at  La  Fl^che,  and 
is  to  be  ignorant  of  conditions  that  prevailed  in  that  though  he  had  p^ceived  the  permission  of  the  gen- 
servile  court.  The  alle^pd  sermon,  moreover,  is  eral,  the  provincial  thwarted  the  plan.  It  only  in- 
nowhere  to  be  found.  It  is  said  to  have  been  burnt,  creased  his  zeal  and  he  continuea  to  preach,  hear 
More  likely  it  was  never  written.  Mme.  de  Si6vign6  confessions,  and  visit  the  poor  till  the  end  of  his 
speaks  of  a  sermon  on  "Impurity"  in  which  Bour-  life.  After  a  sickness  of  two  days  he  died  at  the  age 
aaloue  was  merciless,  but  had  that  reproach  been  of  seventy-two. 

addressed  to  the  king,  she,  above  all  writers,  would  ,  Grw=^=\  ^^^"i^^^ff/i^^:  ^?P^^a  Ca8tetb,  Bpvrdalow 

have  told  it.  ^BeskTes    that  sermon  was  preached  <i!T^'f%^^:  i^J^f^^^^^^T^S^  ^'.t 

m  the  Jesuit  church,  and  there  is  no  assurance  that  Bourdaloue  (Paris,  1723);  Brougham.  Edinb.  Review  (Decem- 
it  was  repeated  at  Versailles.  Again,  some  of  his  *>«",  1826);  Revue  Bourdaloue;  Lauras,  Bourdaloue  (Paris, 
biographers  in  speaking  of  his  sermon  on  "The  1880),  2  vols.  p^^^^xTrT 
Magdalene''  insinuate  that  \t  was  directed  at  i.  J.  oampbell. 
^fmes.  de  Montespan  and  de  (ontanges,  the  king's  Bourdeilles,  H^lie  j>e,  Archbishop  of  Tours  and 
mistresses  who  sat  before  him.  It  is  not  certain  that  Cardinal,  b.,  probably,  towards  1423,  at  the  castle  of 
"The  Magdalene"  sermon  was  ever  preached  before  Bourdeilles  (P^rigora)-  d.  5  July,  1484,  at  Artannes 
the  court.  Moreover,  Bourdaloue  was  too  prudent  near  Tours.  He  was  the  son  of  the  Viscount  Arnaud 
to  irritate  uselessly.  de  Bourdeilles.  Having  entered  the  Franciscan 
Considerable  discussion  has  been  raised  with  re-  Order  at  an  early  age,  he  was  only  twenty-four  when, 
gard  to  his  attitude  in  the  quarrel  between  the  pope  at  the  request  of  Charles  VII,  he  was  appointed  to 
and  the  king  about  the  Four  Galilean  Articles.  It  the  See  of  P^rigueux  (1447).  During  the  wars 
is  admitted  that  in  the  Panegyric  of  St.  Louis,  pro-  between  France  and  England  he  was  held  prisoner 
iiounced  in  presence  of  Louis  XIV,  the  preacher  for  several  years  by  the  English,  in  consequence  of 
referred  to  "the  rights  of  the  Crown*'  and  'Hhe  new  his  defence  of  ecclesiastical  immunity.  In  1468  he 
attemptsof  the  Court  of  Rome",  and  also  the  manner  was  appointed  to  the  Archiepiscopal  See  of  Tours, 
in  which  St.  Louis  defended  those  rights.  He  added,  and  in  1483  he  was  raised  to  the  cardinalate  by 
however,  that  "while  Louis  in  his  auality  of  king  Sixtus  IV.  Bourdeilles  continued,  during  his  epis- 
recognized  no  superior  on  earth"  (all  of  which  has  copate,  to  practise  religious  poverty  and  was  an  inti- 
a  Galilean  tinge),  yet  the  naonarch  should  remember  mate  friend  of  St.  Francis  of  Paula.  He  is  mentioned 
that  he  was,  at  the  same  time,  the  eldest  son  of  the  among  the  Blessed  in  the  Franciscan  Martyrolocy 
Church.  His  defenders  maintain  that  we  have  no  for  the  5th  day  of  July.  A  stanch  defender  of  the 
right  to  infer  from  this  phrase  that  he  was  a  Galilean  rights  of  the  Church  against  the  encroachments  of 
or  stood  side  by  side  with  Bossuet.  Another  point  the  State,  Bourdeilles  advocated  the  abolition  of 
which  has  called  for  inquiry  is  his  "abstention"  the  Pra^atic  Sanction  of  Bourges,  as  may  be  seen 
from  the  subject  of  the  infallibility  of  the  pope;  he  from  his  treatise,  "Pro  Pragmaticae  Sanctionis 
never  spoke  of  it.  Not  only  that,  but  when  asked  Abrogatione"  (Rome,  1486).  He  also  wrote  *'Li- 
about  it  by  Father  Alleaume,  he  said  that  he  had  a  bellus  in  Pragmaticam  Sanctionem  Gallorum  "  (Rome 
sermon  on  the  "Infallibility  of  the  Church"  which  1484);  and  a  Latin  defence  of  Jeanne  d'Arc  which 
he  had  never  preached.  Efeyond  that,  we  have  no  is  attached  in  manuscript  to  the  process  of  her  re- 
means  of  knowing  his  theological  view  on  the  ques-  habilitation. 
tion  of  the  pope.     However,  papal  infallibility  was  „  Hurter,  Nomendator  (3d  ed.,  Innsbruck,  1906),  II,  1067-69. 

not  then  a  matter  of  di8cu«8.'on.   His  sermon  on  the  l^i^'oV^^^^JS^d^e'T^'^ff^ni^TA'^rP^S!. 

"Infallibility  of  the  Church"  is  not  to  be  found,  i894). 

under  that  heading  at  least;  but  in  the  second  ser-  N.  A.  Weber. 
mon  on  the  Feast  of  St.  Peter,  on  "Obedience  to  the 

Church",  he  speaks  explicitly  of  the  Church's  in-  Bourdeilles,  Pierre  de.    See  Brant6me. 

fallibilitv.  Bourdon,  Jean,  b.  at  Rouen,  France,  1612;  d.  at 

Bourdaloue  seems  to  ha-ye  written  but  very  few  Quebec,  1668.    In  1634  he  went  to  Canada  and  be- 

letters.    The  collator,  MonseigneurBlampignon,  found  came  the  first  engineer-in-chief  and  land-surveyor 

only  eighteen;  five  more  have  been  discovered  since —  in  the  colony  of  New  France,  and  the  first  attorney* 

Qone  cu  them  letters  of  friendship.    Some  of  than  general  of  the  Conseil  Superieur,  established  in  1663. 


BOUBGADE  720  BOITBOBB 

It  was  Bourdon  who  surveyed  and  laid  out  all  the  eellus  (all  prior  to  337);  Palladius  (377-384);  Sim- 
domains  and  land  grants  assigned  in  this  territory  plicius  (472-480);  Desideratus  (549-550);  Probianus, 
under  the  supervision  of  land  companies.  He  laid  Felix,  Remedius,  and  the  first  Sulpicius  (all  in  the 
out  the  first  streets  of  Quebec,  and  drew  up  the  plans  second  half  of  the  sixth  century) ;  Austregisilus  (612- 
and  supervised  the  construction  of  the  first  ch&teau,  624);  the  second  Sulpicius  (624-^44),  after  whom  the 
Saint-Louis,  at  the  older  of  Montmagny.  He  left  celebrated  church  of  St.-Sulpice  in  Paris  was  named; 
a  chart  of  the  Beaupr^  shore  and  vicinity  (1641)  and  David  (793-802);  and  Agilulfu«  (c.  820-840).  Among 
two  plans  of  Quebec  (1660-64).  He  also  traced  a  later  bishops  are:  St.  Guillaume  de  Donjeon  (1200- 
map  of  the  territory  through  which  he  travelled  in  09);  the  celebrated  theologian,  i£gidius  a  Columnis 
1646  when  he  was  dispatched  with 'Father  Isaac  (1298-1316);  and  Jean  Ckcur  (1447-83),  son  of  the 
Jogues,  S.J.,  to  Albany,  to  ^ make  a  treaty  of  peace  treasurer  Jacques  Coeur  and  during  whose  episcopate 
with  the  Iroquois;  this,  liowever,  has  been  lost,  the  University  of  Bourges  was  founded. 
Well-informed,  reliable,  and  conscientious.  Bourdon  The  claims  of  the  See  of  Bourges  to  thi  primacy 
was  the  confidential  agent  of  the  governors,  who  in  Aquitaine  are  treated  at  length  in  the  article 
employed  him  on  several  ddssions  with  success.  In  on  Bordeaux.  Pope  Clement  V  (1305-14)  opposed 
1657  he  embarked  for  Hudson's  Bay,  but  driven  these  claims;  nevertheless  the  See  of  Bourges  always 
back  by  the  savages,  and  his  way  blocked  by  ice,  prided  itself  upon  a  sort  of  platonic  supremacy,  and 
he  was  forced  to  return  to  Quebec,  after  having  when,  in  1678,  the  Bishop  of  Albi  became  Arch- 
reached  55  degrees  N.  lat.  Jean  Bourdon  colonised  the  bishop,  he  recognized  explicitly  the  claims  of 
manorial  estate  of  Pointe-aux-Trembles  at  a  distance  Bourges.  Even  to-day  the  Archbishop  of  Bourges 
of  twenty  miles  from  the  capital,  and  at  a  later  date  retains  the  title  of  Primate  of  Aquitaine;  in  this  way, 
a  fief,  called  after  him  Saint-Jean,  still  preserved  the  name  of  Aquitaine  which,  after  the  thirteenth 
in  one  of  the  principal  suburbs  of  Quebec.  century,  disappeared  from  political  geography  (being 
Marcel,  CartooropAw  de  la  NomjHU  France  C^^,  1885);  replaced  by  that  of  Guyenne)  has  been  perpetuated 
Rot,  Bourdon  et  la  Bate  d  Hudton  (Quebec,  1896);  Qosselin.  ;_  ♦u-.  ♦--«;:« «i«,-,,  «,r  ♦ul  nk,../»k  T«  linV  i>«o<».l  Tl 
Jean  Bourdon  H  son  ami  Vabbe  de  Saint-Sauveur  (1904);    The  ^^  **^?  *®r?^?®??y  <*'  **'®  ?„.*..   ^  A^"'t^^*®*^'  "i 

JeeuU  Reiatione  and  AUied  Document*,  XI,  277.  and  m   1163  Alexander  III,  Visited  the  Diocese  of 

J.  Edmond  Rot.  Bourges.     Many  councils  were  held  at  Bourges,  the 

u-  -..♦u^JT-^^  4^  ^^m\,  «.«^»»  ♦k-.  ;«fi^<^io  ^7  A <>*:»»  ^*>  attempted;  and  the  council  of  lozo  which  com- 

»    *^nli!fnn?v7n  ilq^T?^^  ^atcd   thc    Protcstant   encroachments   favoured   at 

TnH  ^t^^i'AZ^fir^^l  Smf^  tL  ho^te  Bourges  on  the  one  side  by  the  university  in  which 

fl'K?.^  1.^1  ^I^H  !?irfTfh.  li«n.v  nf^^^^  Calvin  and  Theodore  Be.a  studied,  and  on  the  other 

of  this  colony,  passed  over  to  the  regency  of  Tun  s,  .  ^  Margaret  of  Valois. 

K^' wi^n^'^fn'^l J!:i''n7'tt  ^hlj:S''whL'' T^'Ih,        The  following  grelt  abbeys  were  located   within 

He   was  put  in   charge  of  the   chapel   whioti   Louis  ,      HinceaA-  the   Bpnedictine   Abbev  of   D*ols  near 

Philippe  (1830-48)  had  erected  on  the  spot  where  ^ka*1  ,?^!f.;.    ff««X^^^^^ 

St.  iSuis  died,  and  he  received  several  de^rations,  ^*^^Sus '  ^n  of  th^senL^^^ 

nS  oJ'hT  lil^\r^ot duction^sTsT io  sl^^d^'tll  ^rr^  "hTI'b^y  of  St'!sa1S?  nJar'Tar^^^^^^  rouJ:^ 

object  of  his  literary  productions  was  to  spread  the  .     ^     ^  ^^    ^  Chezal-Benott  founded  in  1098 

H?n  fted  '^^  !^  ^HpT?^^^^  by  Bleksed  Andr6  of  Vallftmbrosa,  and  mother4iouse 

^\tf^^^cl^lt'  m^^^^  of    the    great    Benedictine    congregation    which   in- 

.?!-  rJ^'fni    thp11,^rJn?^hnnlL^.?Lrl^  <^^^^^<^  the  Parisian  Abbey  of  St.-Germain-des-Prds 

f  Ln  HW  H^  U  lin^^^  and  was  later  merged  into  the  Congregation  of  St- 

anTuta'uJn'o^^^t:^^^^^^^^  tt^^ersfc^t^nrof  ^T^trs^ffetd^^^^^^^^ 

title,  •*  Lettre  k  M.  E.  Renan  "  (1864).  ^^\  '^•"^^kI    T^^^l  .T  tKl^?^h  !^^^^^ 

Vapebeao.    Diet,    univer.    d«    contemporadne,    s.    v.    in    the  V^^n  m  the  middle  of  the  MXth  century       LoUIS  VII 

first  four  ediUons;  Hurteb,    NomencUuor  (Innsbruck.  1895).  (1120-80)  Was  crowned  m  the  Cathedral  of  Bourges, 

III.  989. 990.  XT        w  ^^  ^"^^  ^^  (1423-83)  and  the  great  Cond«  (1621- 

N.  A.  Weber.  gg)   ^g^g  baptized  at  Bourges.     Labbe,  author  of 

Bourgade,  Peter.     See  Santa  Fe,  Archdiocese  the  "  Collection  of  Councils"  (1607-67)  and  Bour- 

OF.  daloue,   the   illustrious   preacher   (1632-1704),   both 

n^..^»^«.     A/r.o«,r»oTm«       a^    xr«»„o»     n.»*»  Jesuits,   were  bom  at  Bourges.     The  Cathedral  of 

r^S^f^^Ura^^  '  Bourges  (thirteenth  century)  has  beautiful  windows 

L.0NGRE0AT10N  OP.  ^^^  .^  sacristy  (fifteenth  century)  was  built  at  the 

Bourges  (BiTURic^e),  Archdiocese  of,   coexten-  expense  of  Jacques  Coeur. 
sive  with  the  departments  of  Cher  and  Indre.    After        The    places   of    pilgrimages   in    the    diocese    are: 

the  Concordat  of  1802  it  became  the  metropolitan  (1)    Notre    Dame    of    D^ls    near    Ch&teauroux,    a 

of  the  Sees  of  Clermont,  Saint-Flour,  and  Limoges,  pilgrimage  begun  in   the   tenth   century   by    Ebbo. 

and   in   1822  received   as   new  suffragans  the   ^s  The  church   was  consecrated  by  Pascal   II.      Pope 

of  Tulle  and  Le  Puy.    As  Gregory  of  Tours  assigns  a  Alexander  III  when  in  exile  lived  there  and  received 

date    subsequent   to    the    "  mission    of    the    twelve  Henry  II  of  England;  Pope  Honorius  III  visited  it. 

bishops  ",  that  is,  to  the  year  250,  for  the  foundation  (2)  Notre  Dame  du  Bien  Mourir  at  FontgombauU. 

of  the  Church  at  Bourges;  and  as  Leo,  who  occupied  (3)    The    pilgrimage   of   Ste.-Solange,    patron    saint 

the  See  of  Bourges  in  453,  was  its  twelfth  bishop;  of   the   County   of  Berry.      Ste.-Solange   was   bom 

Duchesne,  after  most  careful  calculation,  places  the  at  Villemont,  three  leagues  from  Bourges,  and  suf- 

episcopate  of  St.  Ursinus,  founder  of  the  see,  near  fered   death   to  preserve   her   virginity.      (4)    Notre 

the  close  of  the  third  century.     He  explains  that  Dame  du  Sacr^  Coeur  at  Issoudun.    (5)  Notre  Dame 

the  legend  which  makes  Ursinus  one  of  the  seventy-  de  Pellevoisin,  famous  for  the  visions  that  date  back 

two  disciples  seems  to  be  of  later  origin  than  that  to  1876  and  concerning  which  ecclesiastical  authority 

of  St.  Martial,  being  met  with  for  the  first  time  in  is  still  silent. 

an  eleventh-century  manuscript.     Fifteen  saints  fig-        In  1899,  the  following  institutions  were  found  in 

ured  among  Leo's  successors  up  to  the  end  of  the  the  archdiocese:  36  infant  schools  in  Cher  and  29 

ninth  century:  Sevitianus,  iEtherius,  Thecretus,  Mar-  in  Indre,  conducted  by  sisters,  3  girls'  orphanages  in 


BOUROET 


721 


BOUBOET 


Cher  and  2  in  Indre,  1  hous^  of  refuge  for  young 
women  in  Cher,  2  patronages  for  girls  in  Cher,  20  hos- 
pitals or  hospices  in  Cher  and  14  in  Indre,  5  com- 
munities for  the  care  of  the  sick  in  their  homes  in 
Cher  and  4  in  Indre,  1  insane  asylum  in  Cher,  6  homes 
for  the  aged  in  Cher  and  2  in  Indre,  1  orphanage 
for  deaf-mutes  and  blind  girls  in  Indre,  and  1  home 
for  incurables  in  Indre,  all  conducted  by  nuns. 

In  1900  the  religious  orders  of  men  in  the  diocese 
were:  Jesuits  and  Franciscans  at  Bourges;  Trappists 
at  Fontgombault.  The  societies  peculiar  to  the  dio- 
cese were:  Men:  Missionaries  of  the  Sacred  Heart, 
founded  in  1854  with  the  mother-house  at  Issoudun. 
This  house  is  the  centre  of  the  universal  Archcon- 
fratemity  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Sacred  Heart  which 
has  vicariates  Apostolic  in  Oceanica.  Women: 
(1)  Benedictines  of  the  Holy  Sacrament  or  of  St. 
Liaurence,  a  congregation  said  to  date  back  to  tiie 
time  of  Charlemagne.  They  are  Sisters  of  the  Perpet- 
ual Adoration  and  teachers.  (2)  Sisters  of  Charity 
and  of  the  Holy  Sacrament,  called  de  Montoire,  with 
the  mother-house  at  Bourges.  This  congregation, 
founded  in  1662  by  Antoine  Moreau,  devotes  itself  to 
teaching  and  hospital  nursing.  It  has  150  houses  of 
which  106  are  in  the  Diocese  of  Bourges.  (3)  Re- 
ligious of  the  Immaculate  Mary,  hospital  nurses  and 
teachers,  with  the  mother-house  at  Bourges.  After 
the  Revolution,  the  congregation  took  the  place  of 
the  lay  confraternity  of  the  Immaculate  Mary,  and 
subsequent  to  1857  had  charge  of  the  general  hos- 
pital. (4)  Daughters  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Issoudun 
with  houses  in  Belgium  and  Australia.  At  the  close 
of  1905  the  Archdiocese  of  Bourges  had  652,681  in- 
habitants, 65  pastorates,  430  succursal  parishes  (mis- 
sion churches),  and  28  curacies. 

0€aita    chngtiana    (1720),    II,    1-115;    iruirumenta,    1-72; 
LsBOUX,  La  primatie  de  Boitrgea  (AnnaleM  du  Midi)  (1896). 


VII;   Parisst.   L'StabltMemerU  de  la  primatie  de  ^Bourgea  in 
Annates  du  Midi  (1902),  XIV:  Du  Gira 


IRARDOT  AND   DURANT, 


Georges  Goyau. 

Bour^ret,  Ionacb,  first  Bishop  of  Montreal,  P.  O., 
Canada,  and  titular  Archbishop  of  Martianopolis,  d. 
at  Point  L^vis,  Province  of  Quebec,  30  October,  1799; 
d.  at  Sault-au-Recollet,  near  Montreal,  8  June,  1885. 
Remarkalde  for  his  piety  and  learning,  he  played 

througnout  sixty 
years  a  potent  part  in 
the  religious^  and  even 
in  the  civil,  life  of 
Canada.  Monseig- 
neur  Bourget  was  the 
eleventh  of  thirteen 
children  bom  to  Pierre 
Bourget  and  Th^r^ 
Paradis.  Sixty-two 
years  of  his  life  were 
spent  in  the  priest- 
hood, almost  mty  in 
the  episcopate,  and 
for  nearly  thirty-six 
years  he  administered 
the  then  extensive 
Diocese  of  Montreal. 
He  received  his  ele- 
mentary instruction 
at  hojne  and  at  the 
Point  L^vis  school  and 
afterwards  took  the  regular  course  of  studies  at  the 
Seminary  of  Quebec,  where  he  was  distinguished  for 
his  strength  of  character  and  brilliant  intellect.  Here, 
also,  he  studied  theology  for  two  years,  subsequently 
entering  Nicollet  College,  where  he  received  tne  sub- 
diaconate,  21  May,  1821,  beins  chosen  that  same 
year  by  Archbishop  Plessis  of  Quebec  to  act  as 


lONACB  BOUBOBT 


secretary  to  Bishop  Lartigue  of  Montreal.  Thus, 
even  before  receiving  Holy  orders,  Ignace  Bourget 
was  launched  upon  an  active  life.     On  23  November, 

1821,  he  was  made*  deacon  and  on  30  November 

1822,  was  ordained  priest  in  the  chapel  of  the  HAtel- 
Dieu  where  he  said  his  first  Mass.  The  young 
priest  soon  won  the  entire  confidence  of  his  bishop, 
who,  in  1836,  named  him  vigar-general  of  the  dio- 
cesev  On  10  March,  1837,  Pope  Gregory  XVI  ap- 
pointed him  coadjutor  to  Bishop  Lartigue,  and  on 
25  July  of  the  same  year  he  was  consecrated  titular 
Bishop  of  Telemessa  in  Lycia.  He  took  possession, 
on  23  April,  1840,  of  the  See  of  Montreal,  made 
vacant  some  two  weeks  previously  by  the  death  of 
Bishop  Lartigue. 

Bishop  Bour^t  inaugurated  a  retreat  for  the 
clergy  of  his  diocese, '4  Au^t,  1840;  in  the  same 
year  he  carried  out  the  desire  of  his  predecessor  by 
creating  a  chapter  of  canons,  the  installation  taking 
place  31  January,  1841.  In  December,  1841,  after 
nis  return  from  France  and  Rome,  where  he  had 
visited  many  religious  communities,  he  brought  the 
Oblate  Fathers  to  Montreal  and  in  January,  1842. 
founded  the  Petit  S^minaire  de  Sainte-Th^r^  and 
canonically  established  the  Temperance  Society.  The 
oommuni^  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Names  of 
Jesus  and  Mary,  now  flourishing  in  Canada  and 
the  United  States,  was  founded  under  his  patronage 
in  1843,  and  about  the  same  time  the  Sisters  of 
Providence.  The  Providence  Asylum  was  estab- 
lished 29  .March.  1844.  On  11  July,  1844,  Bishop 
Bourget  installed  the  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd 
from  Angers.  In  a  pastoral  letter,  Jime,  1845,  he 
commended  the  work  of  the  Jesuit  Fathers  whose 
first  establishment  he  blessed  31  July,  1851.  Or 
his  return  from  Rome  in  1847,  he  introduced  the 
Fathers  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Cross,  the 
Clerics  of  St.  Viator,  and  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Cross,  and,  a  little  later,  placed  the  orphans  under 
the  care  of  the  Dames  de  Charity.  In  1848  he  in- 
stalled the  Sisters  of  Mis^ricorde;  and  on  30  August, 
1850,  was  begun  an  institute  for  deaf-mutes  known 
as  the  Hospice  of  the  Holy  Child  Jesus.  In  the  same 
year  he  founded  the  teaching  order  of  the  Sisters  of 
Sainte  Anne  who  have  now  several  missions  in  the 
United  States^  one  even  in  Alaska.  All  these  religious 
orders  have  smce  attained  notable  proportions. 

After  the  fire  of  1852  which  destroyed  the  cathe- 
dral, the  episcopal  palace,  and  one  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful sections  ot  Montreal,  Bishop  Bourget  made  his 
home  in  the  Hospice  Saint-Joseph  untu  31  August, 
1855,  when  he  removed  to  Mont  Saint-Joseph,  the 
episcopal  residence.  In  1854  he  went  to  Rome  on 
the  invitation  of  the  Holy  Father  to  assist  at  the 
proclamation  of  the  Dogma  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception,  and  in  1857  he  instituted  the  Forty 
Hours  Devotion  in  his  diocese,  and  organized  the 
Conferences  Eccl^astiques.  He  returnwi  to  Rome 
in  1862  to  represent  the  Province  of  Quebec  at  the 
canonization  of  the  Japanese  martyrs  and  was  made 
a  Roman  Count  and  Assistant  at  the  Papal  Throne. 
During  the  same  year  he  established  the  Third 
Order  of  St.  Francis,  and  on  15  October  organized 
the  confraternity  for  perpetual  devotion  to  St. 
Joseph.  In  1864  he  entrusted  the  deaf-mutes  to 
the  care  of  the  Sisters  of  Providence.  Believing 
that  the  people  would  benefit  by  the  division  of  the 
parish  of  Montreal,  he  began  the  change  in  1866-67, 
and  after  a  lapse  of  forty  years  the  increase  to  more 
than  forty  new  parishes  snows  the  wisdom  of  the  step. 
In  1869  Bishop  Bourget  went  to  Rome  to  attend 
the  Vatican  Council.  In  1870  he  laid  the  founda- 
tion-stone of  the  Montreal  Cathedral  and  in  1872 
celebrated  his  golden  jubilee.  He  tendered  his  resig- 
nation as  Bishop  of  Montreal  in  1876u  was  nam^ 
titular  Archbishop  of  Martianopolis,  ana  withdrew  to 
the  St.  Janvier  residence  at  bault-au-Recollet.    In 


BOtJBGOIHa  722  BOUBNE 

iS79,  at  the  age  of  eighty,  he  made  his  last  journey  have  alwa3rB  been  a  Catholic  at  heart,  and  the  siu 

bo  Rome;  five  years  later  he  heroically  set  out  upon  cerity  of  his  return  to  the  old  religion  under  Mary 

a  tour  of  his  former  diocese  with  a  view  to  re-estab-  was  proved  later  by  his  unalterable  firmness  undei 

litdiing  its  badly  compromised  finances.  persecution.     Soon  after  her  accession,  whilst  preach- 

I'he  remains  of  Bishop  Lartigue  ^nd  those  of  mg  at  St.  Paul's  Cross,  he  narrowly  escaped  a  dagger 

Archbishop    Bourget   were   interred   toeether   in   a  wmoh  a  fanatic  hurled  on  hearmg  him  allude  to 

vault  under  one  of  the  pillars  (the  souui-west)  that  Bishop  Bonner's  recent  sufferings  under  the  late 

support  the  dome  of  the  cathedral.    After  the  ser-  regime.    On  being  appointed  to  the  Bishopric  of 

vices  held  at  Notre  Dame  at  which  the  Very  Rev.  Bath  and  Wells,  Bourne  received  absolution  from 

Father  Collin,  Superior  of  St.  Sulpice,  delivered  the  Cardinal  Pole,  the  papal  legate,  by  letters  dated 

funeral  oration  over  the  body  of  Archbishop  Bourcet,  Paris,  17  March,  1554,  from  all  censures  incurred  In 

another  service  was  conducted  at  the  pro-catheoral  the  time  of  schism,  and  on  1  April  was  consecrated 

for  the  two   deceased  prelates  whose  eulogy  was  with   five  others   by   Bishop   Bonner,    assisted   by 

f pronounced  by  Archbishop  Tach6  of  St.  Boniface.  Bishops  Gardiner  and  Tunstall.     During  his  brief 

n  June,  1903,  a  handsome  monument  was  dedicated  episcopate  he  laboured  zealously  for  the  restoration 

to  the  memory  of  Archbishop  Eiourget.    This  work  of  the  Catholic  religion,  although  towards  heretics, 

of  art,  by  the  sculptor  Hubert,  stands  in  front  of  the  as  even  Godwin,  a  Protestant,  admits,  he  always 

cathedral.    It    was    erected    by    both    clergy    and  used  kindness  rather  than  severity,  nor  do  any  seem 

faithful,  who  contributed  125,000,  and  is  a  testimony  to  have  been  executed  in  his  diocese.    Queen  Mary 

of  affection  to  a  great  bishop  who  was  at  the  same  showed  her  high  esteem  for  him  by  naming  him 

time  a  great  citizen.     The  published  woriffl  of  Arch-  Lord  President  of  the  Coimcil  of  Wales.     Elizabeth, 

bishop  Bourget  comprise  eight  volumes  of  pastoi;al  however,  whilst  expressing  herself  contented  with 

letters.  his  service,  relieved  him  quickly  of    that  office  in 

Du  Brumath.  Mar.  Bourget,  archevtque  de  Martuinopolu,  pursuance  of  her  policy  to  remove  Catholics  from 

ancven   &oique   de   Montreal;    Arehxvt^   of   the   ArcndtoceM  cf  o„^u  rir^-fa  ^.f  f-naf 

Montreal;  Semaine  ReUgieu^  files  (Montreal),  V,  XLI.  SUCh  POSts  Of  trust. 

Paul  BRUCHisi.  At  the  begmnmg  of  Elizabeth's  reign  Bourne  was 

kept  away  from  London  by  illness  and  official  duties, 

Bourgoing,   Francois,  third  Superior  General  of  and  he  is  only  mentioned  once  as  present  in  the 

the  Congregation  of  the  Oratory  in  France  and  one  of  Parliament.     For  this  reason  he  was  one  of  the  last 

the  ten  early  companions  of  Cardinal  de  B^rulle,  the  bishops  to  be  deposed,  and  he  was  even  named 

founder  of  the  French  Oratorians,  b.  at  Paris,  1585;  amongst    those    first    commissioned    to    consecrate 

d.  in  1662.     Bourgoing  came  from  a  family  of  which  Parker,    appointwi    primate    of    the    queen's    new 

many  members  had  iSen  magistrates.     Before  join-  hierarchy.    On  his  refusal,  and  on  his  rejection  of 

ing  the  Oratorians  he  was  cur6  of  CUchy  and  resigned  the    Supremacy    Oath,    which    four    Somersetshire 

tlus  position  in  favour  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  who  justices  were  commissioned  on  18  October,  1559,  to 

was  also  a  disciple  and  friend  of  de  B^rulle.    After  ajiminister,  his  deprivation  followed.     For  a  little 

entering  the  congregation  he  was  soon  occupied  in  *"»©  he  still  was  left  in  Somerset,  apparently  a 

founding  and  directing  new  houses  of  the  Oratorians,  prisoner  on  parole;  but  on  31  May,  1560,  he  received 

being  called  in  all  directions  by  the  bishops  of  France  a  summons  to  appear  withm  twelve  days  before 

and  Flanders.     In  1631  he  was  made  assistant  to  the  Parker  and  the  Commissioners  m  London.     He  set 

Superior  General,  P^re  de  Condren,  and  in  1641,  upon  out,  as  his  replv  to  Parker  shows,  well  knowing  what 

the  death  of  the  latter,  he  was  appointed  to  the  vacant  to  expect,  and  was  committed  on  18  Jime  a  closa 

office.    As  superior  general  he  toiled  with  unceasing  pnsoner  to  the  Tower,  where  already,  five  of  his 

zeal  in  organizing  and  developing  the  congregation,  brother  prelates  were  immured.    There  in  solitary 

He  was  aBo  an  energetic  opponent  of  the  Jansenist  confinement,  for  the  most  part,  he  remained  three 

heresy.     After  his  death  Bossuet  delivered  the  fimeral  years,  when  an  outbreak  of  the  plague  in  September, 

oration.     Father  Bourgoing  was  a  writer  of  the  first  1563,  caused  him  and  his  companions  to  be  for  a 

rank  on  asceticism,  as  Bossuet  testifies.     His  prin-  ^^}^^  transferred  into  the  perhaps  equally  objection- 

cipal  work,  ''V^rit^  et  excellences  de  J^sus  (fest  able   keeping  of   certam  of   their   Protestant   sue- 

notre  Sauveur",  has  been  issued  more  than  thirty  cessors;  Bourne  himself  bemg  committed   to  that 

times,  including  an  edition  in  1906,  and  has  been  apparently  of  Bullingham  of  Lincohi. 
translated     into    several    languages.    Equally    re-        Thus  began  that  continual  "tossing  and  shifting" 

markable  is  his  work,  "Exeraces  de  retraites",  of  of  the  deposed  prelates  "from  one  keeper  to  an- 

which  he  published  four  series.  other,  from   one   pnson    to    another ",  which  Car- 

Cloyseatilt,  Recueii  de  vies  de  pieUruee  pritret  de  VOratoire  dinal    Allen,    who    had    every  means  of   knowing, 

(Paris.  1882).  II.  1:  Inoold,  Eamx  debmu)oraphie  oratorienne  describes  as  one  part  of  their  "martyrdom".     Ac- 

(Paris.  1880).  21;  Batterel,  Af^motre,  II  286.  cordingly  we  find  the  Council,  in  June,  1565,  sending 

A.  jn.  r.  iNGOLD.  ^jjg^  ^jf  jj^^j^  ^  ^j^^  Tower,  although  a  Httle  latei 

_  _  a       ^iT  .  in  a  letter  of  Parker  (January,  156i6),  Bullingham 

Bourne,   Francis.      See   Westminbthr      Arch-  jg  mentioned  as  though  again  for  a  time  Bliho^ 

DIOCESE  OP.  Bourne's  actual  or  intended  keeper,  whilst  all  the 

Bourne,  Gilbert,  last  Catholic  Bishop  of  Bath  captive  prelates  continue  during  the  next  two  years 

and  Wells,  England,  son  of  Philip  Bourne  of  Worces-  to  be  referred  to  as  then  in    the    public  prisons, 

tershire,  date  of  birth  unknown;  d.  10  Sept.,  1569,  After  nearly  ten  years  of  this  suffering  existence 

at  Silverton  in  Devonshire.     Entering  Oxford  Uni-  Bishop    Bourne   expired    10    September,    1569,    at 

versity  in  1524,  he  became  Fellow  of  All  Souls  College  Silverton  in  Devonshire,   having  been  there   com- 

in  1531,  proceeded  in  Arts  in  1532,  and  was  ad-  mitted    (apparently  not   long)   to   the   custody  of 

mitted  B.  D.  in  1543,  having  in  1541  been  named  Carew,  Archdeacon  of  Exeter  and  Dean  of  Windsor, 

prebendary  of  Worcester  on  the  suppression  of  the  There  he  was  buried  in  the  church,  though  no  monu- 

old   monastic    chapter.     Removing  to    London   in  ment  marks  the  spot. 

1545  he  became  a  prebendary  of  St.  Paul's,  and  in        The  oft  repeated  story  of  the  kindly  treatment  shown 

1549  Archdeacon  of  Bedford  with  the  living  of  High  by  Elizabeth  to  the  prelates  she,deposed  proves  to  rest 

Ongar  in  Essex.     At  the  time  in  question  the  holding  solely  on  Lord  Burghley's  interested  statement  (Exe- 

of  such  preferments  involved  at  least  some  accept-  cution  of  Justice,  1583)  which  his  own  acts  and  papers 

ance  of  the  religious  changes  effected  imder  Henry  contradict,  but  which  was  eagerly  adopted  and  en- 

Vni  and  his  successor.     However,  like  many  others  larged  by  the  prejudiced  defenders  of  Elizabeth,  An- 

who  then  externally  submitted,  Bourne  seems  to  drewes(TorturaTorti,  1609\  Camden  (Annale8yl615X 


BOUVSire  723  BOUVIEB 

3tryi)e,  and  others.  On  the  other  hand,  Cardinal  Allen  emperor  the  famous  Khang-hi,  who  retained  Father 
describes  the  bishops,  m  his  reply  to.Burghley,  as  hav-  Bouvet,  together  with  Father  Gerbillon,  near  his 
ing  been  vexed,  spoiled,  tormented,  and  slain;  .  .  .  person  and  made  them  his  instructora  in  mathema- 
whose  nmrtyrdom  ,  he  says,  "is  before  God  as  glori-  tics.  While  engaged  in  this  work,  the  two  fathers 
ous,  afl  If  they  had  by  a  speedy  violent  death  been  wrote  several  mathematical  treatises  in  the  Tarta/ 
despatched  .  The  same  m  fact  is  affirmed  by  the  language,  which  the  emperor  caused  to  be  translated 
other  Cathohc  writers  of  the  time.  In  all  the  lists  into  Chinese,  adding  the  prefaces  himself.  So  far 
of  sufferers,  drawn  up  by  these.  Bishop  Bourne  is  did  they  win  his  esteem  and  confidence  that  he  gave 
named  amongst  those  dead  for  the  Faith  in  prison,  them  a  site  within  the  palace  enclosure  for  a  church 
whilst. Bridgewater  says  expressly  that  "he  died  in  and  residence  which  were  finally  completed  in  1702. 
cimins  a  martyr".  Moreover,  he  is  one  of  those  In  1679  he  sent  Father  Bouvet  back  to  France  to 
Eleven  Bishops",  a  picture  of  whose  prison  was  obtain  new  missionaries  and  made  him  the  bearer 
aUowed  by  Gregorv  XIII  to  be  erected  in  the  Eng-  of  a  gift  of  forty-nine  volumes  in  Chinese  for  the 
hsh  College  church  at  Rome,  amongst  pictures  of  king.  These  were  deposited  in  the  Royal  Library, 
the  English  Saints  and  Martyrs,  with  an  inscription  and  Louis  XIV,  in  turn,  commissioned  Father  Bouvet 
declanng  that  they  "died  for  their  confession  of  the  to  present  to  the  emperor  a  magnificently  bound  col- 
Roman  See  and  CathoHc  faith,  worn  out  by  the  lection  of  engravings. 

m^ries  of  their  lon^  imprisonment".  In  1699  Father  Bouvet  arrived  a  second  time  in 

ilSnrn:^S8^rfnr5!St^j::^  ^^^    accompanied    by    ten    missionaries,    among 

archy  (London,  1905);  Gaibdneb.  Enalisk  Hitioruxd  Review  *"®°^  ^^^  O'  S^eat  ability,  such  as  Fathers  de  Pr6- 

(April,    1906)  377;  Allen,  Defence  of  Catholica  (Ingobtadt,    mare,    R^gis,    and    Parrenin.    Khang-hi    honoured 

St"«S5T!t/^oiS.^°^>'&i/^S^tLo^  Jr  ^•'*''^'"  ^''^  ^^%  *S*ir^  intemreter  to  hi«  «>n. 
1571);  kisBT^N-^AKDitiw.  kiu  of  iJaSJioon  sSST ConSJuSl  *•»?  heir-apparent.  In  1700,  with  four  of  hiB  fellow 
tT.i,swt»  (London,  1877);  BRiDOEWATBa,  Concartatio  (August,    missionaries,  he  presented  a  memorial  to  the  emperor, 

n^i^^M^T^'oM^^mb''*'''''''''^^^^"''^'**^^  asking  for  a  decision  as  to  the  meaning  attached  to 

■  '  *■*""'•  Q  jj  Phuups  *'**  various  ceremonies  of  the  Chinese  in  honour  of 

*     '  '  Confucius  and  their  ancestors.    The  emperor,  who  had 

Bouvens,  Chakles  de,  French  pulpit  orator,  b.  I?'*"  *  ^^^  interest  in  the  oontteversjr  regarding 

at  Bourg  iii  1750;  d.  in  1830.    At  a^  early  age  he  *^*  ceremonies,  rephed  that  they  were  simply  civH 

embraceSthe  ecclesiastical  state  and  becaiLTcar-  S?f  «>   ha^^^jS  ZJn^l^Tih'''f^^^^JT^T' 

general  to  his  fellow-townsman^Monseigneur  de  Con-  I***  "trl^''-  *°,f  *«n      ^   ax,^^PI\  ^P.'^ 

ii6,  Archbishop  of  Tours.     Mrhen  the  Revolution  f"  published  in  the  "Gwette  de  Pekm",  but  failed 

broke  out,  he  r&used  to  take  the  required  oaths,  and  Ju ''ZJ^„*'' p^'JIf^^^^^^'^?!  p.FhT^r"? 
followed  W  archbishop  to  GenmJiy.     The  ktter    *}^  questron.    From  1708  to  1715  Father  ^Bouvet 

having  died  m  the  vicii^ty  of  Frankfort,  de  Bouvens  lf>^^^„Z^^}^^.7  fJ^l!'^^^  the  prepa- 

wentto  London,  where  the  Bishop  of  Airas,  brother  '^'■'°"  °i.^^P%  of  t^e  various  provmcM.    He  was 

of  Archbishop  6onzi6  was  minister  to  the  Comte  *  ""f? ^^  ?7**  T!F  *".t  ^.^^i  '^'^  u    T^h 

d'Artois,  later  Charles  X.    Here  he  delivered,  either  Tfl^^  lE.'^*^-  /X'  ""^^^    l^^  ^"a"^  ^  "^'"l^ 

in  the  church  of  St.  Patrick  or  in  the  chapel  built  by  f  ^^f.  ^^"^  *'^**'«  missionaries  and  was  engaged 

the  Sulpician  Bourret  in  King  Street^  sevwal  funeral  J"?""  t^P'e  to  time  in  various  scientific  works,    Durmg 

oration^  in  the  presence  of  ^Louis  kvHI  and  the  J^^ '""g  P«n°d,  chiefly  on  account  ofhis  services 

Comte  d'Artois.  *The  best  known  of  these  orations  j!^  !,^5  ^.Ti^ ^l^nL^t^'^L^t^iT^K':?*^  ^' 

are:  the  one  on  Marie^osephine-Louise  of  Savoy,  •»«  <H   ?"?iv*?  ^J*"'^''®  "^^"^  °/  ChnstiMuty 

wife  of  Louis  XVni;  that  on  the  Due  d'Enghien  ?^*l*<»  facihtate  the  ^trance  and  the  labours  of  his 

(1804),  and  the  one  on  the  Abb6  Henry  Allen  Edge-  ^Dow-miMionanes.    His  Chmese  name  was  Petsin. 

worth 'de  Firmont,  confessor  of  LoSi^XVl!  ThIS  2S''^tf„^,thA°«lC' nil^f 'nfl^'rh^''''^* 
eulogies  Were  printed  at  Paris  for  the  first  time  in    ?^  **»«  *"*''°'  °L  Etet  prfeent  de  la  Chme,  en 

1814,  being  issued  separately 
in  one  volume  appeared  at  I 

Sel'^tTe^aS^S^'mi^tioS  Ig!,TaT^?:i  It^^Z'i'  W Mans  contains  a  «>|iection  of  his 

oration  on  Ixniis  XVIII     At  ^e  time  of  the  B^tora-  "'^rsTcgl^l^J^I^  ^^.tT^c:  <t.  J^ 

tion  (1815),  he  returned  to  France  and  was  named  (Paris,  1869).  1;  Michaud,  BiographU  Universelie,  V. 
chaplain  to  Louis  XVIII.    In  1828  the  infirmities  of  Henry  M.  Brock. 

age  forced  him  to  resign,  but  he  retained  the  title  of        -b^„^^«     t«  .„  t>  . ««.,«««     t>- u        ^e    r      -km 

ffonoraiy  Chaplain.    Tl^e  Revolution  of  1830  drove  ,u??^^.®''  K^^'^r^Qr'pvf'  i^l  °t?    a!    ^   ^"^^^ 

him  from  PariT^and  he  died  shortly  afterwards.  theologian,    b     at    St.    Charles-l^Fordt,    Mayenne, 

QufeRABD.  La  France  litUraire  (Paris.  1827).  I;  Michaud,  J?  January,  1783;  d.  at  Rome.  28  December,  1854. 

Biog.  unit?.,  s.  v.  Having  received  merely  an  elementary  education, 

A.  FoTJRNBT.  he  learned  his  father's  trade  of  carpentry,  but  he  gave 

his  spare  time  to  the  study  of  the  classics  under  the 

Bonvet,  Joachim,  Jesuit  missionary,  b.  at  Le  direction  of  the  parish  priest.  In  1805  he  entered 
Mans,  France  (date  unknown);  d.  at  Peking,  China,  the  seminary  of  Angers,  where  he  made  rapid  progress. 
28  June,  1732.  He  was  one  of  the  first  six  Jesuits  He  was  oroained  priest  in  1808  and  appointed  pro- 
selected  by  Louis  XIV  for  the  mission  in  China,  feasor  of  philosophy  at  the  College  of  CMteau  (ion- 
Befope  setting  out  for  their  destination,  he  and  his  thier.  In  1811  ne  was  transferred  to  the  seminary 
associates  were  admitted  to  the  Acad^mie  des  of  Le  Mans,  where  he  taught  philosophy  and  moral 
Sciences  and  were  commissioned  by  that  learned  theology.  In  1819  he  was  made  superior  of  that 
body  to  carry  on  astronomical  observations,  to  de-  institution  and  vicar-general  of  the  diocese,  a  position 
termine  the  geographical  positions  of  the  various  which  he  held  until  1834,  when  he  was  raisea  to  the 
places  they  were  to  visit,  and  to  collect  various  episcopal  see  of  Le  Mans.  The  influence  exerted  by 
scientific  data.  The  little  band,  after  being  provided  his  "Institutiones  Theologies"  (in  fifteen  editions), 
by  order  of  the  King  with  all  necessary  scientific  which  was  in  use  in  almost  all  the  seminaries  of  France, 
instruments,  sailed  from  Brest,  3  Mareh,  1685,  with  as  well  as  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  ^ves 
Father  Fontaney  as  Superior.  After  spending^ some  Bishop  Bouvier  a  unique  and  honourable  position 
t4me  in  Siam,  they  finally  arrived  in  Peking,  7  Febru-  in  the  history  of  theology  during  the  nineteenth 
aiy,  1688.    They  were  favourably  received  by  the  century.     His  compendium  had  we  distinction  of 


BOVA  724 

being  the  first  manual,  and  for  many  years  the  only  34  churches  and  chapels,  34  secular  priests,  and  25 

one  well  adapted  to  that  period  of  transition  (1830-  seminarians. 

70).  marked  on  the  one  hand  by  the  death  struggles       C4i»pi:LLrrTi.  U  chieMe  £JMia  (Venice,  1844).  XXI;  Bat- 

of  GaUicanism  and  Jansenism,  and  on  the  other  by  '^'>™-  ^^^'  ^'  ^'  (P^i*.' 1907).  b.^^^ 

the  work  of  reform  undertaken  in  all  departments 

of  ecclesiastical  learning.  Bovine,  Diocbsb  of,  in  the  province  of  Foggia, 

At  first,  Bishop  Bouvier  published  separate  theo-  ^^^Yf  suffragan  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Benevento. 

logical  treatises,  which  formed  a  collection  of  thir-  The  city,  built  on  a  gentle  slope,  has  a  population  of 

t^n  volumes  (1818-33),  reduced  in  1834  to  six,  and  over  30,000.     The  first  Bishop  of  Bovino  known  to 

published  in  that  form  until  1852.    The  author  en-  history  is  a  certain  Johannes  mentioned  in  a  deed  of 

deavoured  to  improve  his  work  in  the  successive  Landulphus   I,   Archbishop  of   Beneventum,    dated 

editions,  but  his  toilure  to  remove  from  it  all  traces  ^1-     Among  other  bishops  are  Ugo  (1099),  whose 

of    GaUicanism    provoked    criticism.      A    Gallican,  services  and  bounty  to  the  Church  are  eulogized  on 

through  prejudices  derived  from  his  early  training  two  tablets,  one  preserved  in  the  episcopal  residence, 

rather    tnan    from    personal    conviction,    Bouvier  the  other  in  the  cathedral;  Giso   (1100)   commem- 

readily  consented  to  submit  his  work  to  the  correo-  orated  on  the  facade  of  the  church  of  San  Pietro; 

tions  of   the   theologians   appointed   by   Pius   IX.  Roberto  (1190),  who  built  the  shrine  of  San  Michele; 

Th6ir  revision  resulted  in  the  eighth  edition  (1853).  Pietro,  who  erected  a  new  cathedral  to  replace  the 

After  the  death  of  Bouvier,  the  professors  of  the  ruinous  old  one;  Bartolomeo  della  Porta  (1404),  a 

seminary  of  Le  Mans  eliminated  many  imperfections  distinguished  jurisconsult;  Cardinals  Benedetto  Ao- 

which  had  been  overlooked  by  the  revisers  of  1853.  colti  (1530)  and  Gabriele  Marini  (1535);  Gian  Dome- 

The  manual  was  shortly  afterwards  adopted  in  more  nice  Annio,  successor  to  his  brother,  Gian  Ferdinando 

than  sixty  seminaries.    Bouvier's  treatment  of  moral  (1565),  and  the  greatest  canonist  of  his  time;  Paolo 

theology  is-  remarkable;   he  took  a  decided  stana  Tolosa  (1601),  founder  of  the  seminary  and  later 

aeainst  Jansenism  and  adopted  the  doctrines  of  St.  Archbishop  of  Chieti;  Angelo  Ceraso  (1685),  a  man 

Alphonsus;  though  even  tnis  reaction  against  rig-  of  great  sanctity,  who  always  made  the  visitation 

onsm  did  not  bnng  his  work  up  to  the  standard  of  of  his  diocese  on  foot, 
the  manuaU  of  theology  of  the  present  time.  On  account  of  {Political  entanglements  consequent 

Some  critics  condemned  much  of  the  information  ui)on  difficulties  wnich  had  arisen  between  the  pope 
in  the''Institutiones"as  a  crude  and  confused  mass,  and  the  court  of  Naples,  this  see  remained  vacant 
irrelevant,  and  only  indirectly  connected  with  moral  from  the  death  of  Bishop  Nicold  Molinari,  in  1792, 
theology.  It  must  jbe  recalled,  however,  that  Bishpp  until  1818.  There  exists  to  the  present  day  in  this 
Bouvier  did  not  enjoy  the  advantages  of  the  present  diocese  a  famous  shrine  of  Our  Lady  (Santa  Maria  in 
day,  when  the  various  branches  of  clerical  study  are  Valverde)  erected  in  1244  by  Bishop  Giambattista. 
classified,  and  each  given  its  proper  place.  Not-  The  little  town  of  Castelluocio  in  this  diocese  is  in- 
withstanding  the  incompleteness  of  preparatory  habited  almost  entirely  by  descendents  .of  Greeks 
studies  eighty  years  a^,  the  scare! t^r  ot  vocations,  who  took  refuge  in  Italy  in  the  fifteenth  century, 
the  urgent  need  of  priests,  and  limited  pecuniary  They  have  a  clergy  and  a  liturgy  of  their  own  rite, 
resources  made  it  necessary  to  limit  the  clerical  The  diocese  contains  32,710  Catholics,  10  parishes, 
course  to  three  yesxs  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  in-  76  churches  and  chapels,  80  secular  priests,  and  13 
dude  in  the  curriculum  all  the  studies  necessary  for  seminarians. 

the  exercise  of  the  sacred  ministry  in  parishes.    Under      Cappsllbiti,  T^e  chiese  <riudia  (Venioe,  184I);  BATTAin>mu 

such  circumstances   it   was   impossibW  to  observe  -***"•  p*^'  *^-  ^^'™''  *®^-  ^.  ^ 

nice  distinctions  in  the  classification  of  ecclesiastical  •  '**'"<*'"• 

sciences.    However,  in  spite  of  defects,  the  ''Insti-       Bowyer,     Sir    George,     Baronet,    an    eminent 

tutiones  Theologicse"  will  stand  as  a  signal  achieve-  English  writer  on  jurisprudence,  as  well  as  a  promi- 

ment  on  the  morrow  of  the  Revolution.    The  bishop  nent   defender   of   the    Holy    See   and   of   Catholic 

gradually  brought  the  education  of  the  clerry  out  interests  in  general,  both  by  voice  and  pen,  was  bom 

of  the  errors  and  lethargy  of  the  preceding  chaotic  at  Radley   House,   in   Berkshire,  8  October,    1811; 

age,  and  prepared  for  the  reforms  of  the  latter  part  d.  in  London,  7  June,  1883.     His  family,  traceable 

of  the  nineteenth  century.    Like  Cardinal  Gousset  he  much  farther  back,  settled,  early  in  the  seventeenth 

must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  foremost  reformers  century,  at  Denham  Court,  Buckinghamshire,  and 

of  moral  theology.     Pius  IX  conceived  the  highest  es-  in  1660  the  head  of  the  house  was  made  a  baronet, 

teem  for  him  and  invited  him  to  be  present  at  the  His  grandfather  was  a  naval  officer  of  high  distinction, 

definition    of    the  dogma  of  the  Immaculate  Con*  who  took  part  in  Howe's  famous  victory  off  Ushant, 

ception.  1  June,  1794.     George  Bowyer  was  at  first  intended 

^^^^,5icLde»dict.CPKnM,  1886),  11.  302;  Dbmates  m  for  the  army,  and  so  for  a  while  he  was  a  cadet  at 

DuA.  de  thiol,  cath.,  XIII,  1118;  Hurter,  Nomendator  (Inn»-  w^^i^^^l       «.    v^^^    k««,«,r«..   «,«o  4»»o*^.  ^\.^  i.«. 

bruck,  1886);  Ballerini,  Opus  Theoloovcum  (2d  ed.,  Prato.  Woolwich.     His  bent,  however,  was  towards  ttie  law; 

1891),  VII.  421;  Lshmkuhl,  Theologta  MoralU  (Freiburg,  accordingly,  in  1836,  he  was  admitted  a  student  at 

1886),  II,  796.  the  Middle  Temple,  his  call  to  the  English  Bar  regu- 

r.  L>I8SER.  i^yiy  ensuing   in  1839.     Five  days  after  his  call   to 

Bova,   Diocese  op.  situated  in  the  civil  prov*  the  Bar,  partly,   perhaps,  because  of  two  learned 

ince  of  Reggio,  in  Calabria,  Italy,  suffragan  to  the  works  published  by  him  in  the  foregoing  year,  and 

Archdiocese  of  Reggio.     Luminosus,  who  attended  partly,  perhaps,  by  reason  of  his  family's  neighbour- 

the  Lateran  Council  (649),  under  Pope  Martin  I,  is  hood  at  Radley,  the  University  of  Oxford  created 

believed  by  some  to  have  been  the  first  Bishop  of  him  an  honorary  M.  A.    Mr.  Bowyer  forthwith  began 

Bova;  in  reality  he  was  Bishop  of  Bologna.    The  city  practice  as  an  equity  draughtsman  and  conveyancer, 

of  Bova  (and  consequently  the  see)  is  of  much  later  without    ceasing    to    devote    himself    to    congenial 

origin   than   the   pontificate    of    Martin  I;   it  was  literary  work.     In  1841  he  published  "  The  English 

peopled  about   1477   by  Albanian  refugees  fleeing  Constitution,  a  Popular  Commentary  on  the  Con- 

rrom  the  Turkish  invasions  that  followed  upon  the  stitutional  Laws  of   England",  which  in  1844   was 

death  of  Scanderbeg.    In  their  new  home  these  Al-  followed  by   "  Commentaries  on   the   Civil    Law  **. 

banians  retained  the  Greek  Rite,  which  remained  in  So  valuable  were  these  works  that  at  midsummer 

use  until  the  reign  of  Pope  Gregoiy  XIII.    One  of  of  the  latter  year  the  University  of  Oxford  bestowed 

the  most  distinguished  Bishops  of  Bova  was  AchiUe  on  him  the  highest  honour  in  its  gift  by  creating 

Brancia  (1549),  a  member  ot  the  Ck)uncil  of  Trent,  him  a  D.C.L.     In  1849  he  endeavoured  to  get  into 

The  diocese  contains  about  20,000  souls,  14  parishes.  Parliament  as  a  representative  of  Reading  Borough 


r                                          BOT                                        725  BOTOE 

in  his  native  Berkshire,  but  his  hour  for  parliftmentftry  Wood,  there  to  serve  the  transferred  and  new- 
life  was  not  yet.  built  hospital.  Sir  George  Bowyer  was  a  Knight 
Next  year,  1850,  there  happened  the  gravest  and  Commander  of  the  order  of  Pius  IX,  and  a  Papal 
most  far-reaching  event  of  Bowyer's  career:  his  con-  Chamberlain;  Knight  Grand  Cross  of  the  Order  of 
version  from  Anglican  Protestantism  to  the  Catholic  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  Knight  of  Justice  of  the 
religion.  That  same  year  Pope  Pius  IX  set  up  in  "Sovereign  Order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  (or  of 
England  a  new  Catholic  episcopal  hierarchy.  At  Malta),  etc.  At  home  he  wAs  a  Justice  of  the  Peace 
this  proceeding,  vulgarly  styled  "  the  Papal  Ag-  and  Deputy  Lieutenant  of  Berkshire.  He  never 
gression,''  English  Protestantism  went  wild  with  married,  and  was  succeeded  in  the  baronetcy  by  his 
rage  and  resentment  for  the  space  of  several  months,  younger  brother. 

To    Bowyer    this    popular    mania    offered    a    golden  ^>»c*-  Nat.  Biog.  (London,  1886);  Annual  Reginter,  1883,  162, 

nnnnrtimitv  tn  nianH  (nrth  h/>1Hlv  in  ♦!»«»  Wnlv  \ftL*\yt>,T^a  1*3;   GiLLOW,    BiU.    Dici.   of  Eng.    Cath.,    I,    282-284;    Times, 

opportunity  U)  S1»na  lorin  boiaiy  in  tne  lloly  father  S  j,^^^^  ^^  ^^her  London  newspapers  for  June.  1883. 

defence.     His  pamphlet.      The  Cardmal  Archbishop  C.  T.  Boothii an. 
of  Westminster  and  the  New  Hierarchy'',  ran  through 

four  editions,  and  was  followed  at  intervals  by  several  Boy-Bishop. — ^The  custom  of  electing  a  boy-bishop 

more  publications  on  the  same  theme.     From  this  on  the  feast  of  St.  Nicholas  dates  from  very  early 

beginning  to  the  end  of  his  days  he  was  the  foremost  times,  and  was  in  vogue  in  most  Catholic  countries, 

lay  champion  in  England  of  the  Catholic  Church  but  chiefly  in  England,  where  it  prevailed  certainly 

and  her  earthly  head.     His  letters  addressed  to  the  in  all  the  larger  monastic  and  scholastic  establish- 

newspapers,  principally  to  the  '*  Times  **,  were  many,  raents,  and  also  in  many  country  parishes  besides, 

vigorous,  and  unanswerable;  and  in  those  days  he  with  the  full  approbation  of  authority,  ecclesiastical 

was  practically  the  only  competent  Catholic  whose  and  civil.     The  boy-bishop  was  chosen  from  among 

controversial  letters  were  admitted  into  the  English  the  children  of  the  monastery  school,  the  cathedral 

Protestant  press.     At  the  same  time  he  sealously  choir,  or  the  pupils  of  the  grammar-school.     Elected 

prosecuted  his  legal  studies  and  writings.     His  "Com-  on  St.  Nicholas's  day  (6  E^cember),  he  was  dressed 

mentaries  on  Universal  Public  Law  "  came  out  in  in  pontifical  vestments  and,  followed  by  his  com- 

1854    and    is    commonly    considered    his    greatest  panions  in  priest's  robes,  went  in  procession  round  the 

literary  achievement;  ^'  Introduction  to  the  Study  parish,  blessing  the  people.     He  then  took  posses- 

and  Use  of  the  Civil  Law  ",  his  last  publication,  sion  of  the  church,   where  he*  presided  at  all  the 

appeared  in  1874.  ceremonies  and  offices   until    Holy    Innocents  day 

To  go  back  to  1850,  the  period  of  his  conversion,  (28  December).     At  Salisbury  he  is  said  to  have  had 

Mr.  Bowyer  was  that  year  appointed  Reader  in  Law  the  power  of  disposing  of  any  benefices  that  fell 

at  the  Middle  Temple.     In  1852  he  at  last  found  his  vacant  during  his  reign,  and  if  he  died  in  office  the 

desired  seat  in  Parliament,  as  member  for  the  Irish  funeral  honours  of  a  bishop  were  granted  him.     A 

borough  of  Dundalk,  whose  representative  he  oon-  monument  to  such  a  boy-prelate  still  exists  there, 

tinned  to  be  for  the  next  sixteen  years.     During  that  though  its  genuineness  has  been  questioned,  and  at 

stirring  period  ther^  came  the  Italian  Unity  move-  Lulworth  Castle  another  is  preserved,  which  came 

ment,  and  the  despoiling  of  the  Roman  Pontiff  of  from  Bindon  Abbey.     The  custom  was  abolished  by 

the  greater  part  of  his  temporal  dominions,  to  be  Henry  VIII  in  1542,  restored  by  Queen  Mary,  and 

followed  some  years  later  by  the  seisure  of  the  re-  again  abolished  by  EU^abeth,  though  here  and  there 

mainder.     Then   it   was   that   Sir   George    Bowyer  it  lingered  on  for  some  time  longer.     On  the  Conti- 

(who,  on  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1860  had  succeeded  nent  it  was  suppressed  by  the  Council  of  Basle  in 

to   the    baronetcy),   in   company   with   John   Pope  1431,  but  was  revived  in  some  places  from  time  to 

Hennessy,  John  Francis  Ma^ire,  and  others,  took  time,  even  as  late  as  the  eighteenth  century. 

every     occasion     to     denounce     in     Parliament    the  Rock.  Church  of  our  Father»  (London.  1863),  III,  xii;  Leb, 

It&liMi    revolutionAriAfi     AflnAmii.11v    fnr    thA    mhhAPv  Oi'O—ary  of  LUurgtcal  and  Bedenattical  Tcrvu  (London,  1877J; 

J      .^      ,    "*^°i"®®;    especiauy    lOr    tne    robbery  Qj^jj„^    parish  Life   in   Medieval   England    a.ondon.   1906): 

and  virtual  captivity  of  the  Roman  Pontiff,  and  the  Camden  Society.  Machyn^s  Diary  (Lon(V)n.  1848);  Du  Canqi, 

atrocities    committed    by    King    Victor    Emmanuers  Cnosaarium,    ea    Hbnbchbl    (London.    1884),   s.  w.    Epiaeomia 

widienr   «  the   Utely   annexed   NeapoUton   realm  'n^'}Z,.'tJ!l^SZ.^ZVJ^,^'^T' m"^  Ct 

For  all   these   misdeeds  the   Member  for   Dundalk  ax)ndon,  184 1).  61,  78. 82. 

continually    called    to    account    Lord    Palmerston,  G.  Cyprian  Aiston. 
Lord  John  (afterwards  Earl)  Russell,  Mr.  Gladstone, 

and  other  English  governmental  abettors  of  the  Boyce,  John,  novelist,  lecturer,  and  priest,  well 
Italian  Revolution,  who  could  answer  only  by  known  under  the  assumed  name  of  *'  Paul  Pepper- 
parading  principles  at  once  subversive  and  immoral,  grass  *\  b.  in  Donegal,  Ireland,  in  1810;  d.  in  Wor« 
In  1868  he  lost  bis  seat  for  Dundalk,  and  for  the  next  cester,  Mass.,  2  January,  1864.  His  father  was  a 
six  years  remained  out  of  Parliament,  until  1874,  respectable  and  wealthy  citizen,  proprietor  of  the 
when,  as  a  Home  Ruler,  he  was  chosen  a  representa-  principal  hotel  in  the  town  and  a  magistrate  of  the 
tive  of  the  Irish  County  of  Wexford,  retaining  that  county.  John  early  manifested  a  taste  for  literary 
seat  until  1880.  Meanwhile,  as  his  principles  and  pursuits,  and  with  the  desire  of  studying  for  the 
attitude  with  regard  to  the  Italian  question,  to  say  priesthood,  entered  the  preparatory  seminary  at 
nothing  of  other  matters,  were  in  nowise  to  the  Navan,  County  Meath,  and  was  graduated  with  the 
taste  of  the  British  Liberal  party,  he  was,  in  1876,  highest  honours  in  rhetoric  and  philosophy.  He 
tamed  out  of  the  London  Reform  Club.  completed  his  studies  at  the  Royal  College  of.  May- 
On  the  7th  of  June,  1883,  Sir  George  Bowyer  was  nooth  and  was  ordained  priest  in  1837.  For  eight 
found  dead  in  bed  at  his  London  chambers.  No.  13,  years  he  laboured  on  the  Irish  mission,  but  in  1845 
King's  Bench  Walk,  in  the  Temple.  His  obsequies  he  resolved  to  share  the  lot  of  his  countrymen  in 
took  plaoe  in  the  Catholic  church  of  St.  John  of  America.  From  Eastport,  Maine,  the  scene  of  his 
JeruBalem,  which,  alongside  of  the  Hospital  of  Sts.  first  missionary  labours,  he  was  transferred,  14  No- 
John  .|ind  Elisabeth,  in  Great  Ormond  Street,  he  vember,  1847,  to  St.  John's  Church,  Worcester, 
had  built  at  his  own  cost.  And  here  it  may  be  re-  where  he  remained  until  his  death.  Father  Boyoe 
marked  that  in  architecture  Sir  George  Bowyer  had  was  an  eloquent  lecturer  •  and  gifted  writer.  His 
a  strong  leaning  for  the  Palladian,  or  Italian,  style,  published  works  are:  "  Shandy  Maguire,  or  Tricks 
as  against  the  Gothic,  especially  for  public  buildings,  upon  Travellers  ''  (New  York,  1848),  which  was 
and  hk  principles  he  put  into  practice  in  the  afore-  dramatised  by  "  J.  Pilgrim  ";  "  The  Spaewife,  or 
said  church,  which  is  a  little  Palladian  gem.  The  the  Queen's  Secret"  (Baltimore,  1853);  "  Mary  Lee, 
church  has  now  been  removed  bodily  to  St.  John's  or  the  Yankee  in  Ireland  "  (1859),  first  published 

n. 


BOm  726  BBAOtON 

^ally  in  the  "Metropolitan  Magazine"  of  Haiti-  (in  1884  and  1886)  for  Dunedin  in  the  Liberal  in 
aiore.  These  novels  do  not  reveal  the  varied  eifts  terest.  He  died  in  the  Dunedin  hospital.  He  is  besi 
and  ripe  scholarship  of  the  man,  though  they  iHus-    known  in  New  Zealand  and  Australia  for  his  verse. 


many  sketches  and  criticisms  which  appeared  in  ings  in  Maoriland"  (E)unedin,  1890),  ins  last  and 

print,  and  a  lecture  on  "The  Satisfying  iimuence  of  fuSest  collection.    Bracken's  themes  are  mostly  local 

Catholicity  on  the  Intellect  and  Senses",  delivered  and  colonial.    He  is  not  a  worid-poet,  but  takes  hon- 

before  the  Catholic  Institute  in  New  York  in  1861.  ourable  rank  among  the  pioneers  of  Australian  poetry. 

Biographical  dcetch  by  J   FAmrAx  McLaughlin  in  later  In  his  best  verse,  much  true  and  tender  poetic  feeling 

editions  of  Tfie  Spctwdej  Oolden  Jttlntee  Souvenir  of  SL  John's  c^Aa  ah-lUn^  ^r^A  lv:^4^,i^«,«i.o.  ».»»r.ww.-:»« 

Parish  (Worceeter);   Messenger  (Worcester,  Mass.)'  3  Decern-  ^^  sklUed  and  picturesque  expression, 

ber,  1898;  Pilot  (Boston.  Mass.)  files  16  January,  1864.  ^  Mbnnell.    Austral^um   BiMraphv   (London,    1802):    The 

KnwAnn  P   Sptt  t  avtt  ^'o*^  ^^*^V  Times,  files  (17  February,  1898);   The  Eventnc 

iliDWARD  r.  aPILLANB.  g^  (Dunedin).  fil^  (17  February.  1898);  Thi  New  ZeSani 

Boyle  Abbey,  a  celebrated  Cistercian  house  situ-  ®  ruary,        ;.     jj^j^^  -yy  Qleart. 

ated  on  the  River  Boyle,  nine  miles  northwest  of 


,    , '    ,      ^    ..  .^.«  ,*       ,      ^  X    t      ,v  ,.  King  John's  reign  and  died  about  four  years  before 

Ireland.    In  the  year  1218  (Annals  of  Ireland)  the  the  close  of  that  of  Henry  III.    His  lifetime  therefore 

church  of  Boyle  Abbey  was  solemnly  consecrated,  comprised  and  aUnost  coincided  with  the  momentoua 

A  great  number  of  the  Abbots  of  Boyle  were  ap-  period  between  the  grant  of  Magna  Charta  and  the  de- 

pomted  bishops  m  the  Provmoe  of  Connaught  durmg  feat  and  death  of  Simon  of  Montfort,  Earl  of  Leicester, 

the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries,  and  more  at  the  battle  of  Evesham.     By  birth,  iMx>perty,  and 

especially  m  the  Dioceses  of  Elphm  and  Achonry.  ecclesiastical  preferment  he  appears  to  have  been  a 

In  1235  the  English  forces  imder  the  joint  command  man  of  Devon,  in  which  shire  there  are  two  parishes 

of  Maurice  Fitzgerald  and  McWilliam  forcibly  took  of  the  name  of  Bratton,  viz.,  Bratton-QoveUy  and 

possession  of  the  abbey,  seized  all  the  goods,  vest-  Bratton-Flemmg,  one  or  the  other  of  these  parishes 

ments,  and  chalices  belonging  to  the  monastery  and  being  almost  certainly  his  birthplace,  for  the  claim 

stnpped  the  monks  of  theirliabitsm  their  cloister,  of  Minehead  parish  in  Somerset,  may  be  dismissed 

Dunng  the  reien  of  Queen  Elizabeth  the  abbey  was  as  untenable.    Hence  it  may  be  gathered  that  the 

supprMsed  and  its  lands  and  possessions  handed  correct  form  of  this  great  jurist's  name  is  hardly 

over    (1569)    to    Patrick   Cus«;k   of    Gen-ardston,  Bracton,  but  rather  Bratton,  by  which  appellation, 

CJounty  Meath.    From  the  list  of  its  lands  then  made  as  well  as  by  the  occasional  variant  of  Bretton  (most 

it  IS  clear  that  Boyle  must  have  been  one  of  the  ukely  then  sounded  much  like  Bratton)  he  was  ahnost 

most  nchly  endowed  religious  houses  m  Ireland,  invariably  described  in  his  own  day,  not  to  add 

In  1689  a  lease  of  the  abbey  was  granted  to  WiUiam  that,  in  point  of  etymology,  "Bradtone"   (broad 

Ussher.     Dunng  the  reign  of  King  James  I  several  town)  seems  Ukelier  than  "Bractbne"  to  have  been 

mcmisitions  were  l^ld  in  connexion  with  the  lands  the  earUer  form  of  the  name.    To  come  to  his  la- 

of  Boyle  Ab^jr,  and  m  J603  a  lease  of  it  was  granted  borious  and  distinguished  career,  it  is  s^d  that  Brat- 

to  Sir  John  King.  ,     -  ,;      . , .  •  ^     ,  ton  in  his  youth  was  a  student  at  the  University  of 

PeAaps  the  most  eminent  of  the  Abbots  of  Boyle  Oxford,  where  he  is  further  alleged  to  have  taken 

was  X)onchad  O'Daly  who  died  in  1250,  and  who  the  degree  of  doctor  of  civil  and  of  canon  law  but  this, 

was  recognized  as  a  poet  of  very  special  merit.    He  though  indeed  possible,  is  altogether  lacking  of  proof. 

IS  spoken  of  as  the  Ovid  of  Ireland.    Many  of  the  Certain  it  is  that  he  was  taken  into  the  service  of 

pnnces  of  Connaught  retired  to  Boyle  before  their  King  Henry  III.    By  this  time  the  king's  curia  had 

death  and  more^pecially  the  princes  of  the  family  grown  distinct  from  King's  Council  and  a  race  of 

of  McDermot  of  Moylure.     The  Abbey  of  Boyle  is  professional  judges  had  sprung  into  existence.    Of 

now  m  ruins,  but  from  the  remains  stiU  to  be  seen  these  professionsa  judges  Henry  Bratton  became  one. 

near  the  present  town  of  Boyle  it  was  evidently  a  it  is  in  1245  that  we  first  find  him  acting  in  a  judicial 

place  of  great  importance  and  of  some  architectural  capacity,  and  from  that  year  onward  we  continually 

pretensions.  „n.     -       ,^^^  -^«v     *  ™eet  with  him  either  as  a  justice  in  Eyre  (especially 

ArcHDALL,    Monasttcon    Hlbemicon    (601-606);    AlemAND,  J„  uj^  nofivo  IVvnn  onH  nf  hor  noicrhKniinno'  rJ^^vti^\ 

Hisioire  Monastique  de  VIrlande  (Pari?,  1690).  191;  Murpht,  ^^  "*«  ^^^}^?  Devon  and  Other  neignbourmg  counties) 

Ow  Martyrs,  115;  Rushb,  A  Second  Thebatd  (Dublin,  1905),  or  as  holding  pleas  before  the  king  hmiself,  until 

130;  OTlamrtt,  West  Connaught,  355r-379,  the  end  of  the  year  1267.    Thus  he  was  undoubtedly 

James  MacCapfrby,  j^  regular  permanent  judge,  though  he  never  appears 

Bracciolini.    See  Poggio  Bracciouni,  Giovanni  one  special  mark  of  royal  favour  towards  him  is 

Francesco.  upon  record.    Yet  in  the  civil  broils  of  his  time  he 

Bracken,    Thomas,    poet,   journalist,   politician,  was  neither  side's  partisan  and  was  re8(>ected  and 

b.  in  Ireland  21  December,  1843;  d.  at  Dunedin,  trusted  alike  by  king  and  barons.    Of  his  great  and 

New  Zealand,  16  February,  1898.     Having  lost  his  epoch-making  literary  work,  "De  Lesibus  et  CJon- 

parents  he  emigrated  in  his  twelfth  year  to  Victoria,  suetudinibus  Angli»^',  Professor  Paul  Vinogradoff 

Australia.    He  went  to  Otago,  New  Zealand,  as  a  (the  Athenieum,  19  July,  1884)  writes  that  it  is  a 

shearer  in  1869,  and  published  there  a  small  volume  treatise  which  ''testifies  to  the  influence  of  Roman 

of  verse,  "Flights  among  the  Flax",  which  brought  jurisprudence  and  of  its  medieval  exponents,  but 

him  into  some  notice.    In  Dimedin  he  was  associated  at  tne  same  time  remains  a  statem^it  of  genuine 

with  the  commercial  staffs  of  "The  New  Zealand  English  law,  a  statement  so  detailed  and  accurate 

Tablet",  "The  Otago  Guardian",  and  the  "Morning  that  there  is  nothing  to  match  it  in  the  whole  legal 

Herald",  and  was  founder  and  part  proprietor  of  literature  of  the  Imddle  Ages.''     The  number  of 

the  "Saturday  Advertiser",  which  was  a  literary  decided   cases   therein   referred   to    (for   Bratton's 

and  commercial  success  only  so  long  as  he  direcUy  law  is  naturally  case-L,w)  amounts  to  four  hundred 

oontrolled  it.    He  was  twice  returned  to  Parliament  and  fifty.    Like  all  or  almost  all  of  tiie  profoesioiMl 


B&4DLIT  727  BB4DT 

iadges  <»f  his  time,  Bratton  was  an  ecclesiastic,  dictinee  to  be  educated.  In  1619  he  joined  thi 
His  known  church  preferments  are  Barnstaple  arch-  Discalced  Carmelites  in  Belgium.  In  1626  he  wae 
deaconry,  conferred  upon  him  in  1264,  but  which  sent  to  England,  where  he  mboured  zealously  until 
the  same  year  he  quitted  for  the  chancellorship  of  he  was  arreted  and  brought  before  the  Archbishop 
Exeter  cathedral,  retaining  this  latter  di^ty  until  of  Canterbury,  charged  with  being  a  Catholic  priest. 
his  death  in  1268.  At  his  decease  he  enjoyed  like-  He  was  thrown  into  pHrison  and  suffered  great  hard- 
wise  a  canonry  and  prebend  as  well  in  Exeter  ships,  but  at  length,  ttt  the  intercession  of  powerful 
cathedral  church  as  m  the  collegiate  church  of  friends,  including  the  King  of  Spain,  he  was  liberated, 
Bofiham.  All  these  benefices  were  of  the  Bishop  of  and  banished  to  France.  In  Paris  he  filled  the  office 
Exeter's  gift.  At  the  same  time  as  the  kind's  clerk  of  reader  in  the  Carmelite  monastery  until  1632, 
engaged  in  the  king's  business,  Bracton  coula  seldom  when  by  order  of  his  superior  he  returned  to  Eng- 
or  never  have  kept  residence.  His  body  was  buried  land  and  took  up  his  residence  with  his  family  at 
in  Exeter  caliiedral,  before  an  altar  at  which  he  had  Haigh  Hall.  There  he  visited  the  poor,  performed 
founded  a  perpetual  chantry  for  his  soul.  Of  Brat-  his  priestly  duties,  and  made  manv  converts.  To- 
ton's  great  and  comprehensive  treatise  ''  De  Legibus",  wards  the  close  of  his  life  he  devotea  his  time  chieflv 
etc.,  written  before  1259,  the  first'  printed  ^tion  to  the  study  of  English  antiquities.  Bradshaign 
was  published  in  1569  in  folio,  and  reprinted  in  was  the  author  of  two  works  on  British  antiquities, 
quarto  in  1640.  A  recension  and  translation  of  the  ''De  antiquis  Monachis  Insularum  Britannite,  sub 
whole  work  in  six  volumes,  by  Sir  Travers  Twiss,  primitiva  Ecclesi&  viventibus",  and  ''Anghse  Sanotie 
was  issued  in  London  (Rolls  publications)  from  et  Catholics ",  both  of  which  were  lost  in  MS.  A 
1878  to  1883.  volume  of  poems,  entitled  '' Virginialia,  or  Spirituid 
Fo88,  Biographical  Dioionarv  of  the  Judaea  of  England  Sonnets  in  praise  of  the  most  glorious  Virgin  Marie '% 
[]^^r^S;^^^  N^  ^S°('i^^a^SR7^^^^^  published  in  1632,  is  attributed  to  him. 

^S^   ^2^8^26  (Lo'^don.  1887).  for  biogmphy  see  ^  qj^^^  ^^  2Hc«.  Eng,Cath,.  I.  286. 

C.  T.  BooTHMAN.  Thomas  Gafjwby  Taafpb, 

l^^f^'f'l^l^-^:!^^i^J^^r^,'^^'Jt^^  d.  1S13.    From  veiy  earfy  ySas  hk  life  wiw  spent 

United  Stet^  and  aettleda^  Manchester.    He  was  "j^  Antiquitate  et  ma^iicentiA  Urbie  Cestrte^ 

wi*'!''*  I  r„*l  H^wrw  f^fc  w^LL^  and  "Chronicin  and  a  iSI  of  St.  Werburgh".   Thii 
schools  Tie  was  sent  to  Holy  (>os8  CoUege,  Worwster,  ^       .    .    j.    jj^j^  includes  the  "  Founda- 

J^^k'^*^'  rlfn^^^V  '"w^t^fhif.n'^X^  «on  of  the  ^X  oTChestef'and  the  "Chronicle  of 

career  there  mJmi0867     He  was  then  emvUed  as  ^   jjj^    „  .  ^     ^  ^^  BradshaVs  death  by 

an  ecdesiastical  Bt^t  at  St   Joa^h  s  &minaiy.        poem'SdiUsed  to  hii,  was  printed  by  Pinson  ii 

l^V ^^Z  ^Alt^^TytZ^^^^^^vl^^A'  1521,  and  rented  by  E.  HawSs  for  tfie  Chetham 

Was  'Z7^cg«rjz'&r'.i  zi^£ss jaK;i%i?^r.ss: 

June    1881 ,  he  wm  made  pastor  of  St    Joseph  s,  ^     ^   ^        ^  ^     ^     ^       ^     ^^  ^  ^^ 

Manchester,  which  became  his  cathedral  when  he  was  various! vaiSiiiseibv  oritiCT  ^'*«*'^» "«'  ^'^^ 

consecrated  first  Bishop  of  the  new  See  of  Manchester,        ^        ^   JgL   jf^  '^uw  .•  Wabtom.  Hittonr  of  Bnotith 

11  June,  1884.     He  had  the  honour  of  being  the  first  p^^  m  i^  ivat.  jstog.,  wartom,  uiMton,  of  jsmgiun 

alumnus  of  St.  Joseph's  Seminary  of  Troy,  New  York,  J.  Vincent  Qeiowns. 

to  be  raised  to  the  episcopacy.  „        , .     ^,  _       Bradwardine,  Thomas.    See  Thomas  of  Brad- 

In  the  rural  sections  of  New  Hampshire  there  were  ^T^nrnvi  *""«^w.    k,^   j.avi«A0  v*  a^»iw- 

many  scattered  Catholics  who  up  to  that  time  had  ^^^^^  •  «     «,  . 

had  few  faciUties  for  practisma:  their  faith,  and  his        Brady,  John.    See  BosrroN,  Arcjhdiocbsb  of. 
first  and  earnest  efforts  were  directed  towards  pro-       Brady,  William  Mazierb,  eodesiastioal   writer, 

viding  for  them,  and  with  the  most  gratifyingresults.  b.  in  Dublin,  8  January,  1825;  d.  in  Rome,  19  March, 

He  held  the  first  synod  of  the  diocese  24  October.  1894.    He  was  nephew  of  Sir  Maziere  Brady,  Bart., 

1886,  and  under  the  energizing  influence  of  his  zeal  Lord  Chancellor  of  Ireland,  and  youngest  son  of 

and  enthusiasm  there  was  a  general  upbuilding  of  Sir  Nicholas  W.  Brady  who,  whilst  Lord  Mayor  of 

Catholicism     throughout    the    State.    The    suver  Dublin,  was  knighted  ov  Geor^  IV  during  his  visit 

jubilee  of  his  ordination  was  made  the  occasion  of  a  to  that  ci^.    William  Maziere  Bradv  entered  Trinity 

striking  demonstration  of  his  great  personal  popu-  College,  Dublin,  in  1842,  received  the  Degree  of 

larity,  and  this  had   another  manifestation  when  B.A.  in  1848.  B.D.  in  1858,  and  D.D.  in  1863.    In 

every  non-Catholic  pulpit  in  Manchester  bore  sincere  1848  he  was  appointed  Anglican  curate  of  Maynooth 

testimony  to  the  loss  his  death  had  occasioned  to  and  in  1849,  curate  of  Kilkeedy,  Limerick.    In  1851 

the  city  and  to  the  State.  he  became  ciu*ate  of  St.  Dolough's,  Dublin,  and  in 

CatkotieNewt  filee  (Nw  York,  December,  i©03);  Catholui  the  same  year  Rector  of  Farrahy,  County  Cork.    In 

g^X'.^C^^^tliS.  liSI  i  §fB°«f ii.'^i.W  l5.'5'o^.  this  year,  also,  he  manried  a  lineal  descendant  on  the 

Seminary,  Troy  (New  York,  1906).  maternal  Side,  of   the   famous   Protestant  divme, 

Thomas  F.  Meehan.  Jeremy  Taylor,  Bishop  of  Down  and  Connor.    Dr. 

Brady  acted  as  chaplain  to  several  successive  viceroys, 

Bradflhaigh,  Edward,  an  English  Carmelite  friar  and  in  1681  became  Vicar  of  Clonfert,  County  Cork, 

known  in  religion  as  Elias  k  Jesu;  b.  in  Lancashire,  While  here  he  published  in  three  volumes  the  "Clen- 

England,  early  in  the  seventeenth  century;  d.  at  Ben-  cal  and  Parochial  Records  of  Cork,  Clojme  and  Ross" 

fold,  25  September,  1652.    He  was  the  fourth  son  of  (Dublin,  1863),  which  he  compiled  from  diocesan  and 

Roger  Bradshaigh,  of  Haigh  Hall,  near  Wi^^an,  Eng-  parish  registries  and  manuscripts  in  the  principal 

land,  a  member  of  one  of  the  oldest  families  m  Lanca-  libraries  and  public  offices  of  Oxford,  Dublin,  and 

shire;  of  his  immediate  family  three  of  the  brothers  London,  and  from  private  and  family  papers.    These 

were  Jesuite,  and  one  brother  was  a  secular  priest.  "Records'*  are  mamly  those  of  the  Protestant  Dio- 

While  yei  young  he  was  s^t  to  the  Cassinese^ene-  oeaes  of  Cork,  Cloynoi  and  Ross,  but  will  no  doubt  bo 


BBAOA                                   728  BBAOA 

of  great  servioe  to  the  future  Catholic  historiaiiB  of  who  wore  them  —  Persians,  Scythians,  and  the  Celtic 

theee  dioceses.  inhabitants  of  Gaul  —  barbarians.     The  city  of  Braga 

Dr.  Brady  published  several  works  in  favour  of  the  is  very  ancient  as  the  etymology  of  the  name  implies. 

disestablishment   of   the    Irish    Protestant    Church,  Some,  like  St.  Isidore,  believe  it  is  derived  from  the 

such  as:  **  Remarks  on  the  Irish  Church  Temporali-  Greek  Bpax^Tt  short,  others  from  h^x^^  thorn-bush; 

ties  "  (1865);  ''  Facts  or  Fiction;  The  alleged  Con-  others  again,  like  Diodorus  Siculus,  say  that  it  is  of 

version  of  the  Irish  Bishops  to  the  Reformed  Religion  Celtic  origin.     In  the  fifth  book  of  his  "  Historical 

at  the  Accession  of  Queen  Elisabeth  and  the  As-  Library  '\  speaking  of  the  Gauls  he  says,  quat  bracat 

sumed  Descent  of  the  Present  Established  Hierarchy  iUi  nominant.     Braga,  the  metropolis  of  Galicia,  was 

from  the  Ancient  Irish  Church  Disproved  ''  (1866),  one  of  the  principal  cities  of  Lusitania  (Portugal), 

which   went  through   five  editions;   "  State   Papers  until  the  Emperor  Augustus  having  brought  his  wars 

concerning  the  Irish  Church  in  the  time  of  Queen  to  a  close,  made  a  new  division  of  the  provinces  and 

Elisabeth"   (1868);   "Some  Remarks  on:  the   Irish  united  it  to  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  giving  it  the 

Church  Bill"  (1869);  and  "  Essays  on  the  English  name  of  Augusta,  and  making  it  one  of  the  three 

State    Church   in    Ireland  "    (1869).     On   the    Irish  judicial  divisions  into  which  the  province  of  Galicia 

Church  question  he  also  contributed  numerous  let-  was  diYided.     It  was  one  of  the  first  cities  of  Spain  to 

ters  to  the  newspaper  press,  and  articles  to  "  Eraser's"  receive  the  light  of  the  Gospel.     The  tradition  that 

and  **  The  Contemporary  ",  many  of  which  were  sub-  St.  Peter  de  Rates,  a  disciple  of  St.  James,  preached 

sequently    reprinted    in    pamphlet    or    book    form,  here,  is  handed  down  in  the  ancient  Breviary  of 

Some  interesting  articles  from  his  pen  appeared  in  Braga    (Breviarium    Bracarense)    and    in    that   of 

the  "Catholic  World"  on  "  Ireland'^  Mission"  (May,  Evora;  but  this,  as  the  Bollandists  tell  us,  is  purely 

1870);  "  The  Ancient  Irish  Churches"  (July,  1870),  traditional.     Patemus  was  certainly  bishop  of  the 

written  while  yet  a  Protestant,  and  "  Pius  IX  and  see  about  390. 

Mr.  Gladstone's  Misrepresentations  "  (May,  1875).  Some  have  denied  that  Braga  was  a  metropolitan 

His  only  work  of  a  purely  secular  character  is  "  The  see;  others  have  attempted   without  sufficient  e\i- 

McGillicuddy  Papers;  a  Selection  from  the  Family  dence,  however,  to  claim  two  metropolitan  sees  for 

Archives  of  the  McGillicuddy  of  the  Reeks,  with  an  Galicia  before  the  sixth  century.     The  real  facts  in 

Introductory  Memoir  "  (1867).  the  case  are  that  after  the  destruction  of  Astorga 

When  the'Church  Disestablishment  act  was  passed.  (433)  by  the  Visigoths  Braga  was  elevated  to  the 
Dr.  Brady  went  to  Rome,  where  he  examined  the  dignity  of  a  metropolitan  see  in  the  time  of  StK«eo  I 
Vatican  archives  for  information  touching  the  eccle-  f 440-461).  Balconius  was  then  its  bishop  and 
siastical  afifairs  of  England,  Ireland,  ana  Scotland.  Agrestius,  Bishop  of  Lugo,  was  the  metropolitan. 
He  shortly  resigned  his  oenefices  as  Vicar  of  Donoueh-  At  the  latter's  death  the  right  of  metropolitan  rank 
patrick^  and  Ifector  of  Kilbery,  Meath,  to  which  ne  was  restored  to  the  oldest  bishop  of  the  province, 
nad  been  promoted  from  Cork,  and  in  May,  1873,  who  was  the  Bishop  of  Braga.  From  this  time, 
was  received  into  the  Catholic  Church  by  Mon-  until  the  Mohammedans  invaded  Spain  (711)  he 
si^or,  afterwards  Archbishop,  Kirby,  Rector  of  the  retained  the  supremacy  over  all  the  sees  of  the 
Irish  CoU^  at  Rome.  His  Vatican  researches  led  province.  In  1110  Pope  Paschal  II  restored  Braga 
to  the  publication  of  two  volumes  on  ''Episcopal  to  its  former  metropolitan  rank.  When  Portu^ 
Succession  in  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  separated  from  Spain,  Braga  assumed  even  greater 
A.  D.  1400  to  1875,  with  Appointments  to  Monas-  importance.  It  contested  with  Toledo  the  primacy 
teries,  and  Extracts  from  Manuscripts  in  Public  and  over  aU  the  Spanish  sees,  but  the  popes  decided  in 
Private  Libraries  in  Rome,  Florence,  Bologna,  favour  of  the  latter  city.  At  present  it  has  for 
Vienna,  and  Paris"  (Rome,  1876-77).  He  also  suffragans  the  dioceses  of  Porto^  Coimbra,  Visco, 
brought  out,  ''Annals  of  the  Catholic  Hierarchy  in  Braganga-Miranda,  Aveiro,  and  Pinhel.  There  have 
England  and  Scotland,  a.  d.  1585-1876,  with  a  been  many  very  famous  bishops  and  writei^  in  this 
Dissertation  on  Anj^lican  Orders"  (Rome,  1877;  diocese.  Among  its  eariier  bishops,  besides  the 
London,  1883).  During  his  stay  in  Rome,  Dr.  Brady  traditional  St.  Peter  already  mentioned,  the  most 
acted  for  a  lonff  time  as  correspondent  of  the  London  famous  is  St.  Martin  of  Bra^a  who  died  in  580, 
"Tablet",  and  issued  a  pamphlet  on  "The  Pope's  noted  for  his  wisdom  and  holiness.  St.  Gregory  of 
Anti-Pamellite  CJircular"  (London,  1883).  The  last  Tours  sa3r8  of  him  (Hist.  France,  V,  xxxvii)  9iat  he 
of  his  works  was  the  "Anglo-Roman  Papers",  pub-  was  bom  in  Pannonia,  visited  the  Holy  Land,  and 
lished  in  1890.  He  had  a  large  share  in  the  political  became  the  foremost  scholar  of  his  time.  St.  Isidore 
controversies  of  the  day  and  correspondea  much  of  Seville  ("De  Viris  illustribus",  c.  xxxv)  teUs  ub 
with  Gladstone  and  other  eminent  statesmen.  He  that  he  "was  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Dumio  near 
died  of  apoplexy  and  was  buried  in  the  Campo  Braga,  came  to  Galicia  from  the  East,  converted  the 
Verrano  CJemetery  in  Rome;  His  grave  is  marked  Suevic  inhabitants  from  the  errors  of  Ananism, 
with  an  Irish  Cross  on  white  marble,  bearing  the  taught  them  Catholic  doctrine  and  discipline,  strength- 
inscription,  "In  memory  of  WiHiam  Maziere  Brady,  ened  their  ecclesiastical  organization,  and  founded 
Cavalier  of  the  Grder  of  Pius  IX,  and  Private  Cham-  monasteries.  He  also  left  a  number  of  letters  in 
beriain  to  his  Holiness  Pius  IX  and  his  Holiness  which  he  recommended  a  reform  of  manners,  a  life 


.  v!*6SSl  ?l^'1r.^'?°AfS.ii!:'E';"»"o^i»  1901).  679-581.    Braga  havir«  been  destroyed  by  the 

SuppL,  L  Saracens,  and  restored  m  1071,  a  succession  of  lUu*- 

Edward  p.  Spillane.  trious  bishops  occupied  the  see.    Among  these  wwe 

Mauricio  Burdinho  (1111-14),  sent  as  legate  to  the 

Braga,    Archdiocese    of    (Br  acara    Augusta,  Emperor  Henry  V  (1 1 18) ,  and  by  him  created  antipope 

CrviTAS  Bracarensib),  is  situated  in  a  flat  fertile  with  the  title  of  Gregory  VIII;  Pedro  Juliano,  Arctf 

tract  of  land  between  the  rivers  Eete  and  Cavado,  deacon  of  Lisbon,  elected  Bishop  of  Braga  in  1274, 

in  the  province  of  Minho,  in  the  Kingdom  of  Portu-  created  cardinal  oy  Gregory  X  in  l2762and  finally 

pal.    Tne  name  was  derived  from  the  costume  worn  elected  pope  under  the  name  of  John  aXI;  Pleased 

by  the  ancient  native  inhabitants,  which  reached  Bartholomew  a  Martyribus  (1559-67),  a  Doxninican, 

from  the  waist  to  the  knee,  unlike  the  tunics  worn  who  in  1566,  together  with  Father  Luis  de  Soto- 

by  the  Romans;  for  this  reason  the  latter  called  mayor,  Francisco  Foreiro,  and  others,  asaisted  at 

these  bragae  Qmuxut)  a  barbarous  ooetume,  and  those  the  Council  of  Trent;  Agustfn  de  Castro,  aa  Augot- 


BRAGANOA-mRANDA                    729  BRAGAKOA-MIBAlfBA 

tinian  (158^1609),  who  coosecrated  the  cathedral,  cration;  that  bishops  should  not  ordain  candidates 

28  July,  1592.    Ale  jo  de  Meneses,  also  an  Augustinian,  from  other  dioceses  without  dimissorial  letters  from 

was  transferred  to  Braga  from  the  Archiepiscopal  see  their  bishop;  that  nothing  should  be  sung  in  the 

of  Goa.    He  had  been  an  apostle  to  the  Nestorians  of  church  but  the  Psalms  and  parts  of  the  Old  and 

the  Malabar  Coast  in  Farther  India  and  had  con-  New  Testament;  that  all  priests  who  abstained  from 

verted  them  to  Catholicism  with  the  help  of  mission-  eating  meat  should   be  obliged  to  eat  vegetables 

aries  of- the  various  religious  orders.     Under  him  was  cooked  in  meat,  to  avoid  all  suspicion  of  the  taint 

held  the  Council  of  Diamper  (1599),  for  the  estab-  of  Ftiscillianism,  and  that  if  they  refused  they  should 

hshment  of  the  Church  on  the  Malabar  Coast.     He  be  excommunicated;  that  suicides  and  catechumens 

died  at  Madrid  in  1617  in  his  fifty-eighth  year  in  the  should   not   be   buried    with   great   ceremony,    nor 

odour  of  sanctity,  being  then  President  of  the  Council  should  anyone  be  buried  inside  the  church;  that 

of  Castile.    Three  other  bishops  of  note  were  Roderico  priests  should  be  appointed  for  the  blessing  of  the 

de  Cunha   (1627-*35),   historian  of  the   Church  in  chrism. 

Portugal;  Roderico  de   Moura   (1704-28),   who  re-  The  second  council  held  in  572,  presided  over  by 

stored  the  cathedral,  and  Cayetano  Brandfto,  who  the  aforesaid  St.  Martin,  was  held  to  increase  the 

was  reputed  a  saint  among  the  faithful.  number  of  bishops  in  Galicia.     Twelve  bishops  as- 

In  its  early  period  the  Diocese  of  Braga  produced  sisted  at  this  council,  and  ten  decrees  ^ere  pro- 

the    famous    writer    Paulus    Orosius    (fl.418)    also  mulgated:     (1)    that   the    bishops   should   in   their 

Avitus  of  Braga.     At  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  visitations  see  in  what  manner  the  priests  celebrated 

C3ntury  a  contest  was  waged  over  the  birthplace  of  the   Holy  Sacrifice  and  administered  baptism  and 

Orosius,  some  claiming  him  for  Braga  and  others  for  the  other  sacraments,  thanking  God  if  they  found 

Tarragona.     The  Marquis  of  Monde  jar,  with  all  the  everything   as  it  should   be,    and   instructing   the 

evidence  in  his  favour,  supported  the  claim  of  Braga;  priests  if  they  were  found  wanting  in  knowledge, 

Dalmas,  the  chronicler  of  Catalonia,  that  of  Tarra-  and  obliging  all  catechumens  to  attend  instructions 

gona.    Avitus  of  Braga,  another  writer  of  some  im-  for  twenty  days  before  baptism  and  to  learn  the 

portance,  was  a  priest  who  went  to  the  East  to  con-  creed;  (2)  that  the  bishop  must  not  be  tyrannical 

suit  with  St.  Augustine  at  the  same  time  that  Orosius,  towards  his  priests;  (3-4)  that  no  fee  must  be  ac- 

who  had  been  sent  by  St.  Augustine,  returned  from  oepted  for  Holy  orders,  and  the  holy  chrism  must 

consulting  St.  Jerome.     It  was  through  him  that  the  be  distributed  free;  (5-6)  that  the  bishop  must  not 

priest,  Luciftn  of  Caphar  Gamala  near  Jerusalem,  ask  a  fee  for  consecrating  a  church,  that  no  church 

made  known  to  the  West  the  discovery  of  the  body  should  be  consecrated  without  the  bishop  being  sure 

of  St.   Stephen   (December,   415).     The  Greek  en-  of  the  endowment  and  the  ministers,  and  that  no 

cyclical  letter  of  -^Lucian  was/  translated  into  Latin  church  built  on  private  property  for  the  purpose  of 

by  Avitus  and  sent  to  Braga  with  another  for  the  emolument   should    receive    consecration;    (8)    that 

bishop,  Balconius,  his  clergy,  and  people,  together  if  a  cleric  should  accuse  any  one  of  unchastity  with- 

with  a  relic  of  St.  Stephen.     Avitus  also  attended  the  out  the  evidence  of  two  or  three  witnesses  he  should 

Council  of  Jerusalem  against  Pelagius  (415).     There  be  excommunicated;  (9)  that  the  metropolitan  should 

were  two  others  of  the  same  name,  men  of  note,  who,  announce  the  date  of  Easter,  and  have  it  made  known 

however,  wrought  incalculable  harm  by  introducing  to  the  people  after  Christmas,  so  that  they  might  be 

into  these  provinces  the  doctrines  of  Origen  and  prepared  for  the  beginning  of  Lent,  when  litanies 

VictorinuB.  were  to  be  recited  for  three  days;  on  the  third  day  the 

In  1390  Braga  was  divided  to  make  the  Arch-  Lenten  fast  should  be  announced  after  the  Mass; 

diocese  of  Lisbon,  and  in  1540  its  territory  was  again  (10)  that  any  one  saying  Mass  without  fasting,  as 

divided  to  create  the  Archdiocese  of  Evora.     There  many  did,  as  a  result  of  Priscillianist  tendencies, 

are  some  fine  edifices  in  the  diocese,  among  them  the  should  be  deprived  of  his  office.     This  council  was 

Cathedral  of  the  Assumption,  very  large  and  arcU-  attended  by  the  bishops  of  the  suffragan  sees  of 

tecturally  perfect;  the  archbishop's  palace;  the  semi-  Braga,  and  by  those  of  the  Diocese  of  Lugo,  and 

nary,  and  the  Institute  of  Charity.     The  sanctuary  Pope  Innocent   III    removed    all  doubt    as   to  its 

of  do  Senhor  Jesus  do  Monte  is  the  object  of  great  authenticity. 

devotion  to  which  many  pilgrimages  are  made  every  The  Third  Council  of  Braga  was  held  in  675,  dhr- 

year.  ing  the  primacy  of  Leodegisius,  and  in  the  reign  of 

Fl6ri:z.   Btr^^  Sagrada  fMadrid.  1764—),  IV.  234-240;  King  Wamba.     Eight  decrees  were  promulgated  at 

XV,  82-364,   and   poMtm;   Aottirrb,   CoUeetto  maxima  con-  this  council:  (1)  that  no  one  should  dare  to  offer  in 

nliorum  HiapanuB  (Rome.  1693);  Thomas  ab  Incahnatiohx.  oanrifinft  millr  itnA  trrAnt^tt    hut  breftd  and  wine  mixeH 

Hist.  Bed.  Luntana  (Coimbra.  1769-63);  Tejada  y  Ramwo.  sacnuce  miiK  ana  grapes,  Dm  oreaa  ana  wine  mixea 

CananeM   ds  la  IgUsia   de   Btpafia    (Madrid.    1859);   Gams,  With  a  drop  of  water  m  a  chahce,  nor  should  bread 

Kircheno.    Spaniens    (1862-79).     For   the   local    historians:  soaked  in  wine  be  used;  (2)  that  laymen  should  be 

te'iS^T-iT^^atiiofinTff.^"''""'  ''"^-  excommunicated,  and  ecclesiastics  deprived  of  their 

office,  if  either  put  the  sacred  vessels  to  profane  uses; 

Councils  of  Braga. —  Many  councils  were  held  in  (4)  that  no  priest  should  have  any  women  but  his 

this   diocese,    some   of   them   important.    The   au-  mother  in  his  house;  (5-6)  that  bishops,  when  carry- 

thenticity  of  the  so-called  council  of  411  is  very  ing  the  relics  of  martyrs  in  procession,  must  walk  to 

doubtful.     It    was    probably    invented    by    Father  the  church,  and  not  be  carried  in  a  chair,  or  litter,  by 

Bernardo  Brito.     In  the  council  of  563  eight  bishops  deacons  clothed  in  white;  that  corporal  punishment 

took  part,  and  twenty-two  decrees  were  promulgated,  was  not  to  be  inflicted  on  youthful  ecclesiastics, 

among  the  others  the  following:  that  in  the  services  of  abbots,  or  priests,  except  for  grievous  faults;  (7-8) 

the  church  the  same  rite  should  be  followed  by  all,  that  no  fee  must  be  accepted  for  Holy  orders,  and 

and  that  on  vigils  and  in  solemn  Masses  the  same  that  the  rectors  of  the  churches  must  not  require  the 

lessons  should  be  said  by  all;  that  bishops  and  priests  members   of   their  ecclesiastical   households   to   do 

should  salute  the  people  with  Dominus  vohiscum,  as  work  on  their  private  farms;  if  they  did  so  they  must 

in  the  Book  of  Ruth,  the  response  being  Et  cum  recompense  the  church  for  the  injury  done  thereby. 

spiritu  tuo,  as  was  the  custom  in  the  East,  without  There  were  other  councils  in  1278-80,  1301,  13^, 

the  alterations  introduced  by  the  Priscillianists;  that  1436,    1488,    1537,    besides    various    diocesan    and 

Mass  should  be  said  according  to  the  ordo  sent  from  provincial  synods  of  lesser  importance. 

Rome  to  Profuturus;  that  the  form  used  for  baptism  Hbfkjb,  Condiieng.  (2d  ed.).  H.  1(H.  and  pjwtn*. 

in  the   Metropolitan  See  of  Braga  should  not  be  ^^^^  L6pbf.. 

altered;   that  bishops  should   take  rank  after  the  Braganca-Miranda,  Diocese  of  (Brigantiensis),  is 

metropolitan  according  to  the  date  of  their  conse-  situated  in  the  north-eastern  part  of  the  Kingdom  of 


BRAHMiy  730  BRAHMUnSM 

Portugal,  in  the  civil  province  of  Tra8-os*Montes,  and  partly  of  other  prayers  and  benedictions  for  use  ii 

lies  between  2^  and  3°  3'  of  longitude  west  of  the  the  various  forms  of  sacrifice;  and  (4)  of  the  Atharv:> 

meridian  of  Madrid,  41''  2(K  and  42^  of  north  latitude.  Veda,  a  collection  of  popular  exorcisms  and  magic 

It  is  bounded  on  the  north  bv  the  Dioceses  of  Astorga  incantations  largely  inherited  from  primitive  A^a 

and  Orense,  on  the  east  by  those  of  Salamanca  days. 

and  Zamora,  on  the  south  by  that  of  Lamego,  and        Next  in  order  are  the  Brahmanas  (about  1000- 

on  the  west  by  the  Archdiocese  of  Braga.    The  civil  600  b.  c).    They  are  a  series  of  verbose  and  mis^ 

TOovince  is  bounded  on  the  north  and  east  bv  the  cellaneous  explanations  of  the  texts,  rites,  and  cus- 

frontier  of  Spain  comprising  portions  of  the  Prov-  toms  found  m  each  of  the  four  Vedas,  composed 

inces   of   Salamanca,   Zamora,   Leon,   and   Orense.  expremly  for  the  use  of  the  Brahmins,  or  priests. 

The  greater  part  of  the  territory  of  this  diocese  is  These  are  followed  (800-500  b.  c.)  by  the  so-called 

undulating  and   mountainous   and  is  traversed  by  Upanishads,    concerned     chiefly    with    pantheiBtic 

several  rivers,  which,  rising  in  the  Sierras  de  Sanabria  spneculations  on  the  nature  of  deity  and  the  end  of 

and  the  Sierra  Seca  y  S^undera,  flow  from  north  man;  and  lastly,  by  the  Sutras  (600-400  b.  c),  which 

to  south,  emptying   finally  into   the  river  Duero.  are  compendious  guides  to  the  proper  observance  of 

The  climate  in  general  is  cold  especially  in  the  moun-  rites  and  customs.     The  most  important  are  the 

tainous  region.    The  southern  part  and  the  banks  of  Grhya-Sutras,  or  house-guides,  treating  of  domestic 

some  rivers  and  the  level  tracts  of  land,  such  as  the  rites,  and  the  Dharma-Sutras,  or  law-guides,  which 

one  in  which  Bragan^a  is  situated,  are  fertile,  but  the  were  manuals  of  religious  and  social  customs.    Being 

rest  is  unproductive  of  cereals,  although  there  are  meant  for  layman  as  well  as  priest,  they  reflect  the 

broad  tracts  of  land  that  pasture  large  herds  of  cattle  popular,  practical  side  of  Branminism,  whereas  the 

which  supply  a  great  part  of  Portugal  and  Spain  Brahmanas  and  Upanishads  show  us  tne  religion  on 

with  meat.  its  priestly,  speculative  side.    Closely  related  to  the 

This  see  is  comparatively  modem.    It  was  erected  law-guides   is  the   justly   famed   metrical   treatise, 

iiy  Pope  Paul  III  in  the  town  of  Miranda  bordering  Manava-Dharmar^astra,  known  in  English   as  the 

on  Spain,  its  territory  being  taken  from  the  Arch-  Laws  of  Manu.    It  belongs  probably  to  the  fifth  cen- 

diocese  of  Braga,  but  Clement  XIV  in  1770  trans-  tury  b.  c.    These,  together  with  the  two  sacred  epics 

ferred  it  to  Bra^an9a,  from  which  the  name  Bragan9a-  of  a  later  age,  tne  "Ramayana"  and  the  '*  Maha- 

Miranda  is  derived.    The  diocese  is  a  suffragan  of  bharata,"  embrace  what  is  most  important  in  sacred 

Braga.    The  city  of  Braganga,  which  is  the- capital-  Brahmin  literature. 

of  the  province  of  Tras-os-Montes,  is  sitiiated  m  a  II.  Early  Brahminism  or  Vedism. — The  re- 
delightful  valley  near  the  confluence  of  the  rivers  ligion  of  the  Vedic  period  proper  was  comparatively 
Pervemia  and  Sabor.  The  cathedral,  dedicated  to  the  simple.  It  consisted  in  the  worship  of  many  deities, 
Annunciation,  is  one  of  the  prominent  buildings  of  great  saxd  small,  the  personified  forces  of  nature 
the  city.  It  has  a  very  large  chapter  composed  of  Prominent  among  these  were  Varuna,.  the  all-em 
the  dean,  nine  canons,  including  the  theologian,  six  bracing  heaven,  maker  and  lord  of  all  things  and  up 
beneficed  clergy,  eight  chaplams,  and  six  clerics,  holderof  the  moral  law;  the  sun-god,  variously  knowi 
The  episcopal  household  receives  1,166  florins  from  as  Surya.  the  enemy  of  darkness  and  bringer  of  bless- 
the  Government  for  its  support.  The  episcopal  inps,  as  Pushan  the  nourisher,  as  Mitra  the  omniscienr 
palace  and  the  diocesan  seminary  for  the  education  fnend  of  the  jgood,  and  the  avenger  of  deceit,  a^ 
of  students  for  the  priesthood  are  large  and  spacious.  Savitar  the  enlivener,  arousing  men  to  daily  activity, 
Besides  the  cathedral  there  is  another  church  which  and  as  Vishnu,  said  to  have  measured  the  earth  in 
has  collegiate  rank,  and  throughout  the  diocese  there  three  strides  and  to  have  ^iven  the  rich  pastures  to 
are  schools  and  classes  for  instruction  in  Christian  mortals:  the  god  of  the  air,  Indra,  like  Mars,  also, 
doctrine.  There  is  a  hospital  and  a  Monte  de  piedad,  the  migntv  g^  of  war,  who  set  free  from  the  cloud- 
and  before  the  secularization  there  were  three  re-  serpent  Ani  (or  Vritra),  the  quickening  rain;  Rudra, 
ligious  communities,  one  of  men  and  two  of  women,  later  known  as  Siva,  the  blessed  one,  the  god  of  the 
Tne  city  of  Braganga  is  fortified,  having  a  citadel  or  destructive  thunderstorm ,  an  object  of  dread  to  evil- 
small  fortress  for  its  defence.  Tne  reigning  house  of  doers,  but  a  friend  to  the  good;  Agni,  the  fire-god,  the 
Portugal  is  descended  from  the  Dukes  of  Bragan^a  friend  and  benefactor  of  men.  dwelling  on  their 
and  has  occupied  the  throne  of  Portugal  since  the  hearths  and  bearing  to  the  gods  their  prayers  and 
separation  of  Spain  and  Portugal  in  the  time  of  sacrificial  offerings;  Soma,  the  god  of  that  mysterious 
Philip  IV,  plant  whose  inebriating  juice  was  so  dear  to  the  gods 
MoRERi,  Le  grand  dicL  hist,                    ^^  and  to  man,  warding  off  disease,  imparting  strength 

TiRSO  Lopez.  qj^^  securing  immortality. 
Tk    \%            a««  "D  There  were  no  temples  at  this  early  period.    On  l 
Branmin.    See  Brahminism.  small  mound  of  earth  or  of  stones  the  offering  wa 
BrahminiBm. — By  Brahminism  is  meant  the  com-  inade  to  the  gods,  often  by  the  head  of  the  famil> 
plex  religious  and  social  system  which  grew  out  of  but  in  the  more  important  and  complicated  sacrifice^ 
the  polytheistic  nature-worship  of  the  ancient  Aryan  by  the  priest,  or  Brahmin,  in  union  with  the  house- 
conquerors  of  Northern  India,  and  came,  with  the  holder.    The  object  of  every  sacrifice  was  to  supply 
spread  of  their  dominion,  to  oe  extended  over  the  strengthening  food  to  the  gods  and  to  secure  blesmngs 
whole  country,  maintaining  itself,  not  without  pro-  in  return.     Human  victims,  thoug:h  rare,  were  not 
found  modifications,  down  to  the  present  day.     In  wholly  unknown,  but  animal  victims  were  at  this 
its  intricate  modem  phases  it  is  generally  known  as  period  in  daily  use.     First  in  importance  was  the 
Hinduism.  norse,  then  the  ox  or  cow,  the  sheep,  and  the  goat, 
I.  Brahmin  Texts. — Our  knowledge  of  Brahmin-  Offermgs  of  clarified  butter,  rice,  wheat,  and  other 
ism  in  its  earlier  stages  is  derived  from  its  primitive  kinds  of  grain  were  also  very  common.    But  dearer 
sacred  books,  origin^ly  oral  compositions,  belonging  to  the  gods  than  any  of  these  gifts,  and  rivalling  the 
to  the  period  between  1500-400  b.  c.     First  of  all,  horse-sacrifice  in  solenmity,  was  tne  offering  of  the 
there  are  the  four  Vedas  (veda  means  wisdom)  dating  inebriating  juice  of  the  Soma-plant,  the  so-called 
from  1500  to  800  b.  c,  and  consisting  (1)  of  a  col-  Soma-sacrifice.    Hymnsof  praise  and  petitions,  chiefly 
lection  of  ancient  hymns  (rika).  the  so-called  Rig-  for  the  good  things  of  life,  children,  health,  wealth 
Veda,  in  praise  of  the  many  gods*  (2)  of  the  Sama-  and    success    in    imdertakings,    accompanied   thes< 
Veda,  compiled  from  parts  of  the  Rig- Veda  as  a  song  sacrificial  offerings.     But  the  higher  needs  of  tht 
service  for  the  soma-sacrifice;  (3)  of  the  Yajur-Veda.  soul  were  not  forgotten.    In  the  nymns  to  Vanmi: 
a  liturgy  composed  partly  of    ancient  hymns  and  Mitra,  and  other  gods  there  are  striking  texts  e: 


BItAHMIMISM  731  BB4HMZMISM 

pressing  a  sense  of  guilt  and  asking  for  forgiveness,  every  good  action  was  obtain  of  future  recompense. 
At  a  time  when  the  early  Hebrew  Scriptures  were  so  every  evil  one  was  destined  to  bear  its  fruit  of  mis- 
silent  as  to  the  rewards  and  punishments  awaiting  ery  in  time  to  come.  This  was  the  doctrine  of  karma 
man  in  the  future  life,  we  find  the  ancient  Rik-bards  (action) ,  with  which  the  new  idea  of  relHrth  was 
giving  repeated  expression  to  their  belief  in  a  heaven  closely  connected.  While  the  lasting  bliss  of  heaven 
of  endless  bliss  for  the  just,  and  in  an  abyss  of  dark-  was  still  held  out  to  the  just,  different  fates  after 
aess  for  the  wicked.  death  were  reserved  for  the  wicked,  varying,  ao- 

Devotion  to  the  Pitris  (Fathers),  or  dead  relatives,  cording  to  the  nature  and  amount  of  guilt,  from  long 

was  also  a  prominent   element   in   their  religion,  periods  of  torture  in  a  graded  series  of  neUs,  to  a  more 

Though  the  Pitris  mounted  to  the  heaveiily  abode  or  less  extensive  series  of  rebirths  in  the  forms  of 

of  bliss,  their  happiness  was  not  altogether  independ-  plants,  animals,  and  men.    From  the  grade  to  which 

ent  of  the  acts  of  devotion  shown  them  by  the  hving.  the  culprit  was  condemned  he  had  to  pass  by  slow 

It  could  be  greatly  increased  by  offerings  of  Soma,  transition  through  the  rest  of  the  ascending  scale 

rice,  and  water;  for  like  the  gods  they  were  thought  till  his  rebirth  as  a  man  of  honourable  estate  was 

to  have  bodies  of  air-like  texture  and  to  enjojr  the  attained. 

subtile  essence  of  food.  Hence  the  surviving  children  This  doctrine  gave  rise  to  restrictive  rules  of  con- 
felt  it  a  sacred  duty  to  make  feast-offerings,  called  duct  that  bordered  on  the  absurd.  Insects,  however 
iSraddhas,  at  stated  times  to  their  departeid  Pitris,  repulsive  and  noxious,  might  not  be  killed;  water 
In  return  for  these  acts  of  filial  piety,  the  grateful  might  not  be  drunk  till  it  was  first  strained,  lest 
Pitris  protected  them  from  harm  and  promoted  their  minute  forms  of  life  be  destroyed;  carpentry,  basket- 
welfare.  Lower  forms  of  nature-worship  also  ob-  making,  working  in  leather,  and  other  sinmiar  occu- 
tained.  The  cow  was  held  in  reverence.  Worship  was  pations  were  hdd  in  disrepute,  because  they  could 
given  to  trees  and  serpents.  Formulee  abounded  not  be  carried  on  without  a  certain  loss  of  animal  and 
for  healing  the  diseased, /driving  off  demons,  and  plant  life.  Some  zealots  went  so  far  as  to  question 
averting  evil  omens.  Witchcraft  was  dreaded,  and  the  blamelessness  of  tilling  the  ground  on  account  of 
recourse  to  ordeals  was  common  for  the  detection  the  unavoidable  injury  done  to  woims  and  insects, 
of  guilt.  But  on  the  other  hand,  the  Brahmin  ethical  teaching 

III.  Popular  Brahhintsm. — ^In  the  period  that  in  the  Intimate  sphere  of  right  conduct  is  remarkably 
sawthe  production  of  the  Brahmanas  and  Upanishads,  high.  Truthfulness,  obedience  to  parents  and  su- 
the  Vedic  religion  underwent  a  twofold  change.  On  periors,  temperance,  chastity,  and  almsgiving  were 
its  practical  side  there  was  an  exuberant  growth  of  strongly  inculcated.  Though  allowing,  like  other 
religious  rites  and  of  social  restrictions  and  duties,  religions  of  antiquity,  polygamy,  and  divorce,  it 
whue  on  the  theoretical  side  Vedic  belief  in  the  strongly  forbade  adulterv  and  all  forms  of  unchastity. 
efficacy  of  personal  deities  was  subordinated  to  a  It  also  reprobated  suicide,  abortion,  perjury,  slander, 
pantheistic  scheme  of  salvation.  Thus  the  earlier  drunkenness,  gambling,  oppressive  usury,  and  wan- 
religion  developed  on  the  one  hand  into  popular,  ton  cruelty  to  animals.  Its  Christiaimke  aim  to 
exoteric  Brahminism,  and  on  the  other  into  pnestly,  soften  the  hard  side  of  human  nature  is  seen  in  its 
esoteric  Brahminism.  The  former  is  reflected  in  many  lessons  of  mildness,  charity  towards  the  sick, 
the  Brahmanas  and  Sutras;  the  latter  in  the  Upani-  feeble,  and  aged,  and  in  its  insistence  on  the  duty  of 
shads.  forgiving  injuries  and  returning  good  for  evil.    Nor 

The  transformation  to  popular  Brahminism  was  did  this luKn  standard  of  right  conduct  apply  simply 

largely  due  to  the  influence  of  the  Brahmins,  or  to  external  acts.    The  threefold  division  of  good  and 

E nests.  Owing  to  their  excessive  fondness  for  sym-  bad  acts  into  thou^ts,  words,  and  deeds  finds  fre- 
olic  words  and  forms,  the  details  of  ritual  became  quent  expression  in  Brahminic  teaching, 
more  and  more  intricate,  some  assuming  so  elaborate  Intimately  bound  up  with  the  religious  teaching 
a  character  as  to  require  the  service  of  sixteen  priests,  of  Brahminism  was  the  division  of  society  into  rindly 
The  sacrifice  partook  of  the  nature  of  a  sacramental  defined  castes.  In  the  earlier,  Vedic,  period  tnere 
rite,  the  due  performance  of  which  was  sure  to  pro-  had  been  class  distinctions,  according  to  which  the 
duce  the  desired  end,  and  thus  became  the  all-  warrior  class  (Kshatriyas,  or  Rajanas)  stood  first 
important  centre  around  which  the  visible  and  in-  in  dignity  and  importance,  next  the  priestly  class 
visible  world  revolved.  Hence  it  merited .  liberal  (Brahmins),  then  the  farmer  class  (Vaisyas),  and 
fees  to  the  officiating  priests.  Still  it  was  not  a  mere  last  of  all,  the  servile  class  of  conquered  natives 
perfunctory  rite,  for  if  performed  by  an  imworthy  (iSudras).  With  the  development  of  Brahminism, 
priest  it  was  accoimted  as  both  useless  and  sacn-  these  four  ancient  divisions  of  society  became  stereo- 
legions.  In  keeping  with  this  ccmiplicated  liturgv  typed  into  exclusive  castes,  the  highest  place  of 
was  the  multiplicity  of  prayers  and  rites  which  cugnity  being  usurped  by  the  Brahmins.  As  teachers 
entered  into  the  daily  life  of  both  priest  and  lay-  of  the  sacred  Vedas  and  as  priests  of  the  all-important 
man.  The  daily  recitation  of  parts  of  the  Vedas,  now  sacrifices,  they  professed  to  be  the  very  representa- 
venerated  as  Divine  revelation^  was  of  first  import-  tives  of  the  gods  and  the  peerage  of  the  human  race, 
ance,  especially  for  the  Brahmins.  It  was  a  sacred  No  honours  were  too  great  for  them,  and  to  lay 
duty  for  every  individual  to  recite,  morning  and  hands  on  them  was  a  sacrilege.  One  of  the  chief 
evening,  the  Savitri,  a  short  prayer  in  honour  of  sources  of  their  power  and  influence  li^  in  their 
the  vivifying  sun.  A  scrupulous  regard  for  cere-  exclusive  privilege  to  teach  the  youth  of  the  three 
monial  purity,  surpassing  even  that  of  the  Jewish  upper  castes,  for  education  then  consisted  lai^ely 
Pharisee,  gave  rise  to  an  endless  succession  of  purifi-  in  the  acauisition  of  Vedic  lore,  which  only  pnests 
cator^r  rites,  such  aa  baths,  sprinkling  with  water,  could  teach.  Thus  the  three  upper  castes  alone  had 
smearing  with  ashes  or  cow-dung,  sippings  of  water,  the  ri^t  to  know  the  Vedas  and  to  take  part  in  the 
suppressions  of  breath — all  sacramental  in  character  sacrifices,  and  Brahminism,  far  from  being  a  re- 
and  efficacious  for  the  remission  of  sin.  There  is  ligion  open  to  all,  was  exclusively  a  privilege  of  birth, 
reason  to  believe  that  the  consciousness  of  guilt  for  from  wnlch  the  despised  caste  of  Sudras  was  ex- 
sin  committed  was  keen  and  vivid,  and  that  in  the  eluded. 

performance  of  these  rites,  so  liable  to  abuse,  a  pern-       The  rite  of  initiation  into  Brahminism  was  con- 

tential  disposition  of  soul  was  largely  cultivated.  ferred  on  the  male  children  only,  when  they  began 

In  popular  Brahminism  of  this  period  the  idea  of  their  studies  under  a  Brahmin  teacher,  which  took 

retribution  for  sin  was  made  to  embrace  the  most  place  generally  in  the  eighth  year  for  the  Brahmin, 

rigorous  and  far-reaching  consequences,  from  which,  and  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  for  the  Kshatriya 

save  by  timely  penance,  there  was  no  escape.   As  and  Vai£fya  respectively.    It  consisted  in  the  invee- 


BRAHMIiaSM  732  BRAHMTNISM 

titure  of  the  sacred  cord,  a  string  of  white  cotton-       IV.  Pai^ttheistic  BRAHinNi8M.---Tlie  mariced  moiK 

yam,  tied  together  at  the  ends,  and  worn  like  a  otheistic  tendency  diacemible  in  the  later  Vedic 

deacon's  stole  suspended  on  the  left  shoulder.     This  hymns  had  made  itself  more  and  more  keenly  felt 

investiture  was  a  sort  of  sacrament  in  virtue  of  which  in  the  higher  Brahmin  circles  till  it  gave  rise  to  a 

the  youth  was  freed  from  guilt  contracted  from  his  new  deity,  a  creation  of  Brahmin  priests.    This  was 

parents,  and  became   Dtn'-ja,  twice-born,  with  the  Prajapati,  lord  of  creatures,  onmipotent  and  supreme, 

right  to  learn  the  sacred  Vedic  texts  and  to  take  later  Known  as  Brahm&,  the  personal  creator  of  all 

part  in  the  sacrifices.     The  period  of  studentship  things.     But  in  thus  looking  up  to  a  supreme  lord 

was  not  long  for  the  members  of  the  warrior  and  and  creator  thev  were  far  removed  from  Christian 

farmer  castes,  but  for  the  young  Brahmin,  who  had"  monotheism.   The  gods  of  the  ancient  pantheon  were 

to  learn  all  the  Vedas  by  heart,  it  consumed  nine  not  repudiated, .  but  were  worshipped  still  as  tht 

years  or  more.     During  this  period,  the  student  was  various  manifestations  of  Brahmft.   It  was  an  axiom 

subjected  to  severe  moral  discipline.     He  had  to  then,  as  it  has  been  ever  since  with  the  Hindu  mind, 

rise  before  the  sun,  and  was  not  allowed  to  recline  that  creation  out  of  nothing  is  impossible.    Anoth^ 

till  after  sunset.     He  was  denied  rich  and  dainty  fundamental  Brahmin  principle  is  that  every  form 

foods,  and  what  he  ate  at  his  two  daily  meals  he  had  of  conscious  individuality,  whether  human  or  Divine, 

to  b^.    He  was  expected  to  observe  the  strictest  implies  k  union  of  spirit  and  matter.    And  so,  outside 

chastity.    He  was  bound  to  avoid  music,  dancing,  the  smaller  school  of  thinkers  who  held  matter  to 

gambling,  falsehood,  disrespect  to  superiors  and  to  bo  uiierQal,  those  who  stood  for  the  supreme  personal 

the  aged,  covetousness,  anger,  and  injury  to  animals,  god  explained  the  world  of  visible  things  and  ir- 

Marriage  was  held  to  be  a  religious  duty  for  every  visible  gods  as  the  emanations  of  Brahm&.  They 
twice-born.  It  was  generally  entered  upon  early  arrived  at  a  personal  pantheism.  But  specu]ati*:r 
iii  life,  not  lon^  after  the  completion  of  the  time  of  did  not  end  here.  To  the  prevailing  school  of  dream/ 
studentship.  Like  the  initiation-rite,  it  was  a  solenm  Brahmin  ascetics,  whose  teachings  are  found  in  the 
sacramental  ceremony.  It  was  an  imperative  law-  Upanishads,  the  ultimate  source  of  all  things  w%s 
that  the  bride  and  groom  should  be  of  the  same  caste  not  the  personal  Brahm&,  but  tne  formless,  char- 
in  the  principal  marriage;  for,  as  polygamy  was  acterless,  imconscious  spirit  known  as  Atman  (self), 
tolerated,  a  man  might  toke  one  or  more  secondary  or  more  commonly,  Brahm&.  (Brahm&  is  neuter, 
wives  from  the  lower  castes.  For  certain  grave  whereas  Brahm&,  personal  god,  is  miasculine.)  The 
reasons,  the  householder  mi^ht  repudiate  his  wife  heavens  and  the  earth,  men  and  gods,  even  the 
and  marry  another,  but  a  wife  on  ner  part  had  no  personal  deity,  Brahmft,  were  but  transiU^ry  einana- 
corresponding  right  of  divorce.  If  her  husband  died,  tions  ox  Braom&,  destined  in  time  to  lose  their  inr 
she  was  expect^  to  remain  for  the  rest  of  her  life  dividuality  and  be  absorbed  into  the  great,  all- 
in  chaste  widowhood,  if  she  would  be  honoured  on  pervading,  impersonal  spirit.  The  manifold  external 
earth  and  be  happy  with  him  in  heaven.  The  later  world  thus  had  no  real  existence.  It  was  Maya, 
Hindu  practice  known  as  the  Suttee,  in  which  the  illusion.  Brahm&  alone  existed.  He  alone  was 
bereaved  wife  threw  herself  on  the  funeral  pyre  of  her  eternal,  imperishable. 

husband,  seems  at  this  period  to  have  been  unknown.        This  impersonal  pantheism  of  the  Brahmin  as- 

All  knowledge  of  the  Vedic  texts  was  withheld  from  cetios  led  to  a  new  conception  of  the  end  of  man  and 

woman,  but  she  had  the  right  to  participate  with  of  the  Way  of  salvation.     The  old  way  was  to  escape 

her  husband  in  the  sacrifices  performed  for  him  by  rebirths  and  their  attendant  misery  by  storing  up 

some    officiating    priest.     One    important    sacrifice  merits  of  good  deeds  so  as  to  obtain  an  eternal  life 

remained  in  his  own  hands  —  the  morning  and  even-  of  conscious  bliss  in  heaven.     This  was  a  mistake, 

ing  offering  of  hot  milk,  butter,  and  grain  to  the  fire  For  so  long  as  man  was  ignorant  of  his  identity 

on  the  hearth,  which  was  sacred  to  Agni  and  was  with  Brahmft  and  did  not  see  that  his  true  end  oon- 

kept  always  burning.  sisted  in  being  absorbed  into   the  impersonal  all- 

A  strong  tendency  to  asceticism  asserted  itself  in  god  from  which  he  sprang;  so  long  as  he  set  his  he«rt 
the  Brahminism  of  this  period.  It  found  expression  on  a  merely  personal  existence,  no  amount  of  good 
in  the  fasts  preceding  tho  great  sacrifices,  in  the  se-  works  would  secure  his  freedom  from  rebirth.  By 
vere  penances  prescribed  for  various  kinds  of  sin,  virtue  of  his  good  deeds,  he  would,  indeed,  mount  to 
in  the  austere  life  exacted  of  the  student,  in  the  conju-  heaven,  perhaps  win  a  place  among  the  gods.  But 
gal  abstinence  to  be  observed  for  the  first  three  days  after  a  while  his  store  oi  merits  would  give  out  like 
following  marriage  and  on  certain  specified  days  of  oil  in  a  lamp,  and  he  would  have  to  return  once  more 
the  month,  but,  above  all,  in  the  rigorous  life  of  re-  to  life  to  taste  in  a  new  birth  the  bitterness  of  eairthly 
tirement  and  privation  to  which  not  a  few  devoted  existence.  The  only  way  to  escape  this  misery  was 
their  declining  years.  An  ever  increasing  number  through  the  saving  recognition  of  one's  identity 
of  householders,  chiefly  Brahmins,  when  their  sons  with  Brahm&.  As  soon  as  one  could  say  from  con- 
had  grown  to  man's  estate,  abandoned  their  homes  viction,  **  I  am  Brahmft  ",  the  bonds  were  broken  that 
and  spent  the  rest  of  their  lives  as  ascetics,  living  held  him  fast  to  the  illusion  of  personal  immortality 
apart  from  the  villages  in  rude  huts  or  under  the  and  consequently  to  rebirth.  Thus,  cultivating,  by  a 
shelter  of  trees,  eating  only  the  simplest  kinds  of  mortified  life,  freedom  from  all  desires,  man  spent 
food,  which  they  obtained  by  begging,  and  subject-  his  years  in  peaceful  contemplation  till  death  put 
ing  themselves  to  extraordinary  fasts  and  mortifioa-  an  end  to  the  seeming  duality  and  he  was  absorbed 
tions.  They  were  known  as  SannyasiSf  or  YogiSf  in  Brahmft  like  a  raindrop  in  the  ocean. 
and  their  severity  of  life  was  not  so  much  a  peniten-  V.  Earlt  Hinduism. —  The  pantheistic  eeheme 
tial  discipline  for  past  offences  as  a  means  of  ac-  of  salvation  just  described,  generally  known  as  ih» 
quiring  abundant  religious  merits  and  superhuman  Vedanta  teaching,  found  great  favour  with  the 
powers.  Coupled  with  these  mortifications  was  the  Brahmins  and  has  been  maintained  as  orthodox 
practice  of  Yogi  (union).  They  would  sit  motionless  Brahmin  doctrine  down  to  the  present  day.  But  it 
with  legs  crossed  and,  fixing  their  gaze  intently  on  an  made  little  progress  outside  the  Brahmin  caste.  The 
object  before  them,  would  concentrate  their  thought  mass  of  the  people  had  little  interest  in  an  impersonal 
on  some  abstract  subject  till  they  lapsed  into  a  Brahmft  who  was  incapable  of  hearing  their  prayers, 
trance.  In  this  state  they  fancied  they  were  united  nor  had  they  any  relish  for  a  final  end  which  meant 
with  the  deity,  and  the  fruit  of  these  contemplations  •the  loss  forever  of  conscious  existence.  And  so, 
was  the  pantheistic  view  of  religion  which  found  ex-  while  the  priestly  ascetic  was  chiefly  concerned  with 
pression  in  the  Upanishads,  and  left  a  permanent  meditation  on  his  identity  with  Brahmft,  and  with 
impress  on  the  Brahmin  mind.  the  practice  of  mortification  to  secure  freedom  from 


BRAHBinaSM  733  BRAHBamSM 

all  desires,  the  popular  mind  was  still  bent  on  prayer,  Beyond  the  doubtful  derivation  of  iAne  name  Scanda 
siicrifices,  and  other  good  works  in  honour  of  the  from  Alexander,  there  is  nothing  to  indicate  that 
Vedic  deities.  But  at  the  same  time  their  faith  in  the  either  of  these  reputed  sons  of  oiva  had  ever  lived 
efficacy  of  these  traditional  gods  could  not  but  be  the  life  of  men.  Not  so  the  gods  that  enlarged  the 
weakened  by  the  Brahmin  teaching  that  freedom  from  sphere  of  Vishnu's  influence.  In  keeping  with 
rebirUi  was  not  to  be  obtained  by  acts  of  worship  Vishnu's  position  as  god  of  the  people,  two  of  the 
to  personal  deities  who  were  powerless  to  secure  legendary  heroes  of  the  remote  past,  Rama  and 
even  for  themselves  eternal  conscious  bliss.  The  Krishna,  whom  popular  enthusiasm  had  raised  to 
result  was  the  popular  development  of  special  cults  the  rank  of  gods,  came  to  be  associated  with  him 
to  two  of  the  old  gods,  now  raised  to  the  position  of  not  as  sons,  but  as  his  very  incarnations.  The  in- 
supreme  deity,  and  credited  with  the  power  to  secure  carnation  of  a  god  descending  from  heaven  to  assume 
a  lasting  life  of  happiness  in  heaven.  a  human  or  animal  form  as  a  sort  of  saviour,  and 

It  was  in  the  priestly  conception  of  the  supreme  to  achieve  some  signal  benefit  for  mankind,  is  known 

personal  Brahmi  that  the  popular  mind  found  the  as  an-  avatar.     The  idea  antedates  Buddhism  and, 

model  for  its  new  deitiea.     Brahm&  was  not  a  tra-  while  applied  to  Brahma  and  other  gods,  became  above 

ditional  god,  and  seems  never  to  have  been  a  favourite  all  a  characteristic  of  Vishnu.    Popular  fancy  loved  to 

object  of  cult  with  the  people.     Even  to-day^  there  dwell  on  his  avatar  as  a  fish  to  save  Manu  from  the 

are  but  two  temples  to  Brahma  in  all  India.     His  devastating  flood,  as  a  tortoise  to  recover  from  the 

subordination  to  the  great  impersonal  all-god  did  not  depths  of  the  sea  precious  possessions  for  gods  and 

help  to  recommend  him  to  the  popular  mind.     In-  men,  as  a  boar  to  raise  the  submerged  earth  above  the 

stead,  we  find  two  of  the  traditional  gods  honoured  surface  of  the  waters,  but  most  of  all,  as  the  god-men 

with  special  cults,  which  seem  to  have  taken  rise  Rama  and    Krishna,  each  of   whom  delivered   the 

independently  in  two  different  parts  of  the  country  people  from  the  yoke  of  a  tyrant.     So  popular  be- 

and,  after  acquiring  a  local  celebrity,  to  have  spread  calne  the  cults  to  Rama  and  Krishna  that  Vishnu 

in  rivalry  over  the  whole  land.     One  of  these  gods  himself  was  largely  lost  sight  of.    In  time  the  Vish- 

was  the  ancient  storm-god,   Rudra,   destructive  in  nuites  became  divided  into  two  rival  schisms:  the 

tempest  and  lightning,  renewing  life  in  the  showers  Ramaites,  who  worshipped  Rama  as  supreme  deity, 

of  rain,  sweeping  in  lonely  solitude  over  mountain  and  the  Krishnaites,  who  gave  this  honour  rather  to 

and  barren  waste.     As  the  destroyer,  the  reproducer,  Krishna,  a  division  that  has  persisted  down  to  the 

and  the  type  of  the  lonely  ascetic,  this  deity,  rapidly  present  day. 

rose  in  popular  esteem  under  the  name  of  Siva,  the        The  e^idence  of  the  early  existence  of  these  innova' 

blessed.     The  other  was  Vishnu,  originally  one  of  tions  on  Brahmin  belief  is  to  be  found  in  the  two  great 

the  forms  of  the  sun'god,  a  mild  bcmeficent  deity,  epics  known  as  the  "  Ramayana  "  and  the  ^'  MaKa- 

whoSQ,  genial  rays  brought  gladness  and  growth  to  bharata."  Both  are  revered  by  Brahmins,  ^ivaites,  and 

living  creatures.     His  solar  origin  was  lost  sight  of  Vishnuites  alike,  particularly  the  latter  poem,  which 

as  he  was  raised  to  the  position^  of  supreme  deity,  is  held  to  be  directly  revealed.     In  the  "  Rama- 

but  one  of  his  symbols,  the  discus,  points  to  lus  yana,"  which  belongs  to  the  period  400-300  b.  c,  the 

earlier  character.  legendary  tales  of  the  trials  and  triumphs  of  the  hero 

These  two  rival  cults  seem  to  have  arisen  in  the  Rama  and  his  faithful  wife  Bita  were  worked  into  a 

fifth  or  fourth  century  b.  c.     As  in  the  case  of  the  highly  artificial  romantic  poem,  largely  in  the  interests 

personal  god,  Brahm&,  neither  the  worship  of  Siva  of  Vishnu  worship.    The"  Mahabharata,"  the  work  of 

nor  of  Vishnu  did  away  with  the  honouring  of  the  many  hands,  was  begun  about  the  fifth  century  b.  c. 

traditional  gods  and  goddesses,  spirits,  heroes,  sacred  under  Brahmin  influence,  and  in  the  following  cen- 

riyen    and    mountains   and    trees,    serpents,    earth,  turies  received  additions  and  modifications,  in  the 

heaven,  sun,   moon,  and  stars.     The  pantheism  in  interests  now  of  Vishnuism,  now  of  Sivaism,  till  it 

which  l^e  Hindu  mind  is  inevitably  cast  saw  in  all  assumed  its  final  shape  in  the  sixth  century  of  the 

these    things    emanations    of    the    supreme    deity,  Christian  Era.    It  is  a  huge  conglomeration  of  stirring 

Siva  or  Vishnu.     In  worshipping  any  or  all,  he  was  adventure,  popular  legend,  myth,  and  religious  specu- 

but  honouring  his  supreme  god.     Each  deity  was  lation.     The   narrative   centres   chiefly   around   the 

credited  with  a  special  heaven,  where  his  devotees  many-sided    struggle    for    supremacy    between    the 

would  find  after  death  an  unending  life  of  conscious  evil  tyrant  of  the  land  and  the  hero  Arjima,  aided  by 

happiness.    The  rapid  rise  in  popular  esteem  of  these  his  four  brothers.     The  r61e  that  Krishna  plays  is 

cults,  tending  more  and  more  to  thrust  Brahminism  not  an  integral  part  of  the  story  and  seems  to  have 

proper   into   the   background,    was   viewed   by   the  been  interpolated  after  the  substance  of  the  epic  had 

priestly  caste  with  no  little  concern.  To  quench  these  been  written.     He  is  the  charioteer  of  Arjuna  and 

cults  was  out  of  the  question;  and  so,  in  order  to  hold  at  the  same  time  acts  as  his  religious  adviser.     Of 

them  in  at  least  nominal  allegiance  to  Brahminism,  his  numerous  religious  instructions,  the  most  inlpor- 

the  supreme  god  Brahm&  was  associated  with  Vishnu  tant  is  the  metrical  treatise  known  as  the  ^'  Bhagavad- 

and  Siva  as  a  triad  of  equal  and  more  or  less  inter-  gita,"  the  Song  of  the  Blessed  One,  a  writing  that  has 

changeable  deities,  in  which  BrahmS^held  the  office  exercised  a  profound  influence  on  religious  thought 

of  creator,  or  rather  evolver,  Vishnu  of  preserver,  in  India.    It  dates  from  the  second  or  third  century 

and   Siva  of  dissolver.     This  is  the  so-called  Tri-  of  the  Christian  Era,  being  a  poetic  version  of  a  late 

murti  (tri-form),  or  trinity,  altogether  different  from  Upanishad  with  its  pantheistic  doctrine  so  modified 

the  Christian  conception  of  three  eternally  distinct  as  to   pass  for  a  personal  revelation  of   Krishna, 

persons  in  one  Godhead,  and  hence  offering  no  le-  While  embodying  the  noblest  features  of  Brahmin 

gitimate   ground  for  suggesting  a  Hindu  origin  for  ethics,  and  insisting  on  the  faithful  periormanoe  of 

the  Christian  doctrine.  caste-duties,  it  proclaims  Krishna  to  be  the  supreme 

More  remarkable  was  the  intimate  association  of  personal  all-god,   who,  by  the  bestowal  of  special 

other    new    deities — the    creations   of   the   religious  grace,  helps  on  his  votaries  to  the  attainment  of 

fancy  of  the  common  people — with  the  gods  Siva  eternal  bliss.     As  an  important  means  to  this  end, 

and  Vishnu.     With  Siva  two  popular  gods  came  to  it  inculcates  the  virtue  of  Bkakti,  that  is  a  loving 

be  associated  as  sons.   One  was  GaneSa,  lord  of  troops  devotion  to  the  deity,  analogous  to  the  ChristiaD 

and  of   mischievous  imps,   who   has  remained  ever  virtue  of  charity. 

since  a  favourite  object  of  worship  and  is  invoked        Unhappily  for  the  later  development  of  Vishnuism, 

at  the   beginning  of  every   undertaking   to   ensure  the  Krishna  of  the  "  Bhagavad-gita  "  was  not  the 

success.     'The  other  was  Scanda,  who  seems  in  great  popular  conception.     Like  most  legendary  heroes  of 

measure  to  have  replaced  Indra  as  the  god  of  battle,  folk-lore,  his  character  was  in  keeping  with  the  crude 


BR4HMZMISM  734  BRAHHIVIBM 

morals  of  the  primitive  age  that  first  sounded  his  theology  would  not  rest  till  each  deity  was  supple 
praises.  The  narmtive  portions  of  the  epic  show  mented  with  a  wife,  in  whom  the  active  nature  Oi 
,nim  to  have  been  sly  a^  unscrupulous,  guilty  in  the  god  was  personified.  With  BrahmA  was  asso- 
word  and  deed  of  acts  which  the  higher  Brahmin  ciatM  an  ancient  river-goddess,  Sarasvati,  honoured 
conscience  would  reprove.  But  it  is  in  the  fuller  as  the  patroness  of  letters.  Vishnu's  l^akti  was  ^ri, 
legendary  story  of  his  life  as  given  in  the  so-called  or  Lakshmi,  patroness  of  ^ood  fortune.  With  Siva 
"  Hari-vansa ",  a  later  supplement  to  the  epic,  and  the  destroyer,  was  associated  the  terrible,  blood- 
also  in  some  of  the  Puranas  of  the  ninth  and  tenth  thirsty ^  ma^csal  goddess,  Durga,  or  Kali,  formerlv 
centuries  of  our  era,  that  the  character  of  the  popu-  delighting  in  human  victims,  now  appeased  with 
lar  Krishna  appears  in  its  true  light.  Here  we  learn  sacrifices  of  goats  and  buffaloes.  Rama  had  his 
that  Krishna  was  one  of  eight  sons  of  noble  birth,  consort,  Sita,  and  Krishna  his  favourite  Gopi,Radh&. 
whom  a  Herod-like  tyrant  was  bent  on  destroying.  The  worship  of  these  Saktis,  particularly  iSiva's  oon- 
The  infant  god  was  saved  from  the  wicked  designs  sort.  Durga-Kali,  degenerated  into  shocking  orgies 
of  the  kinff  by  bein^  secretly  substituted  for  a  herds-  of  orunkenness  and  sexual  immorality,  which  even 
man's  babe.  Krishna  ^w  up  among  the  simple  to-day  are  the  crying  scandal  of  Hinduism, 
country-people,  performing  prodigies  of  valour,  and  Such  were  the  sectarian  developments  of  poet-epic 
engaging  in  many  amorous  adventures  with  the  times.  Th^  found  expression  in  the  inferior,  quasi- 
Gopis,  tne  wives  and  daughters  of  the  herdsmen,  historical  Riranas,  of  the  seventh  and  following 
Eight  of  these  were  his  favourites,  but  one  he  loved  centuries,  and  in  the  Tantras,  which  are  more  modem 
best  of  all.  Radha.  Krishna  finally  succeeded  in  still  and  teach  the  symbolic  magic  of  iSakti-worship. 
killing  the  kinf;,  and  brought  peace  to  the  kingdom.  Neither  of  iheae  classes  of  writings  is  regarded  by 

Between  this  deified  Hindu  Hercules  and  Our  the  orthodox  Brahmin  as  canonical. 
Divine  Lord,  there  is  no  ground  for  comparison,  one  Of  the  two  hundred  million  adherents  of  Hinduism 
only  for  contrast.  That  the  idea  of  incarnate  deity  to-day,  only  a  few  hundred  thousand  can  be  called 
should  be  found  in  pre-Christian  Hindu  thought  orthodox  Brahmin  worshippers.  Sivaism  and  Vish- 
is  not  so  remarkable  when  we  consider  that  it  answers  nuism  have  overshadowed  the  older  religion  like  a 
to  the  yearning  of  the  human  heart  for  union  with  rank  growth  of  poisonous  weeds.  In  their  main 
God.  But  what  is  at  first  sight  astonishing  is  to  outlines,  these  two  great  sects  have  retained  the 
find  in  the  religious  writings  subsequent  to  the  characteristics  of  the  rurana  period,  but  differences 
'*  Mahabharata  "  Te^ndary  tales  of  Krishna  that  are  of  view  on  minor  points  have  led  to  a  multiplication 
almost  identical  with  the  stories  of  Christ  in  the  of  schismatic  divisions,  especially  among  Vishnu- 
canonical  and  apocryphal  Gospels.  From  the  birth  worshippers.  Both  sects,  which  to-day  are  fairiy 
of  Krishna  in  a  stable,  and  his  adoration  by  shepherds  tolerant  of  each  other,  have  a  number  of  devotional 
and  maffi,  the  reader  is  led  on  through  a  series  of  and  litursicai  practices  that  are  alike  in  kind,  though 
events  the  exact  counterparts  of  those  related  of  marked  bv  aifferences  of  sectarian  belief.  Both 
Our  Divine  Lord.  Writers  hostile  to  Christianity  l^ivaite  and  Vishnuite  lay  great  stress  on  the  frequent 
seized  on  this  chain  of  resemblances,  too  close  to  recital  of  the  numerous  names  of  their  respective 
be  mere  coincidence,  in  order  to  convict  the  Gospel  supreme  ^ods,  and,  to  facilitate  this  work  of  piety, 
writers  of  plagiarism  from  Hindu  originals.  But  each  carries  with  him,  often  about  his  neck,  a  rosary, 
the  very  opposite  resulted.  All  Indianists  of  au-  varying  in  material  and  the  number  of  beads  ao* 
thority  are  agreed  that  these  Krishna  legends  are  cording  as  it  is  dedicated  to  Siva  or  to  Vishnu.  E^acb 
not  eariier  that  the  seventh  century  of  the  Christian  sect  h^  an  initiation-rite,  which  is  conferred  on  the 
Era  and  must  have  been  borrowed  from  Christian  young  at  the  age  of  reason  and  in  which  the  officiating 
sources.  guru  puts  a  rosary  around  the  neck  of  the  applicant 

VI.  Later,  or  Sectarian,  Hinduism. — The  steady  and  whispers  into  his  ear  the  mantra,  or  sacrea  motto, 

weakening  of  Brahmin  influence,  in  consequence  of  the  recital  of  which  serves  as  a  profession  of  faith 

the  successive  waves  of  foreign  conquest,  made  it  and  is  of  dail^r  obli^tion.    Another  rite  common  to 

possible  for  the  religious  preferences  of  the  huge,  both  is  that  in  wmch  the  presiding  officer  brands 

neterogeneous  population  of  India  to  assert  them-  on  the  body  of  the  worshipper  with  hot  metal  stamps 

selves  more  strongly.    Both  l^ivaism  and  Vishnuism  the  sacred  symbols  of  his  sect,  the  trident  and  linga 

departed  more  and  more  from  traditional  Brahmin-  of  l^iva,  or  the  discus  and  conch-shell  (or  lotus)  of 

ism,  and  assumed  a  decidedly  sectarian  character  Vishnu. 

towards  the  older  religion  and  also  towards  each        But  in  their  highest  act  of  ceremonial  worship  the 
other.     With  this  weakening  of  Brahmin  influence  two  sects  differ  radically.     The  l^ivaite  takes  his 
they  absorbed   the  grosser  elements  of  low-grade  white  stone  pebble,  the  conventional  phaUio  emblem 
popular  worship,  and  became  debased  by  the  ac-  which  he  always  carries  with  him,  and  while  mutter- 
cretion  of  immoral  rites  and  grovelling  superstitions,  ing  his  manira^  sprinkles  it  with  water  and  applies 
While,  on  the  one  lumd,  the  practice  of  asceticism  to  it  cooling  Bilva  leaves.    Owin^  to  its  simpbcity 
was  piushed  to  the  utmost  extremes  of  fanaticism,  and  cheapness,  this  rite  is  much  m  vogue  with  the 
on  the  other,  the  doctrine  of  Bhakti  was  pervertea  ignorant  lower  classes.     The  Vishnuite  rite  is  less 
into  a  system  of  ^ross  sexucd  indulgjence,  for  which  degrading  but  more  childish.    It  consists  in  an  elab- 
the  amours  of  Krishna  and  the  Gopis  served  as  the  orate  and  costly  worship  of  the  temple  image  of 
model  and  sanction.   The  Brahmin  caste-distinctions  Vishnu,  or  more  often,  of  Rama,  or  Krishna.    The 
were  broken  down,  and  an  equality  of  all  men  and  image  is  daily  awakened,  undressed,  bathed,  decked 
women  was  asserted,  at  least  during  the  ceremonies  with  rich  robes,  and  adorned  with  necklaces,  brace- 
of  public  worship.    The  Brahmin  rites  were  in  great  lets,  crowns  of  gold  and  precious  stones,  fed  with 
measure  replaced  by  others  peculiar  to  each  cult  and  choice  kinds  of  food,  honoured  with  flowers,  light^ 
held  to  be  all-sufficient  for  salvation.    Everywhere  and  incense,  and  then  entertained  with  vocal  and 
splendid  temples  arose  to  l^iva,  Vishnu,  and  his  two  instrumental  music,  and  with  dancing  by  the  temple- 
human  avatars;  idols  and  phallic  symbols  innumen^  giris  of  doubtful  virtue,  consecrated  to  this  service. 
ble  filled  the  land;  and  eacn  rival  cult  lauded  its  own  As  Krishna  is  ^nerally  worshipped  in  the  form  of  a 
special  deity  as  supreme,  subordinating  all  others  child-image,  his  diversion    consists    largely  in  the 
to  it,  and  looking  down  with  more  or  less  contempt  swinging  of  his  image,  the  spinning  of  tops,  and  other 
on  forms  of  worsnip  other  than  its  own.    One  factor  games  (fear  to  the  heart  of  the  child, 
which  contributed  strongly  to  the  degradation  of        ^iva,  too,  has  his  temples,  vying  in  magnificence 
these  sectarian  forms  of  religion  was  the  veneration  with  those  of  Vishnu,  but  in  all  these  the  holy  place 
of  the  &akti^  or  female  side,  of  these  deities.    Popular  is  the  linga-shrine,  and  the  temple  worahip  coDOsts 


n  the  application  of  water  and  Bilva  leavea  to  the  preme,  iDcompr^MiBible  Retditj,  devotion  to  which 
ttoae  symbol.  The  interior  walls  of  these,  and  of  was  the  highest  religion.  This  qoAsi-cuit,  which  also 
Vishnu  temples  as  well,  ore  covered  with  shocking  made  pretenoions  to  the  exerciae  of  maeical  powen, 
representations  of  sexual  pas^on.    And  yet,  strange    soon  met  the  ridicule  and  obloquy  it  deserved.     It 

lo  say,  these  forms  of  religion,  while  giving  a  sanction     '  

lo  the  indulgence  of  the  lowest  passions,  at  the 
same  time  inspire  other  devotees  to  the  practice  of 
the  severest  asneticiam.  They  wander  about  in 
lonely  silence,  naked  and  filthy,  their  hatr  matted 
from  long  neglect,  their  bodies  reduced  to  mere  skin 
and  bones  1^  dint  of  incredible  fasts.  They  wilt 
stand  motionless  for  hours  under  the  blazing  sun, 
with  their  emaciated  arms  uplifted  towards  heaven. 
Some  go  about  with  face  ever  turned  upwards. 
^me  are  known  to  have  kept  their  fists  tightly 
clenched  until  their  growing  nails  protruded  through 
the  backs  of  their  hands. 

VII.  Reform  Movements. — Enlightened  Hindus 
of  modem  times  have  made  attempts  to  institute  a 
reform  in  Hinduism  by  rejecting  all  idolatrous  and 
immoral  rites,  and  by  settine  up  a  purely  monotheis- 
tic form  of  worship.  Of  these  the  eariiest  and  the 
most  noted  was  the  so-called  Brahm2  Samaj  (Congre- 
gation of  Brahrai),  founded  in  Calcutta  in  1828,  by 
the  learned  Ranunohun  Roy.  He  tried  to  combine 
a  Unitarian  form  of  Christianity  with  the  Brahmin 
conception  of  the  supreme  personal  God.     After  hia 

death,  in  1833,  difierencee  ol  viewas  to  the  nstureof  BralUft,  Lome,  a  French  educator  and  inventor, 
God,  the  authority  of  the  Vcdas,  and  the  obligation  b.  4  January,  1800,  at  Coupyray,  Seine-et-Mame, 
of  caste-customs  caused  the  society  to  split  up  mio  a  France;  d.  6  January,  1852.  He  became  blind  when 
number  of  small  coneregations.  At  present  there  are  three  years  of  age,  and  at  the  age  of  thirteen  was  sent 
more  than  a  hundred  independent  theistic  congrega-  to  the  Institution  for  the  Blind  at  Paris.  There  he 
lions  in  India.  Some,  like  the  Arya  Saraa;,  rest  on  showed  a  tajent  for  intellectual  studies  and  for  music; 
the  sole  authority  of  the  Vedas.  Others  are  eclectic,  and  when  his  instruction  had  been  completed  he  was 
even  to  the  extent  of  clioosing  for  devotional  reading  appointed  professor  in  that  institution.  It  was  then 
in  |;heir  public  services  passages  from  the  Avesta,  that  he  invented  his  system  of  writing  in  raised  or 
Koran,  and  Bible.  Few  of  them  are  altogether  free  relief  points  for  the  blind.  Before  him,  Valentin 
from  the  taint  of  pantheism,  and,  being  more  like  HaOy,  the  foimder  of  the  Institution  tor  the  Blind, 
clubs  for  intellectual  and  moral  improvement  than  had  invented  the  method  of  printing  in  raised  lettera 
for  ritualistic  forms  of  worship,  they  make  but  little  which  allowed  the  blind  to  read  b][  (ouch;  Charles 
progress  in  the  way  of  conversion.  Barbier  had  invented  a  sonopupSic  point  system 

In  short,  Brahnunism  cannot  succeed  in  reforming  as  distinguished  from  Haily's  line  or  letter  system, 
itself.  Its  earlier  sacred  books  are  steeped  in  Uie  and  had  devised  a  simple  mstrument  by  which  the 
polytheism  out  of  which  it  grew.  And  the  pantheistic  blind  could  emboss  the  words  or  print  them  (n  relief. 
view  of  the  world,  to  which  it  was  afterwards  com-  But  this  syatom  of  writing,  based  on  the  sounds  of 
mitted,  has  been  like  a  dead  weight  dragging  it  the  French  language,  was  too  conventional  and  did 
hopelessly  into  the  stagnant  pool  of  superstition,  not  furnish  the  signs  necessary  for  punctuation  and 
pessimism,  and  immorality.  In  virtue  of  iU  pan-  ciphers.  Braille,  keeping  to  Barbier's  point  system 
theistic  attitude,  there  is  no  form  of  religion,  high  or  and  the  principle  of  relief  writing,  found  the  means 
low,  that  cannot  be  tolerated  and  in  corpora  tea  into  of  representing,  by  the  various  combinations  of  six 
its  capacious  system.  The  indifference  of  Brahmin-  dote,  not  the  sounds,  but  the  alphabetical  letters 
ism  to  the  gross  abuses  of  Hinduism  is,  after  all,  but  a  and  all  the  signs  of  punctuation,  and  even  of  music. 
reflex  of  the  indifference  of  its  supreme  god.  Sin  This  invention,  being  alphabetic  instead  of  sono- 
loees  most  of  ite  hideousnese  when  it  can  De  traced  graphic,  was  a  great  advance  in  the  education  of 
ultimately  to  the  great  impersonal  Brahm&.  There  the  blind,  and  though  it  has  been  modified,  at  times, 
is  but  one  form  of  religion  whii^h  has  any  prospect  as  to  the  combinations  of  dots  (American,  English, 
of  reforming  the  religious  life  of  India,  and  that  is  and  English  revised  systems),  the  system  is  still, 
the  Roman  Catholic.  For  the  shadowy  pantheistic  in  most  countries,  the  basis  of  methods  for  the  educa- 
deity  it  can  set  forth  the  One,  Eternal,  Personal  tion  of  the  blind.  The  inventor  set  forth  the  prin- 
Spint  and  Creator;  for  the  crude  Tri-murti,  the  ciples  of  his  system  in  his  work:  "Proc4d6  pour 
suUime  Trinity;  and  for  the  coarse  and  degrading  £crire  lea  paroles,  la  musique,  et  la  jilein-chant,  k 
avatars  of  Vidmu,  the  Incarnation  of  the  Son  of  I'usage  des  aveugles",  printed  in  raised  letters  in 
God.  It  can  replace  the  idolatrous  and  immoral  1829.  Though  this  system  cannot  be  said  to  ho 
Hindu  rites  with  its  own  impoeinr  liturgy,  and  sub-  the  definitive  method  of  education  and  writing  for 
stitute  the  Cross  for  the  abominable  linga.  the  blind,  the  name  of  Braille  will  always  remain 

Brabminism,  being  a  national  religion  and  a  privi-    associated  with  one  of  tlie  greatest  and  most  bene- 
lege  of  Hindu  birth,  has  never  made  any  Concerted    ficent  devices  ever  invented. 
attempt    at    proselytizing    in    foreign    lands.       But         G*ddct,  L'inttiiui  dti  jennet  axmgla  de  Parit.  am  kitiairt 

„my..„«o  .«™  were  taken  by  .(„  individual,  IC^"; ^'-SSrEf,  KSSU'i.fflESSS^^' 

of  England   to  foist  upon  English-speakmg  people  {j,  jj.  Sauvaoii 
a  new  religious  system  embodying  the  pantneistio 

belief  and  magical  superstition  of  the  Vedante  school  Brmlion,  Nicolas  de,  a   French    Oratorian  and 

of  Brahminism.    This  new  system,  known  as  Theoso-  ecclesiastical  writer,  b.  at  Chars-en-Vexin,  France,  c. 

phy,   was  to   embrace   within   its   fold  membera  of  1600;  d.  at  Paris,  11  May,  1672.    He  joined  the  Paris 

eveiy  form  of  religion,  reconciling  all  differences  of  Oratory  in  1619,  and,  in  1625,  went  to  Rome,  where 

creed  in  thq  pantheistic  view  that  all  deities,  high  he  remained  fiitien  years  at  San  Luigi  del  Fraaoeei, 

and  low,  are  but  transitory  emanations  of  the  au-  then  an  Oratorian  eetablishm^t,  devoting  Us  time 


B&^MAHTK  736  BRAMAKTX 

•   io  research  and  literanr  work.    There  he  puUished  ddle  Graiie  (1492-99),  by  which  the  superiority  oi 

an  Italian  translation  of  Cardinal  de  B^rulie's  ''El^var  the  imposing  new  style  over  the  Gothic  can  best  be 

tion''   (1640)   and  of   a  portion   of  Ribadeniera's  shown.     In  addition  to  these  great  churches,  the 

"Saintly  Lives''.    He  returned  to  Paris  about  1640  Canonica,  or  canons'  residence,  of  San  Ambrogio 

and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  at  the  Church  of  St.  (1492,  only  half  completed)   and   the  remodelled 

Honor^.    Amonff  other  works  he  published  "Vie  de  court  of  the  Ospedale  Mag^ore  are  the  only  exan^ 

St.  Nicholas,  archev^ue  de  ^^rre'   (1646);  "Pallium  pies  of  Bramante's  genius  m  Milan.    A  further  de- 

Archiepiscopale"  (1648 — the  first  serious  study  pub-  velopment  of  this  somewhat  more  decorative  style  to 

lished  m  France  on  the  significance,  tradition,  and  the  laiger,  simpler  proportions  of  the  Roman  period 

use  of  that  vestment);  "Histoire  chr^tienne"  (1656);  is  suggested  by  the  church  of  the  Bamabites,  Santa 

"La  curiosity  de  Tune  et  Tautre  Rome"  (1655-59):  Mturia  di  Capenuova  in  Pa  via  (1492),  and  also  by  the 

"Cseremoniale    Canonicorum"     (1657 — ^a    practical  chiu'ches  of  Busto  Arsizio  and  Semta  Maria  in  L^^nano. 

guide  on  Roman  lines);  "Histoire  de  la  sainte  cha-  The  magnificent  articulation  of  the  facade  of  Ab- 

pelle  de  Lorette"  (1665).  biategrasso  shows  in  full  development  me  powerful 

Inooli>.  Entai  de  bMiogr.  onUon^      (Parb,  1882).  27;  boldness  of  the  Roman  style  whose  growth,  in  Rome, 

MicHAUD.  BuH,.  umv.  (Pans.  1811).  J.  ^.     p  was  influenced  not  only  by  the  ant^ue,  but  also  by 

«iu  N  x>.  jTSTTisBBorr.  ^^^  ^jg^  ^£  ^  more  intractable  material  (travertine) 

Bramante,  Donato  (also  called   d'Agnolo  after  which  made  small,  detail  treatment  an  impK>8sibility. 
his  father  Angelo),  Italian  architect  and  painter,  The  date  of  this  church  is  probably  1497  instead  of 
b.  about  1444  at  Monte  Asdrualdo  (hence,  some-  1477,  as  GeymOUer  read   it.     Other  ecclesiastical 
times  AsDRUALDiNo);  d.  in  Rome,  11  March,  1514.  structures  of  Lombardy  upon  which  the  influence  or 
Nothing  is  known  of  his  eariy  youth.     His  eariy  imitation  of  Bramante  is  perceptible,  are  the  Cathe- 
artistic  development  also,  about  which  Vasari  has  dral  of  Como  (south  portal),  the  Pilgrimage  Church 
made  so  many  erroneous  statements,  is  mostly  a  at  Crema,  and  the  Incoronata  at  Lodi. 
matter  of  conjecture.     To-day.  however,  it  seems        Even  gjreater  is  the  number  of  structures  indi- 
fairly  certain   that  Laurana,   tne  architect  of  the  rectlv   iimuenced   by   Bramante   in   Northern    and 
ducal  palace  at  Urbino,  showed  him  the  way  to  the  Middle  Italy  softer  the  downfall  of  the  Sforzas  in 
impressive  style  -of  the   Hi^h  Renaissance.     Bra-  Milan  (1499).     Bramante  at  the  end  of  the  same 
mante's  artistic  activity  is  divided  into  two  periods  year  moved  to  Rome  where  he  found  in  Alexan- 
of  which  the  first  was  spent  in  Milan  and  the  other  der  VI   and  still  more  in  Julius  II  magnanimous 
in  Rome.    His  work  in  Milan  is  characterized  by  a  patrons.    Here,  too,  very  little  is  known  of  his  eariy 
pronounced  picturesque,  decorative  style.    In  Rome,  work.    It  is  still  disputed  whether  or  not  the  cloister 
on  the  other  hand,  we  find  a  style  which  is  more  of  Santa  Maria  deUa  Pace   and  the  facade  of  the 
proper  to  the  High  Renaissance,  exemplified  in  works  Church  of  the  Anima  can  be  ascribed  to  him.    This 
that  are,  as  far  as  possible,  free  from  all  external  is  also  true  of  the  immense  palace  of  Cardinal  Raf- 
decoration,  impressive  by  reason  of  their  propor-  faeUo  Riario  (the  present  Cancelleria)  with  the  ad- 
tions,  and  recalling  the  antique  by  their  grandeur  joining  church  of  San   Lorenzo  in  Damaso.    Xhi 
and  power.     In  1476  Bramante  became  the  court  account  of  the  inscribed  dates   (1489   and    1495) 
architect  of  Lodovico  Sforza  (II  Moro),  having  been  Qnoli  ascribes  them  not  to  Bramante  but  to  a  Tuscan 
in  Milan,  as  has  been  abundantly  shown,  from  1474.  master,  whereas  Geymiiller  more  correctly  persists 
At  first  he  seems  to  have  been  engaged  principally  as  in  ascribing  them  to  Bramante,  basing  his  view  on 
a  painter,  following  the  vigorous  manner  of  Mant^gna  considerations  of  style  and  on  Bramante's  relations 
and  Melozzo  da  Forll.     It  is  true  that  only  scanty  wilii  the  Sforzas  and  the  Riarios;  this  would  also 
remains  of  his  work  at  this  time  have  been  found,  explain  Bramante 's  working  in  Rome  prior  to  1492 
Such  are  the  recently  discovered  fresco  fragments,  rpf.  Gnoli  in  Arch.  stor.  dell'  arte  (1892),  IV,  176  sqq.; 
transported  from  the  Casa  Prinetti   to  the  Brera  Kiv.   dTtalia   (1898):  and  GeymUller  in   RasseiaiA 
(single  figures  of  warriors,  philosophers,  poets,  and  d'arte    (October    and    December,    1901),    I].     The 
singers);    the    more    poorly    preserved    decorative  Palace  Giraud  Torlonia  is  a  structure  similar  to  the 
paintings  of  the  Casa  Fontana,  and  among  panel  Cancelleria  in  its  beautiful  rhythmic  articulation,  its 
pictures,  undoubtedly  the  Scourging  of  Christ  (Badia  simplicity,    and    its    monumental    character.      Un- 
Chiaravalle  near  Milan).    Bartolomeo  Suardi,  called  doubtedly  Bramante  is  the  designer  of  the  pretty 
Bramantino    [cf.    Suida    in    Jahrbuch    der    Kunst-  little  circular  temple  in  the  court  of  San  Pietro  in 
sammlungen  des  allerhdchsten  Kaiserhauses  (1905),  Montorio  (completed  in  1502).     It  is  planned  quite 
1  sqq.],  was  his  assistant  and  rather  weak  imitator  after  the  manner  of  an  antique  temple  and  is  the 
in  the  field  oY  painting,  but  not  his  teacher  as  was  first  structure  consciously  designed  and  executed  in 
thought  by  Vasari  (ed.  Milanesi-Sansoni,  IV,  175).  the  classic  spirit,  embodying  the  pure^  and  simplest 
If  Bramante  occasionally  devoted  himself  to  Gothic,  forms    and    the    most    agreeable    proportions.      A 
as  he  unquestionably  did  in  some  designs  for  the  peristyle,  never  carried  out,  was  intended  to  corn- 
Milan  cathedral,  he  exhibits  from  the  start  an  ex-  plete  the  building.     Other  works  of  Eramante's  first 
cellent  style,   which,  as  Stile  BramaniescOy  became  Roman   period   are  the   choir  of   Santa   Maria   del 
typical  for  the  Renaissance  architecture  of  Lombardy.  Popoio,  the  plan  for  the  reconstruction  of  the  Vati- 
It  is  characterized  by  ambitious  proportions,  internal  can,  the  extension  of  the  Belvedere  court,  etc.     The 
concentration,  a  greater  organic  relation  of  parts,  and  most  majestic  creation,  not  only  of  Bramante  and 
by  rich  and  fresh  decoirative  forms.  of  the  High  Penaissance,  but  in  fact  of  Christian 

His  first  great  achievement  in  this  line  is  the  art,  is  the  new  St.  Peter's.  According  to  Vasari,  this 
choir  of  the  church  of  Santa 'Maria  presso  S.  Satire,  was  intended  originally  to  enclose  the  magnificent 
begun  in  1476.  The  choir  has  a  flat  end  and  a  false  tomb  of  JUhus  II,  begun  by  Michaelangelo.  But  on 
apse,  rendered  in  relieved  perspective.  The  adjoin-  account  of  the  hopelessly  ruinous  condition  of  the  old 
ing  sacristy,  octagonal  in  plan  and  surmounted  by  St.  Peter's,  its  rebuilding  became  an  immediate  ne- 
a  dome,  is  charming  on  account  of  the  richness  of  cessity  and,  indeed,  was  determined  upon  shortly . 
the  interior  articulation  and  most  effective  space-  after  the  accession  of  Julius  II,  prqbably  in  con- 
development.  Its  two  interior  stories  are  separated  nexion  with  the  reconstruction  of  the  Vatican.  As 
by  a  splendid  terra-cotta  frieze  overlaid  with  bronze,  early  as  18  April,  1506,  the  cornerstone  of  the  pier 
The  church  came  to  have  the  same  significance  in  of  St.  Helena  was  laid,  and  a  year  later  those  of  the 
Northern  Italy  as  the  Pazzi  Chapel  or  the  Sacristy  other  three  piers  at  the  transept  were  in  position, 
of  Santo  Spirito  in  Florence.  Still  richer  in  oma-  The  ways  and  means  employed  by  Bramante  in 
ment  are  the  transept  and  ohoir  of  Santa  Maria  dealing  with  the  old  building  brought  him   many 


BRAMANTE'S   CIRCULAR  TEMPLE 

4    THB  COURTYARD   OF  S.  PIETRO    IN    MOfJTOKIO  —ON   THIS    SPOT,  TRADITION    S 


BRANOACOIO                              737  BRAHOitTl 

severe   reproaches   for   his   lack   of   sentiment   and  tant  building  operations,  and,  in  general,  all  artistic 

earned  for  him  the  nickname  of  Ruinante,     Never-  undertakings   depended  on   his   initiative   and   ap- 

theless,  the  incomparable  significance  of  this  creation  probation,   as  the   painting  of  the   ceiling  of   the 

must  not  be  overlooked  because  of  such  romantic  Sistine  Chapel  and  of  the  loggie  and  the  stame,  or 

sentiments,  nor  must  it  be  forgotten  that  the  pope  halls,  of  the  Vatican.    In  this   way   Raphael,   his 

had   Bramante's  plan  carried  out  in  spite  of  all  yoimger  townsman,   received   the  greatest  possible 

remonstrances  and  of  the  enormous  cost.  aid  and  favour,  whilst  Bramante's  intrigues  against 

The  artistic  aims  of  the  structure,  or  more  es-  Michaelangelo  were  positively  spiteful  according  ifi 

peciaily  of  the  originsd  plans,  are  revealed  by  the  Vasari.     Through  envy  of  Michaelangelo 's  mighty 

numerous  drawings,  executed  partly  by  the  master  genius,   he  assigned  to  this  great  nuister  only  un- 

himself,  and  parUy  by  his  assistants.    Their  critical  suitable  and  unpleasant  commissions.     Though  these 

examination  and  sesthetic  appreciation  are  among  tragically  strained  relations  between  the  two  great 

Ge3rmtkller's  chief  achievements.    According  to  him  artists  at  the  court  of  the  Rovere  pope  seem  to  be  a 

this  brilliant  plan  passed  through  three  stages:  in  psychological  pussle,  the  key  is  to  be  found  in  the 

the  first,  only  a  small  chapel  for  the  tomb  of  Julius  II  hard  and  self-torturing  character  of  the  Florentine, 

was  contemplated;  in  the  second,  the  continuation  Bramante,  on  the  contrary,  was  a  man  who  enjoyed 

of  the   erection  of  the  new  buildings  imdertaken  life  in  a  happy  and  liberal  way,  ^d  who  knew  how 

during  the  reigns  of  Nicholas  V  and  Paul  II;  only  in  to  live  up  to  the  dignity  of  his  prominent  position, 

the  tnird  sta^  was  an  entirely  independent  new  The  manifold  character  of  his  interests  and  activities 

building  decided  upon.     For  it  Bramante  had  in  is  yet  visible  in  his  poems  which  have  come  dov/u 

view,  from  the  first,  a  building  of  centralized  plan,  to  us.    With  Michaelangelo,  Raphael,  and  Leonardo, 

more  particularl}r  the  plan  of  a  Greek  cross.    In  Uiis  he  is  one  of  the  great  intellects  of  the  High  Rennais- 

he  saw  the  architectonic  ideal  which  combined  the  sance;  he  reeemmes  them  also  in  the  fact  that  only  a 

greatest  harmony,  the  most  serviceable  space-rela-  small  part  of  his  plans  was  completed, 

lions,  as  well  as  a  tendency  to  the  monumentally  ^  ^fvvan.Eom,  MmrunU  uOerno  aOa 

can  be  judged  from  extant  sketches,  that  the  master  (Ldpsig,  1879),  ill,  noa.  50-67;  Ricci,  OH  affrwM  <H  Bra- 
seems  to  have  reserved  for  himself  the  possibilitv  of  fiunUe  CMUan.  1902);  Cabotti,  Uonardo,  Bramante,  e  Raffadlo 
using  the  Latin  cross,  being  evidently  compelled  to  (*"^*^'  1905.)  Joseph  SAnm 
make  concessions  to  the  liturgical  needs  of  the  job  ph  . 
Church.  According  to  the  oldest  drawings  and  a  teaneaccio,  an  anci^it  and  illustrious  Neapolitan 
memorial  medal  of  Caradosos,  dated  150Cb  the  origi-  family,  ht>m  which  the  ^'Branoas*'  of  France  were 
nal  ground  plan  was  a  pure  Greek  cross,  the  termina-  descended.  The  family  founded  the  celebrated 
tion  of  whose  arms  was  apsidal  on  the  interior,  Brancacciana  Library  at  Naples,  gave  prominent 
rectangular  on  the  exterior.  An  immense  dome  was  officials  to  the  State  and  from  the  fourteenth  to  the 
carried  over  the  crossing.  The  predominant  form  of  seventeenth  century,  seven  cardinids  to  the  Church, 
the  interior  was  rotunda-like.  For  the  four  comers  It  is  represented  to-day  by  two  branches,  the  "Prin- 
immense  chapels  were  planned,  which  again  repeated  dpi  di  Ruffano''  and  the  "rrincipi  Brancaccio".  The 
the  Greek  cross;  they  were  crownea  by  smaller  seven  cardinals  were  as  follows:  (1)  Landolfo,  b.  at 
domes,  and  each  was  flanked  on  the  exterior  by  a  Naples;  d.  at  Avi^on,  1312.  He  was  created  cardinal 
tower.  Between  the  apses  of  the  cross-arms  and  in  1294  by  Celestme  V,  entrusted  with  difficult  nego- 
these  comer-towers  lay  large  vestibules  for  the  tiations  under  Boniface  VIII  and  Clement  V,  and  at- 
chapels  of  the  flanking  domes.  In  a  second  design  tended  the  General  Council  of  Vienne  (1311-12). 
the  cross-arms  are  roimded  and  enclosed  b^  im-  (2)  Luiai,  a  learned  canonist,  d.  1411.  He  was  ap- 
mense  ambulatory  halls.  The  main  dome  is  en*  pointed  by  Innocent  VII  Nuncio  to  Naples,  and  made 
circled  by  an  arcaded  colonnade.  The  piers  of  the  Archbishop  of  Taranto  and  cardinal  (1^)8)  by  Greg- 
domes  were  enriched  by  niches  emphasizing  the  ory  XII.  (3)  Niooii6,  d.  at  Florence,  1412.  ne  was 
dominant  idea  of  the  interior.  In  Milan,  San  LoreujEO,  made  Archbishop  of  Cosenca  in  1376;  he  nded  with 
a  church  of  centralized  plan  (see  Byzantine  Archi-  the  antipopes  Clement  VII  and  Benedict  XUI,  and 
TECTUR£),  evidently  served  as  a  model  for  this  desigp.  was  creiUied  cardinal  hy  the  form^  in  1378.  (4)  Ri- 
The  principal  ideas,  however,  were  taken  from  9ie  naldo,  d.  at  Rome,  1427.  He  was  raised  to  the  cardi- 
Pantheon  and  the  Temple  of  Peace,  which  was  the  nalate  by  Urban  VI  in  1384,  was  present  at  the  Council 
origin  of  the  saying  attnbuted  to  Bramante,  that  he  of  Constance  (1414-18),  and  fiUed  several  important 
would  set  the  Pantheon  on  the  Temple  of  Peace,  missions.  (5)  Tommaso,  d.  in  Rome,  1427.  He  was 
The  master  was  permitted  to  see  only  the  initial  created  cardinal  in  1411  by  his  unde,  John  XXIII, 
steps  towards  the  execution  of  his  plan.  He  was  and  wbjs  present  at  t^e  Council  of  Constance.  His 
able,  nevertheless,  to  establish  firmly  its  main  lines  private  life  is  said  to  have  been  far  from  exemplary, 
for  the  architects  who  followed,  inasmuch  as  the  (6)  Francesco  Maria,  b.  about  1591;  d.  1676.  He 
dome-supports  with  their  arches,  the  southern  tran-  became  Bishop  of  Capacio,  Viterbo,  and  Porto,  and 
sept,  and  the  side  domes  were  carried  out  under  his  was  created  cardinal  in  1634  by  Urban  VIU.  Among 
direction.  After  his  death  in  1514  the  continuation  other  writings,  he  has  left  a  dissertation  on  the 
of  the  work  was  entrusted  to  the  ^iged  Fra  Giocondo,  question  whether  chocolate  breaks  the  fast  or  not. 
and  soon  after  (on  a  recommendation  made  by  (7)  ^tefano,  nephew  of  Francesco  Maria,  b.  at 
Bramante  during  his  lifetime)  to  RaphaeL  Later  on,  Naples,  1618;  d.  1682.  He  was  nundo  at  Florence 
San  Gallo  and  Peruzzi  were  placed  in  charge.  Bra-  ana  Venice,  Bishop  of  Viterbo  in  1670,  and  cardinal 
mantels  plans  suffered  many  changes  and  encroach-  in  1681. 

ments  under  the  various  directors  until  Michaelan^lo  Vast  in  La  grande  eneye.,  VII,  085.        xt    a   tit 

returned  to  the  fundamental  ideas  of  the  brilliant  N.  A,  Weber. 

creator,  and  by  the  completion  of  the  dome  sub-  Brancati,    Francesco,   b.  in   Sicily  in    1607;  he 

stantially  carried  the  work  to  a  conclusion.     The  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1624  and  went  to  the 

curvature  of  the  dome  is  not  quite  as  bold  and  Chinese  Missions  in  1637.    For  nearly  thirty  years  he 

effective  as  that  planned  by  Bramante;  on  the  other  laboured  with  admirable  seal  and  success  in  the  Prov- 

hand  it  offers  in  its  greater  rise,  a  much  more  elegant  uice  of  Kiang-nan,  building,  it  is  said,  more  than 

and  vigorous  silhouette.  ninety  churches  and  forty-five  chapels.     In  1665  he 

Under  Julius  II  the  influence  of  Bramante  was  ^^s  exiled  from  Peking  to  Canton,  where  he  died  in 

predominant.    Not  only  were  the  most  daring  works  1671  (according  to  Sommervogel,  at  Shanghai).    He 

ti  architecture  entrusted  to  him,  but  all  other  impcxi^  wrote  and  published  numerous  books  in  Chinese,  most 


BRAKOATI 


738 


BRAKDENBUBG 


of  which,  being  of  great  merit,  were  reprinted  by  the 
Jesuit  missionaries  in  the  nineteenth  oentuiy. 
Among  these  are  a  treatise  on  the  Euchiuist,  instruc- 
tions on  the  Decalogue  and  on  the  Commanoments  of 
the  Church,  a  refutation  of  divinations,  and  partic- 
ularly a  Catechism,  entitled  in  Chinese,  ''Conversar 
tions  of  the  Angels".  The  Russian  Anshimandrite, 
who  was  at  the  head  of  the  Orthodox  mission  at 
Peking,  puUished  in  the  second  decade  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  an  extract  from  this  Catechism, 
adapted  to  the  Greek  Rite,  in  which  he  omitted 
evervthing  that  disagreed  with  the  Russian  schismatic 
teaching.  Brancati  also  composed  in  Chinese  sev- 
eral volumes  of  sermons  and  homihes  for  the  Sundays 
and  feast-days  of  the  ecclesiastical  year.  His  work 
on  the  Chinese  rites  was  published  in  two  volumes  at 
Paris  in  1700.  It  bears  tne  title  *^  De  Sinensium  Riti- 
bus  politicis  Acta",  etc. 

SoMMBSVooKL,  BiU,  de  la  c.  de  J.,  II,  8L-83;  Michaud, 
Biog.  urdv,,  a.  v. 

B.  GULDNEIR. 

Brancati  di  Lauria,  Francbsco  Lorenzo,  Car* 
dinal.  Minor  Conventual,  and  theologian,  b.  at  Lau- 
ria in  the  then  Kingdom  of  Naples,  10  April,  1612; 
d.  in  Rome,  30  November,  1693.  Stricken  at  the 
age  of  seventeen  with  a  dangerous  illness,  he  made 
a  vow  that  in  the  event  of  his  recovery  he  would 
enter  the  order  of  Minor  Conventuals.  In  July, 
1630,  he  received  the  religious  habit  at  Lecce  m 
Apulia,  and  shortly  after  the  completion  of  his 
novitiate  was  called  to  Rome.  He  subsequently 
visited  several  of  the  most  noted  convents  of  his 
order  in  Italy,  in  which  he  taught  philosophy  and 
theology  witn  marked  success.  In  1647,  he  was 
again  recalled  to  Rome  and  was  shortly  afterwards 
made  guardian  of  the  convent  attached  to  the 
Conventual  Church  of  the  Twelve  Apostles,  where 
the  minister  general  of  the  order  resides.  In 
1653,  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  dogmatic 
theolorv  in  the  Roman  University,  and  was  later 
made  Consultor  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Holy 
Office  by  Alexander  VII  who  used  to  caU  him  "Tto 
right  arm  of  the  Apostolic  See".  He  was  made 
chief  librarian  of  the  Vatican  library  by  Clement  X, 
and  in  recognition  of  his  devoted  services  to  the 
Church  was  raised  to  the  cardinalatial  dignity  by 
Innocent  XI  in  1681.  As  cardinal  he  was  actively 
connected  with  at  least  ten  of  the  Roman  Coi^;re^ 
gations.  Brancati  would  in  all  probability  luive 
succeeded  Innocent  XI  in  the  chair  of  St.  Peter, 
had  not  the  Spanish  Government  used  its  right  of 
veto.  As  it  was  he  received  fifteen  votes,  the 
successful  candidate  being  Cardinal  Pietro  Ottoboni 
who  took  the  name  of  Alexander  VIII.  Brancati 
was  a  man  of  vast  learning,  singular  piety,  and 
unbounded  liberaUty  towards  the  poor.  During 
the  twelve  years  he  was  cardinal,  he  continued  to 
keep  faithfully  to  the  observance  of  his  obli^tions 
as  a  religious,  remaining  with  his  brethren  m  the 
Convent  of  the  Twelve  Apostles,  the  church  of 
which  he  caused  to  be  completed  and  adorned. 
He  prepared  himself  for  death  in  a  most  edifying 
manner^  and  had  his  tomb  constructed  with  the 
inscription  over  it:  "Ossa  Fratris  Laurentii  Bran- 
cati ae  Lauria''.  He  died  in  the  eighty-first  year 
of  his  age. 

Brancati  is  the  author  of  several  important  works 
on  theology  and  asceticism.  Perhaps  the  most 
noted  of  these  is  the  commentary  on  the  third  and 
fourth  books  of  the  "Sentences"  of  Duns  Scotus 
which  appeared  at  Rome  in  eight  folio  volumes 
between  the  years  1653  and  1682.  In  this  work 
he  treats  exhaustively  wellnigh  all  the  subjects 
that  pertain  to  special  dogmatic  theology.  In 
his  "Opuscula  tria  de  Deo'*,  published  at  Rome 
in  1687,  and  at  Rouen  in  1705,  ne  defends  the  gra- 
tmtousnesfi  of  predestination  which  he  endeavouni 


to  show  was  taught  by  St.  Augustine,  though  reliable 
authorities  are  not  agreed  as  to  whether  St.  Au- 
gustine was  explicit  on  this  point.  Brancati's 
"Epitome  Canonum",  which  went  through  two 
editions  at  Rome,  four  at  Venice,  and  two  at  Co- 
logne, contains  a  complete  list  of  all  the  canons  to 
be  found  in  the  general  and  provincial  councils, 
in  the  Decretals  of  Gratian  and  of  Gregory  IX, 
and  in  the  encyclical  letters  and  constitutions  of 
the  Roman  Pontiffs  up  to  the  time  of  Alexander  VII. 
Among  his  ajscetical  works  may  be  mentioned  the 
"Opuscula  octo  de  oratione  Christiana",  pub- 
lished at  Rome  in  1685,  a  work  in  which  the  author 
exhibits  his  profound  knowledge  of  the  spiritual 
life  of  which  he  became  a  master  more  perhaps 
by  his  own  holy  living  than  1^  the  abstract  study 
of  asceticism.  The  Rfe  of  Brancati,  written  in 
Italian  by  Gabriele  Baba,  was  pubhshed  in  Rome 

in  1699. 

HuRTER,  Nomendatcr  (Innsbruck,  1893),  II.  346;  Gram- 
iiER  in  KircKenlex,,  II,  1192. 

Stephen  Donovan. 

Branch  OhureheSi  Theory  of.    See  Church. 

Branch  Sunday,  one  of  the  medieval  English 
names  for  Palm  Sunday.  The  difficulty  of  procuring 
palms  for  that  day's  ceremonies  led  to  the  substitu- 
tion of  boughs  of  yew,  willow,  or  other  native  trees. 
The  Sunday  was  often  designated  by  the  names  of 
these  trees,  as  "Yew  Sunday"  or  by  the  general 
term  "  Branch  Sunday  ".    (See  Palm  Sunday.) 

Feast,  Ancient  Englteh  Holy  Week  Ceremonial  (London. 
1897),  63  sqq.;  Thdrston,  Holy  Week  (London.  1904),  225- 
229. 

John  B.  Peterson. 

Brandenburg,  formerly  an  electoral  principalitj 
(the  Mark  of  Brandenburg),  and  a  diocese  in  the 
heart  of  the  present  Kingdom  of  Prussia,  now  a 
Province  of  Prussia  and  m  ecclesiastical  order  an 
Apostolic  Delegature. 

I.  History. — ^The  lands  extending  eastward  from 
the  Elbe  to  the  Vistula,  once  inhabited  by  Germans, 
were  invaded  l^  Slavic  tribes  who,  during  the  sixth 
century  of  the  Christian  era,  pushed  their  way  as  far 
as  the  Elbe  and  the  Saale  in  Thuringia.    Charle- 
magne was  the  first  to  check  their  advance;  later, 
Henry  I  attacked  them,  captured  Brennabor,  the 
stronghold  of  the  Lusatians,  and  to  safeguard  his 
conquests  established  the  North  Mark.     In  939  Otto  I 
brought  the  country  of  the  Hevelli  under  his  power, 
placed  the  Slavic  races  as  far  as  the  Oder  under  trib- 
ute, and   to    further  the  work  of  their  conversion 
founded  the  dioceses  of  Havelberg  and  Brandenburg 
(948),  which  in  968  were  placed  under  the  recently 
founded  Archdiocese  of  Magdeburg.     Nevertheless, 
Christianity  made  slow  progress.     The  hate  of  the 
subdued  for    their    German   conquerors,  far  from 
abating,  burst  forth  in  a  great  uprising  (983).    The 
Slavs  pressed  on  as   far  as  the  EIm,  conquered 
Brandenburg   and    Havelberg,   and   destroyed  the 
seeds  of  Christian  civilization  that  had  been  planted 
there.     Emperors  Henry  II  and  Conrad  II,  it  is  true, 
again  brougnt  the  Lusatians  under  the  power  of  the 
German  Empire,  but  the  real  evangelisation  of  the 
country  was  not  resumed  until  the  time  of  Count 
Albert  of  Ballenstftdt,  founder  of  the  Ascanian  line, 
who  had  been  made  Mai^grave  of  the  North  Maik 
by  Emperor  Lothair  II  (1134).     Albert  entered  into 
friendly  relations  with  the  Wendish  prince,  Pribislav, 
at  that  time  the  ruler  of  Brandenburg,  was  chosen 
by  him  as  his  heir,  and  in  1150  took  possession  of  the 
land,  assuming  at  the  same  time  the  title  of  Maigrave 
of  Brandenburg.     He  brought  colonists  from  the 
Lower  Rhine  and  Utrecht,  who  by  the  methods 
learned    in  their  old  homes  reclaimed  the  swamp 
luids  of  the  Mark  for  agricultural  purposes;  the 
cities  were  peopled  anew;  the  Dioceses  of  Brandy 
burg  and  Haveiberg  re-established:  churches  and 


BRAHDSNBlTBa  739.  BKAlTDmBUBa 

monasteries  erected;  and  the  Wendish  population  but  in  the  very  f amfly  of  the  elector,  ooimtinja;  among 

soon  won  over  to   Christianitjr  and   the  German  its  adherents  his  cousin  Albert,  Grand  Master  of 

Empire.    The  most  active  part  in  the  oonveision  of  the  German  Order,  his  son-ln^aw,  John  of  Anhalt, 

the  country  was  taken  by  the  Premonstratensians  and  even   his  wife,  Elizabeth.    Before  his  death, 

and  Cistercians.     Even  biefore  the  death  of  their  Joachim  made  his  two  sons,  coheirs  of  his  lands, 

founder,  St.  Norbert,  Bishop  of  Magdeburg  (1126-34),  solenmly  promise  fidelity  to  the  Catholic  Church.    In 

the  Premonstratensians  founded  the  monastery  of  spite  of  this,  the  younger,  John  of  Ktkstrin,  as  eari^ 

Gotte^paden  (1131)  and  later  that  of  Leitzkau^  near  as  1538,  became  a  Frotestant  and  was  followed  by  his 

Magdeburg  (1149),  as  well  as  monasteries  at  Jenchow  subjects.    The  elder,  Elector  Joachim  II  (1535-70), 

(1144),  the  city  of  Brandenburg  (1165),  Gramzow  influenced  by  his  wife,  daughter  of  the  Polish  kins, 

in  the  Uckermark  (c.   1180),  and  elsewhere.    The  Sieismund,  at  first  held  fast  to  the  old  Faith,  thou^ 

bishoprics  of  Brandenburg  and  Havelberg  and  the  alfowing  Protestant  clergymen  to  minister  to  several 

seats  m  their  respective  cathedral  chapters  were  held  parishes  in  his  territory;  finally,  at  Spandau  in  1530, 

by  members  of  ttiis  order*    The  Premonstratensians  tie  received  the  sacrament  under  both  forms  at  the 

were  equalled  in  zeal,  particularly  during  the  thir-  hands  of  Matthias  von  Jasow,  Bishop  of  Brandenburg, 

teenth  century,  by  the  Cistercians,  who  had  been  likewise  a  partisan  of  the  new  doctrines.    His  de- 

btroduced  into  the  country  by  Alb^'s  son  and  sue-  fection  was  imitated  by  the  majority  of  the  cities 

cesser.    Their  foundations  at  Zinna  (1170),  Lehnin  in  the  Mark,  Berlin  at  their  head,  and  by  the  nobles 

(1183),Chorin  (1272),Jaterbog  (1282),Hinunelpforte  ahnost  as  a  bochr.    The  Bishops  of  Havelberg  and 

(c.  1290),  etc.,  were  centres  for  the  work  of  colonijsa-  Lebus   alone   offered   steady   resistance.    In^  1540 

tion,  which  was  conducted  on  a  large  scale.  the  electoral  prince,  by  virtue  of  his  authority  as 

When   the   Ascanian   line   had   become   extinct, .  national   bishop,   issuea   a  new   church   ordiiumce 

Emperor  Louis    the    Bavarian  annexed  the  Mark  which  was  based  on  Luther's  doctrine  of  justifioa* 

to  his  own   territories  (1320),  but  as  early  as  1373  tion,  thoiurh  preserving  many  Catholic  institutions, 

the  House  of  Wittelsbach  was  forced  to  relinquish  such  as  the  episcopal  system  of  organisation,  ana 

Brandenburg,  which  in  1356  had  been  raised  to  the  many  Catholic  ceremonies  and  customs,  even  to  the 

rank  of  an  electorate,  to  Emperor  Charles  IV,  who  Latin  Mass.  feasts  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  processions, 

made  it  a   dependency  of   the   Bohemian  (>own.  etc.,  that  the  conmion  people  might  not  realise  how 

Charles  restored  disciplme,  put  an  end  to  the  ex  tor-  the  Catholic  Faith  was  being  gradually  withdrawn 

tion  of  the  nobles,  established  the  cathedral  chapter  from  them.     Between  1540  and  1542  an  ecclesiastical 

of  Tan^rmtknde,  and  raised  the  Mark  to  renewed  visitation  of  the  whole  Mark  was  undertaken:  the 

prosperity.     The  Dioceses  of  Brandenburg  and  Havel-  secular  and  regular  clergy  who  had  withstood  the 

Derg,  however,  ceased  to  be  direct  fiefs  of  the  empire,  innovations  of  the  elector  were  mercilessly  expelled; 

Charles's    son,    Sigismund,    mortgaged    the    Mark  the  foundations  of  religious  ordeis  of  men  were 

(1388-1411)  and  in  1411   appointed   as    StaUhdUer  suppressed;  convents  were  converted  into  as^^ums 

(Governor)     Bur^ve    Freaerick    of  ^  Nuremberg,  for  noble  maidens;  much  church  property  and  many 

who  took  p>ossession  in  1412,  and,  having  overcome  endowment  funds  were  confiscated  and  mortgaged 

the  opposition  of  the  nobles,  was  solemnly  invested  to  nobles  or  cities;  and  church  plate  and  valuables 

with  the  Mark  of  Brandenburg  as  an  elector  of  the  were  melted  down.    In   1543,  the  Consistory  was 

German  Empire  (1417).    In  this  way  Brandenburg  constituted    the   highest   spiritual   authority.    The 

passed  into   the  possession  of   the   Hohenzollems,  elector  took  advantf^  of  the  rights  obtained  through 

who  have  since  held  it  without  interruption.    While  the  Relinous  Peace  of  Augsburg  (1555)  to  complete 

Frederick    I    occupied    himself    almost    exclusively  the  worK  of  the  Reformation  in  his  principality, 

with  matters  connected  with  the   empire,  his  son.  After  the  death  of  the  last  bishops  who  held  fast  to  the 

Frederick  II  (1440-70) ,  concentrated  his  attention  on  Church — those  of  Lebus  (1555)  and  Havelberg  (1561) 

the  government  of  his  territory.     Distinguished  from  — he  succeeded  in  having  his  eldest  grandson^  later 

his  youth  for  ^reat  piety,  he  promoted  the  religious  Prince  Elector  Joachim  Frederick,  appointed  bishop, 

life  of  his  subjects,  worked  for  the  reform  of  the  thus  preparing  for  the  future  secularisation  of  the 

clennr  and  monasteries,  made  the  cathedral  chapters  bishoprics.     Tne  administration  of  the  Diocese  of 

of  Brandenburg  and  Havelberg  centres  of  religious  Branaenburg  he  confided  to  his  son,  John  George, 

and  secular  culture^  founded  the  Order  of  the  swan  This   gave   the   Reformation   a   complete   victory; 

for  nobles,  and  received  from  Pope  Nicholas  V  (1447)  whatever  savoured  of  Catholic  teaching  was  gradu- 

the  right  of  appointment  for  the  dioceses  of  the  Mark,  ally  eliminated,  and  by  the  beginning  of  the  seven- 

His  grandson  John,  sumamed  Cicero  (1486-90),  took  teoith  centurv.  Catholic  services  were  absolutely 

the  initiative  in  the  establishment  of  the  University  prohibited.     Not    until    the    estaUishm^it   of    the 

of  Frankfort  on  the  Oder,  opened  in   1506.  and  Kingdom  of  Prussia  were  Catholics  again  allowed 

destined  to  be  for  a  time  a  stronghold  of  Catholicism  to  hold  puUic  worship.     (For  the  later  history  of 

in  the  religious  wars  stirred  up  by  Luther.  the  Mai^  of  Brandenburg,  see  Prussia.) 

Dissensions  between  bishops  and  people  had  oo-        The  Diocese  of  Branaimbttrgy  founded  1  October, 

operated  with  other  unfortunate  circumstances  in  948,  by  Otto  the  Great,  was  bounded  on  the  east  by 

the  Mark  of  Brandenburg,  to  create  coiKiiUons  amid  the  Oder,  on  the  west  and  south  by  the  Elbe  and 

which  the  i^w  teachings  took  rapid  root.    Elector  the  Black  Elster,  and  on  the  north  by  the  Uckei^ 

Joachim   I    (1 499-1 535^,    whose   younger   brother,  mark.    The  first  bishop  was  Thietmar  or  Ditmar 

Albert,  was  made  Archbishop  of  Ma^eburf  ana  (d.  before  968);  his  successor,  Dodilo,  was  miutlered 

Bishop  of  Halberstadt  in  1513,  and  in  1514  Archbishop  in  980.    The  succeeding;  bishops,  after  the  heathen 

and  Sector  of  Mainz  and  Archchancellor  of  the  Qer-  Wends  again  conquered  Brandenbuiv  (983),  lived 

man  Empire,  was  extremely  hostile  towards  the  for  the  most  part  as  coadjutors  to  other  prelates  in 

retigious  iimovations,  and  endeavoured  to  have  the  various  places  in  Germany.     Bishop   Wigger,  the 

edict  fomoiyiy    condemning  Luther  passed  bv  the  fifteenth  m  line  of  succession  (1138-60),  was  the  first 

Reichstag,  at  Worms.     He  forbade  the  circulation  who  was  aUe  to  return  to  his  diocese.    Like  his 

of  Luther's  translation  of  the  BiUe  and  the  preach-  successors,  as  late  as  the  middle  of  tlie  fifteenth 

ing  of  the  new  doctrines  within  his  territory,  and  he  century,  Bishop  Wigger  belonged  to  the  Order  of 

prolubited  his  subjects  from  attending  the  Uiiiversity  Premonstratensians,  and  formed  his  cathedral  chap- 

of  Wittenberg.  ter  from  members  of  his  order.    Amorijg  the  bishops 

Through    the    efforts    of    wandering    preachers,  of  the  fifteenth  century,  Stephan  Bodeker  (1421-59) 

nevertheless,  Luther's  teachings  soon  gained  a  larse  distmguished  himself  by  unusual  activity  aloiig  the 

following,  not  only  in  various  parts  of  the  Ma»,  lines  of  education  and  rieform.    Matthias  von  ^i^w 


BRANLT  740  BEUTLT 

(1527-44),  the  forty-fourth  bishop,  was  one  of  the  many  cases  several  of  these  institutions  form  one 
most  zealous  promoters  of  the  son-calied  Reforma-  establidunent  and  are  under  the  same  manafement 
tion;  although  in  1528  hfe  bound  himself  by  oath  to  The  organisation  of  Catholics  in  the  deugature 
the  pope  and  to  Elector  Joachim  I  to  withstand  the  has  reached  a  high  stage  of  development.  Then  are 
Luthentn  innovations,  he  installed  a  Lutheran  about  300  religious  associations.  Among  the  otm- 
preacher  in  the  cit^r  of  Brandenburg  in  the  same  fraternities  and  rosary  unions  are:  30  societieB  of  the 
year,  released  his  priests  from  their  vow  of  celibacy  Holy  Family,  50  societies  of  Si  Charles  Borromeo, 
(1535),  and  introduced  the  administration  of  Com-  35  associations  of  yoimg  men  and  societies  of  St 
mimion  under  both  forms.  After  the  resignation  Alojrsius,  25  congregations  of  Mary  and  societies  of 
of  his  successor,  Joachim,  Duke  of  MQnsterberg  ^ung  women.  Among  charitaUe  associations,  men- 
Prince  Elector  John  Geor^  was  appointed  adminis*  tion  ma^  be  made  of  the  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de 
trator  of  the  diocese,  which  by  that  very  act  was  Paul,  with  about  40  conferences  of  men  and  women, 
secularized.  The  cathedral  chapter  was  preserved  and  the  Charitable  Association  {Charitasverhandi  for 
in  name,  and  consists  to  the  present  day  of  one  Berlin  and  other  centres  of  charitable  woric  Among 
cathedral  dean,  one  senior  and  seven  cathedral  Catholic  trade  unions  are  Catholic  labour  miions, 
capitulars*  these  positions  are  bestowed  as  sine-  about  60;  local  societies  of  Christian  workmen,  32; 
cures  on  rrussian  statesmen,  generals,  theologians,  Catholic  Gesellenvereine,  8;  masters'  unions,  3;  ap- 
etc.  prentices'  unions,  4;  mercantile  unions,  5;  associations 
II.  Statistigb. — Ecclesiastically  J  the  former  Mark  of  teachers,  5;  corporations  of  students,  10;  national 
of  Brandenburg,  with  the  city  of  Berlin  and  the  bureaus  (FoZA»6ur0atM),  2,  etc.  Among  political  orga- 
ereater  part  of  the  province  of  Pomerania,  forms  the  nizations  are  the  Natiozial  Union  for  Catholic  G^ 
"'Apostolic  Delegature  for  the  Mark  Brandenburg  many  (Volknerein  fUr  das  kaih^ische  DetdaMmii 
and  Pomerania  ,  which  is  administered  by  the  and  the  Windthorst  leagues.  Catholic  social  organi- 
Prinoe^Bishop  of  Bre^u  as  Apostolic  Delegate,  zations  are  numerous:  societies  of  men^  civic  assch 
indirectiy  throuj^h  the  Dean  of  St.  Hedwi^'s  in  Berlin  ciations,  choral  unions  and  the  like.  (For  politico- 
as  delegate  of  the  prince-bishop.  According  to  tne  ecclesiastical  relations  see  Prussia.) 
census  of  1  December,  1900,  the  number  of  Catholics  Qkbckkn,  AuitMicke  Sti/ukutoris  vtm  Brandtnkvt 
was  314,287;  in  1907  it  had  reached  443,100.  For  ^f^^l^^^^S^^^^^s^^ 
the  work  of  the  ministry,  the  delegature  is  divided  lUKOKL/DieMark  Brandenburg  im  JahnJiSO  (Berlin.  1831- 
into  7  archipresbyterates  with  82  spiritual  charges,  32);  Raum bb,  Reaetki  hutoricB  Brandenburifm$i»  (Beritn,  1836); 

6  ourateships,  etc.  CathoUc  churches  and  chapels  S"f.'*|^;,$^/g^KJ!^  SSlSSSZSSdi^^JS-  J^ 
number  128.  The  clergy  of  the  delegature  include  Br<indenbwv  (Berlin,  1839);  BABB^imr^eKurmark  Bn»- 
(in  addition  to  the  delegate  of  the  prince-bishop,  dmtwv  (Leipiig,  1847-61);  Wnrrss,  Die  PrUmonetratoMr 
the  amy  bishop,  for  the  Pruaaian  troops,  and  the  *J  /ir^^^^^^8a6)^^  l^,fSSS: 
secretary  of  the  delegation)  160  pnests,  vii.:  72  Bramimbura  im  MUtelalter  (Leipiig,  1887):  HuDBiiAinf. 
priests  having  charges,  54  chaplains  and  curates,  19  OeediidUe  Jer  Reformation  in  der  Mark  Brandenburg  (Beriin. 
priei*.  having  other  appointmenU  15  living  in  oom-  if^S^SKiiSj:^  J^'SSjSi^S'^^^^ 
munity.  The  following  orders  of  men  have  foun-  (UAptig,  190?);  Amdieher  Fnhrer  dureh  die  fOretbieekdlUdu 
dations   (1907):    Dominicans   1,  with   10  priests  and  Deliaho'  iBerlin.    1906);    MOrkieche   Forechunoen    (BerUn, 

7  lay  b«.ther»;  Alexians  1,  with  22  brothers^oor  ^^^j;^  flS^JnSfr^M^&X'fe^tSrtS^ 
Brothers  of  St.  Francis  1,  with  17  brothers.    Orders  1857 — ). 

and  congregations  of  women  have  42  foundations,  Jobeph  Linb. 

with  733  sisters:  Ursulines  1,  with  24  choir  sisters, 

1  choir  novice,  and  12  lay  sisters;  the  Sisters  of  the       Bimnly,  Edouard,  a  French  physicist  and  inventor 

Good  Shepherd  2,  with   135  sisters;  Sisters  of  St.  of  the  coherer  employed  in  wimess  telegraphy,  b.  at 

Charles  Borromeo  6,  with  132  Asters;  Dominicans  of  Amiens,  23  October,  1846.     After  receiving  his  early 

St.  Catherine  of  Sienna  11,  with  152  sisters;  the  Grey  education  at  the  Lyc6e  of  St.-Quentin^  his  scientific 

Nuns  of   St.    Elizabeth    17,    with   219  sisters;   the  studies  were  begim  at  the  Lyc^  Henn  IV  at  Paris, 

Sisters  of  Mary  4,  with  58  sisters;  the  Sisters  of  St.  and  in  1865  he  entered  the  Eode  Normale  Sup^rieure. 

Joseph   1,  with   13  sisters.     The  orders  of  women  In  1868  he  became  Licentiate  in  mathematics  and 

devote  themselves  almost  exclusively  to  the  care  of  physical  science,  and  also  agrigi  in  physical  and 

the  sick  and  the  poor,  and  the  education  of  young  natural    science.     After    occupying    a    pwofesBor's 

girls.  chair  at  the  Lyo6e  of  Bourges,  he  was  appointed  chef 

The  Catholics  of  the  delegature  have  but  one  pri-  des  travaux  in  1869L  and  four  years  later  be  was  made 

vate  high  school  tor  boys;  there  are  4  Catholic  high  director  of  the  Laboratory  of  Instruction  in  the 

schools  for  ^rls,  one  of  which  is  conducted  by  the  department  of    physios  at  the  Sorbonne.    In  the 

Ursulines.    There  are  30  (Datholic  primary  schools  in  same  year  (1873)  he  won  the  doctorate  in  science 

Berlin  and  outside  of  Berlin  52;  elsewhere  Catholic  with   a   thesis   entitled    "Electrostatic   Phenomena 

children  are  given  rehgious  instruction  by  cler^  in  Voltaic  Cells".    lii  1876  he  resigned  his  post  at 

and  secular  teachers,  in  some  places  in  non-CathoHo  the  Sorbonne  to  become  professor  of  physics  at  the 

schools   (140),  elsewhere  in  churches  and  chapels,  Catholic  University  in  Paris.     He  then  took  up  the 

or  in  private  houses.    Religious  orders  of  women  study  of  medicine,  obtaining  his  degree  in  1882,  and 

conduct  15  protectorates  for  small  children,  and  9  thereafter  divided  his  time  between  the  practice  of 

schools  of  domestic  economy  and  manual  training,  medicine,  especially  of  physiotherapy  and  electro- 

The  Catholic  charitable  institutions  of  the  dele*  therapy,  and  his  researches  in  physics  at  the  Oatbolie 

gature  are  almost  exclusively  under  the  control  of  University. 

religious  congregations  of  women.  There  are  10  Dr.  Branlv  is  best  known  by  his  researches  con- 
hospitals  and  sanatoria,  5  homes  for  convalescents  ceming  radio-conductors,  and  particularly  hy  his 
ana  those  in  need  of  rest,  1  Institution  for  the  mentally  so-called  coherer.  He  besan  his  studies  in  this  fi^ 
deranged,  1  maternity  home,  29  institutions  for  in  1890,  being  led  to  rnKfertflJce  them  by  observing 
visiting  nurses,  7  homes  for  invalids,  6  for  the  care  of  the  anomalous  change  in  the  resistanoe  of  thin  metat- 
small  children,  8  cr^hes  and  homes  for  children,  lie  films  wiien  exposed  to  cdectric  sparks.  Platinum 
3  hospices  for  men,  9  refuges  and  boarding-houses  deposited  upon  gpss  was  first  employed.  The  effect 
for  women,  8  homes  for  girls  out  of  work,  15  institu-  was  at  first  attributed  to  the  innuence  of  the  ultia 
tions  for  the  care  of  orphans  and  the  instruction  of  violet  light  of  the  spark.  The  variations  in  the  re- 
first-communicants,  ana  4  homes  for  the  shelter  and  sistanoe  of  metals  in  a  finely  divided  ^tatt;  woe  even 
reolamation  of  sirls.    It  should  be  noted  that  in  mate  striking,  and  they  were  showi.  by  Dr.  Brants 


BRAHT  741  BRANT 

lo  be  due  to  the  action  of  the  electrical,  or  Hertzian,  on  earth  was  his  one  great  desire  and  henoefortA 

waves  of   which  the  8[)ark  was  the  source.    The  coloured  all  his  poems.    Especially  did  he  hope  for 

phenomenon  was  investigated  at  great  len^^,  and  the  restoration  of  imperial  power  in  Germany  and 

further  experiment  led  to  the  coherer,  which  is  simply  the  strengthening  of  the  realm.    But  he  was  doomed 

a  ^lass  or  ebonite  tube  containing  metallic  filings  to  disappointment.    In  1499  Basle  was  separated 

which  connect  the  two  ends  of  a  wire  conductor  from  the  en^>ire  and  became  a  monber  of  tlM  8¥riss 

entering  the  tube.    When  the  tube  is  made  part  of  confederacy.     Brant's    position    here    now    became 

a  batterer  circuit,  the  filings  ordinarily  offer  a  very  untenable,  and  he  deoioed  to  change  his  residence, 

f^reat  resistance  to  the  passage  of  a  current.     But  In  1494  he  had  published  his  poem  "The  Ship  of 

if  a  spark  be  produced  in  the  neighbourhood  between  Fools '\  which  haa  won  him  great  popularity.    Geiler 

the  terminals  of  an  induction  coil,  or  bv  the  discharge  von  Kaisersbeig,   Uie  famous   Strasburg  (teacher, 

of  a  Levden  Jar,  the  resistance  ot  the  filing  is  dimin-  had  made  it  the  basis  of  a  series  of  sermons,  and  he 

ished,  beins  no  longer  measured  in  millions  but  in  now  recommended  tiie  a{^>ointment  of  Brant  to  the 

hundreds  ofohms.     Upon  tapping  the  tube  the  filings  vacant  position  of  citynsyndic  in   Strasbuig.     The 

regain  their  normal  resistance.    This  simple  device  poet  accepted  the  offer,  and  in  1501  he  returned  to 

was  employed  by  Lodge  in  his  researches  and  formed  nis  native  city,  where  two  years  later  he  was  ap- 

an  important  part  of  Marconi's  successful  system  of  pointed  town-clerk  and  soon  rose  to  considerable 

wireless  telegraphy.    In  fact  the  coherer  first  made  prominence.    The  remainder   of   his   life   was   un- 

wireless  telegraphy  possible.     It  serves  as  a  receiver,  eventful.    Towards   the  spreat   religious  movement 

being  placea  in  series  with  a  relay  actuating  a  Morse  of  his  time,  the  Reformation,  he  maintained  an  at- 

sounder.  titude  of  passive  indifference.    Repeatedly  he  served 

When  electrical  waves,  sent  out  at  a  distant  sta-  his  city  in  an  official  capacity,  the  last  time  in  1520. 

tion  according  to  an  established  code,  impinge  upon  as  spokesman  of  an  embassy  sent  to  the  newly  electea 

it,  its  resistance  diminishes  sufficiently  to  enable  Emperor,  Charles  V,  to  obtain  for  Strasburg  the  usual 

the  relay  to  act  and  this  in  turn  reproduces  the  connrmation  of  its  ancient  privileges, 
sig^ials   m   the   sounder.    A   tapper   automatically        The  work  to  which  Brant  owes  his  fame  is  the 

restores  the  resistance  of  the  nfings.    Dr.  Branly  "Narrenschiff"   (Ship  of   Fools),  a  long  didactic, 

has  eiven  the  name  of  radio-conductors  to  bodies  allegorical  poem,  in  which  the  lollies  and  vices  of 

which,  like  filing,  can  be  made  conductors  or  non-  the  time  are  satirized.    All  the  fools  are  loaded  in  a 

conductors  at  will.    A  number  of  other  forms  have  ship  bound  for  Narragonia,  the  land  of  fools.    But 

since  been  devised,  and  he  himself  has  found  that  the  this  plan  is  by  no  means  carried  out  systematicaUy, 

tripod  coherer,  composed  of  a  metal  disk  making  many  descriptions  bein^  introduced  which  have  bo 

contact  with  a  polisned  steel  plate  by  means  of  three  connexion  with  the  main  idea.    The  resulting  lack 

steel  legs,  is  more  sensitive  and  uniform  in  its  action  of  unity,  however,  has  its  advantaf;e;  for  it  enaJiJes 

than  the  tube  coherer.    He  has  also  applied  his  the  poet  to  discuss  all  kinds  of  social,  political,  and 

radio-conductors  to  ''telemechanics  without  wires",  religious  conditions.     Not  onlv  follies  in  the  usual 

i.  e.  to  the  production  of  divers  mechanical  effects  sense  of  the  word  are  satirized,  but  also  crimes  and 

at  a  distance  by  means  of  electrical  waves.    Among  vices,  which  are  conceived  of  as  follies  in  accordance 

Ehr.  Branlv's  other  researches  have  been  those  re-  with  the  medieval  way  of  thinking.     Hence  among 

lating  to  the  effect  of  ultra  violet  light  upon  positively  the  fools  appear  such  people  as  usurers,  gamblers, 

and  negatively  charged  bodies  (1890-93),  electrical  and  adulterers.    A  chapter  is  devoted  to  each  kind 

conductivity  of  gases  (1894),  etc.     It  may  be  noted  of  folly,  and  there  are  one  hundred  and  twelve  chw- 

that  the  germ  of  the  ''antennte",  employed  particu-  ters  in  which  one  hundred  and  ten  kinds  of  focus 

larly  in  long  distance  telegraphy,  may  be  found  in  pass  muster.    As  a  work  of  lui;  the  poem  does  not 

his  papers  pu  billed  in  1891.  rank  high,  though  its  tone  is  serious  and  earnest, 

Dr.  Branly  became  Commander  of  the  Order  of  especially  where  Ihe  poet  pleads  for  his  ideals,  as  in 

St.  Gregory  the  Great  in  1899  and  was  nominated  chapter  xcix,  entitled  ''Von  abgai^  des  glouben" 

Chevalier  of  the  L^on  of  Honour  in  1900  for  "hav-  (on  the   decline   of   faith).     KnowIed«^  of  self  is 

ing  discovered  the  principle  of  wireless  telegraphy",  praised  as  the  height  of  wisdom.  The  "Narrensclnff" 

He  received  the  grand  prix  at  the  Paris  Exposition,  enjoyed  a  tremendous  popularity  in  Germany,  which 

1900,  for  his  radio-conductors,  and  the  prix  Osiris j  in  is  attested  by  the  numerous  editions  that  appeared 

1903,  from  the  Syndicate  of  the  Press.     He  was  also  in  rapid  succession.     But  its  fame  was  not  confined 

made  a  titular  member  of  the  Pontifical  Academy  to  Germany.    It  was  translated  into  Latin  by  Jacob 

dei   Nuovi   Lincei,     Besides   his   papers   published  Locher  in  1497  (Stultifera  Navis),  into  French  1^ 

chiefly  in  the  "Comptes  Rendus*',  Dr.  Branly  is  the  Paul  Riviere  in  1497,  and  by  Jehan  Droyn  in  1498. 

author  of  a  "Cours  ^l^mentaire  de  physique"  (5th  An  En^ish  verse  trajislation  by  Alexander  Barclay 

ed.,  1905);   and  "Traits  ^l^mentaire  de   physique"  appeared  in  London  in  1509,  and  again  in  1570;  one  in 

(3d  ed.,  1906).    For  various  types  of  coherer  and  prose  by  Henry  Watson  in  London,  1509.  and  asain 

other  apparatus  employed  in  wireless  telegraphy,  m  1517.    It  was  also  rendered  into  Dutch  and  Low 

cf.    Collins,   "Wireless    Telegraphy"    (New    York,  German. 

1905).  Besides  the  ''Narrenschiff"  Brant  wrote  religious 

H.  M.  Brock.  and  political  poems  in  Latin  and  German.    He  also 

edited  and  translated  a  number  of  legal  and  theolom^. 

Brant,  Sebastian,  a  German  humanist  and  poet,  cal  treatises.    The  most  complete  edition  of  tne 

b.  at  Strasburg  in  1457  or  1458;  d.  at  the  same  place,  "  Narrenschifit ''  is  that  of  Father  Zamcke  (Leipsig 

1521.     He  attended  the  University  of  Basle  where  1854),  which  contains  also  selections  from  Brant's  other 

he  at  first  studied  philosophy,  but  soon  after  aban-  works.    Other  editions  are  by  Kari  Croedeke  (Leipsig, 

doned  this  for  law,  obtaining  in  1489  the  degree  of  1872)  and  F.   Bobertag   (in  KOrschner's  Deutsche 

Doctor  of  Omon  and  Civil  I^w.    Prior  to  this,  from  National    Litteratur,    XVI).    A    modem    German 

1484,  Brant  had  be^un  to  lecture  at  the  university,  translation  was  made  bv  Karl  Simrock  (Berlin,  1872). 

practising  his  profession  at  the  same  time.     He  wrote  A  new  edition  of  the  English  translation  of  Barda^, 

a  number  of  poems  in  Latin  and  German  in  which  by  T.  H.  Jamieson,  appeftfed  at  Edinburgh  in  1874  m 

he  set  forth  £ds  religious  and  political  ideals.    The  2  vols. 

election  of  Maximilian   as  emperor   had  filled  him  ,  For  an  eassy  on  BratU  me  Schmidt.  Hiatoin  lUUrain  db 

t^wxA  *«va«i<M'  AfK^*  *^<->^*#^fa  <nrif K  kifl>K   Vtrxrx^      T#*  oaa  VAUoce  (Paris,  1879).  I,  189-333.  and  the  introductions  ta 

and  many  other  patnots  with  high  hope,      lo  see  the  above-mentioned  editions;  »ee  aleo  JAifssKi.  ^ulory  o/ Ai 

the  emperor  the  supreme  temporal  ruler  of  Chnstian  German  People  (tr.  London,  1896)  1. 126. 

nations,  and  the  Cnurch  the  supreme  spiritual  ruler  Abthur  F.  J.  ExiCY. 

n.— 47 


BEAKt6mE                            742  BRAS8K8 

BrantomO)  Pierre  de  Bourdeille,  SmoNEtm  de,  curiosity.    Wherever  he  went,  and  he  travelled  in 

one  of  the  most  famous  of  French  writers  of  memoirs,  countries  of  all  kinds,  he  observed,  he  listened,  he 

b.  in  1539,  or  a  little  later;  d.  15  July,  1614.    He  was  asked  questions,  he  informed  himself.    But  he  has  no 

the  son  of  a  nobleman  of  Pdrigord  and  spent  his  power  of  criticism;  he  is  a  doubtful  witness.    He  has. 

childhood  at  the  court  of  the  Queen  of  Navarre,  moreover,  no  sense  of  morality,  in  the  modem  mean* 

He  sUidied  at  the  Colle^  of  France,  at  Paris,  and  ing  of  the  word.    He  admires  but  one  thing  in  men 

at  the  University  of  Poitiers.    When  his  education  and  that  is  bravery;  that  this  courage  may  be  of  a 

was  completed  he  returned  to  court  at  a  date  not  criminal  character  is  of  little  consequence  to  him. 

later  than  1556,  for  he  saw  Mary  Stuart  ''at  the  age  He  is  not  the  man  to  bear  malice  towards  othera 

of  thirteen  or  fourteen,  in  the  presence-chamber  of  under  pretext  that  they  have  "some  little  trifle  of 

the  Louvre,  publicly  recite  a  Latin  oration  which  murder"  on  their  conscience.    In  like  manner  he  has 

she  had  composed,  before  King  Henry,  the  queen,  few  scruples  either  as  to  a  choice  of  means  or  aa  to 

and  all  the  court''.    In  1557  Bourdeille  was  granted  the  sources  of  profit  and  ways  of  making  gain.    He 

the  Abbey  of  Brant6me,  the  name  of  wmch   he  writes  in  one  place:  "Nothing  is  so  ddightful,  so 

took.  sweet  and  attractive  as  spoils  of  any  kind,  whether 

Brant6me's  life  explains  his  writings,  for  it  is  the  gained  by  land  or  by  sea.       And  he  is  strongly  sus- 

life  of  a  traveller,  a  soldier,  and  a  courtier.    He  him-  pected  of  having  plundered  his  benefice.    In  truth, 

self  in  a  few  lines  thus  sums  up  its  characteristics:  when  he  talks  of  "honesty''  and  "virtue"  he  means 

"From  the  time  when  I  began  to  outgrow  subjection  what  the  Italians  of  that  age  called  viriil,  that  is. 

to   father^    and   mother,    and    school,    besides   the  personal  courage,  force,  and  elegance.     Above  all 

journeys  I  made  to  the  wars  and  the  courts  in  France,  other   spots   Brant6me   enjoyed   the   chamber   and 

1  have  made  seven,  when  there  was  peace,  outside  antechamber  of  the  queen.    He  was  never  perfectly 

of  France  to  find  adventure  by  war,  or  by  seeing  the  happy  except  when  surrounded  by  the  ladies  who 

world;  I  was  in  Italy,  Scotland,  England.  S]}ain,  formed  the  real  ornament  of  the  court.    This  court 

Portugal — then  in  Italy  a^ain,  at  Malta  for  tne  siege,  of  Catherine  de  Medici  and  its  "flying  squadron" 

at  La  Groulette  in  Africa,  m  Greece,  and  other  foreign  of  three  hundred  ladies  made  his  paradise  on  earth, 

places,  which  I  have  liked  a  hundred  times  better  "Never  since  the  worid  was  made  nas  its  equal  been 

tor  sojourn  than  my  own  coim try,  having  the  dispo-  seen."     He   made   himself   the   historiographer   of 

sition  of  wandering  musicians  who  love  the  houses  these  dames  of  the  Renaissance^  both  of  uie  famous 

of  others  better  than  their  own."    In  1558  he  went  and  of  the  notorious.    Among  his  numerous  portraits 

for  the  first  time  to  Italv.     He  returned  to  France  mention  shoidd  be  made  of  those  of  his  favourites, 

only  to  leave  it  again  in  the  suite  of  Manr  Stuart  who  Marguerite  of  Navarre  and  Mary  Stuart.    Light  ana 

went  to  Scotland  to  take  possession  of  her  kingdom,  frivolous,   Brantdme  passes  over  without  mention 

Brant6me  has  left  a  touching  accoimt  of  this  journey  some  of  the  occurrences  of  his  time  of  the  greatest 

of  the  unfortunate  queen.    In  1562  he  took  part  in  importance  and  most   fraught  with  consequences, 

the  first  civil  war  between  the  Catholics  and  Protes-  But  we  owe  to  him  all  sorts  of  small  details,  fin- 

tants  of  France  and  was  present  at  the  battle  of  gerposts  to  uses  of  the  times.     This  brilliant  and 

Dreux,  his  first  en^gement.    Then  he  be^n  again  corrupt    society,    stamped    with    the    characteris- 

to  travel,  going  to  Portugal,  Spain,  and  to  Malta;  at  tics    of   the   sixteenth  century,  lives  again  in    his 

this  last  place  he  spent  three  months  and  a  half,  "Memoirs''. 

the  active  and  adventurous  life  of  the  Knights  pleas-  Brantdme  is  an  uneven,  incorrect,  and  rambling 

ing  him  so  greatly  that  he  thought  for  a  moment  writer,    but    his   works   contain   clever   witticisms, 

of  entering  the  order.     On  his  return  to  France  he  imagination,  and  unexpected  turns.    He  took  more 

took  part  in  the  second  and  third  civil  wars,  was  pains  with  his  style  than  one  would  be  apt  to  think, 

present  at  the  battles  of   Meaux  and  St.-Denis,  at  and  sought  renown  as  a  man  of  letters.    He  directeo 

the  engagement  at  Jamac,   and  ^the  siege  of  La  his  heirs  to  have  the  writings  printed  which  he  had 

Rochelle.     His  military  career  came  to  an  end  in  made  and    composed  "by  his   understanding  and 

1574  after  the  campaign  in  P^rigord.    The  office  of  imagination,  all  very  carefullv  corrected  with  much 

fentleman  of  the  b^d-chamber  kept  him  near  King  pains    and    time  ...  I    wish   that    the    said    im- 

lenry  III,  and  his  joumevs  now  were  merely  to  pression  be  in  beautiful  and  large  type  and  in  a 

follow  the  court,  where  all  that  interested  him  seems  stately  volimae  in  order  to  appear  better.    Otherwise 

to  have  been  the  love  intrigues,  the  duels,  the  rival-  I  should  lose  my  trouble  and  the  glory  that  is  due 

ries.  and  the  assassinations.  me."     His  desires,  however,  were  not  granted  at 

Notwithstanding  the  services  he  had  rendered,  his  once.     His  works  did  not  appear  for  the  first  time 

bravery,  and  the  amusement  which  his  Gascon  ani-  until  1655  and  then  in  a  very  imperfect  and  incorrect 

mation  afforded  the  king,  Brant6me  never  obtained  edition.    It  was  not  until  the    eighteenth    century 

an  important  post,  but  remained  among  "the  minor  that  his  reputation,   one  of  not   very   high   order, 

attendants".    This  made  him  indignant  and  he  con-  was  established.     His  writings  are  regarded,  above 

templated  going  into  the  Spanish  service  when  an  all,   as   a   collection  of   dubious   ane^otes.    Frona 

accident — a  fall  from  his  horse — put  an  end  to  his  him  the  chroniclers  of  scandalous  stories,  the  Talle- 

active  life.    An  invalid  for  four  years,  he  retired  to  his  taants  des  R^ux  and   the  Bussy-Rabutins,  are  de- 

chAteau  Richemond  and  resolved,  in  order  to  pass  scended. 

the  time,  to  take  up  his  pen  and  recount  his  past  BRANTAME,,G?uvre»,  ed.  by  L^^^ 

i:**,.      nri>:«.  «»««  +k«.  ^^Ia^c'^JT  «.«^  *u^  K»»:»»«;n<»  /%f  k;..  SocUUde  VHiatotre  de  France  (11  vote.,  8vo);  Lalanne,  Bran- 
life.    This  was  the  occasion  and  the  beginning  of  his  ^^^  ga  vie  h  $e8  icriu;  Doumic,  BrknU^  in  BtudS  w  la 

career  as  a  writer.     But  for  this  fortunate  accident  Ha^ature  franoaise,  II. 

posterity  would  not  have  had  the  precious  "Memoirs ' '  Rbn^  Doumic. 
of  Brantdme  and  would  have  lost  in  them  an  un- 
equalled source  of  instruction  concerning  the  men  Brasflefl^  MEMORiAii. — Just  when  memorial  brasses 
and  affairs  of  the  sixteenth  century.    The  works  of  first  came  mto  use  is  not  known;  the  earliest  existing 


the  style  of  a  biography  and  that  of  a  personal  memoir,  stone  and  marble  slabs  then  in  use,  and  their  lastiog 

At  times  he  himself  appears  in  his  recital  and  most  value  has  been  proved  by  the  fact  that  they  are 

often  he  relates  what  he  has  personally  seen.     He  incomparably  in  better  condition  than  contemporary 

says:  "I  have  seen"^  "I  have  Imown".    He  has  the  incised  slabs  of  the  hardest  stone.    The  material 

most  important  quahfication  for  a  writer  of  memoirs:  of  which  they  were  made  was  prindpaUy  manu-' 


BEA88XUB 


743 


B&ASSEUB 


Symbol    of    St.    John     (Donatello) 
Basilica  of  St.  Anthony,  Padua 


faotured  at  Colore,  and  thence  exported  to  all  parts 
of  Christendom;  it  is  called  laUm,  an  alloy  of  copper, 
zinc,  lead,  and  tin,  beaten  into  thick  plates  of  vanous 
8i2es.  England  was  the  largest  consumer,  and  in 
spite  of  tl^  rapacious  plunderers  of  the  Reformation, 

__  Puritanic*  vio- 

lence, and  neg- 
lect, between 
three  and  four 
thousand  brass- 
es of  the  thir- 
teenth, four- 
teenth, fif- 
teenth, and 
sixteenth  cen- 
turies have  sur- 
vived.  The 
persons  com- 
memorated 
were  as  a  rule 
represented 
upon  the  plates, 
usually  life 
size,  by  deeply 
incised  lines 
with  very  little  attempt  at  shading,  surroimded 
by  architectural  and  heraldic  accessories  and  in- 
scriptions. In  some  cases  the  incisions  were  em- 
phasized by  black  and  red  enamels,  while  in  others 
the  brasses  were  further  embellished  by  the  intro- 
duction of  many-coloured  Limoges  enamels.  These 
memorials  attained  their  greatest  artistic  excellency 
in  the  fourteenth  century,  and  then  slowly  deterio- 
rated, becoming  very  much  debased  during  the  reigns 

of  Elizabeth  and 

^iP'iii?WMi?Mhtf^M<74-  .A  James  I,  reach- 
ing their  lowest 
type  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century, 
when  they  ceasea 
to  be  employed, 
imtil  the  Gothic 
revival  brought 
them  again  into 
use.  A  Rreat  deal 
of  time  has  been 
given  by  archaeo- 
logical mvestiga- 
tors  to  the  study 
of  monumental 
brasses,  and  many 
finely  illustrated 
works  on  the  sub- 
jecTi  have  been 
published;  almost 
every  county  in 
England  has  one 
or  more  books 
upon  those  with- 
in its  borders. 
Haines's  '' Manu- 
al of  Monumental 
Brasses",  with  its 
200  illustrations, 
is  invaluable  to 
the  student;  while 
the  magnificent 
folio  volume  of 
coloured  plates 
issu^  in  1864 
by  J.  G.  and  L. 
A.  B.  Waller  covers  the  ground  of  English  brasses, 
and  that  of  W.  F.  Greeny  (London,  1884),  fully  de- 
scribes those  on  the  Continent.  Militarv  brasses 
can  be  studied  in  the  transactions  of  the  York- 
shire Architectural  Society  for  1885,  and  a  history  of 
the  destruction  of  all  kmds  of  brasses  during  th« 


Memorial  to  Sir  Thomas  db  Crews 
and  his  wipe 
(Time  of  Henry  IV) 


progress  of  the  Reformation  in  Weever's  "  Ancient 
Fimeral  Monuments"  (London,  1731). 

Caryl  Goleman. 

Brasfleur  de  Boorboorg,  Gharles  Etienne, 
Abb^:,  b.  at  Bourbourg  (IMpartement  du  Nord), 
France,  1814;  d.  at  Nice  in  January,  1874.  He  left 
France  for  Ganada  in  1845  and  was  for  a  short  time 
professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  at  Quebec.  In 
1846  he  was  at  Boston  as  vicar-general  of  that 
diocese,  and  then  returned  to  Europe  where  he  spent 
two  winters  at  Rome,  searching  archives  for  docu- 
ments relative  to  Spanish  America.  In  1848  he 
went  to  Mexico  and  became  chaplain  of  the  French 
Legation  at  that  city.  In  1851  he  returned  to  Paris 
until  1854,  when  he  sailed  for  New  York  and  from 
there  to  the  Isthmus  and  Gentral  America,  visiting 
Nicaragua,  San  Salvador,  and  Guatemala.  He 
arrived  in  the  latter  city  1  February,  1855,  and  was 
made  ecclesiastical  administrator  of  the  district  of 
Rabinal  in  Vera  Paa  which  position  he  occupied 
for  a  year.  In  1857  he  was  again  in  France.  In 
the  years  1859  and  1860  he  visited  the  Isthmus  of 
Tehuantepec  and  Ghiapas,  also  parts  of  Guatemala. 
In  1864  he  became  attached  to  the  French  scientific 
mission  to  Mexico,  but  political  events  in  that  re- 

Eublic  drove  him  back  to  Guatemala  in  1865,  whence 
e  returned  to  Europe.  Exhausted  by  his  long, 
arduous,  and  often  dangerous  labours,  he  died  at 
Nice  at  the  age  of  sixty.  While  an  ecclesiastic 
worthy  of  high  respect,  and  a  teacher  who  has  left 
a  good  record  in  the  short  period  he  devoted  himself 
to  instruction,  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg  was,  above 
all,  an  indefatigable  student  of  the  American  Indian, 
of  his  past  and  present.  Hence  the  many  and  pro- 
tractea  journeys  in  Mexico  and  Gentral  America, 
his  permanent  stay  among  aboriginal  tribes,  and  his 
frequent  visits  to  Europe  were  often  made  for  the 

Euipose  of  delving  into  archives  for  ethnographic, 
nguistic,  and  historic  material  from  the  past.  He 
collected  a  large  number  of  manuscripts  and  prints 
dating  from  early  times  in  Central  America,  and  im- 
proved his  apostolic  labours  amon^  the  Indians  for 
ethnographic  purposes.  His  pubhcations  embrace 
the  period  from  1857  to  1871,  and  the  value  of  these 
publications,  if  not  unimpeachable,  is  still  great. 
His  defects  were,  at  the  outset,  too  great  an  en- 
thusiasm and  too  vivid  a  fancy,  and  his  intercourse 
with  Prescott,  whom  he  personally  knew,  was  not 
calculated  to  lessen  these  railings.  Larter  on,  he  was 
led  to  tread  a  very  dangerous  field,  that  of  tracing 
relationships  between  American  peoples  and  Eastern 
civilization  and,  as  he  advanced  in  years,  the  con- 
nection between  the  Old  World  and  the  New  in 
pre-Golumbian  times,  while  not  impossible,  assumed 
m  his  mind  the  form  of  a  fact  absolutely  certain. 
His  main  works  are:  "Histoire  des  Nations  civilis^es 
du  Mexique  et  de  TAm^rique  centrale"  (Paris, 
1857-59,  4  vols.);  "  Voyage  sur  I'lsthme  de  Tehuante- 
pec dans  r^tat  de  Chiapas  et  la  R^publique  de 
Guatemala,  1859  et  1860"  (Paris,  1861);  '^Popol 
Vuh,  le  Livre  sacr6  des  Quiches,  &r.."  (Paris,  1861); 
"Grammaire  Quiche  et  le  drame  de  Rabinal  AchI" 
(Paris,  1862);  "Quatre  Lettres  sur  le  Mexique" 
(Paris,  1868);  "Cartas  para  servir  de  Introducci6n 
&  la  Historia  primitiva  de  las  Naciones  civilizadas 
de  la  America  setentrional"  (Mexico,  1851);  "Rela- 
tion des  choses  du  Yucatan"  (Paris,  1864).  In  this 
work,  which  is  a  translation  of  the  manuscript  by 
Bishop  Landa,  the  so-called  Maya  characters  are 
given.  Their  value  and  significance  are  not  yet  fuUy 
established;  "Monuments  anciens  du  Afexique 
(Palenque,  etc.,  Paris,  1866);  "Manuscrit  Troano" 
(Paris,  1869-70);  "  Bibliothdque  mexico-guat^ma- 
henne"  (Paris,  1871). 

With  exception  of  short  notices  in  some  encyclopedias,  there 
exists,  apparently,  no  printed  record  of  the  life  of  Braiteur 


BRA88I0ANXT8  744  B&AUUO 

de  BpurbpuTff.    His  own  works,  chiefly  the  Introduction  to  (1619):  "OBBsar"  (1519):  "In  divum  Caiolum  dectum 

thSSrriufrSra^vl^S^^  komanorum  ^gem-   (1619);  and  other  occasional 

Ad.  F.  Bandelier.  poema  and  addresses.    These  do  not  nse  above  the 

avera^  level  of  the  occasional  literature  of  human- 
Braasicaniu,  Johann  Alexander,  a  Ciennan  ism.  rfo  subtler  meaning  and  no  original  or  striking 
humanist,  b.  probably  at  Cannstatt,  1500;  d.  at  thoughts  are  concealed  under  the  mediocre  forms  of 
Vienna,  26  November,  1639.  He  was  a  member  of  expression.  For  the  history  of  the  University  of 
an  ancient  family  of  Constance,  named  K6l  or  Kdll,  Vienna,  on  the  contrary,  Brassicanus  is  of  great  im- 
latinized,  Brassicanus^  his  father  being  Johannes  portance,  being  numbered  among  the  most  vigorous 
Brassicanus,  the  Wurtemberg  hiunanist  who  taught  representatives  of  the  humanist  movement, 
in  the  Latin  school  at  Urach  up  to  1608,  and  later  in  Among  the  editions  issued  by  Brassicanus,  the 
the  paedagogium  at  Tubingen,  out  was  chiefly  known  following  are  particularly  well  known:  "Luciani 
as  a  leader  m  the  movement  for  the  promotion  of  the  Samosatensis  Trafoedis''  (1527);  Salviani, "  De  vero 
humanities  and  as  the  author  of  a  ^anunar  then  judicio  et  proviaenti&"  (Basle,  1530);  Gennadius, 
widely  used,  ''Institutiones  grammaticse'',  thirteen  *'t)e  sinceritate  christians  fidei  dialogus  seu  de  vi& 
editions  of  which  were  issued  between  1508  and  salutis  humanee"  (Vienna,  1630);  "Enchiridion  de 
1519.  From  his  father,  who  died  at  Wildaad  in  christianarum  rerum  memori&  sive  epitome  historise 
1514,  Johann  Alexander  received  an  excellent  edu-  ecclesiastics  per  Eusebium  descriptse  auctore  Hay- 
cation,  which  brought  his  intellectual  powers  to  an  mone"  (Ha«enau,  1631);  "SaloniiDialogi duo"  (ibid., 
early  maturitjr,  enabling  him  to  matriculate  at  the  1632);  Pothonis,  "De  statu  domus  Dei"  and  "De 
University  of  Tubingen  13  January,  1614.  and  take  magnddomo  sapienti»"  (ibid.,  1632). 
his  degree  as  Blaster  of  Arts  in  1617.  About  this  Johann  Ludwig  Brassicanus^  younger  brother  of 
time  he  first  gave  evidence  of  his  fertile  poetic  Johann  Alexander  (b.  at  Tiibmgen,  1509;  d.  at 
powers,  and  in  1618  he  received  the  title  of  Poeta  et  Vienna,  3  June,  1649)  went  to  Vienna  with  his 
orator  laureattis.  His  coronation  as  poet  must  have  brother  in  1524  and  likewise  won  distinction  both  as 
taken  place  early  m  1618,  Emperor  Maximilian  at  a  philologist  and  jurist.  He  spent  some  time  in  the 
the  same  time  granting  him  a  coat  of  arms.  The  service  of  Sigmund  von  Herberstein  and  Nicolaus 
greatest  humanists  of  the  time  kept  in  correspondence  Olah,  and  obtained  the  title  of  court  historiograp>her 
with  Brassicanus,  and  are  loud  in  praise  of  his  in-  of  the  Roman  King,  after  which  he  studied  law  at 
tellectual  powers.  He  lectured  for  a  short  time  before  Heidelbere  (after  1632).  Having  been  professor  of 
the  Faculty  of  Arts  on  the  Latin  poets|  he  also  edited  Greek  in  Vienna  for  a  short  time  (1634)  and  likewise 
the  eclogues  of  Calpumius  and  Nemesianus  which  he  in  Padua,  where  in  1536  he  was  made  doctor  ittris,  he 
had  discovered.  When,  after  Bebel's  death  (1616).  a  was  appointed  professor  of  the  Institutes  at  Vienna 
reaction  once  more  set  in  against  humani«n,  ne  in  1637,  and  later  professor  of  canon  law.  King 
availed  himself  of  the  first  opportimity  to  absent  Ferdinand  summonea  him  to  his  council,  at  the  same 
himself  temporarily  from  the  scene  of  his  former  time  granting  him  letters  patent  of  nobility  and  a 
labours.  In  1619  he  attached  himself  to  the  suite  of  coat  of  arms.  He  was  twice  rector  of  the  university 
the  royal  orator  Maximilian  von  Bergen,  who  was  and  four  times  dean.  In  1544  he  was  made  provincial 
sent  on  various  diplomatic  missions  oy  the  king,  superintendent,  achieving  considerable  reputation  as 
After  a  sojourn  in  the  Netherlands  (1520)  Brassicanus  a  public  official.  He  seldom  wrote  anything  for 
returned  to  Tiibingen  (1521)  to  pursue  his  study  of  publication,  and  left  only  a  few  addresses  and 
law  in  connexion  with  his  work  as  a  teacher.    In  this  treatises  on  legal  subjects. 

way  he  was  brought  into  intimate  relations  with  ^Th«  best  Bource  of  information   for  Joh^n  Alonnder 

Po^fiiinniilo      ♦Ko    iiii.{a4    r,f    T^oalo        T) Am/^tr^ntv    f^  BrasBicanuB  18  hifl  letters,  most  of  which  are  still  unpublished 

Oantlimcula.    the    jurist    of    Kasle.       Kemovmg    to  (imperial  Libmry  of  Vienna,  ood.  9705  and  9737).  iike^rise  a 

Ingolstadt,  he  received  there  the  degree  of  Doctor  volume  of  collected  letters  in  the  Munich  Library;  extracts 

of  Laws,  also  succeeding  Reuchlin  in  the  important  ffom   both   by   HoBAwrra   in  ^itowyafcericfcte-     derWiai^ 

chair  of  Dhilolojy  (1522).    His  position  in  this  strong-  ^^"'f ^'as^'^T-  ci'^Ik"*GSS(^  i^m^ 

hold  of  Catholicity,  however,  soon  became  untenable,  i/n»v.,  ill,  126-135;  Kwk,  Oesch.  der  kaiseHidun  Univ.  Wien 

as  he,  like  so  many  orthodox  minds  of  the  time  who  (Vien^  1864),  I,  Pt.  II,  139;  DdLLiNOER,  D^  Reformation^  I, 

openly  sympathized  with  the  reforming  activities  of  Sr*'(!5''a."\.J^liS"i9Sl-).T  ^S  ^^^iJiTT. 

Luther,  was  suspected  of  being  a  confirmed  Lutheran.  Schradf,  NachtrUpe  f supplements]  nan  S.  Band  von  J.  Aaek- 

At  this  juncture  he  found  friends  ready  to  assist  him,  bacKa  Oefch.der  Umv.  Wien  (Vijwana,  1898),  43-1  g;  Hkikmb. 

in  Johann  Faber  and  Johann  Gamers,  who  worked  If^i^*^;  [jf^       TiUnnoen  vor  der  Reformation 
zealously  for  his  appointment  to  the  University  of  '       '  Joseph  Sauer. 

Vienna,  and  whose  mfluence  helped  to  give  a  more 

orthodox  tone  to  his  opinions  on  religious  questions.  BrauUo,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Saragpssa,  date  of 
In  1524  he  was  called  to  the  University  of  Vienna  as  birth  unknown:  d.  at  Saragossa  c.  651.  In  631  he 
professor  of  rhetoric,  next  receiving  the  professorship  succeeded  his  brother  John,  whose  archdeacon  he 
of  the  laws  of  the  Empire,  and  not  till  1528  the  had  been,  in  the  episcopal  See  of  Saragossa.  His  in- 
coveted  chair  of  Greek  literature,  in  addition  to  fluence  extended  not  only  to  the  bishops,  but  also  to 
which  he  still  retained  that  of  jurisprudence.  His  the  Kings  of  Spain.  In  one  of  his  letters  (no.  xxxvii) 
disapproval  of  the  Lutheran  movement  was  now  he  m-ged  King  Ghindaswinth  to  appoint  a  oo-regent 
most  pronounced,  partially  as  a  result  of  a  more  in  the  person  of  his  son  Receswintn.  To  his  insist- 
profound  study  of  the  Church  Fathers;  he  was  ence  with  his  friend  Isidore  of  Seville,  is  due  the  in- 
particularly  exercised  over  the  disastrous  influence  ception  and  completion  of  the  latter's  "Libri  Ety- 
of  Lutheranism  on  educational  activities.  On  the  mologiarum".  Braulio  was  present  at  the  synods 
appearance  of  the  Turks  before  Vienna  (1529)  he  fled  held  m  Toledo  in  633, 636^  and  638.  The  members  of 
to  nis  native  city,  where  he  remained  for  a  consider-  the  last-mentioned  council  selected  him  to  write  an 
able  period  of  time.  The  succeeding  years  are  marked  answer  to  Pope  Honorius  I,  who  had  reproached  the 
by  his  editions  of  the  Fathers  and  tne  classics.  Often  Spanish  bishops  with  ne^igence  in  uie  ^rform- 
in  poor  health,  he  died  at  the  prime  of  life,  leaving  ance  of  their  pastoral  duties.  Braulio  in  ms  letter 
only  a  venr  extensive  library,  as  his  material  re-  (no.  xxi)  cleverly  and  fearlessly  defended  the  con- 
sources had  at  all  times  been  meagre.  His  writings  duct  of  the  Spanish  episcopate.  Towards  the  eiKl 
give  no  clear  conception  of  his  intellectual  importance  of  his  life,  he  complained  bitterly  of  the  loss  of  his 
which  his  contemporaries  found  so  noteworthy,  eyesight.  He  was  buried  in  the  church  of  Nueslia 
Amon^  his  works  of  independent  authorship  are:  Sefiora  Merced  del  Pilar,  where  his  tomb  was  dis- 
^'Ch^tio   ad   principes   post   obitum   Maximiliani"  covered  in  1290.    His  feast  is  celebrated  in  Spain 


B&AUir  745  BRAZIL 

OD  18  March,  while  the  Roman  Martyrology  has  it  li^ous   foundations   and   monastic   houses   of   the 

on  the  26th.  Diocese  of  Augsburg,  to  the  diocesan  archives. 

Braulio  is  the  author  (1)  of  a  life  of  St.  Emilian         Lindner,   Die  SehnftaUUer  u.a,v).  des  Benediktmer-Ordent 

(.Er^imus  Cucullatus  or  ^  MiUan  de  la  Cogolla)  tJtJf^J'^rdit^liaiJL'^^l  ^'^"""''-  "^^'' 
a  pnest  of  the  Diocese  of  Tunasso,  now  Tarazona,  and  Joseph  Lins. 

the  writer  of  a  hymn  in  honour  of  the  same  saint. 

(2)  A  collection  of  forty-four  letters,  of  which  there       Bravo,  Francisco,  as  far  as  known,  author  of 

is  no  mention  in  antiquity,  was  discovered  in  the  the  first  book  on  medicine  printed  in  America.     His 

eighteenth   century  in   the   Spanish   city  of  Leon.  "Opera  Medicinaiia  etc.  (Authore   Francisco  Brauo 

They  form  a  valuable  addition  to  our  knowledge  of  Orsunensi  doctore  Mexican©  medico) "  was  published 

the  history  of  ^ain  imder  the  Visigoths  and  were  at  Mexico,  1570.    Three  years  before,  Dr.  Pedrarias 

first  published  in  the  "Espafia  Sagrada"  of  Florez  de  Benavides  had  published  his  "Secretos  de  Chirur- 

(XXX,  1775).     (3)  The  division  and  titles  of  the  gfa",  at  Valladolid   in  Spain,  and  while  the  latter 

"Etymologiarum  Libri  20"  of  St.   Isidore  and  a  work  is  invaluable   for   the   knowledge  of   Indian 

eulogistic  notice  of  the  latter's  life,  together  with  an  medicinal  practices,  and  is  the  earhest  book  on  these 

enumeration  of  his  writings,  are  also  Braulio's  work,  topics  known  to  have  been  published,  the  work  of 

This  notice  and  catalogue  he  added  to  the  ''De  Dr.  Bravo  has  the  merit  of  oeing  the  first  medical 

Viiis  Illustribus"  of  Isidore.    It  is  found  printed  in  treatise  printed  in  America.    The  first  regular  physi- 

Migne,  P.  L.  fLXXXI,  15-17).    (4)  Braulio's  author-  cian  who  came  to  Mexico  appears  to  have  been  a 

ship  of  the  "Acts  of  the  Martyrs  of  Saragossa''  is  Dr.  Olivarez,  although  surgeon-barbers   and    oth^r 

usually  admitted.     He  may  also  have  written  the  "healers    and    curers"    are    mentioned    as    having 

"Passio  S.  LeocadifiB".     His  works  are  accessible  in  already  practised  with  Cortez.     Strict  medical  regu- 

P.  L.,  LXXX,  639-720.  lations  were  established  by  the  municipal  coimcil  of 

Gamhj  KvxhenoeMch.  von  Span  (Ratisbon.  1862-79),  I.  320-  the  city  of  Mexico  in  1527,  and  extended  to  the 

'^!t^}hnV.1^A%^t^.J^)^'^.l%2y^.  apothecaries    in    1529     Althoutjh    the    faculty    of 

Bod.  (1906).  XXIV.  153.  xt    a   \xr^Tivi»  medicme  at  the  Umversity  of  Mexico  was  not  founded 

IN.  A.  WEBER.  ^^y   jg^g^  ^^^  "Doctore  in  Medicine"   were  re- 

Bratm,   Placidus,    a   Bavarian    historian,  b.  at  ceived  at  that  institution  as  early  as  1553.    Dr. 

Peiting  near  Schongau  in  Upper  Bavaria,  11  Febru-  Benavides  was  a  native  of  Toro  in  Spain  and  came 

uary,  1756;  d.  at  Augsburg,  23  October,  1829.     At  to  Honduras  about  the  year  1550.    Thence  he  went 

thirteen  he  went  as  a  choir-boy  of  the  Benedictine  to  Mexico  and  returned  to  Spain,  after  having  di- 

Abbey  of  Saints  Ulrich  and  Atra  in  Augsburg,  and  rected  for  eight  yeare  the  hospital  "  del  Amor  de 

was  a  pupil  for  six  yeare  in  the  Jesuit  gymnasium  of  Dios  "  in  the  city  of  Mexico.     Ot  Dr.  Bravo  it  is  only 

the  same  city.     He  entered  the  Abbey  ofSaints  Ulrich  known  that  he  was  a  native  of  Ossuna,  and  began 

and  Afra  as  a  novice,  13  May,  1775,  and  was  ordained  to  practice  at  Sevilla  in  1553.     He  came  to  Mexico 

f)riest,  18  September,  1779.    In  1785  he  was  made  head  between  that  year  and  1570.    The  date  and  place  of 

ibrarian  of  the  abbey.     He  arranged  and  cataloged  his  death  are  not  known. 

the  library  and  made  known  to  scholare  the  ranties  ,  Mendoza,  HUtoria  del  gran  Reynode  ChifMiAntyrerp,  1696). 

it  mntAinpH  fhroiiirh  thi»  finp  dpflorintinnR  ho  iravA  of  't^nerarto  del  NuevoMundo  in:  Gonzalez  Davila.  Teatro  ecUh 

It  contamea  tnrougn  tne  nne  aescnpuons  ne  gave  oi  g^^^ico,  etc.  (Mexico.  1649);  Ycazbalceta,  Bibliografia  mexi- 

Its  early  pnnted  books  and  manuscnpts  m  two  works  cana  (Mexico,  1886):  Mendibta,  HUtoria  edendsHca  Indiana, 

which  he  published  while  librarian.     These  publica-  (1699,  and  published  at  M«dcp,  1870);  Torquemada,  Afo- 

tions  were:  "Notida  historico-litteraria  de  iTbris  ab  iS?ti"&J^- ^ih2'Si?^-ph^l.^1  {Sll^'co"""""" 
artis  typographicffi  inventione  usque  ad  annum  1479  Xd^  F,  Bandelier. 

impressis,  in  bibliothecA  monasterii  ad  SS.  Udalri- 

cum  et  Afram  August®  extantibus.  Pare  I:  Augs.  Braiil,  The  Untfed  States  op. — ^A  vast  republic 
Vindel.  1788.  Pare  II:  Notitia  .  .  .  libros  complec-  of  central  South  America  covering  an  area  larger 
tens  ab  anno  1480  usque  ad  annum  1500  inclusive  than  that  of  the  United  States  of  America  (if  Alaska 
impresses.  Ibidem,  1789"  and  "Notitia Historico-lit-  and  the  Philippines  are  not  included).  It  extends 
teraria  de  codicibus  manuscriptis  in  bibliothecd  liberi  from  6°  N.  to  33®  41'  S.  latitude,  and  from  35®  to 
ac  imp)erialis  monasterii  O.  S.  Benedicti  ad  SS.  73®  W.  longitude.  Its  greatest  length  is  2,500  miles. 
Udalricum  et  Afram  extantibus.  Aug.  Vindel.,  6  its  greatest  breadth  2,600  miles,  and  it  has  an  area  ot 
partes,  1791-1796".  After  the  abbey  was  dissolved,  3,218,130  square  miles.  It  bordere  every  other 
and  its  building  converted  into  a  barrack  in  1806,  country  on  the  continent  of  South  America  except 
Braun  lived  with  a  number  of  fellow-membere  of  the  Chile,  being  bounded  on  the  north  by  Venezuela, 
order  in  a  house  near  the  church  of  St.  Ulrich.  British,  Dutch,  and  French  Guiana,  and  the  Atlantic 
In  these  new  surroundings  he  endeavoured  to  ob-  Ocean,  on  the  east  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  on  the 
serve  the  rules  of  the  order  as  far  as  possible,  gave  south  by  Uruguay  and  the  Ar^ntine  Republic,  and 
assistance  in  pastoral  work,  and  devoted  himself  to  on  the  west  by  Paraguay,  Bolivia,  Peru,  and  Ecuador, 
the  study  of  the  history  of  the  Diocese  of  Augsbui^g  Brazil  lies  entirely  east  of  the  Andean  mountain 
and  its  suppressed  monastic  foundations.  He  was  system.  The  basin  of  the  Amazon  occupies  the 
made  a  foreign  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  northern  and  western  portion  of  the  country,  and 
of  Munich,  3  August,  1808,  which  honour  he  ac-  nearly  the  whole  of  this  section  is  a  vast  plain,  called 
cepted,  but  he  declined  to  settle  in  Munich.  Among  the  SelvaSj  which  is,  for  the  most  part,  less  than 
his  historical  writings  the  following  are  still  valu-  500  feet  above  sea  level,  and  never  exceeds  1,000 
able:  "Geschichte  der  Bischofe  von  Augsburg,  feet.  The  southern  and  eastern  parts  are  plateaux, 
chronologisch  und  diplomatisch  verfasst"  (4  vols.,  rising  to  heights  of  from  2,000  to  4,000  feet.  Upon 
Au^bu^,  1813-15);  ''Codex  diplomaticus  monas-  these  plateaux  are  situated  many  moimtain  ranges, 
tern  S.  Udalrici  et  Afrse  notis  illustratus",  issued  as  (This  is  said  to  be  geologically  the  oldest  part  of  the 
volumes  XXII  and  XXIII  of  the  "Monumenta  continent.)  The  mountain  ranges  of  Brazil  may  be 
Boica",  (Munich  1814-15);  "Geschichte  der  Kirche  grouped  into  three  systems,  the  most  important  of 
\md  des  Stif tes  der  hll.  Ulrich  und  Afra  in  Augsburg"  whicn  is  the  Serra  do  Mar,  which  begins  immediately 
(Augsburg,  1817);  "  Historisch-topographiscne  Be-  north  of  the  bay  of  Rio  Janeiro^  where  the  Organ 
schreibung  der  DiOcese  Augsburg^',  2  vols.  (Aues-  mountains  rise  to  7,500  feet.  This  forms  the  south- 
burg,  1823);  "Die  Domkirche  zu  Augsburg  und  der  eastern  slope  of  the  plateau  to  the  narrow  strip  of 
h6here  und  niedere  Klerus  an  derselben "  (Augsburg,  coast  along  the  Atlantic.  In  this  system,  to  the  west 
1829).  Braun  bequeathed  his  manuscripts,  which  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  is  the  highest  peak  in  Brazil, 
wen*  concerned  chiefly  with  the  history  of  the  re-  Itatiaia,  which  has  a  height  of  nearly  10,000  feet. 


BRAZIL                                 746  B&AZn. 

Connecting  with  this  range  near  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  Brazil  (1723)  the  total  yield  has  been  12,000,000 

stretching  northward,  is  the  Serra  Central,  while  a  carats,  valued  at  $100,000,000.     Besides  gold  and 

third  system  stretches  northwestwards,  separating  diamonds,  Brazil  is  rich  in  iron,  lead,  copper,  zinc, 

the  headwaters  of  the  S^  Francisco  and  Tocantins  manganese,  and  quicksilver,  but  the  mining  of  these 

Rivers  from  those  of  the  Parand.  is  impeded  by  the  lack  of  cheap  fuel  and  labour. 

The  Atlantic  coast  line  of  the  republic  is  about  Manufactures. — ^These  are  generally  on  a  com- 

4,000  miles  long.    North  of  Cape  St.  Koque  it  is  low,  paratively  small  scale.    The  most  important  is  the 

and  the  slope  towards  the  sea  is  gradual,  but  to  the  production  of  cotton  goods,  especially  in  the  northern 

south  of  this  cape  the  coast  line  is  more  elevated,  the  cities.    In  1899  there  were  134  cotton  factories  within 

slope  to  the  sea  is  steeper,  and  in  the  extreme  south  the  republic.     Boots,  shoes,  cord,  t^dne,  hempen 

it  becomes  abrupt.    The  northern  coast  is  but  little  cloths  for  cofifee  sacks,  furniture,  saddles,  and  hats 

broken,  thus  having  few  good  harbours  and  not  many  are  also  manufactured. 

islands,  but  along  the  southern  coast  there  are  many  Railroads  and  Transportation. — ^Railway  en- 
fine  harbours.  The  system  of  rivers  is  perhaps  im-  terprise  has  made  some  little  progress.  In  1899  there 
equalled  for  their  number  and  the  length  of  their  were  8723  miles  of  railroad  m  operation,  4992  miles 
courses  in  any  part  of  the  world.  Thev  are  especially  in  course  of  construction,  and  8440  miles  projected, 
important  in  the  north  of  Brazil,  wnere  they  con-  The  most  complete  railroad  systems  are  in  the  coffee 
stitute  the  chief  means  of  travel  through  a  region  regions  of  Silo  Paulo,  Minas  Geraes,  and  Rio  de 
rich  in  natural  resources.  Owing  to  the  copious  rain-  Janeiro.  A  considerable  proportion  of  these  roads 
fall,  most  Brazilian  rivers  are  navigable  tnroughout  was  built  with  a  government  guarantee  of  interest 
the  year.  The  principal  ones  are  the  Amazon,  which  on  the  outlay.  The  rivers  have  steam  navigation 
18^2500  miles  long  ana  is  navigable  throughout  almost  through  many  miles  of  their  courses,  and  there  are 
its  whole  length,  the  Tocantins,  and  the  S&o  Fran-  severS  Brazilian  lines  of  coasting  steainers. 
Cisco.  Commerce. — ^The  foreign  commerce  of  Brazil    b 

Climate. — Covering  so  large  an  extent  of  territory,  quite  large  and  is  increasing  yearly.  Coffee  isr  the 
Brazil  naturally  has  variations  of  climate.  In  the  staple  article  of  commerce,  constituting  about  sixty 
lowlands  of  the  north,  which  are  within  the  tropics,  per  cent  of  the  total  exports.  Most  of  it  finds  a  mar- 
there  is  great  heat,  and  the  year  is  divided  between  ket  in  the  United  States.  Sugar  is  second  in  im- 
the  rainy  and  dry  seasons  of  tropical  regions.  The  portance,  and  then  come  rubber,  cotton,  hides,  to- 
rainy  season  begins  in  December  or  January  and  lasts  bacco,  dye  and  cabinet  woods,  gold,  and  diamonds, 
until  May  or  June.  The  rest  of  the  year  is  generally  The  imports  consist  of  all  kinds  of  manufactured 
dry.  However,  dry  periods  frequently  occur  during  goods,  cotton  and  woollen  clothing,  machinery,  iron- 
the  rainy  season,  and  rainy  periods  during  the  dry  ware,  coal,  petroleum,  and  foodstuffs.  Great  Britain 
season.  In  the  highlands  of  the  central  ana  southern  controls  about  forty  per  cent  of  the  import  trade, 
portions  there  are  four  fairly  well  marked  seasons.  Germany  and  France  are  next  in  importance,  and  the 
The  vast  Amazon  basin  is  remarkable  for  its  small  United  States  next. 

seasonal  variation  of  temjxirature;  the  thermometer  Population. — ^The  population  of  Brazil,  according 

rarely  rises  above  90°  or  falls  belotv  75°.    In  the  two  to  the  official  returns  of  1890,  was  14,333,915.     A 

southernmost  States,  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  and  SEo  later  census,  taken  in  1900,  was  rejected  by  the  legis- 

Paulo,  the  temperature  at  times  goes  to  the  freezing  lature  as  inaccurate.     The  population  in  1903  ac- 

point,  especially  in  the  highlands.     The  prevailing  cording  to  an   unofficial   estimate  was   19,500,000. 

winds  are  the  trade  winds  from  the  east.    These  are  According  to  the  official  figures  of  1890,  there  were 

the  strongest  in  the  valley  of  the  Amazon  from  July  14,179,615  Catholics;  143,743  Protestants;    3300  of 

to  November,  and  thus  the  heat  of  the  dry  season  is  other  creeds;  and  7257  who  professed  no  religion.    It 

somewhat    mitigated.      The    country    is    generally  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  country  is  overwhelmingly 

healthful,  with  the  exception  of  the  marshy  oanks  of  Catholic.    The  population  is  composed  of:  (1)  people 

some  of  the  rivers,  the  swamps,  and  regions  where  of  pure  Portuguese  blood,  who  form  a  lar^  per- 

drainage  is  poor;  in  these  places  intermittent  fevers  centage  of  the  total;  (2)  full  negroes;  (3)  native  In- 

are  very  common.     Yellow  fever  has  appeared  at  dians;  (4)  people  of  mixed  race  (the  most  numerous 

times,  but  has  always  been  confined  to  the  coast.  of  all);  and  (5)  a  few  European  immigrants.     The 

Agriculture. — Brazil  has  extensive  tracts  of  Portuguese  portion  of  the  population,  as  they  con- 
fertile  land,  especially  along  the  Amazon  and  in  the  stitute  the  wealthy  and  educated  class,  have  made 
south-eastern  portion;  but  the  greater  part  of  the  Portuguese  the  national  languaj^.  Most  of  the  semi- 
plateaux  is  fit  only  for  grazing.  By  far  the  most  civilized  Indians,  particularly  in  the  eastern  States, 
important  product  is  coffee,  of  which  Brazil  produces  speak  the  lingua  gercUy  a  language  adapted  by  the 
more  than  any  other  country  in  the  world.     The  Jesuit  missionaries  from  the  original  language  of  the 

grincipal  coffee  regions  are  Sao  Paulo,  Minas  Geraes,  Tupinambaras,  one  of  the  largest  of  the  eastern 

Ispirito  Santo,  and  Rio  de  Janeiro.    Sugar,  the  next  tribes.    There  are  many  different  tribes,  among  which 

product  in  importance,  is  extensively  produced  in  the  chief  are  the  Tupi,  the  Guarany,  and  the  Amagua. 

remambuco,  Bahia,  and  Ceara,  tobacco  in  Bahia,  Government. — Brazil    is    a   federal    republic    of 

and  cocoa  in  the  lower  Amazon.    Maize,  beans,  rice,  twenty  States,  with  a  Federal  District.    The  constitu- 

and  tropical  fruits  and  vegetables  are  grown,  but  tion  is  modelled  upon  that  of  the  United  States.    TTie 

more  for  home  consumption  than  for  export.  legislative  power  is  vested  in  the  president  of  the 

Mineral  Resources. — In  mineral  resources  Brazil  republic  and   a  national  congress  consisting   of  a 

is  probably  the  richest  country  in  the*  world,  but  Senate  and  a  House  of  Representatives.    The  Senate 

scarcity  of  population  and  capital  have  retarded  its  consists  of  63  members,  three  from  each  State  and 

progress.    It  is  rich  in  gold  and  diamonds,  especially  the  Federal  District,  elected  directly  by  the  people 

the  State  of  Minas  Geraes,  which  is  to  Brazil  more  for  a  period  of  nine  years.     The  House  of  Repire- 

than  California  and  Pennsylvania  together  are  to  sentatives  consists  of  a  number  of  members  elected 

the  United  States.     Gold-mining  is  carried  on  to  a  by  the  people  for  a  term  of  three  years,  one  repre- 

limited  extent  in  Minas  Geraes  and  Bahia,  chiefly  sentative  for  each  70,000  inhabitsjits,  but  witn  a 

with  British  capital.    These  same  two  states  were  at  minimum  membership  of  four  for  any  State.     All 

one  time  the  world's  chief  producers  of  diamonds,  w^ho  are  legally  citizens  of  the  republic  exercise  the 

but  the  discovery  of  the  South  African  mines  has  ri^ht  to  vote,  except  beggars,  illiterates,  soldiers  re- 

greatly   depreciated    the   Brazilian   product,   which  ceiving  pay,  and  those  who  for  any  reason  may  have 

amounts  to  about  40,000  carats  per  year,  and  it  is  lost  their  rights  as  citizens.    The  executive  authori^ 

estimated  that  since  the  discovery  of  diamonds  in  is  exercisea  by  the  president,  or  in  his  absence  or 


is 

h 


BRAZIL  747  BUZZL 

disabili^,  a  vice-preudeut.  The  president  is  elected  training  of  the  people,  for  by  its  terms,  neither  party 
by  popular  vote  for  a  term  of  four  years,  and  he  can-  was  permitted  to  many  again  during  the  life  of  the 
not  serve  for  two  successive  terms.    He  la  aaaistcd  by     other. 

a  cabinet,  the  members  of  which  he  appoints  or  re-  The  conversion  of  Brazil,  beginning  about  the  mid- 
moves  at  will.  The  cabinet  ministers  preside  over  die  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  brought  about  by 
the  following  six  departments:  (1)  finance;  (2)  war;  the  Jesuits,  after  wliom  came  the  Franciscans,  and 
(3)  industry,  railways,  and  public  works;  (4)  in-  these  were  followed  by  the  Benedictines.  The  coun- 
terior  and  justice;  (5)  Navy;  (6)  foreign  affairs.  The  try  to-day  is  almost  entirely  Catholic.  Of  the  nine- 
preeideat,  by  virtue  of  his  office,  is  in  supreme  com-  teen  and  a  half  millions,  over  eighteen  millions  are 
inand  of  the  Army  and  Navy.  He  poascHscs  the  veto  of  the  Catholic  faith.  There  are  5127  churches  and 
power  over  l^slatioa,  but  his  vehi  may  be  over-  chapels,  2007  secular  and  559  regular  clergy;  20S3 
ruled  by  a  two-tbirde  vote  of  both  Ilouate.  The  nuns  engaged  in  hospitals  and'^ucationaj  instttu- 
judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  federal  supreme  court  tions;  524  schools,  12  large  and  17  small  seminaries, 
consisting  of  fifteen  members  who  are  appointed  for  Ecclesiastical  Organization. — The  entire  re- 
life  by  the  preeident  with  the  approval  ol  the  Senate.  puUic  is  divided  into  the  two  ecclesiastica!  provinces  . 
lie  States  enjoy  a  greater  measure  of  autonomy  of  SSo  Salvador  da  Bahia  and  Sao  Sabastito  (Rio  de 
than  those  of  the  Umted  States  of  North  America.  Janeiro),  Each  province  containioK  nine  sidTrogan 
They  are  governed  by  their  own  legislatures  and  dioceses,  as  follows:  Pnmtux  of  Sao  Saieador  da 
governors  and  have  their  own  judicial  systems. 
Each  State  is  divided  Into  municipalities;  each  mu- 
nicipality controlled  by  a  council  and  a  prefect. 

Rrliqion. — Under  the  Empire  the  Catholic  was 
the  only  recomiied  Church,  and  it  was  supported  by 
the  States.  Other  religions  were  tolerat«l,  but  the 
Catholio  waa  the  official  church.  After  the  revolu' 
tion  of  1889,  how- 
ever, the  separa- 
tion of  '  Church 
and  State  was  de- 
creed. The  Pro- 
visional Govern- 
ment issued,  7 
January,  1890,  a 
decree  proclaim- 
ing the  separa-- 
tion  of  Church 
and  State,  guBr> 
anteeing  freedom 
of  worsnip,  and 
declaring  that  no 
church  thereafter 
should  be  subsid- 
ized by  the  gov^ 

emmeiit,    nor   In  ,^  „  „ 

any  way   receive  Cb""''  «  B""™'  ^"^ 

support    either    Bahia    (diocese,  created    1552,    archidocese    1676); 

from  the   federal     suffragan   dioceses   of  Olinda   (1676);   S9o   Luis  do 

government      or    MaraiiSo    (1676);    Belem   do   Pari    (1719);   Goya* 

from  those  of  the     (1826);  Fortaleia,  or  Cear4   (1854);  Manaos  (1893); 

individual  States.     Parahyba,   (1893);   Alagoas   (1901);   Piauhy   (1902). 

By  the  terms  of    Province  of  SSo  SdiastiSo  (diocese  created  1675,  arcb- 

thisdccree  public     diocese  1893);   suffragan  diocesea  of  Cuyabd,  (1745); 

officere  were  for-    Marianna   (1745);   ^io  Paulo  (1745);  SSo  Pedro  do 

bidden   te   intei-     Rio  Grande  do  Sul  (1848);  DIamantina  (1854);  Curi- 

fere  in   any  way    tyba  do  ParanS  (1893);   Petropolis  (1893);  Espirito 

with   the   forma-     Santo  (1896);  Porto  Alegre   (1900).     Brazil  has  re- 

Cmjant  or  the  Candblabia  (Poam.    *•"'*  "^    religious     celved  a  great  honour  at  the  hands  of  the  present 

cation),  Rio  de  Jakhiro  societies,   and    it     pope,  that  of  having  the  fimt  South  American  cardi- 

was   declared    to     naf  ever  nominated  chosen  among  its  clergy. 

be  unlawful  to  stir  up  retinous  dissension  among  the         Education. — Durine  the  three  centuries  of  colonial 

people.    Everyreliglousbody  was  at  liberty  to  worship     rule.  Brazil  made  verylittle  progress  in  the  education 

according  to  ita  own  rites,  wnile  each  individual  could     of  lis  people.     There  were  few  schools  except  the 

live  according  to  his  belief,  and  unite  in  societies  with     Jesuit   colleges,   and   whatever   libraries  there   were 

others,  and  build  churches  if  he  chose.    The  salaries     belonged  to  private  individuals.    The  wealthy  classes 

of  those  in  the  service  of  the  Church  were  ordered  to     sent  their  children  to  Portugal  to  study,  while  those 

be  discontinued  at  the  expiration  of  a  year.     The     who  eoujd  not  bear  this  expense  remained  Ignorant. 

existing  churchyards  were  secularized,  and  the  ques-    After  the  declaration  of  Independence,  in  1822,  con- 

tion  of  the  establishment  of  new  cemeteries  was  left    ditions  were  somewhat  improved,  but  the  educational 

in  the  hands  of  individual  commimitles.     Religious     system  waa  so  crude  that  little  progress  was  made  un- 

bodies,  however,  could  choose  separate  burial  places,     til    1854,   when   the   whole   school   system   was   re- 

though  always  subject  to   the  laws.     The   existing    organized.     Since  then  there  has  been  good  progreaa 

religious  holidays,  except  Sunday,  were  abolished  by     in  education,  literature,  and  science,  eBf>ccially  in  the 

another  decree,  and  nine  new  ones  established  com-     large  cities.     In  the  interior  education  is  in  a  back- 

memorating  secular  events.     Later,  a  civil  marriage     ward  state,  owing  to  the  isolation  of  the  inhabitants, 

law  was  passed,  somewhat  resembling  those  of  the     and  to  lack  of  facilities  of  communication.     For  this 

United  States  and  France,  and  also  a  divorce  law.     reason    the   percentage   of   illiteracy   for   the   entire 

This  latter,  however,  bore  the  stamp  of  the  religious    country  remains  high  (above  34%).    At  the  present 


time  BraaQ  has  a  s^^tem  of  elementaiy,  sMondary, 
and  bi^er  education.    Congress  haa  the  sole  power  to 
creata  institutiooB  of  higher  instruction  and  second- 
aiy,  or  hish-echool,  education  throughout  the  coun- 
try, as  well  as  of  primary  education  in  the  Federal 
District.    The  Constitution  provides  that  instruction 
given  in  public  institutions  shall  be  secular,  and  that 
primary  education  be  free  and  at  the  expense  of  the 
States  and  municipalities.     In  most  of  the  States 
ptiiaary  education  is  compulsory.    The  schools  are 
generally  well  equipped  with  libraries,  laboratories, 
and    appliances    and   furniture   of   dinerent   kinds. 
The  pnmary  schools   are   divided   into  first-  and 
second-grade  schools.     Secondary  education  is  also 
organiied  on  a  good  basis.    At  the  head  of  these 
secondary  schools  stands  the  Oymnatio  Nacional  at 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  which  was  formerly  Pedro  II  College. 
The  national  institutions  devoted  to  the  higher,  or 
universitT,  education  are:  two  law  schools  at  Pernam- 
buco  and  S&o  Paulo;  two  medical  schools  at  Rio  de 
Janeiro  and  Bahia;  a  polytechnic  school  at  Rio  de 
Janeiro;  a  mining  school  at  Ouro  Preto,  in  the  State 
of  Minas  Geraea;  a  school  of  fine  arte  at  Rio  de 
Janeiro.    There  are  some  excellent  public  libraries 
throughout  the  country,  the  largest  being  the  Na- 
tional Library  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  which  oontains 
235,000  printed  vol- 
umes, 182,000  man- 
UKripte,and  100,000 
ieonographical 
pieces.     This  insti- 
tution    waa    begun 
with  the    histoncal 
library  which  King 
John    VI     brought 
from   Portugal   and 
presented  to  Brazil, 
and  it  was  greatly 
augmented    by  the 
ejection     of   the 
great    Portuguese 
writer  Barbosa  Ma- 

HisTORY, — Braiil 

was  discovered  on 
the  26th  of  Janu- 
ary, 1500,  by  Vi- 
oente  Yanei  PiDidn. 
a  Spaniard  who  had 
been  a  companion 
of  Columbus.  Tw<t^ 
months  later  Dom  Hanoel,  King  of  Portugal,  litted 
out  a  squadron  for  a.  voyage  around  the  southern  end 
of  Africa  to  the  East  Indies  under  command  of 
Pedro  Alvarea  de  Cabral.  Contrary  winds,  however, 
drove  him  far  out  of  his  coiu^o,  and  after  drifting 
about  tor  some  time  he  came  upon  an  unknown  land. 
He  cast  anchor  in  a  haven  which  he  called  Porto 
S(«iu«,  on  Good  Friday,  24  April,  1500.  On  faster 
Sunday  an  altar  waa  erected,  Moss  was  celebrated, 
and  Cabral  formally  look  posBeaaion  of  the  country 
in  the  name  of  Portugal.  He  then  continued  on  his 
way  to  India,  but  first  dispatehing  one  of  his  ships  to 
Portugal  to  report  his  discovery.  Cabral  named  the 
newly  discovered  land  Vera  Crux  (the  land  of  the 
True  Croes),  but  the  king  in  notifying  the  sovereigns 
called  it  Santa  Cmt  (Holy  Cross).  Very  shortly 
thereafter  it  began  to  be  called  Brazil,  from  the  name 
of  a  wood  whicn  grew  in  that  region,  and  the  name 
has  been  retained  ever  since. 

Although  the  country  had  been  discovered  by  a 
Spaniard,  Spain  could  make  no  claim.  According  to 
the  Bull  of  Alexander  VI  (4  May,  1493)  the  dividing 
line  between  Spanish  and  Portuguese  poasessions  had 
been  fixed  at  a  meridian  100  leagues  west  of  Cape, 
V«de.  All  discoveries  east  of  this  line  were  to 
belong  to  Portugal;  those  west  of  it  to  Spain.    But 


in  the  ysar  following,  t^  Uie  Trea^  of  TotdesQla^ 
the  dividing  line  was  extended  to  370  leagues  west  of 
the  Cape  Verde  Islands,  and  Spain  was  thus  barred 
from  the  eastern  portion  of  South  Amra'ica.  In  order 
to  encourage  colonization,  grants,  or  "  captaincies ", 
were  given  to  prominent  Portuguese  who  were  willing 
to  settle  in  the  country.  The  grants  oomprisod  not 
less  than  fifty  leagues  of  sea  coast,  with  feudal  powers 
and  the  privilege  of  extending  their  possessions  as  far 
inland  as  the  grantees  desired.  Thus  nearly  the  entire 
Braxilian  coast  was  before  long  dotted  with  PortUr 

fiese  settlements  more  or  less  skilfully  administered. 
he  first  of  these  was  eeUblished  in  1532,  at  S.  Vicent«, 
within  the  present  State  of  S.  Paulo,  by  Hartinho 
Affonso  de  Sousa,  and  the  others  at  intervals  there- 
after. Cattle  and  sugarcane  were  imported  from 
Madeira,  and  the  systematic  cultivation  of  the  latter 

^But  these  early  settlers  had  great  troubles — with 
the  Spaniards,  who  sought  to  gain  a  foothold  east  of 
the  line  of  demarcation;  with  the  French,  who  were 
trying  to  eetaUisb  themselves  on  the  coast;  with  the 
natives  who  were  antagonistic  to  all  Europeans.  So 
that,  tor  their  '  ' 


the    ha 


of    . 


Public  BuitDmaa.  BXo  Pittlo 


Governor  General 
appointed  by  the 
Ctown.  The  first 
Governor  General 
was  Thomd  de 
Sousa,  who  came 
over  m  1547  and 
^aced  bis  capital  at 
Bahia.  The  Col- 
lege of  SSo  Paulo 
was  established  in 
Piratininga  soon 
after  the  arrival  of 
the  first  Bishop  of 
Brazil,  in  1552,  and 
of  a  number  of  the 
Jesuits  in  1553. 
These  first  miasion- 
aries  became  friend- 
ly with  the  na- 
tives, and  their  col- 


centre  of  influence. 
In  1555  Nicolas  Durand  de  Villegaignon,  aided  by 
Coligny,  the  French  Huguenot  leader,  settled  with  a 
few  Frenchmen  tfnalittic  island  in  the  bay  of  Rio  de 
Janeiro.  But  these  French  settlers  were  driven  away 
by  the  Portuguese  in  1560,  and  France  waa  ever  after 
unable  to  gain  a  foothold  in  Brazil.  Tiie  settlement, 
however,  was  made  permanent  by  the  Portuguea* 
who  gave  it  the  name  of  S&o  Sebastiflo,  and  to  thia 
day  Rio  de  Janehv  is  officially  called  SSa  SebastiAo 
do  Rio  de  Janeiro. 

From  15S0  to  1640,  Brazil,  as  a  dependency  of 
Portugal,  waa  in  the  hands  of  Spain,  and  during  the 
latter  part  of  this  period  Holland,  being  at  war  witii 
Spain,  eeixed  a  good  portion  of  the  country.  A  long 
struggle  between  Portugal  and  Holland  tor  the  po»- 
session  of  the  country  followed  later,  lasting  untQ 
1654,  when  the  Duteh  surrendered  the  places  th^ 
held,  and  the  Portuguese  were  rid  of  all  European 
rivals.  In  1763  the  capital  was  changed  to  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  and  the  Governor  was  givai  the  title  of 
Viceroy  of  Portugal. 

In  1807  Napoleon's  troops  invaded  Portugal,  with 
the  intention  of  seizing  the  royal  family.  The  prince 
regent,  Dom  Jo&o,  fled,  with  the  royal  family,  and 
imder  an  English  escort  set  sail  for  Brasil,  wh^  he 
was  "nthusiaaticaUy  received.    Here  Dom  JcAo  in- 


BBEAD                                 749  BBEAD 

stituted  several  reforms^  notable  among  which  vr&e  boundaries.    The  expedition  was  unsuccesifuly  and 

the  opening  of  all  Braziban  ports  to  the  commerce  of  for  ten  years  thereafter  Brazil  was  hampered  by 

the  world  and  the  decree  of  16  January,  1816,  de-  many   restrictions.     In    1864   an   outrage   against 

daring  Brazil  to  be  no  longer  a  colony,  but  an  integral  Brazil  on  ^e  part  of  Sefior  Lopez,  the  dictator  of 

part  of  the  Kingdom  of  Portugal.    Soon  after  this,  Paraguay,  precipitated  a  conflict  between  Brazil, 

the  prince  regent  succeeded  to  the  throne  as  Dom  Argentina,  and  Uruguay  on  one  side  and  Paraguay 

Jofto  VI.     Revolutionaiy  troubles  in  Portugal,  in  on  the  otner.    A  bitter  struggle  now  ensued,  Fara- 

1820,  making  it  necessary  for  Dom  JoSo  to  return  guay  offering  a  stubborn  resistance  which  ended  only 

thither,  he  appointed  his  son  Dom  Pedro,  a  younfi^  with  the  death  of  Lopez  in  battle  in  1870.    Brazil, 

man  of  twenty-three,  ''Lieutenant  to  the  King''  and  bearing  the  brunt  of  me  war  on  her  side,  lost  many 

set  sail  for  Portugal  in  1821.    From  that  time  the  thousands  of  men  and  a  vast  amoimt  of  money. 

Portuguese   Cortes    began    to   regard    Brazil    with  In  1871  the  death-blow  was  given  to  slaveiy  in 

anxiety;  Dom  Pedro  was  consider^  as  more  Brazil-  Brazil  by  a  decree  providing  that  every  child  there* 

ian  than  Portuguese.     Revolutionary  disturbances,  after  bom  of  slave  parents  should  be  uree.    Slavery 

moreover,  had  broken  out  in  several  of  the  provinces,  had  been  greatly  checked  since  the  decree  of  1863 

notably  in  Pemambuco  and  Bahia.    To  check  the  prohibiting  the  unportation  of  slaves,  so  that,  with 

growing   power   of    Brazil,   measures   were   passed  this  new  law  in  force,  it  was  not  long  before  slavery 

detrimental  to  her  interests,  and  tending  to  a  revival  came  to  an  end  in  the  county.    On  1  May,  1886,  the 

^f  colonial*  conditions.    As  the  Brazilian  members  of  Princess  Isabelle,  regent  of  Brazil  while  the  emperor 

the  Ck>rtes  were  greatly  in  the  minority,  their  resist-  was  in  Europe,  proclaimed  the  abolition  of  slavery, 

ance  could  not  be  effective.    Matters  came  to  a  crisis  The  fact  that  Dom  Pedro  reigned  for  neariy  fifty 

when  the  Ck>rtes  finally  ordered  Dom  Pedro  to  return  years  would  indicate  that  he  was  liberal-minded, 

to  Portugal.     The  Brazilians  rallied  and  besought  progressive,  and  enlightened,  and  that  he  ftraa  well 

him  to  imore  the  order.    Realizing  his  opportunity,  like^  by  the  people.    But  the  work  of  freemascmry 

Dom  Pedro  struck  the  first  blow  for  independence,  and  the  loss  the  planters  suffered  by  the  emancipa- 

his  decision  being  received  with  the  greatest  en-  tion  of  their  slaves  created  a  spirit  of  disaffection, 

thusiasm.    The  few  Portuguese  troops  stationed  in  The  outcome  was  that,  after  a  oloodless  revolution 

the  country  made  but  a  half-hearted  resistance,  and  (15  November,  1889)^  Dom  Pedro  was  deposed,  and  a 

on  the  12tn  of  October,  1822,  Dom  Pedro  was  pro-  Republic  was  proclaimed,  with  Qeneral  Deodoro  da 

claimed  Emperor  and  Perpetual  Defender  of  Brazil.  Fonseca  as  head  of  the  provisional  government.    A 

A  popular  assembly  was  convened  in  May,  1823,  decree  was  issued  continuing  the  imperial  civil  list 

and  a  message  from  the  emperor  was  read  proposing  and  grantini^  Dom  Pedro  a  subsidy  of  $2,600,000, 

many  liberal  ideas  to  be  embodied  in  the  forthcoming  both  of  which  offers  were  refused  by  him.    On  the  ioU 

constitution.     But  discontented  spirits  raised  such  Ibwins  day  (16  November)  Dom  Pedro  and  his  family 

bitter  opi)08ition  in  the  assembly  that  the  emperor  set  sau  for  Portugal.    The  new  Constitution,  modelled 

dissolvea  it.    He  later  appointed  a  committee  of  ten  upon  that  of  the  United  States,  was  promulgated 

to  draft  the  constitution,  and  it  was  finally  adopted  23  June,  1890,  and  in  February  of  the  following  year 

24  March,  1826.    Dom  Pedro's  popularity,  however.  General  Fonseca  was  elected  president  of  the  new 

soon  began  to  wane.    He  produced  the  impression  of  republic.    But  before  the  end  of  that  year  his  arbi« 

not  being  truly  Brazilian  at  hearty  by  his  employ-  trary  methods  precipitated  a  revolutionary  move^ 

ment  of  a  foreign  force,  by  his  continual  interference  ment  in  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  he  was  compelled  to 


ra^i 

Foreigners,  and  soon  they  were  in  open  rebellion,  by  tne  rebels,  but  the  revolution  collapsed  soon  after. 

After  vain  attempts  to  suppress  the  revolution,  the  In  1894  Peixoto  was  succeeded  by  Dr.  Prudente  de 

emperor  abdicated  (7  April,  1831)  in  favour  of  his  Moraes,  who  was  called  upon  to  face  still  another 

six-year-old   son,   Dom   Pedro   de  Alcantara,   and  uprising,  in  1897,  imder  tne  leadership  of  Antonio 

sailed  away  to  Portugal.  Conseilheiro.    After  a  few  months  this  trouble  also 

The  government  was  now  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  was  crushed.    In  1898  Dr.  C!ampos  S^es,  who  had 

regency,  consisting  at  first  of  three  members  and  been  active  in  republican  politics,  succeeded  to  the 

later  of  a  single  individual.    In  1840,  when  the  yoimg  presidential  chair:   Dr.  Francisco  Rodrigues  Alves 

emperor  had  reached  the  age  of  fifteen,  it  was  pro-  succeeded  him  16  November,  1902,  and  AffonsoPenna 

posed  by  those  who  had  become  disgusted  at  the  assumed  office  16  November,  1906. 
abuses  of  the  regency,  that  the  minority  of  Dom       Kiddee  and  Fr^xTCBER,  BrazQ  and  the  BnuUianM  (1867): 

Pedro  II  te  declared  exp^,  in  spite  of  the  f jjot  that  {f^^^ki^^rZ^Tkr^lkii-^^^-oISJ^ 

the  constitution  had  fixed  the  mmonty  of  the  em-  phyncal  Oecvraphy  of  Braza  (1870);    United  SUUea  Bureau 

peror  at  eighteen  years.    After  a  heated  and  acri-  oMm«rican«ei«4Wu»,B 

monious  delate,  the  r^ncy  was  abolished,  ai.d  the  '(^d^jy^l'^i^'k^^'^i^^^J^S^^^t^ 

young    emperor    placed    in    full    possession    of    the  \s  voU..  1864-82);  Galanti.  Compendia  de  Hiatona  do  Branl 

throne  (23  July,  1840).    The  new  government  had  i*  ▼?!««  i^);  Giront  Arcas,  La  5tft*ac^  Juridica  de^la 

fiTkiiKlA    ftt    inf^rvnla    with    fhft    n/>niihIiPAn    nurHr  ^9^^*^  CauUtca  en  he  Dxvereoe  Eetadoe  de  Europa  y  AmSnoa 

trouble    at    intervals    witn    tne    ItepuDlican    party,  (^qq^).    Widdrr  in  Buchberorr.  Kirchlichee    Handlexikon 

notably  m  1848;  but  these  risings  were  easily  sup-  (1907);  KonvereatUme  Lexikon  (1903);  8cahm  in  Stimmen  au§ 

pressed.     In   1851    Brazil   took   an   active  part  m  Maria-Laaeh  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1906).  LXX,  No.  5. 
thwartine  the  designs  of  the  Argentine  cnctator,  Ventura  Fuentes. 

Rosas,  who  sought  to  seize  Uruguay  and  Paraguay. 

Rosas  was  driven  from  the  country  and  had  to  take       Broad,  LrruRGiCAL  Use  of. — In    the  Christian 

refuge  in  England.    In  1853  a  decree  was  issued  for-  liturgy  bread  is  used  principally  as  one  of  the  elements 

bidcunfl;  the  importation  of  slaves.     Yellow  fever,  of  the  Eucharistic  sacrifice.    Our  Divine  Lord  coii* 

imtil  tnen  unknown  in  Brazil,  had  made  its  appear-  secrated  bread  and  wine  at  the  Last  Supper,  and  com* 

ance  a  short  time  before,  and  it  was  thought  that  the  manded  His  disciples  to  do  the  same  in  oommemora- 

disease  had  been  brought  into  the  country  by  the  tion  of  Him,  and  thus  ever  since  bread  made  of 

slaves.    In  1855  a  fleet  was  sent  to  settle  a  dispute  wheaten  flour  has  been  offered  at  the  altar  for  the 

with  Paraguay,  concerning  Brazil's  right  of  way  upon  officiating  priest  to  consecrate  into  the  Bod^  of  the 

the  Parani  River,  the  claim  of  Brazil  being  based  Lord.    It  is  a  debated  question  whether  Chnst  used 

upon  the  fact  that  the  river  has  its  origin  wimin  her  leavened  or  unleavened  bread  at  the  institution  of 


BREAD  750  BREAD 

the  Holy  Eucharist,  since  different  conclusions  may  both  communicants  and  non-communicants.    It  ex> 

be  drawn,  on  the  one  hand,  from  the  Oospel  of  St.  isted  also  in  the  West,  and  is  mentioned  by  St.  Gr^oiy 

John  and  from  the  synoptic  Gospels  on  tne  other,  of  Tours,  the  Council  of  Nantes,  and  Leo  IV,  in  terms 

History  does  not  establish  conclusively  what  the  which  would  make  it  appear  a  somewhat  imiversal 

practice  of  the  Apostles  and  their  early  successors  custom. 

was,  but  it  may  be  asserted  with  some  probability  The  little  loaves  or  cakes  of  bread  which  received 
that  they  made  use  of  whatever  bread  was  at  hand,  a  special  benediction  and  were  then  sent  l^  bii^ope 
whether  azymous  or  fermented.  Different  customs  and  priests  to  others,  as  gifts  in  sign  of  fraternal  affec- 
graduaUy  began  to  jgrow  up  in  different  localities,  and  tion  and  ecclesiasticiBd  commimion.  were  also  called 
then  became  traditional  and  fixed.  The  Eastern  etdogicB,  Persons  to  whom  the  eulogia  was  refused 
Churches  for  the  most  part  made  use  of  leavened  were  considered  outside  the  communion  of  the  faith- 
bread,  as  they  still  do,  while  the  Western  Churches  ful,  and  thus  bishops  sometimes  sent  it  to  an  exoom- 
declared  their  preference  for  unleavened  bread.  At  municated  person  to  indicate  that  the  censure  had 
the  time  of  the  schism  this  difference  of  practice  gave  been  removed.  Later,  when  the  faithful  no  longer 
rise  to  much  discussion  of  the  value  of  their  respective  furnished  the  altar-bread,  a  ctistom  arose  of  bringing 
claims  in  following  the  example  of  Christ,  and  fo-  bread  to  the  church  for  the  special  purpose  of  having 
mented  bitter  controversy  even  in  recent  years,  it  blessed  and  distributed  among  tnose  present  as  a 
Either  kind  of  bread  is,  of  course,  valid  matter  for  token  of  mutual  love  and  union,  and  this  custom  still 
the  sacrifice,  so  the  difference  of  usage  should  be  of  exists  in  the  Western  Church,  especially  in  France, 
little  dogmatic  importance.  (See  Asymes).  This  blessed  bread  was  called  panis  benedicius,  panis 
In  the  primitive  Church  the  bread  and  wine  for  the  lustrattiSy  pants  lustralis,  and  is  now  known  in  France 
sacrifice  were  brought  to  the  altar  by  the  faithful,  each  as  pain  h&nit.  It  differs  from  the  eulogia  mentioned 
contributing  his  share.  A  relic  of  this  practice  may  above,  because  it  is  not  a  part  of  the  oblation  from 
now  1^  seen  in  the  rite  of  consecration  of  a  bishop,  for  which  the  particle  to  be  consecrated  in  the  Mass  is 
at  the  Offertory  the  newly  consecrated  bishop  pre-  selected,  but  rather  is  common  bread  which  receives 
sents  to  the  consecrator,  amone  other  gifts,  two  loaves  a  special  benediction.  In  many  places  it  is  the  custom 
of  bread,  one  of  which  is  gilded,  the  other  silvered,  for  each  family  in  turn  to  present  the  bread  on  Sun- 
and  both  ornamented  with  the  coat  of  arms  of  the  days  and  feast  days,  while  in  other  places  only  the 
consecrator  and  of  the  bishop  elect.  A  similar  usage  wealthier  families  furnish  it.  Generally  the  bread  is 
is  found  in  the  ceremony  of  the  solemn  canonization  presented  with  some  solenmity  at  the  Offertory  of 
of  saints,  where  at  the  Offertory,  one  of  the  cardinal-  the  parochial  Mass,  and  the  priest  Uesses  it  before 

Eriests  makes  an  offerine  to  the  pope  of  two  loaves  of  the  Oblation  of  the  Host  and  Chalice,  but  different 
read,  one  gilded  and  the  other  silvered.  Although  customs  exist  -in  different  dioceses.  The  prayer 
in  the  beginning  bread  which  served  for  common  use  ordinarily  used  for  the  blessing  is  the  first  or  second 
was  offeied  at  the  altar,  still,  growing  reverence  for  benedidio  panis  printed  in  the  Roman  missal  and 
the  Holy  Eucharist  soon  effected  a  change,  so  that  ritual.  The  faithful  were  exhorted  to  partake  of  it  in 
the  altar-breads  were  specially  prepared,  assuming  a  the  church,  but  frequently  it  was  carried  home.  This 
round  form  of  moderate  thickness,  and  were  stamped  blessed  bread  is  a  sacramental,  which  should  excite 
with  a  cross  or  some  other  signincant  religious  em-  Christians  to  practise  especially  the  virtues  of  charity 
blem  having  special  reference  to  Our  Lord  in  the  and  unity  of  spirit,  and  which  brings  blessings  to  those 
Eucharist.  These  hosts  became  smaller  and  thinner  who  partake  of  it  with  due  devotion.  The  Church, 
in  the  Western  Church  until  they  assumed  the  light,  when  blessing  it,  prays  that  those  who  eat  it  may  re- 
wafer-like  form  now  so  common.  ceive  health  both  of  soul  and  body:  "ut  omnes  ex  eo 
In  the  Holy  Eucharist,  bread  thus  serves  for  the  gustantes  inde  corporis  et  aninue  percipiant  sanita- 
offering  of  the  sacrifice,  and  after  the  Consecration  tem";  ''ut  sit  omnibus  snmentibus  salus  mentis  et 
for  the  Communion  of  the  celebrant,  the  clergy,  and  corporis".  In  some  instances  the  pain  b^ii  was  used 
the  laity,  as  well  as  for  reservation  in  order  that  Com-  not  only  with  superstitious  intent,  and  its  virtues  ex* 
munion  may  be  brought  to  the  absent,  or  that  the  aggerated  beyond  measure,  but  aXao  for  profane  pur- 
Bleased  Sacrament  may  be  adored  in  the  tabernacle  poses.  This  usage  was  brought  from  France  to 
or  in  the  monstrance.  In  Rome  at  one  time  it  was  Canada,  and  was  practised  chicly  in  the  province  of 
the  custom  of  the  pope  to  send  a  part  of  the  conse-  Quebec.  There  tne  pain  hinii  was  ble^ed  inmie- 
crated  bread  to  the  priests  in  the  titidar  churches  diately^  after  the  Asper^,  and  then  distributed  to 
that  all  mi^ht  be  united  in  offering  the  same  sacrifice,  those  who  assisted  at  hi^h  Ma^.  The  parishioners 
so  that  this  fermenium.  as  it  was  called,  might  in  a  furnished  it  in  turn,  ana  vied  with  one  another  in 
spiritual  sense  leaven  the  whole  mass  of  the  faithful,  presenting  as  rich  and  fine  a  pain  binit  as  posstble, 
and  make  them  one  with  the  pope  in  faith  and  wor-  until  finaUy  the  bishops,  seeing  that  it  entailed  too 
ship.  Bishops  also  were  once  accustomed  to  send  much  expense  ^ppn  those  in  poorer  circumstances, 
the  Eucharistic  Bread  to  their  priests  for  the  same  prohibited  it.  Within  the  last  twenty-five  or  thirty 
purpose,  and  also  to  each  other  to  signify  that  they  years  the  custom  has  almost  entirely  disappeared, 
admitted  one  another  into  ecclesiastic  communion'..  In  the  present  Roman  ritual  there  are  six  blessings 
To  prevent  abuses  and  profanation  to  the  Sacrament,  for  bread.  Two  of  these  are  entitled  simply  beneduito 
this  custom  was  earlv  prohibited  and  soon  disap-  rxmis,  and,  as  mentioned  above,  are  often  used  for 

E eared.  The  usage  then  began  of  sending  blessed  blessing  the  pain  bdnit.  The  third,  entitled  benedidio 
read  instead  of  the  Holy  Eucharist  to  those  who  did  panis  et  placentarum  (blessing  of  bread  and  cakes),  is 
not  communicate  at  the  Mass,  and  to  those  who  might  found  in  the  appendix  among  the  blessings  which  are 
wish  to  receive  this  gift  as  a  pledge  of  communion  of  not  reserved.  The  other  three  are  approved  for  par- 
faith.  Those  who  did  not  communicate  received  ticular  localities,  and  are  special  blessings  given  under 
bread  offered  at  the  Offertory  of  the  Mass  but  not  the  invocation  of  certain  saints,  usually  on  their  feast 
consecrated.  It  appears  to  have  received  no  other  days,  in  order  to  gain  special  favours  through  their 
Messing  than  that  of  the  Offertory  prayer,  and  was  intercession.  The  first^  approved  for  the  Archdiocese 
considered  blessed  because  it  formed  part  of  the  obla-  of  Cologne,  is  a  blessing  of  bread,  water,  and  salt 
tion.  This  bread  is  called  eidogia,  because  it  is  blessed  given  under  the  invocation  of  St.  Hubert;  the  second, 
and  bcK^use  a  blessing  accompanies  its  use;  it  is  also  approved  for  the  Diocese  of  Bois-le-Duc,  is  a  blessing 
called  aniidoronf  because  it  is  a  substitute  for  the  of  bread  and  water  under  the  invocation  of  St.  Machu- 
doTonj  the  real  gift,  which  is  the  Holy  Eucharist.  The  tus;  and  the  third,  for  the  Diocese  of  Urgel.  is  a  blessing 
etdogia  is  prescribed  in  the  liturgies  of  St.  Basil  and  of  bread,  wine,  water,  and  fruit  to  be  usea  on  tibe  feast 
St.  John  Cmysostom,  but  now  it  is  distributed  to  all,  of  St.  Blasius.    Some  other  places  have  local  customs 


BBU.8T  751  BRJSBUF 

if  blesdng  bread  on  cert^n  feast  da7B,aBforiiiBtaiice  Though  of  unusual   physical  strength,   his  health 

OD  the  feasts  of  St.  Genevieve,  of  St.  Nicholas  of  gave  way  completely  when    he   was  twenty-eight, 

Tolentino.  and  othera.  which   interfered    with    his   studiea    and    permittee] 

Bread  is  also  used  in  the  rite  of  ordination  of  priests,  only  what  was  strictly  necessary,  so  that  he  never 
as  a  Host  is  placed  upon  the  paten  which  the  candi'  acquired  any  extensive  theological  knowledge. 
dates  touch,  in  order  to  si^fy  that  power  ia  given  to  On  IS  June,  1G25,  he  arrived  in  Quebec,  with  ttie 
them  to  consecrate  bread  into  the  Body  of  Christ.  It  Recollect,  Joseph  de 
is  also  Bometimea  prescribed  in  the  rubrics  that  the  la  Roche  d'Aillon, 
bishop,  after  using  the  Holy  Oils,  as  for  example  at  and  in  spite  of  the 
confinnation  and  ordination,  Bhall  cleanse  his  fingers  threatwhich  theCal- 
with  crumbs  of  bread.  Such,  in  the  Christian  liturgy,  vinist  captain  of  the 
are  the  more  important  and  general  uses  of  bread,  ship  made  to  carry 
which,  it  will  be  seen,  are  eonnned  principally  to  the  him  back  to  France, 
Holy  Eucharist.  With  the  exception  of  some  few  he  remained  in  the 
blcissings  of  bread  for  special  purjioses.  most  of  these  colony.  He  over- 
customs  are  closely  connected  with  the  Eucharistic  came  the  dislike  of 
sacrifice,  and  generally  derive  their  origin  from  cere-  the  colonists  for  Jes- 
monies  practised  with  the  Eucharistic  bread.  (See  uits  and  secured  a 
Antioohon,  Azymgs,  Euokarist,  EuLOOiA.)  site  for  a   residence 

Mitmtt  ftomanum.  ffiluafc,  PoMificnle;  Miome.  Enmc.  Thiol,  on   the   St.    Charles. 

.Um,;    (otinitaii    (Niort.    1SS6).    VI:     Kbado     Kwl-fi^vt.  ^^^     ^'='"^*     location 


(Freiburg,  1880).  1.  172, '451;  Scttdauoiii  in  6iit.  oj  ChnM.  of  a  former  landing 

^nfi7.(CDiidQn,  i«a),  1,600.628:  Ni!At.i:,HM<orvo/rt*HD/B  of    Jacques  Cartier. 

kW  U  KI  reiMot  (Palis,  1902),  I,  *G0.  "^  immc<lia,lely  looK 

J.  F.  GoooiM.  "P  "IS  abode  in  the 

Indianwigwams,and  lun  de  Bntatnir. 

Br«a8t.  STRiKiNa   or   tub,  as  a  liturfcical  act  is  has   left   un   an   ac 

prescribea  in  the  Holy  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  during  count  of  his   five  months'    experience  tliei 

the  Confiteor  at  the  phrase   "Through  my  fault  dead  of  winter.     In  the  spring  lie  set   out 

(three  times),  at  the  Nobis  QuoquePeccatoribus  (once),  Indians  on  a  jounicy  to  Lake  Huron   f" 


ilh  the 


,t  the  Agnus  Dei  (three  times),  and  at  the  Domine,  during  the  course  of  which  his  life  was  in  constant 
Non  Sum  Dignus  {three  times).  With  bowed  head,  danger.  With  him  was  Fatlier  de  NoQe,  and  (hey 
except  at  theNobis  Quoque  Peccaioribus, moderately  established  their  first  misHion  near  Georgian  Bay, 
and  without  noise,  the  celebrant  strikes  bis  breast  at  Ihi>natiria,  but  after  a  short  time  his  companion 
with  the  rieht  hand,  the  fingers  being  held  closely  was  recalled,  and  he  was  left  alone. 
together  and  curved  or  fully  extended,  as  the  rubrics  Br^beuf  met  with  no  success.  He  was  sum- 
are  silent  on  this  point;  after  the  consecration,  moned  to  Quebec  because  of  the  danger  of  extinc- 
however,  with  the  last  three  fingers  only,  since  the  tion  to  which  the  entire  colony  was  then  exposed, 
thumb  and  index  finger,  which  are  joined,  must  not  and  arrived  there  after  an  absence  of  two  years, 
come  in  contact  with  the  chasuble.  At  the  Agnus  17  July,  1628.  On  19  July,  16J9,  Champlain  sur- 
Dei  in  requiem  Masses  the  striking  of  the  breast  is  rendered  to  the  English,  and  the  missionaries  re- 
omitted,  to  show  that  the  celebrant  is  thinking  of  turned  to  Prance.  Four  years  afterwards  the  colony 
the  departed  more  than  of^  himself.  The  faithful  was  restored  to  France,  and  on  23  March,  1633, 
ore  accustomed  to  this  practice  as  well  as  the  priest,  Br^beuf  again  set  out  for  Canada.  While  in  France 
The  early  Christians  were  familiar  with  the  prac-  he  had  pronounced  his  solemn  vows  as  spiritual 
tice,  as  St.  Augustine  and  St.  Jerome  testify.  "No  coadjutor.  As  soon  as  he  arrived,  viz.,  May,  1C33, 
sooner  have  you  heard  the  word  'Confiteor' ",  says  he  attempted  to  return  to  Lake  Huron.  The 
the  former,  ''than  you  strike  your  breast.  What  Indians  refused  to  take  him,  but  during  the  follow- 
does  this  mean  except  that  you  wish  to  bring  to  ing  year  he  succeeded  in  reaching  his  old  mission 
Ught  what  is  concealed  in  the  breast,  and  by  this  along  with  Father  Daniel.  It  meant  a  journey  of 
act  to  cleanse  your  hidden  sins? "  (Sermo  de  verbis  thirty  days  and  constant  danger  of  death.  The 
Ekimini,  13).  We  strike  our  breasts",  declares  St.  next  sixteen  years  of  uninterrupted  labours  among 
Jerome,"becausethebreastiBtheseatof evilthoughts:  th.ese  savages  were  a  continual  series  of  privations 
we  wish  to  dispel  these  thoughts,  we  wish  to  purify  and  sufferings  which  he  used  to  say  were  only  roses 
ourliearta"  (InEiechiel,c.xviii).  A  warrant  for  these  in  comparison  with  what  the  end  was  to  be.  The 
statements  is  found  in  the  Psalmist:  A  contrite  and  details  may  be  found  in  the  "Jesuit  Relations", 
humbled  heart,  O  God,  Thou  wilt  not  despise  (Ps.,  I.  In  1640  he  set  out  with  Father  Chaumonot  to 
19).  The  petitioner  at  the  Throne  of  Mercy  would  evangelize  the  Neutrcs,  a  tribe  that  lived  north 
chasten  his  heart  and  offer  it  aa  a  sacrifice  to  God,  of  Lake  Eric,  but  after  a  winter  of  incredible  hard- 
who  healeth  the  broken  of  heart  and  bindeth  up  ship  the  missionaries  returned  unsuccessful.  In 
their  wounds  (Ps.  cxlvi,  3).  The  ancient  Chris-  1642  he  was  sent  down  (o  Quebec,  where  he  was 
tians  were  accustomed  to  strike  the  breast  when  given  the  care  of  the  Indians  in  the  Reservation  at 
they  beard  mention  made  of  sensual  sins;  at  the  Sillery.  About  the  time  the  war  was  at  its  height 
"Forgive  us  our  trespasses"  of  the  Pater  Noster;  between  the  Hurons  and  tlie  Iroquois,  Jogues  and 
and  in  detestation  of  the  crime  of  the  Jews,  at  the  Breasani  hod  been  captured  in  an  effort  to  reach 
words  of  the  Gospel,  "Thou  hast  a  devil",  applied  the  Huron  country,  and  Brt^beuf  was  appointed 
to  Christ.  to  make  a  third  attempt.  He  succeeded.  With 
8EieBNBi»oKninXf«fc«^i.-A.CA»TO.c™prt«iiMafliHii>-  him  on  this  journey  were  Chobanel  and  Garreau, 

Andrew  B.  Mberan.  reached   St.    Mary's   on    the   Wye,  which   wss   the 
central  station  of  the  Huron  Mission.     By  1647  the 

Br«b«af,  Jean  de,  Jesuit  missionary,  b.  at  Cond4-  Iroquois  had  made   peace  with   the  French,   but 

Bur-Vire  in  Normandy,  25  March,  1593;  d.  in  Canada,  kept  up  their  war  with  the   Hurons,  and  in   1648 

near   Georgian   Bay,    16   March,    1649.     Hia   desire  fresh  disasters  befell  the  work  of  the  missionaries — 

was  to  become  a  lay  brother,  but  he  finally  entered  their  establishments  were  burned  and  the  missionaries 

the  Society  of  Jesus  as  a  scholastic,  8  November,  slaughtered.    On  16  March,    1649,  the  enemy  at- 

1617.    According  to  Ragueneau  Jt  was  5  October,  tacked  St.  Louis  and  seized  Bi^beuf  and  Lallemant, 


BBEDA  752 

^ho  oould  have  escaped  but  rejected  the  offer  made  little  earlier  the  Batavian  Republic  had  prcdaimed 

to  them  and  remained  with  their  flock.    The  two  (1796)   liberty  of   religious   worship,   and    in    this 

priests  were  dragged  to  St.  Ignace,  which  the  Iro-  Catholics  saw  a  presage  of  better  days.    The  con- 

quois  had  already  captured.  stitution  of  the  new  Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands 

On  entering  the  village,  they  were  met  with  a  (1815)  guaranteed  this  boon  more  effectively, 

shower  of  stones,   cruellv  beaten  with  clubs,  and  When   the    Diocese   of   Antwerp   was    abolished 

then  tied  to  posts  to  be  burned  to  death.     Br^beuf  by  the  Concordat  of  15  July,  1801,  Pius  VII  created 

is  said  to  have  kissed  the  stake  to  which  he  was  by  his  Brief  of  22  March,  1803,  the  Vicariate  Apos- 

bound.    The  fire  was  lighted  under  them,  and  their  tolic  of  Breda  and  allotted  to  it  the  northern  part 

bodies  slashed  with  knives.     Br^beuf  had  scalding  of  the  former  Diocese  of  Antwerp,  then  within  the 

water  poured  on  his  head  in  mockery  of  baptism,  limits  of  the  Batavian  Republic.     He  also  added 

a  collar  of  red-hot  tomahawk-heads  placed  around  thereto  a  part  of  the  former  Diocese  of  Ghent,  situated 

his  neck,  a  red-hot  iron  thrust  down  his  throat,  in  the  province  of  Zeeland  and  known  as  Staats 

and  when  he  expired    his    heart  was  cut  out  and  Vlaanderen.    The  Right  Rev.  Adriaan  van  Dongen 

eaten.    Through  all  the  torture  he  never  uttered  (1803-26)  was  the  first  vicar  Apostolic,  and  he  estab- 

a  ^an.    The  Iroquois  withdrew  when  they  had  ushed  the  diocesan  (theological)  seminanr  at  Hoeven. 

finished  their  work.     The   remains  of  the  victims  By  the  terms  of  the  Concordat,  signed  17  August, 

were  gathered  up  subsequently,   and  the  head  of  1827,  between  the  Holy  See  and  Kin^  William  I, 

Br^beuf  is  still  kept  as  a  relic  at  the  H6tel-Dieu,  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Breda  was  mcorporated 

Quebec.     His    memory    is     cherished     in    Canada  with  the  new  See  of  Bois-le-Duc,  whereby  the  ecclesi- 

more  than  that  of  all  the  other  early  missionaries,  astical  independence  of  the  former  was  seriously 

Although  their  names   appear   with   his  in   letters  threatened.     Indeed,  this  arrangement  was  already 

of  gold  on  the  grand  staircase  of  the  public  build-  becoming  effective  when  the  Belgian  Revolution  of 

ings,  there  is  a  vacant  niche  on  the  fa9ade,  with  his  1830  broke  out.    The  final  separation  of  Belgium 

name   under   it,    awaiting   his    statue.     His   heroic  from   Holland    (1831)  now  made  it  impossible   to 

virtues,   manifested   in   such   a   remarkable   degree  execute  the  Concordat  of  1827.    The  ecclesiastical 

at  every  stag^e  of  his  missionary  career,  his  almost  situation,    therefore,    remained    unchanged,    except 

incomprehensible     endurance     of     privations     and  that  the  vicar  Apostolic  of   Breda  was  made  tem- 

suffering,  and  the  conviction  that  the  reason  of  his  porarily  administrator  Apostolic.     When   Pius    I'^' 

death  was  not   his   association   with   the   Hurons,  re-established  the  hierarchy  in  Holland  by  his  Brief, 

but  hatred  of  Christianity,  has  set  on  fppt  a  move-  "Exqu&die"  (4  March,  1853),  the  Vicariate  Apostolic 

ment  for  his  canonization  as  a  saint  and  martyr,  of  Breda  was  made  one  of  the  four  suffragans  of  the 

An  ecclesiastical    court  sat  in  1904   for  an   entire  new  Archdiocese  of  Utrecht. 

year  to  examine  his  Ufe  and  virtues  and  the  cause  The  first  bishop  of  the  new  See  of  Breda  waa  it<s 

of  his  death,  and  the  result  of  the  inquiry  was  for-  vicar  Apostolic,  the  Right  Rev.  Jan  van  Hooydonk, 

warded  to  Rome.  Apostolic    administrator    since    1826,    and    titular 

RocHBMONTEix,  Let  JituiteBot  la  nouvelie  France  (Parw.  Bishop  of  Dardania  since  1842.     He  died  in  1867 

VTw!'  iW"ci;At^«v''^.rSa^'*d."}a^^^  r'r^tJi^Z  a? d  J'"  0^^^^  fi^  by  the  Right  Rev   Jan  van 

Shea  (New  York.  1871);   Parkman,  Jeauita  in  Norih  Antert4M  Genk  who  held  tWO  dlOCesan  synods  (1868,  1869)  and 

(Boston.  1885);  BAnc&orr, Uiatory  of  the  U.S. (Boston, IS5S),  died  m  1874'  later  by  the  Right  Rev.  Hendrik  van 

T.  J.  Campbell.  Beek,  a  celebrate  H!ellenist,  who  died  in  1884;  and 

Breda   (Bredana),  Diocese  of,  situated  in  the  then    by   the   Right    Rev.  Peter  Leyten.     Besides 

Dutch  province  of  Brabant  and  suffragan  of  Utrecht,  the  above-mentioned  theological  seminary  at  Hoeven 

The  city  was  founded  in  the  twelfth  century  and  there   is   a  preparatory  ecclesiastical  seminary   at 

with  the  surrounding  territory  formed  the  Barony  Oudenbosch,  known  as  De  Ypelaar  and  founded  in 

of  Breda,  an  imperial  fief  hereditary  in  the  house  1839.    The  new  cathedral   (1875)  is  dedicated   to 

of   Nassau   to   which    Queen    Wilhelmina   belongs.  St.    Barbara   and  is  a  masterpiece   of   the   famous 

This  barony  was  formerly  within  the  ecclesiastical  Dutch  architect  Cuypers.    The  finest  of  the  churches 

jurisdiction  of  the  See  of  Lidge,  but  became  subject  of  Breda  is  the  superb  Gothic  edifice  of  Notre  Dame, 

to  Antwerp  when  Pius  IV  made  that  city  (1561)  the  built  in  the  fifteenth  century.     It  has  long  been  held 

seat  of  a  new  diocese.     Breda  suffered  much  during  by  the  Protestant  community.     In  it  may  still  be 

the  political  disorders  of  the  sixteenth  and  seven-  seen  several  sepulchral  monuments  of  the  house  of 

teenth  centuries,  in  consequence  of  which  the  free  Orange-Nassau.     According    to    the    most     recent 

exercise  of  the  Catholic  religion  was  more  or  less  re-  statistics  there  are  in  the  Diocese  of  Breda  198,000 

stricted.    The  iconoclasts  in  their  outbreak  of  22  Au-  Cathohcs,  100  parishes,  245  priests  in  actual  service, 

ffust.  1566,  left  some  sad  traces  yet  visible  at  Breda.  23   charitable  institutions,  and  59  free    (Catholic) 

In  the  years  immediately  following,  the  city  and  its  schools. 


passed  finally  into  their  hands  10  October,  1637,  when  Qisbert  Broii. 

it  surrendered  to  the  Stadtholdery  Prince  Frederick  _         ^      _,^,        „     „                            ^ 

Henry.  Breeches  Bible.    See  Edftions  of  the  Bible. 

Thenceforth,  as  was  their  custom,  the  Dutch  Pro-  Br^hal,  Jean,  a   French   Dominican   theologian 

testants  prohibited  strictly  the  exercise  of  the  Catho-  of  the  convent  of  Evreux;  .died  o.   1479.     He  was 

lie  religion.    At  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  in  1648  the  made  Doctor  of  Theology  at  the  University  of  Caen, 

Barony  of  Breda  was  made  directly  subject  to  the  1443;  Prior  of  St. -Jacques,  Paris,  1455;  and  Inquisitor 

States-General  and    lost  thereby  tne  last  remnants  General  of  France,  1452,  which  oflfice  he  held  until 

of   its   ancient    liberty.      The  "  reformed  "  religion  1474.    At  the  instance  of  Charles  VII,  he  was  dete- 

was    alone    allowed,    and   rigorous    measures  were  gated  to  revise  the  acts  and  proceedings  of  the  trial 

used  to  prevent  the  exercise  of  the  Catholic  religion,  of  Joan  of  Arc,  and  on  7  July,  1466,  he  solemnly 

However,  as  elsewhere   in   the  Dutch  provinces  it  declared  her  condemnation  to  nave  been  iniquitous 

was  kept  alive  secretly  by  good  priests  whose  ex-  and  unjust.     His  review  of  the  case  and  his  in\'e8ti-> 

emplary  zeal  was  imitated  by  their  Hocks,  in  whom  gations,  which  are  exhaustive,  are  given  at  length 

the  love  of  the  ancient  Faith  was  purified  and  inten-  by  the   Dominican   Fathers   Belon   and   Balme   in 

gified  bv  persecution.    This  unhappy  situation  lasted  "  Jean  Br6hal,  Grand  Inquisiteur  de  France  et  Is 

until  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.    A  rehabilitation  de  Jeanne  d'Arc"  (Paris,  1893),  and 


BREHON  753 

by  the  Jesuit  Father  Ayrolee  in  **La  vraie  Jeanne  of  learned  la^vyers.    The  text  of  the  Seanchtts  Af<ff, 

d  Arc"  (1790).     Br^hal  resigned  his  offioe  in  1474  foribstance,  which  is  contained  in  the  first  two  vol- 

and  retired  to  his  convent  of  Evreux,  where  he  spent  umes,  is  comparatively  brief.    That  part  of  it  relating 

the  rest  of  his  days  in  study,  a  model  of  conventual  to  the  law  ot  immediate  seizure  must,  according  to 

observance  and  discipline.     He  wrote:  "De  liber&  M.  d'Arbois  de  Jubainville,  have  been  written  before 

auctoritate  audiendi   confessiones  religiosis  mendi-  the  year  600,  but  not  before  the  introduction  of 

cantibus  ooncessd",  first  edition,  date  and  place  of  Christianity  into  Ireland,  which  probably  took  place 

publication  not  given;  later,  1479;  and  Paris,  1507.  in  the  third  century.    The  rest  of  the  Seanchus  is  not  ' 

Qu*nr-EcHARp.  Scriptorea  Ord.  Prod,  (Paru^  1719).  1^16;  so  old    The  year  438  is  that  given  by  the  Irish  an- 

MicEAEL  in  Zeiuchnft  f,  kath,  TKeok  (1806),  XiX.  136-140.  Mdr  which  aocordmg  to  its  own  commentary  was  the 

John  K.  Volz.  joint  effort  of  three  kings,  of  two  clerics,  of  Ross  a 

doctor  of  the  Birla  FHne  or  legal  dialect,  of  Dubh- 

Brehon  Laws,  The. — Brehon  law  is  the  usual  term  thach  a  doctor  of  literature,  of  Fergus  a  doctor  of 
for  Irish  native  law,  as  administered  in  Ireland  down  poetry,  and  of  St.  Patrick  himself,  who  struck  out  of 
to  almost  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  it  all  that  "clashed  with  the  law  of  God".  It  is  im- 
in  fact  amongst  the  native  Irish  until  the  final  con*  possible  to  say  how  far  certain  parts  of  the  law  may 
summation  of  the  English  conoueet.  It  derives  its  nave  reached  back  into  antiquity  and  become  stereo- 
name  from  the  Irish  word  Breitheamh  (genitive  typed  by  usage  before  th^  became  stereotyped  in 
Breitheamhanj  pronounced  Brehoon  or  Brehon)  which  writing.  The  text  of  the  Seanchtts  Mdr  itseff  is  not 
means  a  judge.  That  we  have  ample  means  for  be-  extensive.  It  is  the  great  amount  of  commentaries 
coming  acquainted  with  some  of  the  principal  provi-  written  by  generations  of  lawyers  upon  the  text,  and 
sions  of  the  Brehon  code  is  entirely  owing  to  the  then  the  additional  annotations  written  upon  these 
labours  of  two  men,  O'Curry  and  O'Donovan,  who  commentaries  by  other  'lawyers,  which  swells  the 
were  the  first  Irish  scholars  since  the  death  of  the  great  whole  to  such  a  size. 

hereditary  Irish  antiquarian,  Duald  Mac  Firbis  O^iur-  Irish  Social  Organization. — We  are  able  to 
dered  by  an  English  settler  in  1670^,  to  penetrate  •  gather  fairly  well  from  these  books  the  remains  only 

and  understand  tne  difficult  and  highly  technical  Ian-  of  what  must  once  have  been  an  immense  law  litera- 

guage  of  the  ancient  law  tracts.     Aiter  much  labori-  ture,  the  social  organization  of  a  pure  Aryan  people, 

ous  work  in  the  libraries  of  Trinity  College  Dublin,  closely  cognate  with  the  ancestors  of  tne  modem 

in  the  Rojral  Irish  Academy,  in  the  British  Mu-  Gauls,  Spaniards,  and  Britons;  and  from  what  we 

seum,  and  in  the  Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford,  0*Cuny  learn  of  the  ancestors  of  the  present  Irish  people  we 

transcribed  eight  volumes  full  of  the  so-called  Brehon  may  deduce  a  good  deal  that  is  probaUy  no  less  ap- 

LawB  contaimng  2,906  pages,  and  O'Donovan  nine  plicable  to  the  other  Aryan  Celts.    Broadly  speaking, 

more  volumes  containing  2,491  pages.    Nor  was  their  the  country  was  governed  by  a  ruling  class  call^ 

labour  by  any  means  exhaustive.    There  are  many  "  Kings '\  of  different  grades,  the  highest  being  the 

more  valuable  Brehon  documents  still  imtranscribed  King  of  Ireland,  and  next  to  these  were  the  nobles  or 

in  the  library  of  Trinity  College,  in  the  British  Mu-  princes  called  in  Irish  Flaith  (pronounced  like  flah 

seum,  and  in  the  Bodleian,  and  possibly  some  fra^-  or  floih).     In  all  there  were,  including  kin^  and 

ments  in  the  Royal  Irish  Academy  and  other  reposi-  flaiths,  nominally  at  least,  seven  different  kinds  of 

tories.    From  the  labours  of  O'Donovan  and  O'Curry  aires  (arras),  or  nobles,  and  provision  was  carefully 

the  (jovemment  published  in  the  Master  of  the  Rolls  made  that  a  wealthy  farmer,  or  peasant  grown  rich 

series  five  great  tomes  and  a  sixth  containing  a  through  cattle,  could,  if  he  possessed  twice  the  wealth 

glossary.    But  these  five  large  volumes  do  not  by  any  of  the  lowest  of  the  seven,  and  had  held  it  for  cer- 

means  contain  the  whole  of  Irish  law  literature^  which,  tain  generations,  become  an  aire,  or  noble,  of  the 

in  its  widest  sense,  that  is,  including  such  pieces  as  seventh,  or  lowest  degree.    Thus  wealth  and  descent 

the  ''Book  of  Rignts",  would  probably  fill  at  least  were  carefully  balanced  over  against  each  other, 

ten  such  volumes.  "He  is  an  inferior  chief  whose  father  is  not  a  chief". 

Contents  op  The  Brehon  Law  Books. — The  first  says  the  law.  But  it  took  care  at  the  same  time  not 
two  volumes  of  the  Brehon  Law,  as  published,  contain  to  close  to  anyone  the  avenues  to  chieftainship.  Un- 
the  Seanchus  M&r  (Shanahus  More)  or  "Great  Im-  der  ancient  Irish  law  the  land  did  not  belong  to  the 
memorial  Custom"  which  includes  a  preface  to  the  king  or  the  chief  or  the  landlord,  but  to  the  tnbe,  and 
text,  in  which  we  are  told  the  occasion  of  its  being  the  lowest  of  the  free- tribesmen  had  as  much  an  in- 
first  put  together  and  "purified",  and  the  Law  of  alienable  right  to  his  share  as  had  the  chief  himself. 
Distress,  a  process  which  always  had  much  influence  In  process  of  time  parts  of  the  tribal  territory  appear 
in  Irish  legislation.  The  second  volume  contains  the  to  nave  become  alienated  to  sub-tribes  or  families. 
Law  of  Hostage  Sureties,  also  a  very  important  item  and  the  chief,  who  always  exercised  certain  adminis- 
in  ancient  Irish  life,  the  law  of  fosterage,  of  tenure  trative  duties  with  respect  to  the  land,  appears  to 
of  stock,  and  of  social  connexions.  The  third  volume  have  had  certain  specific  portions  of  the  tribal  land 
contains  the  important  document  known  as  the  allotted  to  himself  for  his  own  use,  and  for  the  main- 
"Book  of  AcaiU  ,  which  is  chiefly  taken  up  with  the  tenance  of  his  household  and  relatives.  He  was  in 
law  of  torts  and  injuries.  This  book  professes  to  be  no  sense,  however,  what  is  now  known  as  a  landlord, 
a  ooinpilation  of  the  various  dicta  ana  iudgments  of  although  the  whole  tendency  of  later  times  was  to 
King  Cormac  Mac  Airt  who  lived  in  the  third  century,  increase  his  power  at  the  expense  of  his  tribe  and 
and  of  Cennfaeladh,  a  famous  warrior  who  fought  in  vassals. 

the  Battle  of  Moyrath  (c.  634),  and  afterwards  became  FRBB-TRiBESBfEN. — ^The  great  bulk  of  the  ancient 
a  renowned  jurist,  who  lived  in  the  seventh.  The  Irish  cultivators  were  the  FHne  (Faina)  or  free- 
fourth  and  fifth  volumes  consist  of  isolated  law  tracts,  tribesmen  from  whom  the  Brehon  law  is  called  in 
on  taking  possession,  on  tenancy,  right  of  water,  Irish  F^neoc/kw,  or  the  "  Law  of  the  Free-tribesmen  ". 
divisions  of  land,  social  ranks,  the  laws  relating  to  In  process  of  time  many  of  these  in  hours  of  distress 
poets  and  their  verse,  the  laws  relating  to  the  Church,  naturally  found  themselves  involved  in  something 
chiefs,  husbandmen,  pledges,  renewals  of  covenants,  like  pecuniary  transactions  with  their  head-chiefs, 
ete.  and,  owing  to  poverty,  or  for  some  other  reason,  were 

Although  all  these  tracts  go  commonly  under  the  driven  to  Dorrow  or  accept  cattle  from  them,  either 

generic  name  of  the  Brehon  Laws,  they  are  not  really  for  milk  or  tillage.     These  tribesmen  then  became 

codes  of  law  at  all,  or  at  least  not  essentially  so.   They  the  chieftain's  cEUs  (kailas)  or  vassals.    They  were 

are  rather  the  digests  or  compilations  of  generations  known  as  Saer-stock  and  Daer-ttock  C4ile9.   Tlie  aosr* 


BREHON  754  BBEHON 

itock  tenant — saer  means  free  in  the  Irish  language —  a  greater  share  of  artificiality  in  proportion  to  its 

accepted  only  a  limited  amount  of  stock;  and  re-  enlargement.    Because^  while  all  the  members  of  the 

tained  his  tribal  rights,  always  most  carefully  guards  sept  could  actually  pomt  to  a  common  descent,  the 

by  the  Brehon  law,  in  their  integrity.    But  the  Daer~  descent  from  a  sio^e  ancestor  in  the  case  of  the  whole 

stock — doer  means  imfree — tenant,  who  took  stock  tribe  was  more  or  less  foimded  upon  fiction.   The  por- 

from  his  chief,  became  liable  for  heavier  but  still  care-  tion  of  territory  ruled  over  by  a  sub-king  was  called 

fully  defined'  duties.     For  instance  for  every  three  txuiih  (too-a)  and  contained  within  it,  at  all  events 

heifers  deposited  with  him  by  his  chief,  he  oecame  in  later  times,  members  of  different  descents.    The 

liable  to  pay  his  chief  the  ''proportionate  stock  of  a  chief,  both  of  the  tiuUh  and  the  sept,  was  dected  by 

calf  of  the  value  of  a  sack  with  its  accompaniments*',  the  tribe  or  clansmen.    The  law  of  primogeniture  did 

and  refections  for  three  persons  in  the  sununer,  and  not  obtain  in  Ireland,  and  the  selection  was  made 

work  for  three  days.    The  tribesman,  it  will  be  ob-  of  the  man  who  being  of  the  chieftain's  near  blood 

served,  by  accepting  stock  from  his  chief  parted  to  could  best  defend  the  tribe  and  lead  it  in  both  war 

some  extent  with  his  freedom,  but  his  interests  were  and  peace.    "The  head  of  every  tribe*',  savs  the  Bre- 

carefully  looked  after  bv  law,  and  it  was  provided  hon  Law  tract  the  Cain  Aigillne,  "should  oe  the  man 

that  after  food-rent  and  service  had  been  rendered  of  the  tribe  who  is  the  most  experienced,  the  most 

for  seven  years,  if  the  chief  should  die,  the  tenant  notable,  the  most  wealthy,  the  most  learned,  the 

should  become  entitled  to  the  stock  deposited  with  most  truly  popular,  the  most  powerful  to  oppose,  the 

him.    If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  tenant  died,  his  heirs  most  steadfast  to  sue  for  profits  and  to  be  sued  for 

were  partly  relieved  from  their  obligation.     It  will  losses."   As  early  as  the  third  century,  in  a  well-knou-n 

be  observed  that  while  this  to  some  extent  resembles  piece  of  Irish  literature,  Cairbre,  afterwards  Kin?  of 

the  well-known  Metayer  system,  so  common  on  the  Ireland,  is  depicted  as  asking  his  father  Cormac  Mac 

continent' of  Europe,  where  the  landlord  supplies  the  Airt  the  question:  "For  what  qualifications  is  a  king 

stock  and  the  lana,  and  the  tenant  the  labour  and  the  elected  over  countries  and  tribes  of  people?  "  And  Cor- 

skill,  it  differs  from  it  in  this,  namely  that  in  Ireland  mac  in  his  answer  embodied  the  views  of  practically 

the  saer-  and  doer-stock  farmer  did  not  supply  the  land,  every  clan  in  Ireland  down  to  the  beginning  of  the 

which  was  theirs  by  right  of  their  free  tribesmanship.  seventeenth  century.    "He  is  chosen",  said  the  kin^, 

In  this  way,  namely,  by  accepting  stock  from  their  "from  the  goodness  of  his  shape  and  family,  from  his 

over-lords,  a  rent-paying  class  grew  up  in  Ireland,  to  experience  and  wisdom,  from  nis  prudence  and  mag- 

which  undoubtedly  in  time  a  large  proportion  of  the  nanimity,  from  his  eloquence  and  bravery  in  battle, 

ancient  Irish  came  to  belong,  but  the  rent  was  paid  not  and  from  the  number  of  his  friends. "    He  was,  how- 

for  the  land  but  for  the  chief  ^s  property  deposited  ever,  always  chosen  from  the  near  kindred  of  the 

with  the  tenant.  reigning  chieftain. 

But  outside  of  the  Free-tribesman  (the  F&ine  and        Irish  Criminal  Law. — ^There  seems  to  have  been 

Cdile)  there  grew  up  gradually  a  class  of    tenants  no  hard  and  fast  line  drawn  between  civil  and  crimi- 

who  were  not  free,  who  in  fact  must  have  been  in  nal  offences  in  the   Brehon  law.    They  were   both 

something  very  like  a  state  of  servitude.    These  were  sued  for  in  the  same  way  before  a  Brehon,  who  heard 

known  by  the  name  of  juidirs  or  bothachs,  i.  e.  cottiers,  the  case  argued,  and  either  acquitted  or  else  foimd 

They  ap{>ear  to  have  been  principally  composed  of  guilty  and  assessed  the  fine.    In  the  case  of  a  crime 

broken  men,  outcasts  from  forei^  tribes,  lugitives  committed  by  an  individual  all  the  sept  were  liable, 

from  justice,  and  the  like,  who.  driven  out  of  or  for-  If  the  offence  were  one  against  the  person,  and  the 

saking  their  own  tribes,  sougnt  refuge  under  some  criminal  happened  to  die,  then  the  liability  of  the 

other  chief.    These  men  must  have  been  natural  ob-  sept  was  wiped  out,  for,  according  to  the  maxim,  "the 

jects  of  suspicion  if  not  of  detestation  to  the  free  crime  dies  with  the  criminal".    If,  however,  the  of- 

tribesmen,  and,  being  themselves  absolutely  helpless,  fence  had  been  one  causing  damage  to  property  or 

and  having  no  tribal  rights  of  their  own,  they  became  causinfi[  material  loss,  then  the   sept   remained  still 

entirely  dependent  upon  their  chief,  who  settled  them  liable  for  it^  even  after  the  death  of  the  criminal, 

down  upon  the  outlying  or  waste  lands  of  the  tribe.  This  regulation  resulted  in  every  member  of  the  sept 

or  possibly  at  times  upon  his  own  separate  land  which  having  a  direct  interest  in  suppressing  crime.    There 

as  cliief  he  held  in  severalty,  and  imposed  upon  them  was  suways  a  fine  inflicted  for  manslaughter,  even 

far  heavier  tolls  or  rents  than  the  law  permitted  to  unpremeaitated,  which  was  called  an  eric,     u  the 

be  exacted  from  any  other  members  of  tne  tribe.    As  manslaughter  was  premeditated,  or  what  we  woidd 

Ireland  became  more  troubled  by  Northmen,  Nor-  call  muraer,  the  eric  was  doubled,  and  it  was  dis- 

mans,  and  English,  this  class  of  tenant  increased  in  tributed  to  the  relatives  of  the  slain  in  the  proportion 

numbers,  so  many  tribes  were  broken  or  destroyed,  to  which  they  were  entitled  to  inherit  his  property, 

and  the  survivors  dispersed  to  find  refuge  in  other  If  the  eric  were  not  paid,  then  the  injured  person  or 

tribes  and  under  other  chiefs.     In  this  way  there  family  had  a  right  to  put  the  criminal  to  death.    This 

grew  up  gradually,  even  under  Irish  law,  a  body  of  acceptance  of  a  blood-fine  or  eric  for  murder  was  a 

tenants  to  whom  their  chiefs  must  have  stood  in  the  great  source  of  scandal  to  the  English,  but,  as  Keating 

light  of  something  like  English  landlords.  points  out  in  the  preface  to  His  histoiy  of  Ireland 

The  Irish  Family  or  Fine. — A  curious  Irish  written  in  Irish,  it  was  really  a  beneficent  and  lo^cal 
social  unit  was  the  fine  (finna),  consisting  of  one  institution,  made  necessary  by  the  number  of  tnbes 
group  of  five  persons  and  three  groups  of  four,  into  which  Ireland  was  divided.  Nor  was  the  pun- 
all  males.  The  head  of  the  family,  called  the  ceann^  ishment,  though  short  of  the  capital  one,  by  any 
fine  (Kan-finna) ,  and  four  members  made  up  the  first  means  light,  and  it  at  least  insured  compensation  to 
^roup,  called  geU-fine^  the  other  three  groups  of  four  the  murdered  man's  relatives,  a  compensation  amount- 
each  were  called  deirbh-fine,  or  true  family,  iar-fine,  ing  to  the  entire  "honour-price"  of  the  murderer, 
or  after  family,  and  inn^fine,  or  end  family.  On  the  For  every  man,  from  king  to  fuidir  (the  lowest  class 
birth  of  a  new  male  member  in  the  get^-^n^  the  eldest  of  tenant),  had  what  was  in  Irish  law  termed  Ins 
member  of  the  group  was  moved  up  mto  the  next  eineachlanf  or  honour-price,  and  this  was  forfeited  in 
four  (the  deirbh-fine)  y  and  one  out  of  that  four  into  part  or  in  whole,  acoordinff  to  well-defined  rules,  for 
the  next  four,  and  one  out  of  the  last  four  was  moved  various  crimes.  It  was  always  forfeited  for  taking 
out  of  the  fine  altogether,  into  the  clan,  or  sept,  this  human  life.  Clergy  we  find  more  heavily  punished 
last  male  thereby  ceasing  to  be  a  member  of  the  fam-  than  laymen.  A  man  of  high  rank  was  always  fined 
ily,  or  fine.  The  sept,  to  use  the  English  term,  sprang  more  than  one  of  low  rank  for  the  same  misdecnean- 
from  the  family,  or  the  family  after  some  generations  our.  An  assault  on  a  person  of  rank  was  more  se- 
grew  into  the  sept  and  then  into  the  clan,  contracting  verely  punished  than  one  on  ac  ordinary  man,    fines 


755  BRXHOH 

for  crimes  agamst  the  person  were  particiilariy  heavy;  to  deal  with  all  cases  and  all  varieties  of  circum* 

two  cows,  for  instance,  was  the  fine  for  a  blow  which  stances,  and  they  have  special  rules  for  almost  every 

raised  a  lump  but  did  not  draw  the  blood.    The  pun-  relation  of  Ufe  and  every  detsai  of  the  social  economy, 

ishments  awarded  by  the  Brehons  were  of  a  most  A  great  number  of  the  cases  which  come  under  dis- 

humane  character.    There  is  no  trace  of  torture  or  cussion  in  the  law  books  appear  to  be  rather  prob- 

of  ordeal  in  ancient  Irish  law.  lematical  than  real,  cases  propounded  by  a  teacher 

From  the  earliest  times  in  which  the  English  in-  to  his  pupils  to  be  arguea  on  according  to  general 

vaders  made  the  acquaintance  of   the   Brehon  law  principles,  rather  than  actual  subject  for  le^  dio- 

system  they  denounced  it  ^h  the  most  unsparing  cussion. 

invective.  But  all  the  Norman  chiefs  who  ruled  over  Origin  and  Gradual  Growth. — Ancient  Irish 
Irish  tribal  lands  governed  their  territories  by  it  in  law  was  not  produced  by  a  process  resembling  legi»- 
preference  to  English  law,  and  in  Elizabeth's  reign  lation,  but  grew  up  graduaUy  round  the  dicta  and 
the  great  Shane  O'Neill  pointed  out  with  bitter  irony  judgments  ol  the  most  famous  Brehons.  These  Bre- 
that  if  his  Irish  laws  were  so  barbarous  as  the  queen's  hons  may  very  well  have  been  in  old  times  the  Irish 
ministers  allied,  it  was  passmg  strange  that  three  equivalents  of  the  Gaulish  Druids.  There  were  only 
hundred  families  had  migrated  from  the  English  pale  four  periods  in  the  entire  history  of  Ireland  when 
and  the  beneficent  operations  of  English  law  to  take  special  laws  were  said  to  have  been  enacted  by  leg- 
refuge  in  his  dominions.  As  early  as  1367  an  English  islative  authority:  first  during  the  reign  of  that 
Statuteof  Kilkenny  denounced  Brehon  law  as ''wicked  Cormac  Mac  Aut  already  mentioned,  in  the  third 
and  damnable".  "Lewd"  and  "unreasonable"  are  century;  second,  when  St.  Patrick  came;  third,  by 
the  epithets  applied  to  it  by  Sir  John  Da  vies.  "In  Cormac  mac  Culinan,  the  King-Bishop  of  Cashel,  who 
many  things  repugning  quite  both  to  God's  law  and  died  in  908;  and  lastly  by  Brian  Boru,  about  a  century 
mans"  is  how  the  poet  Edmund  Spenser  charac-  later.  But  the  great  mass  of  the  Brehon  code  ap- 
terised  it.                                      ^  pears  to  have  been  traditional  or  to  have  grown  with 

The  student,  however,  who  views  these  laws  dis-  the  slow  growth  of  custom.  The  very  first  paragraph 
passionately  to-day,  and  merely  from  a  juridical  point  of  the  Law  of  Distress  takes  us  back  to  a  case  which 
of  view,  will  find  in  them,  to  use  the  words  of  the  happened  in  the  reign  of  Conn  of  the  Hundred  Bat- 
great  English  jurist  Sir  Henry  Maine,  "a  very  re-  ties  in  the  second  century,  and  this  passage  was 
markable  body  of  archaic  law  imusually  pure  from  already  so  antique  at  the  close  of  the  nmth  century 
its  origin".  It  is,  in  fact,  a  body  of  law  that  reflects  that  it  required  a  gloss,  for  Cormac  mac  Culinan  (who 
for  us  early  Aryan  custom  in  its  purity,  almost  per-  died  in  908)  alludes  in  his  glossary  to  the  gloss  upon 
fectly  untainted  or  uninfluenced  by  that  Roman  law  this  passage.  There  are  many  allusions  in  this  glos- 
which  overran  so  much  of  the  rest  of  Europe.  It  is  sary  to  the  Seanckus  M&r,  always  referring  to  the 
true  that  Brehon  law  does  bear  certain  resemblances  glossed  text,  which  must  consequently  have  been  in 
to  Roman  law,  but  they  are  of  the  slightest,  and  not  existence  before  the  year  900.  The  text  of  the  Seanr 
even  so  strong  as  its  resemblance  to  the  Hindoo  codes,  chus.  M&r  relies  upon  the  judgments  of  famous  Bre- 
It  has  in  truth  certain  relations  to  all  known  bodies  hons  such  as  Sencha  in  the  first  century,  but  there  is 
of  Aryan  law  from  the  Tiber  to  the  Ganges,  some  to  no  allusion  in  its  text  to  any  books  or  treatises.  The 
the  Roman  laws  of  earliest  times,  some  to  the  Scan-  gloss,  however,  is  full  of  such  allusions.  Fourteen 
dinavian,  some  to  the  Slavonic,  and  some  partio-  different  books  of  civil  law  are  alluded  to  in  it.  Cor- 
ularly  strone  ones  to  -the  Hindoo  laws,  and  quite  mac  in  his  glossary  alludes  to  five.  Only  one  of  the 
enough  to  old  Germanic  law  of  all  kinds  "  to  render  five  idluded  to  W  Cormac  is  amonc  the  fourteen  men- 
valueless",  to  use  the  words  of  Sir  Henry  Maine,  tioned  in  the  Seanckus  M6r.  This  shows  that  the 
"  the  comparison  which  the  English  observers  so  number  of  books  upon  law  must  in  old  times  have 
constantly  institute  with  the  laws  of  England",  been  legion.  They  perished,  with  so  much  of  the  rest 
"Much  of  it",  says  Maine,  "is  (now)  worthless  save  of  Irish  literature,  under  the  horrors  of  the  English 
for  historical  purposes,  but  on  some  points  it  really  invasion  and  the  penal  laws,  when  an  Irish  MS.  was 
does  come  close  to  the  most  advanced  iegal  doctrines  a  source  of  danger  to  the  possessor, 
of  our  day".  "There  is  a  singularly  close  approach",  The  essential  idea  of  modem  law  is  entirely  absent 
he  remarKs  in  another  place,  "to  modem  doctrines  from  the  Brehons,  if  by  law  \a  meant  a  command, 
on  the  subject  of  contributory  negligence,  and  I  have  given  by  some  one  possessing  authority,  to  do  or  to 
found  it  possible  to  extract  from  the  quaint  texts  of  forbear  doin^  a  certain  thing  under  pams  and  penal- 
the  '  Book  of  AcaiU '  some  extremely  sensible  rulings  ties.  There  is  no  sanction  laid  down  in  the  Brehon 
on  the  difiicult  subject  of  the  measure  of  dama^^,  laws  against  those  who  violated  them,  nor  did  the 
for  which  it  would  be  in  vain  to  study  the  writings  State  provide  any  such  sanction.  This  was  the  great 
of  Lord  Coke  though  these  last  are  relatively  of  much  inherent  weakness  of  Irish  jurisprudence,  that  it 
later  date".  But  he  points  out  how  heavily  the  lacked  the  controlling  hand  of  a  strong  central  gov* 
Brehon  Law  pays  in  other  respects  for  this  striking  emment  to  enforce  its  decisions.  It  is  a  weakness 
anticipation  of  the  modem  legal  spirit  by  its  too  inseparable  from  a  tribal  organization  in  which  the 
frequent  air  of  fancifulness  and  unreality  and  in-  idea  of  the  State^  which  had  begun  to  emerge  imder 
dulj^nce  of  ima^nation.  In  the  "Book  of  Acaill",  the  early  Irish  kings,  had  beeen  repressed.  When  a 
for  instance,  which,  as  mentioned  before,  is  chiefly  Brehon  had  heard  a  case  and  delivered  his  judgment, 
concerned  with  the  law  of  torts,  we  find  four  long  there  was  no  machinery  of  law  set  in  motion  to  force 
pages  concerned  solely  with  the  injuries  received  the  litigant  to  accept  it.  The  only  executive  authority 
from  dogs  in  dog-fights — Ireland  was  famous  for  its  in  ancient  Ireland  which  lay  behind  the  decision  of 
hounds,  and  dog-fights  figure  more  than  once  in  old  the  judge  was  the  traditional  obedience  and  good 
Irish  hterature — setting  forth  in  the  most  elaborate  sense  of  the  people,  and  it  does  not  appear  that  this 
way  all  the  qualifications  of  the  governing  rule  re-  was  ever  found  wanting.  The  Brehons  never  appear 
quired  in  the  case  of  owners,  in  the  case  of  spectators,  to  have  had  any  trouble  ia  getting  their  decisions 
in  the  case  of  the  "impartial  interposer",  in  the  case  accepted  by  the  common  people.  The  public  appear 
of  the  "half-interposer".  that  is  the  man  who  tries  to  have  seen  to  it  that  the  Brehon 's  decision  was 
to  separate  the  dogs  with  a  bias  in  favour  of  one  of  always  carried  out.  This  was  indeed  the  very  essence 
them,  in  the  case  of  an  accidental  onlooker,  in  the  of  democratic  government,  with  no  executive  au- 
case  of  a  youth  under  age,  and  in  the  case  of  an  idiot,  thority  behind  it  but  the  will  of  the  people.  There 
The  Brehons,  in  fact,  appear  to  have  never  hesitated  can  be  no  doubt  whatever  that  the  system  trained 
about  inventing  or  imagining  facts  upon  which  to  an  intelligent  and  law-abiding  public.  Even  Sir 
base  their  theoretical  judgments.    They  endeavour  John  Davies,  the  Elizabethan  jurist^  confesses  "  there 


766 

is  no  nation  or  peo{^e  under  the  Sunne  that  doth  have  made  the  name  of  Irish  tenant  an  object  of 
love  equall  and  mdifFerent  justice  better  than  the  commiseration  for  so  many  generations.  The  firehon 
Irish;  or  will  rest  better  satisfied  with  the  execution  laws  remained  in  force  in  every  part  of  Ireland  whoe 
thereof  although  it  be  against  themselves,  so  that  the  Irish  hdd  sway  until  the  nnal  conquest  of  the 
they  may  have  the  protection  and  benefit  of  the  law  country.  It  has  been  shown  that  the  system  of  land- 
when  upon  just  cause  they  do  desire  it".  tenure  which  the  Fitzgeralds  found  obtaining  in  Mun- 
Influencb  of  thb  Cathouc  Church  upon  Brb-  ster  in  1170  was  left  unchanged  bv  them,  and  the 
HON  Law. — ^With  regard  to  the  influence  of  the  Catho*  land  burdened  with  no  additional  charges  until  their 
lie  Church  upon  Insh  law  as  administered  b^  the  subjugation  in  1586.  Duald  Mac  Fir  bis,  the  cele- 
Brehons  it  is  difficult  to  say  much  that  is  positive,  brated  antiquary,  who  died  in  1670,  mentions  that 
Its  influence  was  probably  greatest  in  a  negative  even  in  his  own  day  he  had  known  Irish  chieftains 
direction.  We  have  seen  that  the  Brehons  claimed  who  governed  their  clans  according  to  ''the  words 
the  sanction  of  St.  Patrick  for  the  laws  contained  of  Fitnal  and  the  Royal  Precepts",  that  is  according 
in  the  Seanckua  M&r,  We  may  also  take  it  for  gnmted  to  the  books  of  the  Brehon  Law.  Amongst  the  msnv 
that  it  was  owing  to  the  introduction  of  Christianity  bitter  injustices  inflicted  upon  Ireland  ^h1  the  Irish 
that  Irish  law  beian  to  be  written  down.  The  Gauls,  by  the  English  concmest  none  has  had  more  cruel  or 
as  CsBsar  tells  us,  nad  a  superstition  about  committinjg  more  far-reaching  effects  than  the  abrogation  of  the 
their  sacred  things,  which  of  course  included  their  Brehon  law  relating  to  land-tenure  ana  division  of 
law,  to  writing,  and  if  the  Irish  had  the  same,  as  is  property. 

very  probable,  it  did  not  survive  the  introduction  ,,S^:f*^,f^«f£j[Ma«t«  of  the  Holla  Scries)  I,  (iSftS);  n 

^f^/omstiwi .religion     Then  the  eric-fine  for  horn-  <,iToli*^riiii  ^^^.^^ctSii  o^i'i^giSlSS: 

icide,  although  it  probably  did  not  owe  its  origin  to  d»Pavl  ColHnst  (2  rola.  Paris.  1893)j  vol.  I  forma  tome  VII  of 

Christianity,  yet  supported  itself  " as  a  middle  course  M.  d'Abbom'  Cmin  de  liah-aturecelUqw;  Maine, Early HisUfry 

HAfwAAn    fnnnvAnM    AnH    rAbLliafion ''    hv    thA    «wia  of  I natUutionB  (London,  1S7 5):   GisfiKLh,  The  Brehon  Lawt,  a 

between   torgiveness   ana   retaliation      py   trie   case  ^^^  handbook  (London.  1894);  Hyde.  A  LUerartf  Hutorycf 

of  one  Nuada  who  had  murdered  St.  Patrick's  chan-  inland  (London.  1903).  xlii:  Memorandum  on  Land  lentire.  ap- 

Oteer,  being  put  to  death  for  his  crime  and  Patrick  P«>ded  to  Third  Report  of  the  CommitaiononConpeationinlre-' 

nKfAlntntr  hAft.vAn  fnr  him       "At  fhin  Hftv"    Hftva  tha  *amf,  Government  Blue  Book  (1907),  368,  containing  a  bnef  bat 

ODtaming  neaven  lOr  mm.        At  tnis  day    ,  says  tne  valuable  summary  of  the  secure  and  comfortablTpoeition  o£ 

text,  "we  keep  between  forgiveness  and  retahation,  the  massed  in  Ireland  under  the  Brehon  law  system  at  the 

for  as  at  present  no  one  has  the  power  of  bestowing  time  of  the  confiscation  of  Munster,  towards  the  doee  of  the 

heav«j  M  Patrick  had  at  that  day,  so  no  one  »  put  ^^^uoT^Y^^^.t^iS^'^^ii^S^^^rf^r^ 

to  death  for  his  mtentional  crimes  so  long  as  enc-fine  a  Social  Hitiory^  Ancient  Ireland  (Dublin.  1908);  Mktkb, 

is  obtained,  and  whenever  eric-fine  is  not  obtained  Ktdtur  der  Oegmwart  (Berlin,  1907),  s.  v.  KeUieche  Ltteraturen, 

he  is  put  to  death  for  his  intentional  crimes,  and  ex-  Douglas  Hyde. 
posed  on  the  sea  for  his  unintentional  crimes. "  Sir  Bremen,  formerly  the  seat  of  an  archdiocese 
Henry  Maine  seems  to  think  that  the  conception  of  a  situated  in  the  north-western  part  of  the  present 
Will  was  grafted  upon  the  Brehon  Law  by  the  Church,  German  Empire.  After  Charlemagne's  conquest  of 
but  if  this  were  so,  one  would  have  expected  that  the  the  Saxons.  Christianity  was  preacned  in  the  region 
law  terms  relating  to  it  would  have  been  derived  from  about  the  lower  Elbe  and  the  lower  Weser  by  St. 
Latin  sourcesj  this,  however,  is  not  so,  the  terms  being  WUlehad;  in  787  WiUehad  was  consecrated  bishop, 
of  purely  native  origin.  In  another  most  important  and  that  part  of  Saxony  and  Friesland  about  the 
matter,  however,  the  Law  of  Contract,  the  Church  mouth  of  the  Weser  assigned  him  for  his  diocese, 
may  have  exercised  a  sreater  influence;  the  sacred-  He  chose  as  his  see  the  city  of  Bremen,  which  is 
ness  of  bequests  and  of  promises  being  equally  im-  mentioned  for  the  first  time  in  documents  of  782, 
portant  to  it  as  the  donee  of  pious  gifts.  It  is  also  and  built  there  a  cathedral,  praised  for  its  beauty  by 
fikely  that  much  of  the  law  relating;  to  the  alienation  St.  Anschar;  it  was  dedicatea  in  789.  The  Diocese  of 
of  land,  all  the  land  belonging  originally  to  the  tribe,  Bremen,  however,  was  erected  only  under  St.  WiUe- 
was  influonoed  by  the  Church,  and  indeed  the  Church  had's  successor,  St.  Willerich  (804  or  805-838).  After 
seems  to  have  been  the  grantee  primarily  con  tern-  the  death  of  the  third  bishop,  Leuderich  (d.  845)^  by 
plated  in  these  regulations.  There  is  a  great  mass  of  an  act  of  a  s3mod  of  Mainz  (848),  Bremen  was  umted 
jurisdiction  relating  to  its  territorial  rights,  and  no  with  the  Archdiocese  of  Hamburg,  which,  since  its 
doubt  this  must  have  affected  the  outside  body  of  foundation,  in  831,  had  been  imder  St.  Anschar,  who 
law  as  wdl.  But  all  bodies  of  law  are  exceedingly  was  appointed  firat  archbishop  of  the  new  arch- 
unmalleable,  and  tend  to  resist  the  absorption  of  diocese  (848-865).  Hamburg  had  been  destroyed  by 
foreign  dements;  and  Sir  Henry  Maine's  conclusion  the  Vikings  in  845,  and  in  1072,  after  a  second  de- 
is  tluit  "there  has  certainly  been  nothing  like  an  struction  of  the  city,  the  archiepiscopal  see  was 
intimate  interpenetration  of  ancient  Irish  law  by  definitely  transferred  to  Bremen,  though  the  title 
Christian  principle".  Still  the  effect  of  Christian  was  not  formally  transferred  until  1223.  Until  the 
principles  must  certainly  have  been  great,  but  they  secularization  of  1803  Hamburg  had  its  own  cathe- 
were probably  powerful  as  a  negative  rather  than  as  a  dral  chapter.  Before  it  was  united  with  Hamburg, 
positive  factor.  the  Diocese  of  Bremen  had  belonged  to  the  Province 
ExTiNGUiSHBO  BY  THE  ENGLISH. — ^The  Brchon  law  of  Cologne.  Despite  the  protests  of  the  Archbishop 
code  was  ultimatdy  extinguished  by  the  English  of  Cologne  against  the  separation  of  Bremen,  Pope 
in  every  part  of  Ireland.  So  soon  as  tney  conquered  Nicholas  I,  m  864,  confirmed  the  new  foundation, 
a  territoiy  they  stamped  it  out,  banished  or  dew  the  which  fell  heir  to  the  task  of  evangelizing  the  pagan 
Brehons,  and  governed  the  land  by  English  law.    It  North. 

would  have  been  a  very  inconvenient  doctrine  for  Rembert  (865-888),  the  successor  of  St,  Anschar, 
them  that  the  tribe  owned  the  land  or  that  the  people  summoned  the  Benedictines  from  Corvei  and  became 
had  rights  as  apart  from  the  chief.  Whenever  a  cmef  a  member  of  the  order;  his  companion  and  suc- 
made  nis  submission  he  was  recognized  as  owner  and  cesser,  St.  Adalgar  (888-909),  was  likewise  a  Bene* 
landlord  of  the  territory  of  the  tribe,  and  the  tenltoiy  dictine.  Both  performed  great  services  in  the  con- 
was  adjudged  to  descend  by  primogeniture  to  his  verbion  of  the  North  to  Christianity.  When  the 
eldest  son.  In  this  way  the  hereditary  rights  of  the  Art?  .bishop  of  Cologne  renewed  his  claims  to  Bremen, 
mass  of  the  people  of  Ireland  were  taken  m>m  them.  Pope  Formosus,  in  892,  gave  the  decision  that  the 
and  they  were  r^uced  to  the  rank  of  ordinary  ten-  Archbishop  of  Bremen  was  to  be  independent  of  the 
ants,  and,  the  native  nobility  being  soon  exterminated,  Metropolitan  of  Cologne,  but  should  take  part  in  the 
they  mostly  fell  into  the  hands  of  English  landlords,  diocesan  synods  of  Cologne.  Under  St.  Hoger  (909- 
and  were  mially  subjected  to  those  rack  rents  whic^  916),  a  Benedictine  of  Corvei,  and  Reginw^xl  (91 7-* 


BBEMBN  767  BBSMEU 

918),  the  Hungarians  laid  waste  the  diocese  and  even  Wenden   (1435-41),  who  was   also  Abbot,  of  St. 

burned  the   city  of  Bremen.     The  ninth   bishop,  Michael  in  Ltlneburg;  Gerhard  III  (1441-63),  and 

St.  Unni,  died  at  Birka  (936),  while  on  a  missionary  others.   Less  fortunate  was  the  episcopate  of  Hein- 

joumey  to  Scandhiavia.     Through  the  efforts  of  rich  von  Schwarzburg  (1463-96),  who  jdso  became 

Archbishop  Adalda«  (937-988)  Bremen  received  the  Bishop  of  Mttnster  in  1466;  the  city  of  Bremen  took 

privil^es  of  a  mancet  town,  and  in  967  the  same  advantage  of  the  almost  uninterrupted  absence  of  the 

archbishop  obtained  the  jurisdiction  of  a  count  over  last-named  archbishop  to  shake  off  the  episcopal 

the  city,  as  well  as  various  crown-lands  from  Otto  I,  authority  almost  entirely.    Several  estates  or  castles 

thus  laying  the  foimdation  for  the  temporal  posses-  were  given  in  pledge  or  fell  in  ruins,  and  the  dis- 

sions  of  the  archbishops  of  Bremen.    At  the  instance  satisfaction  of  the  people  under  the  ecclesiastical 

of  Adaldag  three  dioceses  were  erected  in  Danish  rule  increased,  preparing  the  soil  for  the  Reforma- 

territory  and  in  Schleswig,  and  made  suffragans  of  tion. 

Bremen.     There  was  a  considerable   accession  of        The    successor    of    Heinrich    von    Schwarzburg, 

territory  to  the  archdiocese  under  Archbishop  Unwan  Johann  III  Rohde  (1497-1511),  cleared  the  arch- 

(1013-29).     The  foundation,  however,  of  the  later  diocese  of  debt,  and  introduced  many  reforatis.    In 

hi^y  developed  temporal  power  of  Bremen  was  spite  of  the  fact  that  he  came  of  the  middle  class,  he 

laid  by  Adalbert,  the  guardian  and  influential  coun-  sought  to  increase  his  prestige  in  the  diocese  by  tak- 

sellor  of  Henry  IV;  during  his  long  episcopate  (1043-  ing  as  coadjutor  Prince  Christopher  of  Brunswick 

72)  he  brought  nearly  all  the  ooimtships  (Grafschaften)  (1500).    The  latter  succeeded  in  1511,  but  being  at 

within  the  limits  of  the  archdiocese  imder  the  juris-  the  same  time  Bishop  of  Verden,  resided  chiefly  in 

diction  of  the  Chinxh  of  Bremen.     His  dream  of  Verden,  and  so  was  unable  to  devote  the  necessary 

raising  the  archdiocese  to  the  dignity  of  a  northern  attention  to  his  Diocese  of  Bremen,    The  Reforma- 

patriarchate,  however,  was  never  realized.     During  tion  won  its  first  victory  in  the  city  of  Bremen;  the 

nis   episcopate    the    Obotrites   were    converted    to  Catholic  clergy  who  opposed  the  new  te£iching  were 


separated  from  Bremen,  and  later  placed  under  the  said  or  choir  service  held.    From  the  city  as  a  centre 

Bishop  of  Lund,  who  was  raised  to  the  rwik  of  a  metro-  the  new  teaching  spread  through  the  surrounding 

politan  in  1103.    Like  Adalbert,  his  immediate  sue-  territory  and  though  the  archbishop  himself  and 

cessors  took  the  side  of  the  emperors  against  the  some  monasteries  for  a  long  time  offered  vigorous 

popes.    At  the  Council  of  the  Lateran  the  nominal  opposition,  by  the  help  of  the  Smalkaldic  League, 

metaropolitan    jurisdiction    over    the    churches    of  which   Bremen  had   joined,   the  Reformation   was 

Scandinavia  was  restored  to  Adalbert  II  (1123-48),  introduced    throughout    the    archdiocese,    in    some 

but  in  reality  they  remained  independent  of  Bremen,  cases  by  force.   After  the  death  of  Christopher  (1558), 

During  the  episcopate  of  Adalbert  Vizelin  succeeded  the  cathedral  chapter,  which  was  almost  entirely 

in  his  task  of  evangelizing  the  Slavs  of  Holstein  and  Protestant  by  this  time,  chose  as  his  successor  his 

Mecklenburg.    Hartwich  I  (1148-68),  Count  of  Stade,  brother  George  (1558-66),  who  was  ah-eady  Bishop 

brou^t  the  countship  of  Stade  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Verden  and  Minden;  during  his  episcopate,  the 

of  the  Church  of  Bremen.    His  struggle  with  Henry  archdiocese,  with  the  exception  of  the  cathedral  and 

the  Lion,  Duke  of  Saxony,  entailed  great  suffering  to  some   country  parishes,   accepted  the  teaching  of 

the  archdiocese;  in  1155  the  city  of  Bremen  was  Calvin.     George  was  succeeded  by  four  Protestant 

captured  and  plundered,  and  the  countship  of  Stade  archbishops,  the  last  (1634)  being  Frederick,  Prince 

seized  and  held  by  Henry.    After  the  fall  of  Henry,  of  Denmark,  later  King  of  Denmark  imder  the  name 

Archbishop  Siegfried  (1178-84)  was  the  first  to  re-  of  Frederick  III.    During  the  Thirty  Years  War,  by 

gain  possession  of  the  countship.    Hartwich  II  (1184-  the  edict  of  restitution  of  Emperor  Ferdinand  11 

1207)   founded  several  monasteries  and  promoted  (1625)  j  the  archdiocese  was  restored  to  the  Catholics, 

the  civilization  of  his  people;  his  administration  of  Cathoho  worship  re-established,  monasteries  given 

temporal  affairs,  however,  was  unfortunate  and  in-  back  to  the  monks^  and  a  college  at  Stade  placed  in 

volved  the  archdiocese  in  serious  difficulties  with  charge  of  the  Jesmts  (1629-32).    When,  however,  in 

Emperor  Henry  VI,  resulting  in  revolt  on  the  part  of  1632,  the  imperial  troops  were  forced  to  evacuate  the 

the  bishop's  subjects.  territory  before  the  Swedes.  Catholicism  was  once 

Dissensions  over  the  choice  of  an  arehbishop  and  more  rooted  out.    In  1644  the  arohdiocese  was  cap- 

the  claims  of  PsJatine  Count  Henry,  son-in-law  of  tured  by  the  Swedes,  and  in  1648  secularized  by  the 

Henry  the  Lion,  to  the  countship  of  Stade,  left  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  and  ceded  as  a  duchy  to  Sweden, 

Church  of  Bremen  in  sore  straits  at  the  beginning  of  and  the  cathedral  chapter  at  Bremen  suppressed.    In 

the   thirteenth   century.     After   lengthy  struggles.  1712  the  territory  became  a  possession  of  Denmark, 

Archbishop  Gerhard  II    (121^57)   finally  received  and  in  1715  was  purchased  by  the  electoral  Prince 

the  undisputed  possession  of  the  countship,  by  which  George  of  Hanover.    The  city  of  Bremen  with  the 

the  territorial  extent  of  the  archdiocese  was  sub-  surrounding  territory  was  in  1731  reco^iized  as  a 

stantially  fixed,  covering,  at  that  time,  the  land  be-  free  city  of  the  empire,  and  in  1803  received  an  in- 

tween  the  lower  Weser  and  the  lower  Elbe,  including  crease  of  territory;  in  1815  it  entered  the  German 

also  a  part  of  the  territory  to  the  right  of  the  mouth  Confederation,  in  1866  the  North  German  Confedera- 

of  the  Elbe.     Repeated  difficulties  over  the  choice  tion,  and  in  1871  the  German  Empire.    The  greater 

of  an  archbishop,  the  growth  of  the  city  of  Bremen,  part  of  the  present  duchy  was  ceded  to  Prussia  with 

the  continual  disposal  of  diocesan  privileges  by  arch-  the  Kingdom  of  Hanover  (1866).     Ecclesiastically, 

bishops   under  stress   of    financial   embarrassment,  the  territory  of  the  former  Archdiocese  of  Bremen  is 

misnue  on  the  part  of  some  archbishops,  and  other  divided  among  several  dioceses:  the  city  of  Bremen 

circumstances  as  well,  contributed  towards  the  de-  and  the  vicinitVj  with  about  13,000  Catholics,  is 

cline  of  the  power  and  splendour  of  the  archdiocese  subject  to  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  the  Northern 

which  took  place  in  the  course  of  the  fourteenth  Missions,  the  remaining  territory  to  the  Dioceses  of 

century.    Among  the  more  capable  bishops  of  this  Hildesheim,  O&nabrQck,  and  Munster. 

period   were:   Johann   Grant    C1307-27)     previously  ^          j^^^  bibUogmphy  of  the  older  Utei*ture  on  Bremen 

Archbishop  of  Lund,  Burchard  Grelle  (1327-44),  who  in  Dehio,  Oeseh.  dea  ^^wtnatutM  BremenrHamburg  W«  Mum 

held  a  synod  in  1328  and  redeemed  several  castles  Auagano  der  MiMum(2  vola.,  Berlin.  1877).   Cf.  jOsd  Adamds 

of  the  archdic^,  which  hadb^n  given  as  eecurity;  ^^^^  ^Sil^l^r^^SL'tt^^v^^J;^ 

Johann    II    Slamstorff     (1406-21);    Boldewin    von  Bremen  ^ambwffieohe  Ktrthenffeech,  (Berlin,  1850),  2ad  ed 
IL-^ 


BRENAOH  758  BBINDAV 

Wattknbach  (Leipng,  1888);  Lappenbbbo.  (TMefkicftitffueIZm  aked  or  Ballvnevinoorach,  at  the  foot  of  Brandon 

fc4JSf  %,iSn5  vif.??^):'%\.^'Hroy'»''B'2!^''iriS;  HiU.    It  waa  from  here  that  he  set  out  on  his  famo,« 

Oeachtchtamtellen    (3     partfl.     Ccllc.    1856-58);     Bremer,    Ur-  VOVage    for    the    Land    of    Delight.      The    Old    Irish 

kundenintck,  ed.  Ehmck  and  Bippen  (5  vola.,  Bremen,  1873-  Calendars 'assigned  a  special  feast  for  the  "Egressio 

'^i'''^;?^:r^i^i^P^r^r^n^r-iJi!^^i  Jfrlj*  S-  B^dam",  on  22  March;  and  St.  Aengv» 

and  Halle.    1894-1904);   Buchenau,   Die  frets  Hanaettadi  the  Culdee,  in  his  Litany,  at  the  close  of  the  eighth 

Bremen  UTui  ihr  Gebiet  (3d  ed.,  Bremen,  1900);  Von  Schubebt,  century,   invokes   "  the  sixty   who   accompaniea   St. 

Hambyro,  die  Mis9iarumetrin>oU  des  Ui^densiBTt>m^u,  190^).  Brendan  in  hU  quest  of  the  Land  of  Promise". 

J08ia»H  L,iN8.  Naturally,  the  story  of  the  seven  years'  voyage  was 

Brenach,  Saint,  an  Irish  missionary  in  Wales,  carried  about,  and,  soon,  crowds  of  pilgrims  and 

a  contemporary  of  St.  Patrick,  and  among  the  earliest  students  flocked  to  Ardfert.    Thus,  in  a  few  yeans, 

of  the  Irish  saints  who  laboured  among  the  Celts  many  religious  houses    were    formed    at    GaUerus, 

of  that  coimtry.     About  the  year  418  he  travelled  Kilmalchedor,    Brandon    Hill,    and    the    Blasquet 

to  Rome  and  Brittany,  and  thence  to  Milford  Haven.  Islands,  in  order  to  meet  the  wants  of  those  who 

He  erected  various  oratories  near  the  rivers  Cleddau,  came  for  spiritual  guidance  to  St.  Brendan. 
Gwain,  and  Caman.  and  at  the  foot  of  Cam  Engyli,        Having  estabUshed  the  See  of  Ardfert,  St.  Brendan 

or  '^ Mountain  of  the  Angels'',  which  was  his  most  proceeded  to  Thomond,  and  founded  a  monastery 

famous  foundation.    Among  his  converts  was  Brecan  at  Inis-da-druim  (now  Coney  Island,  County  Clare), 

(an  Irish  chief),  the  ruler  of  South  Wales,  about  the  in  the  present  parish  of  Killadysert,  about  the  year   ^ 

year425,  and  this  Brecan  is  reckoned  by  the  "Triads '4  556.     He  then  journeyed  to  Wales,  and  thence  to 

as  a  saint,  who  foynded  numerous  churches  in  Breck-  lona,  and  left  traces  of  his  apostolic  zeal  at  Kilbran- 

nockshire,    Carmarthenshire,    Pembrokeshire,    Den-  don  (near  Oban)  and  Kilbrennan  Sound.     After  a 

bighshire,  and  Anglesey.    From  the  Welsh  "Lives"  three  years'  mission  in  Britain  he  returned  to  Ireland, 

we  learn  that  St.  Brenach  died  7  April,  on  which  and  did  much  good  \^rk  in  various  parts  of  Leinster, 

day  his  feast  is  celebrated.    His  church,  overhanging  especially  at  Dysart  (Co.  Kilkenny),  Killiney  (Tub- 

the  Severn,  is  a  lasting  memorial  of  the  Irish  pilgrim  berboe),  and  Brandon  Hill.    He  founded  the  Sees  of 

who  was  the  instrument  under  God  for  the  conversion  Ardfert,  and  of  Anndghdown,  and  established  churches 

of  a  great  part  of  Wales.  at  Inchiauin,.  County  Galway,  and  at  Inishglora, 

Rees,  L%ve9  of  the  Cambro-BrUish  Sainu  (Llandovery,  1853):  County  Mayo.    His  most  celebrated  foundation  was 

i'ki^l^'^  t  ^^fl^lif  S^'iJ'i^l^.t M^Sftn^  Clonfert,  in  557,  over  which  he  appointed  St.  Moinenn 

Saints  in  Great  Britain  (1903),  new  edition;  Fenton,  Pem^  as  Pnor  and  Head  Master.    St.  Brendan  was  mterred 

brokeshire;  Acta  SS.,   I,   April j    Martyrologium  Anglicanum;  in  Clonfert,  and  his  feaflt  is  kept  on  16  May. 
O'Hanlon,  Lives  of  «Ae  Irish  '^^'^'g^'^^P^'^  y^^^  W.  H.  GraTTAN  FloOD. 

Brenan,  Michael  John,  ecclesiastical  historian.  Voyage  of  Saint  Brendan. — Saint  Brendan 
b.  in  Kilkenny,  Ireland,  in  1780;  d.  at  Dublin,  Feb-  belongs  to  that  glorious  period  in  the  history  of 
ruary,  1847.  He  was  the  son  of  a  stonemason  and  Ireland  when  the  island  in  the  first  glow  of  its  con- 
after  his  ordination  to  the  priesthood,  speedily  ob-  version  to  Christianity  sent  forth  its  earliest  mes- 
tained  reputation  as  a  preacher,  but,  owing  to  his  sengers  of  the  Faith  to  the  continent  and  to  the  regions 
vanity  and  pride,  came  into  collision  with  his  bishop,  of  the  sea.  It  is,  therefore,  perhaps  possible  that 
and  was  suspended.  He  then  left  the  Churchy  be-  the  legends,  current  in  the  ninth  and  conmiitted  to 
came  a  Protestant,  and  was  taken  up  by  the  Priests'  writing  in  the  eleventh  century,  have  for  foundation 
Protection  Society  under  whose  auspices  he  was  an  actual  sear-voyage  the  destination  of  which  cannot 
announced  to  preach  in  St.  George's  Church,  Dublin,  however  be  determined.  These  adventures  were 
In  the  meantime  he  reconsidered  his  position  and  called  the  "Navigatio  Brendani",  the  Voyage  or 
repented  of  his  folly.  He  resolved  to  make  public  Wandering  of  St.  Brendan,  but  there  is  no  his- 
reparation  for  his  fault,  and  on  the  Sunday  in  1809,  torical  proof  of  this  journey.  Brendan  is  eaid  to 
when  he  was  announced  to  commence  his  campaign  have  sailed  in  search  of  a  fabled  Paradise  with  a 
against  the  Church,  he  ascended  the  pulpit  of  St.  company  of  monks,  the  number  of  which  is  variously 
George's,  began  by  olessing  himself  most  reverently,  stated  as  from  18  to  150.  After  a  long  voyage  of 
and  then  to  the  relief  of  nis  audience  took  up  the  seven  years  they  reached  the  "Terra  Repromis- 
Bible,  and  said  "This  is  the  Word  of  God".  After  sionis",  or  Paradise,  a  most  beautiful  land  with 
a  brief  pause,  he  added  deliberately  and  earnestly,  luxuriant  vegetation.  The  narrative  offers  a  wide 
"And  I  swear  by  its  contents  that  every  word  I  range  for  the  interpretation  of  the  geographical  po- 
have  uttered  against  the  Catholic  Church  is  a  lie",  sition  of  this  land  and  with  it  of  the  scene  of  the 
and  at  once  left  the  building.  He  went  to  a  neigh-  legend  of  St.  Brendan.  On  the  Catalonian  chart 
bouring  Capuchin  friary,  explained  what  had  hap-  (1375)  it  is  placed  not  very  far  west  of  the  southern 
pened,  and  begged  to  oe  admitted  into  the  order,  part  of  Ireland.  On  other  charts,  however,  it  is 
After  some  time,  his  prayers  were  granted,  and  he  identified  with  the  "Fortunate  Isles"  of  the  ancients 
became  a  Franciscan  at  Wexford  where  in  later  and  is  placed  towards  the  south.  Thus  it  is  put 
years  he  wrote  (as  a  penance,  it  is  said)  his  valuable  among  the  Canary  Islands  on  the  Herford  chart  of 
^'Ecclesiastical  History  of  Ireland"  (2  vols.,  Dublin,  the  world  (beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century);  it 
1840,  revised  ed.,  1864).  is  substituted  for  the  island  of  Madeira  on  the  chart 

HooAN,  History  of  Kilkenny  (pulpit  incident  reproduced  in  of  the  Pizzigani  (1367),  on  the  Weimar  chart  (1424), 

fflr?Wlt;&7Nov°ar^7ISB):  **''^'  *^'*^'-  ""^  ^nd  on  the  chart  of  feeccario  (1435).  ^A^  Ae  in- 

D.  J  O'Donoqhue.  crease  m  knowledge  of  this  region  proved  the  former 

belief  to  be  false  the  island  was  pushed  further  out 

Brendan,  Saint,  of  Ardfert  and  Clonfert,  known  into  the  ocean.    It  is  found  60°  west  of  the  first  me- 

also  as  Brendan  the  Voyager,  b.  in  Ciarraighe  Lu-  ridian  and  very  near  the  equator  on  Martin  Behaim's 

achra,  near  the  present  city  of  Tralee,  County  Kerry,  globe.    The  inhabitants  of  Ferro,  Gomera,  Madeira, 

Ireland,  in  484;  d.  at  Enachduin,  now  Annaghdown,  and   the   Azores   positively   declared   to   Columbus 

in  577.     He  was  baptized  at  Tubrid,  near  Ardfert,  that  they  had  often  seen  the  island  and  continued 

by  Bishop  Ere.    For  five  years  he  was  educated  un-  to  make  the  assertion  up  to  a  far  later  period.    At 

der  St.  Ita,  "the  Brigid  of  Munster",  and  he  com-  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  failure  to  find 

pleted  his  studies  under  St.  Ere,  who  ordained  him  the  island  led  the  cartographers  Apianus  and  Ot' 

priest  in  512.     Between  the  years  512  and  530  St.  telius  to  place  it  once  more  in  the  ocean  west  of 

Brendan  biult  monastic  cells  at  Ardfert,  and  at  Shan-  Ireland;  finally,  in  the  early  ps^  Qf  tbo  nineteenth 


BBIXTUO  759  BXXRTAIIO 

oentuiy  belief  in  the  existence  of  the  island  was  com-  foundeia  and  letidera  of  the  Romantic  School,  to 
^etely  abandoned.     But  eoon  a  new  theory  arose,  which  Breatono  also  attached  himself.     In  1803  he 
maintained    by   those  scholara   who   claim   for   the  married  Sophie  Mcreau,  the  divorced  wife  of  Pro- 
Irish  the  glory  of  discovering  America,  namely,  Mao-  teeaor   Mereaii,   and   the   following   year   moved   to 
Carthy,  Ratn,  Beamish,  OTIanlon,   Beauvois,  Gaf-  Heidelberg,  where  with  Achim  von  Arnim,  who  later 
farel,  etc.    They  rest  this  claim  on  the  account  of  became  his  brother-in-law,  and  Joseph  GCrres  he  was 
the  Northmen  who  found  a  refion  south  of  Vinland  soon   the     leading 
and  the  Chesapeake  Bay  called  "Hvitramomaland"  spirit    of   the    so- 
(Land  of    the    White  Men)  or  "Irland   ed  mikla"  t^ed  younger Ro- 
(Greater  Ireland),  and  on  the  tradition  of  the  8ha-  mantic  School.     It 
wano  (Shawnee)  Indians  that  in  earlier  times  Florida  was     during     this 
was  inhabited  by  a  white  tribe  which  had   iron  im-  period  that  he  pub- 
plements.     In  regard  to  Brendan  himself  the  point  lished  joiatiy  with 
15  made  that  he  could  only  have  gained  a  knowledge  Arnim   the  mmous 
of  foreign  animals  and  plants,  such  aa  are  dcscribtd  collection     of    old 
in  the  legend,  by  visiting  the  western  continent,  folksongs  known  as 
On  the  other  hand,  doubt  was  very  eariy  expressed  "Des      Knaben 
ra  to  the  value  of  the  narrative  for  the  history  of  Wunderhorn", 
discovery.     Honoriua  of  Augsbn^  declared  that  the  which  aopeared  in 
island  hod  vanished;  Vincent  of  Beauvais  denied  the  three  volumes  b^ 
autiienticity  of  the  entire  pilgrimage,  and  the  Bol-  twcen    the    yeota 
landists  do  not  recogniee  it.    Among  the  (jeographera.  1805     and      1808, 
Alexander    von    Humboldt,    Peschel,    Huge,    and  This  collection  ea- 
Kretschmer,    place   the   story   among    geographical  tablished  once   for 
legends,  which  are  of  interest  for  the  nlstory  of  civ-  all  the  position  of 
ilisation  but  which  can  lay  no  claim  to  serious  con-  the     Volkdied     in 
sideration  from  the  point  of  view  of  geography.    The  German    hterature 


oldest  account  of  the  legend  Is  in  Latin,  "  Navigatio  and  had  a  powerful 

^ncti    Brendani",    and    belongs    to    the    tenth   or  effect  on  the  lyric  poetrynot  only  of  Germany,  but 

eleventh  century;  the  first  French  translation  dates  al«o  of  other  nations.     Lon^ellow  testifies  that  it  had 

from  1125;  a'nce  the  thirteenth  century  the  legend  "themostwild  and  magnc  iiifluence"onhiBimagina- 

tias  appeared  in  the  literatures  of  the  Netherlands,  tion.    It  wasofcoursenot  to  beexpectedthat  thetext 

Germany,  and  England.     A   list   of    the  numerous  of  these  poems  should  be  nhilologically  accurate,  but 

manuscripta  is  given  by  Hardy,  "Descriptive  Cata-  this  in  no  way  diminishes  the  importance  of  the  service 

logue  of  Malerials  Relating  to  the  Htotory  of  Great  which  the  editors  rendered  to  German  literature.     In 

Britain   and   Ireland  "   (London,  1862),  I,  150   sqq.  1806  Brentano's  wife  died  and  he  then  led  a  wild,  un- 

Editiona  have  been  issued  by;  Jubinal,  "  La  L^nde  settled  life,  drifting  to  various  places,  Halle,  Weimar, 

latine  de  9.  Brandaines  avec  une  traduction  incite  Kassel,  Vienna,  and  Berlin.     A  second  matrimonial 

en  prose  et<n  poiisie  romanes"  (Paris,  1836);  Wright,  venture  proved  disastrous;  his  wife  was  a  woman  of 

"St,   Brandin,   a  Medieval   L^nd  of  the  Sea,   in  unbridled  temper  and  liabits,  and  he  soon  aeparated 

English    Verse,    and    Proae"     (London     1844);    C.  from  her.     Finally  he  drifted  to  Berlin  restless  and 

Semper,  "Sanct  Brandan,  ein  latinischer  una  drei  discontented.     There  he  met  the  accomplished  Luise 

deutache  Texte"  (Erlangen,  1871):  Brill,  "Van  Sinte  Hensel,  who  later  on  achieved  fame  as  a  poetess.    His 

Brandane"   (Gronningjen,  1871);  Francisque  Michel,  ardent  love  for  her  was  unrequited.    Luise  Hensel  de- 

"Les  Voyages  merveilleux   de  Saint   Brandan  b.  la  clined  all  offers  of  marria^.    Agreatchange  nowcamo 

recherche  du  paradis  terrestre"  (Paris,  1878);  Fr.  No-  over  the  poet.     Hispreviousindifferenceto  theCatho- 

vati,    "La    Navigatio   Sancti    Brandani    in    antico  lie  Faith,  in  which  he  had  been  twrn,  was  changed  to 

Veneziano"  {Bergamo,  1892);  E.  Bonebakker   "Van  the  most  fervid  devotion.     He  left  Berlin  and  in  1818 

Senfe  Brandane"  (Amsterdam,  1894);  Carl  Waliland  went  to  the  secluded  Westphalian  town  of  Diilmen, 

M  a  list  of  the  rich  literature  on  the  subject  and  attracted  by  the  fame  of  the  stigmatic  nun,  Katharina 

old  French  prose  translation  of  Brendan's  voyage  Emmerich.     For  sis  years  he  remained  c        ' 


t 


(Upsala,  1900),  XXXVI-XC.  making  a  record  of  her  visions  and  revelations.    The 

BBAiiiBH,TA<DM««rffo/^™;r«a(188n,210-211-0'HAK-  publication  of  this  record  occupied  the  greater  part 

W^V^l'lU^:  i^n^t  of  the  remaining  years  of  his  life.     After  her  death 

ja  dt  Saint  Brandan  el  da  Papa  m  1824  he  agam  wandered,  settlmg  at  last  m    1833 


„.*,  t»™  0/ (Ab /i 

20-28;  GiLTrAKKi.,  La  Vsvaea  dx  Saint  Brandan  el  da  Papa     m  1824  he  agam  wandered,  setthng  a     .  .  .    

dmu  i'<4«an*im«  an  moj/rn   iae  in  Buiittin  dt  la  SixMi  <to  in  Munich,  where  with  GOrres  he  was  the  Centre  of  a 

%^^^^E°^TJ^^J^Ji  Tsfn^^^^S^zi^  "^"^^  »f  distinguished  Catholic  scholars  and  men  of 

_      .          .         .    „'''f^.^,„J'„.'«' ™ ■-     •'-•-■^csi  BeC-  letters.     He  died  in  1842  while  visiting  his  brother 

iLiOera-  Christian  in  Ascliaffenburg, 

Akadmi^'dcr  $^it^  Brentano  is  chiefly  known  as  the  editor  of  "Des 

- Knaben  Wunderhorn",  but  he  also  has  written  a 

gt«at  deal  of  original  matter.     Among  his  earlier 


gwa  d>  foctan  occidtnuu  in  Noav.  An.  d»  vovaoa  a  dt  tcienca  romance  IQ  which  some  fine  lyrics  are  mterspersed, 

oeoffT.  (184.^),  i,  2W3:  MArCAHTHT,  The  totrage  of  SIm  Brendan,  includinir    the  Sonii   of    the   "Lore   Lav'*,    later   in- 

rSMi.U.i^^,M„„..iJ^..iBj;.m„.  corpomSd  in  the  "Wunderhorn".     -fhii  rag  in- 

Otto  Hartio.  spired  Heine's  famous  ballad  on  the  same  subject. 

'Die   Romanzen  vom  Rosenkranz"    (Romances  of 

Brentuio,  Klembns  M&ria,  a  German  poet,  one  the  Rosary)  is    an  unfinished  narrative  all^orical 

of  the  most  prominent  members  of  the  Romantic  poem  containing  a  fanciful  mixture  of  biographical. 

School.    He  was  bom  at  Thal-Ehrenbreitstein  8  Sep-  nistorical,  and  legendary  traits,  which  was  published 

tember,  1778;  d.  28  July,  1842.     After  a  futile  at^  in  1852  after  the  author's  death.     Especially  not*. 

tempt  to  become  a  merchant,  he  entered  the  Uni-  worthy  are   the  stories,  or  MarcKen,  such  as   the 

versity  of  Jena  in   1797,   where  he  remained  with  "Geecnichte  vom  braven  Kasperl  und  dem  schOnen 

ocCbsiooal  interruptions  until  1803.     Here  he  made  Annerl''   (1817),  a  tragic  story  of   village  life;  and 

the  BC<^uaintance  of  the  brothers  August  Wilhelm  "Gockel.  Hinkel   und   Gackeleia''    (1838).      A   fao- 

and  Fnedrich  Scblq;el  and  of  Ludv^  Tieck,  the  tastic,  wnimsical  humour  pervades  near^  all  of  Bi«>- 


BBX801A                              760  BBBSOIA 

iano's  work;  his  style  is  marred  by  frequent  and  dis*  The  Bishop  >of  Brescia  is  suffraran  to  the  Aich* 

agreeable  eccentricities.   When  he  wishes  to  be  naive,  bishop)  of  Muan.     Legend  traces  uie  beginnings  of 

he  often  becomes  merely  childish.    His  poetic  gifts,  Christianity  in  Brescia  to  St.  Barnabas,  who  is  said 

however,  are  undeniably  of  a  high  order;  some  of  his  to  have  made  St.  Anatolus  bishop.    However.  Milan 

lyric  poems  (e.  g.  ''Lied  der  Spinnerin",  ''An  eine  also  claims  Anatolus  as  its  first  Disho{>,  consecrated 

Kranke'O  are  among  the  best  of  their  kind.    But  he  bv  St.  Barnabas.    In*  any  case,  the  Faith  was  prob- 

lacked  self-control  and  dissipated  his  great  literary  ably  brought  to  Brescia  by  way  of  Milan.     During 

talents.    His  collected  writings,  edited  b^r  his  brother  the  reini  of  Hadrian,  Brescia  was  the  scene  of  the 

Christian,  appeared  at  Frankfort  in  nine  volumes  martyraomofSts.  Faustinus  and  Jovita  (cf.  Acta  SS., 

(1851-56).  15  February).     From  the  time  of  the  persecutions 

Selections  with  biomphical  and  critical  intiwiucUo^  tradition  mentions  the  names  of  several  bishops, 

^S.  "(^L^rand  ^^Z'TfrSOA'ifA^f^)-  but  nothing  authentic  ta  known  concerning  them. 

Outdo  GdRREs  (ed.),  Mucrchen  (2  vols.,  stutt«art  and  TO-  Li  the  fourth  century  there  was  the  celebrated  St. 

bingen,  1846):   DiitL,  Clemen*  BrerUano,  EinlAberMJd,  vuppl  Philastrius,  a  moSt  zealous  champion  of  orthodoxy 

^■^■T^^S:^^SA^l^^¥o^V^)iTi-  »««J^  J^««V.  of  whom  it  is  related  that  be  con- 

71.  verted  many  pagans.     He  was  succeeded  by  St. 

Arthttr  F.  J.  Remy.  Gaudentius,  consecrated  by  St.  Ambrose  (c  387) . 

who  erected  outside  the  city  waUs  the  church  Ai 

Brescia,  Diocbse  of,  takes  its  name  from  the  Concilia  Sandorum,  in  which  the  holy  matron  Silvia 

principal  city  in  the  province  of  the  same  name  was  buried  later.    A  great  number  of  the  bishops 

m  Lombardy,  between  the  Mella  and  the  Naviglio.  who  ruled  this  diocese  m>m  the  fourth  to  the  seventh 

The  city  of  Brescia  contains  60,000  inhabitants  and  centuries  are  inscribed  on  the  rolls  of  the  saints,  e.  g. 

is  of  great  commercial  importance.    It  was  founded  St.  Paul,  St.  Theophilus.  St.  Silvinus,  St.  Qaudiosus, 

by  the  Gauls,  and  in  197  b.  c.  was  captured  by  the  St.  Ottapianus,  St.  Vigilius,  St.  Hercsdanus,  St,  Po- 

Komans,  who  called  it  Brixia.    When,  in  312,  Con-  terius,  St.  Anastasius  (610),  who  built  the  church 

stantine  advanced  against  Maxentius,  an  engage-  of  San  Pietro,  imd  made  it  the  cathedral,  and  St. 

ment  took  place  at  Brescia  in  which  the  enemv  was  Dominic  (613),  who  with  the  many  gifts  he  received 

forced  to  retreat  as  far  as  Verona.    During  the  in-  from  Queen  Theodolinda,  erected  the  church  Galled 

vasion  of  the  Huns  under  Attila,  the  city  was  be-  the  Rotonda.    Bishop  Ramperto  brought  to  Brescia 

sieged.    In  774  Charlemagne  captured  it  from  the  the  Benedictines,  who  constructed  a  church  to  which 

Lombards.  the^  transferred  the  relics  of  Sts.   Faustinus  and 

The  Bishops  of  Brescia  received  the  title  of  Count  Jovita;  he  also  took  part  in  the  Council  of  Mantua 
from  Louis  II,  and  in  conseauence  became  civil  of  827.     Notingus  (844)  was  the  first  bishop  who 
rulers  of  the  city  and  the  countsnip.    Blany  struggles  bore  the  title  of  Coimt.     Landolfo  II  (1007)  built 
followed,  however,  in  particular  after  Arauin  Lord  the  church  of  Santa  Eufemia  outside  the  walls. 
Marcher  of  Ivrea,  who  had  proclaimed  himself  King  During  the  episcopate  of  Blanfredo  Luccia^  (1133), 
of  Italy  (1002),  had  slain  the  bishop  of  this  city  for  Arnold  of  Brescia  disseminated  his  teachmgs,  with 
holding  allegiance  to  Emperor  Hen^  II.    Henry,  to  the  result  that  the  governors  of  the  city  all  but 
ensure  the  fidelity  of  the  citizens  of  Brescia,  was  confiscated  the  property  of  the  churches  of  Brescia, 
obliged  to  confirm  the  civil  liberty  granted  them  Alberto  Rezzato  (1213)  had  the  Paterines  to  contend 
by  Arduin,  which  is  the  origin  of  the  commune  of  against;  he  also  lHx>u^nt  many  relics  from  the  Holy 
Brescia.     In  the  successive  struggles  between  the  I^d.     Blessed  Gualla  Ronio  (1229)^  of  the  Friars 
Lombard  cities  and  the  emperors,  Brescia  was  im-  Preachers,  was  distinguished  for  his  vulue.    Berardo 
plicated  in  some  of  the  leagues  and  in  all  of  the  up-  Ma^  (1275),  a  Guelph,  was  made  Duke  and  Count 
risings  against  them.    Memorable  in  the  histonr  of  of  the  city,  and  constructed  among^other  works  two 
these  conflicts  is  the  siege  laid  to  Brescia  by  Fred-  canals  diverting  the  waters  of  the  Kivers  Chiese  and 
erick  II  in  1238  on  accoimt  of  the  part  taken  by  this  Mella,  in  order  to  furnish  the  motive  force  for  many 
city  in  the  battle  of  CJortenova  (27  November,  1237).  factories.    Tommaso  Visconti  (1388)  did  much  for 
Brescia  came  through  this  assault  victorious.    After  the  maintenance  of  discipline  among  the  clergy.    Un- 
the  fall  of  the  imperial  house  of  Swabia  republican  der  Bishop  Francesco  de'  Mareri  (1418),  the  preach- 
institutions  declined  at  Brescia,  as  well  as  in  the  ins  of  St.  Bemardine  of  Siena  wrought  a  great  moral 
other  free  cities  and  the  leadership  was  contested  reform  in  the  city  of  Brescia.    Pietro  dal  Monte  (1442) 
between  several  powerful  families,  cnief  amonff  them  adorned  the  episcopal  palace,  erected  a  hospital,  and 
the  Maggi  and  the  Brusati,  the  latter  of  the  Ghibelline  wrote  various  works.    Paolo  Zane  (1481)  built  the 
party,    in  1311  Henry  VII  laid  siege  to  Brescia  for  shrine  of  Santa  Maria  delle  Grazie  and  established 
six  months,  losing  three-fourths  of  his  army.    Later  the  hospital  for  incurables.    In  the  sixteenth  century 
the  Scaligeri  of  Verona,  aided  by  the  exiled  Ghibel-  three   cardinals   succeeded   each   other:    Francesco 
lines,  sought  to  place  Brescia  under  subjection.    The  Comaro  (1532),  Andrea  Comaro  (1543),  and  Durante 
citizens  of  Brescia  then  had  recourse  to  John  of  de'  Duranti  (1551).     Domenico  Bollani  (1559)  con- 
Luxemburg;    Mastino  II   della  Scala,  however,  ex-  vened  a  diocesan  synod  (1574)  in  conformitjr  with 
pelled  the  governor  appointed  by  him.    His  mastery,  the  decree  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  founded  the 
m  turn,  was  soon  contested  by  the  Visconti  of  Milan,  seminary.      Giovanni    Dolfin    (1579)    seconded    St. 
but  not  even  their  rule  was  undisputed,  as  Pandolfo  Charles  Borromeo  in  his  work  of  reform,  and  that 
Malatesta  in  1406  took  possession  of  the  city^  but  in  saint  by  his  own  desire  celebrated  the  obsequies  of 
1416  bartered  it  to  Filippo  Visconti,  who  m  1426  Bishop  Dolfin.     Bishop  Pietro  Ottoboni  (1654)  was 
sold  it  to  the  Venetians.    The  Milanese  nobles,  how-  later  elevated  to  the  chair  of  St.  Peter  under  the 
ever,  forced  Filippo  to  resume  hostilities  against  name  of  Alexander  VIII.     Cardinal  Alb.  Badoaro 
the  Venetians,  and  thus  to  attempt  the  recovery  (1706)  was  a  very  zealous  pastor,  combating  in  an 
of  this  city,  but  he  was  defeated  m  the  battle  of  especial  manner  the  Quietism  which  had  infected  his 
Maclodio  (1427),  near  Brescia.    In  1439  Brescia  was  diocese.    Cardinal  Angelo  M.  Quirini  (1727)  was  a 
once  more  besieged  by  Francesco  Sforza,  captain  of  man  of  great  learning;  he  founded  the  library  of  the 
the  Venetians,  who  conquered  Piccinino,  Filippo's  conunune,  which  took  its  name  from  him,  and  did 
condottiere.     Thenceforward    Brescia   acknowleaged  much   towards   the   restoration   of   the   cathedraL 
the  authority  of  Venice,  with  the  exception  of  the  During  the  episcopate  of  Giovanni  Nani  (1773)  the 
years  between  1512  and  1520,  when  it  was  occupied  French  invasion  took  place,  with  the  att^dant  pil- 
by  the  French  armies.     From  1796  it  shared  the  l^ging  of  churches  and  convents, 
fortimes  of  the  republic.  The  most  important  churches  oC  the  oHy  hav<t 


BBXSt&U  761  BKK8UU 

been  mentioned  in  connexion  with   the  tfahop^  beig  to  BredMi  in  May,  1124,  when  the  aalnt  waa  on 

There  is  still  to  be  iioted  that  ot  San  FranoeKO,  his  miauonar;  Joumev  to    Pomenmia;    Robert  I 

Romanesaue  in  etyle,  with  a  beautiful  facade.    Note*  ai27-12),  who  was  Bishop  of  Cnusow;  Robert  II 

worthy,  also,  is  the  cemetery  of  BreacU,  dating  from  (1142--46);  and  Johannes  II  (1146-49),  who  bMame 

the  begiiming  of  the  nmeteenth  century,  containing  ArchbiBhop    of    Gnesen.     With    the    episcopate    of 

a  large  watch  tower.  Bishop  Walter  (1149-69)  the  history  of  the  Diocwe 

The  diocese  contains  79  rural  deaneries,  389  par-  of  Brealau  bcsins  to  grow  dearer.     At  Walter's  re- 

ishes,  774  churches,  chapels,  and  oratories,  997  secular  quest  Pope  Adrian  iV,  in  llSd,  took  the  bishopric 

eiesta,  77  regular  clergy,  398  seminaristH,  283  mem-  under  his  protection  and  confirmed  to  it  the  terri- 

ra  of  female  religious  orders,  4  schools  for  boys,  torial  possessiona  of  which  a  list  had  been  submitted 

and  8  for  eirls,  and  a  population  of  627,475,  ._  i.^—       . .-l.  ..■..•.. — i.!_i.  .l .■. 

CjtFPEi.Lirm,  Le  chiae  d'JIalia  (Venice,  1S44),  Xl;  . 

-*'""'■  u.B.»,oK,.  "    i'S^f'^Z 

over    the    lands 

Breilaa,  The  Pbince-Bibhopric  or.  Is  seated  at  belonging  to  the 

Brealau^  on  the  River  Oder  in  the  Pruaaian  Province  castle  of    Ott- 

of  Silesia.  machau    which 

History. — Christianity  was  first  mtroduced  into  had  been  regard- 
Sileaia  by  missionaries  from  Horavia  and  Bohemia,  ed  as  the  patri- 
Af ter  the  conversion  of  the  Polish  Duke  Misiko  mony  of  the  dio- 
(later  Miecstyslaus)  the  work  of  bringing  the  people  cese  from  its 
to  the  new  faith  went  on  more  rapidly.  Up  to  about  foundation.  Dur- 
the  year  1000  Silesia  had  no  biehop  of  its  own,  but  ing  Walter's  epis- 
was  united  to  neighbouring  dioceses.  In  tbis  way  copate  the  Pol- 
BToae  the  first  connexion  of  Silesia  with  Germany,  ish  Duke  Ladis- 
The  upper  part  of  the  River  Oder  formed  the  bound-  lausandhis  fami- 
ary  of  the  Kingdom  o[  Poland:  all  the  territory  which  ly  were  driven 
is  now  Silesia  lying  on  the  right-hand  bank  of  the  from  home  and 
Oder  belonged,  therefore,  to  the  Diocese  of  Poeen,  took  refuge  in 
which  WHS  suffragan  to  the  Metropolitan  See  of  Germany;  in 
Ma^eburg.  This  part  of  Silesia  was  thus  under  the  1163  the  sons  of 
junadiction  of  that  Jordan  who  was,  in  968,  appointed  Ladislaue  return- 
first  Bishop  of  Fosen.     The  part  of  Silesia  lying  on  ed   and,  through 

the  left  bank  of  the  Oder  laelonKed  to  the  temtory  the  intervention  T""  Oitbidmai.  of  Bbmlaci 

then   included   in   Bohemia,   and  was  consequently  of     Frederick 

within  the  diocesan  jurisdiction  of  Prague.     The  S««  BarbarOBSa,  received  as  an   independent  duchy  the 

of  Prague,  founded  probably  in  973,  was  sufTraran  to  part  of    Silesia  which  was  included  at  that   date 

the  Archdiocese  of  Mainz.     The  Polish  ruler,  Boles-  m  the  See  of  Brealau.     Bishop  Waltor  built  a  new, 

lawChrobiritheBonofMiaiko, obtained theBohemian  massively   constructed  cathedrid,  in  wiiich  he   was 

part  of  Silesia  during  his  wars  of  conquest,  and  a  buried.      Zyroalaus  II    (1170-98)  encouraged     the 

change  in  the  ecclesiastical  dependence  of  the  prov-  founding  of  the  Cistercian  monastery  of  Leubua  by 


Silesia  was  attached  to  the  See  of  Meiasen,  which,  part  in  the  national  aaaembly  at  Lencs^c  at  which 
like  Posen,  was  suffragan  to  the  Archdiocese  of  lawa  for  the  protection  of  the  Church  and  its  properiT 
Mttf^ebur^   Soon  after  this  the  Emperor  Otto  III    were  promulgated.    Jaroslaus  (1198-1201),  the  olo- 


ano  Duke  Boleslaw  Ohrobry,  who  was  then  the  ruler  est  son  of  Duke  fioleslaw,  and  Duke  of  Oppein,  was 
of  the  whole  of  Silesia,  founded  the  Diocese  of  the  first  prince  to  become  Bishop  of  Brealau.  Ql>- 
Breelau,   and   Breslau,   together   with   the   Dioceses    rian    (1201-7)    was  originally   Abbot    ot    the    tre- 


dioccse  of  Gnesen.  which  was  founded  by  Otto  in  lau,  then  Bishop  of  Lebua,  and  afterwards  Bishop  of 
the  year  1000.  The  first  Bishop  of  Breslau  is  aaid  Brealau.  During  Cyprian's  episcopate  Duke  JEiein- 
to  have  been  named  Johannes,  but  nothing  more  than  rich  I  and  his  wi^,  St.  Hedwig,  founded  the  Cistercian 
this  is  known  of  him,  nor  is  there  extant  any  official  convent  at  Trebnit*.  The  episcopate  ot  Bishop 
document  giving  the  boundaries  of  the  diocese  at  the  Lorenz  (1207-32)  was  marked  by  his  efforts  to  bring 
time  of  its  erection.  However,  they  are  defined  in  ooloniee  of  Gemuns  into  the  cnurch  territories,  to 
the  Bulls  of  approval  and  protection  issued  by  effect  the  cultivation  of  waste  lands.  This  intro- 
Pope  Adrian  IV,  23  April,  1155,  and  by  Pope  Inno-  duction  of  German  settlers  by  the  bishop  was  in  ac- 
cent IV,  9  August,  1246.  cordance  with  the  example  set  by  Heinrich  I  and 
The  powerful  Polish  ruler,  Boleslaw  Chrobry,  was  St.  Hedwig.  The  monasteries  of  the  Augustinian 
succeeded  by  his  son  Misiko  II,  who  had  but  a  short  Canons,  Premonstratensians,  and  Cistercians  took  an 
reign.  After  his  death  a  revolt  against  Christianitv  active  part  in  carrying  out  the  schemes  of  the  rulers 
and  the  reigning  family  broke  out,  the  new  Church  hr  ptsicing  great  numbers  of  Germans,  especially 
organization  of  Toiand  disappeared  from  view,  and  'niuringians  and  Franconians,  on  the  large  estates 
the  names  of  the  Bishops  of  Breelau  for  the  next  that  had  been  granted  them. 

half   century  are   unknown.     Casimir,   the    son    of        One  of  the  most  noted  bishops  of  the  diocese  was 

Misiko,  and  his  mother  were  driven  out  of  the  eoun-  Thomas  I    (1232-68);   he  continued  the  work  of 

trVi  hut  through  German  aid  they  returned,  and  the  German  colonization  with  so  much  ener|3'  that  even 

ajfaire  of  the  Church  were  brought  into  better  order,  the  marauding  iucursions  of  the  Mongols  (1241)  made 

A  Bishop  of  Breslau   from  probably  1061   to   1062  but  a  temporary  break  in  the  process.     His  defence 

was  Hieronymus,  said  by  later  tradition  to  have  been  of  the  rights  of  the  Church  involved  him  in  bitter 

a  Roman  nobleman.     He  was  followed  by  Johannes  I  conflicts  with  Duke  Boleslaw  of  Lie^itz.     Thomas 

(1062-72),  who  was  succeeded  by  Petrus  1  (1071-  began  the  construction  of  the  present  cathedra],  the 

1111).     During  the  episcopate  of  Petrus,  Count  Peter  chancel   being  the   first  part  erected.     St.   Hedwig 

Wiast  entered  upon  that  work  of  founding  churches  died  during  his  episcopate;    and  he  lived  until  the 

and    monasteries    which   has   preserved    his   name,  process  of  her  canonisation  was  completed,  but  died 

Petrus    was    followed    byr    Zyroslaus  1  (1112-20);  before  the  final  soiemnity  of  her  devation  to  the 

Eidmo  (1120-26),  who  welcomed  St.  Otto  of  Bam-  altan  of  the  Catholic  Oiuroh.    After'  Thomaa  1, 


BBE8LAXJ  762  BBX8L4XJ 

Ladislaus,  a  grandson  of  St.  Hedwig,  and  Archbishop  Bishop  W^izel  of  Lebus,  Duke  of  Liegnits,  was  trans- 
of  Salzburg,  was  Administrator  of  the  Diocese  of  ferred  to  Bresiau  (1382-14 17).  The  new  bishop  de- 
Breslau  until  his  death  in  1270.  He  was  followed  by  voted  himself  to  repairing  the  damage  inflicted  on  the 
Thomas  II  (1270-92),  who  was  involved  for  years  in  Church  in  Silesia  by  the  despotic  procedure  of  the 
a  violent  dispute  with  Duke  Henry  IV  as  to  the  Emperor  WenzeL  fie  held  two  synods,  in  1410  and 
prerogatives  of  the  Church  in  Silesia.  In  1287  a  1415,  with  the  object  of  securing  a  higher  standard  of 
reconciliation  was  effected  between  them  at  Ratis-  ecclesiastical  discipline;  and  he  settled  the  ri^t  of 
bon,  and  in  1288  the  duke  founded  the  collegiate  inheritance  in  the  territory  imder  his  dominion  bv 
church  of  the  Holy  Cross  at  Breslau.  Before  his  promulgatizig  the  church  decree  called  "Wenael's 
death,  on  the  Eve  of  St.  John  in  1290,  the  duke  con-  law".  Resigning  his  bishopric  in  1417,  Wenzel  died 
firmed  the  rights  of  the  Church  to  sovereignty  over  in  1419.  The  episcopate  of  Conrad,  Duke  of  Oels, 
the  territories  of  Neisse  and  Ottmachau.  Tnomas  II  the  next  bishop  (1417-47),  feU  in  the  Irying  time  for 
consecrated  the  high  altar  of  the  cathedral;  he  was  Silesia  of  the  Hussite  wars.  Conrad  was  placed  at 
present  at  the  (Ecumenical  C!ouncil  of  Lyons  (1274)  the  head  of  the  Silesian  confederation  wnich  was 
and  in  1279  held  a  diocesan  synod.  Johann  III,  formed  to  defend  the  country  against  hostUe  incur- 
Romka  (1292-1301),  belonged  to  the  Polish  party  in  sions.  In  1435  the  bishop  issued  a  decree  of  which 
the  cathedral  chapter.  His  maintenance  of  the  the  chief  intent  was  to  close  the  prebends  in  the 
prerogatives  of  the  Church  brought  him,  also,  into  Diocese  of  Breslau  to  foreigners,  and  thus  prevent  the 
conflict  with  the  temporal  rulers  of  Silesia;  in  1296  he  Poles  from  obtaining  these  offices.  The  effort  to  shut 
called  a  synod  for  the  defence  of  these  rights.  In  the  out  the  Polish  element  and  to  loosen  the  connexion 
election  of  Heinrich  I,  of  Wttrben  (1302-19),  the  with  Gnesen  was  not  a  momentary  one;  it  continued, 
German  party  in  the  cathedral  chapter  won.  but  this  and  led  gradually  to  a  virtual  separation  from  the 
victory  cost  the  new  bishop  the  enmity  of  the  op-  Polish  archdiocese  some  time  before  the  formal 
posing  faction.  He  was  made  guardian  of  the  youtn-  separation  took  place.  The  troubles  of  the  times 
nil  Dukes  of  Breslau.  and  this  appointment,  toother  brought  the  bishop  and  the  diocese  into  serious 
with  the  factional  aisputes,  lea  to  the  bringing  of  pecimiary  difficulties,  and  in  1444  Conrad  resigned, 
grave  accusations  against  him.  The  researches  of  out  his  res^nation  was  not  accepted,  and  he  re- 
more  recent  times  have  proved  the  ^undlessness  of  sumed  his  omoe.  In  1446  he  held  a  diocesan  synod 
these  attacks.  He  was  kept  in  Avi^on  a  number  and  died  in  the  following  year.  Conrad's  successor 
of  years  by  a  suit  before  tne  Curia  which  was  finally  was  the  provost  of  the  cathedral  of  Breslau,  Peter 
settled  in  his  favour.  Notwithstanding  the  troubles  Novak  (1447-56).  By  wise  economy  Bishop  Peter 
of  his  life  he  was  energetic  in  the  performance  of  his  succeeded  in  bringing  the  diocesan  finances  into  a 
duties.  He  carried  on  the  construction  of  the  better  condition  and  was  able  to  redeem  the  greater 
cathedral,  and  in  1305  and  1316  held  diocesan  synods,  part  of  the  church  lands  which  his  predecessor  had 
The  office  of  Auxiliary  Bishop  of  Breslau  dates  from  been  obliged  to  mortgage.  At  the  diocesan  synod 
his  episcopate.  After  his  death  a  divided  vote  led  of  1454  he  endeavour^  to  suppress  the  abuses  that 
to  a  vacancy  of  the  see.    The  two  candidates,  Weit  had  arisen  in  the  diocese. 

and  Lutold,  elected  by  the  opposing  factions,  finally  Jodokus  of  Rosenberg  (1456-67)  was  a  Bohemian 
resigned,  and  Pope  John  XXII  transferred  Nanker,  nobleman  and  Grand  Prior  of  the  Knights  of  St. 
Bisliop  of  Cracow,  to  Breslau  (1326-41).  John.  His  love  of  peace  made  his  position  a  very 
The  constant  division  and  subdivision  of  Silesian  difficult  one  during  the  fierce  ecclesiastico-political 
territory  into  small  principalities  for  the  members  contention  that  raged  between  the  Hussite  King  of 
of  the  ruling  families  resulted  in  a  condition  of  weak-  Bohemia,  George  of  Podiebrad.  and  the  people  of 
ness  that  necessitated  dependence  on  a  stronger  Breslau,  who  had  taken  sides  with  the  German  party, 
neighbour,  and  Silesia  thus  came,  from  the  year  1327,  Jodokus  was  followed  by  a  bishop  from  the  region  of 
under  the  control  of  Bohemia.  A  quarrel  Tbroke  out  the  Rhine,  Rudolf  von  Riidesheim  (1468-82).  As 
between  Bishop  Nanker  and  the  suzerain  of  Silesia,  papal  legate,  Rudolf  had  become  popular  in  Breslau 
King  John  of  Bohemia,  when  the  king  seized  the  throu^  nis  energetic  opposition  to  George  of  Podie- 
oastle  of  Militsch  which  belonged  to  the  cathedral  brad;  Tor  this  reason  the  cathedral  chapter  requested 
chapter.  The  bishop  excommimicated  the  king  and  his  transfer  from  the  small  Diocese  of  Lavant  in 
those  members  of  the  Council  of  Breslau  who  sided  Carinthia,  after  he  had  confirmed  their  privileges, 
with  him.  On  account  of  this  he  was  obliged  to  flee  From  this  time  these  privile|jes  were  called  "  the 
from  Breslau  and  take  refuge  in  Neisse,  where  he  Rudolfian  statutes ".  Under  his  leadership  the  party 
died.  Preczlaus  of  Pogarell  (1341-1376)  was  elected  opposed  to  Podiebrad  obtained  the  victory,  and 
bishop  while  pursuing  his  studies  at  Bologna,  and  Rudolf  proceeded  at  once  to  repair  the  dama^  which 
was  consecrated  bishop  at  Avignon.  Through  his  had  been  occasioned  to  the  Church  during  this  strife: 
friendship  with  Carl,  tne  eon  of  King  John,  he  was  mortgaged  church  lands  were  redeemed;  m  1473  and 
soon  able  to  settle  the  discord  that  had  arisen  under  1475  diocesan  synods  were  held,  at  which  the  bishop 
his  predecessor.  The  diocese  prospered  greatiy  under  took  active  measures  in  regard  to  church  discipline. 
his  rule.  He  bought  the  Duchy  of  Grottkau  from  As  coadjutor,  he  had  selected  a  Swabian^  Johann  IV, 
Duke  Boleslaw  of  Brieg  and  added  it  to  the  episcopal  Roth,  Bishop  of  Lavant,  a  man  of  humanistic  train- 
territory  of  Neisse.  The  Bishops  of  Breslau  had.  ing.  Urged  by  King  Matthias  of  Hungary,  to  whom 
therefore,  after  this  the  titles  of  Prince  of  Neisse  ana  Sitesia  was  then  subject,  the  cathedral  chapter,  some- 
Duke  of  Grottkau,  and  took  precedence  of  the  other  what  unwillingly,  chose  the  coadjutor  as  bishop 
Silesian  rulers  who  held  principalities  in  fief.  Cari  IV,  (1482-1506).  His  episcopate  was  marked  by  violent 
the  emperor  at  this  date,  wished  to  separate  Breslau  quarrels  with  the  cathedral  chapter.  But  at  the 
from  the  Archdiocese  of  Gnesen  and  to  make  it  a  same  time  he  was  a  promoter  of  art  and  learning,  and 
suffragan  of  the  newly  erected  Archbishopric  of  strict  in  his  conception  of  church  rights  and  duties. 
Prague,  but  the  plan  failed,  owing  to  the  opposition  He  endeavoured  to  improve  the  spiritual  life  of  the 
of  the  Archbishop  of  Gnesen.  Preczlaus  added  to  the  diocese  by  holding  a  number  of  s5mods.  Before  he 
cathedral  the  beautiful  Lady  Chapel,  in  which  he  was  died  the  famous  worker  in  bronze.  Peter  Vischer  of 
buried  and  where  his  tomb  still  exists.  Dietrich,  Nuremberg,  cast  his  monument,  the  most  beautiful 
dean  of  the  cathedral,  who  was  elected  as  successor  to  bishop's  tomb  in  Silesia.  His  coadjutor  with  right  of 
Preczlaus,  could  not  obtain  the  papal  confirmation,  succession  was  Johann  V  (1506-20),  a  member  of  the 
and  the  Bishop  of  OlmQtz,  who  was  chosen  in  his  noble  Hungarian  family  of  Turzo.  Johann  V  took 
place,  soon  died.  After  a  long  contest  with  the  an  active  part  in  the  intellectual  life  of  the  time  and 
Bohemian    King    and    German    Emperor    Wenzel,  sought  at  the  diocesan  synods  to  promote  learning 


BRB8LAXJ                                763  BRXBLAU 

and  church  discipline,  and  to  improve  the  schools.  Bishop  Carl  (1608-24),  Archduke  of  Austria,  had 

On  the  ruins  of  the  old  stronjghoid  of  Fauemig  he  greater  success  than  his  predecessor  after  the  first 

built  the  castle  called  Johannisberg,  now  the  summer  period  of  the  Thirty^  Years  War  had  taken  a  turn 

residence  of  the  Prince-Bishop  of  Breslau.  favourable  to  Austna  and  the  Catholic  party.    The 

The  religious  disturbances  of  the  sixteenth  century  battle  of  the  White  Mountain  ^1620)  broke  not 
be^n  to  be  conspicuously  apparent  during  this  only  the  revolt  in  Bohemia,  but  also  the  opposition 
episcppate,  and  soon  after  Johann's  death  Protestant-  of  the  allied  Protestants  of  Silesia.  Bisnop  Carl 
ism  began  to  spread  in  Silesia,  which  coimtry  had.  began  the  restoration  4fl  the  principality  of  Neisse 
since  1526,  belonged  to  Austria.  Princes,  nobles,  ana  to  the  Catholic  Faith.  The  work  was  completed  by 
town  councils  were  zealofis  promoters  of  the  new  his  successor,  Carl  Ferdinand,  Prince  of  Poland 
belief:  even  in  the  episcopal  principality  of  Neisse-  (1625-55).  Carl  Ferdinand  spent  most  of  his  time 
Grottkau  Protestant  doctrines  found  approval  and  in  his  own  oountiy,  but  appointed  excellent  ad- 
acceptance.  The  successors  of  Johann  V  were  partly  ministrators  for  the  diocese,  such  as  the  Coadjutor- 
responsible  for  this  condition  of  affairs.  Jacob  von  Bishop  liesch  von  Homau,  and  Archdeacon  Gebauer. 
Salza  (1520-39)  was  personally  a  stanch  adherent  Impenal  commissioners  ^ve  back  to  the  Catholic 
of  the  Church,  yet  the  gentleness  of  his  disposition  Church  those  church  buildings  in  the  chief  places  of 
CAUsed  him  to  shrink  from  carrying  on  a  war  against  the  principalities  which  had  become  the  property  of 
the  powerful  religious  movement  that  had  arisen,  the  sovereign  through  the  extinction  of  fiefs.  Ac- 
To  an  even  greater  degree  than  Jacob  von  Salza  his  cording  to  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia, 
successor,  B^uthasar  von  Promnitz  (1539-63),  avoided  the  remidning  churches,  693  in  number,  of  such 
coming  into  conflict  with  Protestantism.  He  was  territories  were  secularised  in  the  years  1653,  1654, 
more  ^iendly  in  his  attitude  to  the  new  doctrine  than  and  1668.  This  led  to  a  complete  reorganization  of 
any  other  Bishop  of  Breslau.  Caspar  von  Logau  the  diocese.  The  person  who  effected  it  was  Se- 
(1562-74)  showed  at  first  greater  energy  than  nis  hastian  of  Rostock,  a  man  of  humble  birth  who  was 
predecessor  in  endeavouring  to  compose  the  troubles  vicar-^neral  and  administrator  of  the  diocese  imder 
of  his  distracted  diocese,  but  later  m  his  episcopate  the  bishops  Archduke  Leopold  Wilhelm  (165&-62) 
his  attitude  towards  Lutheranism  and  his  slackness  and  Archduke  Carl  Joseph  (1663-64),  neither  of 
in  defending  church  rights  gave  great  offence  to  whom  lived  in  the  territory  of  Breslau.  After 
those  who  mid  remained  true  to  the  Faith.  These  Sebastian  of  Rostock  became  bishop  (1664-71)  he 
circumstances  make  the  advance  of  Protestantism  carried  on  the  work  of  reorganization  with  stiQ  greater 
easy  to  imderstand.  At  the  same  time  it  must  be  success  than  before.  Fri^rich.  Landgrave  of  Hesse, 
remembered  that  the  bishops,  although  also  secular  Cardinal,  and  Grand  Prior  o^  the  Oroer  of  St.  John, 
rulers,  had  a  difficult  position  in  regard  to  spiritual  was  the  next  Bishop  of  Breslau  (1671-82).  The  new 
matters.  At  the  assemblies  of  the  nobles,  ana  at  the  bishop  was  of  Protestant  origin  and  had  become  a 
meetings  of  the  diet,  the  bishops  and  the  deputies  of  Catholic  at  Rome.  Under  hb  administration  the 
the  cathedral  chapter  were,  as  a  rule,  the  only  rehabilitation  of  the  diocese  went  on.  He  beautified 
Catholics  against  a  large  and  powerful  majority  on  the  cathedral  and  elaborated  its  services.  For  the 
the  side  of  Protestantism.  The  Austrian  suzerains,  ted  cap  and  violet  almutium  of  the  canons  he  sub- 
who  lived  far  from  Silesia,  and  who  were  constantly  stituted  the  red  mozetta.  He  was  buried  in  a 
preoccupied  by  the  danger  of  a  Turkish  invasion,  beautiful  chapel  which  he  had  added  to  the  cathedral 
were  npt  in  a  position  to  enforce  the  edicts  which  in  honour  of  his  ancestress,  St.  Elizabeth  of  Th\}- 
th^  issued  for  the  protection  of  the  Church.  ringia.    After  his  death  the  chapter  presented  Carl 

The  Silesian  clergy  had  in  great  measure  lost  their  von  Liechtenstein,  Bishop  of  OlmQtz,  for  confirmar 

high  concept  of  the  priestly  office,  although  there  were  tion.    Their  choioe  was  opposed  by  the  emperor, 

honourable  exceptions.     Among  those  faithful  were  whose  candidate  was  the  (Jount  Palatine  Wolfgang 

the  majority  of  the  canons  of  the  cathedral  of  Bres-  of  the  ruling  family  of  Pfalz-Neuburg.    Count  Wolf- 

lau;  they  distinguished  themselves  not  only  by  their  gang  died,  and  his  brother  Franz  Ludwig  (1683- 

leamin^,  but  also  by  their  religious  zeal.    It  was  in  1732)  was  made  bishop.    The  new  ruler  of  the  dlo- 

the  mam  due  to  them  that  the  diocese  did  not  fall  oese  was  at  the  same  time  ^Bishop  of  Worms,  Grand 

into  spiritual  ruin.    The  chapter  was  the  willing  Master  of  the  German  Knights,  Provost  of  EUwan- 

assistant  of  the  bishops  in  the  reform  of  the  diocese,  gen,  and  Elector  of  .Trier,  and  later,  he  was  made 

Martin  von  Gerstmann  (1574-85)  began  the  renoya-  Elector  of  Mainz.     He  separated  the  ecclesiastical 

tion  of  the  diocese,  and  the  special  means  by  which  administration  and  that  of  the  civil  tribunals,  and 

he  hoped  to  attain  the  desired  end  were:  the  founding  obtained  the  definition,  in  the  Pra^atic  Sanction 

of  a  seminary  for  clerics,  visitations  of  the  diocese,  of  1699,  of  the  extent  of  the  jurisdiction  of  the 

diocesan  synods,  and  the  introduction  of  the  Jesuits,  vicariate-general  and  the  consistory.     In  1675,  upon 

His    successor,    Andreas    von    Jerin    (1585-96),    a  the  death  of  the  last  reigning  duke,  the  Silesian 

Swabian  who  had  been  educated  at  the  German  Duchy    of    Liegnitz-Brieg-Wohlau    lapsed    to    the 

College  at  Rome,  followed  in  his  footsteps.     At  the  emperor,  and  a  new  secularization  of  the  churches 

diocesan  synod  of  1592  he  endeavoured  to  improve  was  begun.     But  when  Charles  XII  of  Sweden  se- 

church  discipline.     Besides  his  zeal  in  elevating  the  cured  for  the  Protestants  the  right  to  their  former 

life  of  the  Church,  he  was  also  a  promoter  of  the  arts  possessions  in   these  territories,   by  the  treaty  of 

and  learning.    The  silver  altar  with  which  he  adorned  AltranstUdt.  in  1707.  the  secularization  came  to  an 

his  cathedral  still  exists,  and  he  brought  the  schools  end,  and  tne  churches  had  to  be  returned.    The 

in  the  principality  of  Neisse  into  a  flourishing  condi-  Emperor  Joseph  I  endeavoured  to  repair  the  loss  of 

tion.    The  bishop  also  rendered  important  services  these  buildings  to  the  Catholic  Faith  by  founding 

to  the  emperor,  as  legate,  at  various  times.     Bona-  the  so-called  Josephine  vicarships. 

Ventura  Hahn,  elected  in  1596,  as  the  successor  of  The  next  bishop,  Philip,  Count  von  Sinzendorf, 

Andreas  von  Jerin,  was  not  recognized  by  the  em-  Cardinal  and  Bishop  of  Kietab  (1732-47),  owed  his 

peror  and  was  obliged  to  resign  his  position.    The  elevation  to  the  favour  of  the  emperor.     During  his 

candidate  of  the  emperor,  Paul  Albert  (1599-1600),  episcopate  the  greater  part  of  the  diocese  was  added 

occupied  the  see  only  one  year.     Johann  VI  (1600-8),  to  the  territory  of  Prussia.     King  Frederick  II  of 

a  member  of  a  noble  family  of  Silesia  named  von  Prussia   (Frederick  the  Great)   desired  to  erect  a 

Sitsch,  took  more  severe  measures  than  his  prede-  "Catholic  Vicariate"  at  Berlin,  which  should  be  the 

cessors  against  Protestantism,  in  the  hope  of  check-  highest  spiritual  authority  for  the  Catholics  of  Prus- 

ing  it,  especially  in  the  episcopal  principality  of  sia.    This  would  have  been  in  reality  a  separation 

Neisse-Grottkau.  from  Rome,  and  the  project  failed  through  the  op* 


.    BBI8L4XJ                               764  BBK8LAXJ 

pomtion  of  the  Holy  See.    Bishop  Sinx^idoif  had  Hib  suooesaor  was  Mdcljior,  Freiherr  von  Diepai- 
neither  the  acuteness  to  perceive  the  inimical  intent  brock    (1845-^).     This    episcopate    was    the    be- 
of  the  kind's  scheme,  nor  sufficient  decision  of  char-  ginning  of  a  new  religious  and  ecclesiastical  life  in 
acter  to  withstand  it.     The  king  desired  to  secure  a  the  diocese.     During  the  revolutionary  period  the 
successor  to  Sinzendorf  who  would  be  imder  royal  bishop  not  only  maintained  order  in  lus  see,  which 
influence.     In  utter  disregard  of  the  principles  of  the  was  in  a  state  of  ferment,  but  was  also  a  supporter 
Church,  and  heedless  of  the  protests  of  the  cathedral  of  the  Government.     He  received  imusual  honours 
chapter,  he  presented  Count  Philip  Gotthard  von  from  the  king  and  was  made  a  cardinal  by  the  po{)e. 
Schaffgotsch  as  coadjutor-bishop.     After  the  death  He  died  20  Januar^r,  1853,  at  the  castle  of  Johsumis- 
of  Carainal  Sinzendorf  the  king  succeeded  in  over-  berg  and  was  buried  in*  the  cathedral.     His  suo- 
coming  the  scruples  of  the  Holy  Father,  and  Schaff-  cessor,  Heinrich  F6rster   (1853-81)   carried  on  his 
gotsch  became  Bishop  of  Breslau   (1748-95).    Al-  work  and  completed  it.     Bishop  Fdrster  gave  gen- 
though  the  method  of  his  elevation  caused  tne  new  erous  aid  to  the  foimding  of  churches,  monastic  in- 
bishop  to  be  regarded  with  suspicion  bv  many  strict  stitutions,  and  schools.    The  strife  that  arose  be- 
Catholics,  yet  he  was  zealous  in  the  fulfilment  of  his  tween  the  Church  and  the  State  brought  his  labours 
duties.     During  the  Seven  Years  War  he  fell  into  dis-  in  the  Prussian  part  of  his  diocese  to  an  end.    He 
credit  with  Frederick  on  account  of  his  firm  main-  was  deposed  by  the  State  and  was  obliged  to  leave 
tenanoe  of  the  rights  of  the  Church,  and  the  return  Breslau  and  retire  to  the  castle  of  Johannisbei]^. 
of  peace  did  not  fully  restore  him  to  favour.     In  1766  Here  he  died,  20  October,  1881.     He  was  buried  m 
he  fled  to  the  Austrian  part  of  his  diocese  in  order  to  the  cathedral  at  Breslau.     Leo  XIU  appointed  as 
avoid  the  confinement  in  Oppeln  which  the  king  had  his  successor  in  the  disordered  diocese  Robert  Herzog 
decreed  against  him.     After  this  Frederick  made  it  (1882-86),  who  had  been  delegate  of  the  prince- 
impossible  for  him  to  rule  the  Prussian  part  of  his  bishop  and  provost  of  St.  Hedwig^s  at  Berlin.    Bishop 
diocese,  and  until  the  death  of  the  bishop  this  terri-  Herzog  made  every  endeavour  to  bring  order  out  of 
toiy  was  ruled  by  vicars  Apostolic.  the  confusion  into  which  the  quarrel  with  the  State 
The  former  coadjutor  of  von  Schaflgotsch,  Joseph  during  the  immediately  preceding  years  had  thrown 
Christian,  Prince  von  Hohenlohe-Waldenbur^-Bar-  the  affairs  of  the  diocese.     Unfortunately,  his  episco- 
tenstein    (1795-1817),    succeeded    him    as    bishop,  pate  was  of  but  short  duration;  he  died  after  a  long 
During  this  episcopate  the  temporal  power  of  the  illness,  26  December,  1886.     The  Holy  See  appoint^ 
Bishops  of  Breslau  came  to  an  end  through  the  as  his  successor  a  man  who  had  done  much  to  allay 
secularization,   in   1810,   of   the   church  estates  in  the  strife  between  Church  and  State,  the  Bishop  of 
Silesia.     Only  the  estates  in  Austria  remained  to  the  Fulda,  Georg  Kopp.     Bishop  Kopp  was  bom,  25 
see.    The    cathedral    foundation,    eight    collegiate  July,  1837,  at  Duderstadt  in  the  Diocese  of  Hildes- 
foundations,  and  over  eighty  monasteries  were  sup-  heim;  he  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood,  29  August, 
pressed,  and  their  propei^  confiscated.     Onlv  those  1862;  consecrated  and  installed  Bishop  of   Fulda, 
monastic    institutions    which    were    occupied    with  27  December,  1881;  transferred  to  Breslau,  9  August, 
teaching  or  nursing  were  allowed  to  exist.     Bishop  1887,  installed  20  October,  1887;  created  a  carmnal, 
Joseph  Christian  was  succeeded  by  his  coadjutor,  16  January,  1893. 

Emmanuel  von  Schimonsky.  The  affairs  of  the  Extent  and  Statistics  op  the  Diocese. — ^The 
Church  in  Prussia  had  been  brought  into  order  by  Diocese  of  Breslau  includes  the  whole  Prussian 
the  Bull  "De  salute  animarum",  issued  in  1821.  Province  of  Silesia  with  the  exception  of  a  part  of 
Under  its  provisions  the  cathedral  chapter  elected  the  districts  of  Ratibor  and  LeobschUtz,  wlueh  be- 
Schimonsky,  who  had  been  administrator  of  the  long  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Olmiltz,  and  the  Count- 
diocese,  as  the  first  Ebcempt  Bishop  of  Breslau  (1824-  ship  (Grafachaft)  of  Glatz,  also  in  Prussian  Silesia, 
32).  The  bishop  received  for  himself  and  his  sue-  which  is  subject  to  the  Archbishop  of  Prague.  In 
cessors  the  title  of  prince  as  partial  compensation  for  Austrian  Silesia  the  Diocese  of  Breslau  includes  the 
the  loss  of  the  secularized  principality  of  Neisse.  Principality  of  Teschen  and  the  Austrian  part  of  the 
He  combated  the  rationalistic  tendencies  which  were  Principality  of  Neisse.  In  the  Province  of  Branden- 
rife  among  his  clergy  in  regard  to  celibacy  and  the  burg  tne  diocese  still  includes  the  districts  of  Sehwie- 
use  of  Latin  in  the  church  services  and  ceremonies.  bus-ZiilUchau  and  Krossen,  as  well  as  the  part 
During  the  episcopate  of  his  predecessor  the  Govern-  formerly  called  Nieder-Lausitz.  With  the  exception 
ment  had  promulgated  a  law  which  was  a  source  of  of  the  districts  of  BUtow  and  Lauenburg,  the  rest  of 
much  trouble  to  Schimonsky  and  his  immediate  Brandenburg  and  the  Province  of  Pomeranla  have, 
successors;  this  was  that  in  those  places  where  Catho-  since  1821,  been  supervised  by  delegation  from  the 
lies  were  few  in  number,  the  parish  should  be  de-  Prince-Bishop  of  Breslau.  (See  Berlin,  Branden- 
clared  extinct,  and  the  church  buildings  given  to  the  bubg.) 

Protestants.  In  spite  of  the  protests  of  the  episcopal  Including  the  district  governed  by  delegation  the 
authorities,  over  one  hundred  church  buildings  were  diocese  contains,  according  to  the  last  census  (1  De- 
lost  in  this  way.  King  Frederick  WiUiam  put  an  cember,  1905),  3,342,221  Catholics;  8,737,746  Protes- 
end  to  this  injustice,  and  sought  to  make  good  the  tants;  and  204,749  Jews.  There  are  actively  em- 
injuries  inflicted.  For  several  years  after  bchimon-  ployed  in  the  diocese  1,632  secular^  and  121  r^ular 
sky's  death  the  see  remained  vacant.  It  was  eventu-  priests.  The  cathedrid  chapter  mcludes  the  two 
ally  filled  by  the  election,  through  Government  in-  offices  of  provost  and  dean,  and  has  10  regular,  and 
fluence,  of  Count  Leopold  von  Sedlnitzki  (1836-40).  6  honorary,  canons.  The  prince-bishopric  is  di- 
Bishop  von  Sedlnitzki  was  neither  clear  nor  firm  in  vided  into  11  commissariates  and  99  archpresbv- 
his  maintenance  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Church;  on  terates,  in  which  there  are  992  cures  of  various  kinds 
the  question  of  mixed  marriages,  which  had  become  (parishes,  curacies,  and  stations),  with  935  parish 
one  of  great  importance,  he  took  an  undecided  posi-  cnurches  and  633  dependent  and  mother-churches, 
tion.  At  last,  upon  the  demand  of  Pope  Gregory  Besides  the  theologic^  faculty  of  the  Universitjr  of 
XVI,  he  resigned  his  see.  He  went  afterwards  to  Breslau,  the  diocese  possesses,  as  episcopal  institu- 
Berlin,  where  he  was  made  a  privy-councillor,  and  tions  for  the  training  of  the  clergy,  5  preparatory 
where  he  later  became  a  Protestant.  The  dean  of  seminaries  for  boys,  1  home  (recently  much  en- 
the  cathedral,  Dr.  Ritter,  administered  the  diocese  larged)  for  theological  students  attending  the  imi* 
for  several  years  until  the  election  of  the  Grand  Dean  versity,  and  1  seminarv  for  priests.  The  statisticB 
of  the  countship  of  Glatz,  Joseph  Knauer  (1843-44).  of  the  houses  of  the  religious  orders  in  the  dioceses 
The  new  bishop,  who  was  seventy-nine  years  old,  are  as  follows:  Benedictines,  1  house;  Dominicans,  1: 
lived  only  a  year  after  his  appointment.  Franciscans,  8;  Jesuits,  3;  Piarists,  1;  Brothers  oi 


BBIBUIT  765 

Uercy,  8;  Order  of  St.  Comillus  of  Lellis,  1;  Re-  by  Kins  LadisUua  of  Hungary,  to  which  Sileaia  than 

demptorista,  1;  Congregation  of  the  Society  of  the  bciloDg^j  when  the  Unlvereity  of  Cracow,  fearing 

EKvise  Word,  I;  Alexiaa  Brothers,  1;  Poor  Brothers  competition,   succeeded   in   bringing   the  scheme  to 

of  St.  Francis,  2;  Sisters  oF  St.  Elisabeth,  6;  Magdalen  naught.    The  efforts  made  in  1S27  by  the  Protea- 

Sisters,  Ij  Uraulines,  6;   Sisters  of  the  Good  Shep-  tanta  to  found  a  Silesian  University  at  Liegniti  and 

herd,  4;  Sistere  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  (a)  from  the  in    1616    at    Beuthen    also    failed.     The    Cathdios 

mother-house  at  Trebnitz,  181,  (b)  from  the  mother-  sought  to  establish  a  theological  school  for  the  educa- 

house  at  Trier,  5;  Servants  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  tion  of  the  diocesan  clergy,  and  the  endeavour  led 

Jesus,  2;  Sisters  of  Poor  Handmaids  of  Christy  3;  to  the  founding  at  Brealau,  in  156S,  of  a  theological 

Sifltei^Bcrvants   oi    Maiy,   27;    German   Dominican  seminary  which  was  transferred  in   1575  to  Neisse. 

Sisters  of  St.  Catharine  of  Siena,  11;  Sisters  of  St.  In  1623  the  Bishop  of  Breslau,  Archduke    Carl  of 

Francis,  9;  Grey  Sisters  of  St,  Elizabeth,  169;  Sisters  Austria,  founded  at  Neisse  a  Jesuit  college  to  which 

of  St.  Hedwig,  9;  Sisters  of  Mary,  27^  Poor  School-  he  gave  a  laree  endowment.     The  bishop  intended 

Sisteta  of  Notre   Dame,    15;   Vincentian  Sisters,  7;  to  unite  with  this  college  a  university  having  depart- 

Ksters  of  the  Holy  Cross,  1;  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  1.  mente  of  jurisprudence  and  medicine,  but  his  death 

In   the  above-mentioned  monastic   houses  for  men  soon  after  the  foundine  of  the  school  prevented  the 

there  are  512  rehgious;  in  those  for  women,  5,208  carrying  out  of  these  pTam 
religious.  A  schoc'  ' — "  '  ' 

Stdiml.  Vrkandm  tor  aackidttc  de,  BiihinH  Btm(ou  im  i^?  ***       ...-..■  ■■■,■.. 

UitMaa<r(Bntaftu,i8*fi)iIUBTHKR.ArcAiv/flrf(i>a(KAi(A«  Society  conducted  w  tho  imperial  citadel  a  gym- 


Tdb  UwiTTKaRT  or  Bmu» 

in  BtMvnu  Sntlou  (3  vols,,  Naiase,  1858):  JnNOHm,  Vtr-  nadum,  the  higher  classes  of  which  corresponded  to 
m'»SifaJ*(3  vol!  'fe»iiS'"iBMi^^Nf^^!;S;SS^to  t^'o*^  '"  *s  pMosophicd  department  of  a  university 
Oadudu*  da  fiirtuinj  BreJau  (3  vols,  Broalftu,  1860);  8orr-  Theological  studies  were  introduced  in  1666.  These 
NKB.  Gitdvickle  dtr  RefanTiatian  in  Schtetiea  (Brealau.  18871;  two  courses  were  carried  on  as  in  a  university,  but 
rfSiS!;!Sinlirs3iS1ra3."B™&^[^?V  the  school  had  no  power  te  confer  degrees.  In  order 
(8  vol>.,  Brastau,  18651:  Zetitehnll  fir  OmtAkAM  sJ^iimM  U>  obtain  the  charter  necessary  for  the  conferring  o( 
(*n  vola.,  Breolau.  185S)|  GbDhhuoen,  Geichiditr  Schlrnmi  degrees  and  for  the  development  of  the  institution, 
;;^'{2^d?'  B^'a  llw)'^'^'^  ""^  FrMrirh  drm  ^^6  Jesuit  Father  Wolf  sought,  from  1694  on,  to 
■  ■  obtain  the  consent  of  Emperor  Leopold  I  to  the 
Uniyebsity  op  BftEBLAn, — The  founding  of  a  mii'  erection  of  the  school  into  a  university.  Father 
versity  at  Breslau  was  first  debated  in  1409,  when  Wolf  was  also  active  in  the  negotiations  between  the 
the  C&echs  made  It  ImpossiMe  for  the  Germans  to  courfa  of  Berlin  and  Vienna  concerning  the  conee»- 
eontinue  their  studies  at  the  University  of  Prague  sion  of  the  title  of  King  to  the  Elector  Frederick  III 
and  virtually  drove  them  from  it.  But  Leipiig  and  of  Brandenburg.  The  plans  Father  Wolf  sought 
not  Brealau  obtained  the  new  seat  of  learning,  to  carry  out  were  far-reaching.  He  held  it  a  misfor- 
About  a  century  later,  under  the  rjuickening  impulse  tune  that  Siiesians  were  obliged  to  go  to  univeraities 
of  Humanism,  the  project  was  again  taken  up  by  the  outside  ot  Silesia,  where  Catholics  often  had  no 
city  of  Breslau  m  conjunction  with  the  bishop,  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  their  religion.  His 
Johann  Roth,  and  his  coadjutor,  Johann  Turzo,  scheme  was  a  national  Silesian  university,  endowed 
and  a  "generate  hterarum  gymnasium"  to  contain  with  all  the  academic  privileges,  which  should  be 
all  four  faculties  was  planned.  The  charter  of  this  open  to  students  irrespective  ot  their  religious  he- 
institution  had  been  signed  at  Ofeu.  20  July,  150S,  liefs.    This  project  encountered  the  opposition  of 


BBfiSSANI  766  BUS88AMI 

Protestant  prejudice  againBt  the  Jeeuits,  and  the  Protestant  professors  of  theology  in  the  same  uni« 

town  council  of  Breslau  prevented  the  imperial  con-  versity  was  until  then  unheara  of.    The  plan  of 

firmation  of  the  plan  for  eight  years.    However,  imion  ordained  by  the  king  decreed  ''that  the  theo- 

Leopold  I  signed  at  Vienna,  21  October.  1702,  the  logical  department  of  the  combined  imi versity  should 

charter  raising  the  school  to  the  rank  of  a  unirer-  be  divided  into  two  faculties,  a  Protestant  theological 

sity   and  obtained  the  papal  confirmation  for   the  faculty  and  a  Catholic  theological  one.    These  two 

xlecree.  faculties,  of  equal  rank  in  ouier  respects,  were  to 

The  new  university,  called  after  the  emperor,  Leo-  alternate  in  precedence  from  year  to  year  in  the 

poldina,  was  opened  15  November,  1702,  but  the  matter    of    lecture-cmnouncements,    on    academic 

change  in  status  did  not  alter  the  internal  organiza-  occasions,  and  in  affixing  signatures.    The  public 

tion.    The  buildings  of  the  old  citadel  had  long  been  opening  of  the  new  university  took  place  19  October, 

too  cramped  for  the  needs  of  the  institution,  and  it  1811,  the  lectures  bc^an  21  October.     In  the  second 

was  resolved  to  erect  a  large  new  edifice,  the  comer-  year  of  the  new  school  patriotism  led  the  great 

stone  of  which  was  laid  6  April,  1728.    On  account  majority  of  the  students  to  take  part  in  the  war 

of  the  war  with  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia,  and  against  Napoleon  called  ''the  War  of  Liberation*', 

his  conquest  of  Silesia,  the  plans  for  the  new  structure  and  many  of  them  died  for  their  country.     After 

could  not  be  carried  out  in  their  entirety.    Although  peace  was  concluded  the  usual  life  of  the  university 

efforts  were  made  to  open  departments  of  law  and  was  resumed.    In  August,  1861,  the  semi-centennial 

medicine,  nothing  more  was  attained  than  unofficitd  of  the  university  was  celebrated  with  much  pomp, 

lectures    by    instructors    in    these    branches.    The  The  schools  of  learning  shared  in  the  great  develop- 

number  of  scholars  during  the  first  decade  of  the  life  ment  of  Germany  after  the  ws^  of  1866  and  1870, 

of  the  university  continually  increased.    In  1740,  1871^  and  the  Umversity  of  Breslau  received,  through 

1,300  students  attended  the  university  and  gyin-  the  mcrease  of  prosperity,  many  improvements  m 

nasium;  the  number  declined  during  the  first  Silesian  equipment.    The    departments    of    medicine    and 

war  then  rose  again,  until  the  Seven  Years  War  natural  science  deserve  special  mention, 
once    more    reduced    the    attendance    at    lectures.        The  increase  in  the  number  of  students  has  kept 

During  this  latter  conflict  the  building  was  used  as  a  pace  with  the  increase  in  the  number  of  instructors, 

hospitol  and  prison,  and  professors  and  students  were  When  the  university  was  opened^  in  1811,   there 

obliged  to  go  elsewhere.     Only  after  the  Peace  of  were  35  regular  professors,  4  assistant  professors, 

1763  was  the  building  restored  to  its  original  use  4  docents,  and  8  lecturers  and  technical  teachers; 

The  attendance  increased  rapidly  during  the  next  in  1861,  at  the  time  of  the  semi-centennial  celebration, 

ten  years,  but  fell  off  greatly  after  the  suppression  there  were  41  regular  professors,  11  assistant  profes- 

of  the  Society  of  Jesus.     In  1803,  when  the  Leopol-  sors,   33   docentSy   and   12   lecturers   and   technical 

dina  was  made  a  secular  institution,  the  number  of  teachers;  in  1906  there  were  73  regular  professors, 

students  was  about  500.  31  assistant  professors,  66  docentSf  and  15  lecturers 

After  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits  the  king  es-  and  technical  teachers.    In  the  first  year   of  the 

tablistied   a  Catnolic-Schools    Institute    which    in-  institution  there  were  298  students*  in  the  fiftieth, 

eluded  the  Jesuits  living  in  Silesia,  and  in  which  775;  and  in  1906  the  number  reached  1,961.     Of  this 

the  candidates  for  the  secular  priesthood  were  to  last  number.  241  attended  the  lectures  of  the  Catholic 

receive  their  training.      The  former  independence  theological  faculty;  61  the  lectures  of  the  Prot^tant 

disappeared  and  the  institute  and  university  were  theolo^cal  facultv;   565  attended  the  law   coume: 

maoe  dependent  on    the    Silesian  minister.      The  271,    the    medical    course;    807,    the    philosophical 

new    institution    maintained    with   difficulty   what  course.    The    German    students    numbered     1,884; 

was  already  in  existence;  it  was  ruled  by  a  spirit  of  forei^  students,  77.     Besides  matriculated  students, 

narrow    conservatism,    and    made    no    attempt    to  permission  to  attend  the  lectures  was  granted  to 

develop  its  courses  or  to  enter  new  fields.     Besides  285  other  persons  of  whom  179  were  women. 

this,  the  teaching  force  was  not  well  kept  up  even         N Orkbkrqkr,  Zum  xweihunderdahriaenBeaiehender  kathoH' 

m  tne  usual  brancnes  oi  learning.     LFunng  tne  last  ^g^^y  Ropell,  Die  Oe^chichte  der  SHftung  der  konii^idun 

decade  of  its  existence  the  Leopoldma  was  earned  UniveraiUU  Breslau  (Breslau.  1861);  Reinrens.  Die  Univern- 

on     under     the     royal     ordinance     issued     26     July,  «W  «*  BreeUiu  vorder  Vernntgung  der  Frankfurter  Viadrina  mil 

1800,  in  regard  to  the  University  of  Breslau  and  the  '^  Leapoldwa  (BresUu.  1861).  Joseph  JirxovrrK 
gymnasia  connected  with  it.  The  Catholic  school  josefh  junqnttz. 
system,  especially  the  gymnasia,  underwent  a  reform  ^  Bressani,  Francesco  Giuseppe,  an  Indian  mis- 
at  this  epoch  which  ledto  the  separation  of  the  gym-  sionary,  b.  in  Rome,  6  May,  1612;  d.  at  Florence, 
nasium  from  the  university  and  the  reorganization  of  9  September,  1672.  He  entered  the  novitiate  of  the 
the  pliilosophical  faculty.  These  two  changes  were  Society  of  Jesus,  15  August,  1626  and  studied  at 
earned  out  m  1811.  Rome  and  Clermont,  teaching  before  his  ordination 
The  founding  of  the  University  of  Berlin  in  1810  at  Sezza,  Tivoli.  and  raris.  On  his  arrival  in  America 
made  uncertain  the  future  existence  of  the  Protestant  he  was  assignea  to  the  spiritual  care  of  the  French  at 
university  at  Frankfort  on  the  Oder,  not  far  from  Quebec,  but  in  the  following  year  was  sent  to  the 
Berlin.  There  was  also  a  strong  desire  in  Silesia  Algonquins  at  Three  Rivers.  In  April,  1644,  on  the 
for  a  university  embracing  all  faculties,  and  King  way  to  the  Huron  Mission  he  was  captured  by  the 
Frederick  William  III  gave  his  consent,  3  August,  Iroquois  and  cruelly  tortured  by  them,  at  intervab, 
1811,  to  a  "plan  for  uniting  the  University  of  Frank-  for  over  two  months.  He  was  at  length  ransomed 
fort  with  tne  University  of  Breslau".  The  two  by  the  Dutch  at  Fort  Orange,  and  sent  to  France, 
universities  were  to  be  made  one  institution  in  regard  where  he  arrived  in  November,  1644.  In  the  follow- 
to  constitution,  teaching  staff,  endowments,  property,  ing  year  he  was  again  in  Canada  and  laboured 
and  income;  the  philosophical  faculties  were  to  form  zealously  on  the  Huron  Mission  until  its  destruction 
one  body.  "To  satisfy  the  wishes  of  Catholic  sub-  by  the  Iroquois  four  years  later.  He  continued, 
jects"  two  professors  of  philosophy  proper  were  however,  to  minister  to  the  scattered  and  fugitive 
appointed,  one  Protestant  and  one  Catholic.  The  Hurons.  He  was  also  stationed  for  a  time  at  Quebec, 
promise  of  the  erection  of  a  Catholic  professorship  where  he  occasionally  officiated  at  the  church.  In 
of  history  was  not  carried  out  imtil  1855,  in  the  reipi  November,  1650,  Bressani's  failing  health  and  the 
of  Frederick  William  IV.  Outside  of  these  positions  meagre  resources  of  the  mission  obliged  him  to  return 
religious  belief  was  not  to  be  taken  into  consideration  to  Italy,  where  he  sp)ent  many  years  as  a  preacher 
in  appointments  to  the  faculties  of  philosophy,  law.  and  missionary,  dying  at  Florence.  Bressani  wrote  the 
and  medicine.     Instruction  from  both  Cathouc  ana  "  Breve  Relatione  d'sucune  Mission!  .  .  .  nellaNuova 


BBE88AHO                                767  BRETHREN 

Francia"   (Macerata,   1663),  which  was  translated  tained.    Moreover,  the  names  of  her  sons  and  the 

into  French  by  Father  Martin,  S.  J.  (Montreal,  1862).  order  in  which  they  are  ^ven,  no  doubt  the  order  of 

Thwaitbs,  Je«uU  Relations  (CHeveland,  1897),  XXIII,  326,  seniority,  warrant  US  in  identifying  these  sons  with 

327;  MicHAUD.  Bioo,  Univ,,  V;  Sommbbvooel,  iL  j^^  ^^  Joseph,  or  Joses,  the  '^brethren"  of  the 

liJ)WARD  f.  SPiLLANB.  ^0^^     r^^^  existence  among  the  early  followers  of 

Bressano.    See  Brixen.  Christ  of  two  sets  of  brothers  having  the  same  names 

A 1   TT                  o      TT                -o  in  the  order  of  aire,  is  not  likely,  and  cannot  be  as- 

Brest,  Union  op.    See  Union  of  Brest.  ^^^  without  ^f.     Once  this  identity  is' con- 
Brethren,  Moravian.    See  Bohemian  Brethren,  ceded,  the  conclusion  cannot  well  be  avoided  that 

-»_  ., T^                   a      rk,  Clopas  and  Alpheus  are  one  person,  even  if  the  two 

Brethren,  Pltmouth.    See  Plymouth.  ^^  ^      Yte  distinct.     It  is.  however,  highly 

Brethren,  United.    See  Holzhauber,  Barthol-  probable,  and  commonly  admittea,  that  Clopas  and 

oiiAus.  Alpheus  are  merely  diiierent  transcriptions  of  the 

-»_... -    .-^  n^«^^^«    T«#-.     a      n  same  Aramaic  word  Halphai.    James  and  Josef h  the 

Bremen  of  the  Common  Life.    See  Common  "brethren"  of  the  Lord  are  thus  the  sons  of  Alpheus. 
Life,  Brethren  op  the.  q^  j^^pl^  nothing  further  is  known.    Jude  is  the 
Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit.    See  Adamites.  writer  of  the  last  of  the  Catholic  Epistles  (Jude,  i). 
-,    .-           *  ^1.    •»      ....  t     a     Tk     TT  He  is  with  good  reason  identified  by  Catholic  corn- 
Brethren  of  the  HospitaL    See  Brothers  HosPi-  nientators  ^th   the   *' Judas   Jacobi"    ("Jude   the 
TALLERs  OP  St.  John  OF  GoD.  brother  of  James"  in  the  D.  V.)  of  Luke,  vi,  16,  and 
Brethren  of  the  Lord,  The. — ^A  group  of  per-  Acts,  i.  13,  otherwise  known  as  Thaddeus  (Matt., 
sons  closely  connected  with  the  Saviour  appears  re-  x,  3;  Mark,  iii,  18).    It  is  quite  in  accordance  with 
peatedly  in  the  New  Testament  under  the  designa-  Greek  custom  for  a  man  to  be  distinguished  by  the  ad- 
•tion  "his  brethren",  or  "the  brethren  of  the  Lord"  dition  of  his  brother's  name  insteskl  of  his  father's, 
(Matt.,  xii,  46;  xiii,  55;  Mark,  iii,  31,  32;  vi,  3;  Luke,  when  the  brother  was  better  known.    That  such  was 
viii,  19,  20;  John,  ii,  12*  vii,  3,  5;  Acts,  i,  14;  I  Cor.,  the  case  with  Jude  is  inferred  from  the  title  "the 
ix,5).    Four  such  "bretnren"  are  mentioned  byname  brother  of  James",  by  which  he  designates  himself  in 
in  the  parallel  texts  of  Matt.,  xiii,  55,  and  Mark,  vi,  his  Epistle.     About  Simon  nothing  certain  can  be 
3  (where  "sisters"  are  also  referred  to),  namely,  state<t    He  is  identified  by  most  commentators  with 
James  (also  mentioned  Gal.,  i,  19),  Joseph,  or  Joses,  the  Symeon,  or  Simon,  who,  according  to  Hegesippus, 
Simon,  and  Jude;  the  incidental  manner  in  which  was  a  son  of  Clopas,  and  succeeded  y^mes  as  Bishop 
these  names  are  given,  shows,  however,  that  the  list  of  Jerusalem.    »>me  identify  him  with  the  Apostle 
lays  no  claim  to  completeness.     Two  questions  in  Simon  the  Cananean  (Matt.,  x,  4;  Mark,  iii,  18),  or 
connexion  with  these  "brethren"  of  the  Lord  have  the  Zealot  (LiUce,  vi,  15;  Acts,  i,  13).    The  grouping 
long  been,  and  are  now  more  than  ever,  the  subject  together  of  James,  Jude  or  Thaddeus,  ana  Simon, 
of  controveray:  (1)  The  identi'       ''            '    '          .  -         .        ..        ...        ,    .       -r       •  .             x_j 

Simon;  (2)  The  exact  nature 
tween  the  Saviour  and  his  "b 

(1)  James  is  without  doubt  the  Bishop  of  Jerusa-  to  this  view,  as  it  seems  to  indicate  some  sort  of  con- 

lem  (Acts,  xii,  17;  xv,  13;  xxi,  18;  Gal.,  i,  19;  ii,  9, 12)  nexion  between  the  three.     Be  this  as  it  may,  it  is 

and  the  author  of  the  first  Catholic  Epistle.     His  certain  that  at  least  two  of  the  "  bretlu^n "  of  Christ 

identity  with  James  the  Less  (Mark,  xv.  40)  and  the  were  among  the  Apostles.    This  is  clearly  implied  in 

Apostle  James,  the   son  of  Alpheus  (Matt.,  x,  3;  I  CJor.,  ix,  5:  "Have  we  not  the  power  to  carry  about 

Mark,  iii,  18),  although  contested  by  many  IVotes-  a  woman,  a  sister,  as  well  as  the  rest  of  the  apostles, 

tant  critics,  may  also  be  considered  as  certain.    There  and  the  brethren  of  the  Lord,  and  Cephas?  '    The 

is  no  reasonable  doubt  that  in  Gal.,  i,  19;  "But  other  mention  of  Cephas  at  the  end  indicates  tnat  St.  Paul, 

of  the  apostles  [besides  Cephas]  I  saw  none,  saving  after  speaking  of  the  Apostles  in  general,  calls  special 

James  the  brother  of  the  Lord   ,  St.  Paul  represents  attention  to  the  more  prominent  ones,  the  "  brethren  " 

James  as  a  member  of  the  Apostolic  college.    The  of  the  Lord  and  Cephas.     The  objection  that  no 

purpose  for  which  the  statement  is  made,  makes  it  "brethren"  of  the  Lord  could  have  been  members 

clear  that   "apostles"   is  to   be   taken  strictly  to  of  the  Apostolic  collate,  because  six  months  before 

designate  the  Twelve,  and  its  truthfulness  demands  Christ's  death  they  did  not  believe  in  Him  (John, 

that  the  clause  "saving  James"  be  understood  to  vii,  3,  5),  rests  on  a  misunderstanding  of  the  text, 

mean.thatinaddition  to  Cephas,  St.  Paul  saw  another  His  "brethren"  believed  in  his  miraculous  power. 

Apostle,  "James  the  brother  of  the  Lord"  (cf.  Acts,  and  urged  him  to  manifest  it  to  the  world.    Their 

ix,  27).     Besides,  the  prominence  and  authority  of  unbelief  was  therefore  relative.    It  was  not  a  want 

James  among  the  Apostles  (Acts,  xv,  13;  Gal.,  li,  9;  of  belief  in  His  Messiahship,  but  a  false  conception 

in  the  latter  text  he  is  even  named  before  Cephas)  of  it.    They  had  not  yet  rid  themselves  of  the  Jewish 

could  have  belonged  only  to  one  of  their  number,  idea  of  a  Messiah  who  would  be  a  temporal  ruler. 

Now  there  were  only  two  Apostles  named  James:  We  meet  with  this  idea  among  the  Apostles  as  late 

James  the  son  of  Zebedee.  and  James  the  son  of  as  the  day  of  the  Ascension  (Acts,  i,  6).    In  any  case 

Alpheus  (Matt.,  x,  3;  Mark,  iii,  18;  Luke,  vi,  16;  the  expression  "his  brethren"  does  not  necessarily 

Acts,  i,  13).    The  former  is  out  of  the  question,  since  include  each  and  every  "brother",  wherever  it  oc- 

he  was  dead  at  the  time  of  the  events  to  which  Acts,  curs.    This  last  remark  also  sufficiently  answers  the 

XV,  6  sqq.,  and  Gal.,  ii,  9,  12,  refer  (cf.  AcU,  xii,  2).  difficulty  m  Acts,  i,  13,  14,  where,  it  is  said,  a  clear 

James  "the  brother  of  the  Ix)rd"  is  therefore  one  distinction  is  made  between  the  Apostles  and  the 

with  James  the  son  of  Alpheus,  and  consequently  "brethren"  of  the  Lord. 

with  James  the  Less,  the  identity  of  these  two  being  (2)  The  texts  cited  at  the  beginning  of  this  article 
generally  conceded.  Again,  on  comparing  John,  xix,  show  beyond  a  doubt  that  there  existed  a  real  and 
25,  with  Matt.,  xxvii,  56.  and  Mark,  xv,  40  (cf.  Mark,  near  kinship  between  Jesus  and  His  "brethren". 
XV,  47;  xvi,  1),  we  find  that  Manr  of  Cleophas,  or  But  as  "brethren"  (or  "brother")  is  applied  to  step- 
more  correctly  Clopas  (KXwiraf),  the  sister  of  Mary  brothers  as  well  as  to  brothers  by  blood,  and  m 
the  Mother  of  Christ,  is  the  same  as  Mary  the  mother  Scriptural,  and  Semitic  use  generally,  is  often  loosely 
of  James  the  Less  and  of  Joseph,  or  Joses.  As  mar-  extended  to  all  near,  or  even  distant,  relatives  (Gen., 
ried  women  are  not  distinguishea  by  the  addition  of  xiii,  8;  xiv,  14,  16;  Lev.,  x,  4;  I  Par.,  xv,  5-;-10;  xxiii, 
their  father's  name,  Mary  of  Clopas  must  be  the  wife  21,  22),  the  word  furnishes  no  certain  indication  of 
of  Gopas,  and  not  his  daughter,  as  has  been  main-  the  exact  nature  of  the  relationship.    Some  ancient 


BBETHREV  768  BBIVIAEY 


opinion  has  been  revived  in  modem  times,  and  is    necessarily  connote  that  other  children  were  bom 


majonty  of  the  Greek  Fathers  and  Greek  "Opening  the  womb"  is  there  given  as  the  equiva- 
writers,  influenced,  it  seems,  by  the  l^endary  tales  lent  of  "firstborn*'  (Tpwr&roKos).  An  only  child  was 
of  apocryphal  gospels,  considered  the  ^Hbrethren"  of  thus  no  less  "firstborn"  than  the  first  of  many. 
the  Lord  as  sons  of  St.  Joseph  by  a  first  marriage.  Neither  do  the  words  "  he  knew  her  not  till  she  brought 
The  Latins,  on  the  contrary,  with  few  exceptions  forth"  imply,  as  St.  Jerome  proves  conclusively 
(St.  Ambrose,  St.  Hilary,  and  St.  Gregory  of  Tours  against  Helvidius  from  parallel  examples,  that  he 
among  the  Fathers),  hold  that  they  were  the  Lord's  knew  her  afterwards.  The  meaning  of  both  expres- 
cousirfe.  That  they  were  not  the  sons  of  Joseph  and  sions  becomes  clear,  if  they  are  considered  in  con- 
Mary  is  proved  by  the  following  reasons,  leavm^  out  nexion  with  the  virginal  birth  related  by  the  two 
of  consicieration  the  great  antiquity  of  the  behef  in  Evangelists. 

the  perpetual  virginity  of  Mary.  It  is  highly  signifi-  .^J?9f,^t.^""5  The9ry:  St.  Jerome,  Adv.  Hdvid,  in  P.  L., 
cant  that  throuAout  the  New  Testament  6ary  ap-  S^S^i^^^'St^^^rS^l^iT^SJ^p^ri^rrSS 
pears  as  the  Mother  of  Jesus  and  of  Jesus  alone.  This  de  N,  S,  J.  C.  in  Etudes  (1878),  I,  5,  14S:  Mkinerte,  Da- 
is the  more  remarkable  as  she  is  repeatedly  mentioned  JacobuOmef  und  9619%  V«if  a#«er  (FreiburK  im  Br..  1906).  6-64; 

in  connexion  with  her  supposed  sons  and,  in  some  SSSSL^J'^JS^^^'^^  SScrisllf:  '25^»SJSrS 

cases  at  least,  it  would  have  been  quite  natural  to  Rev,  Bibl,  (1906),  504,  605. 

call  them  her  sons  (cf.  Matt.,  xii,  46;  Mark,  iii,  31:  For  the  Step-Brother  Theory:  LioHTrooT.  Comm.  on  OaU, 

Luke,  viii,  19:  Acts,i,  14).     Again    Mary's  aimual  ^f^\Y,^  Helvidian  View:  HAsriNas,  Dui.  Bib,.  I.  320; 

pilgnmage  to  Jerusalem   (Luke,  ll,  41)  is  qmte  m-  Zahn.  Fonchungen,  VI,  Bmder  tmd  VeUem  Jem  (Leipzig, 

credible,  except  on  the  supposition  that  she  bore  no  1900).                                                      F.  Bechteu 

other  children  besides  Jesus.    Is  it  likely  that  she  Brethren  of  the  Poor  Life.    See  Apostolici. 

could  have  made  the  journey  regularly,  at  a  time  ^^t          «i.i.nj_jj          orn 

when  the  burden  of  child-bearing  and  the  care  of  an  ^  Brethren  of  the  Redemption.    See  Trinitaiiian 

increasing  number  of  small  children  (she  woiJd  be  the  -DROTHBRfl.                                                    ^      ^ 

mother  of  at  least  four  other  sons  and  of  several  Brethren  of  the  Strict  Observance.    See  Friars 

daughters,  cf.  Matt.,  xiii,  56)  would    be   pressing  Minor. 

heavily  upon  her?    A  further  proof  is  the  fact  that  Brethren  of  the  Twelve.     See  Narrow  Ck>N- 

at  His  death  Jesus  recommended   His   mother  to  troversy. 

St.  John.    Is  not  His  solicitude  for  her  in  His  dving  Breton,  Raymond,  a  noted    French    missionary 

hour  a  sign  that  she  would  be  left  with  no  one  whose  ^mong  the  Caribbean  Indians,  b.  at  Baune,  3  Septem- 

duty  It  would  be  to  care  for  her?    And  why  r^pm-  ^e     1609;  d.  at  Caen,  8  January,  1679.     tie  entered 

mend  her  to  an  outsider  if  she  had  other  sons?    Since  ^he  Order  of  St.  Dominic  at  the  age  of  seventeen 

there  was  no  ^trangement  betw^n  Him  and  His  ^^d  was  sent  (1627)   to  the  famous  priory  of  St. 

'' brethren '\  or  between  them  and  Mary,  no  plausible  Jacques,  at  Paris,  to  finish  his  classical  education 

motive  for  such  an  action  can  be  imagined.    This  ^nd  make  his  course  of  philosophy  and  theology, 

argument  is  confirmed  by  the  words  with  which  He  Having  obtained  his  degr^  in   theology,  he  sa^ 

recommends   her:   We  6   U6s   <rov,   with   the   article  ^^^^  ^^^  ^ther  Dominicans  for  the  French  West 

before  vl6f  (son);  had  there  been  other  sons,  We  i/i6j  j^^^j^  (jggg)      ^^,^^1     twenty  years  were  devoted 

ffov,  without  the  article,  would  have  been  the  proper  ^o  the  Antilles  missions.     During  twelve  of   these 

expression.                                   .    xi.  x  xl    *  xl          ,  he  was  on  the  Island  of  San  Domingo,  practically 

The  decisive  proof ,  however,  IS  that  the  father  and  ^^^^  ^i^h  the  Indians.     The  other  eigk  years  he 

mother  of  at  least  two  of  thero      brethren       are  gj^^t  going  from  island  to  island,  teaching  and  evan- 

known  to  us.    James  and  Joseph,  or  Joses,  are,  as  gelizing  the  natives  in  their  own  tongue,  becoming 

we  have  seen  the  sons  of  Alpheus,  or  Clopas,  and  of  l^  ^d^t  m  the  various  Carib  languages.    Returning 

Mary,  the  sister  of  Mary  the  Mother  of  J^us,  and  all  to  France  in  1654,  he  devoted  much  of  his  time  to 

agree  that  if  these  are  not  brothers  of  the  Saviour,  preparing  young  priests  for  the  West  Indian  missions, 

the  others  are  not.    This  last  argument  disposes  also  ^o  this  end  he  wrote:  A  Catechism  of  the  CSiristian 

of  the  theory  that  the  "brethren     of  the  Lord  were  Doctrine  in  Carib  (Auxerre,  1664):  a  French-Carib 

the  sons  of  St.  Joseph  by  a  former  marriage.    They  ^nd  Carib-French  Dictionary,  with  copious  notes, 

are  then  neither  the  brothers  nor  the  step-brothers  historical  and  explanatory,  on  the  Carib  language 

of  the  Lord.    James,  Joseph,  and  Jude  are  undoubt-  ^j^id.,  1665);  a  Carib  grammar  (ibid.,  1667).      At 

edly  His  cousins    If  Simon  is  the  same  as  the  Symeon  the  request  of  the  general  of  the  order,  he  also  wrote 

of  Hegesippus,  he  also  is  a  cousin,  since  this  wnter  ^  ^^^^^  history  of  the  first  years  of  the  French  Dom- 

expressly  stat^  that  he  was  the  son  of  Qopas  the  inicans'   missionary  labours   among  the  Caribbean 

uncle  of  the  Lord,  and  the  latter  s  cousin.     But  Indians:  "Relatio  Gestorum  a  primis  Praedicatonim 

whether  they  were  cousins  on  their  father  s  or  moth-  missionariis   in    insulis    Americanis   ditionis   galUc© 

er  s  side,  whether  cousins  by  blood  or  merely  by  pra>scrtim  apud  Indos  indigenas  quos  Caribes  vulgo 

mamage,    cannot    be    determined    with    certainty,  gi^^nt     ab   anno    1G34    ad    annum    1643"    (MSS). 

Mary  of  Clopas  is  indeed  called  the     sister     of  the  ^^ig  jg  considered  of  great  historical  importance, 

Blessed  Vir^n,  (John,  xix,  25)     but  it  is  uncertain  ^nd  has  been  used  by  several  writers, 

whether  "sister"  here  means  a  true  sister  or  a  sister-  QuAtif  and  Echabd,  Script.  Ord.  Pra-d.,  11. 

in-law.    Hegesippus  calls  Gopas  the  brother  of  St.  Victob  F.  CDanibl. 

Joseph.    This  would  favour  the  vj^ew  that  Mary  of  Breton  Vewion.    See  Versions  op  t^b  Biblbl 

Clopas  was  only  the  sister-in-law  of  the  Blessed  Vir-  •»_*^        ai_i'                ot         t> 

gin,  unless  it  be  true,  as  stated  in  MSS.  of  the  Pes-  Breviarium  Alaricianiun.    See  Law,  Roman. 

hlttd  version,  that  Joseph  and  Clopas  married  sisters.  Breviary. — ^This  subject  may  be  divided,  for  con- 

The  relationship  of  the  other  "  brethren "  may  have  venience  of  treatment,  as  follows:  I.   Definttion; 

been  more  distant  than  that  of  the  above  named  four.  II.  Contents;   III.  The  Hours;   IV.   Component 

The  chief  objection  against  the  Catholic  position  is  Parts  of  the  Office;  V.  History  of  the  Breviary; 

taken  from  Matt. ,  i ,  25 :  "He  [Joseph]  knew  her  not  till  VI.  Reforms 

shf^  brought  forth  her  firstborn  son";  and  from  Luke^  L  Definition. — ^The   word   breviary    (Lat.   bren 


BBSVIAB7  769  BBKVIAEY 

jdnum),  signifies  in  its  primary  acceptation  an  abridge-  exoelsU.  the  Te  Deum,  the  Lumen  HUaref  the  Te 

menty  or  a  compendium.    It  is  often  enaployed  in  Decet*Lati8^  and  a  few  others;  but  those  which  the 

this  sense  by  Christian  authors,  e.  f.  hreviarivm  Church  has  retained  and  adopted  are  singularly 

fideif  Breviarium  in  paalmos,  Brevianttm  canonum,  few  in  number.    The  rhythmic  hvnms  date  from  a 

Brtviarium     regtdarum.      In     liturncal     langiiage  period  later  than  the  fourth  and  nfth  centuries,  and 

Breviary  has  a  special  meaning,  indicating  a  dook  at  best  hold  a  pui^y  secondary  place  in  the  scheme 

furnishing  the  regulations  for  the  celebration  of  Mass  of  the  Office.    Thus  the  Book  oi  Psalms  forms  the 

or  the  canonical  Office,  and  may  be  met  with  under  groundwork  of  Catholic  pra^^er;  the  lessons  which 

the  titles  Breviarium  iJcdesiasHci  OreHnis,  or  Brev-  nil  so  important  a  place  in  tms  prayer  are  not,  after 

iarium  Ecclesue  Rominace  {Romance).    In  the  ninth  all,  prayer  properly  so  called;  ana  the  antiphons. 

century  Alcuin  uses  the  word  to  designate  an  office  responsories,  versicles,  etc.,  are  but  psalms  utilised 

abridged  or  simplified  for  the  use  of  the  laity.    Pru-  in  a  particular  manner. 

dentins  of  Troves,  about  the  same  period,  composed        In  the  Breviary,  however,  the  Psalter  is  divided 

a  Breviarium  IPsaUerii  (v.  inf.  V.  History).    In  an  according  to  a  special  plan.    In  the  earliest  period 

ancient  inventory  occurs  Breviarium  AnHphonaHif  the  use  of  the  Book  of  Psalms  in  the  Office  was 

meaning   ''Extracts   from   the   Antiphona^".     In  doubtless  exactly  similar  to  that  which  prevailed 

the  "Vita  Aldrici "  occurs  "sicut  in  plenariis  et  brev-  amongst  the  Jews.    The  president  of  the  choir  chose 

iariis  Ecclesiee   ejusdem   continentur".     Again,   in  a  particular  psalm  at  his  own  will.     Some  psalms, 

the  inventories  in  the  catalogues,  such  notes  as  these  such  as  xxi,  seem  specially  appropriate  to  the  Passion, 

may  be  met  with:  "Sunt  et  duo  cursinarii  et  tree  Another  was  adapted  to  the  Resurrection,  a  third 

benedictionales  Libri;  ex  his  unus  habet  obseouium  suited  the  Ascension,  while  others  aeain  are  specially 

mortuorum  et  unus  Breviarius",  or,  "Preeter  Brev-  referable  to  the  Office  of  the  Deaa.     Some  psalms 


Breviarium  sive  Ordo  Officiorum  per  totam  anni  de-  fourth  century,  certain  psalms  began  to  be  grouped 

cursionem".  together,   to  respond   to  the  divers  requirements 

From  such  references,  and  from  others  of  a  like  of  the  Liturgy, 

nature,  Quesnel  gathers  that   by  the  word  Brev^  Another  cause  led  to  these  groupings  and  arranee- 

iarium  was  at  first  designated  a  book  furnishing  the  ments  of  the  Psalter.    Some  monks  were  in  the  habit 

rubrics^  a  sort  of  Ordo,    The  title  Breviary,  as  we  of  reciting  daily  the  whole  of  the  150  psalms.    But 

employ  it — ^that  is,  a  book  containing  the  entire  this  form  of  devotion,  apart  from  lessons  and  other 

canonical  Office — appears  to  date  from  the  eleventh  formularies,  occupied  so  much  time  that  they  began 

century.  to  spread  the  recitation  of  the  entire  Psalter  over 

St.   Gregory  VII   having,   indeed,  abridged  the  a  whole  week.     By  this  method  each  day  was  di- 

order  of  prayers,  and  having  simplified  the  Liturgy  vided  into  hours,  and  each  hour  had  its  own  portion 

as  performea  at  the  Roman  Court,  this  abrid^ent  of  the  Psalter.     From  this  arrangement  arose  the 

received  the  name  of  Breviary,  which  was  smtable,  idea  of  dividing  the  Psalter  according  to  specially 

since,  according  to  the  etymology  of  the  word,  it  devised  rules.    St.  Benedict  was  one  of  the  earliest 

was  an  abridgment.    The  name  has  been  extended  to  set  himself  to  this  task,  in  the  sixth  century.    In 

to  books  which  contain  in  one  volume,  or  at  least  his  Rule  he  gives  minute  directions  how,  at  that 

in  one  work,  liturgical  books  of  different  kinds,  such  period,  the  psalms  were  to  be  distributed  at  the  dis- 

as  the  Psalter,  the  Antiphonary,  the  Responsoriary,  position  of  the  abbot;  and  he  himself  drew  up  such 

the  Lectionary,  etc.     In  this  connexion  it  naay  be  an  arrangement.    Certain  psalms  were  set  apart  for 

pointed  out  that  in  this  sense  the  word,  as  it  is  used  the  night  offices,  others  for  Lauds,  others  for  Prime, 

nowadajrs,  is  illogical;  it  should  be  named  a  Pie-  Terce,   Sext,   and   None,  others   for  Vespers   ^d 

narium  rather  than  a  Breviarium,  since,  liturgically  Compline. 

speaking,  the  word  Plenarium  exactly  designates  It  is  a  subject  of  discussion  amongst  liturgists 

such  bc^ks  as  contain  several  different  compilations  whether  this  Benedictine  division  of  the  psalms  is 

imited  under  one  cover.    This  is  pointed  out,  how-  anterior  or  posterior  to  the  Roman  Psalter.   Although 

ever,  simply  to  make  still  clearer  the  meaning  and  it  may  not  be  possible  to  prove  the  point  definitely, 

origin  of  the  word;  and  section  V  will  furnish  a  more  still  it  would  seem  that  the  Roman  arrangement  is 

detailed  explanation  of  the  formation  of  the  Breviary,  the  older  of  the  two,  because  that  drawn  up  by  St, 

II.  Contents. — ^The  Roman  Breviary,  which  with  Benedict  shows  more  skill,  and  would  thus  seem  to 

rare  exceptions  (certain  religious  orders,  the  Am-  be  in  the  nature  of  a  reform  of  the  Roman  division, 

brosian  and  Mozarabic  Rites,  ete.)  is  used  at  this  day  In  any  case,  the  Roman  arrangement  of  the  Psaltex 

throughout  the  Latin  Church,  is  divided  into  four  reaches  back  to  a  hoary  antiquity,  at  least  to  the 

parts  according  to  the  seasons  of  the  year:  Winter,  seventh  or  eighth  century,  since  when  it  has  not 

Spring,  Summer,  and  Autumn.     It  is  constructed  undergone  any  alteration.    The  following  is  its  dis- 

of  the  following  elements:  (a)  the  Psalter;  (b)  the  position.      Psalms  i-cviii    are    recited  at    Matins, 

Plx)per  of  the  Season;   (c)   Proper  of  the  Saints;  twelve  a  day:  but  Sunday  Matins  have  six  more 

(d)  the  Common;  (e)  certain  special  Offices.  psalms  divided  between  the  three  noctums.   Thus: — 

(a)  The  Psalter, — ^The  Psalter  is  the  most  ancient  Sunday — ^Psalms  i,  ii,  iii,  vi-xiv;  xv,  xvi,  xvii;  xviii, 

and  the  most  venerable  portion  of  the  Breviary,  xix,  xx. 

It  consists  of  150  psalms,  divided  in  a  particular  Monday — Psalms  xxvi-xxxvii. 
way,  to  be  described  later.    These  psalms  formed  the  Tuesday — Psalms  xxxviii-xli,  xliii-xlix,  li. 
groundwork  of  the  Liturgy  of  the  Jews  for  twelve  Wednesday — Psalms  Iii,  liv-lxi,  Ixiii,  Ixv,  Ixvii. 
centuries  before  Christ,  and  He' certainly  made  use  Thursday — Psalms  Ixviii-lxxix. 
of  these  formularies  for  His  prayers,  and  quoted  Friday — Psalms  Ixxx-lxxxviii,  xciii,  xcv,  xcvi. 
them  on  several  occasions.    The  Apostles  followed  Saturday — Psalms  xcvii-cviii. 
His  example,  and  handed  down  to  the  Christian  The  psalms  omitted  in  this  series,  namely,  iv,  v. 
Churches  the  inheritance  of  the  Psalter  as  the  chief  xxi-xxv,  xlii,  I,  liii,  Ixii,  Ixiv,  Ixvi,  Ixxxix-xcii,  ana 
form  of  Christian  prayer.    The  Church  has  carefully  xciv,  are,  on  account  of  their  special  aptitude,  re- 
preserved  them  during  the  lapse  of  centuries  and  has  served  for  Lauds,  Prime,  and  Compline, 
never  sought  to  replace  them  by  any  other  formu-  The  series,  from  Ps.  cix  to  Ps.  cxlvii  inclusively, 
laries.    Attempts  have  been  made  from  time  to  time  are  used  at  Vespers,  five  each  day,  except  Psalms 
to  compose  Christian  psalms,  such  as  the  Ghria  in  cxvii,  cxviii,  and  cxlii.  reserved  for  other  houn. 


BBEVIABY  770  BBEVIABY 

The  last  three,  cxlviii,  cxlix,  and  cl,  which  are  spe-  arraoff^:  Advent,  Christmastide^Septuageeima,  Lent, 

cially  called  the  psalms  of  praise  (Laudes)^  because  of  Holy  Week,  paschal  time,  and  the  time  after  Pente- 

•  the  word  Laudate  which  forms  their  leitmotiv,  are  cost.    But  omy  by  slow  degrees  did  this  division  of  the 

always  used  in  the  morning  OflSce,  which  thus  gets  liturgical  year  develop  its  present  form.     It  must  be 

its  name  of  Lauds.  traced  through  its  various  stages.     It  may  indeed 

A  dance  at  the  above  tables  will  show  that,  broadly  be  said  that  originally  there  was  no  such  thing  as  a 

speaking,  the  Roman  Church  did  not  attempt  to  liturgical  year.     Sunday,  the  day  above  all  of  the 

make  any  skilful  selection  of  the  psalms  for  daily  Eucharistic  celebration,  is  at  once  the  commemorar 


Othcr  Liturgies,  as  the  Ambrosian,  the  Mozarabic,  ftop;  rdurxfi  dttLtrrdaifiop ;  every  Simday  was  a  renewal 

and  the   Benedictine,  or  monastic,   have  Psalters  of  the  paschal  festival.    It  was  only  nature  that  on 

drawn  up  on  wholly  different  lines;  but  the  respective  the  actual  anniversary  the  feast  should  be  kept  with 

merits  of  these  svstems  need  not  be  here  discussed,  peculiar  solemnity,  for  it  was  the  foremost  ChriBtian 

The  order  of  the  ferial  Psalter  is  not  followed  for  feast,  and  the  centre  of  the  liturgical  year.    Easter 

the  festivals  of  the  year  or  for  the  feasts  of  saints;  drew  in  its  train  Pentecost,  which  was  fixed  as  the 

but  the  psalms  are  selected  according  to  their  suit-  fiftieth  day  after  the  Resurrection;  it  was  the  festival 

ableness  to  the  various  occasions.  conmiemorating  the  Descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost  on 

The  history  of  the  text  of  this  Psalter  is  interesting,  the  Apostles.    These  fifty  days  made  up  an  unbroken 

The  most  ancient  Psalter  used  in  Rome  and  in  Italy  festival,  a  Jubilee,  a  time  of  joy  during  which  there 

was  the  "Psalterium  Vetus'',   of  the  Itala  version,  was  no  fasting  and  when  penitential  exercises  were 

which  seems  to  have  been  introduced  into  the  Liturgy  suspended.    These  two  feasts  thus  linked  together 

by  Pope  St.  Damasus  (d.  384).     He  it  was  who  first  are  mentioned  by  ecclesiastical  writers  from  the 

ordered  the  revision  of  the  Itala  by  St.  Jerome,  in  second  century  onwards. 

A.  D.  383.     On  this  account  it  has  been  called  the        Just  as  Easter  was  followed  by  fifty  days  of  re- 
"Psalterium  Romanum'*,  and  it  was  used  in  Italjr  joicing,  so  it  had  its  period  of  preparation  by  prayer 
and  elsewhere  till  the  ninth  century  and  later.    It  is  and  fasting,  from  wnich  arose  the  season  of  Lent, 
still  in  use  in  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  and  many  of  the  which,   after  various  changes,   commenced   finally 
texts  of  our  Breviary  and  Missal  still  show  some  forty  days  before  East«r,  whence  its  name  of  Quadra- 
variants  (Invitatery  and  Ps.  xciv,  the  antiphons  of  gesima.     The  other  rallying-point  of  the  liturgical 
the  Psalter  and  the  responsories  of  the  Proper  of  year  is  the  feast  of  Christmas,  the  earliest  observance 
the    Season,    Introits.    Uraduals,    Offertories,    and  of  which  is  of  very  remote  antiquity  (the  third  century 
Communions).     The  Roman  Psalter  also  influences  at  least).     Like  Easter,  Christmas  had  its  time  of 
the  Mozarabic  Liturgy,  and  was  used  in  England  in  preparation,  called  Advent,  lasting  no^^uiays  four 
the  eighth  century.    But  in  Gaul  and  in  other  ooun-  weeks.    The  remainder  of  the  year  had  to  fit  in  be- 
tries  north  of  the  Alps,  another  recension  entered  tween  these  two  feasts.     From  Christmas  to  Lent 
into  competition  with  tne  "Psalterium  Romanum"  two  currents  may  be  observed:  into  one  fell  the  feasts 
under  the  somewhat  misleading  title  of  the  "Psal-  of  the  Epiphany  and  the  Purification,  and  six  Sun- 
terium  Gallicanum";  for  this  text  contained  nothing  days  after  the  Epiphany,  constituting  Christmastide. 
distinctively  Gallican,  being  simply  a  later  correction  The  remaining  weeks  after  these  Sundays  fall  under 
of  the  Psalter  made  by  St.  Jerome  in  Palestine,  in  the  influence  of  Lent  and,  under  the  name  of  Septuan 
A.  D.  392.    This  recension  diverged  more  completely  gesima,  create  a  sort  of  introduction  to  it,  since  these 
than  the  earlier  one  from  the  Itala;  and  in  preparing  three  weeks,  Septuagesima,  Sexa^ima,  and  Quin- 
it  St.  Jerome  had  laid  Origen's  Hexapla  under  con-  quagesima,  really  belong  to  Lent  oy  reason  of  their 
tribution.    It  would  seem  that  St.  Gregory  of  Tours,  character  of  preparation  and  penance, 
in  the  sixth  century,  introduced  this  translation  into        The  long  period  between  Pentecost  and  Advent, 
Gaul,  or  at  any  rate  he  was  specially  instrumental  from  May  to  December,  still  remains  to  be  dealt  with, 
in  spreading  its  use;  for  it  was  this  Psalter  that  was  A  certain  number  of  Sundays  cluster  round  special 
employed  in  the  Divine  psalmody  celebrated  at  the  sreat  festivals,  as  those  of  St.  John  the  Baptist 
much  honoured  and  frequented  tomb  of  St.  Martin  (24  June),the  Holy  Apostles  Peter  and  Paul  (29  June), 
of  Tours.    From  that  time  this  text  commenced  its  St.  Lawrence  (10  August),  and  St.  Michael  (29  Sep- 
"  triumphal  march  across  Europe*'.    Walafrid  Strabo  tember).    At  a  later  date  these  days,  which  did  not 
states  that  the  churches  of  Germany  were  using  it  fit  very  conveniently  into  the  general  scheme,  tended 
in    the    eighth    century: — "Galli    et    Ciermanorum  to  disappear,  and  were  absorbed  into  the  common 
aliqui  secundum  emendationem  quam  Hieronymus  time  after  Pentecost,  made  up  of  twenty-four  Sun- 
pater    de    LXX    composuit    Psalterium    cantant'\  days,  thereby  imitin^  Pentecost  \iith  Advent;  and 
About  the  same  time  England  gave  up  the  "Psalter-  thus  the  cycle  of  the  hturgical  year  is  completed, 
ium  Romanum"  for  the  ^'Gallicanum''.    The  Anglo-        The  Proper  of  the  Season  contains,  therefore,  the 
Saxon  Psalter  already  referred  to  was  corrected  and  Office  of  all  the  Sundays  and  festivals  belonging  to 
altered  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  century,  to  make  it  it,  with  special  lessons,  extracts  from  the  Gospels, 
accord  with  the  "  Gallicanum ".     Ireland  seems  to  and  freauently  also  proper  antiphons,  responsories, 
nave  followed  the  Gallican  version  since  the  seventh  and  psalms,  adapteci  to  the  peculiar  character  of 
century,  as  may  be  gathered  from  the  famous  An-  these  different  periods.    It  is  m  the  composition  of 
tiphonary  of  Bangor.     It  even  penetrated  into  Italy  this  Liturgy  that  the  Roman  CJhurch  has  displayed 
after  the  ninth  century,  thanks  to  the  Frankisn  her  gifts  of  critical  judgment,  litur^cal  taste,  and 
influence,  and  there  enjoyed  a  considerable  vogue,  theological  acumen.    The  difference  m  the  character 
After  the  Council  of  Trent,  St.  Pius  V  extended  the  of  these  periods  may  be  studied  in  such  works  as 
use  of  the  "Psalterium  Gallicanum"  to  the  whole  Dom  Gu6ranger's  "Liturgical  Year". 
Church,  St.  Peter's  in  Rome  alone  still  keeping  to        (c)  Proper  of  the  Saints, — FdUowing  on  the  Proper 
the  ancient  Roman  Psalter.    The  Ambrosian  (Church  of  the  Season  comes  in  the  Breviary  the  Proper  of 
of  Milan  has  also  its  own  recension  of  the  Psalter,  the  Saints,  that  is  to  say,  that  part  which  contains  the 
a  version  founded,  in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  cen-  lessons,  psalms,  antiphons,  and  other  liturgical  for- 
tury,  on  tjie  Greek.  mularies  for  the  feasts  of  the  saints.    In  reality  this 

(b)  The  Proper  of  the  Season, — ^This  portion  of  the  Proper  commemorates  a  very  large  number  of  saints 

Breviary  contains  the  Office  of  the  different  liturgical  who  find  mention  in  the  ecclesiastical  (Calendar;  this, 

seasons.    As  is  well  known,  these  periods  are  now  thus  however,  need  not  be  given  here,  as  it  can  easily  be 


BBSVIART  771  BBXVIABT 

consulted.  But  it  may  be  noted  that  the  greater  and  in  some  of  them  special  features  supporting  this 
number  of  the  days  of  the  year — ^at  least  nine-tenths  supposition  may  be  noticed.  Thus,  the  Common 
— cure  appropriated  to  special  feasts;  and  the  question    of  Apostles  is  apparently  referable  to  the  Office  of 


t( 


whelmed  by  these  feasts,  and  as  to  how  to  restore  to    ego  simi,  illic  sit  et  minister  mens",  "Si  quis  mihi 
the  ferial  Office  its  rightful  ascendancy.    This  is  not    ministraverit,  honorificabit  ilium  Pater  meus",  seem 


the  place  for  the  discussion  of  such  a  problem;  but  to  point  to  a  martyr-deacon  (5idicow5,  minister),  and 

it  may  be  said  that  this  invasion  of  tne  Proper  of  may  perhaps   specially  refer   to   St.  Lawrence,  on 

the  Season  has  reached  such  proportions  impercep-  account  of  the  allusion  to  the  words  of  his  Acts: 

tibly.     It  was  not  always  thus;  in  the  banning,  up  "Quo,    sacerdos   sancte,    sine   ministro   properas?" 

to  the  seventh,  and  even  up  to  the  ninth,  century,  Also,  the  numerous  allusions  to  a  crown  or  a  palm 

the  feasts  of  saints  observed  in  the  Breviary  were  not  in  these  same  antiphons  refer  without  doubt  to  the 

Sumerous,  as  may  be  proved  by  comparing  modem  holy  martyrs,  Stephen,  Lawrence,  and  Vincent,  whose 

alendars  with  such  ancient  ones  as  may  be  seen  in  names  are  synonyms  for  the  crown  and  laurel  of 

"  An  Ancient  Syrian  Martyrology  ",  **  Le  calendrier  victory.    The  details  necessary  for  the  proof  of  this 

de  Philocalus  '\  "  Martyrologium  Hieronymianum  ",  hypothesis  could  only  be  given  in  a  fuller  treatise 

'*  Kalendarium    Carthaginense".      These    Calendars  than  this;  suffice  it  to  say  that  frona  the  literary 

contain  little  more  than  the  following  list,  beyond  standpoint,  as  from  that  of  archseology  or  liturgy, 

the  great  festivals  of  the  Church: —  these  Offices  of  the  Common  contain  gems  of  great 

Exaltation  of  Holy  Cross — 14  September.  artistic  beauty,  and  are  of  very  great  interest. 

Presentation  of  Jesus,  or  Purification  of  B.  V.  M. —  (e)  Special  Offi^s. — ^The  Office  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 

2  or  15  Februaiy.  also  very  ancient  in  some  of  its  parts,  is  of  great 

Dormitio,  or  Assumption,  B.  V.  M. — 15  August.  dogmatic  importance;  but  students  of  this  subject 

St.  Michael,  Archangel — 29  September.  are  referred  to  the  Rev.  E.  L.  Taimton's  "The  Little 

Sts.  Macchabees — 1  August.  Office  of  Our  Lady". 

St.  John  Baptist — 24  June.  The  Office  of  the  Dead  is,  without  a  shadow  of 
St.  Stephen,  Protomartyr — 26  December.  doubt,  one  of  the  most  venerable  and  ancient  por- 
Sts.  Peter  and  Paul — 29  June.  tions  of  the  Breviary,  and  deserves  a  lengthy  study 
Chair  of  St.  Peter  (at  Antioch) — 22  February.  to  itself.    The  Breviaries  also  contain  Oflices  proper 
St.  Andrew,  Ap. — 30  November.  to  each  diocese,  and  certain  special  Offices  of  modem 
Sts.  James  the  Greater  and  John,  App. — 27  or  origin,  which^  consequently,  necKd  not  here  detain  us. 
28  December.  111.  The  Hours. — ^The  prayer  of  the  Breviaiy  is 
Sts.  Philip  and  James  the  Less,  App. — 1  May.  meant  to  be  used  daily;  each  day  has  its  own  Office; 
Holy  Innocents — 23  or  28  December.  in  fact  it  would  be  correct  to  say  that  each  hour  of 
St.  Sixtus  II,  Pope — 1  or  16  August.  the  day  has  its  own  office,  for,  fitiurgically,  the  day 
Sts.  Perpetua  and  Felicitas,  MM. — 7  March.  is  divided  into  hours  founded  on  the  ancient  Roman 
St.  Flavian  or  Fabian — 15  May.  divisions  of  the  day,  of  three  hours  apiece — Prime, 
St.  Lawrence,  M. — 10  August.  Terce,  Sext,  None,  and  Vespers,  and  the  night  Vigils. 
St.  Hippolytus,  M. — 13  August.  In  conformity  with  this  arrangement,  the  Office  is 
St.  Cyprian,  M. — 14  September.  portioned  out  into  the  prayers  of  the  night  vigils, 
St.  Sebastian,  M. — 20  January.  that  is  to  say  Matins  and  Lauds.    Matins  itseff  is 
St.  Agnes,  V.  &  M. — 23  January.  subdivided  into  three  noctums,  to  correspond  with 
St.  Timothy,  M. — 22  August.  the  three  watches  of  the  night:  nine  o'clock  at  night, 
St.  Vincent,  M. — 22  February.  midnight,  and  thiee  o'clock  in  the  moming.     The 
St.  Felicitas,  M. — 23  Novemoer.  office  of  Lauds  was  supposed  to  be  recited  at  dawn. 
St.  Ignatius,  M. — 17  October,  or  20  December,  The  day  offices  corresponded  more  or  less  to  the 
or  29  January,  or  1  Febmary.  following  hours:  Prime  to  6  a.  M.,  Terce  to  9  a.  m., 
St.  Polycarp,  M. — 26  Febmary.  Sext  to  midday.  None  to  3  p.  m.,  Vespers  to  6  p.  m. — 
Seven  Holy  Sleepers — variable.  It  is  necessary  to  note  the  words  more  or  less,  for  these 
St.  Pantaleon — variable.  hours  were  regulated  by  the  solar  system,  and  there- 
(d)  The  Common. — Under  this  designation  come  fore  the  length  of  the  periods  vaned  with  the  sea- 
all    the    lessons.    Gospels,    antiphons,    responsories,  sons-. — ^The  office  of  Compline,  which  faUs  somewhat 
and  versicles  which  are  not  reserved  to  a  special  outside  the  above  division,  and  whose  origin  dates 
occasion,  but  may  be  employed  for  a  whole  group  later  than  the  general  arrangement,  was  recited  at 
of  saints.     These  Commons  are  those  of  Apostles,  nightfall.     Nor  does  this  division  of  the  hours  so 
Evangelists,  Martyrs,  Confessors  Pontiffs,  Confessors  back  to  the  first  Christian  period.    So  far  as  can  be 
non-Pontiffs,  Abbots,   Virgins,   and  Holy  Women,  ascertained,  there  was  no  other  pubUc  or  official 
To  these  may  be  added  the  Offices  of  the  Dedication  prayer  in  the  earliest  days,  outside  the  Eucharistic 
of  Churches,  and  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.    The  Office  service,  except  the  night  watches,  or  vigils,  which 
of  the  Dead  occupies  a  place  apart.     It  is  most  diffi-  consisted  of  the  chantmg  of  psahns  and  of  readings 
cult  to  fix  the  origin  of  these  Offices.     The  most  from  Holy  Scripture,  the  Law,  and  the  Prophets, 
ancient  seem  to  belong  to  the  ninth,  the  eighth,  and  the  Gospels  and  Epistles,  and  a  homily.    The  offices 
even  the  seventh  century,  and  through  special  for-  of  Matins  and  Lauds  thus  represent,  most  probably, 
mularies  may  even  date  still  further  back.    To  give  these  watches.     It  would  seem  that  beyond  tms 
one   example,   the   antiphons  of  the   Common   of  there  was  nothing  but  private  prayer;  and  at  the 
Martyrs  in  paschal  time,  "Sancti  tui,  Domine,  flore-  dawn  of  Christianity  the  prajrers  were  said  in  the 
bunt  sicut  lilium,  et  sicut  odor  balsami  erunt  ante  Temple,  as  we  read  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles, 
te",  "Lux  perpetua  lucebit  Sanctis  tuis,  Domine,  et  The  hours  equivalent  to  Terce,  Sext,   None,  and 
stemitas  tempomm",  are  taken  from  the  Fourth  Vespers  were  already  known  to  the  Jews  as  times 
Book  of  Esdras  (apocryphal),  which  was  reiected  of  prayer  and  were  merely  adopted  by  the  Christians, 
almost  everywhere  about  the  end  of  the  fourth  cen-  At  first  meant  for  private  prayer,  they  became  m 
tury;  these  verses,  therefore,  must  probably  have  time  the  hours  of  public  prayer,  especially  when  the 
been  borrowed  at  a  period  anterior  to  that  date.  Church   was   enriched   with   ascetics,    virgins,   and 
Probably,   also,   in  the   very  beginning,   the  most  monks,   by  their  vocation   consecrated  to  prayer, 
ancient  of  these  Conmion  Omces  were  Proper  Offices,  From  that  time,  i.  e.  from  the  end  of  the  third  oen- 


BRSVIA&T  772  BBIVIAET 

tury^  the  monastic  idea  exercised  a  preponderant  psalm.    The  atiUphaned  chant  is  thus  recitation  bj 

influence  pn  the  arrangement  and  formation  of  the  two  choirs  alternately.    This  term  has  given  rise  to 

canonical  Office.    It  is  possible  to  give  a  fairly  exact  technical  discussions  which  cannot  here  be  entered 

account  of  the  establishment  of  these  Offices  in  the  into. 

second  half  of  the  fourth  century  by  means  of  a        (c)  Beeponsoty,  whose  composition  is  almost  the 

document  of  surpassing  importance  for  the  history  same  as  that  of  the  antiphon — verse  of  a  psalm, 

we  are  now  considering:  the  ^' Peregrinatio  ad  Loca  sentence  out  of  Holy  Scripture  or  of  ecclesiastical 

Sancta'\   written  about'  a.  d.   388,   by  Etheria,  a  authorship — nevertheless  differs  from  it  entirely  as 

Spanish   abbess.     This   narrative   is   specifically  a  to  the  nature  of  its  use  in  recitation  or  chant.    The 

description  of  the  Liturgy  followed  in  the  Church  precentor  sang  or  recited  a  psalm;  the  choir  or  the 

of  Jerusalem  at  that  date.  faithful  replied,  or  repeated  either  one  of  the  verses 

The  Offices  of  Prime  and  Compline  were  devised  or  simply  the  last  woixis  of  the  precentor.    This  form, 

later,  Prime  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  century,  while  like  the  antiphon,  had  already  been  in  use  amongst 

Compline  is  usually  attributed  to  St.  Benedict  in  the  Jews,  and  appears  even  in  the  construction  of 

the  sixth  century;  but  it  must  be  acknowledged  that,  certain  psalms,  as  in  cxxxv,  ''Laudate  Dominum 

although  he  may  have  given  it  its  special  form  for  quoniam  bonus",  where  the  refrain,  "Quoniam  in 

the  West,  there  existed  before  his  time  a  prayer  setemum  misericordia  ejus",  which  recurs  in  each 

for  the  close  of  the  day  corresponding  to  it.  verse,  certainly  corresponds  to  a  responsory. 

IV.  Component  Parts  of  the  Orpics. — Each  of        (d)  Hymns, — ^The  term  hymn  has  a  less  definite 

the  hours  of  the  Office  in  the  Roman  Liturgy  is  com*  meaning  than  those  of  antiphon  or  responsory,  and 

posed  of  the  same  elements:  psalms  (and  now  and  in  the  primitive   liturgies  its  use  is  somewhat  un- 

then  canticles),  antiphons,  responsories,  hymns,  les-  certain.     In   the   Roman   Breviary,   at  each   hour 

sons,  versicles,  little  chapters,  and  collects  (prayers),  either  of  the  day  or  of  the  night  there  is  a  little  poem 

A  few  words  must  be  said  about  each  of  these  in  verses  of  different  measures,  usually  very  short, 

elements  from  the  particular  point  of  view  of  the  This  is  the  hymn.    These  compositions  were  originally 

Breviary.  very  numerous.    Traces  of  hymns  may  be  discerned 

(a)  fisalms  and  Canticles. — Nothing  need  here  be  in  the  New  Testament,  e.  g.,  in  St.  Paul's  Epistles, 
added  to  what  has  already  been  saia  in  section  II  In  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  hymnology  received 
concerning  the  psalms,  except  that  they  are  used  a  great  impetus.  Prudentius,  Synesius,  St.  Gregory 
in  the  Breviary  sometimes  in  order  of  sequence,  as  in  of  riazianzus,  St.  Hilary,  and  St.  Ambrose  composed 
the  ferial  Offices  of  Matins  and  Vespers,  sometimes  a  great  many.  But  it  was  above  all  in  the  Middle 
by  special  selection,  independently  of  the  order  of  Ages  that  this  style  of  composition  most  developed, 
the  Psalter,  as  in  Lauds,  Prime,  Compline,  and,  in  and  collections  of  them  were  made,  filling  several 
general,  in  the  Offices  of  the  Saints  ana  other  feasts,  volumes.  The  Roman  Breviary  contains  but  a 
Another  Doint  to  notice  in  the  composition  of  the  moderate  number  of  hymns,  forming  a  real  anthology. 
Roman  Office  is  that  it  allows  of  the  inclusion  of  Some  of  them  are  masterpieces  of  art.  It  was  at  a 
a  certain  number  of  canticles,  or  songs,  drawn  from  comparatively  late  date  (about  the  twelfth  centuiy) 
other  portions  of  Holy  Writ  than  the  Psalter,  but  that  the  Roman  Liturgy  admitted  hymns  into  its 
put  on  the  same  footing  as  the  psalms.  These  are:  Breviary.  In  its  primitive  austerity  it  had  hitherto 
the  Canticle  of  Moses  after  the  passage  of  the  Red  rejected  them,  without,  however,  condemning  theii 
Sea  (Exodus,  xv);  the  Canticle  of  Moses  before  his  emplo3rment  in  other  liturgies. 

death  (Deut.,  xxxii);  the  Prajrer  of  Anne  the  mother        (e)  Lessons. — By  this  term  is  meant  the  choice 

of  Samuel  (I  Kinm,ii);  the  Prayer  of  Jonas  (Jon.,  ii);  of  readings  or  of  extracts  in  the  Breviary,  taken 

the  Canticle  of  Habacuc  (Habacuc,  iii);  the  Canticle  either  from  Holy  Writ  or  from  the  Acts  of  the  Saints, 

of  Ezechias  (Is.,  xxxviii);  the  Canticle  of  the  Three  or  from  the  Fathers  of  the  Church.    Their  use  is  in 

Children  (Dan.,  iii,  26);  The  Benedicite  (Dan.,  iii,  accordance  with  the  ancient  Jewish  custom,  which, 

Iii);     lastly,   the   three    canticles   drawn   from   the  in  the  services  of  the  Synagogues,  enjoined  that  aftei 

New  Testament:   the   Magnificat,   the   Benedictus,  the  chanting  of  psalms,  the  Law  and  the  Prophets 

and  the  Nunc  dimittis.  should  be  read.   The  primitive  Church  partly  adopted 

This  list  of  canticles  coincides  more  or  less  with  this  service  of  the  Synagogue,  and  thus  brought  into 

those  used  in  the  Greek  Church.    St.  Benedict  admits  being  the  service  of  the  night  watches.     But  the 

these  canticles  into  his  Psalter,  specificMly  stating  course  of  readings  was  altered;  after  a  lesson  from 

that  h6  borrows  them  from  the  Church  of  Rome,  the  Old  Testament,  the  Epistles  of  the  Apostles  or 

and  thus  providing  a  further  argument  for  the  prior-  their  Acts  or  the  Oospels  were  read.    Some  Churches 

ity  of  the  Roman  Office  over  the  monastic.  somewhat  extended  this  usage:  for  it  is  certain  that 

(b)  Antiphons. — ^The  antiphons  which  are  read  the  letters  of  St.  Clement  of  Home,  of  St.  Ignatius, 
nowadays  m  the  Breviary  are  abridged  formularies  and  of  Barnabas,  and  the  '^  Paster"  of  Hennas  were 
which  almost  always  serve  te  introduce  a  psalm  or  read.  Some  Churches,  indeed,  less  well  instructed, 
canticle.  They  consist  sometimes  of  a  verse  taken  allowed  books  not  wholly  orthodox,  like  the  (jrospel 
from  a  psalm,  sometimes  of  a  sentence  selected  from  of  Peter,  to  be  read.  In  time  lists  were  made  out  to 
the  Giospels  or  Holy  Scripture,  e.  g.  "Euge,  serve  fix  what  books  might  be  read.  Muratori's  "Canon" 
Ixme,  in  modico  fidelis,  mtra  in  saudium  Domini  and.  still  better,  the  '^  Decrees  of  Crelasius"  may  be 
tui";  occasionally  they  consist  of  phrases  not  culled  stuoied  from  this  point  of  view  with  profit.  Later 
from  the  Bible,  but  modelled  on  its  style,  i.  e.  they  on  men  were  not  content  to  confine  themselves  to 
are  the  invention  of  a  litur^oal  author,  for  example:  the  reading  of  the  holy  books;  certain  Churches 
"  Veni,  Sponsa  Christi,  accipe  coronam,  quam  tibi  wished  to  read  the  Acts  of  the  Martyrs.  The  Church 
Dominus  pneparavit  in  fletemum'\  Originally,  the  of  Africa,  which  possessed  Acts  of  great  value,  sig* 
meaning  of  the  word,  and  the  function  fulfilled  by  nalized  itself  in  this  respect.  Others  followed  its 
the  antiphon,  was  not  what  it  is  now.  Although  it  is  example.  When  the  Divine  Office  was  more  de- 
difficult  to  determine  precisely  the  origin  and  puiport  veloped,  probably  under  monastic  influence,  it  be- 
of  the  term,  it  seems  tnat  it  is  derived  from  antipnona  came  customary  to  read,  after  Holy  Writ,  the  com- 
{dFTupiivTj)  or  from  the  adjective  drrUfnapos,  and  that  mentaries  of  the  Fathers  and  of  other  ecclesiastical 
it  signified  a  chant  by  alternate  choirs.  The  singers  writers  on  the  passage  of  the  Bible  just  previously 
or  the  faithful  were  aivided  into  two  choirs;  the  first  heard.  This  innovation,  which  probably  be^an  in 
choir  intoned  the  first  verse  of  a  psalm,  the  second  the  sixth,  or  even  in  the  fifth,  century,  brought  into 
continued  with  the  second  verse,  the  first  followed  the  Divine  Office  the  works  of  St.  Augustme.  St. 
with  the  third  verse,  and  so  on  to  the  end  of  the  HilMy.  St.  Athanasius,  Origen,  and  others.    To  tneae. 


773 

later,  were  added  those  of  St.  IsidoTe,  St.  Ckegory  Rome,  and  m  certain  Epistles  of  St.  CSrprian.    In 

the  Great,  the  Venerable  Bede,  and  so  on.    This  new  time,   towards   the  -  fourth   century,   collections  of 

developm^it  of  the  Office  gave  rise  to  the  compila-  prayers  were  made  for  those  who  were  not  adepts 

tion  ot  special  books.    In  primitive  times  the  !tiook  m  the  art  of  improvisation;  these  were  the  earliest 

of  Psalms  and  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  forerunners  of  Sacramentaries  and  Orationals,  which 

sufficed  for  the  Office.    Later,  books  were  compiled  later  occupied  so  important  a  place  in  the  history 

giving  extracts  from  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  of  the  Liturgy.   The  Leonine,  Geiasian,  and  Gregorian 

(Lectionary,  Grospel,  and  Epistle  Books)  for  each  day  Saoramentanes  form  the  chief  sources  whence  are 

and  each  feast.    Then  followed  books  of  homilies  drawn  the  collects  of  our  Breviary.     It  may  be 

(Homiliaries) — collections   of  sermons   or  of   com-  observed  that  they  are  of  ereat  theological  impor- 

mentaries  of  the  Fathers  for  use  in  the  Office.    All  tance,  and  usually  sum  up  the  main  idea  dominating 

these  books  should  be  studied,  for  they  form  the  a  feast;  hence,  in  them  the  significance  of  a  festival 

constituent  elements  which  later  combined  into  the  is  to  be  sought. 

Breviary.  V.  Histort  op  the  Breviaby. — In  the  preceding 

Further,  as  regards  these  lessons,  it  is  well  to  paragraphs,  a  certain  portion  of  the  history  of  the 

notice  that,  as  in  the  case  of  the  psalmody,  two  lines  breviary,  as  a  choir  book  at  least,  has  been  given. 

of  selection  were  followed.     The  first,  that  of  the  At  first,  there  was  no  choir  book,  properly  so  called; 

order  of  ferial  Office^,  ensures  the  reading  of  the  the  Bible  alone  sufficed  for  all  neeos,  for  therein 

Scripture,  from  Genesis  to  the  Apocab^pse,  in  se-  were  the  psalms  for  recitation  and  the  books  which 

quence;  the  second,  that  of  the  order  for  feasts  of  fiumished  the  various  lessons.    It  is  of  course  most 

the  saints  and  festivals,  breaks  in  upon  this  orderly  probable  that  the  Psalter  is  the  most  anci^it  choir 

series  of  readings  and  substitutes  for  them  a  chapter  hook;  it  was  published  apart  to  fulfil  this  special 

or  a  portion  of  a  chapter  specially  applicable  to  the  function,  but  with  divisions — marks  to  indicate  the 

feast  which  is  being  celebrated.  portions  to  be  read;  and  at  the  end  were  copied  out 

The  following  is  the  table  of  lessons  from  the  the-  canticles  recited  in  the  Office  like  the  psalms, 

Bible.     In  its  essential  features,  it  goes  back  to  a  and  sometimes,  following  each  psalm,  came  one  or 

very  venerable  antiquity: —  more  prayers.    A  study  of  manuscript  Psalters,  which 

Advent — Isaias,  and  St.  Paul's  Epistles.  has  not  as  yet  been  methodically  undertaken,  would 

Ch-istmas,    Eviphamj — St.    Paul,    following    this  be  extremely  useful  for  the  Liturgy.    Then,  little 

very  ancient  order: — Epp.  to  Romans,  Corinthians,  by  little,  as  the  canonical  Office  was  evolved,  books 

Galatians,  Ephesians,  Philippians,  Golossians,  Thessa-  were  drawn  up  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  day — 

k>nians,  Timothy,  Titus,  Philemon,  Hebrews.  Antiphonaries,  Coilectaria,  etc.    In  the  twelfth  cen- 

Septuagcnma  and  Lent — Genesis  and  the  other  tury  John  Beleth,  a  liturgical  author,  enimierates 

boolu  of  the  Pentateuch.  the  books  needed  for  the  due  performance  of  the 

Paesiontide — Jeremias.  canonical   Office,    namely: — the    Antiphonary,    the 

Easter   and   Paschal    Time — ^Acts   of    the   Afyp.,  Old  and  New  Testaments,  the  Passionary  (Acts  of 

Apocalypse,    Epp.  of    St.   James,    St.    Peter,  St.  the  Martyrs),  the  Legendary  (Legends  of  the  Saints), 

John.  the  Homiliary ,  or  collection  of  nomilies  on  the  Gospels, 

Time  after  Pentecost — Books  of  Kings.  the  SermologuSy  or  collection  of  sermons,  and  the 

Month  of  August — Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  Book  of  treatises  of  the  Fathers.    In  addition  to  these  should 

Wisdom,   Ecclesiasticus.  be  mentioned  the  Psalteriiun,  Gollectarium  for  the 

Month  of  September — Job,  Tobias,  Judith,  Esther,  prayers,  the  Martyrology,  etc.    Thus,  for  the  red- 

Month  of  October — Machabees.  tation  of  the  canonical  Office,  quite  a  library  was 

Month  of  November — ^Ezechiel,  Daniel,  the  twelve  required.     Some  simphfication  became  imperative, 

minor  Prophets.  and  the  pressure  of  circumstances  brought  about  a 

({)  Versicles  and  lAttle  Chapters, — Hie  Capiiulum,  condensation  of  these  various  books  into  one.    This 

or  Little  Chapter,  is  really  a  very  short  lesson  which  is  the  origin  of  the  Breviary.    The  word  and  the 

takes  the  place  of  lessons  in  those  hours  which  have  thing  it  represents  appeared — confusedly,  it  might 

no  special  ones  assigned  to  them.    These  are:  Lauds,  be — at  the  end  of  the  eighth  century.     Alcuin  is 

Prime,  Terce,  Sext,  None,  Vespers,  and  Compline,  the  author  of  an  abridgment  of  the  Office  for  the 

By  reason  of  their  brevity  and  of  their  unimportance,  laity — ^a  few  psalms  for  each  day  with  a  prayer  after 

tbey  are  much  less  complicated  than  the  longer  ones,  each  psalm,  on  an  ancient  plan,  and  some  other 

and  no  more  need  here  be  said  about  them.    The  prayers;  but  without  including  lessons  or  homiliea 

Versicles  belong  to  the  psalmody,  like  responsories  It  might  rather  be  called  a  Euchology  than  a  Brev- 

and  antiphons;  usually  they  are  taken  from  a  psalm,  iary.    About  the  same  time  Prudentius,  Bishop  of 

and  belong  to  the  category  of  liturgical  acclamations  Troyes,  inspired  by  a  similar  motive,  drew  up  a 

or  shouts  of  joy.    They  are  usually  employed  after  Breviarium  Psalteni,    But  we  must  come  down  to 

leesons  and  littte  chapters,  and  often  tal:e  the  place  the  eleventh  century  to  meet  with  a  Breviary  properly 

•f  responsories;  ihey  are,  in  fact,  brief  responsories.  so  called.    The  most  ancient  manuscript  known  as 

The  ferial  Preces  and  the  Litanies  probably  belong  containing   within  one   volume   the   whole  of   the 

to  the  category  of  versicles.  canonical  Office  dates  from  the  year  1099;  it  comes 

(g)   CoUUdts, — Collects,   also    called   prayers,   are  from  Monte  Cassino,  and  at  the  present  time  belongs 

not  psahnodic  prayers;  they  are  of  a  completely  to  the  Mazarin  Library.     It  contains,  in  addition 

different  character.     Their  place  in  the  Breviary  to  other  matter  which  does  not  concern  the  present 

changes  little;  they  come  towards  the  end  of  tfate  inquiry,  the   Psalter,   canticles,  litanies,  hymnary. 

Office,  after  the  psalmody,  the  lessons,  little  chapters,  collects,   blessings  for  the   lessons,   little  chapters, 

and  versicles,  but  preceded  by  the  Dominus  vobis'  antiphons,    responsories,    and    lessons    for    certain 

cum,  and  they  gather  up  in  a  compendious  form  the  Ofilces.     Another  manuscript,   contemporary   with 

supplications  of  the  faithful.    Their  historical  origin  the  preceding,  and  also  commg  from  Monte  Cassino, 

IB  as  follows:  Dming  the  earliest  period,  the  president  contains  Propers  of  the  Season  and  of  the  Saints, 

of  the  assembly,  usually  the  bishop,  was  entrusted  thus  serving  to  complete  the  first-mentioned  one. 

with  the  task  of  pronouncing,  after  the  psalmody,  Other  examples  of  the  Breviary  exist  dating  from 

chants,  and  litanies,  a  prayer  in  the  name  of  all  the  twelfth  century,  still  rare  and  all  Benedictine. 

the  faithful;  he  therefore  addressed  himself  directly  The  history  of  these  origins  of  the  Breviary  is  still 

to  God.    At  first  t^iis  prayer  was  an  improvisation,  somewhat  obscure;  and  the  efforts  at  research  must 

The  ^oldest  examples  are  to  be  found  in  the  Aitfax^  continue  tentatively  till  a  critical  study  of  these 

r{h  ^AroffTilKtfp,  and  in  the  Epistle  of  St.  Clement  of  manuscript  Breviaries  has  been  made  on  the  lines 

U.-49 


774  BRIVIAET 

of  such  workers  as  Delisle,  Ebner,  or  EEtrensperger,  century,  was  even  at  that  early  period  a  critic  and  & 

on  the  Sacramentaries  and  Missals.  reformer;    in   his   famous   work    ''De   observanti& 

It  was  under  Innocent  III  (1198-1216)  that  the  OEuionum"  he  ajritated  for  some  settlement  of  li- 
use  of  Breviaries  began  to  spread  outside  Bene-  turgical  rules.  The  "XV  Ordo  Romanus"  already 
dictine  circles.  At  Rome,  no  longer  solely  for  the  referred  to,  the  work  of  Amelius,  sacristan  to  Urban  V 
Roman  Basilicas,  but  still  for  the  Roman  Court  and  librarian  to  Gregory  XI,  breathes  the  same  idea, 
alone,  Breviaria  were  drawn  up,  which,  from  their  The  abuses  points!  out  by  the  diflferent  authois 
source,  are  called  Breviaria  de  Camerd,  or  Bremaria  of  the  time  may  be  reduced  to  the  following:  (a)  The 
secundum  u$um  Romance  Cvrtce.  Texts  of  this  almost  complete  suppression  of  the  Offices  of  Sun- 
period  (beginning  of  thirteenth  century)  speak  of  days  and  ferias,  so  that  it  became  impossible  that 
^*  Missalia,  Breviaria,  csBteroscjue  libros  in  ouibus  the  whole  Psalter  should  be  recited  eveiy  week,  and 
Officium  Ecclesiasticum  contmetur",  and  Raoul  certain  psalms  were  never  recited  at  all.  (b)  An 
de  Tonnes  specifically  refers  to  this  Roman  Breviary,  accumulation  of  Offices  on  the  same  day,  tending  to 
But  this  use  of  the  Breviary  was  still  limited,  and  the  destruction  of  their  solemnity  ancf  also  to  the 
was  a  kind  of  privilege  reserved  for  the  Roman  elimination  of  the  Offices  of  the  Season,  (c)  Sub- 
Oourt.  A  special  cause  was  needed  to  nve  the  use  of  stitution  for  the  lessons  from  Holy  Scripture  of 
this  Breviary  a  greater  extension.  The  Order  of  legends  and  apocryphal  lustories  and  of  texts  of 
Friars  Minor,  or  Franciscans,  lately  fotmded,  un-  doubtful  value  for  antiphons,  hymns,  and  respon- 
dertook  the  task  of  popularizing  it.  It  was  not  a  sories.  On  this  subject  the  "  Consultatio "  presented 
sedentary  order  vowed  to  stability,  like  those  of  the  by  John  de  Ar«o  to  the  Council  of  T^nt  should  be 
Benedictines  or  Cistercians,  or  like  the  Regular  studied.  (d)  The  introduction  of  superstitious 
Canons,  but  was  an  active,  missionarv,  preaching  or-  usages,  strange  formularies  of  prayer,  and  feasts 
der.  It  therefore  needed  an  abridged  Office,  oonven*  bordering  in  character  on  the  grotesque, 
lent  to  handle  and  contained  in  a  smgie  volume  small  The  Humanism  of  the  Renaissance,  which  had  its 
enough  to  be  carried  about  by  the  Friars  on  their  ardent  champions  even  in  the  Church,  as  Bembo, 
journeys.  This  order  adopted  the  Breviarium  Curise  Sadoletus,  etc.,  to  say  nothing  of  certain  popes, 
with  certain  modifications  which  really  constitute,  caused  the  idea  of  a  special  reform  of  the  Breviary, 
as  it  were,  a  second  edition  of  this  Breviary.  It  is  in  the  direction  of  greater  literary  purity  and  per- 
sometimes  called  the  Breviary  of  Grw>ry  IX  because  feotion,  to  be  entertamed  in  certain  quarters.  Strange 
it  was  authorized  by  that  pontiff.  One  of  the  chief  schemes  were  propounded,  little  in  consonance  with 
modifications  effected  by  the  Friars  Minor  was  the  the  spirit  of  the  Church.  A  Florentine  canon,  Mar- 
substitution  of  the  Gallican  version  of  the  Psalter  siglio  Ficino,  and  Peter  Pomponatius,  for  instance, 
for  the  Roman.  The  cause  was  won*  this  eminentlpr  suggested  thkt  the  clergy  should  read  the  classical 
popular  and  active  order  spread  the  use  of  this  authors  instead  of  the  Breviary.  Others,  thourii  not 
Breviary  everywhere.  Antipnonaries,  Ptolters,  Leg-  going  so  far  as  this,  thought  the  diction  of  the  Brevi- 
endaries,  and  Kesponsoraries  disappeared  by  degrees  ary  barbaric,  and  wanted  to  translate  it  into  Cicero- 
before  the  advance  of  the  sin^  book  which  replaced  nian  Latin.  The  corrections  sug^ted  included  such 
them  all.  Still  more,  by  a  kmd  of  jus  poidiminiir^  astounding  phrases  as  the  following:  the  forgiveness 
a  right  of  resumption — the  Church  of  Rome,  under  of  sins  becomes  "superosque  manesaue  placare"; 
Nicholas  III  (1277-80),  adopted  the  Breviary  of  the  Begetting  of  the  Word  was  to  be  "Minerva  Jovis 
the  Friars  not  merely  for  the  Curia,  but  also  for  the  capite  orta";  the  Holy  Ghost  was  "Aura  Zephjrri 
Basilicas;  and,  as  an  inevitable  consequence,  this  ocelestis",  etc.  These  attempts  failed;  nevertheless, 
Breviary  was  bound,  sooner  or  later,  to  become  at  a  later  date,  under  Urban  Vl II,  similar  Humanist 
that  of  the  Universal  Church.  tendencies  came  again  to  the  surface  and  this  time 

VI.  Reforms   op  the   Breviary. — ^In   the   ]&re-  asserted  their  power  by  an  emendation  of  the  hymns, 

ceding   sections,    the    history   of   the   ecclesiastical  Amongst  such   attempts   may   be  mentioned  that 

Office  has  been  unfolded  from  its  inception.    If  this  of  Ferreri.    He  was  tne  Bishop  of  Guarda  Alfieri 

history  could  be  put  into  few  words,  thou^  nee-  in  the  Kingdom  of  Naples,  a  Humanist,  and  wrote 

essarily  forming  an  incomplete  statement,  it  might  under  the  au^ices  and  patronage  of  Leo  X.     He 

be  said  that  from  the  first  to  the  fifth  century  it  was  began  with  the  hymns.    His  work,  which  has  been 

in  formation;  from  the  fifth  to  the  eleventh  century  preserved,  is  interesting  and   contains  some  very 

it  was  in  process  of  development  and  expansion;  and  beautiful  pieces,  polished  in  style.    A  good  number 

during   the   twelfth   and   thirteenth   centuries   the  of  them  have,  unfortunately,  nothing  more  of  the 

Breviarv  properly  so  called  was  emerging  into  being,  spirit  of  poetry  in  them  than  harmony  and  rhythm; 

From  then  till  now  (that  is,  from  the  fourteenth  tney  are  wanting  in  inspiration  and  above  all  in  the 

century  onwards)  might  be  termed  the  period  of  warmth  of  piety;  nearly  all  are  strewn  with  Pa^an 

reform.      The    fourteenth    and    fifteenth    centuries  names  and  allusions,  representing  Christian  verities, 

represent  for  the  Litur^,  as  for  the  greater  number  as    "Triforme   Numen    Olympi"    for   the   Trinity, 

of  other  ecclesiastical  institutions,  a  period  of  de-  '' Natus  Eumolpho  Lyricenaue  Sappho  .  .  .  Thracius 

cline,  for  it  is  the  time  of  schisms,  and  in  that  one  Orpheus",    referring   to    tne    Blessed    Viiigin,    etc. 

word  everything  harmful  is  summed  up.    The  few  Ferreri  also  busied  himself  with  a  revision  of  the 

documents    that    are    available    for   the    liturgical  <  Breviary,  but  nothing  was  published,  and  now  no 

history  of  that  time  attest  this,  as,  for  example,  the  trace  of  the  materials  he  collected  is  forthcoming. 

"Gesta  Benedicti  XIII"  and  the  "XV  Orao  Ro-  Another  attempt  at  reform,  much  better  known, 

manus".    Disorder  and  abuses  crept  into  the  Lit-  and  having  results  of  far-reaching  importance,  was 

ur^  as  into  everything  else.  that  of  Quignonez,  Cardinal  of  Santa  Croce  in  Ge- 

Dom   B&umer,   in   ms   ''Histoire  du  briviaire",  rusalerame,  who  was  entrusted  by  Clement  VII  with 

repeatedly  points  out  that  it  is  impossible  to  separate  the  task  of  completing  the  work  begun  by  Ferreri. 

the  history  of  the  Liturgy  from  tne  occurrences  that  He  was  a  Franciscan,  and  had  been  successfully 

make  up  the  general  history  of  the  Church,  and  that  employed  on  various  commissions.    His  revision  was 

the  phases  through  which  the  general  history  takes  the  most  original   that  has  ever  been  attempted, 

us  Hre  reflected  in  the  evolution  of  the  Liturgy,  and    liturgical    experts,    like    Gu^ran^r,  Edmund 

It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  the  sojourn  of  Bishop,  and  Bftumer,  have  studied  his  labours  in 

the  popes  at  Avignon  and  the  Great  Schinn  have  detail.     Only  the  principal  points  of  his  scheme  can 

exertea  their  baneful  influence  on  the  history  of  be   mentioned    here.     Considered   theoretically,   it 

the  Liturgv.     And  the  reaction  is  still  being  felt,  cannot  be  denied  that  his  Breviary  is  drawn  up  on 

Raoul  de  Tongresi  who  died  early  in  the  fifteenth  ^asy,  convenient,  and  logical  lines,  and,  on  the  wholes 


1BB7I4BT                             775  BBSVIASY 

u  ielicitoiisly  arranged.  But  in  the  li^t  of  tradition  the  reaaons  which  had  weighed  with  Rome  in  putting 
and  of  liturgical  pnnciples  the  only  possible  verdict  fort^  an  official  text  of  public  prayer,  and  nves  an 
is  that  Quignonez'  Breviary,  being  constructed  on  account  of  the  labours  which  had  been  undertaken 
a  priori  principles,  violating  most  of  the  liturgical  to  ensure  its  correction;  it  withdrew  the  papal  ap- 
rules,  must  be  condemned.  The  author  starts  with  probation  from  all  Breviaries  which  could  not  show 
the  theory,  contrary  to  all  tradition,  that  an  essential  a  prescriptive  right  of  at  least  two  centuries  of  ex- 
difference  exists  between  the  public  celebration  of  istence.  Any  Church  which  had  not  such  an  ancient 
the  Office  and  its  private  recitation.  For  private  Breviary  was  bound  to  adopt  that  of  Rome.  The 
recitation,  therefore,  all  such  portions  as  antiphons,  new  Calendar  vraa  freed  from  a  large  number  of  feasts, 
responsories,  versicles,  little  chapters,  even  hymns  so  that  the  ferial  Office  was  once  more  accorded  a 
may  be  eliminated,  as,  accordmg  to  Quignonez,  chance  of  occupying  a  less  obscure  position  than  of 
these  are  meant  solely  for  choir  use.  According  to  '  late  it  had.  At  the  same  time  the  real  foundation 
his  arrangement,  the  entire  Psalter  was  to  be  re-  of  the  Breviary — the  Psalter — ^was  respected,  the 
cited  once  a  week — an  excellent  idea,  in  consonance  principal  alterations  made  being  in  the  lessons, 
with  primitive  practice;  but  it  was  applied  too  rigidly  The  legends  of  the  saints  were  carefully  revised, 
and  narrowly,  for  no  attention  was  paid  to  the  as  also  the  homilies.  The  work  was  one  not  only  of 
suitability  of  certain  psalms  to  special  feasts.  Feasts  critical  revision,  but  also  of  discriminating  conser- 
were  never  to  change  the  order  of  the  psalms,  which  vatism,  and  was  received  with  general  approval, 
were  to  be  recited  successively  from  i  to  cl.  The  greater  number  of  the  Churches  of  Italy,  France, 

Every  hour  had  three  psalms;  and  in  consequence  Spain,  Germany,  England,  and,  generally,  all  the 

of  this  severe  regularity,  there  disappecured  the  deep  C&tholic  States,  accepted  this  Breviary,  saving  only 

and  historical  motive  which  gave  to  each  hour  its  certain  districts,  as  Milan  and  Toledo,  where  ancient 

own  characteristics.    The  legends  of  the  saints  and  Rites  were  retained. 

the  hvmns  underwent  drastic,  but  designed,  revision.  This  Pian  Breviary  (Breviarium  Pianum),  while 

Another  principle,  which  would  be  deserving  of  all  still  remaining  the  official  prayer  book  of  the  Univ^sal 

praise  had  it  not  been  applied  too  rigorously,  was  Church,  has  undei^one  certain  slight  alterations  in 

that  the  entire  Scriptures  should  be  read  through  the  course  of  time,  and  these  must  here  be  noted, 

every  year.    Quignonez'  Breviary,  as  might  be  ex-  but  without  reference  to  the  new  feasts  of  saints 

pected,  met  both  with  enthusiastic  approval  and  ^ith  which  have  been  added  to  the  Calendar  century  by 

determined  opposition.     Its  success  may  be  judged  century,  even  though  they  occupy  a  not  inconsider- 

fromthenumber  of  editions  through  which  it  passed,  able  space  in  the  ecclesiastical  disposition  of  the 

The  Sor  bonne  criticized  it  severely,  and  other  ex-  year.    The  chief  est  and  most  important  changes  were 

perts  declared  against  Quignonez  and  attacked  his  made  imder  Sixtua  V.    At  first  the  text  of  the  v^^ 

work  mercilessly.    In  the  end,  opposition  proved  the  sions  of  the  Bible  used  in  the  Liturgy  waa  aHered. 

stronger,  and  even  popes  rejected  it.     Moreover,  it  As  soon  as  the  revision  of  the  Vulgate  undertaken 

was  supplanted  bv  other  revisions  made  on  more  during  this  pontificate  was  complete,  the  new  text 

orthodox  liturgical  lines,  less  ambitious  in  scope,  replaced  the  old  one  in  all  official  books,  pailicularly 

and  more  in  accordance  with  tradition.    The  newlv  in  the  Breviary  and  the  Missal.    Sixtus  Y  instituted 

founded   Congregation   of  Theatines   applied   itself  a  new  Congregation — that  of  Rites— in  1588,  chai^ 

to  this  task  with  energy  and  enthusiasm.     Caraffa.  ing  it  with  a  study  of  the  reforms  contemplated  m 

one  of  its  founders,  tooK  a  share  in  the  work,  ana  the  Pian  Breviary,  which  had  then  been  in  use  more 

when  he  became  pope  under  the  name  of  Paul  IV  than  twenty  years.     To  him  is  due  the  honour  of 

(1555-59),  he  continued  his  labours,  but  died  before  this  revision  of  the  Breviary,  although  till  lately 

seeing  their  completion,  and  it  was  thus  reserved  it  had  been  ascribed  to  Clement  VII  (1502-1605). 

to  others  to  bring  them  to  a  successful  issue.  Although  the  first  suggestion  came  from  Sixtua  V, 

The  Coimcil  of  Trent,  which  effected  reforms  in  so  nevertheless  it  was  only  under  CHement  VII  that 

many  directions,  also  took  up  the  idea  of  revising  the  the  work  was  really  vigorously  pushed  forward  and 

Breviarv;  a  commission  was  appointed  concerning  l:»t)iight  to  a  conclusion.     The  revising  committee 

whose  deliberations  we  have  not  much  information,  had  as  its  members  such  men  as  Baronius,  BeUannine, 

but  it  began  to  make  definite  inquiries  about  the  and  Qavanti.    The  first-named  especially  played  a 

subject  entrusted  to  it.    The  coimcil  separated  be-  most  important  part  in  this  revision,  and  the  report 

fore  these  preliminaries  could  be  concluded;  so  it  was  which  he  drew  up  has  recently  been  published.   The 

decided  to  leave  the  task  of  editing  a  new  Breviary  emendations  bore  especiallv  on  the  rubrics:  to  the 

in  the  pope's  own  hands.    The  commission  appointed  Common  of  Saints  was  added  that  of  Holy  Women 

by  the  council  was  not  dissolved,  and  continued  its  not  Virgins;  the  rite  of  certain  feasts  was  altered: 

investigations.     St.  Pius  V,  at  the  beginning  of  his  and  some  new   feasts  were   added.     The   Bull  of 

pontificate   (1566),  appointed  new  members  to  it  Oement  VII,  ''Cum  in  Ecdesift'',  enjoining  the  ob- 

and  otherwise  stimulated  Ob  activity,  with  the  result  servance  of  these  alterations,  is  dated  10  Buy,  1602. 

that  a  Breviary  appeared  in  1568,  prefaced  by  the  Further  changes  were  made  bv  Urban  VIII  (1623- 

famous  Bull,  '^Quoa  a  nobis".    The  commission  had  44).    The  commission  appointed  by  him  was  content 

adopted  wise  and  reasonable  principles:  not  to  in-  to  correct  the  lessons  and  iiome  of  the  homilies,  in 

vent  a  new  Breviary  and  a  new  Liturgy;  to  stand  by  the  sense  of  making  the  text  correspond  more  closely 

tradition;  to  keep  all  that  was  worth  keefMng,  but  with  the  oldest  manuscripts.    There  would  therefore 

at  the  same  time  to  correct  the  multitude  of  errors  be  no  call  to  treat  of  this  revision  under  Urban  Vlll 

which  had  crept  into  the  Breviaries  and  to  weigh  at  greater  length  but  for  the  fact  that,  outside  the 

jxiat  demands  and  complaints.    Following  these  lines,  work  of  this  commission,  he  effected  a  still  more 

thev  corrected  the  lessons,  -or  legends,  of  the  saints  important  reform,  over  which  even  now  discussion 

and    revised    the    Calendar;    and    while    respecting  has  not  ceased  to  make  itself  heard.    It  affected  the 

ancient  liturgical  formularies  such  as  the  collects,  hymns.    Urban  VIII,  being  himself  a  Humanist,  and 

they  introduced  needful  changes  in  certain  details,  no  mean  poet,  as  witness  the  hymns  of  St.  Martin  and 

More  intimate  accounts  of  this  revision  should  be  of  St.  EUzabeth  of  Portugal,  which  are  of  his  own 

studied  at  length  in  the  approved  authorities  on  the  composition,  desired  that  the  Breviary  hymns  which 

history  of  the  Breviary.    Here  it  will  be  enough  to  it  must  be  admitted  are  sometimes  triviiJ  in  style 

^ve  a  short  sketch  of  the  chief  points  affecting  this  and  irregular  in  their  prosodv,  should  be  corrected 

Breviarv,  as  it  is  substantially  the  same  as  that  used  according  to  grammatical  nues  and  put  into  true 

at  this  date.    The  celebrated  Bull  of  approval,  ^'Quod  metre.    To  this  end  he  called  in  the  aid  of  oeriain 

a  nobis''  (9  July,  1568),  which  prefaced  it,  explains  Jesuits  of  distinguished  literary  attainments.    The 


776  BBIVUBT 

<CQrrection8  made  by  these  purists  were  00  mumerous —  This  reform,  while  not  wanting  in  sound  ideals^  was 

962  in  all — as  to  make  a  profound  alteration  in  the  carried  oi^t,  however,  regardkss  of  litui^gical  tra- 

character  of  some  of  the  hymns.    Although  some  of  ditions. 

them  without  doubt  gained  in  Ute^ary  style,  never-        What  had  been  going  on  in  Paris  had  its  counter- 

iheless,  to  the  re^t  of  many,  they  also  lost  some-  part  in  other  dioceses  of  France,  where  new  Brev- 

ihine  of  their  ola  charm  of  simplicity  and  fervour,  laries  were  introduced,  for  the  most  part  inspired  by 

At  the  present  date,  this  revision  is  condemned,  out  the  ideas  which  had  dominated  those  of  de  Harlay  and 

of  respect  for  ancient  texts;  and  siuprise  may  be  of  Vintimille.     A  reaction  asainst  these  broke  out 

expressed  at  the  temerity  that  dared  to  meddle  with  in  France  between  1830  and  1840,  having  for  its 

the  Latinity  of  a  Prudentius,  a  Sedulius,  a  Sidonius  leader  a  Benedictine  monk,  Dom  Gu^rang^,  Abbot 


its  own  pecufiar  cluu*m.  Even  the  more,  barbarous  struction,  and  proved  that  their  authors  had  acted 
Latinity  of  a  Rhabanus  Maurus  is  not  without  its  without  warrant.  His  onslauj^t  met  with  immediate 
archaic  interest  and  value.  Moreover,  the  revisers  success  for  in  twenty  vears  the  greater  number  of 
were  ill-advised  inasmuch  as  th^  adopted  a  via  the  dioceses  gave  up  their  Galilean  l^viaries  and 
media;  thev  stopped  half-way.  If ,  as  it  is  freely  adopted  once  more  tbe  Roman  liturgy.  The  exact 
admitted,  the  Roman  Breviary  contains  man^  hymns  fi^pres  are  as  follows:  in  1791  eigihtv  dioceses  had 
of  inferior  poetic  worth,  and  whose  sentmient  is  rejected  the  Roman  litur^  and  nad  fashioned 
perhaps  commonplace,  then  there  is  no  reason  why  special  litivgies  for  themsdves;  in  1875  Orleans, 
they  should  not  be  eliminated  altogether,  and  re-  tne  last  French  diocese  which  had  retained  its  own 
placed  by  new  ones.  Many  of  the  older  ones,  how-  litunnr;  re-entered  Roman  liturgical  unity, 
ever,  were  worthv  of  being  preserved  just  as  they  "Wnile  France,  during  the  seventeenth  and  eight- 
stood;  and,  in  the  light  of  the  progress  made  in  eenth  centuries,  was  letting  herself  be  carried  away 
philology,  it  is  certain  that  some  of  the  corrections  in  the  reform  of  her  Breviaries  by  Galilean  and  Jan- 
in  prosody  made  under  Urban  VIII  convict  their  senist  leanings,  other  countries  were  following  in 
authors  of  ignorance  of  certain  rhythmic  rules,  whose  her  wake.  In  Italy,  Scipio  Ricci,  Bishop  of  Pistoia. 
existence^  it  is  osdy  right  to  say,  came  to  be  known  an  ardent  Jansenist,  drew  up  a  new  Breviary,  ana 
later.  However  it  may  be,  these  corrections  have  certain  districts  of  Germany  adopted  the  same 
been  retained  till  the  present  time.  A  comparison  course,  with  the  result  that  Breviaries  modelled  on 
of  the  older  with  the  modem  text  of  the  hymns  may  those  of  France  appeared  at  Trier,  Cologne,  Aachen, 
be  consulted  in  Daniel,  '^ Thesaurus  Hymnologicus' ,  MOnster,  and  Mainz;  and  it  was  long  before  Germany 
(Halle.  1841).                                                       ^  returned  to  liturgical  unity. 

Nothing  further  was  done  under  the  successors  of  While  the  Jansenists  and  Galileans  were  creating 

Urban  VIII,  except  that  new  Offices  were  added  from  a  new  Liturgy,  Prosper  Lambertim*,  one  of  the  most 

time  to  time,  and  that  thus  the  ferial  Office  bc^gan  learned  men  in  Rome,  who  became  pope  under  the 

again  to  lose  ground.    We  must  come  down  to  the  name  of  Benedict  XIV,  determined  to  copy  the 

pontificate  of  Benedict  XIV,  in  the  second  half  of  example  of  some  of  his  predecessors,  and  to  carry 

the  eighteenth  century,  to  meet  with  another  at-  out  a  further  reform  of  the  Breviary.   A  congregation 

tempt  at  reform;  but  before  doing  so,  reference  must  was  instituted  for  the  special  purpose;  its  papers, 

be  made  to  efforts  inaugurated  in  France  duriiig  the  for  long  unedited,  have  of  late  years  been  eone 

seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  whose  history  through  by  MM.  Roekovdny  and  Chaillot,  each  of 

has  been  learnedly  elucidated  in  detail   by  Dom  whom  has  published  considerable  portions  of  them. 

Gu^ranffer  in  vol.  II  of  his  ''Institutions  liturgiques".  The  first  meeting  of  the  congregation  was  in  1741, 

devoted  in  great  part  to  an  account  of  this  stniffgle.  and  the  discussions  which  took  place  then  and  later 

The  Roman  Breviary,  revised  by  Pius  IV,  had  been  are  of  interest  from  the  liturspst's  point  of  view,  but 

received    in    France    without    opposition.      Under  need  not  detain  us.    Althou^  this  project  of  reform 

Louis  XIV,  however,  attempts  at  revision  were  made,  came  to  nothing,  nevertheless  the  work  accomplished 

inspired  by  a  spirit  of  resistance  and  antagonism  to  by  the  congregation  was  of  real  value  and  reflects 

the  Roman  Ck>urt.     They  took  form  amongst  the  credit  on  ito  members,  some  of  whom,  like  Gior^, 

two  parties  which  made  open  profession  of  Galhcan-  were  eminent   litur^ts.     Future  workers  in   tms 

ism  and  Jansenism.    The  supporters  of  this  reform,  department  of  leammg  will  have  to  take  account  of 

several  of  whom  were  men  of  learning  and  culture,  their  collections.    After  the  death  of  Benedict  XIV 

were  aided  by  the  historical  and  critidd  works  which  (4  May.  1758)  the  labours  of  this  congregation  were 

at  Uiat  time  were  being  poured  forth  in  France,  so  suspenaed  and  w^^e  never  asain  seriously  resumed, 

that  in  these  projects  for  the  reform  of  the  Breviary,  Since  Benedict  XIV 's  time  changes  in  the  Breviary 

side  by  side  with  rash  suggestions,  there  were  many  have  been  very  few,  and  of  minor  importance,  and 

which  were  both  useful  and  well  judged.     One  of  can  be  outlined  in  a  few  words.    Under  Pius  VI  the 

the  first  schemes  was  that  of  the  Paris  Breviary,  question  of  a  reform  of  the  Breviary  was  brought 

mooted  in  1670  and  pursued  under  the  patronage  up  once  more.     By  that  pontiff's  orders  a  scheme 

qf  Archbishops  Hardouin  de  P^fixe  and  de  Harlajr.  was  drawn  up  and  presented  to  the  Congregation  of 

The  Breviary  called  after  de  Harlay  appeared  m  Rites,  but  it  was  found  impossible  to  overcome  the 

1680.    The  corrections  it  embodied  affected  in  par-  difficulties    which    surrounded    an   undertaking    of 

ticular  the  legends  of  the  saints  and  the  homilies,  this  kind.    In  1856  Pius  IX  appointed  a  commission 

but  numerous  other  parts  were  also  touched.    The  to  examine  the  question:  Is  tne  reform  of  the  Brev- 

details  and  the  examination  of  them  may  best  be  iary  opportune?   But  again  only  preliminary  matters 

studied  in  Dom  Gu^ranger's  pages.     Although  it  engaged  their  attention.    Amongst  the  Acta  of  the 

might  have  seemed  that  the  Breviaiy  had  by  then  Vatican  Council  a  series  of  propositions  are  to  be 

been  sufficiently  emended,  in  the  following  century  found,  whose  object  was  the  simplification  or  cor- 

another  Archbishop  of  Paris,  Monseigneur  de  Vin-  rection  of  the  Breviary,  but  the  mqniiy  never  got 

timille,  had  another  Brevii^  drawn  up,  which  was  beyond  that  stage.     Finally,  under  I«o  XIII,  a 

published  in  1736,  and  remained  in  use  tiU  the  middle  commission  was  appointed,  at  the  close  of   1902, 

of  last  century.    It  partly  embodied  what  is  called  whose  duties  were  a  study  ot  historico-liturgical  ques- 

the  "liturgical  Utopia  of  Qui^ones".    Its  source,  tions.    Its  province  is  a  wider  one,  comprising  not 

however,  was  not  above  suspicion,  for  some  of  those  onlv  the  Breviary,  but  also  the  Missal,  the  Pontifical, 

who  had  laboured  at  its  prcnduction  were  Jansenists.  and  the  RituaL    It  haa,  further,  to  supervise  future 


BBEVXABY                              777 '  BBXVIA&T 

liturgical  editions,  and  thus  to  see  that  they  con-  Innes,  who  died  in  Paris  in  1744,  asserts  that  ''all 

form  as  closely  as  possible  with  historical  data.    This  the  Scots  missals  or  breviaries  I  ever  saw  are  secundttm 

commission,  though  attached  to  the  Congregation  t/^um/Sanim,  local  saints  being  written  in''.    Accord- 

of  Rites,  is  nevertheless  autonomous.    It  consisted  ing  to    the  ''R^gistrum  Moraviense'',  the  bishop, 

at  first  of  five  members  under  thepresidency  of  dean,  and  chapter  of  Moray  received  and  duly  ap- 

Monsignor  Duchesne,  namely:  Mgr.  Wilpert,  Father  proved  the  Ordo  of  the  Church  of  Salisbury  in  the 

Ehrle,  S.  J.,  Father  Roberti,  Mgr.  Umberto  Benigni,  year  1242.    The  Diocese  of  Moray  was  contiguous 

M^.   Mercati,   and   a  few   consultors.     What   the  with  that  of  Aberdeen.    The  preference  shown  by  the 

results  of  their  labours  may  be  is  not  yet  known.  Scots  for  the  Sarum  Rite  was  evidentlv  the  outcome 

This  sketch  of  the  reforms  of  the  Breviary  proves,  of  the  strong  feeling,  of  which  we  find  constant  evi- 

however,  the  desire  of  the  Church  to  eliminate  the  dence  in  the  history  of  the  Scottish  Church,  against 

blemishes  which  disfigure  this  book.    All  these  eflforts  anything  which  seemed  like  admitting  the  claim  to 

have  not  been  sterile;  some  of  these  revisions  mark  jurisdiction  over  her  so  often  put  forward  by  the 

real  progress;  and  it  may  be  hoped  that  the  present  Church  of  York.     There  might,  it  was  no  doubt 

commission  will  effect  certain  improvements  which  thought^  have  been  some  apparent  justification  for 

the  progress  of  historical  studies  and  criticism  have  this  claim,  had  the  Scottish  Church  adopted  and 

made  the  more  needful.  maintainea  the  Use  of  York  in  her    liturgy  and 

On  the  different  Breviaries:  Breviary  of  Cliiny^  Brigdttine  office 

Breviary;  Breviary  of  St.  Bernard;  Durham  Breviary; JHere-  rr^'    r>-^viflrv  ni  Aht^rt^tn^n  wjii*  mninlv  the  work 

ford  Breviary;  Mosarabie  Breviary;  Breviary  of  Rouen;  Sarum  .  ^?®  J5reviary  Ot  ADeraeen  was  maimv  ine  WorK 

Breviary;  etc.,  Cabrol,  Introduction  aux  itudet  lituroioues,  s.  v.  Of    the    learned ,  and    piOUS     William    Hilpnmstone, 

BrMaire,   Breviarium,   Brwiary.     On   the  Milan   Breviary.  Bishop  of  Aberdeen  from  1483  to  his  death  in  1514. 

M^S^.  fiWiL-SV^IJJSS;  l^f^ro^X-  <£  Not  only  did  he  bring  together  the  material8jb,ut  in 

Breviers  (Freiburg,  1895),  the  most  important  and  moat  com-  SOme    instances,    notably    in    that    Of    the    Scottish 

plete  work  on  the  subject,  Fr.  tr..  with  a-'-*"*" -* *    '      '      ^'       "" ^  ^'^  -  '-^ * '* — 


^     „  ibiect,  Fr.  tr..  with,  additions  and  correo-  saints,  he  himself  composed  the  leSsons.     A  peculiar 

^^IS!^JSiSri-4;±ml£'SLL^^  feature  of  this  brevimy,  and  one  in  which  it  differs 

Urbano  Papd  VIII  ewtgatce,  16SB  (18S2);  Batiffol,  UHis-  from  nearly  every  other,  IS  that  in  some  of  the  festi- 

toire  du  hrSoiaire  Romain  (Paris,  1893;  tr.  London);  Baudot,  vals  of  saints  the  whole  of  the  nine  lessons  at  Matins 

i^JttS^^ir^^S^iTAfdrir^^^  "^  concerned  with  their  Jives.    These  legends  of  the 

ILo&KOYANY,DeCa!libatu€tBrevi^trio  (1861, 1877, 1881. 1888);  samts  of  Scotland  are  of  singular  interest  and  con- 

Probbt,  Brevier  und  Breviergd)ei  (TQbingen,  1868);  pimont^  siderable  historical  value,  and  they  have  been  ex- 


ialxt  (Innsbruck,  1896);  Article  Brrvxer,  Realencyklopddxe,  IV;  quotations  and  references  occumng  in  the  book  have 

GuicRARO,  Polyptique  de  I'abbaye  de  SL  Riwrn  de  Rewu  (Pans,  l^^^_    fjiatckA    onrl    oAmiftcA    hv    manv    moHpm    hia. 

i86Zy,  BEcKtitL,  Catalogi  BiUiothecarum  anttqui  {Rome,  iss5y,  "^^.^  tested  and  aomittea  py  many  moaern  nis- 

DucANGB,  Qlo%%arium:  MicroloipM  de  ecciesiaati^Hs  obeerva-  tonans.     Although  the  breviary  IS  m  its  structure 

Honibua  in  BtW    Vet.  Patr,  (Lyon^)    XVIII;  Gu*ranqicr.  and  essentials  entirely  in  uniformity  with  that  of 

iS^)!Tsiu''^^dl.°TS^%'T'Se^iJ'&t:-  P"™"-  'i  i?  nevertheless  exclusively  proper  to  ^t- 

Oeschxehte  der  VtUgata  (Mainz,  1868);  Thomasi,  Opera,  ed.,  land,  and  it  was,  as  we  know,  mtended  to  supersede 

VBZS08I  (Rome,  1747),  II;  Berger,  HxsUnre  de  la  VtUgaie  pen-  all  service-books  issued  in  connexion  wth  the  famous 

S?J"p2rTi8J^wl"  *™r'^  Church  of  ailisbury    TWs  fact  is  mute  clear  from  the 

tieit  in  P.  L.,  CXIV,  967;  Muratori,  Anecdoia  Ambroeiana,  royal  mandate  dated  15  September,  1501,  wherem 

ly,  p.  L„  LXXII,  680  sqq.;  Warren,  The  Antivhonary  of  the  Aberdeen  book  is  set  forth  as  the  "Breviary  for 

Bcmffor  (London,  1893);  Gabrol,  Le  Ltvr€  de  la  Prtere  Antique  ~or»«-ol  hca  Tirlfliin  iha  roalm  r^f  ^/v^tUn^" 

(Paj^  1900):  Cabrol,  Diet,  d'archiologie  etde  lituroie;  Taun-  S^J^^^  ^  Wlthm  the  realm  Ot  Scotland    . 
TOS^The  Lme  Ofjice  of  Our  Lady  (London,  1903);  Per^natio         The  work  was  produced  from  the  prmtmg-preas 

EthericB,  tr..  Holy  Week  in  Jeruealemin  the  Fourth  Century,  which  Walter  Chapman  and  Andrew  Myllar  had  set 

SS,^^S^"iS?.SSL?^3SS2.S:^V}S£ri'S  i-P  i"  Edinburgh,  Tn  the  year  1507.    Four  copies  of 

Lehre  und  G^)tt  in  den  drei  ereten  Jahrh.;  Pttha,  Hymnographie  the  original  breviary  (in  black-letter)  are  knOWn  tO 

de  VEqliae  Oreeque  (Paris,  1867);  Monb,  Latemieehe  Hymnen  exist:  one  in  Edinbusgh  University  library;  a  second 

irJX^'^'^)f'dn'^^2:^^iSh'^^.  in  the  Libra,^  of  the  Faculty  of  AdvooOes   Edin- 

8.  V.  Hymnea;  Leclbrcq,  ActeB  dee  Mariyre  in  DicL  d'arcMol.,  burgh;  a  third  m  the  pnvate  libraiy  of  the  Earl  of 

I,  879;  Brambach,  Peatterium.  Bibliographiacher  verauch  nber  Strathmore:  and  a  fourth  (an  imperfect  copy)  in  the 

die  liturgiachen  Bacher  dee  ehrieU.  Abendlandee  (Berlin,  1887);  i:k««wv.  ^f  Kino-'s  CnUf^trt^    Ahprdppn      Thf>  rpnrintino' 

Belkth.  Rationale  Divinorum  Ofjiciorum;  Molinier,  Catalogue  "P*^  ^*  .^"^  ^  l^OUege,  ADeraeen.     1  ne  repnnting 

deamea.delabiblioth.Mazanne;  Radulphus  Tonorbnsis,  De  of  the  volume  was  undertaken  m  1854,  under  the 

Canonum  obeervantid  in  Max,  Biblioth.  Vet.  Patrum^XXVl;  supervision  of  the  Rev.  William  Blew,  M.A.,  and  it 

ftotae^na (Trevor.,  September-October,  1903, 897  8qq.;WicKHAM  wjta  HiihapniiPntlv  niihlishpd  hv  Mr   G  J   Toovpv   for 

Lbgo,  Some  Local  Rearms  (London,  1901);  Schmid.  Studien  ^^  SUDsequenuy  pUDllsnea  oy  JJir.  kj.  J.  loovev,  lor 

aber  die  Reform  det  R6mi9<Jten  Breviers  in  Theol.  guariaUch,  private    Circulation    among    the    members    Of    the 

(Tobingen,  1884);  Berobl,  Die  Emendation  dee  Romtechen  Bre-  Bannatyne  CJlub.    The  originally  printed  copies  are 

l^^^'t^L^^-  K-  ^(^»^^'R^S?iS^  of ,«»«'(  octavo  rize^d  b^  the  dates  of  1509  and 

BrevtaHum,  V;  Chaillot,  Analeda  furia  PonL  (1886),  XXIV;  1510.    As  a  pnnted  Office-booklts  actual  USe  was  but 

Martin.   Omn.  Cone.  Vatic.  Documentorum  CoUeeto  (!2nd  ed.,  of  short  duration,  only  about  half  a  century  elapsing 

bSS^S;  ^^Soi  Inil.  L^^SilS'ttrfTfCS'  il^)  between  its  issue  and  the  overthrow  of  the  ancient 

burg  im  Br..  1890).  Vll.  Leclbrcq,  Lee  Martyre  (Pane,  1905).  ^^^^^  ^^  Scotland   (1560).     There  is  no  podUve 

Fbrnand  Cabrol.  proof  that  it  was  ever  generally  adopted  throughout 

the  dioceses  of  Scotland;  indeed  the  probabilities  arc 
Breyiaiy,  Aberdeen,  The. — ^This  breviary  may  against  its  ever  having  become  anything  like  uni- 
be  described  as  the  Sarum  OflBoe  in  a  Scottish  form,  versal  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation.  It  must  be 
The  use  of  the  ancient  Church  of  Salisbury  was  gen-  remembered,  in  connexion  with  this,  that  the  in- 
erally  adopted  in  Scotland  and  Ireland  during  the  junction  for  its  adoption  was  civil  rather  than  eccle- 
Middle  A^es,  both  for  the  Liturgy  (or  Mass)  and  for  siastical,  and  there  is  some  reason  to  su{>po6e  that  on 
the  canomcal  hours.  Its  introduction  into  Scotland  this  accoimt  it  was  not  considered  strictly  binding 
has  been  sometimes  incorrectly  attributed  to  Ed-  by  the  church  authorities  of  the  kingdom.  It  is  in- 
ward I,  King  of  England,  and  assigned  to  the  year  teresting  to  note  that  in  the  new  Scottish  Proprium, 
1292;  but  there  is  evidence  to  show  that  the  date  of  which  in  1903  was  formally  sanctioned  and  adopted 
its  introduction  was  considerably  earlier.  For  exam-  for  use  in  the  Scottish  dioceses  forming  the  Province 
pie,  Herbert,  Bishop  of  Glasgow  from  1147  to  1164.  of  St.  Andrews  (the  cultus  of  the  ancient  Scottish 
certainly  adopted  the  Sarum  Use  for  his  church,  ana  saints  having  been  approved  by  the  Holy  See  several 
received  the  papal  sanction  for  so  doing.     Father  years   previously),  many   collects,  antiphons,  etc. 


BSKWSB  778  BBIBSET 

are  found  which  have  been  borrowed  from  the  offices  and  hamper  religious  freedom,  Briand  appealed  to 

in  the  Aberdeen  Breviary.  London  to  maintain  the  rights  of  the  Church.    The 

^**^Jt^^  ^A^^^  9^"?'  ^^'J^W'v^^'^f*^^*  British  Crown  finally  gave  ear  to  his  demand,  and 

f>.  cxx  (Aberdeen.  1842);  Kalendara  of   ScoUith  Satnts   (ed.  u.  .„__  «^T,„^„.„f„^  ;«  Po»;o  /itaax 

OBBM.  EdinburA.  1862):  RegUtrum  BpUcopatus  Moravitkna  ^®  J^as  consecrated  m  Paris  (1766).       .       ^.         ,     . 
(ed.  Bannatyne  Club,  Edinburgh.   1837);   Breviarium  Aber-         Hailed   as   the  second  fOunder  of  the  Church  ir 

^meiwe  (London.  1854)  Pref.  by  Laino;  Vian  in  Diet,  Nat,  Canada,  Briand  was  joyfully  received  by  the  people 

Btog,.  s.  V.  Elphvnstane.  W^Utam,  ^        Runter-Blair  ^"^  *'^®  ^^^^^  governor.    I'he  pope  afeo  expWed 

'     '  '  his  pleasure  and   approved   Bishop   Briand's  past 

Brewer,   Heinrich,   a  German    historian,  b.  at  attitude^  thereby  removing  the  charges  that  he  had 

Puffendorf  in  Germany,  6  September,  1640;  d.  at  the  acted  with  timidity  towards  Murray  and  Dorchester 

same  place  about  1713.     He  was  educated  at  the  (see  Brasseur  and  Faillon).     Despite  his  poverty,  he 

Gymnasium  Tricoronatum  in  Cologne  and  was  ordained  decUned  a  gift  of  the  clergy  and  a  plan  for  his  support, 

priest  in  166^.    After  this  he  was  for  a  time  a  private  and  took  up  his  residence  at  the  seminary  of  Quebec, 

tutor  at  Cologne,  then  curate  of  the  catbearal  at  Briand 's  purpose  in  reconciling  the  claims  of  Rome 

Bonn.    He  continued  his  studies  while  filling  these  and  Lonoon  was  to  insure  the  permanence  of  the 

positions  and  in  1667  was  made  lecturer  on  theology  episcopacy.     He  demanded  two  oishops  simultane- 

at  the  University  of  Cologne.     From  1669  to  1682  he  ously,  so  that  the  survivor,  Rome  permittiug,  mig^t 

was  rector  of  a  convent  of  nuns  at  Cologne,  a  position  consecrate  his  successor.    This  request  was  finsdly 

which  gave  him  the  leisure  to  cany  on  his  historical  granted.    Through  his  influence  and  tact,  further 

studies.    In  1682  he  became  parish  priest  of  the  ^ans   for  perverting   the  faithful  were   thwarted, 

church  of  St.  Jacob  at  Aachen.    After  twenty-nine  The  Test  Oath  was  modified  so  as  to  be  acceptable 

years  of  fruitful  labour  he  resigned  his  pastorate  in  to  the  Holy  See,  and  the  passage  of  the  Queb^  Act 

1712  and  returned  to  his  qiiiet  native  town.     During  (1774),  admitting  Catholics  to  public  functions  and 


notabiliorum  ubique  psene  tcrrarum  gestarum  enar-  efforta. 

ratio:   breviter  et  succincte  pro  bistoriae  universalis  After  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  from  Louisiana 

Bracnelio-Thuldenanse     continuatione      adomata",  and  Illinois  Bishop  Briand  appointed  Father  Meurin 

(Cologne,    1672-75,    two    volumes).    Shortly   after  vicar-general  in  tne  latter  section  of  the  country, 

this  he  published  a  revised  edition  of  the  "Historia  J^hen  the  forces  of  the  Continental  army  invaded 

Universalis  Brachelio-Thuldenana"  in  eight  volumes.  Canada  in  1775,  he  issued  a  pastoral  letter  in  which 

Brewer  now  received  the  title  of  Imperial  Historiog-  he  enjoined  fidelity  to  the  lang.     The  Continental 

rapher.    The  honour  was  fitly  bestowed,  for  Brewer  Congress  in  an  address    to  the  king  and  people  of 

was  one  of  the  few  historians  who  seek  out  original  England   had   protested   against   the   Quefcec    Act, 

sources  and  make  full  use  of  them.     He  added  to  each  whfle  in  its  appeal  to  the  Canadians  there  were  no 

volume  copies  of  important  official  documents,  be-  features    which    were    objectionable    to    Catholics, 

sides  making   skilful  use  of  pictures  and  maps.    A  Briand  denounced  this  duplicity  and  drew  attention 

much  discussed  question  of  the  time  wzis  the  identity  to  the  actions  of  the  Colonists  twenty  years  previous 

of  the  author  of  the  "Imitation  of  Christ".    Brewer  both  in  their  cruelty  towards  the  Acadians and  th^ 

made  an  independent  investigation  and  tried  to  prove  laws     against    missionaries.     Upon     Montgomery's 

that  Thomas  k  Kempis  was  the  author  in  a  work  en-  defeat  he  ordered  a  Te  Deum.  ana  in  1776  he  isssued 

titled:   "Thomse   &    Kempis  biographia"    (Cologne,  another  energetic  letter  in  which  he  urged  to  repent- 

1661).    Even  from  the  modem  pomt  of  view  this  ance  those  Canadians  who  had  aided  the  invading 

work  is  a  very  creditable  one.    A  publication  of  less  troops,  whom  he  characterized  as  enemies  of  the  Faith, 

importance   and   one   which   is   at   times   strongly  This,  together  with  the  drastic  measure  of  refusing 

marked  by  local  feeling  is  that  entitled:  "Der  in  aer  the  sacraments  to  all  Canadian  sympathizers    with 

Reliauienverehrung    rechtschaifen    catholisch    und  the  Colonisd  caiise,  preserved  Canada  to  the  British 

wahrnaftig  grosser  Kayser  Karl  bey  gewohnlicher  Crown.     Later,  Briand,  who  was  invited  by  Cardinal 

Er5ffnung    aer    Aachischen    Schatzkammer    Hey-  Castelli,  the  Prefect  of  the  Propaganda,  to  administer 

liffthumbs"  (Aachen,  1685).  confirmation  in  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland,  aban- 

^ABTZHsm,  Bibliotheca  CoUmienaia,  114.  doned  the  plan  upon  the  protest  of  Father  Ferdinand 

Patrici us  Schlager.  Steinmeyer,  8.  J.  (popularly  known  as  Father  Farmer), 

Breynat.  G.bhx.u    See  M^kbk„e,  Vic.  Ap.  ok.  ^L^thrpn^n?  in  it^^^'"'''  '^""^  "'"•^'' 

Brian  Boroimhe  (Boru).    See  Ireland.  in  1765  Briand  pubUshed  a  "Catechism",  the  first 

BriMld,    Joseph    Olivier,    seventh    Bishop    of  book  printed  in  Canada.    He  resigned  his  see  in  1784. 

Quebec,  b.  in  1715  at  Pl^rin^  Brittanv;  d.  25  June,  and  was  the  consecrator  of  his  two  successors:,  the  Rti 

1794.     He  studied  at  the  Seminary  of  St.  Brieuc,  and  Rev.  Louis  Philippe  Marianchau  d'Eselis,  29  Nov.. 

was  ordained  in  1739,  but  left  home  secretly  to  follow  1784,  who  died  4  June,  1788;  and  the  Kt.  Rev.  Jeaii 

Bishop  Pontbriand  to  Canada.     Briand  was  a  stren-  Francois  Hubert,  19  Nov.,  1786.     Briand  died  after 

uous  worker,  self-possessed,   tactful,  and  devoted,  fifty-five  years  in  the  priesthood  and  twenty-eight 

During  the  siege  of  Quebec   (1759),  he,  as  vicar-  in  the  episcopate, 

genersu,  directed  the  diocesan  affairs  in  the  absence  of  ^  Tferu,  Les  ^;^uea  de  QuSbec  (Quebec,  1889);  Brasseur  db 

Ihe  bis^p.    He  ministered  to  the  dying  at  tl^e  battle  ^°^r^T<i,j:i^1:SjL  ^eS'^^^^SiJ^^jli^il""'' 

of  St.  Foy  (1760),  and  after  the  bishop's  death  was  Lionel  Lindsay. 
appointed  administrator  of  the  diocese  which  then 

included  Acadia,   Louisiana,   and   Illinois.     During  Bribery,  the  payment  or  the  promise  of  money 

the  crisis  in  New  France,  when  many  colonists  aban-  or  other  lucrative  consideration  to  induce  another, 

doned  the  country,  Briand  foresaw  that  a  change  of  while  under  the  obligation  of  acting  without  any 

allegiance  was  inevitable,  and  realized  the  benefit  view  to  private  emolument,  to  act  as  the  briber  shall 

which  would  accrue  to  the  people  of  Canada.  prescribe.    Only  the  moral  aspect  of  bribery  will  be 

When  the  Treaty  of  Paris  (1763)  was  signed  he  touched  upon  here;  the  histoncal  aspect  of  the  quee- 

ordered  a  Te  Deum  for  the  cessation  of  the  Seven  tion  will  be  dealt  with  in  the  articles  on  the  nations 

Years'  War  and  praised   General  Murray  for  his  and  countries. 

humanity  towards  the  conquered.     In  the  midst  of  The  word  is  ordinarily  used  with  reference  to  pay- 

the  fanaticism  which  attempted  to  violate  the  treaty  ments  or  other  lucrative  consideration  illiciUy  maae  in 


BBiooiiiiiT  779  BBngcmnBT 

favour  of  persons  whose  duty  to  the  oommmiwealth  before  him,  and  in  most  countries  binds  himself  by 
binds  them  to  act  for  the  common  good  Thus  a  special  oatii  to  do  his  duty.  He  recetTes  a  salary 
judges  are  bound,  as  servants  of  the  commonwealth,  for  his  services.  If  he  accepts  bribes  from  suitors 
to  administer  justice  without  fear  or  favour,  ana  or  criminaLB  he  makes  himself  practically  incapable 
they  are  forbioden  to  take  bribes  from  litigants  or  of  exercising  an  unbiased  judgment,  fails  in  the  ex- 
others.  Similarly,  regard  for  the  public  graod  should  ecution  of  his  duty,  and  violates  his  oath.  If  he  takes 
be  the  motive  wnich  influences  those  liiio  appoint  money  for  giving  a  sentence  which  is  just,  he  com- 
to  public  offices,  or  who  have  the  placing  of  contracts  mits  a  sin  against  justice  and  is  bound  to  restore  the 
for  public  works  or  institutions,  or  who  are  entrusted  bribe  to  him  who  gave  it.  For  the  judge  is  bound  in 
with  the  execution  of  the  laws,  or  who  elect  repre-  justice  to  pronoimce  a  just  sentence  apart  from  the 
sentatives  to  seats  in  the  legislature.  They  should  bribe,  and  nis  action  affords  him  no  title  to  take  pay- 
appoint  only  worthy  candidates  who  will  serve  the  ment  for  what  is  due  in  justice  without  pavment. 
public  well.  If  they  neglect  the  oommon  good,  and  If  he  takes  a  bribe  for  giving  a  sentence  which  is 
seek  private  advantage  m>m  the  exercise  ofthe  trust  unjust,  he  will  of  course  dn  against  justice  on  ao- 
conmutted  to  them,  they  violate  their  duty  to  the  count  of  the  sentence,  and  will  be  bound  to  make 
commonwealth,  ana  they  make  themselves  acoom-  reparation  to  the  injured  party  for  the  wrong  that 
plices  in  all  the  evil  which  results  from  the  incom-  he  has  suffered.  Some  moralists,  however,  refuse 
petence  or  the  roguei^  of  those  whom  they  elect,  to  in^KMe  on  him  the  obligation  of  restoring  the 
The  general  principle  is  obvious  enough,  but  in  the  bribe,  on  the  eround  that  something  was  given  for 
matter  of  details  difficulties  are  encoimtered  which  it  wmch  indeed  the  judge  had  no  right  to  give,  but 
cannot  all  be  solved  in  the  same  way.  An  elector  which,  for  all  t^t,  was  worth  the  money  to  nim  who 
may  say  that  as  a  rule  there  is  very  uttle  to  choose  paid  the  bribe.  The  same  principles  are  applicable 
between  the  candidates  for  some  public  position  or  to  jurymen,  arbitrators,  ana  referees,  who  nave  ob- 
office,  and  that  even  if  there  were  a  difference  in  hsations  similar  to  those  of  judges.  Bribery  under 
their  moral  character  and  capacity  to  serve  the  pub-  all  the  above  aspects  is  in  most  countries  forbidden 
Uc.  it  is  difficult  for  the  ordinary  voter  to  detect  it.  l^  positive  law  and  punished  by  severe  penalties. 
Why  should  he  not  make  a  little  money  by  promising  Luoo,  DeiuttiHA  et  jure  (Pajna,  1809),  diap.  xxxiv.  diup. 
to  vote-for  the  candidate  who  is  ready  td  pay  th5  f^^i"'^  |?g-  Lebmkuhl,  Thedoota  Maralts  (Freiburg, 
highest  price?  »    .       .       .  T.  Slater. 

It  may  be  that  in  this  hypothesis  no  injustice  is 
done  by  taking  a  bribe  and  that  there  ia  no  obli^tion        Brifionnet,  (1)  Guillaumb,  a  French   Cardinal, 

incurred  of  nmking  restitution.     Still  the  action  is  b.  at  Tours,  date  of  birth  unknown;  d.  at  Narbonne, 

immoral,  and  rightly  forbidden  by  law.    A  person  14  December,  1514.     He  was  a  younger  son  of  Jeam 

who  has  a  vote  m  the  appointment  to  offices  or  in  Brigonnet,  Lord  of  Varennes,  in  Touraine,  Secretary 

the  election  of  representatives  is  under  a  serious  re-  to  &e  king  and  Collector-general  of  Customs.    Ap- 

sponsibility  to  use  his  power  to  the  best  of  his  abilitv.  pointed  Superintendent  of  Finances  for  the  Prov- 

If  he  takes  a  bribe  ne  renders  himself  practically  ince    of    I^ffdedoc    under   Louis   XI,   Quillaume 

incapable  of  exercising  a  discriminating  judgment.  Briconnet  discharged  the  duties  of  his  office  with 

He  IS  bound  to  do  w&t  he  can  to  make  sure  that  suen  integrity  and  efficiency,  and  showed  himself 

the  person  for  whom  he  votes  is  worthy  of  the  post;  so  devoted  to  the  interests  of  Louis  that  that  mon- 

but  if  he  takes  a  bribe  this  blinds  him,  blunts  his  arch  recommended  him  to  his  successor.    Charles 

Tud^ent,  and  makes  him  incapable  of  doing  his  duty.  VIII  made  him  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  raised 

Besides,  in  questions  of  this  kind,  we  must  look  at  him  to  t^e  first  place  in  the  Coimcil  of  State,  and, 

the  general  result  of  the  action  whose  moral  (quality  according  to  the  nistorian  Guicciardini,  would  imder- 

we  are  studying;  the  general  result  of  the  willingness  take  nothing  in  the  government  of  his  kingdom 

of  voters  to  sen  their  vote  for  money  is  that  power  ■  without  £he  advice  of  Briconnet.     Ludovico  Sforsa, 

and  office  are  put  in  the  hands  of  that  portion  of  the  called  the  Moor,  wishing  to  dispossess  his  nephew 

moneyed  class  which  is  least  worthy  ana  most  selfish,  of  the  Duchy  of  Milan,  and  finding  himself  opposed 

Those  who  bold  public  offices  to  which  patronage  by  Ferdinand,  Kingof  Na];des,  sent  an  embassy  un- 

orpowerof  any  sort  is  attached  are  specially  bound  to  der  the  Count  of   jBelgiojoeo  to  Charles  to  induce 

use  their  power  for  the  common  goocf.   Th^  accepted  the  French  king  to  assert  his  claims  to  the  Kingdom 

office  imaer  the  express  or  tacit  condition  that  they  of  Naples  as  heir  to   the   house   of  Anjou.    Sorza 

would  use  their  innuence  for  the  public  benefit,  not  promised  to  place  all  his  troops  at  the  king's  service, 

merely  for  their  private  emolument.     If  they  sell  brigonnet  having  shortly  before  this  lost  his  wife, 

tJie  posts,  offices,  or  favours  of  any  kind,  in  their  Raoulette  de  B^tune,  by  whom  he  had  three  sons,  had 

gift,  for  money  or  any  lucrative  consideration,  they  entered   the   ecclesiastical   state  and   been  named 

violate  the  express  or  tacit  pledge  which  they  gave  Bishop  of  St.-Malo.     To  flatter  his  ambition^  the 

on  their  assumption  of  office.    Tnere  is  more  malice  Milanese  ambassadors  assured  him  that  the  king's 

II  such  actions  than  in  that  of  the  venal  elector  who  influence  would  raise  him  to  the  cardinalate.     Bri- 

sells  his  vote  for  money.    They  also  produce  more  gonnet,  thus  won  over  to  the  Sforza  interest,  adroitly 

direct  and  more  immediate  evils  in  the  common-  encouraged  the  warlike  dispositions  of  his  sovereign, 

tiealth.    A  man  who  has  bought  an  office,  or  a  post,  triumphed  over  the  opposition  of  the  royal  council 

or  a  contract  for  money  will  as  a  rule  try  to  recoup  of  the  Duke  of  Bourbon,  and  of  Anne  of  France,  the 

himself  at  the  expense  of  the  public.    It  is  not  likely  Duke's  wife,   influenced  Charies  to  sign  a  secret 

that  he  will  be  an  honouraUe  or  even  an  honest  treaty  with  Sforza,  and  assured  the  king  of  his  abilitv 

servant,  and  the  disastrous  consequences  of  his  ap-  to  raise  the  funds  necessary  to  carry  on  the  war  both 

pointment  begin  ^  show  themselves  at  once.    The  on  land  and  sea. 

evils  are  perhaps  less,  but  they  do  not  cease,  if  offices        Pope  Alexander  VI,  alarmed  at  the  apparent  dan- 

or  favours  are  bestowed  in  consideration  of  money  ger  tnreateninff  Italy,  promised  the  cardinal's  hat 

contributed   to   the   funds  of  the   political   party,  to  Brigonnet  if  he  could  prevail  upon  Charles  to 

Power,  influence,  and  even  an  external  respectability  abandon  hm  enterprise;  but  Brigonnetj  realizing  that 

are  sometimes  given  to  unscrupulous  men  whose  only  he  could  not  govern  without  flattermg  the  king's 

recommendation  is  the  possession  of  wealth.  passion  for  conc^est,  urged  him  on,  and,  notwitn- 

Moralists  have  devoted  special  attention  to  the  standing    the   cmapidatcS    state   of    the    treasury, 

q^uestion  of  bribery  in  connexion  with  the  administra-  succeeded   in   meeting   the   expenses   of   the   war. 

tion  of  justice.   The  judge  on  his  assumption  of  office  Accompanying  Charies  on  his  expedition,  he  provoked 

undertakes  to  administer  justice  to  m  who  come  a  mutiny  m  the  French  army,  l^  his  treachery  in 


BBIDAINS  780  BBIDAINS 

Bacrificing  the  Pisans,  allies  of  France,  to  their  ene-        (2)  Gxttllaumib,  Bishop  of  Meaux,  France,  b.  at 

mies,  the  Florentines,  and  had  he  not  hidden  him*  Tours  in  1472;  d.  at  the  chateau  of  Esmant  near 

self  from  the  furv  of  the  soldiers  they  would  have  Montereau,  24  January,  1534.     He  was  a  son  of  Cardi- 

taken  his  life,     upon  this  occasion,  as  upon  others,  nal  Brigonnet  (see  above),  and  before  entering  the 

Briconnet's  ambition  led  him  into  conduct  at  variance  ecclesiastical  state  was  known  as  the  Coimt  de  Mont- 

with   his  motto:  DiUU  aervata  fides,    Charles  had  brun.    In  1489  he  was  named  Bishop  of  Loddve.    Di»- 

entered  Rome  as  a  conoueror,  creatly  irritated  against  tinffuished  by  remarkable  jud^ent,  great  leEurhinf , 

Alexander  VI  who  haa  stirred  up  opposition  against  and  a  love  of  study,  he  received  from  Louis  XU 

him;  but  the  adroit  BriQonnet  reconciled  his  royal  sevend  preferments,  and  was  named  as  chaplain  to 

master  with  the  pope,  and  for  reward  received  the  the  Queen.     In  1507  he  succeeded  his  father  as  Abbot 

cardinal's   hat.    This  honour  was   conferred  in   a  of  St.-Oermain-de8-Ihr^.     The  king  entrusted  him 

special  consistory  held  in  the  king's  presence,  16  Jan-  with  delicate  and  difficult  missions,  and  sent  him,  in 

uary,   1495,  the  new  cardinal   takme  the  title  of  the  same  year  that  Guiliaume  became  abbot,  to  Rome 

Cardinal  of  St.-MaJo,  from  his  episcopu  see.  as  extraordinary  ambassador  for  the  puipoee  of 

Bri^nnet  soon  had  cause  to  repent  the  advice  he  justif3rinff  the  conduct  of  his  prince  against  the  accu- 

had  given  to  invade  Italy.    A  formidable  league  was  sations  of  the  Emperor  Biaximilian.    In  an  eloquent 

formed  for  the  purpose  of  cutting  off  the  French  Latin  speech  pronounced  in  the  presence  of  the 

retreat,  and  neither  the  diplomacy  nor  the  entreaties  pope  and  of  the  Sacred  College,  the  bishop  fully 

of  the  French  cardinal  had  any  effect  on  the  hostile  vindicated  Louis.    Guiliaume  enjoyed  equally  the 

generals.    The  prowess  of  Charles  and  the  invincible  confidence  of  Francis  I,  who  transferred  him  to  the 

vidour  of  his  troops  fdone  saved  the  French  from  a  See  of  Meaux,  and  sent  him  as  ambassador  to  Lcq  X 

humiliating  defeat.    With  8,000  men  the  king  de-  to  Rome,  where  he  resided  for  two  years.    As  Abbot 

feated,  at  Tomovo,  an  army  of  40^000,  and  opened  of  St.-Germain,  he  displayed  a  great  zeal  for  the 

a  road  to  France.    Soon  after  this  BriQonnet,  in-  reform  of    abuses,  put  an  end  to  disorders,  and 

duced  by  a  tempting  promise  of  preferment  for  one  revived    monastic    regularitv.  spirit,    and    fervour, 

of  his  sons,  tried  to  persuade  Charles  to  break  off  As  Bishop  of  Meaux,  he  held  a  number  of  s^rnods, 

the  peace  nerotiations  and  support  with  an  army  and  made  wise  regulations  against  the  depravity  of 

the  Duke  of  Orl^ns'  claims  to  tne  Duchy  of  Milan,  morals  and  the  relaxation  of  ecclesiastacal  discipline, 

Charles,  however,  preferred  the  counsels  of  Philippe  and  promoted  among  his  clergy  a  taste  for  learning, 

de  Comines  and  sacrificed  the  interests  of  the  duke,  to  bring  back  to  the  Catholic  Faith  the  discif^es  of 

and  the  king's  premature  death  put  an  end  to  the  the  new  doctrine,  who  were  alreadjr  numerous  in 

influence  of  Bri9onnet,  Louis  XII  givincr  his  confi-  his  diocese.    He  was  no  less  sealous  m  opposing  the 

dence    to    the    Cardinal    d'Amboise.     But    whilst  encroachments  of  the  rdi^ous  and  in  directing  them 

serving  his  king  and  the  State,  the  Cardinal  of  Sk-  back  to  the  spirit  of  their  state.    The  CordeBers,  a 

Male  had  not  Overlooked  his  own  interests;  he  had  branch  of  the  Franciscan  Order,  accused  the  bishop 

obtained  from  Alexander  VI  the  Bishopric  of  Nimes.  of  heresy,  basing  their  accusation  on  tiie  protection 

His  title  being  disputed  b^  the  nominee  of  the  chap*  given  by  nim  to  the  partisans  of  Humanism.    The 

ter,  there  arose  a  litigation  which  lasted  until  tne  bishop  defended  himself  and  was  dedared  innooent. 

year  1507,  when  Brigonnet  was  awarded  the  title.    In  His  love  of  letters  caused  him  to  increase  consider- 

1497  he  had  received  in  cammendam  the  Bishopric  of  ably  the  hbrary  of  the  Abbe^  of  St.-Germain.     He 

Toulon,  and  in  the  same  year  succeeded  his  brother  translated  into  French  the  ''Contemplationes  Idiots 

in  the  archiepiscopal  See  of  Reims.    On  the  27th  of  de  amore  divino". 

Mav,  1498,  he  crowned  Louis  XII  in  his  cathedral        (3)    Robert,    Archbishop     of    Rdms.    France, 

and  followed  the  king  to  Paris.    As  a  peer  of  France,  fifth  son  of  Jean  Briconnet,  an  elder  brother  of  the 

he  assisted  at  the  session  of  the  Council  of  State  at  Cardinal  {see  (1)].     Date  of  birth  uncertain;  d.  at 

which  the  marriage  of  Louis  with  Jeanne,  the  daughter  Moulins,  3  Jime,  1497.     He  owed  to  the  credit  which 

of  Louis  XI,  was  annulled.  Guiliaume  had  with  Charles  VIII  his  rapid  elevation 

When  he  had  ceased  to  be  a  minister  of  State,  to  public  offices  and  dignities.    He  was  named  Canon 

Briconnet  retired  to  Rome  for  two  years.     Louis  of  St.-Aignan  at  Orl^ns,  Abbot  of  the  rich  Abbey  of 

then  made  use  of  his  talents  to  check  what  he  called  St.-Vaast  at  Arras,  and  in  1493  he  was  raised  to  the 

the  arrogance  of  the  warrior  pope,  Julius  II.     By  archiepiscopal  See  of  Reims,  four  3rearB  before  the 

his  king's  direction  Bri^nnet  took  steps  to  assemble  Cardinal  was  appointed  to  that  see.    CSiaries  ap- 

at  Pisa  a  council  of  cardinals  opposed  to  the  policy  pointed  him  President  of  the  Superior  Tribunal  of 

of  Julius,  and  bent  on  the  reformation  of  the  head  Finances,  and  Chancellor  of  France.    He  enjoved 

and  hierarchy  of  the  Chureh.    He  left  Rome  suddenly  this  new  dignity  for  only  twenty-two  months  before 

and  secretly  with  a  g^up  of  cardinals  whom  he  had  his  death.    He  showed  himself,  as  did  his  brothers 

won  over,  and  opened  his  council  at  Pisa,  but  soon  and  nephews,  a  patron  of  men  of  letters, 
transferred  it  to  Milan,  and  thence  to  Lyons.     He        FisQuirr.  La  France  pont^icaU  (Paris);  Bt<vrai»M»  Mftiver- 

wAja    KnwPVPr    fiiimmnn^  to  unnMLr  Vv^fnrA  fhA  nnnft  •**^»  anctenne  et  modeme  (Pans,   1812):  Fblleb,  BtogravKf 

was,  nowever,  summonea  to  appear  oetore  tne  pope,  ^niteraeMtf  (Paris.  1847);  GuiRw.  IMcfcmmw*  dos  dtetum- 

was  depnved  of  the  Roman  purple  and  excommum-  notres  (Paris,  1892). 

cated.     Louis,  on  his  side,  bestowed  upon  him  in  F.  M.  L.  Duuont. 

commendam  the  rich  Abbey  of  St.-Germain-des-Pr^ 

and  the  government  of  Languedoc.    At  the  death       Bridaine,   Jaoqiteb,    preacher,    b.   at    Chusdan, 

of  Julius  n  Bri^nnet  was  absolved  from  all  censures  France,  21  March,  1701 ;  a.  at  Roquemaure,  22  Decern- 

and  excommunication,  and  restored  by  Leo  X  to  her,   1767.     Having  completed  his  studies  at  t^e 

the  Sacred  College.     lie  then  retired  to  end  his  days  Jesuit  college  of  Avignon  he  entered  the  Seminary 

at  Narbonne,  for  which  see  he  had  exchan|;ed  Reims,  of  fhe  Ro3fiil  Missions  of  St.  Chafes  of-  the  Cross. 

He  was  buried  in  a  superb  mausoleum  which  he  had  His  oratorical  ability  announced  -itself  before  his 

built  for  himself  in  the  chureh  of  Our  Lady.  ordination   to   the   priesthood   by   the   remarkable 

Whilst   in   power,    Brigonnet   showed   himself   a  talent  he  brought  mto  play  in  awakening  interest  and 

patron  of  men  of  letters;  they  dedicated  their  works  excitine  emotion  even  in  the  catechetical  instruc- 

to  him  and  became  his  panegyrists.     He  was  called  tions  wnich  he  was  deputed  to  give.    Wh^a  cmly  in 

oracxdum  regis  and  re^i  oolumna.    His  life  was  in*  minor  orders,  he  was  assigned  as  Lenten  preacher  in 

fact  swayed  by  ambition  and  occupied  by  intrigues,  the  Church  of  Aigues-Mortes.    It  was  there  be  first 

He  composed  a  manual  of  Latin  prayers,  dedicated  made  use  of  his  peculiar  methods.     His  extreme 

to  Charles  VIII.     At  Saint-Malo  he  issued  several  youUiprovoked  the  deriskm  of  the  people  and  whoi 

synodal  instructions.  Ash  Wednesday  arrived,  the  church  wae  empty 


BBSDAL 


781 


BBIDCn-BUILDniO 


Dndismayed.  he  put  on  his  surplice  and  went  out  in 
the  principal  streets,  ringing  a  oell,  and  inviting  the 
people  to  hear  him.  He  succeeded  in  bringing  an 
immense  multitude  to  the  church  who  came  out  of 
curiosity,  but  when  he  began  in  a  most  unusual 
fashion  by  singing  a  canticle  about  death  the  con- 
gregation burst 
out  in  loud  laugh- 
ter; whereupon  lie 
opened  upon  them 
with  such  fierce- 
ness of  denunciar 
tion  that  silence 
and  amazement 
took  possession  of 
all.  He  was  char- 
acteristically sen- 
sational. He 
wrote  Uttle  and 
gave  way  to  the 
mspiration  of  the 
moment  and  as  a 
consequence  his 
utterances  present 
at  times  an  inco- 
herent jumble  of  in- 
congrous  ^  figiu-es 
and  ideas,  which 
often   even    gro- 


JaOQUIB  BfUDAINB 


dash  with  each  other  and  are 
tesque.  It  was  Cardinal  Maiuy  who  called  atten- 
tion to  his  exordium  in  the  sermon  on  Eternity 
which  was  said  to  be  improvised.  Father  Cahour, 
S.J.,  inserts  it  in  his  "Chefs-d'CEuvre  d'^loquenoe", 
and  Maury  who  wrote  it  from  memory  declares  that  it 
was  not  unworthy  of  Bossuet  or  Demosthenes.  It 
was  pronounced  at  St.-Sulpice,  before  an  audience 
in  which  there  were  manv  oishops^  a  vaat  crowd  of 
ecclesiastics  and  men  oi  distinction  in  civil  and 
military  life.  Bridaine  assures  them  that  in  spite  of 
their  worldly  ^eatness  he  is  not  abashed  by  their 
presence,  and  m  the  most  impassioned  language  de- 
noimces  them  as  sinners,  and  bids  them,  haugh^  and 
disdainful  as  they  are,  to  tremble  before  him.  ''To- 
day I  hold  your  condemnation  in  my  hand."  Opin- 
ions are  divided  about  its  excellence  as  an  example  of 
oratory;  some  finding  a  self-consciousness  in  it  which 
is  unapostolic. 

His  voice  was  so  sonorous  and  penetrating  that  he 
could  easily  be  heard  by  an  audience  of  ten  thousand 
people.  To  his  natural  oratorical  gifts  he  added,  in 
order  to  produce  the  impression  1^  was  aiming  at, 
all  the  effect  that  could  be  obtained  by  the  most 
gorgeous  and  elaborate  church  ceremonial,  as  well 
as  whatever  excitement  could  be  produced  by  sing- 
ing, by  splendid  processions,  by  unusual  prayers,  and 
by  novel  situations  which  were  all  skilfully  arranged 
so  as  to  captivate  the  eye  or  ear,  or  to  fix  or  startle 
the  imagination.  A  supreme  instance  of  these 
"methods"  as  he  called  tnem,  and  which  he  always 
insisted'  upon  being  carried  out,  is  narrated  by 
Madame  Necker  in  the  "Nouveaux  Melanges"  (I, 
138).  He  had  just  delivered  a  stirring  aiscourse 
wh^  addressing  himself  to  the  great  procession 
which  had  followed  him  he  said:  ''I  am  now  going  to 
bring  you  home"  and  he  led  them  to  the  grave-yard. 
Sensational  as  he  was  he  wrought  many  astounding 
conversions.  In  the  course  of  his  life  he  preached 
two  hundred  and  fifty'-six  missions,  travelling  to 
almost  eveiy  town  of  France  in  the  performance  of 
his  work.  Pope  Benedict  XIV  gave  nim  permission 
to  preach  anywhere  in  Christendom.  Medals  were 
struck  in  his  honour,  and  the  most  distinguished 
prelates  showed  him  the  greatest  reverence  and  affec- 
tion. He  was  of  a  sweet,  modest,  sixnple  disposition, 
of  lively  faith  and  deep  piety.  His  ''Cantiques 
Spirituels"  passed  throu^  forty-seven  editions.  He 
has  also  left  five  volumes  of  sermons.    The  Protes- 


tants of  France  are  said  to  have  been  particulariy 
friendly  to  him.  because  of  the  many  gocKl  offices  he 
performed  in  tneir  regard.  For  fouHeen  years  he 
followed  the  spiritual  guidance  of  a  missionary  like 
himself  named  Mahistre.  In  1742  Cardinal  Fleuiy 
proposed  to  establish  a  missionary  con^^ation  for 
all  France  under  the  direction  of  Bridaine,  but  the 
death  of  the  cardinal  caused  the  project  to  fall 
through. 

France  was  wild  with  excitement  about  him.  His 
appeals  were  so  powerful  that  in  a  mission  which  he 
preached  at  Qialon-sur-SaAne  in  1745  there  were 
restitutions  to  the  amount  of  100,000  francs.  His 
reputation  as  an  orator  was  so  ^reat  that  even 
Massillon  was  unwilling  to  preach  m  his  presence. 
In  the  course  of  his  missions  he  established  what  he 
called  "peace  tribunals",  courts  composed  of  some 
of  his  associate  missionaries,  a  number  of  irreproach- 
able laymen,  and  the  parish  priest.  To  these  courts  all 
disputes  were  submitted  and  the  decisions  were  ac- 
cepted as  final.  His  life  was  written  by  the  Abb4 
Carron.  The  book  was  frequently  translated  into 
English,  but  the  last  edition  was  published  as  far 
back  as  1831. 

Cabour,  Chef9rd*(Euvre  d'Elqauenc^  (Pans,  1854);  GoscH- 
LEB,  Diet,  eneve.  ds  thiol,  cath.  (Furia.  1869). 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Bridal  Ring.    See  Ri4o. 

Bridge-Boildi^  Brotherhood,  Thb. — ^During  the 
twelfth  and  thitteenth  centuries,  we  hear  of  the 
existence  of  various  religious  assodations  founded 
for  the  purpose  of  building  bridges.  This  work, 
which  tended  greatly  to  the  relief  of  travellers  ana 
particulariy  of  pilgnms,  was  regarded  as  a  work  of 
piety  quite  as  much  as  of  public  utility.  Even 
where  no  religious  organization  was  formed  it  was 
cust(Hnary  for  the  bishops  to  grant  indulgences  to 
those  who,  by  money  or  labour,  contribute  to  the 
construction  of  a  bridge.  Of  this  the  register  of 
Archbishop  Grey  of  York,  for  instance,  in  the  thir- 
teenth centurv,  affords  many  examples.  But  in 
the  South  of  France,  regular  associations  were  com- 
monly formed  for  the  purpose,  and  these  it  has  been 
the  custom  to  regard  as  religious  orders  living  under 
vows.  Upon  more  acciu^te  investigation,  however, 
this  idea  nas  proved  to  be  erroneous.  The  brother- 
hoods in  question  seem  rather  to  have  been  of  t-he 
nature  of  guilds  or  confraternities,  or,  at  most,  to 
have  been  organized  in  something  the  same  way  as 
a  "third  Order",  wearing  a  habit  with  a  distinctive 
badge,  but  not  being  bound  by  perpetual  vows. 

In  manv  cases,  these  associations  were  ooniitituted 
of  three  oranches:  knights,  who  contributed  most 
of  the  funds  and  were  sometimes  called  donaii;  clergy 
who  might  be  in  the  strict  sense  monks^  and  artisans 
who  performed  the  actiud  work  of  buildmg.  We  also 
hear  sometimes  of  "sisters"  belonging  to  the  same 
association.  Besides  the  construction  of  bridges, 
the  lodging  and  entertainment  of  travellers,  as 
well  as  the  qtiHe,  or  collection  of  alms  commonly 
entered  into  the  scope  of  the  brotherhoods.  The 
origin  of  these  institutions  is  wrapped  in  much 
obscurity.  The  brotherhood  known  in  particular 
as  the  FrcUrea  PontifUes  (P<m/i-/ic6«»=bridge-buildere) 
or  Frhre9  PorUifea,  is  commonly  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  St.  B^n^zet  (a  Proven^  variant  of 
the  name  Benedict),  a  youth  who,  according  to  the 
legend,  was  Divinely  inspired  to  build  the  bridge 
across  the  Rhone  at  Avignon.  Although  the  Bull 
supposed  to  have  been  addressed  to  the  Fratres 
PorUipcea,  in  1191,  by  Clement  III  may  not  be  au- 
thentic, it  is  certain  that  a  number  of  bridges  were 
built  alx>ut  this  time  in  that  part  of  France;  also 
that  the  old  bridge  at  Avignon,  some  arches  of 
which  stiU  remain,  dates  from  the  end  of  the  twelfth 
century,  and  it  is  certain  that  St.  Bdn^zet  was  a 
historical  personage.    The  Frairea  Pontificea  were 


782 

uertainljr  very  active,  tmd  if  tb^  did  not  aonAract  howerBr,  by  ber  ploiu  and  charitaUe  life,  and  ba 
the  Avi^on  bridge  they  built  otliets  &t  Boapsfl,  e&meet  admomtiona  to  others  to  adopt  a  betl«  lif^, 
Lounnann,  Mallemort,  Mirabeau.  etc.  On  the  other  followiog  out  the  excellent  precedents  she  had  set  in 
hand,  the  famous  bridge  over  the  RhoDQ  at  Baint-  her  native  land.  The  year  following  her  death  ber 
Esprit  VTM  certainly  constructed  by  a  separate  remaina  were  conveyed  to  the  monasteiy  at  Vadstena. 
association.  Many  of  the  official  documents  con-  Kw  was  canonized,  7  Octob^,  1391,  ky  Boniface  IX. 
nected  with  it  ate  still  preserved.  Viu  S.  Bimiita,  comDiled  by  her  ooofi 

Fm  in  HulentA-PoStitdu  BlOUir  (1881),  LXXXVII; 
loan  iaKvchenUx.,U.  1331.  TlwneoDtnbutioDaof  Dr.Falk 
■Dint  b*  read  with  Bme  caution.  LEHmteic  in  Mimiilrit 
di  fAeadlmta  da  NtaUM  (IBBB-SO).  T3-S1:  HiLY<n<-B*Dicns, 
DteUoimairt  do  ifrdm  ivIvMtii,    III,   287-340;   Bauamnc- 

T>^__   . . ^  jj  pjj^  g^  Biovm  doe  (Paiia.  1878); 

'         •vrigatiimt  dt  tr'- 


EneiUh  Wavti^nnv  Lite,  tr.  (LoDdoa.  1889],  33-86;  Ehlakt, 
Afonutl  d-arAiolofiit  framaite  {P»ri«,  1004),  IL  284-27!. 

Hrrbert  THnssTOH. 

Bridget  of  Sweden  (alao  Birqitta),  Sunt,  the 
most  celebrated  aaint  of  the  Northern  kinBdomfl,  bont 
c.  about  1303;  d.  23  July,  1373.    She  was  the  dai^t«r 
of  Birger  Perseon,  Bovemor  and  provincial  judge 
(LagmaTt)  of  Uppland,  and  of  In^borg  Bengtsdottv. 
Her  father  was  one  of  the  wealtiiiest  landholders  of 
the  country,  and,  like  her  mother,  distinniished  by  Biidffett,  ThouabEdwass,  prieet  and  author,  b. 
deep  piety.     St.  Ingrid,  whose  death  had  occurred  at  Derby,  England,  20  January,  1829,  of  Protestant 
about  twentv  years  before  Bridget's  birth,  was  a  near  ™rents;  d.  at  St.  Mary's  Clapham,  17  February,  1890. 
relative  of  the  family.     Byger'a  daughter  received  a  His  father  was  a  silk  manumoturer,  and  e&it  his  son 
careful  religious  training,  and  from  her  seventh  year  fir«tto  Mill  Hill,  a  Congregation^t  College  near  Lon- 
showed  sipiB  of  extraordinary  religious  impreesions  don,  then  to  Ton- 
and  iliuDunations.     To  her  education,  and  particu-  t»idge,  a  Church  of 
larly  to  the  influence  of  an  aunt  who  took  the  place  En^ud     public 
of  Bridget's  mother  after  the  latter's  death  (c.  1315),  st^ool,    where    he 
she  owed  that  unswerving  strength  of  will  which  wae    baptited     at 
later  distinguished  her.     In   1316,  at  the  age  of  the  a«e  of  sixteen, 
thirteen,  she  was  united  in  marriage  to  Ulf  Gudmata-  and  uially,  in  Oc- 
aon,  who  was  then  eighteen.    She  acquired  great  in-  tober,  1847,  to  St. 
fluence  over  her  noble  and  pious  husband,  and  the  Johns     Colleae, 
happy  marriage  was  blesed  with  eight  children,  Cambridge,  the 
among  them  St.  Catherine  of  Sweden.    The  saintly  home     of   Kessed 
life  and  the  great  charity  of  Bridget  soon  made  her  John  Filter  whose 
name  known  far  and  wide.     She  enjoved  intercourse  life  Father  Bridgett 
with  several  learned  and  pious  theologians,  among  afterwards    wrote, 
them  Nieotaus  Hermanni,  later  Bishop  of  LinkOping,  In   1850,   while  an 
Matthias,  canon  of  LinkSping,  her  confeesor,  Peter,  undergraduate,   he 
Prior  of  Alvastrft,  and  Peter  Magister,  her  confeeeor  left  the  university, 
after  Matthias.     Site  was  later  at  the  court  of  King  bdng  unable  to  ac- 
Magnus  Eriksson,  over  whom  she  gradually  acquired  cept    the    oath    of 
great  influence.     Early  in  the  forties   (1341-43)  in  Itoyal    Supremacy 
company  with  her  husband  she  made  a  pilgrimage  to  which  was  then  re- 
Santiago  de  Compofltella.    On  the  return  journey  her  quired   before  tak-            Thomas  Erwi«D  BaiDam-r 
husband  was  stricken  with  an  attack  of  illnem,  but  ing     a    degree 

recovered  sufficiently  to  finish  the  journey.    Shortly  Shortly  afterwards,  having  attended  Dr.  Newman's 

afterwards,  however,  he  died  (1344)  in  the  C^tercian  lectures  on  "Anglican   Difficultise"  at    the  London 

monastery  of  Alvastrft  in  East  Gothland,     Brid^t  Oratory, he  was  received  into  the  Catholic  C3iurch  by 

now  devoted  herself  entirely  to  practices  of  relipon  the  Oratorian,  Father  Stanton,  12  June,  1850,  and  on 

and  asceticism,  and  to  religious  undertakings.     The  15  October  of  the  next  year  made  bis  rdimous  profes- 

visions  which  she  believed  nerself  to  have  had  from  aion  in  the  Redemptorist  novitiato  of  SL  Trond,  Bel- 

her  early  childhood  now  became  more  frequent  and  gium.    He  pursued  his  theological  studies  at  Wittem 

definite.     She  believed  that  Christ  Himself  appeared  m  Holland  and  was  ordained  priest  in  August.  1856. 

to  her,  and  she  wrote  down  the  revelations  sne  then  After  being  five  years  ministtjr  and  consultor  to  the 

received,   which   were   in   great   repute   during   the  viceprovincial  in  Cl^ham,   the  London  bouse  of  his 

Middle  Ages.     They  were  translated  into  Latin  by  Congregatian,  he  went  to  Limerick  for  nine  yearn, 

Matthias  Magister  and  Prior  Peter.    St.  Bridget  now  where  as  rector  he  founded,  in  I86S,  the  celebrated 

foimded  a  new  religious  congregation,  the  BrigitHneH,  Confraternity  of  the  Holy  Family  for  men.     Tbia 

or  Order  of  St.  Saviour,  whose  chief  monastery,  at  soon  consisted  of  over  5.000   active  membeis,   the 

Vadstena,  was  richly  endowed  by  King  Magnus  and  largest  association  of  its  kind  in  any  one  locality,  in 

his  queen   (1340).     To  obtain  confirmation  for  her  the  Qiurcb.     In  1871,  he  returned  to  Clapham  aa 

institute,  and  at  the  same  time  to  seek  a  larger  sphere  rectt>r,  whnre  he  spent  the  greater  part  of  bis  remain- 

of  activity  for  her  mission,  which  was  the  moral  up-  ing  years. 

lifting  of  the  period,  she  journeyed  to  Rome  in  1349.  Father  Bridgett  was  a  miasionaiy  like  all  the  mem- 

and  remained  there  until   ber  death,  except  while  hers  of  his  Congregation,  but  witfi  advancing  ye«n 

absent  on  several  pilgrimages,  among  them  one  to  the  he  devoted  himself  to  giving  retreato,  particular^ 

Holy  Land  in  1373.    In  August,  1370,  Pope  Urban  V  to  the  clergy.    It  was  nfit  till  1867  that  he  turned  hu 

— i___j  ,!._  ii..i_  -f  1.,.  ____.,._      r.jj._.    ..L — !.._..  __..!. ^.._     _  ...  -itugj  develoMng 

, ^ n  Truth".    ThS 

work  w-  ^IM  in  later  editions  "The  Ritual  of  iht 
New  Testament".    It  was  followed  in  1875  by  "Our 


BRmaSWATEB  783  BBIDQEWATXB 

Lady's  Dowry",  showing  by  many  illustrations  from  Bridgewater  Treatises.— These  publications  de- 

history  and  Literature  the  devotion  of  medieval  Eng-  rive  their  origin  and  their  title  from  tne  Rev.  Francia 

land  to  the  Mbther  of  God.    In  this  and  in  "The  His-  Henry  Egerton.  eighth  and  last  Earl  of  Bridgewatei 

tory  of  the  Holy  Eucharist  in  Great  Britain",  a  work  who,  dying  in  tne  year  1829,  directed  certain  trustees 


of  the  Catholic  Hierarchy  deposed  by  Oueen  Eliza-  to  be  paid  to  the  person  or  persons  nominated  by 

beth",  a  work  written  m  conjunction  with  father  Knox  him.     It  was  further  directed  that  those  so  selected 

of  the  Oratory,  came  out  in  1889;  "Blunders  and  should  be  appointed  to  write, print,  and  publi^  one 

Forgeries",  a  veiy  fine  piece  of  cross-examination,  in  thousand  copies  of  a  work:  "On  the  Power,  Wisdom, 

1890;  and  the  "Life  of  Blessed  Thomas  More",  his  and  Goodness  of  God  as  manifested  in  the  Creation. 


entirely  original  work.     He  died  after  a  long  and  sion;  the  construction  of  the  hand  of  man  and  an 

painful  illness  and  was  buried  in  the  Catholic  ceme-  infinite  variety  of  other  arguments;  as  also  by  dis- 

tenr  at  Mortlake,  near  London.  coveries  ancient  and  modern  in  arts,  sciences,  and 

RrDER.  Life  of  Thomas  EdwardBridgett  (London,  1906);  the  whole  extent  of  modem  literature", 

SS.1^er5So).             •   "^        ^*  tA.^aWa<.fileB(Lon.  ^he  President  of   the  Royal   Society  was  then 

Hj^old  Castle.  Davies  Gilbert,  who  with  the  advice  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  the  Bishop  of  London,  and  a 

Bridgewater,  John,  known   also    as  Aquapon-  nobleman  who  had  been  intimate  with  the  testator, 

TANUs,  historian  of  the  Catholic  Confessors  under  determined  that  the  money  should  be  assigned  to 

Queen  Elizabeth,  b.  in  Yorkshire  about   1532;  d.  eight  several  persons  for  as  many  distinct  treatises, 

probably  at  Trier,  about  1596.    He  proceeded  M.  A.  J^  worjcs  produced  in  consequence  weace  the  fol- 

at  Oxford  in  1556,  was  ordained  priest,  and  in  1563  ^?wing:  (1)  "The  Adaptation  of  External  Nature  to 

became  Rector  of  Lincoln  College  in  that  university.  Jhe  Moral  and  Intellectual  Constitution  of  Man  ',  by 

He  also  held  several  other  important  preferments,  Thomas  Chalmers  (1833):    (2)  "Chemistiy,  Meteo- 

all  of  which  he  resigned  in  1574,  when  with  several  rology,  and  Digestion  '    by  William  Prout,  M,   D. 


Rome,  Trier);  in  1588  and  1594  he  resided  at  Trier.  ^^L?^y«i^l.^'^^*^*^^  ^^  ^?"^ '  ^^  ?' JS'^^»  ?f-  P* 

Ribadaneira,    followed    by    Father    Southwell    and  iJ^7);„.(7)  "4i?^'^'^?'?y„?^^,S^??^  ^^^^h  ^^ 

Brother  Foley,  accounts  hira  a  member  of  the  Society  A^r /Wjiham  Whewell  (1839);  (8)  "Animal  and  Veffe- 

of  Jesus,  though  there  is  no  proof  of  the  fact  (Recorcls  j^We  Physiology  ',  by  P.  M.  Roget   M.  D.  (1840). 

of 'English  Catholics,  I,  408).     He  refuted  (Trier,  The  nature  of  the  Treatises  is  cle^ly  indicated  by 

1589)-  a  Protestant  work  on  the  pope  as  Antichrist  I^^d  Bndgewater's  instructions,  and  by  theu-  several 

and  wrote  also  an  "Account  of  tne  Six  Articleis  ^^^}^'       ,      .         .       .  , 

usually  Proposed  to  the  Missioners  that  Suffered  in        ^^^  selection  of  writers  was  somewhat  severdy 

England",  and  against  which  he  voted  in  1562.  criticized  at  the   time,  and  the   treatises  are  un- 

Bridgewater  is  best  known  as  the  earliest  mar-  doubtedly  of  unequal  ment^  but  several  of  them  took 
tyrologist  of  Catholic  England,  His  work,  conceived  f  ^»gh  ra^K  J"  apologetic  literature,  the  best  known 
in  the  spirit  of  Eusebius  as  a  triumphant  apology  beingprobably  those  by  Buckland,  Bell,  and  Whewell. 
for  Catholicism,  ik  entitled  "Concertatio  Ecclemffi  At  the  present  day,  however,  they  are  wellnigh  for- 
Catholicae  in  Angli4  adversus  Calvinopapistas  et  gotten  and  their  value  for  the  purpose  they  wcto 
Puritanos  sub  Elizabeth^  ReginA  quorundam  homi-  designed  to  serve  is  very  smaU.  This  is  partly 
num  doctrine  et  sanctitate  illustrium  renovata  et  because  the  marveUous  advances  of  recent  years 
recognita,  etc.,"  i.  e.  The  Battle  of  the  Catholic  have  made  much  of  their  science  antiquated  and  out 
Faith  in  England  under  Queen  Elizabeth,  renewed  of  <late,  but  still  more  because  of  the  ahnost  total 
in  the  lives  of  certain  men  illustrious  for  learning  abandonment  of  the  pomt  of  view  on  which  their 
and  sanctity,  among  them  more  than  one  hundred  authors  founded  arguments  to  demonstrate  the  ex- 
martyrs,  and  a  very  great  number  of  others  dis-  istence  of  desi^  m  nature.  It  is  now  generaUy  felt 
tinguished  for  their  (religious)  deeds  and  sufferings;  to  be  an  unsatisfactory,  or,  at  least,  less  satisfactory, 
confirmed  also  by  the  retractations  of  apostates,  by  method,  to  argue  from  particular  examples  m  which 
new  edicts  of  the  persecutors,  and  by  the  writings  analogy  can  be  traced  between  the  mechamsm  found 
of  very  learned  Catholics  against  the  Anglican,  or  in  nature  and  that  contrived  by  man,  as,  for  instant, 
rather  female,  pontificate,  and  in  defence  of  the  au-  ^  take  one  specially  mentioned  by  Darwin,  m  the 
thority  of  the  Roman  pontiff  over  Christian  princes  hinge  of  a  bivalve  sheU,  as  though  it  were  m  such 
(Trier,  1588,  about  850  pp.  in  8vo).  Another  cases  alone  that  the  operation  of  Mmd  mamfested 
edition  was  brought  out  (ibid.)  by  Cardinal  Allen  itself.  The  best  modem  apologists  insist  rather  on 
in  1594:  it  served  thenceforth  as  an  original  record  the  nol«  of  law  and  order  stamped  everywhere  upon 
of  English  C^atholic  sufferings  for  the  Faith  and  the  universe,  inorganic  no  less  than  organic,  upon 
Dodd,  Challoner,  and  LingaS  used  extensively  its  the  reality  and  ubiauitv  of  which  the  validity  of  all 
reliable  biographical  and  historical  data.  Its  rather  scientific  methods  wholly  depends,  while  the  progress 
miscellaneous  contents  are  described  in  the  Chetham  of  scientific  discovery  does  but  immensely  enhance 
Society's  Remains  (XLVIII,  47-50).  the  weight  of  the  argument  based  upon  it.     At  the 

GiLLow,  BibL  Diet,  of  Eng.  Cath.,  I,  294>295;  Cooper  in  same   time,   it   cannot   be   admitted   that  the  old- 

Dici.  of  Nat.  Biogr.,n.  v.;  DotMy  Diariea,  99, 119.  and  passim;  fashioned  natural  theology  of  the  Treatises  is  so 

t%V!il';^'^<^til^V.^V^ili^S^%%^::!r,  devoid  of  value  as  many  modern  critics  pretend. 

RMords,  IV,  481-482,  485;  VII,  299.  The  marvellous  contnvances  which  we  meet  every- 

Thomas  J.  Shahan.  where  in  organic  nature  renuun  wholly  inexplicable 


BBIXF                              784  BBiam 

by  natural  selection  or  other  iion-int«IIigent  agents  in  Sech  ni  chiuir  nl  coswna 

which  purpose  ie  not  included,  and  to  the  ordinary  Ind  n6eb  dibad  bethath  che. 

unsophisticated  mind  they  bring  home,  as  what  may  Saint  Brizid  was  not  given  to  sleep, 

be  deemed  more  philoaophical  argumenU  cannot,  the  Nor  waa  she  intermittent  about  God's  love: 

truth  that  here  we  have  direct  evidence  of  a  Su-  Not  merely  that  she  did  not  buy,  she  did  not 

preme  Artificer.  seek  for 

John  Gbeard.  The  wealth  of  this  world  below,  the  holy  one. 
Briof.     See  Bdllb  and  BmEre.  Cogilosus,  a  monk  of  Kildare  in  the  eighth  century, 
Brimu  (Briocdb,  Brioc,  or  Bro),  Saint,  a  Celtic  expounded  the  metrical  life  of  St.  Brigid,  and  verei- 
■aint    of    Brittajiy  who  received  his  education  in  S™  't  in  good  Latin.    This  is  what  is  known  as  the 
Ireland    and    then    studied    under    St.    Germanus,  "Second  dife",  snd  is  an  excellent  example  of  Irish 
said   to   be  the  famous   St.   Germanus  of  Aujcemi.  scholarship   in    the   mid-eighth   century.      Perha{w 
Huch  of  what  we  read  concerning  his  early  years  ^he  most  intereatins  feature  of  Co^toeus'a  work  is 
must  be  received  with  caution;  indeed,  Ussher  b»-  *•«  description  of  Mie  Cathedral  of  Kildare  in  his 
serts  that  he  was  of  Irish  birth,  but  it  is  tolerably  '^^y-  "Solo  spatioso  et  in  altum  minaci  proceritate 
certain  that  he  returned  to  France  early  in  431,  bring-  Pornita  ac  decorata  pictis  tabulis,   tria  mtrinaecua 
ing  with  him  St.  Iltud.     Even  before  his  ordmation  habcns  oratoria   ampla,   et  diviaa   parietibus   tabu- 
to  the  priesthood,  St.  Brieuc  worked  several  miraclee,  jatis".      The   rood-screen    was    formed    of    wooden 
duly  ohronicledin  his  "Acts"   (edited by  F.  Godefrid  hoards,    lavishly    decorated,    and    with    beautifully 
Herschenn),  and  after  a  short  period  spent  with  hia  embroidered  curtains.     Probably  the  famous  Round 
parents,  he  entered  on  his  missionary  career.    In  480,  7*""®'   "^   KiIda.TJ   dates   from   the   sixth   century. 
he  settled  in  Armorica,  and  founded  a  monastery  at  Although  St.  Brigid  was  "veiled",  or  received,  by 
Londebaeron.    Thence  he  proceeded  to  Upper  Brit-  °*-  Macaille,  at  Croghan,  yet,  it  is  toleraUy  certain 
tany  where  he  established  an  oratory  at  a  pla^  ever 
since  known  as  St.    Brieuc-dcs-Vaux,   between   St. 
Majo  and  Land  Triguicr,  and  of  whic^  he  was  named 
first  bishop.     Numerous  miracles  are  cited   in   the 
"Acts",  especially  his  cure  of  Count  Riguel,   who 
gave  the  aaint  his  own  palace  of  Champ-du-Rouvre, 
as  also  the  whole  manorial  estates,    Autnorities  differ 
as  to  dat«  of  St.  Brieuc's  death,  but  it  was  probably 
in  502,  or  in  the  early  years  of  the  sixth  century. 
He  died  in  his  own  monastery  at  St.  Brieuc-dea-Vaux. 
and  waa  interred  in  his  cathedral  church,  dedicated 
to  St,  Stephen.     Baring-Gould  says  tlial  St.  Bneuc 
is  represented  as   "treading  on   a  dragon",  or  else 
"with  a  column  of  fire"  as  seen  at  his  ordination. 
His  relics  were  translated  to  the  Church  of  SS,  Sergiua 
and  Bacchus  of  Angers,  in  865,  and  again,  in  a  more 
aolemn  manner  on  31  July,  1166.    However, in  1210, 
a  portion  of  the  relics  was  restored  to  St.  Brieuc 
Cathedral,  where  the  saint's  ring  ie  also  preserved. 
The  festival  of  St.  Brieuc  is  celebrated  on  1st  May, 

but,  since  1804,  the  feast  is  transferred  to  the  second  Thb  Rochd  Tovia  or  Kildibb 

Sunday  after  Easter.    Churches  in  England,  Ireland,  , 

and  Scotland  are  dedicated  to  this  earfy  Celtic  saint,  that  she  was  professed  by  St,  Mel  of   Ardagh,  who 

Acta  Sa.  (1  May),  I:  Butleh,  Livei  at  Ou  SainU  |1  May);  also  conferred  on  her  abbatial  powers.      From  Ardagh 

LoBWEAD,  Pm  d«  Saini.  *  flreinW,  TBavAUD  «1.  as^^  St.   Mscaillc  and  St.   Brigid   followed  St.    Mel   into 

S:X^-P;;S-il™.°'«'SSi^'^te;i;.'e-^^^"&W  the  country  of  Teffia  in  Ideath    ineludingportion. 

HiHory  of  Brittanv:  he  Ghahd,  De  VUu  Sanctorum  Briitmnia  Of  Westnieath  and  LoDgford,      This  occurred  about 

jlrvunon,'  O'HuiLOH    lAva  of  tiu  Irith  Samim  {1  Maj-),  V;  the   year   468.      St.    Brigid's   small   oratoiy    at    C»B- 

tf^"\l'M^)7'T™USnlAv.:V  tft-XSi^fm  Doti  became   the   centre   of  religion   and'  learning 

Lavioan.  Ecdtnatiital  HiMtory  of  IreUmd,  1;  Fujjaza,  .Brif-  and  developed  into  a  cathedral  city.     She  founded 

Umv and  i4t  Biflnayt  usea).      _,   „   ^                ^  two   monastic   institutions,   one   for   men,    and   the 

W.  H.  Gbattan  fYoon.  other  for  women,   and    appointed   St.    Conleth  as 

Brigid,   Saint,  of  Ireland   (incorrectly  known  bb  spiritual  pastor  of   them.     It   has  been   frequently 

Bkidobt),  b.  in  451  or  452  of  princely  ancestors  at  stated  that  she  Kave   canonical   jurisdiction   to  St. 

Faughart,  near  Dundalk,  County  Louth;  d.  1  Feb-  Conleth,  Bishop  of  Kildam,  but,  as  Archbishop  Healy 

ruary,  625,  at  Kildare.     Refusing  many  good  offers  points  out,  she  simply  "selected  the  person  to  whom 

of  marriage,  she  became  a  nun  and  received  the  veil  the  Church  gave  this  jurisdiction",  and  her  biogra- 

from  St,  Macaille,     With  seven  other  virgins  she.  pher  tells  us  distinctly  that  she  choae  St.  Conleth 

settled  for  a  time  at  the  foot  of  Croghan  Hill,  but  "to  govern  the  church  alonr  with  herself".     Thus 

removed  thence  to  Druin  Criadh,  in  the  plains  of  for  centuries,  Kildare  was  ruled  by  a  double  line  ol 

Magh  Life,  where  under  a  laree  oak  tree  she  erected  abbot-bishops  and  of  abbesses,  the  Abbess  of  Kildan 

her   subseouently    famous    Convent    of     CiU-Dara  being  regarded  as  superioress  general  of  the  conveoti 

that  is,   "the  church  of    the  oak"   (now  Kildare},  in  Ireland. 

in  the  present  county  of  that  name.    It  is  exceedingly  Not  alone  waa  St.  Brigid  a  patroneaa  of  studenbi, 

difficult  to  reconcile  the  statements  of  St.   Brigid  s  but  she  also  founded  a  school  of  art,  including  metd 

■-'-  — iphers,  but  the  Third,  Fourth,  and  Fifth  Livea  work  and  illumination,  over  which  St.  Conleth  pre- 

saint  are  at  one  in  assigiiing  her  a  slave  mother  sided.      From    the    KUdare    scriptorium    came    the 

__   the   court   of   her   father   Dubhthach,   an    Irish  wondrous  book  of  the  Gospels,  which  elicited  un- 

chieftain  of  Leinater.      Probably  the  most  ancient  bounded     praise    from    Giraldus    CamlwenaiE,    but 

life  of  St.  Brind  is  that  by  St.  Broccan  Clo«n,  who  is  which  has  disappeared  since  the  Reformation.     Ac- 

eaid  to  have  died  17  September,  650.    It  is  metrical,  cording  to  this    twelfth-century  Welsh  ecclesiastic, 

as  mt^  be  seen  from  the  following  specimen: — '  nothing  that  he  had  ever  seen  was  at  all  comparable 

Ni  hii  Sftnr^t  Rrivit iiiiBiiiu>h  to  the     Book  Of  Kildare",  every  page  of  which  was 
(oijeouely  illuitun8t«d,  and  he  conctudee  a  most 


bioffrapl 


BRiairrnrxs  786  BRxarmns 

Uudatoiy  notice  by  saying  that  the  interlaced  work    adjoining  the  ruined  church  is  of  the  most  veneraUft 
&nd  the  harmony  of  t&e  colours  left  the  impreesioo    aatiquity,  and  atill  attracts  pilgrima;  tn  the  immediate 
that  "all  this  is  the  work  of  angelic,  and  not  Jiuman    vicinity   is  the   ancient  mote  of   Faughart.      An  to 
Hkill",     Small  wonder  that  Gerald  Barry  assumed     St.    Brigid'H   stay    in    Connacht,    especially    in    the 
the  book  to  have  been  written  night  after  night  as    County  Roacoramon,  there  is  ample  evidence  in  the 
St.  Brijpd  prayed,  "an  angel  furnishing  the  designs,     "Trias  Thaumaturga"   as  also  in  the  many  churxihee 
the   scribe   copying".      Even   allowing   for   the  ei-    founded  by  her  in  the  Diocese  of  Elphin.    Her  fricnd- 
a^gerated  stones  told  of  St.  Brigid  by  her  numerous 
biographem,  it  is  certain  that  she  ranks  as  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  Irishwomen  of  the  fifth  century 
and   OS  the  Patroness  of  Ireland.     She  is  lovingly 
called  the  "Queen  of  the  South:  the  Mary  of  the 
Gael"  hy  a  writer  ip  the   "Leabhar  Breac".     St. 
Brigid  died  leaving  a  cathedral  city  and  bcIkioI  that 
became  famous  all  over  Europe.     In  her  honour 
St.  Ultan  wrote  a  hymn  commencing:— 

ChristuB  in  noatrfl  insiil& 

Que  vocatur  Hibemia 

Oslensus  est  hominibus 

Maximis   mirabilibus 

Que  [jerfecit  per   felicem 

Celestis   vite  virginem 

Precellentcm   pro   merito 

Magno  in   miindi   circulo. 
(In  our  inland  of  Hibemia  Christ  was  made  known 
to  man  by  the  very  great  miracles  which  he  per- 
formed through  the  happy  virgin  of  celestial   life, 
famous  for  her  merits  through  the  whole  world.)  h_   n         •    nr 

The  sixth  Life  of  the  saint  printed  by  Colgan  is  *"■  ^"°"'  '  ^'^ 

attributed  to  Coelan,  an  Irish  monk  of  the  eighth      ,  .       .,,    c.    n  .  -  i    ■      ..    .  j  l     .l     ,  ,.     ■ 
century,  and  it  derives  a  peculiar  importance  from    «"'P  '"™  J^-   ^^'■"'',*„'^  attested  by  the  following 
the  fact  that  it  is  prefaced  by  a  foreword  from  the    Pi^ragraph  from  the  "Book  of  Armagh",  a  precious 
pen  of  St.  Donatus,  also  an  Irish  monk,  who  became    manuscript  of  the  eighth  century,  the  authenticity 
Bishop  of   Fiesole   in   824.      St.    Donatua   refera   to     of  which  is  beyond  auction:      Inter  sanctum  Pa-. 
previous  lives  by  St.  i:ttan  and  St.  Aileran.     When     t"?*^  Bngitamque  Hibemensium  columpnaa  ami- 
dying,  St.  Brigi^i  was  attended  by  St.  Ninnidh,  who    citia  caritatia  merat  tanta,  ut  unum  cor  consiliumque 
wflB    ever    afterwards   known   as   "Ninnidh   ot  the    haberent  unum     Chr^tus  per  ilium  mamque  virtuUa 
aean  Hand"  because  ho  had  his  right  hand  encaaed    ^^^t^  ^P«««j'   •      (Between    St     Patriclt    and    St. 
with  a  metal  covering  to  prevent  ita  ever  being  do-    Brigid,  the  columns  of  the  Irish,  there  was  so  great  a 
filed,  after  being  the  medium  of  administering  the    friendship  of  chwity  that  they  had  but  one  heart 
viaticum  to  Irefand'B  Patroness.     She  waa  interred    and  one  mind.    Through  him  a^d  through  her  Christ 
at  the  right  of  the  high  altar  of  Kildar^  Cathedral,     P«r^o"^«'  rnany  miracles.)    At  Armagh  there  was  a 
and  a  costly  tomb  was  erected  over  her.     In  after    ''Templura  Bngidia"inamely,  the  little  abbey  church 
yeara  her  slirine  waa  an  object  of  veneration  for    k^?*™  ,««     Regies  Brigid   .which  contained  soma 
Jilgrims,  especially  on  her  feast  day.   1   February.     ^'<*,*;f  **>«  ■«"">  '^*''^y*^.  J^ 'i™.'  ^^  William 
is  Cogilijeua  relates.     About  the  year  878,  owing  ti     Fitz  Aldelm.       It  may  be  idded  that  the  original 
the  Scandinavian  raida,  the  relics  of  St.  Brigid  were    J?*"^**^'?''.  °f,  Cogi.t<«'"  «     Life  of  Bngid  ",  or  the 
taken   to   Downpatrick,   where   they   were   mterred     ".Second  Ijfe",  datjng  from  the  closing  yem  of  the 
in  the  tomb  of  St.  Patrick  and  St.  Columba.    The    ^g"'"'  cen.tU'T,  w  now  m  the  Dominican  fnary  at 
relics  of  the  three  sainta  were  discovered  in  U85,    Eichstfttt  in  Bavana. 
and  on  9  June  of  the  following  year  were  stdemnlv 
translated  to  a  suitable  resting  place  in  Downpatrick 
Cathedral,  in  presence    of    Ordinal   Vivian,  fifteen 
bishops ,    and    numerous    abbots    and    ecclesiastics. 
Various  Continental  breviaries  of  the  pre-Refon 
tion  period  commemorate  St.  Brigid         '  ' 
IB  included  in  a  litany  in  the  Stowe 
land  to-day,  after  1500  yeara,  the  memory  of  "the 
Mary  of  the  Gael"  is  aa  dear  as  ever  to  the  IrL^ 

heart,  and,  aa  is  well  known,  Bri^d  preponderates  as  Biiglttlii«B. — The  Brig^ttine  Order  (also.  Order 
a  female  Christian  name.  Moreover,  hundreds  of  or  St.  Saviour)  waa  founded  in  1346  by  St.  Brigit, 
place-names  in  her  honour  are  to  be  found  all  over  or  Bridget,  of  Sweden  at  Vadstena  in  the  Diocese 
the  country,  e,  g.  Kilbride,  Brideawell,  Tubberbride,  of  LinkOping.  The  saint,  who  waa  canoni»«d  twenty 
Templebride.  etc.  The  hand  of  St.  Brigid  is  pre-  years  after  her  death,  was  a  Swedish  princess  re- 
served at  Lumiar  near  Lisbon,  Portugal,  since  1687,  nowned  for  her  piety  from  her  childhood;  she  waa 
and  another  relic  is  at  St.  Martin's,  Cdogne.  given  in  marriage  to  Ulf.  Prince  of  Mercia,  by  whom 

Viewing  the  biography  of  St.  Brigid  from  a  critical  she  had  a  large  family.  Ulf  died  in  1344,  and  two 
Btandi>oint  we  must  allow  a  large  margin  for  the  vivid  years  later  tradition  relates  that  St.  Brid^t  had  le- 
Celtic  imagination  and  the  glosses  of  medieval  writers,  vealed  to  her  the  rule  of  the  new  order  abe  was  to 
but  still  the  peTHOnality  of  the  founder  of  Kildare  found  at  Vadstena.  Here  with  the  help  of  King 
Btandsout  clearly,  and  we  can  with  tolerable  accuracy  Magnus  she  established  on  her  own  estate  the  first 
trace  the  leading  eventa  in  her  life,  by  a  careful  study  monastery  for  men  and  women,  of  which  Katharine, 
of  the  old  "Uvea"  as  found  in  Colgan.  It  seems  her  daughter,  became  the  first  abbess  soon  after 
certain  that  Faughart,  associated  with  memories  of    her  death  in  1375.     At  this  time  double  monaateriea 


Queen  Meave  (Medhbh),  waa  the  scene  of  her  birth;     were  not  unusual;  the  monks  and  nims  used  the 
and  Faughart  Church  was  founded  l^  St.  Morienna    chapel,  but  lived  in  separate  wings 
ID  honour  of  St.  Brigid.    The  old  weU  of  St.  Brigid'a    the  OMifessor  alone  having  access 


BBIOimNBS  786  BBIOITTINES 

firkittiiie  monasteries  the  nuns,  who  were  strictly  the  order  was  introduced  into  Bavaria,  where  sev- 

en<»osed,  attended  to   the  cooking,  washing,  and  end  foundations  were  made,  one  of  which  still  re- 

makinir  and  mending  of  clothes  for  the  monks  as  well  mains.    This  is  the  celebrated  old  Benedictine  Men- 

as  for  tnemseives,  but  everything  was  passed  through  astery  of  Mary — AltomUnster ^  between  Munich  and 

a  turnstile  from  one  wine  to  the  other.    This  arrange-  Augsburg,  of  which  the  Brigittines  took  possession 

ment,  unsuitable  to  modem  times,  has  long  ceased,  in   1497  establishing  a  double  convent  there.     This 

In  the  new  order  the  abbess,  who  was  called  the  monastery  was  twice   plundered   and  partially  de- 

" Sovereign",  was  supreme  in  all  things  temporal  stroyed  by  fire,  and  the  monks  and  nuns  who  were 

for  both  nouses;  all  deeds  were  in  her  name,  all  char-  dispersed  at  the  Reformation  twice  returned  to  rt, 

ters  were  addressed  to  her;  but  in  spiritual  things  the  In  1803  it  was  suppressed,  and  it  is  only  since  1844 

abbess  was  not  allowed  to  interfere  with  the  monks  that  a  community  of  Brigittine  nuns  again  lives  there, 

who  were  priests,  and  the  nuns  were  under  the  di-  The  monastery  of  Revel  in  Russia  was  burnt  by 

rection  of  the  superior  of  the  monks  who  was  ap-  schismatics  in  1575,  but  in  Poland  most  of  the  monas- 

pointed  confessor-general.    The  order  was  founded  teries  were  preserved  till  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 

principally  for  women,  and  for  this  reason  the  supreme  century,   and   three   new   foundations  were   made, 

government  was  vested  in  the  abbess;  the  monks  Holland  still  possesses  two  Brigittine  houses,  both 

were  founded  to  give  the  nuns  the  spiritual  help  they  of  which  now  take  pupils. 

needed.    The  special  interior  devotion  of  the  order  is        At  the  Reformation  most  of  the  double  monas- 

to  the  Passion  of  Our  Lord  and  to  His  Blessed  Mother,  teries  had  to  be  given  up,  and  the  rule  as  to  numbers 

Rule  op  St.  Bridget. — ^The  Rule  enacts  "  that  the  could  no  longer  be  observed,  while  many  of  the 
number  of  choir  nuns  shall  not  exceed  sixty,  with  houses  were  suppressed  altogether.  The  nuns  at 
four  lay  sisters;  the  priests  shall  be  thirteen,  ac-  Vadstena  endurea  much  persecution  at  this  time; 
cording  to  the  number  of  the  thirteen  Apostles,  of  the  Protestants  threatened  to  tear  them  to  pieces 
whom  Paul  the  thirteenth  was  not  the  least  in  toil;  and  expelled  them  from  their  monastery,  but  in 
then  there  must  be  four  deacons,  who  also  may  be  1588,  King  John  III  became  their  protector,  and  re- 
priests  if  they  will,  and  they  are  the  figure  of  the  four  stored  their  monastery  to  them.  In  England  the 
principal  Doctors,  Ambrose,  Augustine,  Gregory,  Brigittine  Order  is  the  only  pre-Reformation  order 
and  Jerome,  then  eight  lay  brothers,  who  with  their  in  existence.  The  celebrated  .Brigittine  Monastery  of 
labours  shall  minister  necessaries  to  the  clerics,  there-  Syon  House  was  foimded  in  1415,  when  Henry  V 
fore  counting  three-score  sisters,  thirteen  priests,  lumself  laid  the  foundation-stone  on  part  of  the  royal 
four  deacons,  and  the  eight  servitors,  the  number  of  manor  of  Isleworth  on  the  Thames.  It  is  sup{x>8ed 
persons  will  be  the  same  as  the  thirteen  Apostles  and  that  the  cause  of  the  extension  of  the  order  in  Eng- 
the  seventy-two  disciples".  (The  Rule  of  St.  Bridget.)  land  was  due  to  the  fact  that  Henry's  sister  Philippa 
The  nuns  were  not  to  be  professed  before  they  were  was  the  wife  of  Eric  XIII,  King  of  Sweden.  Kine 
eighteen  and  the  monks  not  before  they  were  twenty-  Henry  endowed  the  monastery  richly  and  transferrea 
five  years  of  age.  The  counsel  of  holy  poverty  is  the  property  of  certain  houses  dep)endent  on  French 
strictly  enjoined  by  the  Rule  on  all  the  members  monasteries  to  Syon.  At  the  dissolution  of  monas- 
of  the  order,  who  are  forbidden  to  possess  anything,  teries  under  Henry  VIII,  who  in  the  earlier  years  of 
though  at  the  same  time  they  may  expect  the  abbess  his  reign  had  himself  been  a  benefactor  of  the  abbey, 
to  supply  them  with  all  necessaries;  one  luxury  is  the  nuns  were  dispersed  and  took  refuge  in  a  convent 
allowed  them,  they  may  have  as  many  books  as  they  of  their  order  at  Dendermonde  in  Flanders.  Here 
like  for  study.  All  the  cast-off  clothing  and  the  sur-  they  were  visited  by  Cardinal  Pole,  and  through  his 
plus  of  their  yearly  income,  after  all  has  been  pro-  influence  were  re-established  at  Syon  imder  Queen 
vided  for,  are  to  be  given  to  the  poor,  and  the  Rule  Mary,  but  they  were  driven  into  exile  again  when 
strictly  forbids  the  abbess  to  make  larger  buildings  Elizaoeth  came  to  the  throne,  and  returned  to  Den- 
than  are  necessary.  dermonde.     After  several  attempts  to  settle  in  dif- 

The  Constitutions  were  first  approved  by  Pope  ferent  parts  of  Belgium,  they  went  to  Rouen  where 

Urban  V,  afterwards  by  Urban  VI,  and  finally  oy  they  remained  fourteen  years,  and  finally  in  1594, 

Martin  V.     In  1603  Pope  Clement  VIII  made  cer-  they  moved  to  Lisbon  where  they  remained  for  267 

tain  changes  for  double  monasteries  in  Flanders,  and  years.    In  1809  an  attempt  was  made  to  return  to 

in  1622  Uregory  XV  changed  certain  articles  in  the  England,  but  it  was  not  till  1861  that  the  nuns  found 

Constitutions  wnich  refer  only  to  double  convents  for  a  home  at  Spettisbury  in  Dorsetshire,  whence  they 

the  Monastery  of  Ste.  Marie  de  Foi,  in  the  Diocese  of  moved  to  Chudleigh  in  Devonshire  in  1887,  where 

Ypres.    These  new  Constitutions  ordained  that  man-  they  are  still  living. 

ufu  work  should  be  done  during  certain  hours  of  the        Brigittines  of  the  Recollection. — The  Brigit- 

day  by  the  members  of  the  order,  that  a  red  cross  tines  of  the  Rejpllection  were  founded  at  Vailadolid 

should  be  worn  on  the  mantle,  that  the  nuns  might  in  the  seventeenth  century  by  Venerable  Marina  de 

be  professed  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  and  that  the  monks  Escobar,  formerly  a  Carmelite  nun,  who  modified 

should  say  the  Divine  Office  according  to  the  Roman  the  Rule  to  suit  the  Spanish  nation  and  the  age  in 

Breviary.     Those  who  followed  these  Constitutions  which  she  lived.    The  Constitutions  were"  approved 

took  the  name  of  Brigittines  Novissirai  of  the  Order  by  Pope  Urban  VIII.     Like  St.  Bridget  she  neither 

of  St.  Saviour,  to  distinguish  them  from  those  who  took  the  habit  herself  nor  did  she  live  to  see  the  first 

lived  in  double  convents.  monastery  of  the  order  erected.    This  congregation 

Foundations. — ^The    order    spread    into    France,  which  has  five  houses  was  founded  for  nuns  only:  the 

Italy,   Germany,    Bavaria,    Poland,   Norway,   Den-  habit  and  the  office  differ  slightly  from  those  of  the 

mark,  Finland,  Holland,  Belgium,  Spain,  Portugal,  Brigittines. 

and  Russia.    Four  foundations  were  made  in  France,        In  all  houses  of  the  Brigittine  Order  prayers  are 

at  Lille,  Valenciennes,  Arras,  and  Douai,   but  all  constantly  offered  for  the  restoration  of  the  Monas- 

were  destroyed  in  the  Revolution.    In  Belgium  sev-  tery  of   Vadstena.      This  was  formerly  the  great 

ewi  houses  were  founded,  but  except  that  of  Dender-  centre  and  stronghold  of  Catholicism  in  Sweden,  a 

monde  they  did  not  last  very  long,  and  all  have  now  place  where  kings  and  queens  frequently  visited, 

disappeared.     The  first  Italian  house  was  founded  sometimes  took  refuge,  and  were  occasionally  im- 

in  1394,  when  the  Monastery  of  Paradise  was  opened  prisoned,  but  which  was  suppressed  and  the  reujgious 

at  the  gates  of  Florence,  and  about  this  time  some  of  dispersed  under  Gustayus   Vasa.     Nine   Brigittine 

the  monks  of  the  order  took  up  their  abode  in  Rome,  monasteries   are    now   in   existence:    Syon    Abbey, 

in  the  house  in  which  St.  Bridget  died.    In  1426  a  Chudleigh  in  Devonshire,  Altomiinster  in  Bavaria, 

monastery  was  opened  at  Genoa,  and  that  same  year  Uden  and  Weert  in  Holland;  and  the  five  Spanisii 


Bwoiroir 


787 


BSfVDZU 


houses  of  the  Brigittines  of  the  ReooIIeotiOii:  Valla- 
dolid  founded  in  1651,  Vittoria  founded  in  1663» 
Lasarte  and  Parades  de  Kava  in  1671,  and  Asooytia 
in  1690. 

Flaviony,  Ste.  BrigiUe  de  StMe;  Bubns.  Syon  Abbey;  MS. 
copy  of  the  Rule  of  St.  Bridget;  Hietory  of  the  ^igHth  Bnaittine 
Nttne  (Plymouth,  1887);  Bildt,  <Su*adttfc  Memoriee  and  Tracee 
in  Rome;  U^yot,  Huiinn  dee  ordree  monaetiquee,  IV,  25^; 
Hexmbucheb,  Ord.  u.  Kongr,  der  kath.  Kirate, 

Francebca  M.  Steels. 

Bii^on,  John,  b.  at  Saint  Malo  in  1629;  d.  at 
Paris,  12  June,  1712.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus  and  occupied  during  the  aixt^-five 
years  of  his  religious  life  chiefly  in  the  translation  of 
works  of  piety  into  French.  Among  these  are  the 
works  of  De  Ponte  and  Nierembere,  the  "Spiritiial 
Combat",  the  "Imitation  of  Christ",  and  the 
short  treatises  of  Bellarmine.  All  these  translations 
have  passed  through  a  number  of  editions.  He 
also  edited  and  revised  "The  Devout  Life"  of  St. 
Francis  De  Sales  and  the  "Fondements"  of  P^ 
Surin,  S.J.  The  only  English  works  he  translated  into 
French  are  the  "Decem  Rationes"  of  Blessed  Ed- 
mund Campion  and  the  "Tractatus  de  Miserioordi& 
fidelibus  defunctis  exhibend^"  by  Father  Mumford, 
S  J 

BiU.  de.la  o.  de  JSeue,  XI,  ooU  166;  Diet,  de  tfUpl.  eath.,  I« 
ooL    1131. 

S.  H.  Frisbeb. 

Bril,  Paulub,  a  brilliant  Flemish  painter  and 
engraver,  b.  at  Antwerp,  1556;  d.  in  Rome.  7  October, 
1^6.  file  first  studied  with  Damiaen  Oertdmans, 
a  member  of  the  guild  of  St.  Luke  in  his  native 
city.  Fired  by  the  news  of  the  success  of  his  brother 
Matthys,  in  Rome,  he  left  his  parents  secretly 
and  started  for  that  city.  He  was  detained  at 
Lyons  by  lack  of  funds,  and  worked  there  in  order 
to  be  able  to  continue  his  journey.  At  Rome  he 
studied  with  his  brother,  but  found  his  best  inspira- 
tion later  in  the  copies  he  made  of  the  landscapes 
of  Titian.  With  these  as  a  basis  he  developed  a 
vigorous  and  individual  st^le  of  his  own,  the  mani- 
festations of  which  are  said  to  have  led  greatly  to 
the  development  of  landscape  art  by  their  influence 
on  Rubens,  Annibale  Carracci,  and  Claude  Lorraine. 
He  assisted  his  brother  in  his  works  at  the  Vatican, 
and  on  the  death  of  the  latter  (b.  about  1548,  d. 
1584)  he  continued  his  labours.  Pope  Gregory  AlII 
gave  him  his  brother's  pension,  and  confided  to  him 
the  work  which  they  had  jointly  undertaken. 

Bril's  principal  production  in  the  Vatican  is  a 
landscape  in  fresco  sixty-eight  feet  long,  ordered 
by  Pope  Clement  VIII  for  the  Sala  Gementina, 
in  which  ap^)ears  St.  Clement,  with  an  anchor 
fastened  to  his  neck,  being  cast  into  the  sea.  Bril 
worked  in  the  Sistine  Chapel,  in  Santa  Maria  Mag- 

fiore,  and  in  the  chapel  of  the  Scala  Santa  in  &. 
ohn  Lateran.  He  introduced  fi^^ures  in  his  land- 
scapes with  much  success,  but  m  some  of  them 
appear  compositions  of  Annibale  Carracci.  His 
"Duck  Hunt",  "Diana  and  Nvmphs",  "Fisher- 
men", "Pan  and  Syrinx",  "St.  Jerome  in  Prayer", 
and  three  other  Landscapes* are  in  the  Louvre.  His 
"Prodigal  Son"  is  in  the  Antwerp  Museum,  and 
his  "St.  Paul  in  the  Desert",  "Boar  Hunt", 
and  "Triumph  of  Psyche"  in  the  Uffixi  at  Florence. 
His  works  appear  in  number  in  all  the  principsd 
European  galleries. 

LCbkb.  Hxetory  of  Art  (tr.  New  York,  1881). 

Augustus  van  Cleep. 

Brillmacher,  Peter  Michael,  b.  at  Cologne  in 
1542;  d.  at  Mains,  25  August,  1595.  He  entered  the 
Society  of  Jesus  in  1558,  and  studied  under  Maldona- 
tus,  in  Paris.  Later  he  returned  to  Cologne,  where, 
by  his  diplomatic  skill,  he  rendered  invaluable  aid  to 
tne  German  princes  in  affairs  of  state.  His  doouenoe 
atteacted  multitudes,  thwarted  the.  efforts  of  tne  so- 
oaUed  reformers,  and  made  such  deep  inroads  in  thdr 


ranks  thi^t  they  determined  upon  his  death.  Invitins 
him  to  a  banquet  on  pretence  of  debating  disputeiS 
doctrines,  they  mingled  poison  with  his  food  thus 
accomplishing  his  end. 

Brimnacher  took  an  active  part  in  the  controversies 
80  frequent  in  his  day  and  was  fearless  in  his  attadcs 
upon  hereey.  An  instance  of  his  alertness  in  the  de- 
tection of  heresy  is  that  of  the  cur6  of  Notre  Dame  of 
Cc^gne,  St^ihen  Isaac,  a  converted  Jew,  who,  in 
1589,  praachuuj;  on  the  Holy  Eucharist,  advanced  ar- 
guments which  tended  to  compromise  rather  than 
substantiate  the  doctrine.    Brillmacher  immediately 

Eublished  his  "Controversiarum  de  EucharistiA  Dia*- 
>gi",  in  which  he  advanced  all  the  arguments  which 
hiKi  been  brought  for  and  against  the  Real  Presence, 
Tranaul^tantiation,  etc.  In  the  third  of  these  dia- 
logues he  so  dearly  exposed  the  duplicitjr  of  Isaac  that 
the  latter  was  forced  openly  to  avow  his  apostasy  to 
Calvinism.  In  a  public  letter  to  John  of  MOnster, 
Is^ac  vilified  the  Jesuit-  and  called  forth  the  latter's 
second  work,  "Detectio  Erroris  Joannis  a  MOnster", 
followed  shortly  by  another  "Exceptio  Prodromi  Cal- 
viniana"  (1592,  in  Latin  and  German)  and  still  later 
(1593)  bpr  "Epistola  ad  Amicum".  The  widespread 
publication  and  popularity  of  these  overwhelmed  his 
adversaries  and  won  back  to  the  Faith  many  who  had 
been  deceived  by  the  specious  arguments  of  the  here- 
tics. Brillmacher's  **  Catechismus  "  first  published  in 
1586,  ran  through  various  ^tions  (Latm,  German, 
and  Flemish) ,  and  was  the  foundation  of  many  simi- 
lar works.  He  also  wrote:  "Serta  Honoris"  (various 
editions  in  Latin  and  German,  1565  to  1713)  and 
two  eariy  publications  "De  Communione  sub  alter& 
Specie"  and  "Commentarium  in  Aristotelis  Logica". 
Db  Backer,  1,  886-888;  Sommervogel,  BiUiothi^,  II, 
182-186. 

T.  J.  Young. 

Brindholm  (or  Bryndeholme),  Edmund,  Ven- 
erable, martjn^  and  parish  priest  of  Our  Ladv's 
Church  at  Calais,  accused  of  bemg  concerned  in  a  plot 
to  betray  (Calais  to  the  French,  it  was  said  that  Sir 
Gre^iy  Botolf,  chaplain  to  Lord  Lisle,  Governor  of 
Calais,  had  been  to  Home  on  this  business,  and  had 
requested  the  pope  to  grant  a  living  in  the  English 
Hospital  of  St.  Thomas  to  Brindholm,  who  was  about 
to  go  to  Rome  when  he  was  arrested.  There  seems, 
however,  no  evidence  that  he  was  reallv  concemea 
in  any  plot.  He  was  examined  11  April,  1540,  and 
was  attainted  in  the  Parliament  of  that  year,  to- 
gether with  "(Element  Philpott  late  of  Calais,  gentle- 
man, who  have  adhered  to  the  Kingr's  enemy,  the 
Bishop  of  Rome,  and  assisted  Raynold  Poole  [GEirdi- 
nal  Pole],  an  abominable  and  arrogant  traitor,  com- 
passing the  surprise  of  the  town  of  Calais".  He 
suffer^,  together  with  Philpott,  the  Blessed  William 
Home,  a  Clarthusian  lay  brother,  and  others,  at  Ty- 
burn, 4  August,  1540. 

Lettere  ond  Papen  Henry  VIII  (1540),  XV,  No.  495.  sqq.; 
HoLiNSBED,  Chronicle^  111,  952. 

Beds  Camm. 

Briadiiif  Diocese  of. — Brindisi,  called  by  the 
Romans  Brundusium  or  BrundUiunit  by  the  Greeks 
BperriiffiQPf  is  a  city  in  the  province  of  Lecce^  in 
Apulia,  on  a  rocky  peninsula  which  extends  mto 
t&  Adriatic.  In  ancient  times  it  was  very  impor- 
tuit  as  a  seaport,  being  accessible  in  all  winds.  In 
245  B.  a  the  Romans  captured  Brindisi  without  strik- 
ing a  blow  and  established  a  Roman  colony  there. 
This  city  was  one  terminal  of  the  Via  Appia.  In  the 
civil  wars  between  Csesar  and  Pompey  Brindisi  was 
the  base  of  naval  operations.     Brindisi  was  the  birth- 

?lace  of  the  poet  Pacuvius;  here  also  Virgil  died  in 
9  b.  c,  on  his  return  from  Greece.  Dunng  the  in- 
vasions of  the  barbarians  it  was  taken  and  destroyed 
several  times,  but  was  always  rebuilt  within  a  short 
space  of  time,  so  that  as  late  as  the  twelfth  century 
it  had  a  population  of  60,000,  which  has  since  dwin* 


BBtHDU  788  BBBUaUB 

died  to  about  20,000.    The  harbour  gradually  filled  were  prepai^  for  a  TigorouB  propaganda  throudi 

up,  which  hindered  navigation.    The  Italian  Gov-  the  prees.     mth  the  aasistanoe  of  several  of  t& 

emment  made  great  attempts  to  remedy  this,  but  old  Marian  priests  and  of  one  Brooks.  Parsons  pro- 

on  account  of  an  error  of  ju(%ment  the  beneficial  re-  cured  from  the  elder  Brooks,  owner  of  a  lam  house 

suits  anticipated  were  not  permanent.  called  Qreenstreet,  at  East  Ham  in  Essex,  five  miles 

According  to  a  local  legend,  the  first  Bishop  of  from  London,  permission  for  oertain  gentlemen  to 

Brindisi  was  St.  Leucius,  about  165,  who  later  under-  lodge  there.    T^  this  house,  cniefly  with  the  assist* 

went  martyrdom.    However,'  taking  into  considera-  ance  of  Brinkley,  Parsons  conveyed  a  printing  press 

tion  the  geographical  position  of  tnis  city,  the  be-  and  materials.    Brinkley's  seven  workmen  appeared 

ginnings  of  Chnstiani^  in  Brindisi  must  date  back  in  public  with  fine  clothes  and  horses,  to    avert 

to  the  first  century.    There  is  no  historical  proof  for  suspicion.    The  parson  and  dnurchwardens  urged 

this  except  the  account  given  by  Amobius  of  the  fall  the  newly  arrivea  gentlemen  to  attend  services;  an 

of  Simon  Magus,  who  according  to  him  withdrew  to  incautious  purchase  of  paper  almost  gave  a  clue  to 

Brindisi  and  cast  himself  from  a  nigh  rock  into  the  s^  the  discovery  of  the  prees,  and  a  servant  of  Brink- 

The  Diocese  of  Brindisi  at  first  embraced  the  terri-  ley's  was  caught  and  racked. 

tory  comprised  within  the  present  Diocese  of  Oria.  Their  first  book,  however,  which  was  very  proba- 
In  the  tenth  century,  after  Brindisi  had  been  de-  bly  a  work  of  devotion  or  of  encouragement  to  Cath- 
stroyed  by  the  Saracens,  the  bishops  took  up  their  ohcs,  was  successfully  issued.  Brinkley  then  moved 
abode  at  Oria,  on  account  of  its  greater  secinity.  the  press  to  Henley  Park,  to  the  house  of  Francis 
In  1591,  after  the  death  of  'Bishop  Bernardino  di  Browne,  brother  of  Viscount  Montague.  Parsons 
Figueroa,  Oria  was  made  the  seat  of  a  new  diocese,  issued,  1581,  "A  brief  Censure  upon  two  Books 
In  the  reorganization  of  the  dioceses  of  the  Kingdom  written  in  answer  to  M.  Edmund  Csmpion's  Offer  of 
of  Naples  m  1818  Brindisi  was  combined  with  the  Disputation."  Campion's  challenge  was  then  circu- 
Diocese  of  Ostuni,  formerly  its  suffragan.  Brindisi  lating  in  manuscript.  Extreme  caution  was  re- 
has  been  an  archiepiscopal  see  since  the  tenth  century,  quired  in  the  management  of  Brinkley's  press.  Gov- 
The  ancient  cathedral  was  located  outside  the  city,  emment  experts^  uke  Norton,  reported  that  the 
but  in  1140  Roger  II,  King  of  Sicily  and  Naples,  buut  Brinkley  books^  m  spite  of  the  Douai  imprint,  bad 
the  present  cauiedral  in  the  centre  of  the  city.  been  produced  m  England;  the  landlord  Brooks  was 

The  bishops  of  Brindisi  worthy  of  mention  are:  St.  suspicious;  information  as  to  the  press  was  also  asked 

Aproculus  (rroculus),whodiedin352at  Ardea^  when  of  Father  Briant  upon  the  rack.     After  a  second 

returning  from  Rome,  and  was  buried  at  Anzio;  St.  removal,  Brinkley  printed,  at  a  lodge  belonging  to 

Qrprian,  who  di^  in  364^  Andrea,  murdered  by  the  Dame  Cecilia  Stonor's  house,  near  Hc^ey,  Campion's 

Saracens  in  979;  Eustachio  (1060),  the  first  to  bear  ''Decem  Rationes".    At  Oxford,  on  Commemoration 

the  title  of  archbishop;  Guglielmo  (1173),  author  of  Day,  27  June,  1581,  the  benches  of  St.  Mary's  Church 

a  life  of  St.  Leucius;  Girolamo  Aleandro  (1524),  a  were  found  strewn  with  copies  of  this  ringing  chal- 

learned  hiunanist,  and  papal  nuncio  in  Germany  in  lenge  to  the  universities.    The  capture  of  Campion 

connexion  with  Lutjier's  Reformation,  and  later  Car-  near  Oxford  Sunday  evening,  16  July,  was  followed 

dinal;  Pietro  Caraffa,  Bishop  of  C^eti,  and  afterwards  in  a  few  weeks  by  that  of  Brinkley  and  his  printers. 

Pope  Paul  IV,  for  some  time  the  Apostolic  adminis-  Brinklev,  though  tortured  in  the  Tower,  escaped  the 

trator  of  this  diocese;  Francesco  Aleandro  (1542);  fate  of  his  fellow  prisoner,  William  Charter,  a  Catholic 

G.  Bovio,  from  Bologna,  who  translated  the  works  of  printer,  who  was  executed  at  Tyburn.     Brinklev  was 

St.  Greffory  of  Nyssa,  and  was  prominent  in  the  Coun-  discharged  in  June,  1583.    He  accompanied  Father 

cil  of  Irent;  Paolo  de  Vilanaperlas  (1716),  foimder  of  Parsons  first  to  Rome,  where  we  find  his  name  in 

the  seminary*  Andrea  Maddalena  (1724),  who  re-  the  Pilgrim  Book  of  the  English  College  in  the  fol- 

stored  the  catnedral  after  it  had  been  damaged  by  the  lowing  September,  and  thence  in  the  following  year 

earthquake  of  1743.  to  Rouen.    Here,  with   George  Flinton,   Bnnkley 

In  tnis  diocese  is  the  shrine  of  Mater  Domini,  near  printed  a  second  edition  of  a  work  which  Flinton 
Mesagne.  A  beautiful  church  was  erected  there  in  nad  brought  out  in  1581,  "The  Christian  Directory". 
1605  to  replace  the  ancient  rustic  chapel.  The  dio-  After  Flinton *s  death  about  1585,  Brinkley  con- 
.cese  has  a  population  of  119,907,  with  23  parishes,  tinned  to  issue  Catholic  books.  The  date  of  his 
89  churches  and  chapels,  181  secular  and  15  regular  death  is  unknown.  Gillow  mentions  a  work  trans- 
clergy,  and  64  seminarians.  lated  from  the  Italian  (Paris,  1579),  entitled  "The 

Cappbllbtti,  Is  chieae  d'ltaHa  (Venice.  1844),  XXI,  113-.  Exercise  of   a  Quistian   Life  .  .  .  newly  perused- 

'^S?^^' ll^)r^u>^E^K,^nS^ut  ^  <^"^^  by  the  tranriatour"  (James  &;cer). 

848.       ^    *"-^        '•  V       -»        /•  Sancer,  or  Banker,  is  known  to  have  been  the  pseu- 

U.  Benigni.  donym  of  Brinkley.    This  work,  p«4iaps,  is  one  of 

the  enrly  issues  of  Brinkley's  own  press. 
Brindle,  Robert.    See  Noitinqham,  Diocese  of.       Ojujow,  BiU,  DiaL  of  EngUth  CaAUtea;  Morbib,  TroMhlm 

Brinkley   Stephen,  Confessor  of  the  Faith,  im-  ^i22;/aS^jJ5,JT&±?;  i'^^k!S^'''si^  ^ 

prisoned  and  tortured  as  manager  of  a  secret  press  the  Jentiu  and  Seculars  in  the  Retire  of  miMabethiU>ndon  A9W 
tor  the  publication  of  devotional  and  controversial  J.  Vincent  Cbownb. 

works  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth;  b.  about  1550,  * 

and  lost  to  view  after  1585.    He  was  a  member  of  a        Briaacier,    Jacques-Charles    de,    orator     and 

Catholic    association    of    unmarried    gentlemen    of  ecclesiastical  writer,  b.  at  Bourges  in  1641;  d.  at 

Eroperty,  organized  bv  George  Gilbert,  and  solemnly  Paris,  23  March,  1736.  At  the  age  of  twenty-five 
lessed  by  Gregory  XIII,  1^10.  Their  purpose  was  he  entered  the  Society  of  the  Foreign  Missions  at 
to  raise  funds  for  the  support  of  priests,  to  prepare  Paris,  and  devoted  seventy  years  of  nis  life  to  this 
Protestants  for  the  Faith,  and,  at  a  time  when  pnests  sreat  work.  The  scion  of  a  rich  and  distinguished 
travelled  in  disguise,  without  papers  of  identification,  family,  son  of  the  collector-general  for  the  Province 
to  arrange  for  introductions  which  would  guard  both  of  Berry,  endowed  with  a  remarkable  talent  for 
priests  and  laity  against  betrayal.  The  members  preaching,  chaplain  in  ordinary  to  Queen  Marie- 
undertook  to  content  themselves  with  the  bare  neces-  Th^r^,  wife  of  Louis  XIV,  he  miffht  nave  aspired 
saries  of  their  state  of  life,  to  spend  the  remainder  of  to  high  ecclesiastical  honours.  Slany  bishoprics 
their  goods  in  the  cause  of  the  Church,  and  to  devote  were  ofTeted  to  him.  He  refused  them  all,  however, 
themselves  wholly  to  the  salvation  of  souls  and  the  in  order  to  remain  in  the  Society  of  the  Foreign 
conversion  of  heretics.  At  this  time  the  Jesuit  Fa-  Missions  of  which  he  was  elected  superior  in  1681* 
ihers  Robert  Parsons  and  (Blessed)  Edmund  Campion  He  filled  this  ofl^  for  ei^t  terms,  but  as  the  nilft 


789 

of  the  8ocie^  la  that  no  cme  ahall  be  elected  Buperior  &t    the  oenmis  of    1901    {metropolitaii  area)  ww 

for  more  than  three  conmcutive  reus,  he  filled  thia  119,907. 

charge   alternately   with   Louia   Tibei^.     He   waa       Hutory.— Queenaland   (known  till   1869  &a  the 

also  one  of  eight  of  its  members  who  in  1G98  com-  Moreton  Bay  District  of  New  South  Wales)  was  first 

poaed  the  rules  for  ita  government  which  are  etiU  settled  in  1825  aa  a  convict  station,  waa  vimted  by 

ID  force.  father  Tbt — '   ->—--■ — -■    -"—   ■" 

Madame  de  Halntenon  asked  him  to  become  the  Permanent 

aaaociata  of  Bourdaloue  and  Fdnelon,  in  compilinK  onization      be- 

the  r^ulations  for  the  school  of  Saint  Cyr,  vbitE  gun  when    it 

she  had  just  founded.     So  pleased  was  she  uilh  liie  was    thrown 

wisdom  and   judgnaeiit   that  she   asked   him   ugain,  open    to   free 

in    connexion    with    Bourdeloue    and    M.    Fronson,  settlerainlS42. 

superior  of  Sdnt  Sulpice,  to  ^ve  hia  opinion  on  the  Id   1S43,  four 

books  of  Madame  Guyon  and  upon  QuictiKoi.    On  Pasffloniat    Fa- 

thia  point,  however,  the  director  of  1i-.e  Society  of  thers  e0taldiBh« 

the  Foreign  Missions  did  not  agree  with  the  views  of  ed    a    missioa 

F6ncIon.     He  took   a  very   prominent  part  in   the  for   aboriginala 

diacuamon    on    Chinese    ceremonies.      After    having  on    Stradbroka 

asked  the  advice  of   F&ielon   and   Bossuet  on   this  Island,     but 

question,  Brisacier  did  not  hesitate  to  declare  him-  abandoned     it 

self  of  an  opinion  different  &oin  that  of  the  Jesuits,  for  lack  of  pro- 

The  Bishop  of  Meaux  wrote  nim  three  letters  on  this  visions    and 

Bubject{30  August,  1701;  8  and  12  September,  1701).  other    causes 

Brisader,  however,  did  not  wait  for  these  letters  to  in    184S.      The 

declare  himself.    On  20  April,  1700,  he  published  a  work  of  evan- 

paraphlet    entitled    "Lettre    de    MM.   dcs    Missions  KeliziuK    the 

etrangires  au  Pape,  sur  lea  idolatries  et  lea  super-  Queenrnand 

stitioDs'chiDOtees,  avee  una  addition  k  la  dite  lettre,  blacks  was  af* 

rar  MU,    Louis   Tiberge   and   Jacques   Charles   de  terwards      car-       Bbbbahh  rtum  me  OBStsviioBT 

Brisacier",    Briaacier  pronounced  the  funeral  orations  riedon  byother  tiiRDENs 

of  the   ]>uchesee   d'Aiguillon   and   also   of   Mile  de  misaioniiries. 

Bouillon,  both  benefactresses  of  the  Foreign  Mismons.  the  most  aucceasful  of  whom  were  Father  Luckie  and  the 

Ladhai^  Bulom  oMndt  rl€  la  tacMtdrtJIunimt  tbv»-  later  and  still  more  noted  apostle  of  the  aborieinals, 

Qtr«  tP«i.  IBM);  Sui«r.  d.  F^«i™,  XI,  ^j,  Father  Duncan  McNab.    Missionary  work  ainong  the 

'  blacks  was,  however,  hampered  to  an  almost  hopeless 

Biiaaclvr,  Jean  db,  controversialist,  b.  at  Blois,  d^jree  by  the  bad  example,  the  brutalities,  and  liie 
France,  9  June,  1592;  entered  the  Society  of  Jsbub  communicated  vices  and  diseases  of  degraded  whites, 
in  1019;  d.  at  Blois.  10  September^  1668.  On  the  In  1843,  a  rude  shanty,  hastily  constructed  during 
completion  of  hia  atudice,  he  gave  himself  to  preaching  Dr.  Folding's  visit  to  Brisbane  in  that  year,  was  the 
for  many  years,  with  great  zeal  and  success.  After-  only  building  in  the  Moreton  Bav  Distnct  that  stood 
wards  he  was  in  turn  Rector  of  tJie  colleges  of  Aix,  for  a  churcK  There  was  no  scliool,  and  the  white 
Bloia,  and  Rouen,  Visitor  to  the  province  of  Portugal,  population  of  the  whole  District  was  only  2,257  souls. 
Procurator  of  the  Societv  for  Foreiicn  Missions  and  Fathers  McGinnety  and  Hanly  arrived  there  in  De- 
Superior  of  the  Protessea  House  in  Paris.  His  love  cember,  1843.  Tney  were,  says  Cardinal  Moran, 
for  missionary  work  was  such  that  shortly  before  hia  "the  first  priests  stationed  for  ordinary  missionary 
death,  he  remarked  that  he  counted  as  noUiing  all  work  in  the  Moreton  Bay  territory".  In  1S59,  the 
the  years  he  had  not  spent  in  it.  Brisacier  was  year  in  which  the  Moreton  Bay  District  became  a 
an  ardent  opponent  of  Jansenism,  and  never  lost  an  separate  colony  under  the  name  of  Queensland,  it 
opportunity  of  attacking  it.  In  a  aermoa  preached  waa  erected  into  the  Diocese  of  Brisbane.  Ita  first 
at  Blois,  in  1651,  he  denounced  the  deceit  practised  bishop  waa  the  Right  Rev.  James  O'Quinn,  who  was 
by  the  Jansenists,  particularly  in  the  district  around  consecrated  in  Dublin  on  the  29th  of  June,  1859. 
his  native  town,  where  the  cur6  of  Cour-ChevOTny,  In  1860  there  were  only  two  priesla,  two  churches, 
M.  L'AbM  Callaghan,  waa  very  active  in  promoting  two  small  schools,  and  7,676  Catholics,  out  of  a  total 
the  heresy.  This  gave  rise  to  a  spirited  controversy,  population  of  2SX)56,  in  his  vaat  diocese  of  668,497 
in  wliieh  Briaacier  displayed  activity  and  courage,  square  miles.  He  arrived  in  Brisbane,  with  five 
In  reply  to  the  Jansenists'  answer  to  his  seimon,  priests  and  six  sisters,  in  1861,  and  launched  forth- 
he  repeated  hia  indictment,  and  offered  proof  of  it,  with  into  the  work  of  organization,  carrying  on  for 
in  a  publication  entitled  "Le  janadnisme  confoadu  years  lonz  and  exhausting  visitations,  in  which  the 
dans  radvocat  du  sieur  Callaghan,  par  le  P.  Brisacier,  bare  earth  was  often  his  only  bed,  and  sardines  and 
ave.:  la  deffenae  de  son  sermon  fait  a  Kois,  le  29  Mars,  "damper"  his  principal  food.  With  the  sanction  of 
'661,  centre  la  response  du  Port  Royal",  This  the  Government,  he  orrouiJied  the  Queensland  Immi- 
irork  was  quickly  condemned  by  Jean  Francois  de  gration  Society,  which  brouriit  settlera  (chiefly  Irish 
Sondi,  Archbishop  of  Paris,  because  of  its  personal  Catholics)  to  the  colony.  Considerable  numbers  of 
attaclu  directed  especially  against  the  Jansenistio  these  were  placed  on  land  granted  for  the  purpose  by 

__,._. ,      ...^      ft_._.         ^^     y,,.       .L_  ...      r. .  T^__:_,       __J       ___._^ .___ 


reUgiouB   of   Port   Royal.    Alt«r  thia   censure   the  the  Government.     Racial    and    sectarian  paasiona 

dispute  continued  for  some  time,  and  called  forth  took  alarm.     A  clamour  arose  that  the  colony  was 

a  long  series  of  pamphlets.     Aa  late  aa   1862,  the  being  inundated  with  Irish  Catholics,  and  that  it 

controversy  was  Itept  up  by  Ahh6  Hett«iu  and  would  soon  deserve  to  be  called,  not  "Queensland", 

G.  Bordillon.  but   "Quinn's   Land'',     The   Immigration   Society 

ScnofiaivooEu  BOL  it  ta  a.  de  J..  II.  186;  BaDoiia  in  bent  before  the  storm  and  dissolved  in  1866,  after 

Ok*,  d.  tWoJ,  ooA.,  *  v.i  Hd«™,  ;v™™J=^,  11  70  having  enriched  Queensland  with  ten  ahiploads  of 

K.  a.  IIZENBT,  pj^,j^  colonists. 

Brhibana,  Archdiocise  or,  comprises  that  part  of  Dr.  O'Quinn  was  a  man  of  ripe  intellectual  culture 

the  State  of  Queensland,  Australia,  which  hes  south  and  of  much  foresight  and  administrative  wisdom. 

of  tlie  24th   parallel  of  south  latitude.    The  area  ia  He  established  a  Catholic  paper,  "The  Australian", 

•bout  200,000  square  milea.    Briabane.  the  cathedral  founded  two  orphana^  and  an  industrial  school. 

Cit7,  ia  the  capital  of  Queenaland.  'Ilta  populatioa  wrought  strenuoutdy  in  the  matter  of  church-  tad 
n.—BO 


«lio6l-ext«tsi<»t.  «i«et«d  tke  handanme  oatiiednl  of  Church,  has  a  verv  twief  Cfttlwlio  hiihur.  for  it 
Ett.  Stepheo,  and  created  and  conserved  rich  educa-  only  had  one  biBtiop  acknowledged  by  we  Holy 
tional  and  other  endowniente.    State  aid  waa  finally    See.    It  waa  one  of  the  six  bishoprics  which  Henry 


withdrawn  from  oil  danominational  schools  with  the  VIU,  acting  as  head  of  the  Church,  attempted  to 

close  of  the  year  1880;  but  at  hia  death,  IStii  August,  found  by  Act  of  Pariiamont  out  of  Uie  spoils  of  the 

""".,  there  were  52  Catholio  piimary  schools  in  the  suppressed    monasteries.    This    was   in    1542,    the 

diocese,  attended  bishopiice  in  question  being  those  irf  Bristol,  Oxford, 

bv  6,610  children.  Westminster,  Gloucester,  Peterborough,  and  Chester. 

The    Provicaiiate  The  fact  that  the  city  was  then  one  of  the  leading 

of  North  Queens-  towns  in  Kng'&nd  and  the   chief   seaport,  exjdaina 

land  was  formed  why  it  was  selected  as  one  of  the  new  sees.     like 


IS76,  and  that  of  purposee.    Ae  it  was,  the  new  diooeae  nearly  lost  its 

Rockhainpton    in  cathedral,  for  the  abbey  church  of  the  Augustinian 

1S82,     On    the  Cmioub,  which  had  been  plundered  at  the  time  of 

18th  of  June,  1882,  the  suppression  of  that  house  in  1539,  was  aheady 

the  Right  Rever-  in   process   of   demolition,   when    the   king's   order 

cod  Robert  Dunne  came    arresting    the    devastation.    This    nouae    of 

was     consecrated  Augustinians  bad  been  founded  four  hundred  years 

Bishop     of    Brio-  before   its  dissolution   by  one   Robert   FitEharding, 

bane  in  succession  who  began  to  build  "the  abbeye  at  Bristowe,  that 

b>    Dr.    O'Qumn.  of  Sunt  Austin  is"  in   1133.     The  abbey  church 

^hia  solid  schol-  destined  te  serve  hereafter  as  a  cathedral,  was  of 

arahip    and  his  different   dates:    the    old    Nonnan    nave    Imilt    by 

ability  as  a  writer  Fitzharding  seems  to  have  stood  till  the  suppression, 

All-Bauawb's  Cmrvnrp  ScmxM.,       ^-    Dunne    ren-  but  the  chancel,  which  still  exists,  was  eariy  foui^ 

BusBiiNi                           dered     important  teenth   century,   and   the    transepts    late   fifteenth. 

services  as  eecre-  The  building  as  a  whole  waa  well  worthy  to  serve  aa 

tarv  to  the  Plenary  Council  of  Australasia  held  in  a  cathedral.     Yet  at  first    Bristol  does  not  seem  to 

Sydney  in   1885.     At  the  request  of   that  council,  have  been  thought  of  as  a  bishopric,  for  it  is  not 

^een«land  was  in  1887  created  a  separate  ecclesjas-  included  in  the  list  of  projected  sees  now  among  the 

tical  province,  with  Brisbane  as  its  metropolitan  see:  Cottonian  MSS.  in  the  British  Museum. 

and  the  Provicariate  of  North  Queensland  was  erected  It  has  been  suggested  tliat  its  ultimate  setectioa 

into  the  Vicariate-Apoetolic  of  Cooktown.    The  pies-  for  this  honour  was  due  to  Cranmer,  who  visited 

ent  stately  archiepiscopal  residence  in  Brisbane  was  Bristol  shortly  before  his  election  as  ArchtHshop  of 

built  during  Dr.  Dunne's  visit  ad  itmina  in  18Q0,  and  Canterbury,    and    buued    himself    in    ecclesiastical 

Csented  to  him  on  his  return.     His  episcopate  has  affairs    there.     The    first    bishop    to    be   appointed 

n  fruitful  in  church-  and  school-extension,  and  when  the  king's  charter  of  1642  founded  the  new  see, 

general  progress.  was  Paul  Bush,  formerly  roaster  of  the  Bonshommes 

Religious  Staiistica  (1907). — Parochial  districts,  31;  at  Edyngton  in  Wiltshire,  who,  it  is  needless  to  say, 
churches,  91;  secular  clergy^  56;  religious  brothers,  26;  neither  sought  nor  obtained  recognitioa  by  the  pope. 
nuns,  186:  lay  teachers  m  Catholic  schools,  126;  Himself  an  Augustinjan  and  a  man  of  some  repute 
wminary  1;  boarding  schools  for  girls,  12;  for  beys,  both  as  scholar  and  poet,  he  held  fast  to  many  of 
i;  high  schools,  6;  primary  schools,  41;  children  in  the  old  doctrines,  and  opposed  Cranmra  with  re- 
Catholic  schools,  6,713;  industrial  school  for  boys  card  to  transubatantiation  and  Masses  for  the  dead. 
(with  printing  office),  1;  for  girls,  1;  orphanage,  1;  Yet  he  followed  the  new  opinions  so  far  ss  the 
Msgdalen  BS3iIum,  1;  servants  home,  1;  total  popu-  marriage  of  the  clergy  was  concerned,  and  took  as  a 
lation,  about  240,000;  Catholic  population,  about  wife  one  Edith  Ashtey,  This  fact  caused  him  to  be 
60,000.  proceeded  against  as  a  married   cleric  in  Queen 

UoBiH.  Hitiarii  of  Oit  Catholic  CAurcK  in  Awtrolojw  (8yd-  Mary's   reign.     In   1664   a  oommisaion  pasaed  sen- 

"JWV'x^:i±rt5rd."rW)"/2SUS'iiiSS  w™."'  Seprivatk,.  .,^t  Mm    wiJaT.  ^ 

DinctoTv  tar  1907  (Sydnsy,  IMT).  ticipated    by   a    voluntary    reaignatioa.     This    was 

HrNHT  W,  Clsakt.  the  opnortunity  for  placing  the  irregularly  consti- 

_.  ,    ^         ,               ,,                          ....  tuted  diocese  on  a  proper  canonical  footing,  and 

Brlachar,    Johann    NapoMDcima,    church    hia-  po„   p^ui   iv   empowered   Cardinal  Pole   to   re- 

tprian,  b.  at  Horb  in  Wartemberg  in  1819,  studied  found  the  See  of  Bristol,     The  first  and,  as  it  proved, 

theolocy  at   the   Umvemty  of  TllUngen,  was  ap-  ^^^   ^nly   Catholio   bishop    was   John   Hidyman,   a 

pointed  parish  priest  of   Buhl  nwr  Rottenburg  in  Benedictine  monk  of  great  reputation  for  learning 

1853,  where  he  died  in  1897.     Hie  principal  work  and  sanctity,  who  had  been  the  friend  and  subject  rf 

is   the  oontdnuation  of  Count   Leopold   Stolbeig 'a  the  martyr^  Abbot  of  Reading,  Blessed  Hugh  Cook. 

'History  of  the  Religion  of  Jesus  Chnst  'of  wboh  As  bishop.  Dr.  Holyman  gave  general  satisfaction, 

he  wrote  volumes  forty-five  to  fifty-four.     Hm  shore  and,  thoudi  he  took  part  in  the  trial  of  Hooper, 

of  the  work  does  not  reach  the  high  standard  of  his  ^nd   served   on   a   oommission   to   try   Ridley   and 

great  predeoessor.     He  is  also  the  author  of  a  work  utimer,  ho  took  no  active  part  in  the  prooeedings  on 

in  two  volumes  on  the  controversies  between  Paolo  the  score  of   heresy      He  died   in   the  summer  or 

Saipi  and  Mlavidni,  and  of  a  monopa^  on  Pope  autumn  of  1668,  and  was  thus  spared  the  troublous 

Innocent    m.     His    "Cathohc    Pulpit    Orators    of  times  that  began  with  the  accession  of  Eliaabeth  in 

Germany  •  in  five  volumes  was  pubhshed  in  Sehoff-  the  folio wing^ovember.     He  was  succeeded  in  the 

bausen,  m  the  yeare  18M-71.     He  contnbuted  many  bishopric   by    the   Anglican,   Dr.    Richard  Cheney 

arhctes  to  HerdOT's  "Kir^iMilexicon  '  (1562-79),  who,  thou^Ta  schismatic,  was  yet  »u»- 

C^^S^L^iS^'uT^  *^"""'''  '^''  ••  ""  ^"°"'  V^^    of    Catholic  Teanings,    and    was    tli   eariy 

B,  QiniDNXR.  friend  of  Blessed  Edmund  Campion.  But  the  his- 
tory of  Bristol  as  a  Cathohc  see  ends  with  ths  death 

Bristol  (BsiBTOLiA.BaiaTOLiBiiBis),  Ancixnt  Dio  trf  Biohop  Holymon.    The  diocese  was  formed  by 

CEBK   Of. — This   English   diooeee,   which  takes  its  taking  the  county  and  archdeaconry  of  Dorset  from 

very  origin    from    meuuiea    diraeted    against  (be  Salisbuy,  and  several  Dariahes  from  the  DiucoMl 


BBItTOW 


791 


BBITIBH 


of  Gloucester  and  Worcester,  with  tihree  churdies  in 
Bristol,  which  had  belonged  to  Bath  and  Wells. 
The  arms  of  the  see  were  sable,  three  ducal  crowns 
in  pale  or.  The  dedication  was  changed  at  the 
dissolution  from  St.  Augustine  to  the  Holy  Trinity. 

Hetltn,  Catalogue  of  the  B%ahop$  (1709  ed.);  Htktt  and 
Bazelet,  Bibl%oorapher'$  Manned  of  Olouceetertkire  Ldterature 
(1896-^);  Mass6,  The  Cathedral  Chwreh  of  Brietol  and  a  Brief 
Hiatory  of  the  BpUcopal  See  (1901);  Prtce,  Hietory  of  Brietol 
(1861_):  NicHOLLS  AND  Tatlor,  Br%etol  Paat  and  PreeerU  (1881- 
d2);  Evans,  Bietory  of  Brietol  (1824). 

Edwin  Burton. 

Bziatow,  Richard,  b.  at  Worcester,  1538,  d.  at 
Harrow-on:  the-Hill,  1581.  He  went  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford  in  1555,  probaJl>ly  as  a  member  of 
Exeter  Colle^,  though  Wood  doubts  this.  In  1559 
he  took  his  Bachelors  degree  and  proceeded  to  the 
degree  of  Master  of  Arts  as  a  naember  of  Christ  Church, 
in  1562.  He  was  exceptionally  brilliant  and  elcquent 
and  so  esteemed  as  an  orator  that,  with  the  cele- 
brated Eklmund  Campion,  he  was  chosen  to  hold  a 
gxMic  disputation  before  Queen  Elizabeth  in  1566. 
hortly  afterwu^,  having  applied  himself  to  theol- 
ogy and  acauired  a  wide  reputation  for  his  learning, 
he  was  made  a  Fellow  of  Exeter  College  (1567)  by 
the  interest  of  Sir  William  Petre,  who  had  founded 
several  fellowships  there.  His  great  abilitv  would 
probably  have  won  further  promotion  for  him  had 
not  his  religious  opinions  undergone  a  change,  an 
indication  of  which  was  given  in  nis  argument  with 
the  Regius  Professor  of  Divinity,  whom  ne  confuted. 
Two  years  after  his  appointment  to  the  fellowship 
he  left  Oxford  and  proceeded  to  Louvain,  where 
he  met  William  (afterwards  Cardinal)  Allen.  Reco^- 
nifling  his  marked  talent  Allen  secured  him  for  his 
new  college  at  Douai  and  appointed  him  its  first 
prefect  of  studies.  He  was  Allen's  '^  risht  hand  upon 
all  occasions '\  acting  as  rector  when  he  was  absent 
and  when  the  college  was  transferred  (1578)  to  Reims. 

Bristow  is  best  known,  however,  as  an  earnest 
student,  a  powerful  controversial  writer,  and,  with 
Allen,  as  one  of  the  revisers  of  the  Douay  Bible. 
His  intense  laboiurs,  while  they  earned  for  him  the 
lasting  gratitude  of  Catholics,  told  upon  a  constitu- 
tion naturs^y  weak,  and  he  was  obliged  to  relinquish 
bis  work  in  1581.  In  May  of  the  same  year  he  went 
to  Spa,  but  having  obtained  no  advantage  there  he 
was  advised,  after  two  months,  to  return  to  England. 
This  he  did  in  September,  staying  until  his  death 
(18  October)  with  Mr.  Jerome  Bellamy^  a  Catholic 
of  means,  at  Harrow-on-the-Hill.  By  his  death  the 
Catholic  cause  lost  a  zealous  champion  and  a  learned 
advocate.  The  Douai  records  speak  of  him  in  the 
highest  terms  as  rivalling  Allen  in  prudence,  Staple- 
ton  in  acumen.  Campion  in  eloquence,  Wright  in 
theol<»or,  and  Martin  in  languages.  He  wrote: 
(1)  "A  Briefe  Treatise  of  diuerse  and  sure  wayes  to 
finde  out  the  truthe  in  this  doubtful  and  dangerous 
time  of  Heresie:  conteyning  sundry  worthy  Motives 
vnto  the  Catholic  faith,  or  considerations  to  moue 
a  man  to  beleue  the  Catholikes  and  not  the  Here- 
tikes''  (Third  edition  entitled  '^  Motives  inducing 
to  the  Catholike  Faith");  (2)  "Tabula  in  Summam 
Theologicam  S.  Thom»  Aquinatis";  (3)  "A  Reply 
to  WilT  Fulke";  (4)  "Demandes  to  be  proponed 
of  Catholikes  to  the  Here  tikes  "  ;  (5)  "A  Efefence  of 
the  Bull  of  Pope  Pius  V;  (6)  "Annotations  on 
the  Rheims  translation  of  the  New  Testament"; 
(7)  "Carmina  Diversa";  (8)  "Motiva  Omnibus 
CatholicsB  DoctrinsB  Orthodoxis  Cultoribus  per- 
necessaria",  the  last  two  bein^  in  manuscript. 

WoRTHiNOTON,  Compendium  VUa  Auctorie  (prefixed  to 
Motiva);  Recorde  of  Ae  Englieh  Ccdholice,  I,  11;  Dodd.  Church 
Hietory  of  England,  ed.  Tikrnet  (London,  1843);  Gillow, 
Bibl,  Diet.  Eng.  Calk,:  Wood,  Athena  Oxonieneee;  Pits,  De 
Ar^gUm  Seriploribue, 

Fbancis  Aveuno. 

Brltiih  OolmnbiA  is  the  westernmost  province  of 
ih»  Dominion  of  Canada.    Territorially^  it  is  also  the 


largest,  being  357,600  square  miles  in  extent.  It  is 
composed  of  the  mainland  and  islands.  Prominent 
among  the  latter  are  Vancouver  and  Queen  Charlotte 
Islands.  The  mainland  is  bounded  on  the  south  by 
the  States  of  Washington  and  Idaho,  on  the  east  by 
the  summits  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  as  far  as  a  point 
where  they  meet  the  line  of  120th  degree  of  longitude, 
thence  by  that  line  to  the  60th  degree  of  latitude,  the 
northern  limit  of  the  province.  On  the  west  it  ex- 
tends as  far  as  the  Pacific  Ocean,  except  north  of 
Portland  Canal,  where  a  narrow  strip  of  coast  land 
and  a  group  of  important  islands  form  a  part  of 
Alaska. 

Physical  Characteristics. — British  Columbia 
has  been  called  a  sea  of  moimtains,  and  this  designa- 
tion is  fairlv  accurate,  save  perhaps  for  some  forty 
miles  on  either  side  of  the  Chilcotin  River,  where  are 
to  be  found  rolling  or  tolerably  level  plateaux  at 
least  ZflOO  feet  above  the  sea  and  covered  with  ex- 
cellent bunch  grass.  They  are  more  or  less  open  and 
the  remainder  of  the  province  might  be  described  as 
a  continuous  forest  of  conifers,  interspersed  here  and 
there  with  deciduous  trees  and  dotted  at  long  in- 
tervals with  natural  prairies.  The  mountains  are  too 
numerous  for  enumeration.  The  principal  ranges  are 
the  Lillooet  mountains  in  the  south-west,  the  Cariboo 
and  the  Babine  mountains  in  the  north-eastern  and 
north-western  interiors  respectively,  north  of  which 
numberless  sierras  connect  the  Rockies  with  the 
Cascade  or  Coast  range,  a  chain  of  steep  and  rugged 
mounts  'that  run  parallel  to  the  former.  Between 
these  many  evidences  of  ancient  ph3r8ical  upheavals 
lie  either  fertile  valleys  or  deep,  long,  ana  narrow 
lakes.  The  latter  are  to  be  found  especially  in  the 
northern  interior.  Prominent  among  them  are  lakes 
Babine,  which  covers  an  area  of  some  196,000  acres; 
Tatla,  152,000;  Morice,  148,000;  Stuart,  142,000; 
French,  140,000;  Chilco,  109,760,  and  many  others 
almost  as  large.  In  the  south  are  lakes  Kootenay, 
with  an  estimated  area  of  141,120  acres,  Okanagan, 
86,240,  and  Harrison,  78,400.  Most  of  these  sheets 
of  water  ^ve  rise  to,  or  are  drained  by,  rivers  which 
in  the  spnng  assume  generally  the  nature  of  torrents. 
The  chief  watercourses  of  the  province  are  the 
Fraser  River,  with  the  Nechaco,  the  Quesnel,  and  the 
Thompson  as  tributaries;  the  Skeena,  the  Nass,  and 
the  Stickine  in  the  north-west;  the  Finlay  and  its 
continuation,  the  Peace,  with  their  tributary,  the 
Parsnli),  in  the  north-east,  while  the  south-eastern 
comer  is  drained  by  the  upper  Columbia. 

Resources. — ^These  streains,  especially  the  Fraser 
and  Skeena,  are  yearly  ascended  by  immense  shoals  of 
salmon  of  the  genus  oncorhynchus,  which  are  a  great 
source  of  revenue,  while  the  vast  forests  of  the  coast 
and  southern  interior,  composed  mostly  of  red  cedar 
(thuya  giganUa),  fir  (psetulotsuga  Douglaasii)  and 
various  species  of  spruce,  are  likewise  the  objects  of 
remunerative  industries.  The  country's  most  valu- 
able treasures  are,  however,  under  ground,  being 
found  in  the  shape  of  minerals  of  which  the  following 
represents  the  production  for  1906:  copper,  $8,288,565; 
gold,  $5,579^039;  lead,  $2,667,578;  silver,  $1,897,320; 
other  materials,  $1,000,000.  For  the  same  period  of 
time  Vancouver  Island  and  parts  of  the  mainland 
yielded  coal  and  coke  to  the  value  of  $5,548,044, 
though  it  is  well  known  that  vast  deposits  of  the 
same  exist  on  the  mainland,  which  only  awaits 
capital  to  become  productive.  As  to  agriculture,  it 
taKes  a  rather  secondary  place  in  British  Columbia; 
yet  it  is  by  no  means  neglected.  In  the  valley  of  the 
lower  Fraser  and  in  the  districts  of  Okanagan,  Kam- 
loops,  LUlooet,  ete.,  fruit-raising  is  considered  more 
remunerative.  Apples  and  pears  of  all  kinds,  peaches, 
tomatoes,  and  smaller  fruit  grow  to  perfection. 
From  a  climatolomcal  standpoint,  extremes  are  to  be 
found  within  the  oroad  linuts  of  the  province.  The 
coast  enioys  an  almost  constantly  mild,  though  wet, 


BRITIBR  792  BBITI8B 

climate,  and  roses  are  grown  in  the  open  throudbout  authoritiea  established  (1843)  another  general  d6pM 

the  winter  in  Vancouver  and  Victoria.    Beyond  the  at  the  southern  end  of  Vancouver  Island,  which  was 

Cascades  is  the  dry  belt,  where  irrigation  becomes  a  at  first  called  Fort    Camosim,  and  then  Victoria, 

necessity,  while  north  of  the  52d  parallel  the  winters  Later  on,  the  rich  deposits  of  gold  on  the  Fraser,  and 

become  more  and  more  severe  in  proportion  to  the  throughout  the  district  of  Cariboo,  brought  in  large 

latitude  and  the  altitude.  niunbers  of  miners  to  the  new  post,  round  which  a 

Population. — ^The  latest  official  census  (1901)  city  of  tents  and  shacks  gr^w  (1858)  as  if  by  magic, 
gave  the  population  of  the  province  as  178,657,  of  James  Douglas  (afterwards  Sir),  a  prominent  fur 
whom  33,081  were  Catholic.  The  entire  population  trader,  was  named  governor  of  Vancouver  Island  as 
cannot  now  be  less  than  260,000  with  perhaps  48,000  early  as  1851.  The  gold  mines  and  consequent  influx 
Catholics.  The  capital  is  Victoria,  in  the  southern  of  immigrants  made  it  a  necessity  to  erect  the  main- 
extremity  of  Vancouver  Island;  population  in  1901,  land  into  another  colony,  with  him  at  its  head  (1858). 
20,816,  estimated  now  at  30,000  including  6,000  A  year  later  a  capital  for  the  new  territoiy  was 
Orientals.  The  commercial  metropolis  is  Vancouver,  chosen  at  a  point  on  the  mainland  facing  the  apex 
at  the  terminus  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  on  of  the  Fraser  delta,  resulting  in  the  foimding  of  what 
Burrard  Inlet.  Founded,  practically,  in  1886,  it  had  is  now  New  Westminster.  Finally,  after  various 
already  26,103  inhabitants  in  1901.  At  the  present  vicissitudes,  chief  among  which  was  the  Chilcotin 
time  it  claims  a  population  of  71,150,  some  4,500  of  massacre  of  1864,  the  colonies  of  British  Columbia 
whom  are  Chinese  and  1,800  Jaoanese.  Next  in  and  Vancouver  Island,  already  united  in  1866  under 
importance  are,  on  the  mainland,  New  Westminster  one  government  at  Victoria,  were  admitted  into  the 
(about  10,000  inhabitants),  Nelson  (8,000),  Ross-  Canadian  Confederation  on  the  20th  of  July,  1871. 
land  (7,150),  and,  on  Vancouver  Island,  Nanaimo,  a  Under  the  new  regime,  the  province  is  governed  by  a 
famous  coal  centre  (6,230).                          *  lieutenant  governor  appointed  and  paid  ($9,000  per 

The  figures  for  the  total  population  of  the  province  annum)  by  Ottawa,  with  the  help  of  responsible 
include  25,593  Indians  divided  into  six  very  distinct  ministers  and  a  Legislative  Assembly  composed  of 
stocks:  (1)  the  Kootenays  in  the  south-eastern  comer;  thirty-four  members  elected  by  the  people. 
(2)  the  SaJish,  who  are  the  aborigines  of  the  southern  Religious  History. — From  a  religious  stand- 
portion  of  the  mainland  and  the  south-eastern  coast  point,  the  visits  of  the  early  navigators  made  little 
of  Vancouver  Island;  (3)  the  Kwakwiutl  or  Waka-  impression  on  the  native  mind,  some  missionaries 
shans  immediately  north  of  the  latter  on  the  coast'  have  wrongly  supposed  that  the  mantles  worn  on 
of  the  mainland  and  the  northern  and  western  parts  ceremonial  occasions  by  the  coast  Indians  originated 
of  Vancouver  Island*  (4)  the  Haidas  on  Queen  Char-  in  the  copes  of  the  priests  that  accompanied  the 
lotte  Islands;  (5)  the  Tsimpsians  along  the  lower  Spanish  and  other  ships.  These  are  aboriginal  with 
course  of  the  Skeena  and  on  the  littoral  of  the  main-  the. natives.  However,  it  is  on  record  that,  imme- 
land  as  far  north  as  Alaska,  and  (6)  the  D6n6s  who  diately  prior  to  the  advent  of  the  white  settlers,  the  old 
range  over  the  entire  extent  of  the  northern  half  of  people  afnong  the  Kwakwiutl  tribe  had  a  clear  recol- 
the  province  east  of  the  Kwakwiutl  and  the  Tsimpsi-  lection  of  strangers  "clad  in  black  and  having  a 
ans.  The  Kootenays  number  but  587,  all  Catholics,  crown  of  hair  round  the  head,. who  had  come  to  see 
as  well  as  the  2,500  D6n^  of  the  north,  but  the  Salish  the  Indians"  (Rapp,  Sur  les  Missions  de  Quebec, 
are  fully  12,000,  of  whom  about  one-tenth  are  Prot-  March,  1855,  p.  113).  The  very  first  resident  of  what 
estants,  the  remainder  Catholics.  The  Tsimpsians  is  now  British  Columbia  (Lamalice,  at  Fort  McLeod) 
are  partly  heathen  and  partly  Protestants,  whue  the  was  a  Catholic,  and  so  were  the  great  explorer  Simon 
Wakashans  and  the  Haidas,  the  former  especially,  Fraser,  J.  M.  QuQsnel,  one  of  his  two  lieutenants,  and 
have  mostly  retained  their  aboriginal  faith  in  shaman-  all  his  French  Canadian  companions.  These  and  the 
istic  practices,  to  the  exclusion  of  any  of  the  sects.  numerous  servants  of  the  trading  posts,  who  were 

SECUI.AR  History. — Navigators  of  various  nation-  also  Canadians,  gave  the  aborigines  their  first  ideas 
alities  >^ere  the  first  representatives  of  our  civilization  of  Christianity.  Later  on.  Father  de  Smet,  S.J., 
to  come  in  contact  with  these  aborigines.  In  1774  visited  the  Kootenays,  and  in  1843  Father  J.  B.  Z. 
it  was  the  Spanish  Juan  Perez;  in  1778  the  English  Bolduc  accompanied:  Douglas  to  Vancouver  Island, 
Captain  Cook;  the  French  Lap^rouse  came  in  1785;  where  he  ministered  to  crowds  of  wondering  Indians. 
Captain  Meares  in  1787;  Marchand,  a  Frenchman,  in  In  1842  Father  M.  Demers  had  made  an  extended 
1791;  the  American  Gray  in  1789,  and  the  famous  trip  through  the  inland  tribes,  visiting  in  turn  the 
George  Vancouver  in  1792.  But  no  settlement  re-  Okanagans,  the  Shushwaps  (both  of  the  Salish  stock) 
suited  from  the  visits  of  these  mariners,  who  con-  and  the  Carriers,  a  D4ne  tribe  in  the  north.  Four 
fined  their  operations  to  geographical  work  and  fur  years  later,  a  Jesuit  priest,  Father  Nobili,  walked  in 
trading  with  the  natives.  In  1793  Alexander  Macken-  nis  footsteps  and  even  went  as  far  as  Fort  Babine, 
zie  crossed  the  Rocky  Mountains  from  the  east  and  on  the  lake  of  the  same  name,  instead  of  retracing  his 
reached  the  Pacific  overland.  The  first  white  settle-  steps  at  Fort  St.  James,  as  his  predecessors  had  done. 
ments  were  established  in  the  northern  interior  by  The  year  thereafter  (1847),  Father  Demers  became 
members  of  the  Northwest  Fur  Trading  Coinpany:  the  nrst  bishop  of  the  newly  founded  see  of  Van- 
Fort  McLeod  in  1805;  Forts  St.  James  and  Fraser  couver  Island,  now  the  Archbishopric  of  Victoria, 
in  1806,  and  Fort  George,  at  the  confluence  of  the  One  of  his  first  cares  was  to  call  for  the  help  of  the 
Nechaco  with  the  Great  Kiver  the  following  year.  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate  already  woridng  in 
The  latter  stream  was  explored  to  its  mouth  m  1808  Oregon,  one  of  whom.  Father  L.  J.  D'Herbomez, 
by  Simon  Fraser,  and  is  now  known  under  his  name,  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Miletopolis  (9  October, 
Shortly  afterwards^  other  posts  were  founded  and  1864)  and  appointed  to  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
a  brisk  trade  earned  on  in  the  northern  interior,  British  Columoia,  which  on  2  September,  1890,  be- 
which  was  long  called  New  Caledonia,  and  com-  came  the  Diocese  of  New  Westminster,  on  the  main- 
prised  at  one  time  the  basin  of  the  Thompson,  dis-  land. 

covered  in  1808  by  the  astronomer-geographer  David        Catholic  Status. — ^The  chief  Catholic  institutions 

Thompson.  of  Victoria  are  a  hospital  at  the  capital,  together  with 

The  headquarters  for  the  Pacific  of  the  corporation  an  academy  for  girls,  a  college  for  ooys,  and  a  kinder* 

(the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  since  its  absolution  of  garten,  all,  except  the  college,  in  charge  of  the  Sisters 

the  Northwest  Company  in  1821)  which  operated  of  St.  Ann.    A  protectory  which  was  started  at  the 

throughout  the  land  were  at  Fort  Vancouver,  on  the  same  place  is  now  at  Quamichan:  Nanaimo  poraesses* 

lower  Columbia.    When  it  bec£ime  evident  that  this  in  addition  to  the  Catholic  scnool,  an  orphanage 

would  be  found  to  be  in  American  territory/  the  which  originated  in  Victoria.    There  are  schools  for 


793  BBIXEN 

Indian  boys  and  girb  at  Kuper  Island  and  among  continued  at  libuvain,  and  subsequently  he  tau^t 

the  Songhees  of  Victoria,  and  the  Benedictine  Fathers  with  marked  success  at  Bomheim,  where  ne  was  made 

and  Sisters  conduct  Indian  schools  on  the  west  coast  regent  of  studies.    In  1790  the  doctor's  cap,  with  title 

of  the  Island.     On  the  mainland,  identical  institu-  of  Master  of  Sacred  Theologj",  was  conferred  on  him. 

tions  are  to  be  found  at  St.  Mary's  Mission,  North  The  same  year  he  was  transferred  to  Brussels,  where 

Vancouver,  Sechelt,  Karaloops,  William's  Lake,  and  he  became  director  of  the  exiled  English  Dominican 

Kootenay.     These  schools  for  the  natives  are  sup-  nuns,  an  office  he  held  for  thirty-seven  years.     In 

ported,  not  always  adequately,  by  the  Federal  Gov-  1794,  when  the  French  army  was  expected  at  Brussels, 

emment  of  Canada.    New  Westminster,  Vancouver,  Father  Brittain  conducted  the  sisters  to  Bomheim, 

Cranbrook,  and  Greenwood  each  boast  of  a  well-  whence,    joined    by    eighteen    Dominican    fathers, 

equipped  hospital;  New  Westminster  is  the  seat  of  they  were  conducted  by  an  American  captain  to 

St.  Louis  College,  and  Vancouver,  in  addition  to  a  England.     Father  Brittain  secured  a  foundation  for 

flourishing  academy  conducted   by  the   Sisters  of  the  sisters  at  Hartpury  Court  near  Gloucester.    On 

St.  Ann,  nas  a  House  of  Refuge  under  the  care  of  3  May,  1814,  he  was  elected  provincial  of  the  Domini- 

the  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd.  cans,  and  during  his  four  years  of  office  gained  the 

The  public  schools  are  on  the  American  model  respect  and  confidence  of  his  brethren.     He  is  the 

and  aimng  reli^ous  institutions  through  grants  or  author  of  the  following  works:  "Rudiments  of  Eng- 


the  latter's  Academy  at' Victoria  enjoys  freedom  ligion  and:  Cfatholic  Faith  Investigated"   (London, 

from  such  an  encumbrance,  and  Churcn  property  1790);  "Collection  of  Poems  Occasionally  Written'' 

may  also  be  more  or  less  favoiu^  in  this  respect  by  (Cheltenham,  1822);  "The  Divinity  of  Jesus  Christ 

?)ecial  legislation  on  the  part  of  the  city  councils,  and  Beauties  of  His  Gospels"  (London,  1822);  some 

he  clergy  cannot  be  drafted  into  a  jury  or  coerced  impublished  MSS.  are  in  the  archives  of  the  English 

into  military  service,  though  they  may  be  allowed  province. 

to  serve  if  they  so  wish.    Attending  the  provincial  ^S"*^^'.  5*^-  ^f  ^f.  ^rw.  Ca<A.,  s.  v.;  Palmer,  The  Life 

penitentiary  3nd  asylum  for  the  insane,  there  are  o/ CorrfmoZ  Hau«rd  (London.  1867)  ^^^^^^^^  ^^ 

^tholic  and  Protestant  chaplains  paid  by  the  federal  John  i .  mcinicholas. 

authorities.    Churches  can  be  incorporated,  and  are        Britton  (or  Bretton),  John,  Venerable,  layman 

then  recognized  as  eligible  for  bequests  and  to  ac-  and  martyr,  of  an  ancient  family  of  Bretton  near 

quire  and  possess  propS^y.    While  divorce  in  Canada  Bamsley  in  Yorkshire.    An  ardent  Catholic,  he  was 

is  generally  granted  only  by  the  Dominion  Senate,  often  separated  from  his  wife  and  family,  owing  to 

the  Supreme  Court  of  British  Columbia  has  juris-  constant  persecution  which  he  suffered  for  his  faith, 

diction  over  that  issue,  because  at  the  time  this  When  advanced  in  years,  he  was  maUciously  and 

province  entered  the  Confederation,  it  was  left  free  falsely  accused  of  traitorous  speeches  against  the 

to  enjoy  the  privileges  it  then  possessed.  queen  and  condemned  to  death.     Refusing  to  re- 

HUU  of  B,  C.  (San  Francisco,  1890);  Beoo,  Hist,  of  B.  C.  nounce  his  faith  he  was  executed  at  York,  as  in  cases 

(Toronto,    1894);    MoRirK,   Au  pays  de    Vown    noxr   (Pans,  of  hio-h  frpjiisnn    1   Anril    1  ^^QR      Hp  wns  nrohnhlv  f  Ha 

1897);    La   Colombie  brittanniqtie   in  Lea  miasuma  catholiquea  ?\?*S"  i^?^?-?  !xU^P  ^  -.x         '^^7^^  prODaDiy  tne 

francaiaea  au  XlXe  aitde  (Paris,  1903);    The  Hiat,  of  the  father  of  Dr.  Matthew  Bntton,  prefect  and  professor 

Northern  Interior  of  B.  C.   (Toronto,   1904);   Gosnell,   The  at  Douai   in  1599. 

Year  Book  of  B.  C.  (Victoria,  1903);  Wade,  The  Thompson        Challoner,  Memoira;  Knox.  Douay  Diaries;  Peacock,  Liat 

Country  (Kamloops,  1907).  .     ^    „  of  Roman   Caiholica   of    Yorkshire   (London,    1872);    Foley, 

A.  U.  MORICE.  Records;  Roman  Diary  (London,  1880);  Gillow,  BibL  Diet. 

**_t^.  1-  «    .  CI      r^  -n  ^^'  ^«^'  (London,  1885). 

British  Omana.    See  Guiana,  British.  Bede  Caaim. 

Britius,  Francis,  Orientalist,  a  monk  of  Rennes, 
in  Brittany,  date  of  birth  and  death  unknown.    He        Blizen,  Diocese  of,  a  Prince-Bishopric  of  Austria, 

entered  the  Capuchin  Order  and  spent  the  earlier  suffragan  of  Salzburg,  embracing  the  greater  part  of 

years  of  his  religious  life  in  missionary  work  in  the  Northern  Tyrol  (with  the  exception  of  the  part  east 

Levant,  where  lie  devoted  himself  with  special  zeal  of  the  Zillerbach,  which  belongs  to  Salzburg),  as  well 

to  the  study  of  Oriental  languages.    His  proficiency  in  as  all  Vorarlberg,  and  containing  c.  6,705  square 

these  tongues  soon  came  to  the  notice  of  his  superiors,  miles,  and  over  440,000  inhabitants. 
and,  being  summoned  to  Rome,  he  was  employed  by        I.  History. — ^The  Diocese  of  Brixen  is  the  con- 

the  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda  in  the  translation  tinuation  of  that  of  Siibcn  (Sabiona),  which,  accord- 

of  several  miportant  works  into  Arabic.    The  first  ing  to  le^nd,  was  founded  by  St.  Cassian.    As  early 

ereat  fruit  of  nis  labours  in  this  field  was  the  trans-  as  the  third  century  Christianity  penetrated  Sabiona, 

(ation  of  "  L'Abr6g6  des  annales  eccl^siastiques  de  at  that  time  a  Roman  custom  station  of  considerable 

Baronius",  continued  by  Sponde  to  the  year  1646.  commercial  importance.    The  first  Bishop  of  S^ben 

The  work  was  published  at  Rome  in  three  volumes  vouched  for  by  history  is  Ingcnuin,  mentioned  about 

quarto,thefirstof  which  appeared  in  1653,  the  second  580,  who  appears  as  suffragan  of  the  Patriarch  of 

ua  1655,  and  the  third  in  1671.    Britius  had  also  much  Aquileia.    The  tribes  who  pushed  into  the  territory 

to  do  with  a  translation  of  the  Bible  into  Arabic,  of  the  present  Diocese  of  Brixen,  during  the  great 

giving  the  VuLeate  text  in  parallel  columns,  which  migratory  movements,  especially  the  Bajuvari  and 

was  published  by  Mazari,  at  Rome,  in  1671  (3  vols.  Langobardi,  accepted  Chnstiunity  at  an  early  date: 

foM.  only  the  Slavs  of  tne  Puster  valley  (Pustertal)  persistca 

The  works  of  Britius  are  now  exceedingly  rare,  as  in  paganism  until  the  eighth  century.    In  the  second 

practically  the  entire  edition  of  both  trandations  was  half  of  the  tenth  century  Bishop  Rihpert  (appointed 

sent  to  the  East  for  use  in  the  work  of  the  missions.  967)  or  Bishop  Albuin  I  (967-1005)  had  the  seat  of 

Biogr,  Univ.,  V,  629.  t  T  n  *       diocese,  which  since  798  has  been  under  the 

J.  J.  Geoghan.  Metropolitan    of   Salzburg,    transferred    to    Brixen. 

Brittain,  Thomas  Lewis,  b.  near  Chester,  Eng-  Bishop  Hartwig  (1020-39)  raised  Brixen  to  the  rank 

land,  1744;  d.  at  Hartpury  Ck)urt,  1827.     His  parents  of  a  city,  and  surrounded  it  with  fortifications.    The 

were  Protestants^  but  at  the  a^^e  of  sixteen  Thomas  diocese   received    many   grants   from   the   German 

became  a  Catholic.     Shortly  after  his  conversion  he  emperors:  thus  from  Conrad  II  in  1027  the  Nori- 

went  to  Pi<jardy  to  pursue  his  studies,  and  later  tal,  from   Henry  IV   in    1091   the    Pustertal.      In 

eined  the  Dominicans  at  Bomheim,  where  he  made  1179  Frederick  I  conferred  on  the  bishop  the  title 

B  profession  22  October^  1767.    His  studies  were  and  dignity  of  a  prince  of  the  German  Empire.    Thie 


BRrnm  794 


.«.<«»  4 . 


accounts  for  the  fact  that  during  the  difficulties  teries  of  the  cKocese  were  suppressed,  a  general  semK 

between  the  papacy  and  the  empire,  the  Bishops  of  nary  was  opened  at  InnsbrucK,  and  pilgrimages  and 

Brixen  generally  took  the  part  of  the  emperors;  processions  were  forbidden. 

particularly  notorious  is  the  case  of  Altwin,  during  It  was  Bishop  Franz  Karl,  Count  von  Lodron  (1791- 

whose  episcopate   (1049-91)   the  ill-famed  pseudo-  1828),  who  was  to  see  the  collapse  of  the  temporal 

synod  of  1080  was  held  in  Brixen,  at  which  thirty  power  of  the  diOcese.    In  1803  the  principality  was 

bishops,  partisans  of  the  emperor,  declared  Pope  secularized,  and  annexed  to  Austria,  and  the  cathe- 

Gregory  VII  deposed,  and  set  up  as  antipope  the  dral  chapter  dissolved.     During  the  brief  rule  of 

Bishop  of  Ravenna.  Bavaria  the  greatest  despotism  was  exerdsed  to- 

The  temporal  power  of  the  diocese  soon  suffered  a  wards  the  Church;  the  restoration  of  Austrian  su- 

marked  diminution  through  the  action  of  the  bisho^M  premacy  (1814)  improved  conditions  for  the  diocese, 

themselves  who   bestowed   larse  sections   of  their  By  the  papal  Bull  "Ex  imposito''  (2  May,  1818)  a 

territory  in  fief  on  temporal  lords,  as  for  example,  in  new  circiunscription  was  given  to  the  diocese  which 

the  eleventh  century  countships  in  the  InntaJ  and  in  this  way  received  a  considerable  increase  in  ter- 

the  Eisacktal  granted  to  the  Counts  of  Tw>l,  and  ritory:  Vorarlberg,  in  particular,  which  had  previ- 

in  1165  territory  in  the  Inntal  and  the  Fustertal  ously  Iseen  divided  among  the  three  dioceses  of  Chur, 

to  the  Counts  of  Andechs-Meran.     The  Counts  of  Constance,  and  Augsburg,  was  added  to  the  Diocese 

Tyrol,  in  particular,  who  had  fallen  heir  in  large  part  of  Brixen.    Vorarlberg  was,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  to 

to  the  territories  or  the  Count  of  Meran,  constanthr  form  a  separate  diocese,  with  Feldkirch  as  see,  but 

grew  in  power;  Bishop  Bruno  (1249-88)  had  dim-  this  plan  has  never  been  put  into  execution;  Vorari- 

culty  in  asserting  his  authority  over  a  section  of  his  berg  is  now  administered  oy  a  vicar-general  residing 

temtory  against  the  claims  of  Count  Meinhard  of  at  Feldkirch,  who,  as  a  rule,  is  the  auxiliary  bishop 

Tyrol.    Likewise  Duke  Frederick  IV,  who  was  called  of  Brixen.    In  1825  the  cathedral  chapter  was  re- 

the  Penniless,  compelled  the  Bishops  of  Brixen  to  established.    All  during  the  nineteenth  century  the 

acknowledge  his  authority.    The  dissensions  between  episcopal  see  was  occupied  by  distinguished  men 

Cardinal  Nicholas  of  Cusa  (1450-64),  appointed  by  who  safeg[uarded  the  unity  of  the  Faith  in  the  dio- 

Pope  Nicholas  V  Bishop  of  Brixen,  andf  Archduke  cese,  as  is  instanced  in   the   enforced  removal  in 

Sigmund  were  also  unfortunate:  the  cardinal  was  1830  of  the  Protestant  families  of  the  Zillertal,  who 

made  a  prisoner,  and  althoujgh  the  pope  placed  the  actively  championed  the  rights  and  privile^  of  the 

diocese  under  an  interdict,  Sigmund  came  out  victor  Church,  and  by  missions  and  diocesan  visitations, 

in  the  struggle.  and  by  the  introduction  of  religious  orders  endeav- 

The  Reformation  was  proclaimed  in  the  Diocese  of  oured,  with  success,  to  raise  the  religious  life  of  th^r 

Brixen  diu*ing  the  episcopate  of  Christoph  I  von  diocese  to  a  higher  level.    Kari  Franz  was  succeeded 

Schrofenstein  (1509-21)  by  German  emissaries,  like  bv    Bemhard    Galura    (1828-56),    Vinowiz    Gasser 

Strauss,  Urban  Regius,  and  others.    In  1525,  under  (1856-79),  Johann  IX  von  Leiss,  Laimburg  (1879- 

Bishop  Georp  III  of  Austria  (1525-39),  a  peasants'  84),  Simon  Aichner   (1884-1904),  who  resigned   5 

uprising  broke  out  in  the  vicinity  of  Brixen,  and  March,  1904,  and  Joseph  Altenweisel  (1904). 

several  monasteries  and  stroneholas  were  destroyed.  II.  otatistics. — ^According  to  the  figures  for  1907 

The  promise  of  King  Ferdinand  I,  civil  ruler  of  Tyrol,  the  Diocese  of  Brixen  includes  at  the  present  time 

to  redress  the  grievances  of  the  peasants  restorea  438,448  Catholics  in  501  spiritual  charges.     There 

tranquillity,  and  at  a  diet  held  at  Innsbruck,  the  most  are  28  deaneries,  6  in  Vorarlberg,  380  parishes,  75 

important  demands  of  the  {peasants  were  acceded  to.  stations  (ExjKmturen)^  215  benefices  and  cnaplaincies, 

Although  in  1532  these  promises  were  withdrawn,  and  725  primary  schools  with  ]*,333  classes.     The 

peace  remained  undisturbed.    Ferdinand  I  and  his  cure  of  souls  is  exercised  by  879  secular  priests,  and 

son  Archduke  Ferdinand  II,  in  particular,  as  civil  580  regulars,  14  members  of  religious  orders  being  at 

rulers  took  active  measures  against  the  adherents  of  present  outside  the  diocese.    The  cathedral  chapter 

the  new  teachings,  chiefly  the  Anabaptists,  who  had  consists  of  3  dignities  (1  mitred  provost,  1   dean, 

been    secretly    propagating    their    sect;    thus    they  and    1    scholasticus),  4  capitular   and  6  honorary 

preserved  reliKious  unity  in  the  district  of  Tyrol  and  canons.    The  prince-bishop  as  well  as  the  members 

the  Diocese  of  Brixen.    At  this  time  important  ser-  of  the  chapter,  with  the  exception  of  the  provost, 

vices  were  rendered   in  saf^uarding  the  Catholic  are  appointed  by  the  emperor.    In  addition  to  the 

Faith  by  the  Jesuits,  Capuchins,  Franciscans,  and  cathedral  chapter  there  is  a  coll^ate  chapter  of  six 

Servites.     Chief  among  the  bishops  of  the  period  canons  at  Innichen,  a  provost  at  Ehrenbuig,  and  one 

were:  Cardinal  Andreas  of  Austria  (1591-1600),  and  at  St.  Ceroid.    Of  the  spiritual  charges,  180  are  sub- 

Christoph  IV  von  Spaur  (1601-13),  who  in   1607  ject  to  the  free  collation  of  the  bishop,  in  97  the 

foundea  a  seminary  for  theological  students,  en-  mimicipality  has  the  right  of  patronage,  in  47  the 

laraed  the  cathedral  school,  and  distinguished  him-  right  of  patronage  belongs  to  private  individuals,  in 

self  as  a  great  benefactor  of  the  poor  and  sick.    The  87  to  the  (government  or  exchequer,  in  15  to  the 

seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  saw  a  ^reat  religious  fund,  in  76  to  religious  corporations  and 

reawakening  of  religious  life  in  the  Diocese  of  Bnxen;  monasteries.     For  the  training  of  theologians  th&e 

many  monasteries  were  founded,  new  missions  for  is  a  theological  faculty  at  the  University  oflnnsbnick 

the  cure  of  souls  established,  and  the  religious  in-  with  17  professors,  members  of  the  Society  of  Jesus, 

struction  of  the  people  greatly  promoted;  in  1677  the  and  352  theological  students  (many  of  them  from 

University  of  Innsoruck  was  founded.     The  most  the  United  States).    There  is  a  diocesan  theological 

grominent  bishops  of  this  period  were:  Kaspar  Ignaz,  school  in  Brixen,  with  8  professors:  a  seminary  at 

bunt  von  Kilnigl   (1702-47),  who  founaed  many  Brixen.  with  113  candidates  for  Holy  orders  (Sft)  of 

benefices  for  the  care  of  souls,  made  diocesan  visita-  them  from  other  dioceses);  the  Seminarium  Vin* 

tions,  kept  a  strict  watch  over  the  discipline  and  centinum  (a  diocesan  preparatory  seminary  and  gym* 

moral  purity  of  his  clergy,  introduced  missions  under  nasium)with  21  professors;  and  the  Cassianeum,  with 

Jesuit  Fathers, etc.:  Leopold, Count  von  Spaur  (1747-  3  professors  and  51  students.     Moreover,  there  are 

78),  who  rebuilt  the  seminary,  completed  and  con-  religious  professors  in  the  civil  Higher  Gymnasium  at 

secrated  the  cathedral,  and  enjoyed  the  high  esteem  Brixen,  and  six  other  intermediate  schools  for  boys 

of  Empress  Maria  Theresa;  Joseph  Philipp,  Count  von  conducted  by  the  State. 

Spaur  (1780-91),  a  friend  of  learning,  who,  however,  Religious  cangregationa  of  men  possess  44  houses, 

in  his  ecclesiastical  policy,  leaned  towards  Josephin-  and  in  1907  niunbered  about  1 ,213  members,  indud- 

ism.     The  Government  of   Emperor  Joseph   dealt  ing  594   priests,   185  clerics,  348  lay  brothers,  86 

roughlv  with  church  interests;  aoout  twenty  monas-  novices.    There  are  two  houses  of  Augustinian  canons 


795 

(at  Neuatift  and  Wilton),  with  97  FatberB,  8  clerics,  the   thirteenth   to   the   fifteenth    centurr.     Other 

3  lay  brothers,  and  4  novices;  2  Gstercian  founda-  promiaent  ecdesiutacal  buildiagi  of  the  dioceee  are: 

tiona  (at  Stains  and  Hehreran),  with  S4  Fathers,  the  Court  or  Franciscan  cburch  at  Innsbruck,  in 

9  clerics,  25  lay  brothers,  and  16  novices;  3  Bene-  which    ia    the-  celebrated   monument   to   Emperor 

dictine    foundations    (at    Fieciit,    Marienberg,    and  Maximilian  I;  the  Jesuit  church  at  rnnabruck,  built 

Bregenz),  with  4S  Fathers,  5  clerics,  25  lay  brothers,  between  1620  and  1640  in  barocco  style;  the  Gothio 

and  5  novices;  1  Benedictine  priory  (at  Innsbruck),  cathedral  at  Feldkirch,  built  in  1478;  the  Cistercian 

with  3  branch  houses,  8  Fatheis,  7  clerics,  61  lay  church    at   Hehreran;   the   fifteenth-century   pari^ 

brothers,  and  19  novices:  3  Jesuit  collides  (at  Inns-  church  of  Schwas,  built  in  GoUiic  style,  and  others, 

bruck,   Feldkirch,   and  Tisis),  with   100  priests,  59  Among   the   places   of  pilgrimage   are:  Absam,   Bt 

clerics,  66  lay  brotherB,  and  17  novices;  2  Redemp-  Gcorgenberg   near   Feubacn,   Sftiria   Waldrast   near 

torist  colleges,  with  19  Fathers,  13  brothersj,  and  1  Deutaeh-Matrei,    ^le     pilgrimage     church     on    the 

novice;    3    Servite    raonastericH,    with    18    Fathers,  "           '                           '              '     '          ...... 

16  cierics,  10  brothers,  and  4  novices;  8  Franciscan 

monasteries,  with  100  Fathers,  23  clerics,  69  brothers, 

and  3  novices;   13  Capuchin  monasteries  with   100 

Fathers  and  S9  brothers:  1  foundation  of  the  Society 

of  the  Divine  Word  (Sal va tori ans),  with  9  prieato 

and  8  brothers;   1  mission  house  of  St.  Joseph  at 

Brixen  (with  a  branch  at  Mill  Hill),  with  6  priests 

and  11  clerics;  1  house  of  the  Congrecation  of  the 

Sons  of  the  Most  Holy  Heart  of  Jesus,  with  5  Fathers, 

13  clerics,  9  lay  brotners.  and  17  novices;  1  foundi-  Joseph  iilHS. 

tion  of  the  School   Brotners,  with  11   clerics.     Be-  __,_.._              «       . 

sides  the  houses  of  theological  studies  for  the  mem-  Broad  Ohorch  P«rty.    See  Akqucanisii. 

bers  of  the  different  orders,  among  the  orders  already  Brogui,  Saint,  flonrished  in  tiie  sixth  or  seventh 

mentioned,  the  Benedictines  conduct  in  Fiecht  a  century.    Several  persons  in  repute  for  holiness  aeem 

Konvikt  (house  of  studies)  for  boys,  and  a  school,  the  to  have  borne  this  name,  which  is  variously  written. 

Cistercians   in   Mehreran   a    Konvikt   for   boys,   the  Brogan,  Broecan,   Bracan,   Etnd  even  Beatihati  and 

Jesuits  a  boarding  school  and  CTmnasium  at  Feld-  Bearehanut.     Of  theee,  two  are  commemorated  iu 

kirrh  (the  celebrated  institution  known  as  the  Stella  the  Irish  Martyrologium  of  Aengus,  the  early  date 

Matutina),  the  School  Brothers  a  seminary  for  teach-  of  which  (c.  800)  is  now  K«ierally  admitted.    There, 

eis  and  a  trade  school,  the  Salvatorians  a  college,  under  8  July,  we  read:      Brocan,  the  scribe,  gained 

tbcSonaof  the  Most  Holy  Heart  of  Jesus  an  Apostolic  a   noble    triumph    without    any   fall";    ana    undo- 

echool,  and  the  Franciscans  a  Higher  Gymnasium  at  17  September;  "BroccanofRoes  Tuirc  thou  shouldst 

H&tle.  declare".     Colgaii  (rrios  ThavMol.,  p.  618)  speaks 

Religious  eongregatima  of  uomen  have  established  as  if  he  were  inclined  to  identify  both  theee  ■genorm 

234  religious  houses  with  branches,  about  2,644  sisters  with  the  author  of  an  eariy  Irish  hymn  upon  St. 

being  wjthin  the  limits  of  the  diocese;  these  include  Brigid.      The   glosses   upon   Aengus   and   the   Mar- 

490  choir  sisters,  1,884  lay  sisters,  and  270  novicee.  tyrology  of  Gorman,  while  seemingly  treating  them 

The  various  houses  ore  divided  as  follows:  the  Poor  as  distinct,  prove  that  the  matter  admits  of  no  cer- 

Clarce,2  with  65  sisters;  the  Dominicans, 4  with  173  tainty.     Some  modem  hagiographers  incline  to  tS' 

sisters;  the  Dominicans  of  the  Third  Older,  2  with  gard  the  St.  Brogan  of  8  July  as  the  amanuensis  and 

38  sisters:  the  Redemptorist  sisters,  1  with  IS  mem-  possibly  the  nephew  of  St.  Patrick.    They  style  hiro 

bers;  the  Ursulines,  2  with  136  sisters;  the  Carmelites,  bishop   and   locate   him  at    Maethail-Brogain,  now 

I  with  18  sisters;  the  Saleaian  Sisters,  I  with  54  mem-  Mothil   in  Waterford;  but  this  is   admittMly  quite 

bers;  the  Cistercians,  1  with  39  members;  the  Sisters-  doubtful.    St.  Brogan  of  Rosstuirc,  on  the  other  hand, 

of  Divine  Adoration,  !  with  51  members;  the  English  is  identified  with  the   author  of  the  hymn  to  St. 

Ladies,  1   institute  with  79  members;  the  Tertiary  Brigid,  and  is  believed  to  be  the  Abbot  Broohanus 

Sisters,  6  houses  and  13  branches,  with  158  sisters;  referred  to  in  the  Life  of  St,  Abban,  preserved  in  the 

tiie  Ladies  of  the  Most  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  1  with  "Codax  Salmanticenais".    Rosstuirc  is  generally  aa- 

99  sisters;  the  Poor-School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  2  signed  to  the  Diocese  of  Ossory,  and  may  be  Roas- 

with  27  memiiers;  the  Benedictines,  1  monastery  with  more  in  Queen's  County. 

6  sisters;  the  Sisters  of  the  High  German  Order,  Other  Brochans  are  mentioned  in  the  Martyrdogy 

1  house  with  3  sisters.    The  Sisters  of  Mercry  have  a  of  Gorman  under  1  January,  9  April,  27  June,  aod 

mother-house  in  Innsbruck   with  92  branch  houses  25  August. 

and  931  sisters,  and  one  at  Zams  with  72  branches  OHanlob,  Liva  <^  Ae  IrM  Sai<iU {DubUo.  1893-1003), 

and  608  sisters.     The  Sisters  of  Hetey  of  the  Holy  iSLC?Vol.'?\  ^^^.  hJ^^VSJ  bS^J'oS^K 

Cross   have    1    provincial   house     at  Innsbruck   with  (Dublin.  IBOSI,  II,  2S  ud  175;  111,384  ud  441;    IV,  174; 

26   branches  and   131   sisters.      The  orders  and   con-  Aih-iid.ll,  UfatuutirmHibtmieiait:    Fohbes  in  Dirt.  CA™<. 

pregations  of  women  are  engaged  almost  exclusively  cX. iXin^Ii^'  MfrJw"'          *™'™"  «*«■  " 

m   the  Uaining  of  girls,  and  the  care  of  the  sick  '               '      Hesbert  Thurston 
children,    and    the    aged,    ete.     The    above-named 

congregations  have  char^  of  8  educational  institu-  BrogHe,  AuousTB-THtenoRB-PACi.  DE,abbj,  pro- 

tiooB,    1    lyceum    for   giris,    12    industrial    schools,  feasor  of  apologetics  at  the  Institut  Catbolique  at 

82  schools  for  girls,  41  schools  for  boys  and  girls,  Paris,  and  writer  on  apologetic  subjects,  b.  at  Auteuil, 

46  crfches,  3  hospitals,  7  orphan  asylums,  23_aflylumB,  18  May   1834;  d.  11  May,  1896.    He  was  the  son  of 

3  sanatoria,  56  homes  for  the  poor,  2  public  insane  AchiUe-Victor,  Due  de  Broglie,  and  his  wife,  Albei^ 

asylums,  2  houses  for  lepers,  1  institution  for  the  deaf  tine  de   StaBl,   a   Protestant   and   the   daughter  of 

and  dumb,  4  homes  for.servants,  1  asylum  for  priests  Madame  de  StaBl.     After  the  death  of  the  mother, 

in  ill  health,  and  about  25  other  charitable  institu-  who  died  young,  he  was  brought  up  by  the  Baroness 

tione.  AufustedeSta6l,n^  Vemet;  this  aunt,  although  also 

The  cathedral  of  the  Diocese  of  Brixen  dates,  in  a  Protestant,  exerted  herself  "to  m»ke  a  large- 
its  present  form,  from  tiie  eighteenth  century,  hav-  minded  Christian  of  him  in  the  Church  to  which  she 
ing  been  built  between  1745  and  1768,  The  only  did  not  belong"  (Monseigneur  d'Hulst  in  "  Le  Coi^ 
remans  of  the  earlier  Gothic  building  is  thecloister,  respondant",  26  May,  1896).  Entering  the  Navy 
which  contains  frescoes  and  monuments  dating  from  young,  Bioglie  was  appointed  Enajgn  m  18S7  ttoa 


BBOaUS  796  BBOOUS 

soon  after  Lieutenant.  While  thus  occupied  he  fdt  1810  the  biahqp  refuaed  the  Cross  of  the  Legion  of 
himself  called  to  the  ecclesiastical  state.  After  taking  Honour,  sent  to  him  by  the  emperor,  judging  tnat  he 
the  preparatory  studies  he  was  ordained  priest,  could  not  accept  such  a  distinction  at  the  time 
18  October,  1870.  In  his  numerous  publications  the  when  the  Papal  States  had  been  seized,  and  he  ex- 
Abb^  de  Broglie  was  always  a  faithful  defender  of  plained  his  refusal  in  a  memoir,  a  model  of  modera- 
Catholic  dogma.    At  the  time  of  his  death,  which  tion,  sent  to  the  minister. 

resulted  from  the  violence  of  an  insane  person,  he        By  order  of  Napoleon,  a  council  was  assembled 

was  preparing  a  book  on  the  agreement  of  reason  and  in  Fans,   17  June,   1811,  under  the  presidency  of 

faith.     His  most  important  work  is  "L'histoiredes  Cardinal  Fesch,  imcle  of  the  emperor  and  Archbishop 

religions".     Of  his  other  writings,  some  of  which  of  Lyons.    The  obiect  of  Napoleon  was  to  oblige  the 

were  pamphlets  and  some  articles  in  reviews,  the  pope  to  grant  the  JBulls  of  institution  to  the  priests 

followmg  ma^  be  mentioned:  ''Le  positivisme  et  la  nominate  by  him  to  bishoprics;  this  Pius  Vll  had 

science  expfirimentale";  "Religion  de  Zoroastre  et  firmly  refused.     Napoleon  wished,  furthermore,   to 

religion  v^oique";  "Lebouddhisme";  "Religions n^o-  make  an  arrangement  that  would  force  the  vope  in 

brahmaniques  de  llnde";  "L'islamisme";  "La  vraie  the  future  to  issue  the  Bulls  within  six  months,  and 

definition  de  la  religion";   "La  transcendance  du  should  His  Holiness  fail  to  do  so  in  that  time,  the 

christianisme";  "L'hStoire  reHcieuse  dlsrafil";  "Les  metropoUtan  or  the  oldest  bishop  of  the  ecclesiastical 

Srophdtes  et  les  proph^ties,  d^pr^s  les  travaux  de  province    would    then    confirm    the    nominee,  .the 

Luenen";  "rLMd^  de  Dieu  dans  TAncien  et  le  Nou*  sovereign  pontiff's  silence  being  considered  as  assent, 

veau  Testament";  "Le  prfeent  et  Tavenir  du  catho-  The  fathers  of  the  council  solemnly  assembled  in  the 

licisme  en  France".    Two  posthumous  publications,  metropolitan  church,  thero  being  present  six  cardi- 

"Questions  bibliques"  and  "Rehgion  et  critique",  nals,  nine  archbishops,  and  eighty  oishops;  this  was 

were  edited  by  the  Abb^  Piat.  the  first  and   the  last  general  session.    After  six 

PiAT,  L'apologStique  de  Vabbi  de  Broglie  (Paris,  18^^  preliminary  particular  sessions,   a  decree  in   cotn- 

Clodius  Piat.  pUance  with  the  will  of  Napoleon  was  proposed  to 
Broglie,  Jacqubs-Victor-Albert,  Due  de,  French  the  bishops.  At  first  only  two,  d*Aviau,  Arch- 
statesman  and  historian,  b.  at  Paris,  13  June,  1821;  bishop  of  Bordeaux,  and  de  Broglie,  Bishop  of  Ghent, 
.  d.  there  19  Januarv,  1901.  After  a  brief  diplomatic  rejected  it;  but  subsequentlv,  only  four  members 
career  he  resigned,  his  post  to  devote  himself  to  were  for  the  pure  and  simple  acceptance  of  the  de- 
literature.  His  work,  "L'Eglise  et  TEmpire  romain  cree.  The  pope  had  privately  declared  that  such 
au  IV*  si^le"  (6  vols.,  1856),  won  for  nim  Lacor-  encroachments  on  his  spiritual  power  were  contrary 
daire's  seat  in  the  French  Academy  (1862).  In  1871  to  the  laws  of  the  Cnurch  and  ecclesiastical  dis- 
he  was  appointed  ambassador  to  England,  but  was  cipline,  destructive  of  the  authority  of  the  Holy 
recalled  in  1872  and,  taking  his  seat  in  the  Assembly,  See  and  of  the  principles  on  which  depended  the 
soon  became  the  leading  spirit  of  the  opposition  to  the  lawful  mission  of  bishops. 

Republic  and  M.  Thiers.  Twice  President  of  the  Coun-  The  anger  of  Napoleon,  provoked  by  such  firm  and 
cil  (1873  and  1877),  the  Duke  de  Broglie  was  finally  de-  general  opposition,  led  him  to  prorogue  the  council 
feated  in  his  own  district  and  withdrew  from  public  life,  and  visit  with  severe  punishments  the  bishops  who 
Beside8editinethe"souvenirs"of  his  father  (1886),  had  been  most  prominent  in  their  opposition.  Ar- 
the  "  Mtooires  **  of  Talleyrand  (1871),  and  the  letters  rested  on  12  July,  1811,  de  Broglie  was  cast  into  the 
of  the  Duchesse  Albertine  de  Broglie,  he  published  a  dungeon  at  Vincennes  and  kept  in  close  confine- 
series  of  works  on  the  diplomacy  of  Louis  XV,  which  ment  for  more  than  four  months,  without  outside 
placed  their  author  in  the  first  rank  of  historians.  communication,  and  without  books  or  writing  mate- 
Hanotaux,  Conu^porary  France,  ix.  Tarner  (New  York,  rials.  He  was  next  sent  as  an  exile  to  Beaune.  On 
^^-^}r^,iZ^^i\^^eJ^rU\^^^\t^^^^^  tho  mere  8U«picion  that  he  had  mtem)u«e  with  his 

DET,  Sowoenire  de  la  prisidence  du  Marichai  de  MacMahon  clergy,  he  Was  deported   to   the  island  of  bte.-Mar- 

(PariB,  1880).  T     u  guerite   on   the    coast   of    Provence.     De    Broglie, 

Jean  Le  Bars.  while  in  prison  signed,  under  compulsion,  his  resigna- 

Broglie,  Matirice-Jban  de,  b.  in  Paris,  6  Septem-  tion  as  Bishop  of  Ghent. .  Although  it  was  not  ac- 

ber,  1766;  d.  there,  20  June,  1821.     He  was  the  son  of  cepted   by  the   pope   and   was   consequently  null, 

the  Field-Marshal,   Victor-Francois,  Due  de  Broglie,  Napoleon  named  a  successor  to  the  see.    As  the 

created,  by  Emperor  Francis  1,  Prince  of  the  Holy  great  majority,  however,  of  the  clergy  and  people 

Roman  Empire,  a  title  which  was  to  be  hereditary  refused  to  acknowledge  him,  they  were  subjected  to 

in  the  family.    Called  to  the  ecclesiastical  state,  Mau-  vexations  and  persecution.    The  fall  of  Napoleon 

rice  pursued  his  studies  at  St.-Sulpice.     During  the  restored  peace,   and   de   Broglie,   retiuMig  to   hia 

Reijpi  of  Terror,  when  persecution  drove  both  his  diocese,   was   received   amid   the   rejoicings  of    his 

father  and  him  out  of  France,  they  went  to  Berlin,  clergy  and  fiock. 

King  Frederick  William  received  the  auke  with  marked  The  bishop  was  not  to  enjoy  a  long  rest.  The 
distinction  and  granted  to  the  young  prince  a  pro-  allied  sovereigns  of  Europe  after  the  overthrow  of 
vostship  in  the  cathedral  chapter  of  Posen.  Maurice  Napoleon  had  formed  Holland  and  Belgiiim,  or  the 
returned  to  France  in  1803,  and  the  steps  he  took  Low  Coimtries,  into  a  kingdom  and  appointed  Wil- 
to  recover  some  family  property  not  yet  sold,  brought  ham  of  Nassau  to  rule  over  them.  The  plenipo- 
him  to  the  attention  of  Napoleon,  who  invited  mm  tentiaries  of  the  powers,  assembled  in  London,  1814, 
to  his  court  and  named  him  his  almoner.  Recogniz-  made  the  Dutch  Constitution  the  fundamental  law 
ing  in  the  emperor  the  restorer  and  support  of  order  of  Belgium,  with  a  proviso  that  it  should  be  modified 
and  reUgion,  de  Broglie  became  a  devoted  follower  of  accorolng  to  circiunstanoes.  The  generahty  of 
the  monarch  and  eulogized  him  in  a  pastoiul  letter  Belgians  are  CathoUcs.  On  18  July,  1815,  William 
issued  on  the  occasion  of  the  victoiy  of  AusterUtz.  proposed  the  Dutch  CJonstitution  to  the  Bel^ans,  and 
In  1805  Napoleon  nominated  him  to  the  See  of  Acqui,  the  representatives  summoned  to  vote  upon  it  rejected 
Italy,  and  in  1807  to  Ghent,  Belgium.  When  it  it  by  796  to  527.  (See  Belgium.)  The  Icing,  disre- 
became  evident,  however,  to  de  Broglie  that  the  garding  the  vote,  imposed  Apon  the  Belgians  a  con- 
pope  and  clergy  were  to  be  mere  tools  of  the  despot,  stitution  that  deprived  the  CathoHcs  of  all  their 
and  religion  the  instrument  of  his  ambitious  designs,  rights.  Joseph  Ii  by  his  i)etty  persecutions  had  lost 
he  showed  determined  opposition  to  Napoleon.  In  the  Netherlands  for  Austria;  Napoleon,  following  in 
1809  the  minister  of  worship  wrote  in  a  letter  that  the  footsteps  of  the  "emperor  sexton",  lost  them 
the  sovereign  was  highly  displeased  with  the  bishop  for  France;  William,  his  imitator,  brought  about  the 
bttcaus^  of  his  lack  of  devotion  to  the  royal  person;  in  secession  of  Belgium  from  Holland  and  its  independ- 


B&OONT  797  BBOBtTASD 

ence  in  1830.    De  Broglie  with  the  Bishops  of  Namur       The  new  pope  confirmed  de  Brogny  in  his  double 

and  Toumai,  and  the  Vicars-General  of  Mechlin  and  dignitv  of  Bishop  of  Ostia  and  Chancellor  of  the 

Li^ge  took  up  the  defence  of  the  Catholic  cause,  and  Church.    In  the  latter  capacity  he  presided  over 

issued  a  pastoral  instruction  and,  later  on,  a  doc-  Alexander's   funeral   and   also   over    the   conclave 

trinal  jucigment  on  the  required  oath  to  the  Con-  which  elected  John  XXIII   (1410).    John  held  de 

stitution.  ^  Brogny  in  the  highest  esteem.    The  Metropolitan 

De  Broglie  also  appealed  to  Pius  VII,  and  the  pontiff,  See  of  Aries  having  become  vacant^  he  disregarded 

on  16  May,  1S16,  sent  an  official  note  to  the  minister  the  candidate  elected  by  the  Arlesian  chapter  and 

of  the  Low  Countries  residing  in  Rome,  stating  that  appointed  Cardinal  de  Brogny  perpetual  adminis- 

the  Belgian  Constitution  contained  statements  con-  trator  of  that  see^    This  appomtment  was  intended 

trary  to  the  Catholic  Faith,  that  the  opposition  of  as  a  means  of  recovering  the  rights  of  the  Church  of 

the  bishops  could  not  in  justice  be  reproved,  and  that  Aries  usuri)ed  by  the  Counts  of  Provence  during 

no  oath  opposed  to  conscience  should  be  imposed,  the    confusion    consequent    on    the   schism.     The 

New  difficulties  then  arose,  first  when  the  bishop  re-  new  metropK)litan  diet  not  disappoint  his  patron, 

fused  to  offer  public  prayers  for  the  king,  and  agam  With  the  might  of  right  he  fought  the  usurpers  till 

when  at  the  erection  of  new  imiversities,  de  Broglie  the  last  claim  of  the  venerable  see  was  secured, 

addressed  a  representation  to  the  king  in  which  he  Cardinal  de  Brogny  then  left  his  diocese  in  care  of 

pointed  out  the  introduction  of  dangerous  books  into  the  two  Fabri  and  proceeded  on  a  still  more  delicate 

public  institutions,  and  strongly  expressed  his  fears  mission.    Owing  to  the  obstinacy  of  the  contestants, 

for  the  fate  of  the  episcopal  semmaries.    Cited  before  the  Council  of  Pisa  had  really  left  the  Church  with 

the  tribunal,  he  took  refuge  in  France,  and  the  court  three  popes  instead  of  one.    Moreover,  to  the  evils  of 

of  Brussels  by  a  judgment,  8  November,  1817,  con-  schism  John  Hus  was  adding  that  of  heresy.    The 

demned   him    to   deportation.    The   sentence   was  Council  of  Constance  was  convened  to  meet  this 

posted  by  the  public  executioner  between  the  sen-  double  difficulty,  and  after  the  withdrawal  of  John 

tences  of  two  public    malefactors.     The  bishop's  XXIII,  de  Brogny,  in  virtue  of  his  title  of  Chancellor, 

health  broke  down  imder  the  weight  of  so  many  se-  presided  over  tne  sessions  of  the  Council  and  evincea 

vere  trials;  succumbing  to  a  short  illness,  he  died  in  sterling  qualities. 

Paris,  venerated  by  all  for  his  sterling  qualities  and        In  behalf  of  unity,  he  did  not  hesitate  to  vote  for 

austerity  of  life.    In  1819,  de  Broglie  printed  a  pro-  the  deposition  of  the  three  popes,  two  of  whom  had 

test  concerning  the  state  of  religious  affairs  in  Bel-  been  his  personal  friends.    No  doubt  he  could  have 

gium,  which  was  addressed  to  the  Emperors  of  Aus-  seemed  tne  election  for  himself,  had  he  so  desired; 

tria  and  Russia  and  to  the  King  of  Prussia.  but  he  threw  the  weight  of  his  influence  in  favour  of 

RoHRBACHER.   HUtovre  univerBeiu  de  VSgiiae    caAaume  Colonna,  who  took  the  name  of  Martin  V.    If  John 

^J^Ve^'is6\^Vfiu^^i^ph^:^J^&  H"«  remained  contumacious  and  wa«  condemned. 

1847).      ^        "  f      0   *-  ^  It  was  not  de  Brogny's  fault.    The  Protestant  Sene- 

F.  M.  li.  DtTMONT.  bier  writes  m  his  "Histoire  Utt^raire  de  Geneve": — 

"In  the  letters  of  John  Hus  we  find  a  conversation 

Brogny,  Jean-Allarmet  (or  Jean-Alouzier)  db,  with  the  prelate  [de  Brogny]  who  endeavoured  to 

a  French  Cardinal,  b.  in  1342  at  Brogny,  in  Savoy;  conouer  him   by  such  arguments  as  compassion, 

d.  at  Rome,  1426.     Biographers  are  not  agreed  as  to  meekness,  and  CJhristian  charity  suggested", 
his  parentage  and  real  name.    According  to  some.        In  his  old  age  de  Brogny  asked  to  be  translated  from 

he  belonged  to  a  peasant  family  of  Brogny,  called  Ostia  to  Geneva,  but  only  his  remains  reached  the 

AUarmet;  others  say  he  was  descended  m>m  the  beloved  place  of  his  youth;  they  were  laid  to  rest  in 

d'Alouzier,  a  noble  house  in  Comtat-Venaissin.    It  the  chapel  of  the  Machabees  which  had  been  added 

is  certain,  however,  that  the  future  cardinal  was  a  to  the  old  cathedrid  by  the  cardinal  himself.     L>o 

swineherd,  when  two  monks,  struck  by  his  open  Brogny  is  variously  known  in  history  as  Cardinal  of 

disposition  and  thoughtful  answers,  took  him  with  Viviers,  Cardinal  of  Ostia,  sometimes  Cardinal  of 

them  to  G*»neva,  and  procured  for  him  an  education  Aries,  and  Cardinal  de  Saluces.    He  founded  the 

which  was  completed  at  the  University  of  Avignon.  Dominican   convents   of  Tivoli   and   Annecy;    the 

Despite    the    friendship    and    the    inducement   of  maladrerie  or  lepers'  hospital,  of    Brogny;  part  of 

Marcossay,  Bishop  of  Geneva^  young  Allarmet  re-  the  Celestines'  monastery  of  Avignon;  and,  above  all, 

tired  to  the  Chartreuse  of  Dijon^where  his  merits  theCoilegeof  St.  Nicholas,  affiliated  to  the  University 

soon    became    widely    known.     When    Robert    of  of  Avignon,  and  endowea  with  twenty  scholarships 

Geneva  was  elected  pope  by  the  faction  hostile  to  for  destitute  students.    Soulavie,  president  of  St. 

Urban  VI,  Allarmet  iomed  him  at  Avignon,  either  Nicholas  College,  published  (Paris,  1774)  a  "Histoiro 

having  been  sent  by  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  or  called  de  Jean  d'Alouzier  de  Brogny"  of  which  only  fifty 

by  Robert  himself.  copies  were  printed. 

At  Avignon  favours  were  bestowed  upon  him  in  ,^Fmquet,  La  France  ponHficale.mSiropole  d'Aix  (Paris, 
quick  succession  by  the  so-called  Qement  VH:  the  ^^^^'  ^<^=»  ^^  ^  cardmaux  CPans.  iS57). 
Bishopric  of  Viviers,  in  1380,  the  dignity  of  Cardinal,  •'•  *  •  »ol"er. 
in  13S5,  and  shortly  after,  the  exalted  office  of  Chan^  Bromyard,  John,  theoloman,  d.  about  1390. 
cellor  of  the  Holy  See.  Robert's  successor,  Peter  He  takes  his  name  from  his  birthplace  in  Hereford- 
of  Lima,  who  called  himself  Benedict  XIII,  sane-  shire,  England.  He  entered  the  Dominican  order 
tioned  all  these  preferments  and  even  promoted  and  was  sent  to  Oxford  where  he  distinguished 
Allarmet  from  Viviers  to  Ostia- Velletri,  one  of  the  himself  in  theology  and  jxmsprudence.  It  is  probable 
suburbican  dioceses.  There  is  no  doubt  that  at  that  he  lectured  on  theology  at  Oxford  while  it  is 
that  time  Cardinal  de  Brogny,  like  St.  Peter  of  certain  that  he  laboured  m  the  same  Faculty  at 
Luxemburg  and  St.  Vincent  Ferrer,  considered  the  Cambridge.  He  was  one  of  the  most  pronounced 
French  obedience  as  legitimate.  However,  his  opponents  of  the  doctrines  of  Wyclif.  Though  his 
thorough  orthodoxy  soon  caused  him  to  change  his  name  is  not  mentioned  in  the  acts  of  the  London 
views.  As  eariy  as  1398  he  had  left  Avi^on  as  a  Synod  of  1382  held  by  William  de  Courtenay,  Arch- 
silent  protest  against  the  unapostolic  spirit  of  that  bishop  of  Canterbury,  where  the  doctrines  of  V^yclif 
court.  The  elusive  tactics  of  Gregory  XII  and  were  condemned  as  heretical,  it  is  admitted  by  all 
Benedict  XIII  were  met  by  him  with  more  than  that  he  took  a  leading  part  in  drawing  up  the  decree 
a  silent  protest.  He  inaugurated  the  neutral  party  of  condemnation.  He  was  also  a  much-prized  T*Titer 
and  brought  about  the  Council  of  Pisa  which  resulted  as  the  many  editions  of  his  "  Summa  Praniicantium" 
in  the  election  of  Alexander  V  (1409).  attest.     Excerpts  were  made  from  this  work  and 


798 


BBOQXLTV 


publldied  separately  as  broehum  and  wldd^r  oirou- 

tated  among  the  people.    In  his  "Opus  Tnvium" 

he  arranges  for  the  oonvenienoe  of  preachers  various 

tidies  drawn  from  theology,  civil  and  canon  laws. 

l%is  work  was  later  on  edited  by  Philip  Bromyard, 

and  henoe  some  maintain,  but  without  reason,  tiiat 

he  was  the  real  author. 

Qvfmw  AiTD  EcHABO,  88.  0J*„  I,  700;  Lbland,  ComirMn- 
iartum  de  8criptonbua  Britannieia,  356;  Schui/tb.  Oeackichte 
der  QueUm  und  LiUeratur  dea  emoniwAaniteeU*.  II,  860,  561; 
IfiLUB  in  Diet  NaL  Biog^  ^^tj^' 

TH08.  M.  SCHWSRTNSU 

Brondtl,  John  Baptist,  first  Bishop  of  Helena, 
Montana,  U.  S,  A.,  b.  at  Bruses,  Belgium,  23  Feb- 
ruaiy,  1842;  d.  at  Helena,  3  November,  1903.  He 
was  educated  at  the  American  College  of  the  Uni* 
vermty  c^  Louvain  and  ordained  priest  at  Mechlin, 
Bdgium,  by  Cardinal  Engelbert  Sterdu  (17  Decem* 
ber,  1864).  Two  years  later  he  volimtemd  for  the 
missions  m  tlie  United  States  and  was  made  rector 
of  the  church  at  Heilacoon,  Washington  Territoiy, 
ear^  in  1867.  Here  he  remained  for  nearly  ten 
years  and  was  then  transferred  to  Walla  Walla, 
but  returned  to  his  old  chaige  the  following  year. 

On  14  December,  1879,  ne  was  consecrated  at 
Victoria,  as  third  Bishop  of  Vancouver,  British 
Columbia,  in  succession  to  Bishop  Seshers,  who 
had  been  made  coadjutor  to  the  Arcnbishop  of 
Or^n  City.  Bishop  Brondel  retained  this  chaige 
untu  by  a  Bull  of  7  April,  1883,  he  was  appointed 
Administrator  of  the  Vicariate  ol  Montana.  When 
the  Diocese  of  Hdena  was  formed  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  that  see,  7  Bfarch,  1884,  as  its  first  bishop. 
During  all  his  long  and  active  career  in  this  north- 
west section,  he  was  particulariy  successful  in  his 
dealings  with  the  nuuoy  Indians  under  his  charge. 
They  looked  up  to  him  as  a  father  and  proteictor, 
and  his  great  populari^  among  the  various  tribes 
was  not  only  of  benefit  to  the  Churchy  but  was 
utilized  on  numerous  occasions  by  the  Umted  States 
Qovemment  to  further  the  politicdL  material,  and 
moral  wdfare  of  the  Indians.  His  death  was 
regarded  as  a  great  loss  to  the  work  of  the  evan- 
ffdixation  and  civilization  of  the  Indians.  He  was' 
buried  7  November,  1903,  in  a  vault  imder  the  cathe- 
dral in  Helena. 

CaJOMUe  New  files  (New  York,  Nor.,  1003);  Rkum,  Bioa, 
Bneyd,  Caik.  Hurarc^w  (liihraukee,  1808);  Catholui  Pi- 
ndary  (Milwaukee.  1004).  _  „  ^, 

Thomas  F«  Mbbhan. 

Rrookby  (or  Brorbet),  Anthont,  Friar  Minor  and 
English  martyr;  d.  19  July.  1637.  Brookby  was 
lecturer  in  divinity  in  Magdalen  College.  Oxford, 
was  well  versed  in  Greek  and  Hebrew,  and  enjoyed 
the  reputation  of  being  an  eloquent  preacher.  At 
the  command  of  King  Henry  VIII,  who  took  offence 
at  a  sermon  of  Brookby's  in  which  he  attacked  the 
king's  actions  and  mode  of  living,  he  was  appre- 
hended, put  to  the  rack,  and  tortured  in'  the  most 
cruel  manner  in  order  to  make  him  retract  what 
he  had  said;  but  aU  to  no  purpose.  Having  been 
rend^ed  wellnigh  helpless  as  a  result  of  his  tortures, 
Brookby  was  charitably  cared  for  by  a  pious  woman 
for  a  fortnight  until,  by  the  command  of  the  king, 
an  executioner  stnmgled  him  to  death  with  the 
Franciscan  cord  which  he  wore  around  his  waist. 

aroNB.  FaUhfxU  unto  Death  (London,  1802),  iv,  70;  Parkin- 
eoN,  Cod.  Anglo-Minor.  (London,  1726).  230;  Thaddrus.  Tho 
Francucana  in  England  (London,  1808),  III.  17:  Danibllb, 
Martbrio  e  Morto  dalcuni  Frad  di  San  Franceaoo,  111,  16. 

Stbphbn  M.  Donovan. 

Brookes,  Jambs,  last  Catholic  Bishop  of  Glouces- 
ter, England,  b.  May,  1512,  in  Hampshire;  d.  1660. 
Proceemng  to  Oxford  in  1528,  he  became  Fellow  of 
Corpus  Christi  in  1531,  Doctor  of  Divinity,  1546, 
ani  Master  of  Balliol,  1547.  Brookes  was  widely 
known  as  an  eloquent  preadier,  and,  on  the  depo- 


sUicHa  of  Hahop  Hooper,  was  elevated  l^  Queen 
Maiy  to  the  See  of  Gloucester.  He  was  consecrated 
1  April,  1554.  In  1555  he  was  one  of  the  papal  sub- 
delegates  in  the  royal  commission  for  the  trial  of 
Cranmer,  Latimer,  and  Ridley.  He  refused  to  de- 
grade Ridley,  probably  on  the  groimd  that  Ridley's 
conaeoralion  (1547)  had  been  according  to  the  in- 
valid form  which  was  established  by  law  very  soon 
after  ih&t  date.  If,  as  Foxe  asserts,  he  .refused  to 
degrade  Latimer,  his  position  mav  have  been  based 
upon  the  fact  tnat  Latimer  had  lived  for  sevoal 
years  as  a  simple  clergyman.  It  is  hardly  possible 
that  Brookes,  a  man  ofleamin^  and  integnty,  would 
have  been  actuated  in  this  trial  by  the  selnsh  con- 
siderations hinted  at  by  some  Protestant  historians. 
After  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  he  refused  to  take 
the  oath  of  suprema<^,  and  died  in  prison.  He  was 
buried  in  Gloucester  Cathedral.  Two  of  his  orations 
in  the  Cranmer  case  are  given  in  Foxe,  "Acts  and 
Monuments".  One  of  his  sermons  was  printed  by 
Robert  Coly,  or  Caly,  in  1553  and  1554. 

GiLU>w,  BM.  Diet,  Sng.  Cath.;  Dodd-Txernbt,  Chunk 
Hittory  of  EnqUtnd  (London,  1846);  Linoard,  HiHoru  of  Eng- 
land; Stonr,  Reign  of  Quoen  Mary  (London,  1001):  Pollard, 
Thoma*  Cranmer  <1008);  Phillips,  The  BxtmctUm  of  the 
Andoni  Hierarchy  (London,  1006). 

J.  Vincent  Crowns. 

Rrooklsni.  Diocbse  of,  comprises  the  counties 
of  Kinfs,  Queens,  Nassau,  ana  Suffolk,  or  all  of 
Long  idand,  in  the  State  of  New  York,  u.  S.  A.,  an 
area  of  1 ,007  square  miles.  The  population  of  Ix>ng 
Island  is  about  2fi00fl00,  accoraing  to  the  State 
census  of  1905,  and  of  this,  600,000  are  Catholics. 
The  CaUiolics  are  mostly  of  Irish,  German,  and  Italian 
birth  or  race,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact,  in  this  island 
see  there  is  now  every  week  a  perpetual  Pentecost, 
for  the  Gospel 
is  preached  to 
the  faithful  in 
twelve  lan- 
fluages.  Polish, 
French,  Italian, 
German,  Slav, 
^rian,  Greek, 
Hungarian,  Lith- 
uanian, Scandi- 
navian, Bohemi- 
an, as  well  as 
English-speak- 
ing Catholics, 
have  special 
ministrations  for 
their  respective 
nationalities. 

Long  Island 
was  known  to 
the  early  Span- 
ish explorer 
Gomez  and  to 
Gordillo,  a  lieu- 
tenant of  Vas- 
ques  de  AyU6n, 
who  in  1524-25 
reached  this  lati- 
tude and  on  the  2Qth  of  June  noted  this  island, 
which  they  named  ''Isla  de  los  Ap68toleB  "  (Island 
of  the  Apostles)  in  honour  of  the  feast  day  of  the 
Apostles  Peter  and  PauL  It  is  so  styled  in  the  Span- 
ish maps  of  Ribero.  made  in  1529.  Settled  later 
under  the  auspices  ot  the  Dutch  West  India  Company 
(1636),  there  is  scarcely  a  trace  of  Catholicism  to  be 
found  during  the  period  of  the  sway  of  that  corporis 
tion.  It  would  oe  strange  indeed  were  CSatholics 
attracted  to  a  community  that  refused  to  enclose 
their  cemeteries  because  such  were  "relics  of  super- 
stitious observances",  or  to  erect  tombstones  be- 
cause in  doing  so  they  might  give  the  ''appearance 
of  according  to  the  ceremonies  and  requirements  of 


Peter  Turner,  Oroanubr  or  thb 
First  Catholic  Comoregatign  in 
Brooklyn 


BROOKLYN 
>.  ST.  FRANCtS-IN.THE-I'tELD  CFtUST  GERMAN  CHURCH  IN  BROOKLYN) 
J.  ST.  JAMES'S  PRO-CATHEDRAL  3.  HOLY  TRINITY  CHURCH 

t-  OLD  ST.  JAMES'S  (FIRST  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  ERECTED  ON  LONG  ISLAND) 


lorecoma 


Prelac7  and  Papacy".  In  April,  1687,  there  ii  reeord 
trade  of  the  Giung  of  one  "Nioholaa  the  Frenriunan" 
in  the  sum  of  twelve  Kuildera,  or  S4.80,  because,  as 
the  aheriff's  report  has  it,  on  the  "fiivolous  excuse" 
that  he  was  a  Catholic,  Nicholas  reftued  to  pay  his 
share  of  the  tax  levied  for  the  salary  of  the  Dutch 
Beformed  minister  who  preached  for  the  colony 
then  located  within  the  present  limito  of  the  Borough 
of  Brooklyn.  In  addition  to  the  Dutch  there  were 
a  number  of  Walloons  and  Huguenots  settled  in  this 
locality.  Some  of  the  unfortunate  Acadian  exiles 
were  ecatt«ied  through  Long  Island  diirinK  1756; 
and  on  the  muster-rolte  of  the  militia  from  the  same 
section  serving  in  the  army  of  Si  William  Johnson, 
in  1776,  we  find  such  namea  as  Reilty,  Shea,  Bui4(e, 
Power,WeUh,DoollT,  Barry,  Sullivan, Cassidy,Lynoh, 
Ryan,  Laricin,  Moloney,  Fagan,  Blake,  Donndly, 

Shidda,  Kjnsella,  and  Downey.    Thf 

to  show  what  b»- 
came  of  than  or 
their  children.  But 
an  occasional  curi- 
ously twisted  pat- 
ronymic among  the 
old  mm-Catholia 
families  of  the  in- 
terior districts  of  tita 
island  givee  a  clue 
to  the  reason  of 
this.  We  have  no 
positive  evidence 
that  any  consider- 
able body  of  Cath- 
olics becune  a  com- 
po  Dent  part  of 
Brooklyn's  local  Ufe 
till  aft«r  the  dawn 
of  the  nineteenth 
century  and  esM- 
cially  after  the  lo- 
cation there  of  the 
Navy  Yard  in  1801. 
This  government 
station  at  once  gava 
employment  to 
many  mechanics  in 
the  various  trades 
connected  with  tlie 
ehip-building  induv 

b^  of  Irish  immt- 
CTants,  mostly  from 
the  Catholic  sections 
of  the  North,  es- 
pecially from  Deny 
and  Donegal,  sturdy 
confessors  of  thr 
I'aith  in  their  na 
tivB  land,  settled  in 

Brooklyn.  Among  these  were  the  parents  of  the 
fint  American  cardinal,  John  McCloskey,  Arch- 
bishop of  New  York,  and  of  his  namesake,  the  first 
Rector  of  the  Amencan  Collie  at  Rome,  William 
George  McQoskey,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Louisville, 
Kentucky.  UntU  1822  these  Catholics  had  to  croM 
the  EastRiver  to  New  York  to  hear  Hase  and  attend 
to  their  spiritual  necessities,  as  the  scarcity  of  prieata 
and  their  own  poverty  brauicht  about  this  moon- 
venient  situation.  Occasionally  a  priest  mNild  go 
OTOT  from  New  York  to  aay  Uass  and  preach  in  pn-i 
vate  bouses,  or  wherever  suitaUe  accommodation 
could   be   obtained.     The   pioneer 


at  the  north-east  comer  of  York  and  Gold  Streets, 
on  a  date  now  unknown.  The  little  colony  con- 
■tMctly  growing  in  numbtn  and  inl^wmw,  de^rad 


a  chureh  of  ita  own,  and  hence  a  meeting  was  hdd 
on  the  7th  of  January,  1822,  at  the  house  of  William 
Puroell,  at  which  a  committee  of  five  was  named  to 
wait  on  Bishop  Connolly  of  New  York  and  ask  his 
advice  and  consent  for  the  organization  of  a  congrtt' 
gat«on.  It  is  notable  that  m  the  circular  calfing 
this  meeting  the  reasons  stated  are:  "In  the  first 
place  we  want  our  children  instructed  in  the  prindplee 
of  our  holy  religion;  we  want  more  convenienoe  of 
hearing  the  word  of  God  ourselves.  In  tact,  we 
want  a  chureh,  a  pastor,  and  a  plaoe  for  interment." 
Those  prominent  in  the  pioneer  work  of  the  oongrega' 
tion  were  Peter  Turner,  George  3.  Wise,  then  a  purser 
in  the  United  Btatw  navy.  WlQiam  Purcell,  John 
Kenney,  Nicholas  StafrMtLDenia  CoMrove,  Jer^niah 
Mahoney,  James  Rose,  Geoige  MeCloekey,  James 
and  Patrick  Freel.  Dr^  Andrew  B.  Cook,  also  of  the 
ey,  Thomas  You 
Hugh  and  Jai — 
McLaughlin ,  An- 
drew Parmentier, 
James  Harper,  Quin- 
tin  M.  Sulhvan,  and 
Daniel  Dempsev. 

As  a  result  of  this 
meeting  eight  lots 
were  purehased  on 
Jay  Street,  and  SL 
James's,  the  fiist 
Catholic  church   on 


to  Divine  worship 
by  Bishop  Connnlly, 
28  August,  1823. 
The  lots  about  the 
ohureh  were  used  as 
a  graveyard  until 
1840,  when  Holy 
Cross  Cemetery, 
Flatbuah,  was  open- 
ed. The  original 
church  building 
atood  until  1903, 
-when  its  walls  were 
enclosed  in  a  new 
structure  built  on 
the  same  wtt  ?or  a 
procathedral.  The 
Reverend  Dr.  John 
Power  of  at.  Peter's. 
New  York,  wsa  llie 
early  and  stanch 
friena  of  the  new 
He 


ooni|i«gatH 


the 


a  Fiaar  UhpuiIN  Astluu 


Sioneer  days  were  the  Reverends  Patrick  Bulgei 
unee  McKenna,  and  Jamee  Doherty;  the  last  t  " 
died  in  tiie  service  of  the  parish,  and  were  buried 


front  of  the  church.  The  fiiat  r^ular  pastor  > 
Reverend  John  Faman,  who  was  appomted  in  April, 
182S.  The  second  church  in  Brooklyn,  St.  Paul's, 
dedicated  21  January,  1838,  was  built  on  land  given 
by  Cornelius  Heenev.  He  firet  offered  the  site  lor  a 
aetninary,  but  could  not  agree  with  Bishop  Dubois 
as  to  the  manner  in  which  the  title  should  he  held,  the 
old  and  troublesome  idea  of  lay  trusteeship  proviif 
an  obatacle.  It  ia  notable  that  although  the  oigani- 
xation  of  the  first  congregation  in  Brooklyn  was  due 
mainly  to  Ujy  effort  there  was  never  any  of  the  sub- 
sequent difficulty  over  trustee  authority  and  rights 
that  made  ao  much  scandal  elsewhere  during  this  era. 
ThoHavorend  Nicholas  O'Donnell,0.8.A.  (1840-47), 
was  the  soooBd  pastor  of  St.  Paul's,  and  after  him 


BBooxLnr 


800 


BB0OSLTH 


tlie  Reverend  Joseph  Schneller,  until  his  death  in 
1860,  had  char^  tnere.  Father  Schneller  was  one 
of  the  most  active  priests  in  the  New  York  contro- 
versies of  the  eariv  jrears  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
His  name,  with  those  of  the  Reverend  Dr.  Power, 
Fathers  Felix  Varela  and  Thomas  C.  Levins,  is  to 
be  found  in  most  of  the  bitter  public  contests  waged 
with  non-4Catholic  assailants  of  the  Church.  He 
hdped  to  found  and  edited  for  some  time  the  "New 
York  Weekly  Register  and  Catholic  Diary  "^  estab- 
lished in  1833.  Cornelius  Heeney  did  not  hmit  his 
generosity  to  the  site  for  St.  Paul's  Church  and  the 
Girls'  Industrial  School  that  adjoins  it.  During 
his  life  his  income  was  mainly  devoted  to  charity, 
and  10  May,  1845,  three  years  before  his  death,  he 
had  his  estate  legally  incorporated  as  the  Brookljm 
Benevolent  Society,  and  its  officials  directed  to  ex- 
pend its  yearly  income  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor  and 
orphans.  This  amounts  now  to  about  $25,000 
annuadly,  and  the  total  expended  by  this  charitv 
since  Mr.  Heeney's  death  is  more  than  a  million  dol- 
lars. 

In  1841  another  famous  priest,  the  Very  Reverend 
John  Raflfeiner,  a  native  of  the  Austrian  Tyrol, 
bought  with  his  own  money  property  on  which  was 
erected  the  church  of  the  Most  Holy  Trinity  and 
bM^^an  there  to  minister  to  a  colony  of  German  Catho- 
lics. His  efforts  in  this  direction  were  extended  to 
similar  congregations  in  New  York,  Boston,  and 
New  Jersey.  He  laboured  thus  for  more  than  twenty 
years  and  held  the  office  of  vicar-general  when  he 
died,  in  1861.  St.  Charles  Borromeo'sparish  was 
founded  in  1849  by  the  Reverend  Dr.  Charles  Con- 
stantine  Pise,  also  one  of  the  strong  writers  and  pub- 
licists of  that  time.  Before  going  to  Brooklyn  he 
had  been  stationed  at  St.  Peter's^  New  York,  and 
previous  to  that,  in  1832,  while  officiatingin  Washing- 
ton, he  was,  on  motion  of  Senator  Henry  Clay, 
appointed  Chaplain  to  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States  and  served  during  a  session,  the  only  instance 
on  record  of  such  an  honour  being  civen  to  a  Catholic. 
Other  priests  whose  earnest  work  in  its  formative 
period  contributed  to  the  building  up  of  the  Church 
m  Long  Island  were  the  Reverends  John  Walsh, 
James  McDcnough,  Richard  Watefs,  James  O'Don- 
nell,  David  W.  iSajcoUy  afterwards  the  first  Bishop  of 
Portland,  Maine,  the  Reverends  Michael  Curran. 
William  Keegan,  for  many  years  Vicar-General 
of  the  diocese,  and  his  associate  in  that  office,  the 
Right  Reverend  Mgr.  Michael  Mav,  the  Reverends 
Nicholas  Balleis,  O.S.B.,  Eugene  Cassidy,  Sylvester 
Malone,  Peter  McLoughlin,  John  Shanahan,  Edward 
Corcoran,  Hugh  McGuire,  Jeremiah  Crowley,  James 
McEnroe,  Joseph  Fransioli,  Martin  Carroll,  T. 
O'Farrell,  Anthoi^  Arnold,  John  McCarthy,  James 
O'Beirne,  Joseph  Bnmneman,  Anthony  Farley,  John 
McKenna,  Patrick  O'Neil,  and  James  H.  Mitchell. 
Father  Mitchell  was  much  interested  in  the  work 
of  societies  for  young  men,  and  his  administration 
as  head  of  the  national  organization  was  specially 
succes^ul. 

When,  in  July,  1841,  Father  Raffeiner  be^gan  the 
great  German  parish  of  the  Most  Holy  Trinity  on  a 
part  of  the  farm  of  the  old  Dutch  Meserole  family, 
this  was  known  as  the  Bushwick  section  of  the  then 
town  of  Williamsburg,  which  was  subsequently 
annexed  to  Brooklyn.  The  first  German  OeithoUo 
Church  in  the  city  of  Brooklyn  was  the  quaint  little 
St.  Francis'-in-the-Fields,  which  Father  Raffeiner 
opened  in  1850,  at  Putnam  and  Bedford  avenues. 
Its  title  indicates  its  rural  environment,  and  Father 
Maurus  Ramsauer,  a  Benedictine  just  arrived  from 
Germany,  wis  made  its  first  pastor.  In  1855,  under 
Father  Bonuventure  Keller,  the  original  design  of 
Father  Raffeiner  was  carried  out,  and  a  sort  of  pre- 
paratory seminary  for  German  ecclesiastical  students 
was  begun  and  fasted  there  for  twa  yeans.    When 


Father  Rafieiner  died,  m  1861,  he  Ht  St.  Franck', 
which  was  still  surrounded  by  a  garden,  for  the  benefit 
of  the  orphans  of  the  Holy  Trinity  parish.  The 
little  church  was  then  closed,  owing  to  changes  in 
the  neighbourhood,  and  was  not  reopened  until 
1866,  when  the  Rev.  Nicholas  iBalleis,  a  Benedictine, 
took  charee  and  remained  there  until  his  death, 
13  December,  1891.  The  old  building  was  again 
closed  and  remained  so  until  the  property  was  pur- 
chased by  the  Sisters  of  the  Precious  Blood  in  1892, 
when  the  structure  was  torn  down,  and  the  convent  of 
that  order  built  on  the  site. 

Peter  Turner  (d.  31  December,  1863),  who  was  the 
leader  in  organizing  Brooklyn's  pioneer  parish, 
lived  to  see  his  son  John  ordained  a  priest,  pastor  of 
St.  James's  Church  and  first  Vicar-Genersu  of  the 
Diocese  of  Brooklyn.  In  1895  the  Brooklyn  Catholic 
Historical  Society,  regardmg  Peter  Turner  as  the 
typical  layman  of  the  pioneer  period,  erected  a 
hEmdsome  bronze  portrait  bust  as  a  memorial  to 
him  in  St.  Jamess  churchyard.  The  inscription 
on  the  pedestal  says:  "To  the  memoiy  of  Peter  Tur- 
ner, who  on  January  1,  1822.  organized  his  seventy 
fellow  Catholics  for  the  purchase  of  this  ground  on 
which  the  first  Catholic  Church  of  Long  ledand  waa 
erected.  Thousands  of  Catholic  children  have  helped 
to  erect  this  monument  as  a  grateful  tribute  to  the 
man  who  made  CathoUc  education  the  firat  reason 
for  the  establishment  of  a  church  in  Brooklyn." 
Cardinal  McCloskey's  earlv  years  were  spent  in  Brook- 
lyn, where  he  attended  his  first  school,  which  was 
taught  by  a  retired  English  actress,  Mrs.  Charlotte 
Melmoth,  a  convert,  who  was  a  popular  staee  favour- 
ite in  London  and  New  York  during  the  last  years 
of  the  eighteenth  centurjr.  Cornelius  Heeney  was 
also  his  patron  and  guardian  after  the  family  moved 
across  the  river  to  New  York  in  1820.  Mr.  Heeney's 
fortune  was  amassed  as  a  fur-dealer,  and  for  some 
time  he  was  a  partner  in  this  business  with  John 
Jacob  Astor. 

Bishops  of  the  See.— (1)  The  Right  Reverend 
John  Loughlin,  consecrated  30  October,  1853.  He 
was  bom  in  the  County  Down,  Ireland,  20  December, 
1817.  As  a  boy  of  six  he  emigrated  with  his  parents 
to  the  United  States  and  settled  in  Albany,  New  York. 
His  early  school 
days  were  spent 
with  the  distin- 
guished classical 
scholar.  Dr.  Peter 
BuUions,  at  the 
Albany  Academy, 
and  when  four- 
teen he  was  sent 
to  the  college  at 
Chambly,  near 
Montreal,  Cana- 
da, where  he  re- 
mained three 
years.  He  then 
entered  Mount  St. 
Mary's  Seminary 
at  Emmitsburg, 
Maryland,  and  al- 
ter the  usual  theo- 
logical course  was 
oraained  for  the 
Diocese  of  New 
York,  18  October, 
1840.  His  first  assignment  was  on  the  mission  at 
Utica  and  from  there  he  waa  called  to  be  an  assistant 
to  Bishop  Hughes  at  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  New 
York  City.  In  1850  the  bishop  made  him  his  vicur- 
general  and  when  the  new  Diocese  of  Brooklyn  was 
formed  he  was  consecrated  its  finst  bishop,  30  Octo- 
ber, 1853,  the  officiating  prelate  being  Archbishop 
Cajetan  Bedim,  a  pro-aunoio  on  }ua  way  back  to 


BioHT  Rev.  Jo^  Lottohlin 


BBOOKLYir                        801  bbooxlyh 

Rome  from  a  diplomatic  miasion  to  Brasfl.    TEieie  Patridc's  Oathedral.  New  York.  25  April,  1802,  and 

were  then  but  twelve  churches  on  all  Long  Island  took  possession  of  nis  see  on  tne  2d  of  May.    The 

and   about  .16,000   Catholics.    During   the   thirty-  new  bishop,  finding  the  material  interests  of  the 

eight  years  Bishop  Loughlin  ruled  the  see  he  built  diocese   so   well   administered    by  his  predecessor, 

125  cnurches  ana  chapels,  03  schools,  2  colleges,  continued  the  good  work  thus  begun  and  developed 

10  s^ect  schools  and  academies,  10  orphan  asylums,  it  also  along  its  spiritual  lines.    The  increase  in 

5  hospitals,  2  homes  for  the  aged,  a  home  for  destitute  population  and  the  changes  in  the  country  districts 

boys,  and  the  diocesan  seminary.    In  the  same  time  necessitated  the  starting  of  many  new  parishes  and 

the  Catholic  population  increased  to  nearly  400,000.  the  inception  of  new  means  and  methods  of  meeting 

Bishop  liOughlin  led  a  Ufe  of  unostentatious  routine,  the  polyglot  needs  of  the  representatives  of  the 

entirely  devoted  to  his  ecclesiastical  duties.    The  various  nationalities  that  had  settled  in  the  diocese, 

only  time  he  is  recorded  as  having  identified  himself  For  this  Bishop  McDonnell  adopted   the  policy  of 

with  any  civic  movement  was  in  April,  1861,  when  securing  members  of  some  order  for  eacn  of  the 

he  wrote  a  letter  of  sympathy  and  approval  to  the  races  and  langua^  in  his   jurisiiction.     At    his 

great    mass-meeting    of    citizens    that    committed  invitation  foundations  were  made  by  the  Redemp- 

Brooklyn  to  the  cause  of  the  Union.    In  October,  torists  in  1802;  the  Benedictines,   1806;  the  Fran- 

1800,  the  golden  jubilee  of  his  ordination  was  oele*  dscans  (Minor  Conventuals),   1806;  the  Capuchins, 

brated  by  a  three  days'  festival  in  which  the  whole  1807;   the  Fathers    of  the    Congregation  of  Mary, 

city  joined.     He  assisted  at  each  of  the  Plenary  1003;    the    Franciscans  (Italianf,  1006;    the   Jesu- 

Councils  of  Baltimore  and  visited  Rome  four  times,  its,  1007;  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family  of  Nazareth, 

once  to  be  present  at  the  (Ecumenical  Council  of  the  1802;  the  Missionary  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart, 

Vatican.     He  was  then  made  an  assistant  at  the  1802;  the  Daughters  of  Wisdom,  1004;  the  Sisters 

Papal  throne.    He  died  at  his  residence  in  Brooklyn,  of  the  In&mt  Jesus  (nursing  Sisters  of  the  Sick  Poor) . 

20  December,  1801.    That  one  man  should  have  1006.    Up  to  1007  Bishop  McDonnell  had  started 

founded  a  diocese  and  in  the  course  of  his  adminis-  and   dedicated   fifty   new   parishes   and    churches, 

tration  brought  it  to  a  position  of  such  pronounced  He  presided  over  the  Third  Diocesan  Synod  in  Decem- 

influence  and  efficiency,  is  one  of  the  most  remark*  ber,  1804,  at  which  the  full  number  of  canonical 

able  facts  in  the  history  of  the  Church's  progress  in  diocesan  officials  were  for  the  first  time  selected; 

the  United  States.  and  over  the  Fourth  ^nod,  held  in  1808.    A  uniaue 

The  Sisters  of  Charity  were  the  first  religious  to  spiritual  event  was  a  simultaneous  mission  under  nis 

establish  themselves  in  Brooklyn  (1834),  and  they  inspiration  held  throughout  the  diocese  to  mark  the 

were  followed  by  the  Christian  Brothers  in  1851  and  dose  of  the  nineteenth  century.     He  led  three  dio* 

the  Sisters  of  St.  Dominic  in  1852.     To  these  Bishop  cesan  pilgrimages  to  Rome,  the  first  for  the  General 

Loughlin  added  the  Sisters  of  the  Visitation  and  the  Jubilee  of  1000;  the  secona  for  the  Silver  Jubilee  of 

Sisters  of  Mercy  in  1855;  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  Pope  Leo  XIII  in  1002;  and  the  third  for  the  Jubilee 

1856:  the  Franciscan  Brothers,  1858;  the  Sisters  of  of   the   Immaculate  Conception  in   1004.    To   the 

the  Poor  of  St.  Francis,  1866:  the  Congregation  of  the  institutions  of  the  diocese  Bishop  McDonnell  added 

Mission,  and  the  Sisters  of  tne  Good  Shepherd,  1868;  two   hospitals  and   largely   increased   the  capacity 

the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor — their  first  foundation  of  one  of  those  already  established;   tiit.  Ozanam 

in  the  United  States — 1860;  the  Fathers  of  Mercy,  Home  for  Friendless  Women;  the  new  St.  Vincent  s 

1871;  the  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary,  187/;  Home  for  Friendless  Boys;  two  seaside  recreation 

the  Fathers  of  the  Pious  Society  of  Missions,  1884;  places  for  childrei^  and  a  trade  school  farm   for 

and  the  Sisters  of  the  Precious  Blood,  1880.  orphans. 

Bishop  Loughlin  began  the  construction  of  a  new  ca-  Notablb    Benefactors    and    Workers. — Some 

thedral  of  lai^  (hmensions  in  1868,  the  work  on  which  of  those  distii^uished  for  their  zeal  for  religion  and 

he  carried  on  up  to  the  first  story  and  then  stopped  generosity  to  the  Church  in  addition  to'  those  already 

to  give  his  attention  to  the  promotion  of  the  chant-  mentioned    have    been:    Judge  Alexander    McCue, 

able  institutions  of  the  diocese.    The  chapel  of  St.  C^iarles  A.  Hoyt,  E.  Louis  Lowe  (formerly  Governor 

John,  at  one  end  of  the  proposed  Cathedral  of  the  of  Maryland),  Hugh  McLau^hlin^  Patrick  C.  Keeley 

Immaculate  Conception,  was  all  that  was  ever  fin-  (architect  of  manv  Catholic  churcnes  in  various  parts 

ished  and  used;  the  extensive  foundation  waUs  of  of  the  country,  wno  began  his  career  here),  James  A. 

the  main  building  remain  in  their  incomplete  state.  McMaster,  for  many  years  editor  of  "The  Freeman's 

The  Catholic  Benevolent  Legion,  a  fraternal  insur-  Journal",   Patrick  Vincent  Hickey,  editor  of   the 

ance  association,  was  organized  during  Bishop  Lou^h*  "Catholic  Review",  Laurence  Kehoe,  Manager  of 

Ws  life,  September,  1^1,  and  he  was  its  nrst  spir-  the  Cathoho  Publication  Society,  John  George  Gotts- 

itual  director.    The   St.    Vincent  de  Paul  Society  berger,  John  Campbell,  Andrew  Dougherty,  Kieran 

received  from  him  special   encouragement   (1855).  £^^,  John  O'Manony,  John  D.  Kieley,  Jr.,  Jacob 

and  the  formation  of  the  third  Particular  (>>uncil  Zimmer«  William  W.  Swayne,  James  Rorke,  Edward 

in  the  United  States  was  a  result.  Rorke.  William  H.  Murtha,  Anton  Shimmel,  Thomas 

C2)  The  Right  Reverend  Charles  Edward  McDon-  Carroll^  Joseph    W.  Carroll,    John   Loughran,    Dr. 

neU,  consecrated  25  April,  1802.     Bom  in  New  York  Domimck  G.  Bodkin,  John  Good,  Peter  McGoldrick, 

City,  1  February,  1854,  his  early  education  was  re-  M.  F.  McGoldrick,  Thomas  W.  Hynes,  William  R. 

ceived  in  the  parochial  schools  and  the  De  La  Salle  Grace,  William  Bourke  Cockran,  Morgan  J.  O'Brien, 

Academy.     In  1868  he  entered  St.  Francis  Xavier's  Mrs.  Grace    Masury,  Mrs.    A.    E.  Wabh,   Charles 

College,  where  he  remained  until  he  left,  in  1872,  to  O 'Conor  Sloane,   James   McMahon,   Bernard   Earl, 

study  for  the  priesthood  at  the  American  College,  Michael  Hennessy,  Joseph  Eppig,  Edward  Feeney, 

Rome.     He  was  ordained  in  Rome,  19  May,  1878.  and  Dr.  John  Byrne. 

and  subsequently  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Statistics. — Diocesan  priests  308;  priests  of  re- 
Divinity.  Returning  to  New  York,  he  was,  after  ligious  orders  54;  total  362.  Churches  with  resident 
five  years  spent  in  parish  work,  made  Secretary  to  priests  162,  missions  10,  stations  11,  chapels  13; 
Cardinal  McCloskey.  After  the  cardinal's  death,  seminary  1,  with  60  students;  colleges  3,  with  570 
Archbishop  Corrigan  left  him  in  this  position  ana  students;  academies  and  select  schools  for  young 
appointed  him  chancellor  as  well.  He  was  also  made  women  15,  with  1017  pupils;  parishes  with  schools 
a  private  chamberlain  by  the  pope,  and  was  serving  68,  pupils  enrolled  41.750;  orphan  asylums  11,  in- 
in  these  offices  when  Bishop  Loi^hlin  died.  Named  mates  3691;  infant  asylums  4,  inmates  455;  industrial 
by  the  pope  to  succeed  him,  Mgr.  McDonnell  was  school  1,  pupils  143;  young  {>eople  under  Catholic 
consecrated  the  second  Bishop  of  Brooklyn  in  St»  care  40/)40;  nospitals  6,  treating  more  than  18,000 


BSOOKLTV 

etientB  yeariy;  homes  for  aged  3,  inmates  540.    1590.    He  ma  oanonliMl  by  Pope  Alexando'  Vui, 
tholic  populstioD  estimated  600,000.  in  1690;  bnd  was  declared  heav^y  p>tn»  of  the 

MrrcHEi.L.  QaUrn  Jubiirc  of  BiaAop  LotiaUin  {BttuMyB,     Ajxnx  Bud  of  all  the  hcepitola  by  Pope  Leo  XIII,  b 

rV  £«(!''""'■'«"■"*')/"  (Brooklyn.  1893);  (/,  a.  CnttrficHi-l.      '™'       ,.,        ,  ^^    ■,  ,         ,^.  j.-j.. 

MooariM  (New  York.  Ib90.  18S1 ):  V.H.CaA.  Hitt.  Soc.  Hitl.  The  chanty  Of  St.  John  of  God  was  deatined  U)  be 

ftwmi.  (Now  York.  1900),  II,  pt.  liSnBA  Hirt.  Cart.  CA  in    perpetuated    among   hia    brethren,    whom    be  had 

HiiUry  of  A'™  NtAerbir-di  (New  York,  1B4S-48);  i*n(r  /»ioniJ     paniOO  Antom  Martin  wBa  choeen  to  succeed  bun  M 

Star  filss  (Brooklyn,  1S22,  1823, 1825).  superior  of  the  order.     Thanlu  to  the  Kcmerosit;  of 

THOMAa  F.  Meehan.         Kidk  Philip  11,  a  hospital  was  fouSled  at  Madrid, 

^   1!     Vn  r,      ^  TT  the  Brothere  Hospitallere  in  1572  under  the  rule  of 

Brooks,  Ferdinand,    See  Grbbn,  Hcoh.  gt.  Augustine,    The  order  apread  rapidly  into  tl>e 

Brosse,    Jean-Baftistb    db   la,   a    Jesuit    mis-    other  countriea  of  Europe,  and  even  into  the  dialanl 
sionan',   b.    1724   at   Magnac,   Angoumois,   France;     colonies.  In  1684  Pope  Gregory  XIII  called  some  of 
d.  17^.    He  studied  classics  at  tne  Jesuit  College    the  BrothMi  to  Rome  and  gave  them  the  Ho^KtaJ 
of  St.  Louis  at  Angoul^me,  and  entered  the  novitiate    of  St.  John  Calybita,  which  t£en  became  tiie>iiiathei^ 
of   the  society  at  Bordeaux,  in   1740.     After  a  full     house  of  the  whole  order:  Brother  Pietro  Btnianowat 
course  of  philosophy  and  theology  in  the  latter  city,    appointed  first  superior.      Brother  Sebastiano  Aiiai 
he  was  ordained  in  1753  and  sent  to  Canada  the    founded  the  hospital  of  Our  Lady  at  Naples  and  the 
following  year.     He  first  laboured  on  the  Abenaki    famous  hospital  of  Milan,     At  that  time  a  hdly  aer- 
mission,  held   different   positions   in  the  Collie  of    vant  of  God  and  of  the  poor  joined  the  brMherfaood 
Quebec,  and  finally  succeeded,  in  the  Hontagnais    and  shed  great  lustre  upon  the  («der  by  bis  burning 
mission.  Father  Coqusrt,  who  died  in  1765  at  Chicou-    charity  and  profound  humility:  Blesaed  John  Grknde, 
timi.     De  la  Brosse  was  the  twenty-first  of  his  order    who  was  beatified  by  Pius  IX  in  1852. 
to  fill  that  post.     Fixing  his  headquarters  at  Tadou-        The   first   hospital   of   tbe   order   in   Fnuace  was 
sac,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Saguenay,  a  rendezvous  for    founded  in  Paris,  in  1601,  1^  Quoen  Uarie  de' MedcL 
the  Montagnais  and'  for  the  traders  of  the  lower  Bt.     In  the  stormy  days  of  the  French  Rev<riution  ifaa 
Lawrence,  his  aitostolate  radiated  from  that  point     Brothers   were   expelled    from    the    forty    hospitals 
alone  the  Labrador  coast,  to  the  French  settlements     where  they  were  caring  for  4125  natients.     But  sance 
on  the  south  shore  of  the  great  river,  to  the  Micmacs     then  some  large  new  hospitals  have  been  established, 
of  Reetieouche.  and  as  far  east  as  Isle  SaintJean    The  order  is  governed  by  a  prior  general,  who  restdes 
(Prince  Edward  Island).     Besides  Christian  doctrine,    in  Rome;  it  is  now  divided  into  eleven  provinces,  with 
he  taught  the  Montagnais  reading,  writing,  and  plain-     102    hospitals,  1536  Brothers,  and  12,978  beds,  ^a- 
song,  creating  and  developing  in  their  souls  the  taste    tributed  as  in  the  following  table: — 
for  elementary  instruction  which  is  to  be  found  tt> 
this  day  in  each  family  of  the  tribe.     The  zealous  and 
practical  missionary    had  3000  copies  of  the  Mon- 
tagnais alphabet,  and    2000  copies  of  a  catechism 
and   prayer  book   in   the   same    tongue  printed   at 
Quebec  in  1767. 

The  latter  is  one  of  the  first  books  issued  from  the 

S'ees  in  Canada.  It  bears  tlie  author's  name  in 
ontagnus  (Tahitstiisahigan),  which  signifies  a 
broom  or  brush,  in  allusion  to  his  family  name.  He 
also  compiled  a  dictionary  in  the  same  lan^age. 
being  moreover  familiar  with  the  Abenaki  and 
Micmac  directs.  His  inland  mission-field  embraced 
all  the  region  watered  by  the  Saguenay  and  Lake 
St.  John.  He  braved  the  stubborn  ferodty  of  the 
Naskapi  Indians,  who  had  so  far  resisted  every 
attempt  to  convert  them.  A  forest  fire,  whose 
ravages  he  is  said  to  have  miraculously  stopped,  was 
the  occasion  of  their  consenting  U>  hear  the  GospeL 
Father  de  la  Bros.se  left  a  reputation  of  holirtees 
which  still  endures.  His  remains  Ue  in  the  old  mis- 
sion-chapel of  Tadousac. 

Roy.  Voyage  nu  paw  dt  To,. ,_ 

(Paria,  1900), 

LlONBC  LiNDSAT. 

BroBflfl,  JosEFH  DE  LA.    See  Anqb  qe  St.  Joseph, 

Brotheia  Hoapitallers  of  Bt.  John  of  God. — 
St.  John  of  God,  the  founder  of  this  religious  institu- 
tion, was  bom  8  March,  1495,  at  MontemAr  Novo, 
in  Portugal.  In  his  fortieth  year  he  was  drawn 
strongly  to  God's  service  and  began  a  wonderful 
life  of  prayer,  penance,  and  charity  towards  his 
neighbour.  Pressedby  the  love  of  God,  and  of  Christ's 
Buncring  members,  he  founded  his  first  hospital  at 
Granada  in  Spain,  where  he  tenderly  served  the  sick 
and  afflicted.  It  is  related  in  his  life  that  one  day  the 
Lord  appeared  to  him  and  told  him  that  He^vas  much 
jrfeased  with  his  work,  and  for  that  rt 


808 


the  Apoitles'' 
Henrietta  Maria 


l)arik«tOD,  Yoricshire,  was  fouaded  in  1880  for  the  DmuoBAt  M)  "The  Jiicl0BMni  of 
receptioii  of  male  patients  suffering  from  cbfooio  (Douai^  1632),  dedicated  to  Queen 
infinnities,  paralysis^  or  (dd  age.  It  is  supported  by  and  dnrected  against  Rogers  on  the  Thirty-nine 
charitable  contributions  and  payments  for  inmates*  Arddes:  (5)  "Ecclesiastioul  Hlstorie  of  Great  Brit- 
It  IB  pleasantly  situated  in  a  very  healthy  country  aine"  (Doud,  1633),  dedicated  to  the  Duchess  of 
district.  Buckingham  and  the  Countess  of  Rutland;  (6) 
The  Brothers  undergo  a  special  oourse  of  training  ''A  True  Memorial"  (London,  1660),  published  oy 
in  order  to  fit  them  for  carrying  out  their  various  Q.  S.  P(rie8t)  after  Broughton's  death.  The  16M 
^vorks  of  charity,  to  whic^  they  devote  their  life,  edition  is  entitled  ''McHiasticon  Britannicum'\  (7) 
In  some  provinces  some  of  them  are  even  graduates  Broujg;hton  also  wrote  on  the  antiquity  of  the  word 
in  medieme,  surgery,  and  chemistry.  The  members  Sterlingorum  (Heame,  II,  318.  381);  (8)  on  the 
are  not  in  Holy  orders,  but  priests  wishing  to  devote  alleged  conversion  ri621)  of  John  KW,  Bidiop  of 
their  sacred  ministry  to  the  Brothers  Knd  patients  London;  and  (9)  "A  Kelation  of  the  Martyrdom  of 
are  received.    After  the  example  of  their  founder.  Nicholas  Garlick". 

th^  seek  their  own  sanctificatacm  and  their  patients*  ^^^"W.^^^jd.  Bliss  (J^ndon,  1816).  h^  ^odd, 
Su,a  s^  ooriKjral  wdtfare  To  the  U«e  .solemn  ^'^^^  I^^JtA'l^i&  fdc^ 
vows  of  religion  they  add  a  fourth,  of  servmg  the  isi:  HwnsR.NommdaUn'  (Inoabnitk,  1S71)kI.  057;  Qiu^w, 
ndc  for  life  in  their  hospitals.  They  also  perform  the  tg*.  5^  J?^.  CcUi^.  (London.  1886),  I.  318;  Groves  in 
usual  duties  and  pious  exercises  rf  the  rel^ious  life,  i^^  ^ot- Btcg^  Yl,  402.  i>^„^^  n^^^ 
They  assist  daily  at  Holy  MaaB,  meditation,  the  re-  rATMOK  ktan, 
citaf  in  choir  of  the  office  of  Our  Lady,  and  spiritual  Bronwer  (Browsbxts),  CHBiaroPH,  a  historian, 
reading.  Young  men  of  good  dispo8iti<Ni,  sound  b.  12  March,  1559,  at  Ainhetm,  Holland;  d.  in  1617» 
health  and  possessing  aptiti^  for  tm  order,  and  re-  at  Trier,  Germany.  In  1580  he  entered  the  Society 
solved  to  serve  Qrod  generously  in  the  religious  life  of  Jesus,  and  after  a  thorough  humanistic  training,  de- 
ate  received  from  the  age  of  fifteen  to  thuiy-five.  voted  himself  especially  to  the  study  of  church  his- 
The  religious  habit  is  usually  given  to  postulants  toiy.  Bis  attsunments  in  olher  branches  of  learning 
after  Uiree  months.    The  time  of  novitiate  is  two  are  shown  by  his  appointment  as  ]Mofes6or  of  philoso- 


Louis  Oaudst.  Trevirensis  ecclesia  sufitra^norum"*    The  w(»rk  ex- 
tends to  the  year  1600  and  was  prepared  at  the  re- 

Arothen  of  Charity.    See  C^Anrrr,  Conqrbqa-  quest  of  two  archbishops,  JohannYll  of  SchDnenbeig 

vioN  or  THB  Brothers  07.  fmd  Lothar  of  Mettermch,  with  the  intent  to  disprove 

Brothers  of  Mercy.    See  Mercy,  Brothers  of.  Jf^  S^^^f^  publication  of  Hennann  (KyriMider), 

•*    ^.           M  ^%__     «    ^       M  9       J         a      r\ Svndic  of  Tnen    Hermann  s  work  was  published  m 

Brothen  of  Our  Lady  of  Loudes.    See  Oxm.  fl^^^dwas^^itentoiSpportthecl^of  thed^ 

l/ADT  OF  LoxTRDBB,  BROTHERS  OF.  agslnst  the  rights  of  the  archbishop.  Brouwer  de- 
Brothers  of  St.  QabriaL   See  Gabriel,  Bboctbbs  voted  the  greater  part  of  his  life  to  the  preparation 

OP  Saint.  of  his  book  and,  according  to  the  testimony  of  the 

Brothers  of  the  Angehi.    See  GICHTB^  Johann  historian.  Hontheim,  he  is  deservinff^  of  undying 

Georg  h<Hiour  for  his  contnbuUons  to  the  history  of  the 

Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools  See  Inb^-  ^Jf  S^lete  Sf U^iJ^bSSI^ST '  M^^ 
TUTE  OP  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools.  ^^^  ^  ^  ^^^  and  his  true  historical  metiiod  w^ 
Brotiiers  of  the  Oross.  See  Cross,  Brothers  not  agreeable  to  the  councillors  of  the  archbishop;  so, 
OF  the.  although  the  publication  of  his  work  had  been  sano- 
Brothers  of  the  Soly  Infan^.  See  Holt  In-  tioned  oy  the  authorities  of  his  order,  it  coukl  not  be 
FANCY,  Brothers  of  the.  isau^  It  was  not  until  1626  that  the  work  of  print- 
Brothers  of  the  Baered  Heart.  See  Sacked  u^  ^  manuscript  at  Cok)gne  could  be  undertsken. 
Heart  Brothers  of  the.  8nd  then  only  after  important  alterations  had  been 
'  *  made  in  the  text.  New  difficulties  arose  when  the 
BroQgfaton,  Richard  (o^uis  Roxtbe).  b.  about  1568  eighteenth  book  was  in  press.  The  eompletion  of 
at  Great  Stukeley,  Huntingdcmshire;  a.  according  to  i&  printing  waa  forbidden  and  all  the  sheets  already 
k  Wood,  15  Kal.  Feb.  (i.  e.  18  January,  1634) ;  Cath-  struck  off  were  suppressed  as  far  as  possible,  so  that 
olic  priest  and  antiquary,  claiming  descent  from  the  onlv  a  few  copies  have  come  down  to  us. 
Broughtons  of  Lancashire.  He  was  ordained  at  Brouwer's  labours  were  continued  from  1600  to 
Reims,  4  May,  1593,  and  soon  after  returned  to  1652  by  Father  Jacob  Masenius,  S  J.,  who  Issued  the 
England.  John  Pitts,  a  contemporary,  says  that  he  whole  work  in  revised  form  in  1670  in  two  folio  vol- 
''gathered  a*  most  abundant  harvest  of  souls  into  umes  at  Li^.  Brouwer  was  unable  to  complete 
the  granary  of  Christ"  and  eulo^zes  his  attainments  his  other  great  work,  which  was  entitled:  'Metropo- 
in  bein^  "no  less  familiar  with  literature  than  lis  Ecclesije  Trevericse".  It  was  intended  to  ccmtain 
learned  m  Greek  and  Hebrew",  l^oughton  became  a  description  of  all  the  cities,  churches,  and  cbisters 
an  assistant  to  the  ardipriest,  a  canon  <3  the  chapter,  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Trier.  This  work  did  not  i^ 
and  vicar^neral  to  Bishop  Smith  of  Chalcedon.  pear  imtil  1855-56  when  it  was  issued  at  Coblenz 
He  also  claims  recognition  for  his  influence  on  the  m  two  volumes  by  Christian  von  Stramberg.  The 
stad^  of  antiquitv;  having  earned,  partly  by  his  edition  does  not  meet  fully  the  demands  of  our  time, 
l>ositive  work  ana  partly  through  controversy,  the  nevertheless  it  contains  much  that  is  useful.  Brou- 
tight  to  honourable  mention  with  Spelman,  Re3mer,  wer's  historv  of  the  Diocese  of  Fulda  is  also  worthy 
D^dale,  and  other  well-known  antiquarians.  of  praise.  It  is  entitled:  ''Fuldensium  antiquitatum 
Broughton's  chief  works  are:  (1)  ''An  ApologicaU  libri  4"  (Antwerp,  1612).  Of  less  importance  is  the 
Epistle,  serving  as  preface  to  ...  a  Resolution  of  work  issued  at  Mainz  in  1616,  entitled:  ^Sidera 
R^igion",  signed  R.  B.  (Antwerp,  1601)*  (2)  "The  illustrium  et  sanctorum  virorum,  qui  Germaniam 
firat  part  of  the  Resolution  of  Religion  By  R.  B."  omarunt".    Among  the  results  of  nis  humanistio 


• 


BROWV  804 

appeared  m  1617  augmented  by  the  annotated  poenui  his  Boston  ezperienee,  Browne  travened  the  East- 

of  Archbishop  Rhabanus  Maurus.  em  States  as  a  joum^pian  printer,  sojourning  for 

Reiffenbebo.  Higt&ria  aociataiit  /««*  (Cplocne.  1764),  a  while  in  the  town  of  Tiffin,  Ohio,  where  as  reiMrter 

Brown,  William,  a  naval  officer  of  the  RepubUc  t^je  columns  of  "The  Commercial"  of  that  city, 
of  Argentina,  b.  1777,  in  the  County  Maya  Ireland;  Already  his  reputation  was  gaming  ground.  Though 
d.  3  May,  1857,  in  Buenos  Aires.  His  famfly  emi-  jJS^'??^  assailed  in  a  Miies  of  articles  in  "The 
grating  to  America  in  1786.  Brown  shipped  as  a  J^^  Blade  ,  he  treated  his  oppcments  with  un- 
cabin  boy  on  a  vessel  sailing  from  Philadelphia.  lailmg  courtesy  and  hmnour.  ^  ^. 
During  die  war  between  France  and  En^and  his  _  Ii^  1858,  at  the  a^  of  twenty-four,  his  reputation 
ship,  an  English  merchantman,  was  captured  by  a  SSJ  "^i?™®?  ^'^Sf*?^  character  as  a  reporter  of 
FVench  privateer  and  he  was  made  prisoner  of  war.  The  Ueveiand  Plamdealer"  under  the  sobnquet 
He  escaped  to  England,  where,  in  1809,  he  married  of  "Artemus  Ward".  His  beet  woric  at  this  period 
a  lady  of  good  family  and  education.  He  re-entered  consisted^  m  burlesque  descnptions  of  prise^hts, 
the  ocean  trade  with  a  ship  of  his  own,  which  was  S^^^*  spiritualistic  Ranees,  and  political  meetings, 
wrecked  en  the  coast  of  g&uth  America.  Here  he  Towards  the  close  <rf  I860,  he  accepted  an  engage- 
established  the  first  regular  packet  service  between  mrat  m  New  York  with  "Vamtjr,  Fan: ''a  comic  papear 
Buenos,  Aires  and  Montevideo.  In  the  revolt  of  ©dited  after  the  manner  of  the  Lmidon  "Punch" 
Buenos  Aires  against  Spain  the  insurgents  appointed  «gd  ere  long  succeeded  the  editor  Chartes  G.  Leland 
Birown,  February,  1814,  to  the  command  of  a  squad-  (H^  Breitmann)  as  editor.  In  this  paper  some 
ron  of  seven  ships.  With  these  he  achieved  wonders.  ^  *^  best  contributions  were  given  to  the  public. 
On  St.  Patrick's  Day  he  captured  the  fort  of  Martin  I*  ^^»  however,  as  a  lecturer  that  "  Art^nus  Ward" 
Garcia,  called  "The  Gibraltar  of  the  La  Plata",  acqmred  both  fame  and  fortune.  His  first  ap- 
compelling  nine  Spanish  men-of-war  under  Ad-  pearanoe  on  the  lecture  platform  m  New  York  was 
mird  Romerate  to  retire.  Later,  at  Montevideo,  matravestycalled^Bab^in  the  Woods".  Hisneart 
which  capitulated  20  June,  he  captured  several  ^*^  ^^  ^^^J^^^J^.^'U  ,?"iy.?^?«^*?? 
Spanish  men-of-war.  These  he  took  to  Buenos  Aires,  P^en  m  Muric  Fund  Hall,  Philaddphia.  In  1866 
and  received  the  rank  of  admiral.  In  1816  Admiral  he  saded  for  England  where  success  fa:  beyond  hia 
Brown  sailed  found  the  Horn  to  succour  the  new  expectations  awaited  hun.  His  stay  m  London  is 
republics  on  the  western  coast,  but  his  expedition  was  ,8I>o^  of  as  "an  ovation  to  the  gemus  of  American 
only  partly  successful.  Ten  years  later,  when  war  yi<^.  •  H®,2®^S^®  5^  ^^^  *  great  favourite  with  tlw 
ensued  between  the  new  republic  and  Brazil,  Ad-  **  Literary  CUib"  of  Ix)ndon  and  hwlettera^^ 
miral  Bro^vn  gi^eatly  distinguished  himself  against  recaUed  the  days  of  "YeUowplush".  But  sickness 
tremendous  oc&s  in  the  blockade  of  Buenos  Aires,  brought  his  bnlliant  <»reer  to  an  unexpected  close 
which  he  succeeded  in  breaking.  Takmg  the  offen-  S  ^,^?  seventh  week  of  his  engagement  at  Egyptian 
sive  he  scoured  the  coast  as  far  as^io  de  Janeiro.  HaU  m  LKjndon,  aiid  his  deaUi  occurred  a  few  months 
His  most  brilliant  victory  was  the  battle  of  Juncal,  iater.    When  he  felt  the  end  was  near,  he  asked  his 


as  Argentine  Commissioner  when,  at  the  close  of  the  ftructions. "    His  remains  were  brought  to  his  naUve 

war,  the  liberty  of  Buenos  Aires  was  guaranteed  by  }and  and  laid  to  rest  bewde  his  fatho-  and  brother 

the  treaty  of  Montevideo  4  October,  1827.  ^  J^e  httle^metery  at  Waterford,  Maine.    ^ 

After  a  visit  to  his  native  land,  Admfa^  Brown  Artemus  Ward  was  a  consummate  humomt  and 

spent  his  last  years  in  the  republic  in  the  foundingof  represented  a  type  distinctivdy  Ajnencan.    His  fun 

which  he  had  been  such  a  powerful  factorTfie  was  a  fountain  that  always  bubbled,  mmistenng 


1878).                                                     una  .„  came  was  Jways  a  surprise  but  never  an  awkward 

P.  G.  Smyth,  or  unwholesome  one.    The  depth  and  strength  of 

Browne,  Charles    Farrar    (Artemus  Ward),  his  character  are  revealed  as  weU  in  the  intoeet 

humorist,  b.  at  Waterford,  Oxford  County,  Maine,  ^cited  by  his  lectmres  and  saymra  as  in  the  fnend- 

U.  S.  A.,  26  April,  1834;  d.  in  Southampton,  England,  ^^  ^  formed  aadretained  to  the  end. 

6  March,  186?:  lie  went  to  school  in  l5s  nativf  town'  "tT^^k^^MM  f^^^'TSSTntS^^^Jt 

and  at  the  age  of  fourteen  was  apprenticed  m  the  kins).  The  Complete  Worke  of  Artemus  Ward,  with  a  BtoorapM- 

priuUng  office  of   "The   Skowhegan  aarion".     A  wf' -s^*  (New  York.  1898):  Cliimkn^^ 

laber  (Mrs.  Partington),  andf  to  which  Charles  G.  Browne,  James.    See  Ferns,  Diocese  of. 

his  first  humorous  article,  a  burlesque  description  Browniflts.    See  Conqreoationalists. 

of  a  Fourth  of  July  celebration  in  Skowhegan.    After  Brownrigg,  Abraham.    See  Ossory,  Dioobbe  of. 


'  / 


.* 


r